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+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro02b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"You don\u2019t have to be vegetarian to be green. Many special environments have been created by livestock farming \u2013 for example chalk down land in England and mountain pastures in many countries. Ending livestock farming would see these areas go back to woodland with a loss of many unique plants and animals. Growing crops can also be very bad for the planet, with fertilisers and pesticides polluting rivers, lakes and seas. Most tropical forests are now cut down for timber, or to allow oil palm trees to be grown in plantations, not to create space for meat production.  British farmer and former editor Simon Farrell also states: \u201cMany vegans and vegetarians rely on one source from the U.N. calculation that livestock generates 18% of global carbon emissions, but this figure contains basic mistakes. It attributes all deforestation from ranching to cattle, rather than logging or development. It also muddles up one-off emissions from deforestation with on-going pollution.\u201d  He also refutes the statement of meat production inefficiency: \u201cScientists have calculated that globally the ratio between the amounts of useful plant food used to produce meat is about 5 to 1. If you feed animals only food that humans can eat \u2014 which is, indeed, largely the case in the Western world \u2014 that may be true. But animals also eat food we can't eat, such as grass. So the real conversion figure is 1.4 to 1.\u201d [1] At the same time eating a vegetarian diet may be no more environmentally friendly than a meat based diet if it is not sustainably sourced or uses perishable fruit and vegetables that are flown in from around the world. Eating locally sourced food can has as big an impact as being vegetarian. [2]  [1] Tara Kelly, Simon Fairlie: How Eating Meat Can Save the World, 12 October 2010  [2] Lucy Siegle, \u2018It is time to become a vegetarian?\u2019 The Observer, 18th May 2008"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro02a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Being vegetarian helps the environment  Becoming a vegetarian is an environmentally friendly thing to do. Modern farming is one of the main sources of pollution in our rivers. Beef farming is one of the main causes of deforestation, and as long as people continue to buy fast food in their billions, there will be a financial incentive to continue cutting down trees to make room for cattle. Because of our desire to eat fish, our rivers and seas are being emptied of fish and many species are facing extinction. Energy resources are used up much more greedily by meat farming than my farming cereals, pulses etc. Eating meat and fish not only causes cruelty to animals, it causes serious harm to the environment and to biodiversity. For example consider Meat production related pollution and deforestation  At Toronto\u2019s 1992 Royal Agricultural Winter Fair, Agriculture Canada displayed two contrasting statistics: \u201cit takes four football fields of land (about 1.6 hectares) to feed each Canadian\u201d and \u201cone apple tree produces enough fruit to make 320 pies.\u201d Think about it \u2014 a couple of apple trees and a few rows of wheat on a mere fraction of a hectare could produce enough food for one person! [1]  The 2006 U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report concluded that worldwide livestock farming generates 18% of the planet's greenhouse gas emissions \u2014 by comparison, all the world's cars, trains, planes and boats account for a combined 13% of greenhouse gas emissions. [2]  As a result of the above point producing meat damages the environment. The demand for meat drives deforestation. Daniel Cesar Avelino of Brazil's Federal Public Prosecution Office says \u201cWe know that the single biggest driver of deforestation in the Amazon is cattle.\u201d This clearing of tropical rainforests such as the Amazon for agriculture is estimated to produce 17% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. [3] Not only this but the production of meat takes a lot more energy than it ultimately gives us chicken meat production consumes energy in a 4:1 ratio to protein output; beef cattle production requires an energy input to protein output ratio of 54:1.  The same is true with water use due to the same phenomenon of meat being inefficient to produce in terms of the amount of grain needed to produce the same weight of meat, production requires a lot of water. Water is another scarce resource that we will soon not have enough of in various areas of the globe. Grain-fed beef production takes 100,000 liters of water for every kilogram of food. Raising broiler chickens takes 3,500 liters of water to make a kilogram of meat. In comparison, soybean production uses 2,000 liters for kilogram of food produced; rice, 1,912; wheat, 900; and potatoes, 500 liters. [4] This is while there are areas of the globe that have severe water shortages. With farming using up to 70 times more water than is used for domestic purposes: cooking and washing. A third of the population of the world is already suffering from a shortage of water. [5] Groundwater levels are falling all over the world and rivers are beginning to dry up. Already some of the biggest rivers such as China\u2019s Yellow river do not reach the sea. [6]  With a rising population becoming vegetarian is the only responsible way to eat.  [1] Stephen Leckie, \u2018How Meat-centred Eating Patterns Affect Food Security and the Environment\u2019, International development research center  [2] Bryan Walsh, Meat: Making Global Warming Worse, Time magazine, 10 September 2008 .  [3] David Adam, Supermarket suppliers \u2018helping to destroy Amazon rainforest\u2019, The Guardian, 21st June 2009.  [4] Roger Segelken, U.S. could feed 800 million people with grain that livestock eat, Cornell Science News, 7th August 1997.  [5] Fiona Harvey, Water scarcity affects one in three, FT.com, 21st August 2003  [6] Rupert Wingfield-Hayes, Yellow river \u2018drying up\u2019, BBC News, 29th July 2004"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro03b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"The key to good health is a balanced diet, not a meat- and fish-free diet. Meat and fish are good sources of protein, iron, and other vitamins and minerals. Most of the health benefits of a vegetarian diet derive from its being high in fibre and low in fat and cholesterol. These can be achieved by avoiding fatty and fried foods, eating only lean grilled meat and fish, and including a large amount of fruit and vegetables in your diet along with meat and fish. In general, raw, unprocessed meat from the muscle is made up of the following: protein 15 - 22 % Fat 3 - 15 % Minerals, carbohydrates 1 - 5 % Water 65 - 75 %, all things that we need in moderation. [1] A meat- and fish-free diet is unbalanced and makes it more likely that you will go short of protein, iron and some minerals such as B12 for which we are primarily dependent on animal foodstuffs. Also, a vegetarian diet, in the West, is a more expensive option - a luxury for the middle classes. Fresh fruit and vegetables are extremely expensive compared to processed meats, bacon, burgers, sausages etc.  [1] Bell, \u2018Nutrition & Well-Being\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro01a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"It is immoral to kill animals  As evolved human beings it is our moral duty to inflict as little pain as possible for our survival. So if we do not need to inflict pain to animals in order to survive, we should not do it. Farm animals such as chickens, pigs, sheep, and cows are sentient living beings like us - they are our evolutionary cousins and like us they can feel pleasure and pain. The 18th century utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham even believed that animal suffering was just as serious as human suffering and likened the idea of human superiority to racism. It is wrong to farm and kill these animals for food when we do not need to do so. The methods of farming and slaughter of these animals are often barbaric and cruel - even on supposedly 'free range' farms. [1] Ten billion animals were slaughtered for human consumption each year, stated PETA. And unlike the farms long time ago, where animals roamed freely, today, most animals are factory farmed: \u0097crammed into cages where they can barely move and fed a diet adulterated with pesticides and antibiotics. These animals spend their entire lives in their \u201cprisoner cells\u201d so small that they can't even turn around. Many suffer serious health problems and even death because they are selectively bred to grow or produce milk or eggs at a far greater rate than their bodies are capable of coping with. At the slaughterhouse, there were millions of others who are killed every year for food.  Further on Tom Regan explains that all duties regarding animals are indirect duties to one another from a philosophical point of view. He illustrates it with an analogy regarding children: \u201cChildren, for example, are unable to sign contracts and lack rights. But they are protected by the moral contract nonetheless because of the sentimental interests of others. So we have, then, duties involving these children, duties regarding them, but no duties to them. Our duties in their case are indirect duties to other human beings, usually their parents.\u201d [2] With this he supports the theory that animals must be protected from suffering, as it is moral to protect any living being from suffering, not because we have a moral contract with them, but mainly due to respect of life and recognition of suffering itself.  [1] Claire Suddath, A brief history of Veganism, Time, 30 October 2008  [2] Tom Regan, The case for animal rights, 1989"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro01b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"There is a great moral difference between humans and animals. Unlike animals, humans are capable of rational thought and can alter the world around them. Other creatures were put on this earth for mankind to use, and that includes eating meat. For all these reasons we say that men and women have rights and that animals don\u2019t. This means that eating meat is in no way like murder. It is natural for human beings to farm, kill, and eat other species. In the wild there is a brutal struggle for existence. The fact that we humans have succeeded in that struggle by exploiting our natural environment means that we have a natural right over lower species. In fact farming animals is much less brutal than the pain and hardship that animals inflict on each other naturally in the wild.  Eating meat does not need to mean cruelty to animals. There are a growing number of organic and free-range farms that can provide meat without cruelty to animals. Similarly, it might be reasonable to argue for an extension of animal welfare laws to protect farm animals - but that does not mean that it is wrong in principle to eat meat."}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro04b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Food safety and hygiene are very important for everyone, and governments should act to ensure that high standards are in place particularly in restaurants and other places where people get their food from. But food poisoning can occur anywhere \u201cPeople don't like to admit that the germs might have come from their own home\u201d [1] and while meat is particularly vulnerable to contamination there are bacteria that can be transmitted on vegetables, for example Listeria monocytogenes can be transmitted raw vegetables. [2]  Almost three-quarters of zoonotic transmissions are caused by pathogens of wildlife origin; even some that could have been caused by livestock such as avian flu could equally have come from wild animals. There is little we can do about the transmission of such diseases except by reducing close contact. Thus changing to vegetarianism may reduce such diseases by reducing contact but would not eliminate them. [3]  Just as meat production can raise health issues, so does the arable farming of plants \u2013 examples include GM crops and worries about pesticide residues on fruit and vegetables. The important thing is not whether the diet is meat based or vegetarian; just that we should ensure all food is produced in a safe and healthy way.  [1] \u2018 10 ways to prevent food poisoning\u2019, nhs.co.uk, 28th November 2010.  [2] Food Poisoning, emedicinehealth.  [3] Ulrich Desselberger, \u2018The significance of zoonotic transmission of viruses in human disease\u2019, Microbiology Today, November 2009."}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro03a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Vegetarianism is healthier  There are significant health benefits to 'going veggie'; a vegetarian diet contains high quantities of fibre, vitamins, and minerals, and is low in fat. (A vegan diet is even better since eggs and dairy products are high in cholesterol.) The risk of contracting many forms of cancer is increased by eating meat: in 1996 the American Cancer Society recommended that red meat should be excluded from the diet entirely. Eating meat also increases the risk of heart disease - vegetables contain no cholesterol, which can build up to cause blocked arteries in meat-eaters. An American study found out that: \u201cthat men in the highest quintile of red-meat consumption \u2014 those who ate about 5 oz. of red meat a day, roughly the equivalent of a small steak had a 31% higher risk of death over a 10-year period than men in the lowest-consumption quintile, who ate less than 1 oz. of red meat per day, or approximately three slices of corned beef.\u201d [1] A vegetarian diet reduces the risk for chronic degenerative diseases such as obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes and types of cancer including colon, breast, stomach, and lung cancer because of it's low fat\/cholesterol content. There are plenty of vegetarian sources of protein, such as beans and bean curd; and spinach is one of the best sources of iron.  [1] Tiffany Sharples, \u2018The Growing Case Against Red Meat\u2019, Time, 23rd March 2009"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro04a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Being vegetarian reduces risks of food poisoning  Almost all dangerous types of food poisoning are passed on through meat or eggs. So Campylobacter bacteria, the most common cause of food poisoning in England, are usually found in raw meat and poultry, unpasteurised milk and untreated water. Salmonella come from raw meat, poultry and dairy products and most cases of escherichia coli (E-Coli) food poisoning occur after eating undercooked beef or drinking unpasteurised milk. [1]  Close contact between humans and animals also leads to zoonosis \u2013 diseases such as bird \u2018flu which can be passed on from animals to humans. Using animal brains in the processed feed for livestock led to BSE in cattle and to CJD in humans who ate beef from infected cows.  [1] Causes of food poisoning, nhs.co.uk, 23rd June 2009"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con03b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"To suggest that battery farms are in some way 'natural' is absurd - they are unnatural and cruel. To eat meat is to perpetuate animal suffering on a huge scale - a larger, crueler, and more systematic scale than anything found in the wild. Furthermore, the very fact of humanity's 'superiority' over other animals means they have the reason and moral instinct to stop exploiting other species. If an alien species from another planet, much more intelligent and powerful than humans, came and colonized the earth and farmed (and force-fed) human beings in battery farm conditions we would think it was morally abhorrent. If this would be wrong, then is it not wrong for we 'superior' humans to farm 'lower' species on earth simply because of our ability to do so?"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con01b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Human evolved as omnivores over thousands of years. Yet since the invention of farming there is no longer a need for us to be omnivores. Even if we wished to we could no longer collect, hunt and eat our food in the same way as our ancestors as we could not support the human population. We have outstripped the pace of our evolution and if we do not want to be turning ever more land over to farming we have get our food from the most efficient sources, which means being vegetarian."}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con02a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"There are problems with being vegetarian  A vegetarian or vegan diet may result in a person not getting enough iron. This is because, although you can get iron from foods such as pulses, green leafy vegetables and nuts, the iron in these foods isn't absorbed so easily. The symptoms of this feeling breathless after little exercise, feeling tired and a short attention span and poor concentration. [1] These symptoms could negatively affect proficiency in school and the ability to perform well at work ultimately leading to a loss of productivity which has both personal effects and broader effects for the economy. Other conditions include frequently becoming ill, frequently becoming depressed, and malnourishment.  [1] Bupa's Health Information Team, \u2018Iron-deficiency anaemia\u2019, bupa.co.uk, March 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con03a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Survival of the fittest  It is natural for human beings to farm, kill, and eat other species. In the wild there is a brutal struggle for existence as is shown by Darwin\u2019s On the Origin of the Species. [1] The fact that we humans have succeeded in that struggle by exploiting our natural environment means that we have a natural right over lower species. The concept of survival of the fittest may seem outdated but it is still the defining order of nature. In fact farming animals is much less brutal than the pain and hardship that animals inflict on each other naturally in the wild.  [1] Darwin, Charles, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life., Literature.org"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con01a","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"Humans can choose their own nutrition plan  Humans are omnivores \u2013 we are meant to eat both meat and plants. Like our early ancestors we have sharp canine teeth for tearing animal flesh and digestive systems adapted to eating meat and fish as well as vegetables. Our stomachs are also adapted to eating both meat and vegetable matter. All of this means that eating meat is part of being human. Only in a few western countries are people self-indulgent enough to deny their nature and get upset about a normal human diet. We were made to eat both meat and vegetables - cutting out half of this diet will inevitably mean we lose that natural balance. Eating meat is entirely natural. Like many other species, human beings were once hunters. In the wild animals kill and are killed, often very brutally and with no idea of \u201crights\u201d. As mankind has progressed over thousands of years we have largely stopped hunting wild animals. Instead we have found kinder and less wasteful ways of getting the meat in our diets through domestication. Farm animals today are descended from the animals we once hunted in the wild."}
+{"id":"test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con02b","title":"animals environment general health health general weight philosophy ethics","text":"The problems with fatigue, apathetic behaviour and concentration are mostly a result from a lack of iron in the diet. However as with any diet this is only a problem when not eating the right things, this regularly means that such iron deficiency can be a problem in the developing world where vegetarians have little choice \u2013 usually eating little else except what they grow, normally just cereals. \u201cAlthough the iron stores of vegetarians are sometimes reduced, the incidence of iron-deficiency anaemia in vegetarians is not significantly different from that in the general population\u201d, there are plenty of sources of iron that can be eaten by vegetarians such as legumes and whole grains that are a substantial part of most western vegetarian\u2019s diets meaning it is not a problem. [1] Research done in Australia concludes that \"There was no significant difference between mean daily iron intakes of vegetarians and omnivores\". [2]  [1] David Ogilvie, Nutrition: Iron and Vegetarian Diets, Vegetarian Network Victoria, September 2010.  [2] Madeleine J Ball and Melinda A Bartlett, \u2018Dietary intake and iron status of Australian vegetarian women\u2019, American Society for Clinical Nutrition, 1999"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro02b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"What then is the interest of the animal? If releasing these animals into the wild would kill them then surely it is humane to put them down after the experiment. It must also be remembered that the interest of the animal is not the main and is outweighed by the benefits to humans. [5]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro02a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Animal research causes severe harm to the animals involved  The point of animal research is that animals are harmed. Even if they don\u2019t suffer in the experiment, almost all are killed afterwards. With 115 million animals used a year this is a big problem. Releasing medical research animals in to the wild would be dangerous for them, and they would not be usable as pets. [4]. The only solution is that they are wild from birth.  It is obvious that it\u2019s not in the interest of animals to be killed or harmed. Research should be banned in order to prevent the deaths of millions of animals."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro03b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"The laws that restrict animal testing only allow it where it\u2019s needed.  Animal testing isn\u2019t cheap, meaning that if universities and the drug industry have a good reason to end it if they can. If we ban animal testing we won\u2019t know what it would be able to do in the future. Animal research now has better results than other ways of doing research. [8]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro05a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"It would send out a consistent message  Most countries have animal welfare laws to prevent animal cruelty but have laws like the UK\u2019s Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, [10] that stop animal testing being a crime. This makes means some people can do things to animals, but not others. If the government are serious about animal abuse, why allow anyone to do it?"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro01a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Animals shouldn\u2019t be harmed  The difference between us and other animals is a matter of degree rather than type [2]. Their bodies resemble ours, as do their ways of conveying meaning. They recoil from pain, appear to express fear of a tormentor, and appear to take pleasure in activities; a point clear to anyone who has observed a pet dog on hearing the word \u201cwalk\u201d.  We believe other people experience feelings like us because they are like us in appearance and behaviour. An animal sharing our anatomical, physiological, and behavioural characteristics is surely likely to have feelings like us.  If people have a right to not be harmed, we must ask ourselves what makes animals different? If animals feel what we feel, and suffer like us, to condemn one to testing because of them being of a different species is similar to racism or sexism.[3]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro01b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"The right of a human not to be harmed is based not on appearance but on not harming others. Animals don\u2019t participate in this.  Animals won\u2019t stop hunting because of the pain and feelings of other animals. Even if animal testing were to be abolished people would still eat meat, and kill animals for other less worthwhile reasons than animal testing."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro05b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"There is a moral difference between harm for the sake of harming an animal and harm in order to save lives. Lifesaving drugs is a very different purpose to betting or enjoyment that animal welfare laws are aimed at."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro04b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"The decision to test is not based upon the capacity to suffer. But it should be remembered that the individual being tested would not be the only one who suffers, for the intellectually disabled we must remember their families would suffer as well."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro03a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"It isn\u2019t necessary  We don\u2019t know how we will be able to develop new drugs without animal testing until we end it. We now know how most chemicals work, and computer simulations of chemicals are very good.[6] Experimenting on tissue can show how drugs work, without the need for actual animals. Even skin left over from surgery can be experiment on, and being human, is more useful.  The fact that animal research was needed in the past isn\u2019t a good excuse any more. We still have all the advancements from animal testing in the past, but it\u2019s no longer needed. [7]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-pro04a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Most animals can suffer more than some people  It\u2019s possible to think of people that can\u2019t suffer, like those in a persistent vegetative state, or with significant intellectual disabilities.  We could go for one of three options. Either we could experiment on animals, but not such people, which is morally not consistent. We could allow both, but do we want to do painful medical research on the disabled? Or, we could do neither.[9]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con03b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"When a drug is first tested on human volunteers, they are only given a tiny fraction of the amount shown safe to give to primates showing there is another way, to start with very low doses. Animal research isn\u2019t a reliable indicator of how a drug will work in people \u2013 even with animal testing, some drugs trials go very wrong [15]."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con01b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"To argue that \u201cthe ends justify the means\u201d isn\u2019t enough. We don\u2019t know how much animals suffer, as they can\u2019t talk to us. We therefore don\u2019t know how aware they are of themselves. In order to stop a moral harm on animals we don\u2019t understand, we shouldn\u2019t do animal testing.  Even if it were a \u201cnet gain\u201d because of the results, by that logic human experimentation could be justified. Common morality says that isn\u2019t OK, as people shouldn\u2019t be used to a means to an end. [12]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con02a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"People will die if we don\u2019t do animal testing  Every year, 23 new drugs are introduced in the UK alone.[13] Almost all will be tested on animals. A new drug will be used for a long time. Think of all the people saved by the use of penicillin. If drugs cost more to test, that means drug companies will develop less. This means more people suffering and dying"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con05a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Research animals are well treated  Animals used in research generally don\u2019t suffer. While they may be in pain, they are generally given pain killers, and when they are put down this is done humanely. [16] They are looked after, as healthy animals mean better experimental results. These animals live better lives than they would in the wild.  As long as animals are treated well there shouldn\u2019t be a moral objection to animal research. This is exactly the same as with raising animals that will be used for meat."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con04a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Animal research is only used when it\u2019s needed  EU member states and the US have laws to stop animals being used for research if there is any alternative. The 3Rs principles are commonly used. Animal testing is being Refined for better results and less suffering, Replaced, and Reduced in terms of the number of animals used. This means that less animals have to suffer, and the research is better."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con03a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Testing is needed for really new drugs  The real benefit of animal testing is making totally new drugs, which is about a quarter of them. After non-animal and then animal tests, it will be tested on humans. The reason why the risk is low (but not non-existent) for these brave volunteers, is because of the animal tests.  These new chemicals are the ones most likely to produce improvements to people\u2019s lives, because they are new. You couldn\u2019t do research on these new drugs without either animal testing or putting humans at a much higher risk."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con05b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Just because an animal is treated well as it is brought up doesn\u2019t stop the very real suffering during testing. Stricter rules and painkillers don\u2019t help as the lack of suffering cannot be guaranteed \u2013 if we knew what would happen, we wouldn\u2019t do the experiment."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con01a","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Animals don\u2019t have human rights  Humans have large brains, form social groups, communicate and are generally worthy of moral consideration. We also are aware of ourselves and of the nature of death. Some animals have some of these characteristics but not all so should not have the same rights. In harming animals to benefit humans, we enter in to a good moral trade-off to create a greater good. [11]"}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con04b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Not every country has laws like the EU or the US. In countries with low welfare standards animal testing is a more attractive option. Animal researchers tend to only do animal research so don\u2019t know about the alternatives. As a result they will use animal testing unnecessarily not as just a last resort."}
+{"id":"test-environment-assgbatj-con02b","title":"animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Many of these drugs are \u201cme too\u201d drugs \u2013 ones with a slight change that doesn\u2019t make much difference to an existing drug. [14] So often the benefits from animal testing are marginal, and even if there was a slight increase in human suffering, it would be worth it based on the animal suffering saved."}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro02b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Tougher protection of Africa\u2019s nature reserves will only result in more bloodshed. Every time the military upgrade their weaponry, tactics and logistic, the poachers improve their own methods to counter them. In the past decade, over 1,000 rangers have been killed whilst protecting Africa\u2019s endangered wildlife. [1] Every time one side advances its position the other side matches it. When armed military patrols were sent out, poachers switched their tactics so every hunter has several \u2018guards\u2019 to combat the military. The lack of an advantageous position in the arms race has ensured that the poaching war is yet to be won. [2]  [1] Smith, D. \u2018Execute elephant poachers on the spot, Tanzanian minister urges\u2019  [2] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro02a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Poaching is becoming more advanced  A stronger, militarised approach is needed as poaching is becoming far more advanced. Poachers now operate with high-calibre rifles, night vision scopes, silencers and use helicopters to hunt their prey. [1] These methods are used particularly against rhinoceroses in South Africa, whose horns have become extremely valuable on the Asian market for their supposed medical properties. [2] In response to this, South African rangers are being given specialised training and use their own aerial surveillance to track poachers down with success, [3] supporting the argument for a militarised response to protect endangered animals.  [1] WWF, \u2018African rhino poaching crisis\u2019  [2] Zapwing, \u2018The Rhino Poaching Crisis\u2019  [3] ibid"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro03b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Not all endangered animals have such cultural significance within Africa. Pangolins are armoured mammals which are native to Africa and Asia. Like rhinoceros, pangolins are endangered due to their demand in East Asia. They are relatively unknown however, and therefore have little cultural significance. [1] This is the case for many of Africa\u2019s lesser known endangered species. Any extension of protection for endangered animals based on their cultural significance would be unlikely to save many of these species.  [1] Conniff, R. \u2018Poaching Pangolins: An Obscure Creature Faces Uncertain Future\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro05a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"The justice system does not currently work  A major failing in current anti-poaching operations is that the poachers are rarely prosecuted. African legal systems rarely prioritise poaching as a serious crime, with offenders usually receiving trivial fines1. One of the major reasons for the Western black rhinoceros\u2019 extinction in 2011 was the complete lack of sentencing for any of the poachers who were captured. [1] The system also fails to prosecute the brains behind many of the operations due to poor investigative methods. This creates an impression in the minds of the poachers that they can operate with impunity. [2]  [1] Mathur, A. \u2018Western Black Rhino Poached Out of Existence; Declared Extinct, Slack Anti-Poaching Efforts Responsible\u2019  [2] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro01a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Natural habitats being are destroyed  A tougher approach to the protection of animals is needed to prevent their natural habitats from being destroyed by locals. As humans expand their agricultural activity in Africa they are destroying the environments of endangered animals and pushing others towards being endangered. Due to an increase in large scale cotton plantations and food crops, the West African lion has seen a marked decrease in population; numbering less than 400 in early 2014 [1] . Tougher protection, such as fencing off areas from human activity, has been suggested and has seen success in South Africa [2] .  [1] BBC, \u201cLions \u2018facing extinction in West Africa\u2019\u201d  [2] Morelle,R. \u201cFencing off wild lions from humans \u2018could save them\u2019\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro01b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Human development is of great importance to the African continent, arguably more so than conserving endangered animals. In 2010 it was estimated that there are 239 million sub-Saharan Africans living in poverty. [1] Poverty can be the cause of a wide array of political, security and socio-economic issues. Possible sources of income, such as cotton plantations and food crops, should therefore be embraced as they will have a more positive impact on the region than the survival of endangered species.  [1] World Hunger, \u2018Africa Hunger and Poverty Facts\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro05b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Deterrents in the criminal justice system have not worked in similar cases. The US drug war, which identified a specific activity and made it a matter of national security, has resulted in harsh sentences for those who deal or smuggle illicit substances. Despite these harsh punishments however, there has been little success in defeating the drug business as the profit margin for the trade is too high. [1] With Ivory and other products for which poachers are hunting the same will happen; if some poachers are put up the prices will simply go up encouraging others. Tougher protection of animals through increased conviction rates and extended terms is likely to fail.  [1] BBC, \u201cGlobal war on drugs \u2018has failed\u2019 says former leaders\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro04b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Linking animal endangerment and poaching to terrorism as a justification for action unnecessarily securitises the issue. This will only serve to create a situation where state actors can use poaching as an excuse to exploit threats. As with the war on drugs and the war on terror, this power is apportioned to actors who are then capable of abusing it for the sake of national security. [1]  [1] Crick,E. \u2018Drugs as an existential threat: An analysis of the international securitization of drugs\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro03a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Endangered animals are a source of pride for African countries  Endangered animals warrant a tougher degree of protection in Africa as they have notable cultural significance. Some groups believe that African elephants have mystic powers attached to them and have coveted them for centuries. [1] African lions have been depicted on the coat of arms for states and institutions both past and present. [2] They are intrinsically linked with Africa\u2019s past and its identity. The extinction of these animals, therefore, would have a negative cultural impact and should be prevented.  [1] University of California, Los Angeles, \u2018Elephant: The Animal and its Ivory in African Culture\u2019  [2] Coleman, Q. \u2018The importance of African lions\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-pro04a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Poaching is linked to terrorism  Stronger protection of animals should be implemented to reduce the funding for terrorist groups. Certain terrorist organisations use the illegal ivory and horn trade as funding for their operations. Al-Shabaab, the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army (LRA), and the Sudanese Janjaweed all use the illicit trade as a source of income, with the former using the trade for 40% of its expenditure. [1] This enables them to carry out attacks such as the 2013 Westgate siege in Kenya. [2] Tougher protection of endangered animals would reduce the ability of these groups to fund themselves. In turn, this would decrease their operational capability, increasing stability in Africa.  [1] Stewart, C. \u2018Illegal ivory trade funds al-shabaab\u2019s terrorist attacks\u2019  [2] Tackett,C. \u2018How elephant poaching helped fund Kenya terrorist attack\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con03b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"There is no guarantee that legalising the trade would satisfy demand in East Asia. [1] Nor is there any substantial evidence to suggest that prices would drop to the point where hunters could no longer sustain themselves. If neither of these factors transpires then there is a strong likelihood that endangered animals would be hunted to extinction.  [1] Player, I. & Fourie, A. \u2018How to win the war against poachers\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con01b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"There are numerous sponsors who contribute towards animal protection schemes, reducing the government\u2019s burden. Private wildlife custodians spend significant sums of money ensuring they are fully equipped to deal with poachers. There are also private donors and interest groups such as World Wildlife Federation (WWF) who supply funding for the governments\u2019 conservation efforts. [1] This financial support has made projects such as the increased military presence in South Africa\u2019s game parks possible.  [1] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con02a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Fewer human deaths  Fewer large beasts will lead to fewer deaths in Africa. Some endangered animals are aggressive and will attack humans. Hippopotamuses kill in excess of three hundred humans a year in Africa, with other animals such as the elephant and lion also causing many fatalities. [1] Footage released in early 2014 of a bull elephant attacking a tourist\u2019s car in Kruger National Park, South Africa demonstrated the continued threat these animals cause. [2] Tougher protection would result in higher numbers of these animals which increases the risk to human lives.  [1] Animal Danger \u2018Most Dangerous Animals\u2019  [2] Withnall, A. \u2018Rampaging bull elephant flips over British tourist car in Kruger Park\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con04a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Heavy handed approaches do not solve the motivations for poaching  Creating tougher responses to poaching will not deter poachers as they fail to recognise the motivations for illegal hunting. Many hunters, especially those who aren\u2019t native to Africa, take part in poaching as there is a thrill in the illegal status. [1] The close calls, challenges and sense of independence will all be multiplied by increased protection on the game reserves.  Then there are those who take part out of necessity. Poachers will often be able to make $50-100 per kilogram for a rhinoceros\u2019 horn [2] and the bush meat from kills can be a necessary source of nutrition. [3] Poaching creates opportunities for Africans which are usually unavailable in licit work. Tougher protection of animals fails to provide an alternative livelihood for these poachers.  [1] Forsyth, C. & Marckese, T. \u2018Thrills and skills: a sociological analysis of poaching\u2019 pg.162  [2] Stewart, C. \u2018Illegal ivory trade funds al-shabaab\u2019s terrorist attacks\u2019  [3] BBC, \u201cLions \u2018facing extinction in West Africa\u2019\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con03a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Legalising the trade of horns, ivory, furs and pelts would be more effective  Making it legal for hunters to kill these endangered animals, rather than protecting them, could prevent extinction. The protected status of endangered animals has made their pelts, horns and tusks more expensive as they are harder to obtain. [1] The current illegality of trading rhino horns has constrained supply in comparison to demand in Asia. This has driven the price of the horn to around \u00a384,000. Softening protection for endangered animals could, in theory, reduce the price to a point where it is no longer profitable to hunt these endangered animals. [2] This would potentially increase supply by freeing up that seized by governments which is currently destroyed, and could potentially involve farming as South Africa is considering with Rhino horn. [3]  [1] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019  [2] Player, I. & Fourie, A. \u2018How to win the war against poachers\u2019  [3] Molewa, E., \u2018Statement on Rhino poaching intervention\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con01a","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"African countries have little money to spare  Africa has some of the least developed countries in the world, making extensive protection of endangered animals unviable. Many African countries are burdened by the more pressing issues of civil war, large debts, poverty, and economic underdevelopment. [1] These factors already draw significant amounts of money from limited budgets. Tanzania, for example, has revenue of $5.571 billion and an expenditure of $6.706 billion. [2] Increased expenditure on animal protection projects would only serve to worsen this budget deficit.  [1] Simensen, J. \u2018Africa: the causes of under-development and the challenges of globalisation\u2019  [2] The World Factbook \u2018Tanzania\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con04b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"If tough approaches to conservation did not exist then the situation would be far worse. [1] The lack of legislation and an armed response to the poaching threat has led to the extinction of many species, such as the Western black rhinoceros. [2] Without the boots on the ground then poaching would most likely expand due to the lack of deterrent which armed guards cause.  [1] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019  [2] Mathur, A. \u2018Western Black Rhino Poached Out of Existence; Declared Extinct, Slack Anti-Poaching Efforts Responsible\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-environment-aiahwagit-con02b","title":"animals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Most of these human deaths are caused by humans invading the territory of the animals at hand. Even giraffes, usually considered peaceful animals, will attack if they feel that humans are too close. Generally, it is the human\u2019s responsibility rather than the animal\u2019s. Increased protection may save more lives as methods such as fencing will forcibly separate humans from animals and decrease the chances of the two coming in to contact. [1]  [1] Morelle, R. \u201cFencing off wild lions from humans \u2018could save them\u2019\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro02b","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Journalist Jeremy Shere describes the problems with most methods of nuclear storage:  \"There have been a few other interesting ideas \u2013such as burying nuclear waste beneath the ocean floor. Scientists have also thought about putting waste in really deep holes, burying it in polar ice sheets, and stashing it beneath uninhabited islands. [...] But there are problems with each of these ideas. For example, it would be difficult to monitor nuclear waste under the ocean floor. Waste buried deep in the earth, meanwhile, might contaminate ground water. And as ice sheets continue to melt, it\u2019s hard to say how long nuclear waste would remain buried, or where it would end up if it floated away. Plans to store waste produced in the United States in Yucca Mountain, in Utah, have been put on hold. So for now almost all nuclear waste is kept above ground in special containers at a few hundred different sites around the country.\u201d [1]  The point with underground nuclear storage is that geological conditions are often very different between states and regions; this would often mean that in some states underground nuclear storage would be completely inappropriate because it could leak due to geological changes. Further, underground nuclear storage as mentioned in the first opposition counterargument, actively encourages a state to become reliant on nuclear power.  [1] Shere, Jeremy. \u201cWhat Is The Best Way To Dispose Of Nuclear Waste?\u201d Moment of Science. 23\/03\/2010"}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro02a","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Underground Nuclear Storage is Safe  Underground nuclear waste storage means that nuclear waste is stored at least 300m underground. [I1]  The harm of a leak 300m underground is significantly limited, if the area has been chosen correctly then there should be no water sources nearby to contaminate. If this is the case, then a leak\u2019s harm would be limited to the layers of sediment nearby which would be unaffected by radiation. By comparison a leak outside might lead to animals nearby suffering from contamination. Further nuclear waste might reach water sources should there be a leak above ground, if it is raining heavily when the leak happens for example.  Further, the other options available, such as above ground storage present a potentially greater danger, should something go wrong. This is because it is much easier for nuclear waste to leak radiation into the air. This is problematic because even a hint of radiation may well cause people to panic owing to the damaging and heavily publicised consequences of previous nuclear safety crises. As such, underground storage is safer both directly and indirectly. [1]  As well as this, underground storage also prevents nuclear waste or nuclear radiation from reaching other states and as such, results in greater safety across borders. [2]  Further, storing all nuclear waste underground means that countries can concentrate their research and training efforts on responding to subterranean containment failures. Focus and specialisation of this type is much more likely to avert a serious release of nuclear material from an underground facility than the broad and general approach that will be fostered by diverse and distinct above-ground storage solutions.  [1] \u201cEurope eyes underground nuclear waste repositories.\u201d Infowars Ireland. 20\/02\/2010   [2] \u201cEU Debates Permanent Storage For Nuclear Waste.\u201d 04\/11\/2010 AboutMyPlanet.   [I1] I am not sure how to replace this section. \u201cLeakage\u201d of radioactive material into the air is a minimal danger. The contributor may be referring to the ejection of irradiated dust and other particulates that has occurred when nuclear power stations have suffered explosive containment failures, but this is not comparable to the types of containment failures that might happen in facilities used to store spent nuclear fuel rods and medical waste.  One of the more substantial risks presented by underground storage is release of nuclear material into a water source."}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro01a","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Underground Nuclear Storage is Necessary  Even states without nuclear waste programs tend to generate radioactive waste. For example, research and medicine both use nuclear material and nuclear technology. Technologies such as Medical imaging equipment are dependent and the use of radioactive elements. This means that all states produce levels of nuclear waste that need to be dealt with.  Moreover, many non-nuclear states are accelerating their programmes of research and investment into nuclear technologies. With the exception of Germany, there is an increasing consensus among developed nations that nuclear power is the only viable method of meeting rising domestic demand for energy in the absence of reliable and efficient renewable forms of power generation.  The alternatives to putting nuclear waste in underground storage tend to be based around the reuse of nuclear waste in nuclear power stations. Whilst this is viable in some areas, in countries which lack the technology to be able to do this and in countries which don\u2019t need to rely on nuclear power, this option becomes irrelevant. Further, even this process results in the creation of some nuclear waste, so in countries with the technology to implement such a solution, the disposal of the remaining nuclear waste is still an issue.  As such, underground nuclear storage is a necessary method that should be used to dispose of nuclear waste. [1]  [1] \u201cThe EU\u2019s deep underground storage plan.\u201d 03\/11\/2010. World Nuclear News."}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro01b","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Underground nuclear storage is not the only way to store nuclear material. Economically speaking, it is more expensive, but likely much safer to store nuclear waste above ground in facilities that can be easily monitored and dealt with. Unlike in underground storage facilities, should something go wrong above ground, it can be responded to quickly and efficiently and it is likely that problems will be detected earlier as well.  Further, widely implementing underground nuclear storage would also encourage states to be more cavalier with their nuclear energy policies. Specifically, whilst nuclear energy generation may result in zero carbon emissions, the mining and milling of uranium that initially starts the process is environmentally damaging. [1]  [1] ISN Security Watch. \u201cEurope\u2019s Nuclear Waste Storage Problems.\u201d Oilprice.com 01\/06\/2010"}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-con03b","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Integral Fast Reactors are not a solution for the short term. There are currently no Integral Fast Reactors in commercial operation and the research reactor that was to be constructed by the United States was cancelled in 1994. Any attempt to use IFRs to recycle all of the world\u2019s nuclear waste would be very expensive and would not be an immediate solution \u2013 the waste would need to be stored somewhere while it waits to be used by the new reactors."}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-con01b","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"The economic costs of underground storage are high. However, given that nuclear power is necessary to avoid what would likely be a very significant amount of economic harm, specifically from global warming. For example, it has been projected that not doing anything to address climate change would result in an overall increase in temperate of 5 degrees Celsius which would lead to economic costs in the order of $74 trillion. This means that the need for nuclear waste storage is inevitable. [1]  As such, whilst underground storage does cost more than alternate options, it is as mentioned within the proposition case the safest and most reliable method of nuclear waste storage. As such, proposition is willing to take the harm of extra cost in order to prevent harm to people\u2019s health and well being.  [1] Ackerman, Frank. Stanton, Elizabeth. \u201cClimate Change \u2013the Costs of Inaction.\u201d Friend of the Earth. 11\/10\/2006"}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-con02a","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"There Are Better Alternatives to Underground Nuclear Waste Storage  France is the largest nuclear energy producer in the world. It generates 80% of its electricity from nuclear power. [1] It is very important to note, therefore, that it does not rely on underground nuclear waste storage. Instead, it relies on above ground, on-site storage. This kind of storage combined with heavy reprocessing and recycling of nuclear waste, makes underground storage unnecessary. [2]  As such it seems logical that in most western liberal democracies that are able to reach the same level of technological progress as France, it makes more sense to store nuclear waste above ground. Above ground, checks and balances can be put into place that allow the maintenance of these nuclear storage facilities to be monitored more closely. Furthermore, reprocessing and recycling leads to less wasted Uranium overall. This is important as Uranium, whilst being plentiful in the earth, is often difficult to mine and mill. As such, savings here often significantly benefit things such as the environment and lower the economic cost of the entire operation.  [1] BBC News, \u2018France nuclear power funding gets 1bn euro boost\u2019, 27 June 2011,   [2] Palfreman, Jon. \u201cWhy the French Like Nuclear Energy.\u201d PBS."}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-con03a","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Nuclear waste should be reused to create more electricity.  There are new kinds of nuclear reactor such as \u2018Integral Fast Reactors\u2019, which can be powered by the waste from normal nuclear reactors (or from uranium the same as any other nuclear reactor). This means that the waste from other reactors or dismantled nuclear weapons could be used to power these new reactors. The Integral Fast Reactor extends the ability to produce energy roughly by a factor of 100. This would therefore be a very long term energy source. [1]  The waste at the end of the process is not nearly as much of a problem, as it is from current reactors. Because the IFR recycles the waste hundreds of times there is very much less waste remaining and what there is has a much shorter half-life, only tens of years rather than thousands. This makes storage for the remainder much more feasible, as there would be much less space required. [2]  [1] Till, Charles, \u2018Nuclear Reaction Why DO Americans Fear Nuclear Power\u2019, PBS,   [2] Monbiot, George, \u2018We need to talk about Sellafield, and a nuclear solution that ticks all our boxes\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 5 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-con01a","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Underground Nuclear Storage is Expensive.  Underground nuclear storage is expensive. This is because the deep geological repositories needed to deal with such waste are difficult to construct. This is because said repositories need to be 300m underground and also need failsafe systems so that they can be sealed off should there be a leak. For smaller countries, implementing this idea is almost completely impossible.  Further, the maintenance of the facilities also requires a lot of long term investment as the structural integrity of the facilities must consistently be monitored and maintained so that if there is a leak, the relevant authorities can be informed quickly and efficiently.  This is seen with the Yucca mountain waste repository site which has cost billions of dollars since the 1990s and was eventually halted due to public fears about nuclear safety. [1]  [1] ISN Security Watch. \u201cEurope\u2019s Nuclear Waste Storage Problems.\u201d Oilprice.com 01\/06\/2010"}
+{"id":"test-environment-ehwsnwu-con02b","title":"energy house would store nuclear waste underground","text":"Side proposition supports the reuse of nuclear waste; however, it also believes that the remaining nuclear waste left by the process should be stored underground.  This is because, the nuclear waste created from such a recycling process ends up being more concentrated and dangerous radioactively than normal nuclear waste. As such, storage above ground is incredibly dangerous if there is a leak. By comparison, storing the waste underground leaves 300m of sediment between the waste and the air. As such, the chances of the waste reaching a water source or causing panic are reduced as detailed in the proposition substantive. Further, even if there is a leak, the facilities can often be sealed off to prevent this from happening.7"}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro02b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Rising countries, such as India, China, and Brazil, are adopting more efficient technologies than are currently in use in much of the world. While the developing world is contributing to net GHG emission growth, their GHG per person is still far below that of a developed country. And, as a result of the adoption of newer technologies, it is unlikely that their GHG per person will ever equal that found in the developed world. If reductions can be made in the developed world, where it is a fact that the economic resources exist to do so, then net emissions can be stabilized even while emissions in the developing world continue to grow."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro02a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Developing world  Developing countries such as China and India are growing rapidly and causing massive increases in global GHG emissions through fossil fuel use and deforestation. It took developed countries 100s of years to create a standard of living high enough for an environmental movement to develop. It is more likely than not that developing countries will continue to increase their annual emissions for decades, greatly eclipsing any potential reductions in the developed world. According to Joseph Romm, former US assistant secretary for energy efficiency and renewable energy, \"China's growth in emissions could erode all other countries' efforts to stabilize the world's temperature\" 1. As a result, atmospheric GHGs will continue to increase, causing greater climate change.  1. Romm, Joseph, 'How Copenhagen can succeed where Kyoto failed', Foreign Policy, June 18, 2009."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro03b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Despite the failure of the Copenhagen Protocol, local, regional, national, and international organizations are all still working on solutions for climate change. The Kyoto Protocol was a failure by virtue of its design (too many credits would have gone to former Soviet countries whose GHG reductions were entirely attributable to economic collapse, which would have resulted in a cash transfer but no real reductions). Discussions continue on how best each country can reduce their GHG emissions while remaining economically competitive. The EU ETS trading scheme is an example of just such an endeavour. (See Carbon Trading Schemes)"}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro01a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"450 PPM  The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report determined that atmospheric GHG emissions needed to stabilize at 450ppm in order to avoid a temperature rise of more than 2-2.4C. Atmospheric ppm are currently at 393 and are rising at a rate of about 2 ppm per year. In order to stabilize at 450 ppm, the developed world would need to reduce its emissions by 25-40% by 2020 and 80-90% by 2050 along with significant reductions in the emissions growth rate of developing countries 1. Only a handful of countries (all of them in Europe) have achieved any reduction in annual GHG emissions despite promises to do so going back to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.2 As a result, there is no evidence on which to reasonably conclude that atmospheric GHGs will be stabilized at 450ppm.  1. IPCC (2007). \"IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 (AR4)\". Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.: Cambridge University Press.  2 The Guardian, World carbon dioxide emissions data by country: China speeds ahead of the rest. (31\/1\/11)."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro01b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"The fossil fuels which account for the majority of GHG emissions are finite resources. As oil and coal becoming increasingly scarce, markets will naturally switch to more efficient or renewable resources thus stabilizing global GHG emissions. The growth of fuel efficient hybrid and fully electric automobiles are a good example of the market responding to higher fuel prices. (Also see New Technology)"}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro04b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"These consequences are often speculation. With such a large and complex system we have no way of knowing what the consequences of climate change. There may well be some tipping points that will accelerate climate change but we do not know when each of these will become a problem and there may also be tipping points that act in the other direction.(See Earth's Resiliency)"}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro03a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Failure to reach global accord  The Kyoto Protocol failed to reduce global GHG emissions and in the midst of an economic crisis, world leaders were unable to even agree to a replacement treaty when it expired. There is no meaningful global emissions reduction treaty ready for ratification and no reason to be optimistic that one is forthcoming. The developing world believes it has a legitimate right to expand economically without emissions caps because the rich world is responsible for the vast majority of emissions over the last 200 years and per capita emissions in developing countries are still far lower than in the developed world. As such, developing countries will only agree to a global accord that pays for their emissions reductions\/abatement. However, the developed world is unwilling to transfer wealth in exchange for a right to emit, particularly at a time when so many have large budget deficits 1. Given that the growth of annual emissions is being driven by developing countries, many developed countries (like the US) believe that any treaty that does not include developing countries (particularly China) would be fruitless.  1. The Economist, 'A bad climate for development', 17th September 2009."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro04a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Consequences of increased GHGs  Increased GHGs in the atmosphere have numerous significant consequences:  -glaciers, ice sheets, and perma frost will continue to melt. This will increase water levels, release more GHGs (methane, which is twenty times more powerful as a greenhouse gas than CO2 and CO2), and reflect less heat back into the atmosphere exacerbating climate change1.  -the oceans (which are a natural carbon sink) are becoming increasingly acidic which will significantly damage ecosystems such as coral reefs. Additionally, changes in the chemistry of the ocean could affect the amount of CO2 it can absorb and process annually.  -there will be increasing incidents of extreme weather such as hurricanes, floods, and record high\/low temperatures. Extreme weather can destroy ecosystems that capture CO2 such as forests and peat bogs leading to less natural CO2 absorption.  These events will accelerate climate change making it more difficult for humans to reduce GHG ppms to a sustainable level. Once average temperatures are above 2.5C, events will be triggered that will be irreversible and it will take 1000s of years of lower GHG emissions for the earth to return to normal 2.  1. Connor, Steve, 'Exclusive: The methane time bomb', The Independent, 23rd September 2008,  2. Wikipedia, \"Climate Change Feedback\". Retrieved 2011-08-08."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con03b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Technological improvements will almost certainly be developed for those who can afford them (as most technology is). However, climate change will have the greatest effect on poor countries that cannot afford mitigation. Potentially, being able to protect the wealthy does not mean that we are not too late on global climate change."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con01b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Carbon trading systems may have the effect of slowing the rise in CO2 emissions, and possibly even creating a fall. However this will not solve the problem as changes are already occurring and there may be no way to stop feedback that creates more emissions."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con02a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Earth's Resiliency  All the conclusions about the effects of rising atmospheric GHGs are based on computerized climate models. Even those that develop and use the models admit that the models are not nearly complex enough to be 100% accurate. Climate science is incredibly complicated and different models sometimes produce vastly different results 1.Increased carbon dioxide will increase plant life which may mitigate other damages of climate change and protect species currently considered threatened by climate change. Therefore, it is far too early to conclude that humanity is going to be destroyed. The earth's climate is continuously changing, with or without anthropogenic effects, and life has always found a way to continue.  1. Lemonick, Michael D., 'How much can we really trust climate models to tell us about the future?', 18th january 2011."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con03a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"New Technology  Humanity has revolutionized the world repeatedly through such monumental inventions as agriculture, steel, anti-biotics, and microchips. And as technology has improved, so too has the rate at which technology improves. It is predicted that there will be 32 times more change between 2000 and 2050 than there was between 1950 and 2000. In the midst of this, many great minds will be focussed on emissions abatement and climate control technologies. So, even if the most severe climate predictions do come to pass, it is unimaginable that humanity will not find a way to intervene. Even small changes will make a difference \u2013 more efficient coal power stations can emit a third less emissions than less efficient ones 1. Renewable energy will become more competitive and scalable and technology develops we may even be able to remove carbon from the atmosphere so undoing the damage. 1  1. Bradsher, Keith. \u201cChina Outpaces U.S. in Cleaner Coal-Fired Plants.\u201d, New York Times Published: May 10, 2009."}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con01a","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"Carbon Trading Schemes  The EU ETS is an example of a viable carbon market, it covers thirty countries from the EU as well as Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. Countries within the ETS are using market mechanisms to force domestic emitters to meet national caps as the amount of allowances reduces over time emissions fall. In 2020 under the ETS emissions will be 21% lower than in 2005 1. The IPCC report contains recommendations for how emissions can be abated through the simultaneous application of numerous small reductions and the implementation of abatement technologies and this is exactly what schemes like the ETS encourage. Part of the reason that the ETS is successful is that it is ensuring an even playing field between countries by (more or less) applying its rules equally across borders and industries.2  1. European Trading System, 2010  2. European Commission Climate Action, 'Emissions Trading System'"}
+{"id":"test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con02b","title":"climate house believes were too late global climate change","text":"While climate models may be imperfect they are the best tool presently available to predict the future. Most predict dire consequences if GHGs continue to rise through the 21st century, which is what seems most likely."}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro02b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"While it is clear that such an immense project will have an impact we have little idea what that impact might be. Will the builders be local? Will the suppliers be local? It is likely that the benefit will go elsewhere just as the electricity will go to South Africa rather than providing electricity to the poverty stricken Congolese. [1]  [1] Palitza, Kristin, \u2018$80bn Grand Inga hydropower dam to lock out Africa\u2019s poor\u2019, Africa Review, 16 November 2011, www.africareview.com\/Business---Finance\/80-billion-dollar-Grand-Inga-dam-to-lock-out-Africa-poor\/-\/979184\/1274126\/-\/kkicv7\/-\/index.html"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro02a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"An immense boost to DRC\u2019s economy  The Grand Inga dam would be an immense boost to the DRC\u2019s economy. It would mean a huge amount of investment coming into the country as almost all the $80 billion construction cost would be coming from outside the country which would mean thousands of workers employed and spending money in the DRC as well as boosting local suppliers. Once the project is complete the dam will provide cheap electricity so making industry more competitive and providing electricity to homes. Even the initial stages through Inga III are expected to provide electricity for 25,000 households in Kinshasa. [1]  [1] \u2018Movement on the Grand Inga Hydropower Project\u2019, ujuh, 20 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro03b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"In the short to medium term during the decades the dam is being built investment will surely be concentrated in one place in this vast country; in the west where the dam is, not the east where the conflicts are. Later there is little guarantee that the government will spend the proceeds wisely to develop the country rather than it disappearing through corruption. And this assumes the money flows in from the export of electricity. To enable such exports 3000km of high voltage cable will need to be laid which would be vulnerable to being cut by rebel groups seeking to hurt the government through its wallet. [1]  [1] \u2018Explained: The $80 billion Grand Inga Hydropower Project\u2019, ujuh, 21 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro01a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"The dam would power Africa  Only 29% of Sub Saharan Africa\u2019s population has access to electricity. [1] This has immense consequences not just for the economy as production and investment is constrained but also on society. The world bank says lack of electricity affects human rights \u201cPeople cannot access modern hospital services without electricity, or feel relief from sweltering heat. Food cannot be refrigerated and businesses cannot function. Children cannot go to school\u2026 The list of deprivation goes on.\u201d [2] Conveniently it is suggested that the \u201cGrand Inga will thus provide more than half of the continent with renewable energy at a low price,\u201d [3] providing electricity to half a billion people so eliminating much of this electricity gap. [4]  [1] World Bank Energy, \u2018Addressing the Electricity Access Gap\u2019, World Bank, June 2010,  p.89  [2] The World Bank, \u2018Energy \u2013 The Facts\u2019, worldbank.org, 2013,   [3] SAinfo reporter, \u2018SA-DRC pact paves way for Grand Inga\u2019, SouthAfrica.info, 20 May 2013,   [4] Pearce, Fred, \u2018Will Huge New Hydro Projects Bring Power to Africa\u2019s People?\u2019, Yale Environment 360, 30 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro01b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"It is not the best solution to Africa\u2019s energy crisis. According to a report by the International Energy Agency as an immense dam requires a power grid. Such a grid does not exist and building such a grid is \u201cnot proving to be cost effective in more remote rural areas\u201d. In such low density areas local sources of power are best. [1] DRC is only 34% urban and has a population density of only 30 people per km2 [2] so the best option would be local renewable power.  [1] International Energy Agency, \u2018Energy for All Financing access for the poor\u2019, World Energy Outlook, 2011,  p.21  [2] Central Intelligence Agency, \u2018Congo, Democratic Republic of the\u2019, The World Factbook, 12 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro04b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"There is currently not enough traffic to justify such a large addition to the project. If it were worthwhile then it could be done without the need for building an immense dam."}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro03a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"Will enable the rebuilding of DRC  DR Congo has been one of the most war ravaged countries in the world over the last two decades. The Grand Inga provides a project that can potentially benefit everyone in the country by providing cheap electricity and an economic boost. It will also provide large export earnings; to take an comparatively local example Ethiopia earns $1.5million per month exporting 60MW to Djibouti at 7 cents per KwH [1] comparable to prices in South Africa [2] so if Congo were to be exporting 500 times that (at 30,000 MW only 3\/4ths of the capacity) it would be earning $9billion per year. This then will provide more money to invest and to ameliorate problems. The project can therefore be a project for the nation to rally around helping create and keep stability after the surrender of the rebel group M23 in October 2013.  [1] Woldegebriel, E.G., \u2018Ethiopia plans to power East Africa with hydro\u2019, trust.org, 29 January 2013,   [2] Burkhardt, Paul, \u2018Eskom to Raise S. Africa Power Price 8% Annually for 5 Years\u2019, Bloomberg, 28 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-pro04a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"A dam could make the Congo more usable  While the Congo is mostly navigable it is only usable internally. The rapids cut the middle Congo off from the sea. The building of the dams could be combined with canalisation and locks to enable international goods to be easily transported to and from the interior. This would help integrate central Africa economically into the global economy making the region much more attractive for investment."}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con03b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"Yes they are. Big international donors like the World Bank who are supporting the project will ensure that there is compensation for those displaced and that they get good accommodation. In a budget of up to $80billion the cost of compensation and relocation is tiny."}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con01b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"The World Bank would be taking a lead role in the project and it proclaims \u201cThe World Bank has a zero-tolerance policy on corruption, and we have some of the toughest fiduciary standards of any development agency, including a 24\/7 fraud and corruption hotline with appropriate whistle-blower protection.\u201d All documentation would be in the public domain and online so ensuring complete transparency. [1]  [1] Maake, Moyagabo, \u2018Concern over SA\u2019s billions in DRC Inga project\u2019, Business Day Live, 24 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con02a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"A dam would damage the environment  Dams due to their generation of renewable electricity are usually seen as environmentally friendly but such mega projects are rarely without consequences. The Grand Inga would lower the oxygen content of the lower course of the river which would mean a loss of species. This would not only affect the river as the Congo\u2019s delta is a submerged area of 300,000km2 far out into the Atlantic. This system is not yet understood but the plume transmits sediment and organic matter into the Atlantic ocean encouraging plankton offshore contributing to the Atlantic\u2019s ability to be a carbon sink. [1]  [1] Showers, Kate, \u2018Will Africa\u2019s Mega Dam Have Mega Impacts?\u2019, International Rivers, 5 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con04a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"The cost is too high  The Grand Inga is \u2018pie in the sky\u2019 as the cost is too immense. At more than $50-100 billion it is more than twice the GDP of the whole country. [1] Even the much smaller Inga III project has been plagued by funding problems with Westcor pulling out of the project in 2009. [2] This much smaller project still does not have all the financial backing it needs having failed to get firm commitments of investment from anyone except the South Africans. [3] If private companies won\u2019t take the risk on a much smaller project they won\u2019t on the Grand Inga.  [1] Central Intelligence Agency, \u2018Congo, Democratic Republic of the\u2019, The World Factbook, 12 November 2013,   [2] \u2018Westcor Drops Grand Inga III Project\u2019, Alternative Energy Africa, 14 August 2009,   [3] \u2018DRC still looking for Inga III funding\u2019, ESI-Africa.com, 13 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con03a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"Dams displace communities  Dams result in the filling of a large reservoir behind the dam because it has raised the level of the water in the case of the Grand Inga it would create a reservoir 15km long. This is not particularly big but the construction would also displace communities. The previous Inga dams also displaced people. Inga I and II were built 30 and 40 years ago, yet the displaced are still in a shabby prefabricated town called Camp Kinshasa awaiting compensation. [1] Are they likely to do better this time around?  [1] Sanyanga, Ruto, \u2018Will Congo Benefit from Grand Inga Dam\u2019, International Policy Digest, 29 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con01a","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"Such a big project is beyond DRC\u2019s capacity  The Grand Inga dam project is huge while it means huge potential benefits it just makes it more difficult for the country to manage. Transparency international ranks DRC as 160th out of 176 in terms of corruption [1] so it is no surprise that projects in the country are plagued by it. [2] Such a big project would inevitably mean billions siphoned off. Even if it is built will the DRC be able to maintain it? This seems unlikely. The Inga I and II dams only operate at half their potential due to silting up and a lack of maintenance. [3]  [1] \u2018Corruption Perceptions Index 2012\u2019, Transparency International, 2012,   [2] Bosshard, Peter, \u2018Grand Inga -- The World Bank's Latest Silver Bullet for Africa\u2019, Huffington Post, 21 April 2013,   [3] Vasagar, Jeevan, \u2018Could a $50bn plan to tame this mighty river bring electricity to all of Africa?\u2019, The Guardian, 25 February 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con04b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"The difficulty of constructing something should not be considered a good argument not to do it. As one of the poorest countries in the world construction will surely have significant support from developed donors and international institutions. Moreover with the energy cooperation treaty between DRC and South Africa there is a guaranteed partner to help in financing and eventually buying the electricity."}
+{"id":"test-environment-opecewiahw-con02b","title":"omic policy environment climate energy water international africa house would","text":"Hydroelectric power is clean so would be beneficial in the fight against global warming. Providing such power would reduce the need to other forms of electricity and would help end the problem of cooking fires which not only damage the environment but cause 1.9million lives to be lost globally every year as a result of smoke inhalation. [1] Because the dam will be \u2018run of the river\u2019 there won\u2019t be many of the usual problems associated with dams; fish will still be able to move up and down the river and much of the sediment will still be transported over the rapids.  [1] Bunting, Madeleine, \u2018How Hillary Clinton\u2019s clean stoves will help African women\u2019, theguardian.com, 21 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro02b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"There are alternatives which are far more palatable means of increasing the rate of organ donation, sparing us the moral quandary associated with denying organs to patients and coercing the populace to donate. An easy example is the opt-out organ donation system, wherein all people are organ donors by default and need to actively remove themselves from the system in order to become non-donors. This alternative turns every person who is indifferent to organ donation, currently a non-donor, into a donor, while preserving the preferences of those with a strong commitment not to donate."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro02a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"Prioritizing donors creates an incentive to become a donor  The greatest argument for this policy is also the simplest: it will save thousands, perhaps millions of lives. A policy of prioritizing transplants for donors would massively increase the proportion of donors from the status quo of (at best) just over 30% {Confirmed Organ Donors}. Given the number of people who die under circumstances that render many of their organs useless, the rate of donor registration must be as high as possible. The overwhelming incentive that this policy would create to register may well eliminate the scarcity for certain organs altogether; a bonus benefit of this would mean that for organs where the scarcity was eliminated, this policy would not even need to make good on its threat of denial of organs to non-donors (and even if this happened for every organ and thus reduced the incentive to register as a donor, the number of donors could only fall as far as until there was a scarcity again, thus reviving the incentive to donate until the rate of donation reaches an equilibrium with demand.)"}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro03b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"The principle of moral reciprocity does not require identical acts. Potential organ recipients who do their part for society in other ways ought to be rewarded. We do not require that citizens repay firefighters by carrying them out of burning buildings, because we recognize a certain division of the responsibility for making the world better. A system that purports to evaluate people\u2019s desert for life is an affront to the inherent human dignity that entitles every human being to life. (see \u201cThe right to healthcare is absolute\u201d point below.) Reciprocity means treating others as we would like to be treated even if they don\u2019t do likewise for us."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro01a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"A Practical Solution  There are many mechanisms by which this policy could be implemented. The one common thread is that those hoping to receive organs would be divided into those registered as donors, and those who are non-donors. Potential recipients who are non-donors would only receive an organ if all requests by donors for such an organ are filled. For example, if there is a scarcity of donated kidneys with the B serotype, organ donors requiring a B kidney would all receive kidneys before any non-donors receive them. The existing metrics for deciding priority among recipients can still be applied within these lists \u2013 among both donors and non-donors, individuals could be ranked on who receives an organ first based on who has been on the waiting list longer, or who has more priority based on life expectancy; this policy simply adds the caveat that non-donors only access organs once all donors for their particular organ are satisfied. What defines a \u201cdonor\u201d could vary; it could be that they must have been a donor for a certain number of years, or that they must have been a donor prior to needing a transplant, or even a pledge to become a donor henceforth (and indeed, even if they are terminally ill and for other reasons do not recover, some of their organs may still be usable). Finally this policy need not preclude private donations or swaps of organs, and instead can simply be applied to the public system."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro01b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"The controversial part of this plan is how the status of \u201cdonor\u201d is determined. Each standard that could be used has massive, and sometimes monstrous, negative ramifications. If the requirement is that recipients be donors for a certain number of years beforehand, then people who have been donors for a substantial but still inadequate time are being perversely punished simply for not having been doing their civic duty long enough (see also \u201cpast decision they cannot now undo\u201d point below). If the standard is simply that they must have been a donor for any amount of time, however small, prior to needing the organ, this perversely encourages patients to hide their need for an organ long enough for them to register as donors and then collect their organ; any attempt to solve this would require doctors to report on their patients\u2019 need for organs, eroding patient privacy and turning the doctor-patient relationship adversarial. The last of the proposed standards, that the recipient only need to sign up to be a donor in the future, causes all the alleged benefits of this to policy evaporate; the average person will not sign up to become a donor, as they know that they can always sign up later in the event that they need an organ. This plan only gets any benefit whatsoever if healthy people are signing up to be donors as a cautionary measure, rather than a small group of sick and likely elderly people who only sign up when they need organs. In addition to reducing the pool of donors, such a standard which calls for people to be donors from the time of their need onwards would require a massive breach of body rights to enforce. In order to make it binding (and prevent people from de-registering as donors once they no longer need organs), the state would have to say that they can no longer withdraw their consent to be donors, which amounts to the state laying claim to their organs."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro04b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"Even granting the premise that people ought to donate their organs anyway, the role of the state is not to coerce people to do things they ought to do. People ought to be polite to strangers, exercise regularly, and make good career choices, but the government rightly leaves people free to do what they want because we recognize that you know what\u2019s good for you better than anyone else. Moreover, the premise that people simply ought to donate their organs is highly contentious. Many people do care deeply about what happens to them after they die; even an enthusiastic organ donor would probably prefer that their body be treated respectfully after death rather than thrown to dogs. This concern for how one\u2019s body is treated after death affects the psychological wellbeing of the living. This is particularly true for members of some religions which explicitly prohibit the donation of organs. Any government campaign that acts as if it is one\u2019s duty to donate forces them to choose between their loyalty to their beliefs and the state."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro03a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"Organ donors are more deserving of organs  Reciprocity is a basic moral principle: afford others the good treatment you yourself would like to receive. In most cases, it is a hypothetical; one must place oneself in the other person\u2019s position even though one will never actually be in their place. However, how donor and non-donors are treated when they themselves are in need is a situation in which reciprocity becomes a practical reality. This principle of reciprocity suggests that people who are willing to donate their organs more deserve to receive organs when they need them. And there is good reason to believe in reciprocity. Those who would flaunt this principle are basically stating that they expect something of other people that they themselves are unwilling to do; this is a position that is either incoherent, or based on the unjustified premise that oneself is more objectively valuable than other people. The concept of desert has a foundational role in our society. For example, innocent people deserve not to be put in prison, even if it would be useful to frame and make an example of an innocent person in order to quell a period of civil unrest."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-pro04a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"People ought to donate their organs anyway  Organ donation, in all its forms, saves lives. More to the point, it saves lives with almost no loss to the donor. One obviously has no material need for one\u2019s organs after death, and thus it does not meaningfully inhibit bodily integrity to incentivize people to give up their organs at this time. If one is registered as an organ donor, every attempt is still made to save their life {Organ Donation FAQ}. The state is always more justified in demanding beneficial acts of citizens if the cost to the citizen is minimal. This is why the state can demand that people wear seatbelts, but cannot conscript citizens for use as research subjects. Because there is no good reason not to become an organ donor, the state ought to do everything in its power to ensure that people do so."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con03b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"Even if it were terrible to coerce people into donating their organs, there is a difference between mandating a behavior and creating strong incentives to do it. For instance, most governments do not mandate that people not smoke, but severe disincentives exist in the form of cigarette taxes and higher life insurance premiums. Furthermore, this argument is questionably premised on the notion that laying claim to a person\u2019s organs after their death is a major violation (see \u201cpeople ought to donate their organs anyway\u201d point)."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con01b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"The government already makes life or death decisions as to who receives organs; at the end of the day, the organ scarcity means someone has to go without them. The state, in administrating organ donor lists, must decide on some basis who receives organs. The choice is whether they ought to be allocated primarily based on desert, or arbitrarily. Moreover, no medical system actually treats access to it as an inviolate right. Many healthcare systems worldwide are not universal, and even universal systems broadly restrict access on the basis of some criteria, most notably citizenship."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con02a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"This system will punish people for a past decision they cannot now undo  Most formulations of this policy involve assessing donor status on the basis of whether the patient was a registered organ donor prior to needing an organ. Thus, a sick person could find themselves in the tortuous situation of sincerely regretting their past decision not to donate, but having no means to atone for their past act. To visit such a situation upon citizens not only meaningfully deprives them of the means to continue living, it subjects them to great psychological distress. Indeed, they are not only aware that their past passive decision not to register as a donor has doomed them, but they are constantly told by the state that this is well and just."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con04a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"People may have valid religious reasons not to donate organs  Many major religions, such as some forms of Orthodox Judaism {Haredim Issue}, specifically mandate leaving the body intact after death. To create a system that aims to strongly pressure people, with the threat of reduced priority for life-saving treatment, to violate their religious beliefs violates religious freedom. This policy would put individuals and families in the untenable position of having to choose between contravene the edicts of their god and losing the life of themselves or a loved one. While it could be said that any religion that bans organ donation would presumably ban receiving organs as transplants, this is not actually the case; some followers of Shintoism and Roma faiths prohibit removing organs from the body, but allow transplants to the body."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con03a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"Denying organs to non-donors is unduly coercive.  For the state to make organ donation mandatory is rightly seen as beyond the pale of what society would tolerate. This is because the right to the integrity of one\u2019s body, including what is done with its component parts after death, must be held in the highest respect {UNDHR \u2013 Article 3 re security of person}. One\u2019s body is one\u2019s most foundational possession. Creating a system that effectively threatens death to anyone who refuses to donate part of their body is only marginally different from making it outright mandatory. The state\u2019s goal is in effect the same: to compel citizens to give up their organs for a purpose the government has deemed socially worthwhile. This is a gross violation of body rights."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con01a","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"The right to access healthcare is absolute  Healthcare is a primary means by which individuals actualize their right to be protected against an untimely death. The ability to access healthcare, to not have the government actively intervene against one receiving it, is of fundamental importance for living a long and worthwhile life, and is hence entrenched in the constitutions of many liberal democracies and much of international human rights literature {WHO - Health and Human Rights}. While some rights, such as the right to mobility, can be taken away as a matter of desert in almost all societies, absolutely fundamental rights, such as the right to a fair trial, are actually inalienable and ought to never be violated. What this means in practice is that one\u2019s access to healthcare should not be continent. The government should set no standards on who deserves life-saving treatment and who doesn\u2019t. To do so would be to assign a dangerous power of life and death over the government."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con04b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"In reality, the majority of faiths that ban organ donation, and all of the faiths that feel particularly strongly about it, such as certain branches of the Jehovah\u2019s Witness with regard to blood transfusions {Blood \u2013 Vital for Life}, also ban accepting foreign organs. In such cases, practitioners wouldn\u2019t be receiving organs anyway, so the net effect is nil. Moreover, many religions mandate that followers do everything in their power to save a life, and that this should trump adherence to lesser dictates. Finally, to adhere to a religious ban on giving but not receiving organs is disingenuous. It is the ultimate hypocrisy: to rely on others to do someone one would not do oneself. In such a situation, the state is no longer obliged to guarantee a chance to adhere to one\u2019s religion."}
+{"id":"test-health-hdond-con02b","title":"healthcare deny organs non donors","text":"This is a harm that the proponent of denying organs to non-donors will gladly eat. The threat of being left high and dry without an organ is exactly the incentive that this policy aims to create. The most unpalatable aspects of this process can be mitigated, such as making it clear that this is simply a loss of priority and not an active denial of any treatment."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro02b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"This is misleading - in partial-birth abortion, as the term suggests, the foetus is not fully born when it is killed: the purpose of collapsing the skull is to allow the foetus\u2019 head to pass more easily through the birth canal. At no point in the process is a live foetus entirely outside the womb, so legal personhood is never an issue."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro02a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"If personhood accrues at birth, then abortion after inducing birth is wrong  If birth is the crucial dividing-line we use to decide when legal personhood begins, then we should not be allowed to induce birth and then deliberately kill a foetus during that process - this is different from early abortion in which birth is induced and the foetus dies naturally. Partial-birth abortion is murder, even on the pro-choice understanding of personhood."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro03b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Arguing that adoption is a good option shows a fundamental lack of awareness of what is involved in carrying an unwanted foetus to term. Pregnancy can be stressful at the best of times; being forced to carry an unwanted child against your will is enormously traumatic, and can cause permanent psychological harm, as can the knowledge that your own unwanted child is growing up elsewhere and may one day return to find you. If a mother chooses to carry a foetus to term and then give it up for adoption, that\u2019s fine, but nobody should force her to do so."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro01a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"The foetus feels pain  Partial-birth abortion is disgusting. Like all abortions, it involves the killing of an unborn child, but unlike first trimester abortions there is no doubt that the foetus can feel pain by the third trimester. [1] The procedure involves sticking a pair of scissors into a baby\u2019s brain, enlarging the hole, sucking the brain out with a catheter and then crushing the skull. It is entirely unacceptable to do this to a living human being. Psychological damage to the mother as a result of rape or teenage pregnancy or depression is in the end less significant than the physical damage - death - caused to the child.  [1] Lee, Susan J., et al., \u2018Fetal Pain, A Systematic Multidisciplinary Review of the Evidence\u2019, Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol 294 (8), 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro01b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Nobody would choose to have a partial-birth abortion over a much simpler abortion in the first trimester. Partial-birth abortions are either medically or psychologically necessary. If a young mother either does not find out she is pregnant or is too scared to tell anyone, if a woman is raped and decides at any stage that she does not want the baby, if a woman is threatening suicide if she is forced to carry a baby to term, we should not make her suffer further by forbidding her from ending the pregnancy. For all sorts of reasons, many women do not seek any kind of medical help until late in their pregnancy - this should not mean they forfeit their right to an abortion. In any case, if abortion is allowed at all, and given that the foetus is not recognised in law as a human being, it should be nobody\u2019s business but the mother\u2019s whether and at what stage she chooses to have an abortion."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro04b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"These opinion polls are misleading, as they force respondents to choose between an outright ban and no control at all \u2013 it is impossible for them to register support for partial-birth abortion in cases where the mother\u2019s physical or psychological health is in danger. A majority of Americans are still in favour of the right to abortion. More importantly, this should not be the business of the general public or of legislators. Nobody who would prefer not to have a partial-birth abortion will be made to have one. Most people who want it banned will never face a situation where it directly affects them in any case. We should leave decisions up to the people who are directly affected by them - not to outsiders, who are free to express their opinion but not to impose it on everyone else. This is a campaign promise George Bush should not keep."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro03a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Abortion is wrong per se when there are alternatives such as adoption  Tragically, some babies are unwanted, but this does not mean that we should kill them. There are plenty of other options, notably adoption. If anything, the case for adoption is more compelling in the third trimester, because the pregnancy is nearer to its natural end and there is less time, only about ten weeks, for the mother to have to put up with it. [1] Unwanted pregnancy and adoption may be psychologically harmful, but in many cases so is abortion, particularly at a late stage of pregnancy when the mother can see that the dead foetus is recognisably a baby - the guilt feelings associated with feeling that one is responsible for murdering a child can be unbearable.  [1] Bupa, \u2018Stages of pregnancy\u2019, April 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro04a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Banning partial birth abortions is in line with popular and accepted moral standards  here is a vast amount of support in the United States for a ban on partial-birth abortion. Opinion polls have shown a consistent increase in support for a ban: as high as 70% in favour to 25% against in January 2003. [1] Furthermore, in 1997 the House of Representatives voted 295-136, and the Senate 64-36, in favour of a ban. For President Clinton to veto it was undemocratic; [2] for President Bush not to pass it would have been to break a campaign promise.  [1] Gallup, \u2018Abortion\u2019, 30 November 2011,   [2] Craig, Larry E., \u2018Clinton Claims on Partial-Birth Abortion Still Not True -- Not Even 'Legally Accurate'\u2019, United States Senate Republican Policy Committee, 15 September 1998,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con03b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"There is no medical consensus on this issue. Where Dilation and Extraction is performed without inducing partial birth then it has the potential to be just as safe for the mother."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con01b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Allowing partial-birth abortion is utterly inconsistent with the growing, and legally recognised, respect for foetal rights in the United States. If a man can sue the mother of his child for taking drugs during pregnancy which discolour their child\u2019s teeth, if pregnant women can be banned from the smoking sections of restaurants, what sense does it make to allow exactly the same foetuses to have their skulls deliberately crushed?"}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con02a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Opposition to partial birth abortion is part of a strategy intended to ban abortion in general  Partial-birth abortions form a tiny proportion of all abortions, but from a medical and psychological point of view they ought to be the least controversial. The reason for this focus is that late-term abortions are the most obviously distasteful, because late-term foetuses look more like babies than embryos or foetuses at an earlier developmental stage. Late-term abortions therefore make for the best pro-life campaigning material. By attempting to focus the debate here, campaigners are aiming to conflate all abortions with late-term abortions, and to increase opposition to all abortion on that basis."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con03a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Partial birth abortions are safer than any available alternative  The D&X abortion procedure generates the minimum of risk for the mother. Banning it means that the only alternatives are premature labour induction for which mortality rates are 2.5 times higher and is emotionally very difficult due to the length of time it takes [1] (it is also likely to be unacceptable to the proposition) and hysterotomy (which results in removal of the womb). Finally as those who are having late partial birth abortions are likely to be suicidal, or at least will be very determined to get rid of their child they are the most likely to resort to back-street methods that cause damage to themselves.  [1] The Harriet and Robert Heilbrunn Department of Population and Family Health, \u2018Abortion\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con01a","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"The concept of \"foetal rights\" is an attack on the autonomy of women  The culture of foetal rights reflects a dangerous litigious trend in American society, and implies a view of pregnant women as being nothing more than baby-carrying machines whose independence and autonomy should be restricted and whose motivations should be questioned at every turn. If this has implications for the abortion debate, then those implications are profoundly damaging to women in general. In any case, the mother of a wanted baby has entirely different responsibilities toward the unborn foetus from the mother of an unwanted baby - that\u2019s why our society allows both abortions and antenatal classes."}
+{"id":"test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con02b","title":"pregnancy philosophy ethics life family house would ban partial birth abortions","text":"Although many people who are against partial-birth abortion are against abortion in general, there is no necessary link, as partial-birth abortion is a particularly horrifying form of abortion. This is for the reasons already explained: it involves a deliberate, murderous physical assault on a half-born baby, whom we know for certain will feel pain and suffer as a result. We accept that there is some legitimate medical debate about whether embryos and earlier foetuses feel pain; there is no such debate in this case, and this is why partial-birth abortion is uniquely horrific, and uniquely unjustifiable."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro02b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"It\u2019s not as if the employee can\u2019t tell their employer at present \u2013 it\u2019s that he or she could, but doesn\u2019t want to. They get to decide what\u2019s in their best interests (including what\u2019s likely at trial) \u2013 and sadly, that will often be keeping quiet about his condition."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro02a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"It\u2019s in the interests of employees  It\u2019s in the interests of the HIV positive employee. Right now, although in many countries it is illegal to fire someone for having HIV [1] prejudiced employers can claim that they didn\u2019t know their employer had HIV when they fired him, so they must have been acting on other grounds. The employee then has to try and prove that they did know, which can be very hard. Furthermore, once informed the employer can reasonably be expected to display a minimum level of understanding and compassion to the employee.  [1] Civil Rights Division, Ouestions and Answers: The Americans with Disabilities Act and Persons with HIV\/AIDS\u2019, U.S. Department of Justice,"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro03b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"Working with someone with HIV does not put you at risk. Suggesting that it does serves to perpetuate the myths that do such harm to HIV-positive people who already suffer too much. To clarify: AIDS cannot be transmitted through external, intact skin. It cannot pass through the air like cold germs. Sweat, urine, tears and saliva cannot transmit HIV. Whilst blood, seminal fluid, vaginal fluid and breast milk can, how often are such fluids encountered at work? Even if they are, and such fluids are HIV positive, they must enter another\u2019s body through mucus membranes, directly into the bloodstream (e.g. via injection), or from mother to child via breastfeeding or in the womb. What workplaces risk such transferral?"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro01a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"It\u2019s in the interests of employers  It\u2019s in the interests of employers. A long, incurable and debilitating condition has stricken one of their employees. They will have to make provision for possible sickness cover and replacement workers, potentially for medical and\/or retirement costs. HIV can make people tired and can lead to being sick more often as it means the immune system will not be able to fight off infections as well as it normally would. [1] The employee\u2019s productivity might be reduced to the point at which their continued employment is no longer viable. If things are made difficult for employers with HIV positive workers, then they are less likely in the future to employ people who (they suspect) are HIV positive. Employers must be listened to in this debate \u2013 in many HIV-stricken countries, they\u2019re the last thing between a semi-functioning society and complete economic and social collapse. Traditional rights ideas such as concerns about privacy of medical records are less important than the benefit to society of being able to cope with the unique problem of HIV more effectively.  [1] Dickens, Carol, \u2018Signs of HIV, AIDS symptoms\u2019, AIDS Symptoms,"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro01b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"It is in the interests of employers not to have to pay their employees. It is in the interests of employers not to offer vacation time. It is in the interests of employers not to spend money on ensuring health and safety measures are complied with.  It is in the interests of employers to do many things that violate the rights of their employees and as a society we prevent them from doing these things because the benefit to the business (and the economy as a whole) does not outweigh the harm caused by the violation of those rights. Most people who are being treated for HIV are no less productive than any other worker \u2013 58% of people with HIV believe it has no impact on their working life. [1]  [1] Pebody, Roger, \u2018HIV health problems cause few problems in employment, but discrimination still a reality in UK\u2019, aidsmap, 27 August 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro04b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"All these worthwhile aims can be achieved without employees having to tell their employers of their HIV status on an involuntary basis. The scale of the problem can be easily inferred from national and regional medical statistics. For example, mining companies in South Africa have put in place excellent programmes to combat prejudice and treat sick employees without compulsory disclosure."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro03a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"It\u2019s in the interests of co-workers  It\u2019s in the interests of other workers. The possibility of transmission, while very unlikely, is real and one they have a right to know about so as to be able to guard against it. While most of the time it will not be problem as transmission requires a transfer of bodily fluids this may occasionally happen in a workplace. [1] This is particularly true of healthworkers (e.g. doctors, nurses, dentists, midwives, paramedics, etc) who should have both a moral and a legal obligation to disclose if they are HIV-positive. Even outside the medical field industrial accidents may expose employees to risk. Employers have a duty to protect their workforce.  [1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \u2018HIV Transmission\u2019, Department of Health and Human Services,"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro04a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"Tackling HIV requires a responsible and active position by everyone  Businesses ought to take a responsible and active position on HIV. The issue isn\u2019t going to go away. Successful programs designed to help HIV-positive employees remain in the workplace for as long as they want to do so should be developed. Procedures for treating personnel with fairness and dignity must be put in place. The potential fears and prejudices of other employees must be combated. The beginning of that process is ensuring they know about the problem and, crucially, the scale of it. Without knowledge of the numbers involved, employers may put in place inadequate medical and pensions arrangements that will ultimately prove inadequate."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con03b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"Some very few people may do this and it\u2019s the job of the government to attempt to educate people about the enormous dangers of doing so to minimise that. Nevertheless, most people will quite properly prioritise their lives and health over their job, which in any case legislation should safeguard by stopping unfair dismissal."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con01b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"Employers have a right to know about issue which will affect their business. An employee with a serious incurable illness which requires a large amount of medication to control is inevitably going to affect the business in a way that the employer will have to know about in order to work around it.  Aside from the fact that HIV status need not be communicated to co-workers, managers and employers already have a duty to prevent harassment and prejudice in any circumstances and this would not change."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con02a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"The risks of ignorance and prejudice are too high  This measure could be actively dangerous for HIV-positive workers. Ignorance causes so much bad behaviour towards AIDS sufferers and HIV-positive men and women. A fifth of men in the UK who disclose their HIV positive status at work then experience HIV discrimination. [1] The proposition seeks to institutionalise and widen the shunning and ill-treatment of HIV-positive workers that already happens when people find out about their condition. Even if not motivated by prejudice, co-workers will often take excessive precautions which are medically unnecessary and inflame unsubstantiated fears of casual transmission.  In addition, many people who are HIV-positive choose not to reveal their condition for fear of violent reactions to them from their families and the rest of society. If disclosure to an employer is compulsory, then the news will inevitably leak out to the wider community. In effect, they will lose any right of privacy completely.  [1] Pebody, 2009"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con03a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"It is a disincentive to get tested in the first place  The requirement to disclose their condition if known would be a disincentive to get tested in the first place. This is especially the case for many people in places like sub-Saharan Africa, but also applies widely elsewhere. Their job is so important to them (since there\u2019s no safety net to speak of if they lose it) that they\u2019d prefer to go in ignorance of their HIV status than find out and risk being fired for it. The medical repercussions of that are obvious."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con01a","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"Employers have no right to private medical information  Employers have no right to know. This is an arena into which the state has no right to intrude, or to compel intrusion by others. Employers will know if their employee\u2019s work is satisfactory or unsatisfactory \u2013 what more do they need to know than that? If employers find out, they might dismiss workers \u2013 which is exactly why many employees don\u2019t want to tell them.  If workers are forced to disclose the fact that they have HIV, the merit principle will go out the window. Even if not dismissed, their prospects for promotion will be shattered \u2013 because of prejudice, or the perception that their career has in any meaningful sense been \u2018finished\u2019 by their condition (which is often not the case as sufferers can work and lead fulfilling lives after diagnosis; life expectancy after diagnosis in the US was 22.5 years in 2005 [1] ).  Even if not fired and career advancement doesn\u2019t suffer, prejudice from co-workers is likely. From harassment to reluctance to associate or interact with the employee, this is something the employee knows he might face. He has a right to decide for himself whether or not to make himself open to that. Managers may promise, or be bound, not to disclose such information to other workers \u2013 but how likely is enforcement of such an undertaking? For these reasons, even problems with huge HIV problems like South Africa haven\u2019t adopted this policy.  [1] Harrison, Kathleen M. et al., \u2018Life Expectancy After HIV Diagnosis Based on National HIV Surveillance Data From 25 States, United States\u2019, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, Vol 53 Issue 1, January 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con02b","title":"disease health general sex sexuality house believes employees should be compelled","text":"Employers can be trusted to use this information responsibly. They are already used to keeping sensitive information (e.g. about salaries, annual reports, or employees' addresses and telephone numbers) confidential. Nor is it in their interest to open themselves up to lawsuits for bullying and discrimination in the workplace. There is no reason to assume that businesses will be more likely to leak information about someone's HIV status than doctors or hospitals, who already have such information."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro02b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"The use of generic drugs can sometimes fail to bring about a reduced price. For the cost of drugs to decrease, there must be competition within the industry to drive prices down. The switch from patented to generic drugs in Ireland failed to bring about any significant saving for this reason [1] . African countries must therefore ensure competition in order for generic drugs to become truly affordable which could be problematic due to continued protectionism in some states.  [1] Hogan,L. \u2018Switch to generic drugs fails to bring expected savings for HSE\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro02a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Savings can be used in other sections of medical care  The decreased cost of pharmaceuticals allows African states to focus on other aspects of medical schemes. Pharmaceuticals are not the only aspect in treatment, there needs to be sufficient staff, medical equipment and infrastructure [1] . These requirements cost money, which the savings made on pharmaceuticals provide. In Europe, 50% of dispensed medicines are generic yet they cost only 18% of pharmaceutical expenditure, with a similar model predicted for South Africa. This allows the state to focus on other aspects of medical schemes [2] .  [1] Ibid  [2] Health24, \u2018South Africans embrace generic meds\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro03b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"It is nearly impossible to remove black markets; medication is no exception. Attempts thus far to remove the African counterfeit pharmaceuticals have been unsuccessful. Corruption and a lack of manpower have ensured that counterfeits continue to reach Africa, especially from India [1] . As long as there is a profit to be made, fakes and bad drugs will be sold at a lower price than even generic drugs on the African continent which have the addition of importation and tax in their cost [2] .  [1] Sambira,J. \u2018Counterfeit drugs raise Africa\u2019s temperature\u2019  [2] Ibid"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro01a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Easily affordable drugs will mean greater access  Generic drugs are much cheaper to produce, which is ideal for Africa\u2019s struggling population. While there has been significant gross domestic product (GDP) growth in Africa, the actual distribution of wealth is relatively unequal. According to Afrobarometer, 53% of Africans still feel that their economic condition is poor [1] . This restricts their ability to purchase high cost drugs. Generic medication would reduce the price of these drugs, making them affordable to the average citizen. The patented drug Glivec, used for cancer treatment, costs \u00a348.62 for 400 mg in South Africa while its generic equivalent (produced in India) costs \u00a34.82 [2] . Increased access will result in higher levels of treatment, which in turn will reduce death rates from preventable diseases in Africa.  [1] Hofmeyr, Jan, \u2018Africa Rising? Popular Dissatisfaction with Economic Management Despite a Decade of Growth\u2019  [2] Op Cit"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro01b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Greater access of generic drugs can increase the chances of overexposure and misuse. This has a detrimental effect on fighting diseases. Greater access will lead to higher use rates which, in turn increases the chances of the disease developing an immunity to the drug [1] , as is already happening to antibiotics resulting in at least 23,000 deaths in the United States. [2] This immunity requires new pharmaceuticals to counteract the disease which can take years to produce. It is therefore, disadvantageous to produce high quality generic drugs for Africa.  [1] Mercurio,B. \u2018Resolving the Public Health Crisis in the Developing World: Problems and Barriers of Access to Essential Medicines\u2019 pg.2  [2] National Center for Immunizations and Respiratory Diseases, \u2018Antibiotics Aren\u2019t Always the Answer\u2019, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro04b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Pharmaceutical companies investing in R&D deserve to make a return on their investments. Research and development can take a long time and will cost significant sums of money. The cost of creating many new drugs was estimated to be as high as $5 billion in 2013 [1] . There is also a risk that the drug may fail during the various phases of production, which makes the $5 billion price-tag even more daunting. It is therefore necessary for these companies to continue to make a profit, which they do through patenting. If they allow drugs to immediately become generic or subsidise them to some of the biggest markets for some diseases then they shall make a significant financial loss.  [1] Herper,M. \u2018The Cost of Creating a New Drug Now $5 Billion, Pushing Big Pharma to Change\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro03a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Reduce the prominence of bad and fake drugs  The increased availability of high quality generic drugs will reduce the numbers of bad and fake pharmaceuticals on the markets. The cost of patented drugs has forced many to search for other options. This is exploited by the billion dollar global counterfeit drug trade [1] . Fake drugs are the cause of around 100,000 deaths in Africa every year. Bad drugs, which are substandard, have also found their way in to Africa; one in six tuberculosis pills have been found to be of a poor quality [2] . The widespread introduction of low cost, high quality drugs will hopefully ensure that consumers do not turn to sellers in market places.  [1] Sambira,J. \u2018Counterfeit drugs raise Africa\u2019s temperature\u2019  [2] Ibid"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-pro04a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Unfair to apply same patent laws universally  It is unrealistic to expect poorer countries, such as those in Africa, to pay the same price as the developed world\u2019s markets. Current patent laws for many countries dictate that prices for buying patented drugs should be universally the same. This makes it extremely difficult for African countries to purchase pharmaceuticals set at the market price of developed countries. In the US there are nine patented drugs which cost in excess of $200,000 [1] . To expect developing African states to afford this price is unfair and reinforces the exploitative relationship between the developed and developing world. Generic drugs escape this problem due to their universally low prices.  [1] Herper,M. \u2018The World\u2019s Most Expensive Drugs\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-con03b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"These vital drugs will become outdated. Diseases often have the ability to build a resistance to treatment, making many of these currently generic drugs impotent. In Tanzania, 75% of health workers were providing lower than recommended levels of anti-malaria drugs which resulted in a drug resistant form of the disease becoming prominent [1] . Giving recently developed drugs to Africa will have a greater impact against diseases such as HIV than giving them twenty year old drugs to which a disease is already immune.  [1] Mercurio,B. \u2018Resolving the Public Health Crisis in the Developing World: Problems and Barriers of Access to Essential Medicines\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-con01b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Some countries, such as India and Thailand, have specialised in producing generic drugs. These states provide the majority of generic drugs to Africa. This removes the burden of other countries to supply Africa with their own drugs whilst potentially damaging their own research companies. India has managed to create a very profitable industry based around cheap generic drugs which it mainly exports to the African continent [1] , decreasing the necessity of other states to contribute vast resources.  Providing generics to Africa will not damage development by the big pharmaceutical companies as at the moment these countries cannot afford the drugs so are not a market. The drugs are researched on the assumption that they will be sold in the developed world. What matters therefore is to ensure that generics for Africa don\u2019t get sold back to the developed world undercutting patented drugs.  [1] Kumar,S. \u2018India, Africa\u2019s Pharma\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-con02a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Cheaper drugs aren\u2019t trusted by consumers  The differences in price between generic and patented drugs can be disconcerting to those wishing to buy pharmaceuticals. As with other product, logic generally follows the rule that the more expensive option is the most effective. There are reports from the USA of generic drugs causing suicidal tendencies [1] . These factors, combined with the lower levels of screening for drugs in Africa, mean that cheaper drugs are generally distrusted [2] .  [1] Childs,D. \u2018Generic Drugs: Dangerous Differences?\u2019  [2] Mercurio,B. \u2018Resolving the Public Health Crisis in the Developing World: Problems and Barriers of Access to Essential Medicines\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-con03a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Most vital drugs are already generic  Many drugs which are used in the treatment of HIV, malaria and cancer are already generic drugs which are produced in their millions [1] . This removes the necessity to provide further high quality generic drugs as there is already an easily accessible source of pharmaceuticals. Effective treatments for Malaria, in conjunction with prevention methods, have resulted in a 33% decrease in African deaths from the disease since 2000 [2] . The drugs responsible for this have been readily available to Africa, demonstrating a lack of any further need to produce pharmaceuticals for the continent.  [1] Taylor,D. \u2018Generic-drug \u201csolution\u201d for Africa not needed\u2019  [2] World Health Organisation \u201910 facts on malaria\u2019, March 2013"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-con01a","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Dominance of generic drugs will reduce reinvestment and innovation in donating countries  The production of high quality generic drugs endangers pharmaceutical progress. In order to export high quality generic drugs, some countries have suggested allowing generic drug manufacturers access to patented drugs. In Canada, amendments to Canada\u2019s Access to Medicine Regime (CAMR) would have forced pharmaceutical research companies to give up their patents [1] . This is problematic however as research based companies invest a large proportion of their profits back in to the industry. The requirements proposed for some Western countries for obligatory quantities of generic drugs to be given to Africa have been accused to removing any incentive to invest in research to combat disease [2] .  [1] Taylor,D. \u2018Generic-drug \u201csolution\u201d for Africa not needed\u2019  [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhiacihwph-con02b","title":"disease healthcare international africa censorship ip house would produce high","text":"Medically there is no difference between generic and patented drugs. They are both identical, with the exception of aesthetic differences in some US drugs to avoid copyright infringement. Generic drugs cost less because they do not have to invest in R&D [1] . They focus on efficient methods of production and ensure that their product can be sold at a competitively low price. The lack of a need for R&D is therefore more prominent than quality in the pricing of generic drugs.  [1] Stoppler,M. \u2018Generic Drugs, Are They as Good as Brand Names?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro02b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"What those statistics mean could be questionable \u2013 did the ban make people stop, or only provide an extra incentive or assistance for those who already want to stop to do so? It could be suggested that this would simply lead to increased smoking within the home.  Even so, other measures could be more effective, if the goal is a simple reduction in smoking numbers."}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro02a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Reduce smoking  A ban on smoking in public places would help reduce the rates of people smoking, by making it appear socially unusual \u2013 people will have to leave enclosed public places to smoke, each time they want to smoke. This is particularly important in Africa which is at an early stage of the tobacco epidemic where it can be prevented from ever coming to be seen as being normal.  The ban both through the new obstacle and the change in norms could reduce smoking rates. In England, nine months after such a ban, the fall in smoking rates (such as with much of the Global North) accelerated 1 - it has been claimed by up to 400,000.  1 Daily Mail Reporter, \u201cSmoking ban spurs 400,000 people to quit the habit\u201d, Daily Mail, 4 July 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro03b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"It would require a large amount of resources for law enforcement to go in to such public places occasionally to see that the ban is being enforced.  It would be easier to enforce conditions relating to the packaging and production of tobacco, which occurs on fewer sites, than ban an activity in certain places which is not so enforceable."}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro05a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Nip the problem in the bud  Smoking rates in Africa are relatively low; a range of 8%-27% with an average of only 18% of the population smoking 1 (or, the tobacco epidemic is at an early stage 2 ). That\u2019s good, but the challenge is to keep it that way and reduce it.  A ban on smoking in public places at this stage would stop tobacco gaining the widespread social acceptability that caused it to thrice in the 20th century in the Global North. The solution is to get the solutions in now, not later.  1 Kaloko, Mustapha, 'The Impact of Tobacco Use on Health and Socio-Economic Development in Africa', African Union Commission, 2013,  , p.4  2 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, \u201cWhat we do: Tobacco control strategy overview\u201d, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, no date,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro01a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Lower healthcare costs  Smoking caused disease causes large expenses for healthcare systems, something which is particularly burdensome in countries without the rich well developed healthcare systems of the developed world. In the UK lung cancer, one of the diseases caused by smoking, costs \u00a390 per person or \u00a39071 per patient. 1 Even the cost per head of population is higher than Ghana\u2019s entire healthcare budget of $83.4 (about \u00a350) per person. 2  The reduction in smoking, which would be triggered by the ban, would lead to a drop in smoking related illness. A study in the US state of Arizona showed that hospital admissions for smoking related diseases dropped after a ban on smoking in public places 3 .  This would allow resources to be focused on the big killers other than tobacco \u2013 including HIV AIDS.  1 The National Cancer Research Institute, \u2018Lung cancer UK price tag eclipses the cost of any other cancer\u2019, Cancer Research UK, 7 November 2012,   2 Assuming Ghanaian health spending of 5.2% of GDP which is $40.71 billion split between a population of 25.37 million from World Bank Databank    3 Herman, Patricia M., and Walsh, Michele E. \u201cHospital Admissions for Acute Myocardial Infarction, Angina, Stroke, and Asthma After Implementation of Arizona\u2019s Comprehensive Statewide Smoking Ban\u201d, American Journal of Public Health, March 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro01b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"The argument that states will save money due to less people smoking based upon healthcare costs from treating smoking related diseases is over-simplistic. While smoking does cause medical costs, taxation can counterbalance this \u2013 in 2009, the South African government gained 9 billion Rand (\u20ac620 million) from excise duties on tobacco 1 . Paradoxically, less people smoking could lead to less money for other projects. Indeed, some countries in Europe raise the amount of health expenditure it causes from tobacco taxation 2 .  1 American Cancer Society, \u201cTobacco tax success story: South Africa\u201d, tobaccofreekids.org, October 2012,   2 BBC News, \u201cSmoking disease costs NHS \u00a35Bn\u201d, BBC News, 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro05b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Is it really the job of African states to stop smoking? Africans have the same amount of personal responsibility to choose to smoke or not \u2013 policies should reflect that."}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro04b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Yes, tobacco is harmful \u2013 but is it really a benefit to remove economic activity, which people choose to do? Labour abuses occur in other industries \u2013 but that\u2019s an argument for increased labour protections and economic development, not economic self-inflicted wounds."}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro03a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Easy to introduce  A ban on smoking in public places would be simple to enforce \u2013 it is an obvious activity, and does not require any form of complex equipment or other special techniques . It would largely be enforced by other users of public places and those working there. If it changes attitudes enough, it could be largely self-enforcing \u2013 by changing attitudes and creating peer pressure 1 .  1 See Hartocollis, Anemona, \u201cWhy Citizens (gasp) are the smoking police), New York Times, 16 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro04a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Reduces growth of tobacco  Less people smoking means less tobacco being purchased \u2013 something that would contribute to the reduction in the tobacco industry. The industry is known for its exploitative labour practices, from child labour (80,000 children in Malawi work in tobacco farming, can result in nicotine poisoning \u2013 90% of what is grown is sold to American Big Tobacco 1 ) to extortionate loans. 2 Reducing the size of such an industry can only be a good thing.  1 Palitza, Kristin, \u201cChild labour: tobacco\u2019s smoking gun\u201d, The Guardian, 14 September 2011,   2 Action on Smoking and Health, p3"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con03b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Even if such a link were true \u2013 the campaign against the ban on smoking in public places in the UK accept that it\u2019s unlikely that it is the primary cause of closures in the UK 1 \u2013 the public health benefits would make it worth it. Reductions on spending in some areas of the economy is likely to be balanced by increases elsewhere; of course there will be losses in some industries \u2013 particularly tabacco itself but those who stop smoking will have the money to spend elsewhere.  Moreover the economic effects are likely to be different in Africa; smoking outside in the UK, bearing in mind the infamous British weather, is a far less attractive proposition than smoking outdoors in many African countries.  1 'Why we want government to amend the smoking ban', Save Our Pubs & Clubs,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con01b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Personal autonomy arguments sound reasonable, but often ignore the wider consequences. Public health is a key issue \u2013 the state has a role in stopping people harming themselves \u2013 they may be harming themselves but the cost often falls on government through public healthcare, and therefore on all taxpayers. Moreover smoking also harms others through passive smoking, this is particularly true in public places that are enclosed."}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con02a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Unenforceable  Smoking bans are often unenforceable in higher income countries. This is because they require expensive manpower or CCTV in order to stop those flouting the ban, with scarce resources a police force will almost always have other more important crimes to deal with. If Berlin 1 and New York City 2 cannot enforce them, most African cities won\u2019t be able to either.  Ghana's advertising ban has been flouted in the past. When asked in a survey about advertising 35% of Ghanaians recalled hearing a tobacco advert on radio or television despite such ads being banned. 3  1 AFP, 'Smoking Ban not Enforced in Parts of Germany', Spiegel Online, 2 July 2008,   2 Huff Post New York, 'NYC Smoking Ban In Parks Will Not Be Enforced By NYPD: Mayor', Huffington Post, 2 November 2011,   3 Kaloko, Mustapha, 2013,  , p.18"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con04a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Pack labelling or taxation a better alternative  If it\u2019s not enforceable, enforceable solutions ought to be used instead. It would be easier to enforce pack labelling and branding requirements, from larger and clearer health warnings to even brand-free packs. Of course, American-style lawsuits by governments against tobacco manufacturers could be tried, as suggested in Nigeria 1 .  1 IRIN, \u201cNIGERIA: Govt hits tobacco companies with whopping law suit\u201d, irinnews.org, 9 November 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con03a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Ban would harm the wider economy  A ban could harm the wider economy \u2013 from bars to clubs, if smokers are unable to smoke inside, they may be more likely to stay away. According to some critics, this lead to the closures of bars in the UK when such a ban was brought in 1 . Research in the United States has shown drops in employment in bars of between 4 and 16 percent. 2  1 BBC News, \u201cMPs campaign to relax smoking ban in pubs\u201d, BBC News, 2011,   2 Pakko, Michael R., 'Clearing the Haze? New Evidence on the Economic Impact of Smoking Bans', The Regional Economist, January 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con01a","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Paternalistic  Personal autonomy has to be the key to this debate. If people want to smoke \u2013 and the owner of the public place has no issue with that \u2013 it is not the role of the state to step in. While smoking is dangerous, people should be free in a society to take their own risks, and live with their decisions. All that is required is ensuring that smokers are educated about the risks so that they can make an informed decision."}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con04b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"Each has its own disadvantages. A growing form of tobacco sales in Africa \u2013 Nigeria in particular \u2013 is the \u201csingle stick\u201d 1 . If retailers break packets of cigarettes apart, customers won\u2019t see the packets containing health warnings or similar.  Cost increases can lead to increased use of rollups 2 , or even counterfeit cigarettes, 3 both of which have happened in South Africa as a result of taxation. At any rate, it\u2019s not a zero sum game \u2013 more than one policy can be introduced at the same time.  1 Kluger, 2009,   2 Olitola, Bukola, \u201cThe use of roll-your-own cigarettes in South Africa\u201d, Public Health Association of South Africa, 26 February 2014,   3 Miti, Siya, \u201cTobacco tax hikes 'boost illegal traders'\u201d, Dispatch Live, 28 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con02b","title":"addiction healthcare international africa house believes ghanas ban smoking public","text":"It often doesn\u2019t require enforcement \u2013 it changes attitudes itself, making people not do so. In Scotland, within three months 99% of locations abided by the ban, without the need for excess heavy handed enforcement 1 . This is because non-smokers will ask a smoker to stub it out if they are smoking where they are not allowed to. There seems little reason why this wont happen in Ghana or elsewhere in Africa just as in the west.  Even so, a lot of laws are not enforceable in all cases \u2013 that doesn\u2019t mean that they will be complete failures.  1 The Scottish Government, 'Smoking ban gets seal of public approval', scotland.gov.uk, 26 June 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro02b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Given all the responsibilities our society has transferred from parents onto schools and educators in the 21st century, is it really sensible to include caring for nutritional choices to this already bloated and unmanageable list?  We need to ask ourselves, is it actually right that kids turn to schools and peers about lifestyle advice, when this is so clearly a domain of parents and families and so obviously a burden on an already taxed public school system."}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro02a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Schools are the best place to create lasting lifestyle changes.  Schools are playing an increasingly formative role, in the sense that they\u2019re being tasked with not only knowledge transfer, but also the creation of behaviors and placing emphasis on teaching students how to apply their knowledge. [1]  Given this expanded mandate, the schools are not only obliged to therefore offer choices that would go hand in hand with healthier behavior, but also the perfect pressure point for lawmakers to go about introducing healthier lifestyles.  The simple reason is that our kids are increasingly looking not to their parents, but schools and the environments they provide, for advice on how to live their lives. They are also the traditional environments for youth to continuously invent and reinvent themselves and therefore hold immense potential for behavior modification.  [1] Fitzgerald, E., 'Some insights on new role of schools', New York Times, 21 January 2011,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro03b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Again, if this is in fact true, then the incentives are already in place for better choices both on the side of students as well as schools.  What the government should do is through subsidizing healthier meals and educational campaigns help both of them make those choices on their own, and not force an unnecessary ban on them."}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro01a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Schools need to practice what they preach  Under the pressure of increasing media coverage and civil society initiatives, schools are being called upon to \u201ctake up arms\u201d against childhood obesity, both by introducing more nutritional and physical education classes, as well as transforming the meals they are offering in their cafeterias. [1]  Never before has school been so central to a child\u2019s personal and social education. According to a study conducted by the University of Michigan, American children and teenagers spend in school about 32.5 hours per week homework a week \u2013 7.5 hours more, than 20 years ago [2] . School curricula now cover topics such as personal finance, sex and relationships and citizenship. A precedent for teaching pupils about living well and living responsibly has already been established. Some schools, under national health programs, have given out free milk and fruit to try and make sure that children get enough calcium and vitamins, in case they are not getting enough at home [3] .  While we are seeing various nutritional and health food curricula cropping up [4] , revamping the school lunch is proving to be a more challenging task. \u201cLimited resources and budget cuts hamper schools from offering both healthful, good-tasting alternatives and physical education programs,\u201c says Sanchez-Vaznaugh, a San Francisco State University researcher. [5]  With expert groups such as the Obesity Society urging policy makers to take into account the complex nature of the obesity epidemic [6] , especially the interplay of biological and social factors that lead to individuals developing the disease, it has become time for governments to urge schools to put their education into practice and give students an environment that allows them to make the healthy choices they learn about in class.  [1] Stolberg, S. G., 'Michelle Obama Leads Campaign Against Obesity', New York Times, 9 February 2010,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011  [2] University of Michigan, 'U.S. children and teens spend more time on academics', 17 November 2004,  , accessed 09\/08\/2011  [3] Kent County Council, Nutritional Standards, published September 2007  , accessed 09\/08\/2011  [4] Veggiecation, 'The Veggiecation Program Announced as First Educational Partner of New York Coalition for Healthy School Food',18 May 2011,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011  [5] ScienceDaily, 'Eliminating Junk Foods at Schools May Help Prevent Childhood Obesity', 7 March 2010,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011  [6] Kushner, R. F., et al., 'SOLUTIONS: Eradicating America\u2019s obesity epidemic', Washington Times, 16 August 2009,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro01b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Media sensationalism is a poor justification for any state intervention of any kind. What histrionic television documentaries usually provide nothing more than a warning that our kids are in danger, along with a list of all the diseases obesity might cause. But there is absolutely nothing that would explain how exactly something as drastic as a ban would do anything to begin solving this problem.  These observations highlight a distressing truth about contemporary western society \u2013 we are unable to accept that the state is unable to solve problems without the assistance and support of civil society. We have a hard time accepting the fact that responsibility will have to fall on the shoulders of parents to enforce (or, more likely, to adopt in the first place) a healthy and active lifestyle in their families.  Advice provided by the Mayo Clinic explains that just talking isn\u2019t effective. Kids and parents should go together for a brisk walk, ride on the bike or any other activity. It is important for a healthy lifestyle that parents present exercise as an opportunity to take care for the body, rather than a punishment or chore [1] .  Finally, there is absolutely nothing stopping schools from offering healthier options alongside existing ones. In fact, many schools are choosing a healthier path already, without being forced by governments or regulatory bodies.  [1] MayoClinic.com, 'Fitness for kids: Getting children off the couch',  , accessed 09\/10\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro03a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Better nutrition leads to better students.  There is a growing body of evidence linking a healthy lifestyle, comprising of both adequate nutrition and physical exercise, with improved memory, concentration and general academic performance. [1] A study has shown that when primary school students consume three or more junk food meals a week literacy and numeracy scores dropped by up to 16% compared to the average. [2]  This is a clear incentive for governments to push forward for healthier meals in schools for two reasons. The first obvious benefit is to the student, whose better grades award her improved upward mobility \u2013 especially important for ethnic groups stuck worst by the obesity epidemic and a lower average socioeconomic status.  The second benefit is to the schools, who benefit on standardized testing scores and reduced absenteeism, as well as reduced staff time and attention devoted to students with low academic performance or behavior problems and other hidden costs of low concentration and performance of students. [3]  [1] CDC, 'Student Health and Academic Achievement', 19 October 2010,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011  [2] Paton, Graeme, \u2018Too much fast food \u2018harms children\u2019s test scores\u2019\u2019, The Telegraph, 22 May 2009,  accessed 20 September 2011  [3] Society for the Advancement of Education, 'Overweight students cost schools plenty', December 2004,  , 9\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con03b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"There is absolutely nothing stopping the schools from finding ventures that are just as profitable with companies that offer healthy drinks and snacks. In fact, most of the existing contracts could simply remain in place, since most of the firms are conglomerates that could just as easily offer healthy alternatives to soda pops and cookies.  Where that would prove impossible, it is simply a question of priorities: how many children afflicted by diabetes type 2 are worth a field trip? How many a new sports program or new equipment?"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con01b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"We would be truly hard pressed to find a student, who isn\u2019t very well aware of all the reasons we call certain food \u201cjunk food\u201d and what the consumption of those does to the human body.  We already have fantastic mechanism of nutritional education in place and many very publicized campaigns stressing the importance of a healthy lifestyle. Yet what we don\u2019t have are the results \u2013 obviously educating the public is not enough.  When we are faced with an epidemic that has such an immense destructive potential, we truly must face it head on and forget about well-intended yet extremely impractical principled arguments \u2013 such as the one proposed by the opposition.  What we need is results, and armed with the knowledge won from the war on tobacco, we now know that limiting access is a key mechanism of taking on childhood obesity."}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con02a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Targeting schools will be an ineffective strategy.  Schools may seem like a perfect place to effect behavioral change in youth, since 95% of young people are enrolled in schools. [1]  But what researchers find is that changing the choices we have available does not necessarily lead to any behavioral change. Penny Gordon-Larsen, one of the researchers, wrote: \"Our findings suggest that no single approach, such as just having access to fresh fruits and veggies, might be effective in changing the way people eat. We really need to look at numerous ways of changing diet behaviors. There are likely more effective ways to influence what people eat.\u201d [2]  In the case of school children is this point seems particularly salient. Given that high school students in the US average only 6 hours in school [3] and the widespread availability of fast and other forms of \u201cjunk food\u201d, we can hardly expect that impacting this single environment of the school will lead to any lasting behavioral changes. Realistically, what we can expect is for school children to go outside the school to find their favorite snacks and dishes.  Even if, by some miracle, the ban would change the behavior of children in schools, there is still the matter of 10 hours (the ATUS suggests kids sleep an average of 8 hours per day) they will spend outside schools, where their meal choices will not be as tailored and limited.  [1] Wechsler, H., et al., 'The Role of Schools in Preventing Childhood Obesity', National Association of State Boards of Education, December 2004,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011  [2] Nordqvist, C., 'No Single Approach Will Solve America's Obesity Epidemic', Medical News Today, 11 June 2011,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011  [3] Bureau of Labor Statistics, 'American Time Use Survey', 22 May 2011,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con04a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Pupils will bring unhealthy food with them to schools.  Frequently, a ban- whether or food, alcohol or forms of media- serves only to build interest in the things that has been prohibited. When a ban affects something that is a familiar part of everyday life that is generally regarded as benign, there is a risk that individuals may try to acquire the banned thing through other means.  Having had their perspective in junk food defined partly by attractive, highly persuasive advertising, children are likely to adopt an ambivalent perspective on any attempt to restrict their dietary choices. The extreme contrast between the former popularity of vending machines in schools and the austere approach required by new policies may hamper schools\u2019 attempts to convince pupils of the necessity and rationality of their decision.  Even though schools may be able to coerce and compel their pupils to comply with disciplinary measures, they cannot stop children buying sweets outside of school hours.  When rules at an Orange county school changed, and the cafeteria got rid of its sweets, the demand was still up high, so that the school had to figure out a way to fix the situation. They created a \u201ccandy cart\u201d \u2013 which now brings them income for sports equipment or other necessities. One of the pupils, Edgar Coker (18-year-old senior) explained that: \u201cIf I couldn\u2019t buy it here, I\u2019d bring it from home.\u201d [1]  It is difficult to regulate junk food consumption through unsophisticated measures such as prohibition. A ban my undermine attempts to alter pupil\u2019s mindsets and their perspective on food marketing and their own diets.  [1] Harris G., 'A Federal Effort to Push Junk Food Out of School', New York Times, 2 August 2010  , accessed 09\/10\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con03a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"\u201cJunk food\u201d sales are an important source of funding for schools.  An important issue to consider in this topic is the constellation of incentives that actually got us to the place where we are at today.  With the environment designed to incentivize improving schools\u2019 performance on standardized tests, there is absolutely nothing that would motivate them to invest their very limited resources into non-core programs or subjects, such as PE and sports and other activities. [1]  Ironically, schools turned to soda and snack vending companies in order to increase their discretionary funds. An example cited in the paper is one high school in Beltsville, MD, which made $72,438.53 in the 1999-2000 school year through a contract with a soft drink company and another $26,227.49 through a contract with a snack vending company. The almost $100,000 obtained was used for a variety of activities, including instructional uses such as purchasing computers, as well as extracurricular uses such as the yearbook, clubs and field trips.  Thus it becomes clear that the proposed ban is not only ineffective, but also demonstrably detrimental to schools and by extension their pupils.  [1] Anderson, P. M., 'Reading, Writing and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children\u2019s Obesity?', National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2005,  , accessed 9\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con01a","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Schools should educate about healthy choices, not make them on the students\u2019 behalf.  Although it might be very tempting for the government to try and attack the problem of childhood obesity by attempting to change, in essence, the very choices our kids can make, this is the wrong way of going about doing it.  The purpose of schools is education \u2013 the genesis of active and useful members of society. A large extent of what schools do is imprinting the ideas the society values. In most western countries those would be the ideas of fairness, democracy, freedom of expression, etc. The other side of the coin is the transference of knowledge, knowledge of mathematics, history, but also of biology, health and nutrition.  We see thus that the proposed ban on specific choices one makes in school, whether be it choices regarding food or choices regarding the clothes one wears, the ideas one expresses, and so on, is truly meaningless in the existing concept of education.  What the schools should be doing is putting more emphasis on getting the message of the importance of a healthy lifestyle across. Our kids should be taught that this lifestyle consists of more than just whether or not we chose to eat a hamburger and fries for lunch. In short, this ban falls short of truly educating the children about how important physical activity, balanced meals and indulging in moderation are.  They should also focus on the importance of choice, since in the case of childhood obesity, making the right nutritional and lifestyle choices is of paramount importance. But they should also focus on the importance of choice for a society and how all should take responsibility for their choices in such a society."}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con04b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"First of all, such loop holes can be fixed and are just a problem of practicalities, if it helps to educate the pupils, we should do it. For example, there can be an agreement that parents should not buy candy for children to take to school or just restrict stores in the neighborhood to only selling junk food during school hours as they did in Tower Hamlets (UK).  In one school surveyed, all 1,700 pupils were obliged to follow strict rules stating 'no chips, fatty foods, sweets, fizzy drinks' can be sold at the school.  A nearby fast food shop was initially allowed to sell to pupils, but parents and teachers objected, fearing it would jeopardize the school's healthy-eating policy. One resident, Edward Copeland, was so angry that he brought the case to the High Court, where the court decided, that junk food stores are not be opened during school [1] hours to support the schools strict rules.  [1] Borland S., 'Judges declare fast food takeaway near school is \u00bbunlawful\u00ab', The Daily Mail, 6 December 2010  , accessed 09\/10\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con02b","title":"health general weight house would ban junk food schools","text":"Even if students spend a small fraction of their time in schools \u2013 and 6 hours is by no means an insignificant amount of time \u2013 it is still an incredible opportunity for intervention for a very important reason.  The reason is the incredible potential for homogeneity of experience. at least in the aspect of food offered. We are able, to certain extent, control the school environment in such a way as to promote healthy choices and eliminate bad ones. When students return to their homes, we have lost that opportunity. In a nutshell, one healthy meal per day is much better than none.  It can also be contended that children often share experiences from school with their parents and siblings back home. Thus a healthy environment in school could, potentially, find its way into homes we couldn\u2019t otherwise reach by any other means."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro02b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Providing the choice to donate at expense of one\u2019s life will simply increase the pressure on those who do not wish to donate as they now are presented with a much bigger burden when their loved one dies as they could lawfully have prevented it. Moreover the person who is receiving the donation would also have that sense of guilt of living with the knowledge that someone actively chose to sacrifice their life for them. This guilt may well be larger than having the possibility of saving someone but not acting. [1]  [1] Monforte-Royo, C., et al. \u201cThe wish to hasten death: a review of clinical studies.\u201d Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro02a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"The guilt may be too heavy a burden for the relative who could have saved a life  It is not fair to ask of a parent to live with the guilt of having been able to save their child and not doing so. Believing that they are guilty of their child\u2019s death can cause Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome, which in turn is a major cause of suicides. [1]  [1] Monforte-Royo, C., et al. \u201cThe wish to hasten death: a review of clinical studies.\u201d Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro03b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Man is also a social being. While we have a right to our own body, we also have duties to those around us. If we choose to terminate our lives, we must consider the consequences for those who depend on us, physically or emotionally. Can we really judge whether our own life is less worth than that of the recipient? Human beings also often make decisions without all the relevant information. The choices we make may very well be ill-informed even if we believe otherwise. Part of the problem here is that all the consequences of our decisions can never be fully understood or anticipated."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro05a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Greater awareness will increase donations  There is a clear need around the world for more donors of organs. In the UK there are about 4000 transplants a year but there are always more waiting, in November 2012 there were 7593 people waiting so on average each will be waiting for almost two years. [1] In Germany there are over 12,000 waiting but only 2777 donations in 2012. [2] The sacrifice of individual relatives who willingly choose death to save their loved ones therefore brings the need for donations into focus. The media are likely to present heart-breaking stories about loving people who made the ultimate sacrifice. As a consequence, more people will be aware of the issue and wish to fill in donor cards so that they might be able to minimise the number of voluntary donations in the event of their death. Thus there will be more naturally donated organs available and more lives will be saved.  [1] NHS Choices, \u201cIntroduction\u201d, 19 October 2012,   [2] L\u00fctticke, Marcus, \u201cGermany lags behind in organ donations\u201d, Deutsche Welle, 4 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro01a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"It is a natural thing to do  We are biologically programmed to want to preserve our species. As such, our offspring will often be more important to ourselves than our own persons. Many doctors hear parents tell them how they wish that they could \u201ctake over\u201d their child\u2019s terminal illness rather than have the child suffer. [1] It is therefore natural and right for the older generation to sacrifice itself where possible to save the younger generation. As crass as this might seem, they are statistically more likely to die earlier than their offspring in any event and stand to lose less. They have had the chance to experience more of a life than their child. They are furthermore the cause of the child\u2019s existence, and owe it to the child to protect it at any cost.  [1] Monforte-Royo, C. and M.V. Roqu\u00e9. \u201cThe organ donation process: A humanist perspective based on the experience of nursing care.\u201d Nursing Philosophy 13.4 (2012): 295-301."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro01b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Biology is a bad way of deciding moral behaviour. If we were to do what biology tells us to do, we would be no more than animals. Every person has a right to live their life and they do not lose it simply because they have family. In modern society we do not cease to live meaningful lives at the point when we have children, as Darwinians might have us believe, but many people have more than half of their valuable lives ahead of them at the point when their children are emancipated."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro05b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"It is cynical to encourage people commit suicide to bring the media\u2019s attention to an issue. If there is too little attention, the problem lies with the media and needs to be solved by changing the media. It is not the responsibility of vulnerable relatives to sacrifice their lives to redress that issue.  Moreover, if the proposal were to be put into practise, the government would be communicating that organ donations primarily is an issue for the family of the sick person. Thus, people will be less keen to donate their organs to someone that they do not know, as they believe that there will be a family member who will sort it for them. Sacrificial donations are always inferior and the motion would make them the norm rather than what is the case in the status quo."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro04b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"This will only lead to family members pressuring terminally ill people to commit suicide prematurely. Even those who are terminally ill, value life, possible even more than others. These people are vulnerable and bereft of hope they are prone to be pressured into such action (Tremblay). [1] However, it is impossible to say whether six months of life for one person is more or less worth than six years for another. Furthermore, this assumes that we know that the recipient will indeed live that long, which we never can know about mortal beings.  As to the second part of the point, it is impossible to quantify human life. If the value of human life is indeed infinite, it is not as simple as to say that two lives are better than one. As long as we cannot say for sure, this is a slippery slope of quantifying human lives that we want to avoid at all costs.  [1] Tremblay, Joe. \u201cOrgan Donation Euthanasia: A Growing Epidemic.\u201d Catholic News Agency, (2013)."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro03a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"The right to individual self determination is a fundamental human right, equal to that of life itself  It is a fundamental principle of the human being is that every human is born autonomous. Therefore, we believe that every person has a right to his or her own body and is thus competent to make decisions about it. This is because we recognise that whatever decisions we might make about our bodies, stem from the knowledge that we have about our own preferences. Nobody can tell us how to value different goods and therefore what matters to one person might matter less to another. If we were to undermine this right, nobody would be able to live their life to its fullest as they would be living their life to someone else\u2019s fullest. The extension of this right is that if someone values another person\u2019s life over their own it is their informed decision to sacrifice themselves for that person. It is not for others to decide, and in particular not for the State."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro04a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"We should preserve the person with greater quality of life  We have to be able to measure quality of life relatively. There might be many cases where a relative is terminally ill, yet not dead yet. This person, with a survival prospect of maybe half a year of suffering and medication, might have a perfectly functional organ. [1] It is very rational, both for this person and for society as a whole to allow him or her to undergo euthanasia at an early stage to save the other person. [2]  Furthermore, a person might sacrifice his or her life to provide an organ for a specific individual, yet their other organs can still be used to save others, of whom the donor might not have been aware. It is sad that a person has to die, but as this is the only option [3] , it is a good thing that several people might live when one sacrifices their life.  [1] Monforte-Royo, C. and M.V. Roqu\u00e9. \u201cThe organ donation process: A humanist perspective based on the experience of nursing care.\u201d Nursing Philosophy 13.4 (2012): 295-301.  [2] Wilkinson, Dominc and Julian Savalescu. \u201cSHOULD WE ALLOW ORGAN DONATION EUTHANASIA? ALTERNATIVES FOR MAXIMIZING THE NUMBER AND QUALITY OF ORGANS FOR TRANSPLANTATION.\u201d Bioethics 26.1 (2012): 32-48.  [3] ibid"}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con03b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"The risk of coercion might be true about voluntary donations of organs and blood where the donor survives. A donation is always a large decision and the authorities must take measures to ensure that the donor is acting freely. However, the harm of a person potentially being vulnerable is significantly lesser than that of a person dying because everyone who wanted to help this person had their hands tied.  Modern medicine has very powerful tools at their disposal to be able to know for a fact that a person is beyond saving if not given an organ. [1]  [1] Chkhotua, A. \u201cIncentives for organ donation: pros and cons.\u201d Transplantation proceedings [Transplant Proc] 44 (2012): 1793-4."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con01b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"This argument is selfish and ignores how love might push a person to make great sacrifices. We might have imperfect information about our importance, but whatever information we have, gives us an idea of how to assess complicated situations. If we were to follow this logic, self-determination would be impossible"}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con02a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"The recipient is forced to receive the sacrifice of another  In many cases, the recipient is not in position to consent to the donation. Thus, even if it saves his or her life, it is comes with an intrusion on his or her moral integrity that he or she might value higher than survival. If we are to receive such a drastic sacrifice from someone that we love \u2013 surely we must have a right to veto it? [1] This means that to enable the choice of the donor the choice of the receiver has been ignored, there seems to be little reason to simply switch those two positions around as is proposed.  [1] Monforte-Royo, C., et al. \u201cThe wish to hasten death: a review of clinical studies.\u201d Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con05a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Doctors should not be asked to take the moral burden of people who want to commit suicide  It is not fair to ask doctors who have committed their lives to preserving health to act as an instrument of killing a person. The doctor will then have to live with the doubt as to whether the act of assisting in the donation was just or not. In other words, if the person who wanted to die for another did not do so voluntarily, the act of killing him or her is morally wrong and the doctor becomes complicit. In order to carry out this scheme, the individual moral autonomy of doctors will be violated. [1]  [1] Tremblay, Joe. \u201cOrgan Donation Euthanasia: A Growing Epidemic.\u201d Catholic News Agency, (2013)."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con04a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"The role of society is to save lives not to assist in suicide  The purpose of society, the health sector and more specifically the doctors is to preserve health, not to be damaging health or even assisting in the ending of a life even if voluntarily. As part of this, death is sometimes something that must be affected. However, it is not in line with the purpose of medical professionals to kill a healthy person. The solution is to focus every possible effort on curing the sick person, but society cannot be complicit in killing a healthy person [1] .  [1] Tremblay, Joe. \u201cOrgan Donation Euthanasia: A Growing Epidemic.\u201d Catholic News Agency, (2013)."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con03a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"This would encourage coercion for some to die to save others  By allowing sacrificial donations society becomes vulnerable to abuse of this system. It is possible that people are scared or coerced into sacrificing their lives for others. While society does all it can for those who are ill, it cannot start moving the boundaries for when it actively takes the lives of its citizens.  Even when there is no coercion, we cannot even know when a person is beyond all hope. Even in the direst situations, there are exceptional cases when people recover. However, if we take a person\u2019s vital organs, the process is irreversible. Therefore, it is always wrong to prematurely kill another person, while the recipient is still alive and within the realm of luck and miracles. In the status quo the donor is already dead and the trade-off is not a problem, but this cannot be extended to the living"}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con05b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"This is easily solved. Similarly to doctors who assist in cases of abortion or even executions doctors must have the option of opting out. However, once it is proven that this model is ethically good, it is likely that there are doctors who will realise the potential of this method and who will want to participate. After all, this is a motion that relates to the exceptional cases, so even if most doctors opt out there will still be doctors who will be willing to operate under this scheme."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con01a","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Self-preservation is our primary moral duty  Many people, especially those who belong to religious groups believe that we have a duty to preserve our own lives. They would argue that suicide is never justified, even if the reasons might appear to be good. It is impossible to sacrifice your life for others, because you cannot know how important your life is to others in relation to how important other people\u2019s lives are. Either life is invaluable and it is thus impossible to value one life higher than others, or it can be valued, but it is impossible for us to assess our life\u2019s value in relation to others. Therefore, while we accept that some might die, it is not for the individual to take matters into his or her own hands and accelerate the process, as this decision might be made on the wrong grounds, but cannot be reversed."}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con04b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"If the purpose of society and the health sector is indeed to promote life and preserve health, surely it must be in that interest to find ways of saving people\u2019s lives when possible. Whoever dies and leaves an organ behind saves a life, and often more than one life as shown by the UK having carried out 3960 transplants with 2143 donors in 2011-12, [1] and there is thus no loss of life. A person only gives up their own life if they have a good reason to do so. Thus, it is likely that this model will promote the preservation of younger and healthier lives over those who have less to lose by sacrificing theirs.  [1] NHS Choices, \u201cIntroduction\u201d, 19 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-health-hpehwadvoee-con02b","title":"healthcare philosophy ethics house would allow donations vital organs even expense","text":"Firstly, this case is about emergencies. Consent is important, but it cannot be compared to the importance of saving a life. Secondly, the person whose consent matters is the donor who is making the sacrifice. The recipient can be expected to want to live, even if he or she cannot communicate this. [1]  [1] Monforte-Royo, C., et al. \u201cThe wish to hasten death: a review of clinical studies.\u201d Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro02b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Allowing the sale of generic drugs will not help the plight of the developing world. Many drug companies invest substantial amounts of money, gleaned from the sale of profitable dugs in the developed world, into researching treatments for the developing world. Without the revenues available from patent-protected drug sales, companies' profits will fall, precipitating a reduction in pro bono giving and research. Allowing the production of generic drugs will thus in the long run hurt the developing world."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro02a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Allowing production of generic drugs saves lives, particularly in the developing world  Many developing countries are fraught with terrible disease. Much of Africa and Asia are devastated by malaria, and in many parts of Africa AIDS is a horrendous scourge, infecting large percentages of many countries populations. For example, in Swaziland, 26% of the adult population is infected with the virus1. In light of these obscenely high infection rates, African governments have sought to find means of acquiring enough drugs to treat their ailing populations. The producers of the major AIDS medications do donate substantial amounts of drugs to stricken countries, yet at the same time they charge ruinously high prices for that which they do sell, leading to serious shortages in countries that cannot afford them. The denial of the right to produce or acquire generic drugs is effectively a death sentence to people in these countries. With generic drugs freely available on the market, the access to such drugs would be facilitated far more readily and cheaply; prices would be pushed down to market levels and African governments would be able to stand a chance of providing the requisite care to their people2. Under the current system attempts by governments to access generic drugs can be met by denials of free treatments, leading to even further suffering. There is no ethical justification to allow pharmaceutical companies to charge artificially high prices for drugs that save lives. Furthermore, many firms that develop and patent drugs do not share them, nor do they act upon them themselves due to their unprofitability. This has been the case with various treatments for malaria, which affects the developing world almost exclusively, thus limiting the market to customers with little money to pay for the drugs3. The result is patents and viable treatments sitting on shelves, effectively gathering dust within company records, when they could be used to save lives. But when there is no profit there is no production. Allowing the production of generic drugs is to allow justice to be done in the developing world, saving lives and ending human suffering.  1 United Nations. 2006. \"Country Program Outline for Swaziland, 2006-2010\". United Nations Development Program. Available: 2 Mercer, Illana. 2001. \"Patent Wrongs\". Mises Daily. Available: 3 Boseley, Sarah. 2006. \"Rich Countries 'Blocking Cheap Drugs for Developing World'\". The Guardian. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro03b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Allowing the production of generic drugs will only increase production of drugs currently on the market. Without the profit incentive that patents provide, pharmaceutical companies will not invest in the expensive process of developing new drugs in the first place. It is a necessary trade-off, as patents are essential to incentivize innovation. Furthermore, many states have mandatory licensing laws in states requiring companies to license the rights to the production of drugs so as not to precipitate shortages."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro05a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"You cannot own an idea, and thus cannot hold patents, especially to vital drugs  An individual's idea, so long as it rests solely in his mind or is kept safely hidden, belongs to him. When he disseminates it to everyone and makes it public, it becomes part of the public domain, and belongs to anyone who can use it. If individuals or firms want to keep something a secret, like a production method, then they should keep it to themselves and be careful with how they disseminate their product. One should not, however, expect some sort of ownership to inhere in an idea one has, since no such ownership right exists1. No one can own an idea. Thus recognizing something like a property right over something like a drug formula is contrary to reason, since doing so gives monopoly power to individuals who may not make efficient or equitable use of their asset. Physical property is a tangible asset, and thus can be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideas do not share this right to protection, because an idea, once spoken, enters the public domain and belongs to everyone. This should apply all the more with vital drugs that are fundamentally for the public good by improving health.  1Fitzgerald, Brian and Anne Fitzgerald. 2004. Intellectual Property: In Principle. Melbourne: Lawbook Company."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro01a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"The current patent system is unjust and creates perverse incentives that benefit large pharmaceutical companies at the expense of ordinary citizens  The current drug patent regime is largely designed to benefit and shield the profits of large pharmaceutical companies. This is due to the fact that most of the laws on drug patents were written by lobbyists and voted upon by politicians in the pay of those firms. The pharmaceutical industry is simply massive and has one of the most powerful lobbies in most democratic states, particularly the United States. The laws are orchestrated to contain special loopholes, which these firms can exploit in order to maximize profits at the expense of the taxpayer and of justice. For example, through a process called \"evergreening\", drug firms essentially re-patent drugs when they near expiration by patenting certain compounds or variations of the drug1. This can extend the life of some patents indefinitely ensuring firms can milk customers at monopoly prices long after any possible costs of research or discovery are recouped. A harm that arises from this is the enervating effect that patents can generate in firms. When the incentive is to simply rest on one's patents, waiting for them to expire before doing anything else, societal progress is slowed. In the absence of such patents, firms are necessarily forced to keep innovating to stay ahead, to keep looking for profitable products and ideas. The free flow of ideas generated by the abolition of drug patents will invigorate economic dynamism.  1 Faunce, Thomas. 2004. \"The Awful Truth About Evergreening\". The Age. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro01b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"There is nothing unjust about the patent system. It protects everyone equally. The nature of democracy is such that people are allowed to express their opinions and to organize to further certain aims. Drug companies have a particular interest in protecting their patent rights so it is only natural that they should involve themselves in the process of how those patents should be treated legally. They are not miscreants, but rather are participants in a system that is designed to be as fair as possible for everyone."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro05b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Ideas can be owned, to a certain extent. The creative effort involved in the production of a drug formula is every bit as great as the building of a new chair or other tangible asset. Nothing special separates them and law must reflect that. It is a fundamental violation of property rights to steal from drug companies the rights they own to drugs by allowing the production of generic knock-offs."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro04b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"The costs associated with the current patent regime are necessary to the maintenance of innovation. It may be costly, and technically inefficient to police property rights, but that does not make them less of a right. If firms feel they can benefit from fighting infringers of their patent rights, it is their right to do so. The state likewise, has an obligation to protect the rights, physical and intangible, of its citizens and cannot give up on them simply because they prove difficult and costly to enforce."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro03a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Production of generic drugs reduce medical costs by allowing increased production and the development of superior production methods, increasing market efficiency  The sale of generic drugs invariably reduces costs to consumers. This is due to two reasons. It may be the case that an individual or firm with a patent, essentially a monopoly right to the production of something, may not have the ability to efficiently go about meeting demand for it. Patents slow, or even stop the dissemination of the production methods, especially when a patent-holder is unwilling to license production to others1. Such an outcome is deleterious to society, as with no restrictions on drug production an efficient producer, or producers, will emerge to meet the needs of the public, producing an amount of drugs commensurate with demand, and thus equilibrating market price with that demand2. This market equilibration is impossible under conventional patent laws, as it is in the interest of firms to withhold production and to engage in monopolist rent-seeking from consumers3. This leads firms to deliberately under-produce, which they have been shown to do in many cases, as for example the case of Miacalcic, a drug used to treat Paget's Disease, in which its producer deliberately kept production down in order to keep prices high4. When a firm is given monopoly power over a drug it has the ability to abuse it, and history shows that is what they are wont to do. By allowing the production of generic drugs, this monopoly power is broken and people can get the drugs they need at costs that are not marked far above their free market value.  1 Kinsella, Stephan. 2010. \"Patents Kill: Compulsory Licenses and Genzyme's Life-Saving Drug\". Mises Institute. Available: 2Stim, Rishand. 2006. Profit from Your Idea: How to Make Smart Licensing Decisions. Berkeley: Nolo. 3 Lee, Timothy. 2007. \"Patent Rent-Seeking\". Cato at Liberty. Available: 4 Flanders Today. 2010. \"Big Pharma Denies Strategic Shortages\". Flanders Today."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-pro04a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"When generic drugs are legalized firms and individuals no longer feel the incentive to misallocate resources to the race to patent new drugs and to monitor existing patents, or to spend resources stealing from one another  Patent regimes cause firms to inefficiently allocate resources. One such inefficiency arises from the duplication of effort by firms seeking to develop the same or very similar drugs, though only the first to do so may profit from it due to the winner-takes-all patent system. This leads to brutal races and excessive expenditure of resources to be first over the line and to monopolize the production, at least for a time. These races can thus lead to efforts by firms to steal research from one another, thus resulting in further wastes of resources in engaging and attempting to prevent corporate espionage. Another serious inefficiency arises in the production of similar products to existing ones, seeking to get around existing patents. Such has been the case for years in the pharmaceutical industry, which has succeeded, for example, in curing erectile dysfunction dozens of times. An overemphasis on such spinning off of similar products is the result of patent-generated inefficiency 1. The inefficiency does not end with production, however, as firms likewise devote great amounts of resources and effort to the development of non-duplicable products, in monitoring for infringement, and in prosecuting offenders, all of which generates huge costs and little or no return 2. Furthermore, the deterrent effect to patent piracy generated by all the efforts of the state and firms has proven generally minimal. Clearly, in the absence of patent protection for pharmaceuticals, markets and firms will behave more efficiently. This is shown by the introduction of generic antiretroviral drugs for treating AIDS where the introduction of generic drugs forced the price of the branded drugs down from $10439 to $931 in September\/October 2000 3.  1 Gabb, Sean. 2005. \"Market Failure and the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Proposal for Reform\". National Health Federation. Available: 2 World Intellectual Property Organization. 2011. \"Emerging Issues in Intellectual Property\". Available: 3 Avert.org, \"AIDS, Drug Prices and Generic Drugs\","}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con03b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"No one can own an idea. Thus creating something like a property right over intangible assets is a meaningless endeavor. Doing so gives monopoly power to individuals who may not make efficient or equitable use of their inventions or products. Physical property is a tangible asset, and thus can be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideas do not share this right to protection, because an idea, once spoken, enters the public domain and belongs to anyone who can use it."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con01b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Dangerous generic drugs are rare, and when they are found they are quickly pulled from the market. Arguments against generics on the grounds of safety are no more than alarmist nonsense. When people go to the drug store they have a choice between expensive brand name drugs and cheaper generics. It is their right to economize and choose the less glossy alternative."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con02a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Patent rights allow firms to more readily release their products and methods into the public domain, particularly through licensing  Without patent protection, innovative and enterprising firms lacking the capacity to market successfully or efficiently produce new drugs might develop new drugs and never release them, since it would simply result in others profiting from their efforts. After all, no one likes to see others profit by their hard work, and leaving them nothing; such is tantamount to slavery. Patent protection encourages the release of new ideas and products to the public, which serves to benefit society generally1. The main mechanism for this is the system of licensing, by which firs can retain their right of ownership over a drug while essentially renting the ability to produce it to firms with productive capacities that would better capitalize on the new product. Furthermore, the disclosure of ideas to the public allows firms to try to make the product better by \"inventing around\" the initial design, or by exploiting it once the term of the patent expires2. If the drug formula never enters the public, it might never do so, leaving society bereft of a potentially valuable asset.  1 Rockwell, Llewellyn. 2011. \"The Google Pharm Case\". Mises Daily. Available: 2 Business Line. 2007. \"Patents Grant Freedom to Invent Around\". Hindu Business Line. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con04a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Robust drug patent laws incentivize investment of time and money in developing new products  When a real chance of profit exists in the development of a new product or drug, people and firms put the effort into developing and creating them. The incentive to profit drives a great deal of people's intellectual endeavors. Research and development, for example, forms a major part of industries' investment, as they seek to create new products and inventions that will benefit consumers, and thus society as a whole. Research and development is extremely costly, however. The US pharmaceutical industry alone spends tens of billions of dollars every year on researching new drugs1. The fear of theft, or of lack of profit stemming from such research, will serve as a powerful disincentive to investment. Without the protection of patents, new drugs lose much of their value, since a second-comer on the field can simply take the formula and develop the same product without the heavy costs of research involved, leaving the innovative company worse off than its copycat competitor. This will lead to far less innovation, and will hamper companies currently geared toward innovative and progressive products. Patent protection is particularly important to companies with high fixed costs and low marginal costs, such as pharmaceutical firms. Without the guarantee of ownership over intellectual products, the incentive to invest in their development is diminished as they will not be guaranteed a payback for their research costs as a competitor could simply take the product off them. Within a robust patents system, firms compete to produce the best product for patenting and licensing that will give them a higher market share and allow them to reap high profits. These incentives lead firms to \"invent around\" one another's patents, leading to gradual improvements in drugs and treatments, benefiting all consumers2. Without patents the drugs companies are trapped in a kind of prisoners' dilemma where both are individually better off by refusing to innovate, yet both suffer if neither innovates. Patents are the solution to this: if a company innovates, it alone can reap the rewards of the new invention3. In the absence of patent protection there is no incentive to develop new drugs, meaning in the long run more people will suffer from diseases and ailments that might have been cured were it profitable to invest in developing them. Clearly, patent protection is essential for a dynamic, progressive pharmaceutical industry.  1 Congressional Budget Office. 2006. Research and Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry\". The Congress of the United States. Available: 2 Nicol, Dianne and Jane Nielsen. 2003. \"Patents and Medical Biotechnology: Empirical Analysis of Issues Facing the Australian Industry\". Center for Law and Genetics Occasional Paper 6. Available: 3 Yale Law & Technology. 2011, \"Patents: Essential, if flawed\", Available:"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con03a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"The product of a firm's intellectual endeavor is the property of that firm, and it deserves to profit from it  When a firm directs individuals to mix their labor with its capital or other resources, part of that firm's identity inheres in the product that arises from the effort. This is the origin of, and fundamental philosophical justification for, property rights. Property rights are an unquestioned mainstay of life in all developed countries, and are an essential prerequisite for stable markets to develop and function1. The law protects patent rights in much the same way as more conventional physical property, as well it should. Individuals and firms generating ideas and using their effort to produce an intangible good, such as a new drug formula, have a property right on those ideas and the products that arise from them. It is the effort to produce a real good, albeit an intangible one, that marks the difference between an idea in someone's head that he does not act up, and intellectual property that can be protected by a patent. Developing a new drug is a very intensive endeavor, taking time, energy, and usually a considerable amount of financial investment2. The cost of developing a new drug varies widely, from a low of $800 million to nearly $2 billion per drug and is rising3. People and firms deserve as a matter of principle to benefit from the products of the effort of creation. For this reason, stealing intellectual property, which developing generic drugs is, is the same as stealing an actual physical product. Each is a real thing, even if one can be touched while the other is intangible in a physical sense. As a matter of principle, property rights can be assigned to intangible assets like drug formulae, and in practice they are a necessity to many firms' financial survival.  1Fitzgerald, Brian and Anne Fitzgerald. 2004. Intellectual Property: In Principle. Melbourne: Lawbook Company. 2 Congressional Budget Office. 2006. Research and Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry\". The Congress of the United States. Available: 3 Masia, Neal, 2008, \"The Cost of Developing a New Drug\", Focus on Intellectual Property Rights, America.gov, Available:"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con01a","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Generic drugs often prove to be less effective than their brand name counterparts, and can even be dangerous  Generic drugs are meant to retain a substantial degree of bioequivalence with their brand name predecessors. Yet, even under strict testing laws in this regard, generic drugs have on several cases been shown to manifest side effects not present in their parent products. For example, a generic version of Wellbutrin XL, an anti-depressant, that was ostensibly chemically equivalent to the brand name drug, caused suicidal episodes in several users1. This demonstrates that no amount of chemical testing can guarantee true bioequivalence, and thus generic drugs cannot be considered as identical to brand name drugs in terms of safety. While improving testing of generics would go some way toward fixing this problem, it would not do so entirely, as the market for new drugs will be so greatly widened with the approval of generic production that the cost of screening will be very high and the likelihood of poor knock-offs reaching consumers, particularly in the developing world where screening is less robust, is increased substantially2. Brand name drugs may be more expensive, but their safety is more thoroughly guaranteed. Flooding the market with cheap, potentially dangerous alternative drugs helps no one but the undertaker.  1 Childs, Dan. 2007. \"Generic Drugs: Dangerous Differences?\". ABC News. Available: 2 Mercurio, Bryan. 2007. \"Resolving the Public Health Crisis in the Developing World: Problems and Barriers of Access to Essential Medicines\". Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con04b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"Research and development will continue, irrespective of intellectual property rights. The desire of firms to stay ahead of the competition will drive them to invest in research regardless. That their profits will be diminished by the removal of intellectual property rights is only natural and due to the fact that they will no longer have monopoly control over their intangible assets, and will thus not be able to engage in the rent-seeking behavior inherent in monopoly control of products. The costs of commercialization, which include building factories, developing markets, etc., are often much higher than the costs of the initial conception of an idea1 these are areas where competition will force down costs. Furthermore, there will always be demand for a brand name over a generic product. In this way the initial producer can still profit more than generic producers, if not at monopolistic levels.  1Markey, Justice Howard. 1975. Special Problems in Patent Cases, 66 F.R.D. 529."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghwapgd-con02b","title":"disease health general house would allow production generic drugs","text":"If firms are afraid their formulae will be stolen, then they should keep them hidden. Otherwise, they should seek to make their new drug public, benefiting everyone so that the most people possible can have access to them. The release of ideas is most bountiful when there is active and constant competition to produce newer and better products and ideas. This is only possible in the absence of constricting patent protections. Furthermore, firms' attempts to \"invent around\" patents do not actually benefit anyone, as their aim is often not to improve upon existing models, but to design products that are as close to replicas as possible without violating law. This is a gross misallocation of resources created by the unjust patents regime."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-pro02b","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Partly the problem here may well be that clinical research is simply looking for the wrong things. There is enough anecdotal evidence of success to at least suggest further research \u2013 it is worth noting that there\u2019s no money in many of these treatments so they actually get relatively little academic discussion.  A meta-study of the available material on analyses of the effectiveness of complementary medicine by the Cochrane Library found positive or confirmatory outcomes in 34 percent of those papers it reviewed on the subject.  It is also worth reiterating that there is a massive financial interest in ignoring, sidelining or condemning therapies that pose a threat to the medical establishment.  It seems incredibly unlikely that people would come back for more than one dose of a treatment that was having no effect, and yet they do."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-pro02a","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Although there are many accounts of the efficacy of alternative cancer treatments, not one has been demonstrated to work in a clinical trial  The National Centre for Conventional and Alternative Medicines has spent over $2.5bn on research since 1992. The Dutch government funded research between 1996 and 2003. Alternative therapies have been tested in mainstream medical journals and elsewhere. Not only have thousands of research exercises failed to prove the medical benefit \u201dalternative\u201d treatments for severe and terminal diseases, serious peer-reviewed studies have routinely disproved them.  It\u2019s all well and good to pick at mistakes in individual studies. Indeed, this tactic often forms the mainstay of pleas for legitimacy made by members of the alternative medical community. However, the odds against such consistently negative results would be extraordinary.  By contrast, conventional medicine only prescribes medicines and treatments that are proven, and vigorously proven, to work."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-pro03b","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Statistics for alternatives are difficult to generate as patients will often move between practitioners and frequently self-medicate.  Clearly there are also conditions that any responsible practitioner would refer to a specialist in that particular field.  However, many people are mistrustful of so-called conventional medicine and the alternative medicine sector has proven both popular and has often brought about changes in lifestyle as well as direct health benefits, if anecdotal evidence is to be believed.  Responsible practitioners have welcomed the actions of those governments who have licensed and regulated the Complementary and Alternative sector.  Although science may struggle to explain the benefits of these therapeutic technics, as they do not lend themselves to the tools of commercial medicine."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-pro01a","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Many alternative remedies, such as homeopathy, offer nothing but a false hope and can discourage patients from consulting a doctor with what may be serious symptoms  There are good reasons why new therapies are tested in scientific trials first, rather than just released on the public that it might work. The first is to weed out side-effects but the other is that if you give most people a medicine they will, not unreasonably, expect it to make them better.  An entire industry has grown out of alternative medicines. No doubt many alternative practitioners are well meaning, but this does not change the fact that people are making money out of something that, as far as anyone can determine, is basically snake oil.  Although many people take both alternative and established treatments, there are a growing number of patients who reject conventional medical wisdom ( there\u2019s an account of one such case here [i] ) in cases that prove fatal the availability of alternative medicines raises serious ethical and legal concerns, and also undermines the stringent regimes of monitoring and supervision that qualified medical professionals are subjected to..  [i] David Gorski. \u201cDeath by \u2018Alternative Medicine\u201d: Who\u2019s to blame?\u201d. Science-Based Medicine 2008."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-pro01b","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"The overwhelming majority of practitioners of alternative therapies recommend that they be used in conjunction with conventional medicine. However, the rights and opinions of the patient are foremost and should be respected. In the case of cancer, since that is the study considered by proposition, there are many sufferers who decide that chemotherapy, a painful and protracted treatment, which rarely yields promising or conclusive results, may well be worse than the disease.  Of course there is a cost associated with alternative medicine, although it is as nothing compared with the cost of many medical procedures, notably in the US but also elsewhere. There are plenty of conventional practitioners willing to prescribe medications that may not be necessary or, at the very least, select medications on the basis of financial inducements from pharmaceutical companies.  Despite legal rulings [i] , such practices still take place; it would be disingenuous not to explore the extent to which commercial dealings influence the practice of conventional medicine.  Clearly advice should always be given on the basis of the needs of the patient. However, there are many circumstances in which conventional medicine fails to adhere to this principle. Venality and petty negligence are not behaviours that are exclusive to the world of alternative therapies.  [i] Tom Moberly. \u201cPrescribing incentive schemes are illegal says European Court\u201d. GP Magazine. 27 February 2010."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-pro03a","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Overwhelmingly alternative therapies are used in conjunction with established remedies - oddly the latter tends not to get the credit for the miracle cure  Thankfully only 4.4% of the 60million or so Americans who say they use alternative therapies rely on them exclusively. It is odd that in the cases of anecdotal accounts of the success of alternative medicines this statistic is rarely mentioned [i] .  Equally, the impact of other treatment which may have been used by patients eager to credit complementary and alternative medicines with curing their conditions, tend not to get a look in, neither do the relative successes of conventional medicine.  This is probably why in every trial alternative medicine has a success rate of between 0% and 0%. By contrast there needs only be one instance of harm caused to demonstrate that this motion must stand. Interestingly, although conventional medicine publishes its mistakes in an effort to correct them, nothing similar exists for alternatives. Moreover, there are many accounts of fatalities caused by alternatives \u2013 both directly and indirectly through delaying accurate diagnosis as seen above (Oh, the same applies to animals too [ii] ).  The food supplements industry alone is worth $250 a year worldwide, with little examination of the medical impact of merrily shoving things into your system that were bought at WalMart or Tesco.  [i] JA Astin \u201cWhy patients use alternative medicine: results of a national survey\u201d Journal of the American Medical Association 279 (19) 1548-53. May 1998.  [ii]"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-con03b","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"his is of course an excellent argument for more and better funded clinics, especially in parts of the world (including much of the West) where access to medicine is difficult.  It is also evidence that when people are genuinely worried about their health they tend to consult providers of conventional medicine who are, as a result, extremely busy.  It perhaps says more than anything else about many practitioners of alternative medicines that they have time to sit around bonding with their patients. Unsurprisingly, such a luxury is rare in an A and E ward or even in the average GP\u2019s surgery."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-con01b","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"This comes down to the \u2018well it can\u2019t hurt, can it\u2019 approach to alternatives. There is simply no serious medic \u2013 or any other scientist for that matter who would suggest that it\u2019s a good idea to ingest products that are of dubious origin and purport medical benefits without having been tested. In many cases these have been shown to be at least irrelevant and at worst actively harmful.  Of course it is painful to deny treatment to a patient on the basis that the medication has yet to complete its trial stage but there is a reason for doing that in that it allows doctors to be 100 percent sure of a product before they\u2019re prescribed."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-con02a","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"The pharmaceutical and medical industries are worth billions of dollars annually. They have an interest in ignoring the efficacy of remedies that are, for the most part, free or considerably cheaper  It\u2019s understandable that the medical establishment has an interest in ignoring treatments that are freely available. Pharmaceutical companies make billions each year selling drugs that cost pennies to manufacture.  There is an enormous vested interest in insuring that the world in general- and the West in particular-remain tied to the idea that the only solution to disease is to swallow a pill provided by a man in a white coat. There are other solutions that have been used for thousands of years before anybody worked out how to make a buck out of it. For much of the world these therapies continue to be the ones people rely on and the rush of pharmaceutical companies to issue patents on genes of some of these traditional remedies suggests that there must be at least some truth in them."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-con03a","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Alternative medical practitioners tend to spend more time with their patients and get a better understanding of them as a whole, as a result they are more likely to treat the person than the symptom  Modern medicine tends to treat an individual symptom without putting it in the context of the whole person and so will often fail to see it as part of a wider pathology.  Alternative practitioners tend to spend more time with their patients and so are better placed to asses individual symptoms as a part of the person as a whole rather than just dealing with symptoms one as a time as the crop up."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-con01a","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"A huge number of fully accepted medical practices started being seen as something a bit off the wall, it\u2019s wrong to deny sick people access to a treatment that may be mainstream in 20 years  There is a fine line between what is considered alternative and what is thought of as mainstream. Techniques do move across that line and when they do so, they are seen as mainstream. However, this process of reform, refinement and acceptance takes time.  In the meantime it is simply unfair to deny treatment to patients who want it because the medical establishment is beholden to a conservative academic orthodoxy and drug and treatment providers with vested interests in ensuring that particular cures and techniques will continue to be purchased and utilised."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhghhbampt-con02b","title":"disease health general healthcare house believes alternative medicine poses threat","text":"Absolutely nobody questions that many remedies can be drawn from nature- penicillin provides one example- but there is something of a jump that happens between chewing on a piece of bark and a regulated dose of a chemical.  Let\u2019s deal quickly with the cost of medications \u2013 the second pill may well \u2018cost pennies\u2019; the first one, by contrast, costs hundreds of millions of dollars in research. On the basis that there is probably more than one medicine in the world that procedure will need to be repeated.  As for the idea that there are older or more traditional remedies and that these are still frequently used in much of the world, that is, indeed true. They are the same periods of history and parts of the planet were the bulk of humankind died \u2013 or continues to die \u2013 agonizing deaths from relatively commonplace diseases that modern medicine is able to cure with \u2018a pill from a man in a white coat\u2019. It is admittedly regrettable that more of the world isn\u2019t covered by the protection science offers but that is scarcely the fault of science."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-pro02b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Modern palliative care is immensely flexible and effective, and helps to preserve quality of life as far as is possible. There is no need for terminally ill patients ever to be in pain, even at the very end of the course of their illness. It is always wrong to give up on life. The future which lies ahead for the terminally ill is of course terrifying, but society\u2019s role is to help them live their lives as well as they can. This can take place through counselling, helping patients to come to terms with their condition."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-pro02a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Those who are in the late stages of a terminal disease have a horrific future agead of them  The gradual decline of their body, the failure of their organs and the need for artificial support. In some cases, the illness will slowly destroy their minds, the essence of themselves; even if this is not the case, the huge amounts of medication required to \u2018control\u2019 their pain will often leave them in a delirious and incapable state. At least five percent of terminal pain cannot be controlled, even with the best care. Faced with this, it is surely more humane that those people be allowed to choose the manner of their own end, and have the assistance of a doctor to die with dignity. One particular account was of Sue Rodriguez who died slowly of Lou Gehrig's disease. She lived for several years with the knowledge that her muscles would, one by one, waste away until the day came when, fully conscious, she would choke to death. She begged the courts to reassure her that a doctor would be allowed to assist her in choosing the moment of death. They refused. Rodriguez did not accept the verdict and with the help of an anonymous physician committed suicide in February 1994. [1]  [1] Chris Docker, Cases in history, euthanasia.cc, 2000  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-pro03b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Demanding that family take part in such a decision can be an unbearable burden: many may resent a loved one\u2019s decision to die, and would be either emotionally scared or estranged by the prospect of being in any way involved with their death. Assisted suicide also introduces a new danger, that the terminally ill may be pressured into ending their lives by others who are not prepared to support them through their illness. Even the most well regulated system would have no real way to ensure that this did not happen."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-pro01a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Every human being has a right to life  Perhaps the most basic and fundamental of all our rights. However, with every right comes a choice. The right to speech does not remove the option to remain silent; the right to vote brings with it the right to abstain. In the same way, the right to choose to die is implicit in the right to life. The degree to which physical pain and psychological distress can be tolerated is different in all humans. Quality of life judgements are private and personal, thus only the sufferer can make relevant decisions. [1] This was particularly evident in the case of Daniel James. [2] After suffering a spinal dislocation as the result of a rugby accident he decided that he would live a second-rate existence if he continued with life and that it was not something he wanted to prolong. People are given a large degree of autonomy within their lives and since deciding to end your life does not physically harm anyone else, it should be within your rights to decide when you wish to die. While the act of suicide does remove option to choose life, most cases in which physician assisted suicide is reasonable, death is the inevitable and often imminent outcome for the patient regardless if by suicide or pathological process. The choice for the patient, therefore, is not to die, but to cease suffering and tto chose the time and manner of their death.  [1] Derek Humphrey, 'Liberty and Death: A manifesto concerning an individual's right to choose to die', assistedsuicide.org 1 March 2005,  (accessed 4\/6\/2011)  [2] Elizabeth Stewart, 'Parents defend assisted suicide of paralysed rugby player', guardian.co.uk, 17 October 2008,  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-pro01b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"There is no comparison between the right to life and other rights. When you choose to remain silent, you may change your mind at a later date; when you choose to die, you have no such second chance. Arguments from pro-life groups suggest that nearly ninety-five percent of those who kill themselves have been shown to have a diagnosable psychiatric illness in the months preceding suicide. The majority suffer from depression that can be treated. [1] If they had been treated for depression as well as pain they may not have wanted to commit suicide. Participating in someone\u2019s death is also to participate in depriving them of all choices they might make in the future, and is therefore immoral.  [1] Herbert Hendin, M.D., Seduced by Death: Doctors, Patients, and Assisted Suicide (New York: W.W. Norton, 1998): 34-35.  (accessed 4\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-pro03a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Suicide is a lonely, desperate act, carried out in secrecy and often as a cry for help  The impact on the family who remain can be catastrophic. Often because they were unaware of how their loved one was feeling. Suicide cases such as Megan Meier, an American teenager who committed suicide by hanging herself in 2006, [1] as the parents have to launch police investigations into why their child might have felt so desperate. By legalising assisted suicide, the process can be brought out into the open. In some cases, families might have been unaware of the true feelings of their loved one; being forced to confront the issue of their illness may do great good, perhaps even allowing them to persuade the patient not to end their life. In other cases, it makes them part of the process: they can understand the reasons behind their decision without feelings of guilt and recrimination, and the terminally ill patient can speak openly to them about their feelings before their death.  [1] Wikipedia, \"Suicide of Megan Meier\", en.wikipedia.org,  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con03b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Were the disposal of human life so much reserved as the peculiar province of the almighty, that it were an encroachment on his right for men to dispose of their own life, it would be equally criminal to act for the preservation of life as for its destruction' [1] . If we accept the proposition that only God can give and take away life then medicine should not be used at all. If only God has the power to give life then medicines and surgeries to prolong people's life should also be considered wrong. It seems hypocritical to suggest that medicine can be used to prolong life but it cannot be used to end someone's life.  [1] David Hume, Of Suicide, cited in Applied Ethics ed. Peter Singer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986) p.23"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con01b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"At the moment, doctors are often put into an impossible position. A good doctor will form close bonds with their patients, and will want to give them the best quality of life they can; however, when a patient has lost or is losing their ability to live with dignity and expresses a strong desire to die, they are legally unable to help. To say that modern medicine can totally eradicate pain is a tragic over-simplification of suffering. While physical pain may be alleviated, the emotional pain of a slow and lingering death, of the loss of the ability to live a meaningful life, can be horrific. A doctor\u2019s duty is to address his or her patient\u2019s suffering, be it physical or emotional. As a result, doctors will in fact already help their patients to die \u2013 although it is not legal, assisted suicide does take place. Opinion polls suggest that fifteen percent of physicians already practise it on justifiable occasions. Numerous opinion polls indicate that half the the medical profession would like to see it made law. [1] It would be far better to recognise this, and bring the process into the open, where it can be regulated. True abuses of the doctor-patient relationship, and incidents of involuntary euthanasia, would then be far easier to limit. The current medical system allows doctors the right to with-hold treatment for patients. Though, this can be considered to be a more damaging practise than allowing assisted suicide.  [1] Derek Humphrey, Frequently asked questions, Finalexit.org  (accessed 4\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con02a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"If someone is threatening to kill themselves it is your moral duty to try to stop them  Those who commit suicide are not evil, and those who attempt to take their own lives are not prosecuted. However, it is your moral duty to try and prevent people from committing suicide. You would not, for example, simply ignore a man standing on a ledge and threatening to jump simply because it is his choice; and you would definitely not assist in his suicide by pushing him. In the same way, you should try to help a person with a terminal illness, not help them to die. With the exception of the libertarian position that each person has a right against others that they not interfere with her suicidal intentions. Little justification is necessary for actions that aim to prevent another's suicide but are non-coercive. Pleading with a suicidal individual, trying to convince her of the value of continued life, recommending counseling, etc. are morally unproblematic, since they do not interfere with the individual's conduct or plans except by engaging her rational capacities (Cosculluela 1994, 35; Cholbi 2002, 252). [1] The impulse toward suicide is often short-lived, ambivalent, and influenced by mental illnesses such as depression. While these facts together do not appear to justify intervening in others' suicidal intentions, they are indicators that the suicide may be undertaken with less than full rationality. Yet given the added fact that death is irreversible, when these factors are present, they justify intervention in others' suicidal plans on the grounds that suicide is not in the individual's interests as they would rationally conceive those interests. We might call this the \u2018no regrets' or \u2018err on the side of life\u2019 approach to suicide intervention (Martin 1980; Pabst Battin 1996, 141; Cholbi 2002). [2]  [1] Cholbi, Michael, \"Suicide\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),  #DutTowSui (accessed 7\/6\/2011)  [2] Cholbi, Michael, \"Suicide\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),  #DutTowSui (accessed 7\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con04a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"It would have a damaging effect on society  Some people who do not agree with voluntary euthanasia argue that if it was legalised, it would damage the moral and social foundation of society by removing the traditional principle that man should not kill, and reduce the respect for human life. It might also be the case that once voluntary euthanasia has been legalised, this might lead to cases of involuntary euthanasia being carried out. With people deciding that someone else's life such as the elderly or the terminally ill is not worth living and therefore performing euthanasia without their consent. [1] A recent study discovered that some sufferers of locked-in syndrome \u2013 as many as three out of four of the main sample \u2013 were happy and did not want to die. [2]  [1] The case against, religiouseducation.co.uik  (accessed 4\/6\/2011).  [2] Barbara Ellen, Who is to judge which lives are worth living?, guardian.co.uk, 17 April 2011  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con03a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Only God can give and take away life  Life is Sacred so no one has the right to take a life, this includes ones own. As a result both suicide and assisted suicide are wrong. There are many passages within the bible that speak of the idea that God has appointed a time for all to die, 'Hebrews 9:27, \u201cAnd as it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgement:\u201d Ecclesiastes 3:1-2, \u201cTo every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven: A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted;\u201d Ecclesiastes 7:17, \u201cBe not over much wicked, neither be thou foolish: why shouldest thou die before thy time?\u201d [1] In addition to this, physicians are nowhere in Scripture given authority to take someone's life. Apart from the government in the case of capital punishment, all other human beings are given the commandment \u201cThou shalt not kill,\u201d Exodus 20:13 and \u201cThou shalt do no murder,\u201d Matthew 19:18. [2]  [1] Pastor Art Kohl, 'The Bible Speaks on Euthanasia', Political Science and the Bible, 2002  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)  [2] Pastor Art Kohl, 'The Bible Speaks on Euthanasia', Political Science and the Bible, 2002  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con01a","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"It is vital that a doctor's role not be confused  The guiding principle of medical ethics is to do no harm: a physician must not be involved in deliberately harming their patient. Without this principle, the medical profession would lose a great deal of trust; and admitting that killing is an acceptable part of a doctor\u2019s role would likely increase the danger of involuntary euthanasia, not reduce it. Legalising assisted suicide also places an unreasonable burden on doctors. The daily decisions made in order to preserve life can be difficult enough; to require them to also carry the immense moral responsibility of deciding who can and cannot die, and the further responsibility of actually killing patients, is unacceptable. This is why the vast majority of medical professionals oppose the legalisation of assisted suicide: ending the life of a patient goes against all they stand for. The Hippocratic Oath that doctors use as a guide states 'I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect.' [1]  [1] Medical Opinion, religiouseducation.co.uk  (accessed on 4\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con04b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"However, the idea that we should not kill is not absolute, even for those with religious beliefs \u2014 killing in war or self-defence is justified by most. We already let people die because they are allowed to refuse treatment which could save their life, and this has not damaged anyone's respect for the worth of human life. Concerning the notion that legalised voluntary euthanasia might lead to involuntary euthanasia being carried out, there is no evidence to suggest this. As Ronald Dworkin states, 'Of course doctors know the moral difference between helping people who beg to die and killing those who want to live.' [1]  [1] Ronald Dworkin, stated in The case against, available at  (accessed 4\/6\/2011)."}
+{"id":"test-health-dhpelhbass-con02b","title":"disease healthcare philosophy ethics life house believes assisted suicide should","text":"Society recognises that suicide is unfortunate but acceptable in some circumstances \u2013 those who end their own lives are not seen as evil. It seems odd that it is a crime to assist a non-crime. The illegality of assisted suicide is therefore particularly cruel for those who are disabled by their disease, and are unable to die without assistance. For example, in March 1993 Anthony Bland had lain in persistent vegetative state for three years before a Court Order allowed his degradation and indignity to come to a merciful close. [1] It might cause unnecessary pain for people if they make an attempt at suicide themselves and subsequently fail. Rather than the pain-free methods that could be available through doctors and modern medicine.  [1] Chris Docker, Cases in history, euthanasia.cc, 2000  (accessed 6\/6\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro02b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Changing the demographics on the field will not be likely to change the demographics in the stands. Economic equality is still an issue \u2013 which means the change that is needed are changes in matters such as ticket prices, in order to bring in a broader base of spectators.  The way to broaden the talent pool is through policies to make it larger, not to distribute positions within it. In other words, what\u2019s needed is resources, and a commitment to take the game in to communities where it is not so popular currently \u2013 the best players will rise to the top no matter their ethnicity."}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro02a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Broadening participation  The talent pool in South African rugby is not as racially diverse as one would expect from the \u201cRainbow Nation\u201d \u2013 some commentators have argued that England and France produce more top level black players than South Africa [1] . This is because top level players are a result of development from the grassroots up.  Targets or quotas could not only improve the talent pool of today, but could broaden it for the future. A new generation of youth across all races in South Africa would be able to see that rugby union is a sport that accepts people from their backgrounds, making them more likely to participate in rugby union, either as players, coaches, referees or as a general part of the rugby fraternity.  [1] Blackwell, James, \u2018South African Rugby Quotas \u2013 Right or Wrong?\u2019, Sporting Mad, 16 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro03b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"2006 was a while ago, at a time when quotas were in force. Even so, popular support does not mean that something is a good idea. Sport should be distanced from the popular will. Most rugby fans are white, a group that had in the survey only 14% of people in favour of a quotas. Among the people that might be considered the electorate of the sport, the fans, quotas are not wanted"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro01a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Radical action needed for racial equality in South Africa  It is plain for all to see how unrepresentative rugby union in South Africa is. While there is not necessarily a deliberate policy of racism, it is very easy for biases to creep in. Across the division where the quotas will come in only about 6% of players are black, a number that should increase to 33%. [1] Quotas could help concentrate the mind to ensure that the best team is picked.  At grass roots level, there have been some cases of flat-out racial abuse of non-white players, including using racial terms that are particularly offensive in a South African context.  [1] Peacock, James, \u2018Peter de Villiers says racial quotas are \u2018waste of time\u2019, BBC Sport, 15 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro01b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Even if action is needed to create racial equality, are quotas the solution? There is no doubt that rugby is a sport where South Africa could be stronger if it was popular in all racial groups, but they are a blunt instrument: the way to pick the best team is to simply pick the best team. Racial equality comes when no one is picked as a result of race whether that is through negative or positive discrimination."}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro03a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Most South Africans support quotas  In 2006, the South African Social Attitudes Survey revealed that most South Africans (56%) support a quota system [1] . This support remained roughly the same over a four year period. Sport should reflect the will of the population of the country, if the population wants quotas then there should be quotas. There is particularly strong support from quotas among black people (63%) implying they feel that something needs to be done in order to let them into the sport. Doing nothing will simply ensure the status quo with very few non-white rugby players remains indefinitely.  [1] Struwig, Jare, and Roberts, Ben, \u2018The numbers game Public support for sports quotas\u2019, South African Social Attitudes Survey, p.13,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con03b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Kevin Pietersen isn\u2019t anything too unusual: English sporting teams have always had a number of South African and New Zealand rejects. It is natural for players to move to where they think they will be most likely to have the best prospects."}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con01b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"In a society where race affects everything, can there ever be such a thing as a legitimate meritocracy? Not everyone will get the same opportunities in life. You cannot pretend factors are not there when they are. Positive discrimination such as racial quotas helps to counter act some of these factors that are weighed heavily against non-whites in playing rugby helping to create a much truer meritocracy."}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con02a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"IRB rules  Racial quotas are a breach of the views of the world governing body of Rugby Union, the International Rugby Board [1] . If this were found to be the case then it would have a large negative impact on South African rugby.  An IRB intervention would lead to at least interference by the governing body, which would be highly embarrassing for the SARU (as well as difficult for a sport which has had major political rows before), or even worse, some form of sanction or expulsion \u2013 things that could lead to long term instability in the sport, which should be avoided.  [1] SARugbymag.co.za, \u2018Saru quotas \u2018breach IRP rules\u2019\u2019, 3 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con04a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Racial quotas don\u2019t develop new players  The quota system could lead to moving players from the regional teams who generally have less non-white players pilfering them from other unions, rather \u201cHome growing\u201d them [1] .  Former Springboks coach Peter de Villiers, the first non-white person in that role, has described quotas as a \u201cwaste of time [2] \u201d.  Depending on the exact phraseology of the rules, this could even allow black players from outside South Africa (from, for example, England) to be used to fill the quota.  [1] McGregor, Liz, \u2018New Year, new model for SA Rugby? Here\u2019s hoping\u2019, Books Live, 30 December 2013,   [2] Peacock, James, \u2018Peter de Villiers says racial quotas are \u2018waste of time\u2019, BBC Sport, 15 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con03a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Quotas can drive players away.  Policies of racial quotas can have the effect of driving players abroad. Such policies have had similar affects in cricket. Kevin Pietersen stated that racial quotas in domestic competition, requiring four non-white players per team, were a key reason for his decision to leave South Africa and move to England. Eligible due to playing in England for four years and an English parent, he successfully had an England career. In rugby union, Brian Mujati left South Africa to play in England as he did not want to be selected to fill a racial quota [1] .  [1] Foy, Chris, \u2018Last orders at the bar for master brewer \u2013 prop Mujati calls time on Saints career\u2019, MailOnline, 19 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con01a","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Meritocracy  It is a value of sport in general that it should be outside the sphere of social ills like racial, religious and political tensions. Sport should be based on merit only; those who play best get onto the team.  Racial quotas will lead to any non-white player in a team in a competition where quotas are being employed to being under a suspicion that they are not good enough and were only selected due to their race. As Peter de Villiers, the first black coach of the Springboks, says \u201cEverybody will believe that these players will be picked because people are looking out for them.\u201d [1] The result could be more racial abuse of players, not less.  [1] Peacock, James, \u2018Peter de Villiers says racial quotas are \u2018waste of time\u2019, BBC Sport, 15 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con04b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"Even if it doesn\u2019t increase the numbers at the grass roots and youth levels, it will create more players who can be selected by the provinces for Currie Cup competition. This, in turn, could give more non-white players the development and the experience they need to make it in to the national team."}
+{"id":"test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con02b","title":"ational africa sport team sports house supports racial quotas south african rugby","text":"The IRB did not take action against the previous system of quotas: why would they be likely to take action against a new system?  Also, there is a clear difference between the sort of racial discrimination that occurred in the sport during the apartheid era, and affirmative action policies. Positive discrimination does not prevent anyone from having a chance at playing; it simply gives those who are less fortunate a leg up."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro02b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Boycotting the football will not highlight Ukraine\u2019s human rights abuses any more than they already have been by the international press as a result of the calls to boycott. Whether leaders boycott or not the human rights abuses have been highlighted. Choosing to attend will not show that leaders are unwilling to take action simply that this is not the way for them to take action. Leaders could attend the matches and still diplomatically rebuke Ukraine\u2019s leader."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro02a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Boycotting Euro 2012 will highlight Ukraine\u2019s backsliding on human rights  European leaders must take a stand on human rights in their own back yard if they are to be taken seriously on the issue anywhere in the world. There are numerous human rights abuses in Ukraine; migrants \"risk abusive treatment and arbitrary detention\", Roma and people with dark skin in particular face governmental and societal discrimination and some xenophobic attacks and may be prosecuted for acting in self defense. [1] Amnesty International has highlighted abuse of power by the police \u201cnumerous cases in Euro 2012 host cities in which police have tortured people in an attempt to extort money, extract a confession, or simply because of the victims\u2019 sexuality or ethnic origin\u201d. [2] If Europe turns a blind eye to these kinds of abuses in neighbouring states without even a minor diplomatic snub it will not have the moral authority to confront worse abuses elsewhere in the world. States that are abusing their own citizens would shrug off criticism believing that European states will not back their criticism up with any action.  [1] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, \u20182010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices Report\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011.  [2] \u2018Ukraine: Euro 2012 jeopardised by criminal police force \u2013 New Amnesty report\u2019, Amnesty.org.uk, 2 May 2012 ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro03b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"A boycott can\u2019t be proportional because politics and sport can\u2019t be linked. A proportional response would involve some real action that would hurt Ukrainian leaders such as freezing some of their corruptly gained assets rather than a symbolic boycott."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro01a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Europe must not give approval to this regime.  Viktor Yanukovych fairly came to power in 2010 however since then he has set about attacking the country\u2019s fragile democracy. There are numerous cases showing this democratic decline. For example changes to the constitution that occurred after the Orange revolution have been rolled back to give more power to the presidency. [1] Most visibly opponents of the regime such as Yulia Timoshenko have been jailed in politically motivated trials. At the same time there have been attacks on the freedom of the media and Ukraine has fallen down rankings of press freedom in 2010-11 with its score from freedom house falling from 56 to 59 with its ranking falling to 130th. [2]  Ukraine, like its neighbours Russia and Belarus, has become a \u2018virtual mafia state\u2019 where the SBU (Ukraine\u2019s successor to the KGB) is all powerful and the elite are unaccountable. [3] It is becoming more and more corrupt as is shown by its fall down the Corruption Perceptions Index from 118th in 2007 to 152nd in 2011. [4] Ukraine is clearly going in the wrong direction and European leaders need to stand up and show that the will not allow this to continue.  [1] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, \u20182010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices Report\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011.  [2] Karlekar, Karin Deutsch and Dunham, Jennifer, \u2018Press Freedom in 2011: Breakthroughs and Pushback in the Middle East\u2019, Freedom House, 2012, pp.7, 16.  [3] Luzio, Taras, \u2018Ukraine, Like Russia, Is Becoming a \u2018Virtual Mafia State\u2019\u2019, Atlantic Council, 1 March 2012.  [4] Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2011 , Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2007 ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro01b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Attending football matches is not giving approval to a country\u2019s government. Leaders when attending international football matches are simply supporting their team and often hoping that they will be seen as such giving them a good photo op for the audience back home."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro03a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Boycotting Euro 2012 is proportional  Diplomacy is necessary with any regime almost no matter how oppressive they are however that does not show approval of a regime to the world in the way that high profile visits and events can. Just as the Beijing Olympics were the People\u2019s Republic of China\u2019s coming out party so Euro 2012 is an ideal chance for Ukraine to show itself off to Europe and the rest of the world. If there was not a boycott this would implicitly show that Europe approves of Ukraine and the actions of its government.  In a list of possible diplomatic responses that range from verbal diplomatic complaints right up to sanctions a boycott represents a mid-point. A boycott is perhaps the best action that the European Union leaders could take is it takes away the shine that the event would otherwise give the Yanukovych. It will be denying him the political benefits of the Euros while highlighting rights concerns. A boycott is also proportional because it gives Ukraine\u2019s leaders a chance to reform before beginning any further measures that would have a much deeper effect on diplomatic relations."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con03b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"A boycott of the events in Ukraine could even be good for the events in Poland as more will go there instead. It is difficult to see how the Ukrainian people are negatively affected by foreign leaders not attending matches in Ukraine. This is an action that only affects the elite."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con01b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Sports and politics have always been intertwined and so can\u2019t be separated. That political leaders were thinking of attending in anything beyond a private capacity proves the linking of international football and politics. Yanukovych himself no doubt hoped for a political payoff and has opened the new stadia such as the Olympic Stadium declaring \u201cThe successful reconstruction of the NSC Olympiyskiy has become the most telling project for Ukraine's image.\u201d [1]  [1] Buga, Bogdan, \u2018Olympic Stadium opens in Kyiv\u2019, uefa.com, 8 October 2011 ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con02a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"A boycott won\u2019t help resolve the issues at question  European leaders need to consider whether their methods are likely to achieve the result they want. What Europe\u2019s leaders want is first of all Yulia Timoshenko released and secondly improvements in Ukrainian human rights. Timoshenko is unlikely to be released as she has been convicted on charges of abuse of office and sentenced to seven years in prison; the best that could be hoped for is an improvement in her treatment. Similarly the result is not likely to be positive for human rights and democracy. There might be an improvement during the games while the eyes of the world are on Ukraine but long term there will be no impact unless Yanukovych is persuaded that improvements are in his benefit. This would require more concrete and long term actions than one off boycotts.  Past boycotts have demonstrated a lack of success in changing the situation on the ground. In the 1980 Olympics held in Moscow during the Cold War the USA boycotted in response to the 1979 invasion by the USSR of Afghanistan. The result was that the Soviet Union stayed in Afghanistan, won most medals in the Olympics and retaliated by boycotting the 1984 games held in Los Angeles. [1]  [1] Gera, Vanessa, \u2018Boycott of Ukraine During Euro 2012 Carries Risk\u2019, Associated Press, 11 May 2012."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con05a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Europe needs to prevent Russian influence in Ukraine  If Europe shuns Ukraine then Yanukovych has an obvious alternative he can turn to; Russia. Putin, the newly re-elected President of Russia, is holding out the option of a customs union with Ukraine which Yanukovych despite initially rejecting [1] is now showing more interest in joining. [2] Only a few years ago Ukraine was being touted for possible NATO membership and Vice President Biden called Ukraine a \u201cEuropean country where democracy rules\u201d. [3] A turn towards Russia therefore represents a failure of the European Union and NATO\u2019s policy towards its eastern neighbours where the aim is to promote democracy and human rights.  [1] Interfax-Ukraine, \u2018Putin: Yanukovych statement Ukraine will not join Customs Union conveys political emotions\u2019, Kyiv Post, 16 September 2011 .  [2] Interfax-Ukraine, \u2018Official: Ukraine shows keen interest in Customs Union\u2019, Kyiv Post, 15 March 2012 .  [3] \u2018Biden: U.S. supports Ukraine\u2019s NATO bid\u2019, USA Today, 21 July 2009 ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con04a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Boycotts did not take place for the 2008 Olympics despite the far worst human rights background  It would be hypocritical for European leaders to boycott the Euro 2012 finals because of Ukraine\u2019s recent human rights record. It an absurd overreaction when the focus is on the poor treatment of one woman, Timoshenko. Countries with poor human rights records have hosted major sporting events before without there being boycotts. President Bush was urged by some in the US such as former president Clinton to boycott the Beijing Olympics and only a few countries boycotted on human rights grounds. This was despite China having a considerably worse human rights record than Ukraine and engaged in a violent crackdown in Tibet in the run up to the games. [1] Similarly Russia will be hosting the next Winter Olympics in 2014 should leaders essentially commit to boycotting these games too?  [1] \u2018Bush will attend opening of Beijing Olympics\u2019 CNN, 3 July 2008."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con03a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"The boycott would affect Poland and the Ukrainian people as well as Yanukovych  A boycott of Euro 2012 even if it was meant to be limited to Ukraine would negatively impact on the whole tournament. Polish Prime Minister Donald Tust argued \"It is in Poland's undisputed interest to hold the games in Poland and Ukraine without a hitch and to prevent politics from ruining the great effort\", [1] any boycott would unnecessarily move the attention away from the games itself towards politics.  It should also be remembered that Viktor Yanukovych does not represent the whole of Ukraine and only won by a narrow margin with 48.95% of the vote compared to Yulia Timoshenko\u2019s 45.47% in the second round. [2] Arseniy Yatsenyuk leader of the Front for Change has urged leaders not to boycott \"The best scenario would be if the European leaders attended the championship, but did not meet President Yanukovych. It's supposed to be a visit to Ukrainians, not to Yanukovych\". [3] This would show that European countries support the Ukrainian people and their democratic aspirations and even hope they may be eventually will join the European Union while showing displeasure at Yanukovych\u2019s policies and lack of support for democracy.  [1] \u2018 Poland slams calls for Ukraine Euro 2012 boycott\u2019, The Warsaw Voice online, 4 May 2012.  [2] Nesterov, Andrei, \u2018How the News is Reported in Russia\u2019, School of Russian and Asian, 19 February 2010.  [3] Dorosh, Svitlana, \u2018Ukraine fights Euro 2012 boycott\u2019, BBC Ukrainian, 9 May 2012."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con05b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Russian influence in Ukraine is not a real concern. Given the possibility of joining the European Union or a Russian lead customs union any Ukrainian government even one lead by a pro-Russian such as Yanukovych would choose Europe. The Ukrainians know that the Russian\u2019s price is likely to be high and so will continue to try to balance between their two larger neighbouring blocks. As a result any boycott will not seriously affect long term relations. [1]  [1] \u2018Call foul, Viktor Yanukovych\u2019s thuggish autocracy is heading in a dangerous direction\u2019, the Economist, 5 May 2012 ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con01a","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"This is a sports event not a political event  Sport and politics are separate and should be kept separate. This is the position of the organisers \u201cUefa has no position and will not take any regarding the political situation in Ukraine, and will not interfere with internal government matters.\u201d [1] Euro 2012 is a football tournament that is about entertainment and bringing nations together in a common love of a game in a non-political sphere. Even pro-democracy activists such as Vatali Klitschko are \u201cagainst the politicization of sports\u201d. [2] Politicization would be exactly what politicians are doing by engaging in cheap political stunts, such as a boycott, to promote their own human rights agendas.  [1] Scott, Matt, \u2018Sports minister Hugh Robertson could boycott Ukraine during Euro 2012\u2019, The Telegraph, 2 May 2012.  [2] Keating, Joshua, \u2018European leaders consider Euro Cup boycott over Tymoshenko\u2019, Passport Foreignpolicy.com, 1 May 2012."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con04b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"In a global event such as the Beijing 2008 Olympics of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi many more nations would need to boycott to have an effect. In Euro 2012 by contrast liberal democracies who claim to be concerned about human rights make up the majority of the participants making their actions much more significant."}
+{"id":"test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con02b","title":"olympics team sports house would boycott euro 2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenko","text":"Because these issues are domestic to Ukraine European nations cannot directly resolve them however actions such as boycotting of the tournament show that the international community wants these problems resolved. Without any action at all how will the issues ever be resolved? You don\u2019t prevent human rights abuses by brushing them under the carpet."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro02b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Any large expenditure in one area will stimulate regeneration. Considering that the cost of hosting the London 2012 Olympics is predicted at \u00a32.375 billion, expected to rise far higher, regeneration is the least that can be expected as a legacy (Carlin, 2006).1 Controversially, a large part of this (\u00a3625 million) is being financed by London\u2019s own citizens through a rise in council tax bills (Buksh, 2007).2 Jobs are promised, but there is no guarantee that these jobs will last beyond the Olympics itself. Furthermore, the \u00a315 billion Crossrail system planned for East London is money not spent on fixing the increasingly fragile Underground lines currently servicing Central London.  Regeneration is also only available to those areas who are fortunate enough to be hosting Olympic events. This typically means a couple of areas of one city, using funds derived from a much larger population spread over a far greater territory. The East London regeneration expected for 2012 threatens merely to substantiate the already expansive North-South divide in the United Kingdom (Ruddick, 2011).3  1 Carlin, B. (2006, November 22). Cost of London Olympics could hit \u00a310bn. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Telegraph  2 Buksh, A. (2007, March). Grey rebellion against Olympics Levy. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from BBC News  3 Ruddick, G. (2011, April 1). North-South divide exists on whether games will benefit whole of UK. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from The Telegraph"}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro02a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting stimulates regeneration in local areas  Hosting stimulates regeneration. The IOC is enthusiastic about bids that will leave a lasting impact and have looked favourably on cities that locate their Olympic Villages and stadia in deprived areas in need of regeneration. The 1992 Barcelona Olympics were used as a means to completely overhaul the port and coast of the city creating an artificial beach and waterside cultural area that became a lasting tourist attraction. Along with cleaning up areas and new stadia, Olympic Villages release between 5,000 and 20,000 new homes which governments can chose to hand over as low-cost housing (as is proposed for London 2012). Whilst these projects could be completed without the Olympics, the need to provide an overall package (transport, accommodation, stadia, greenery etc.) for a set deadline means that there is far more incentive to get the projects done. An example of this in London is the plan for a new \u00a315bn underground rail system called \u2018Crossrail\u2019, first proposed over 20 years ago but only now being developed because of the attention surrounding the London 2012 bid.1 The fact that international scrutiny will follow the building program means that it is far more likely to be completed to a high standard (consider the detailed coverage of the preparations for Athens 2004).  1 Hayes, S. (2011, April 19). Crossrail will leave a positive legacy. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Wharf"}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro03b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"The Olympic spotlight is not always a positive experience for the host nation and its government; for example, the run-up to the Beijing Games in 2008 was hijacked by the issue of Tibetan autonomy. The event designed ostensibly to celebrate China's coming-of-age was instead framed through their poor human rights record. German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Nicolas Sarkozy were sufficiently concerned to boycott the opening ceremony in protest, causing significant embarrassment for Olympic organisers."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro01a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting creates a 'feel-good' factor  Hosting creates a 'feel-good factor'. It is hard to put a price on the buzz that surrounds international sporting events. Think of Paris during the World Football Cup in 1998 or Sydney during the 2002 Olympics. Even sporting success abroad can unite a nation (for example the England Rugby Union Team's victory in the 2003 Rugby World Cup in Australia). Governments are aware of the huge potential for boosting national pride and national unity. The Paris 2012 bid has used a well-known footballer, Zinedine Zidane, who is the son of an immigrant to stress how hosting the Olympics would bring Parisians of all backgrounds together. It is partly because of this 'feel-good factor' that so many people want their city to host the Olympics (97% of Parisians and 87% of Londoners want the 2012 Olympics)."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro01b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"There is no guarantee that a city will experience a 'feel-good factor'. In Athens many of the events had empty seats as the Greek team failed to do well enough to capture the local imagination. Where tournaments and games have successfully created a 'buzz' it has been because the host nation has done well (England reached the semi-final of Euro 96, France won the World Cup in 1998). The fact that this 'feel-good factor' can be had even if the team is winning on the other side of the world means that there is no need to host the Olympics in order to get it. Furthermore, a study of British youth in 2011 found that 70% were not inspired to take part in more sport despite the media attention given to London 20121. In any case, any Olympic excitement will be short-lived compared to the years of disruption and congestion which a host city will suffer in the run-up to the games, due to the massive building work and security worries which are now necessary.  1 Magnay, J. (2011, June 21). London 2012 Olympics: British youth not inspired by Games, survey shows. Retrieved June 29, 2011 from The Daily Telegraph:"}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro04b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting does not leave a beneficial legacy. As a study found in 2010, 'there is insufficient evidence to show that major multi-sport events benefit or harm the health and economy of the host population.'1 The demands of the Olympics are very particular, an 80,000 all-seater stadium, pools, horse tracks, beach volleyball etc. Many of these stadia will never be used again after the end of the games. Even in Australia, which has a very strong sporting ethic, underused stadia in Sydney are costing the taxpayer $32m a year in maintenance1. In the long term, the money spent on these stadia would be much better off used to build affordable homes and transport infrastructure which is designed with local residents in mind rather than with the intention of impressing IOC members. As far as tourism goes, Greece may even have lost out economically in 2002-03 as potential visitors stayed away, frightened off by stories of disruptive building works, security worries and fears of over-crowding.  1 Ormsby, A. (2010, May 21). Benefits of hosting Olympics unproven. Retrieved June 29, 2011 from Reuters:  2 Davenport, C. (2004, September 1). A post-Olympic hurdle for Greece: the whopping bill. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from The Christian Science Monitor:"}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro03a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"COUNTERPOINT Any large expenditure in one area will stimulate regeneration. Considering that the cost of hosting the London 2012 Olympics is predicted at \u00a32.375 billion, expected to rise far higher, regeneration is the least that can be expected as a le  The Olympics are a showcase. Hosting the Olympics can be a way of making a strong political point because of the intense media scrutiny that accompanies the games. During the Cold War both Moscow 1980 and Los Angeles 1984 were used by the USSR and USA to show their economic strength. Seoul in 1988 used the games to demonstrate South Korea's economic and political maturity. The Beijing Olympics in 2008 are seen by many as evidence of China's acceptance into the global community and a way for her to showcase her economic growth and acceptance of the West. For New York, the 2012 bid is a way of showing that the post-9\/11 healing process has been completed and that the city is 'open for business' despite the terrorist attacks."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro04a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting has wide-reaching economic benefits  Hosting creates an economic boost. Whilst none of the Olympics of recent times have made an immediate profit, the cost of the regeneration and improved infrastructure means that this is not a big problem as long as the losses are not huge. The Olympics showcases the host nation to the world and most hosts have seen a boost in tourism in the years after the Olympics (Australia estimates it gained\u00a32bn extra tourist revenue in the four years after Sydney 2000). During the games between 60,000 (Paris 2012 estimate) and 135,000 (New York 2012 estimate) jobs are created providing skills and training to local people."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con03b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"The economic benefit of the event is in its legacy. Regarding London specifically, a lot of the money will be spent on the regeneration of parts of East London that are currently underdeveloped. When the games are over the new facilities will still benefit the local communities and the prestige of hosting the games should bring new life and investment to the area. Furthermore, London's reputation as a tourist destination has taken a knock from the threat of terrorism since the underground bombings of 7\/7. The games will be a way of bringing international attention back to the positive aspects of the UK's capital, bringing foreign visitors and their spending power back to Britain. London's population of 7.7m people is expected to be temporarily expanded by 12% during the Olympics alone1.  1 Grobel, W. (2010, April 15). What are the London 2012 Olympics 2012 worth? Retrieved May 13, 2011, from Intangible Business:"}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con01b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting has an impact on the whole nation. The Olympics involves hundreds of events and sports and so provides an opportunity for the whole nation to feel like they have taken part. Training camps are often located outside the host city, as are events such as rowing, sailing, canoeing and shooting, so that the rest of the country benefits too. During Beijing 2008 for example, the equestrian events were held in Hong Kong, drawing both tourism and prestige away from Beijing and towards other parts of the country. The lasting impact of this will be a generation of young people who are excited about sport. Given rising levels of childhood obesity and declining amounts of sport in schools, this can only be a good thing."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con02a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"The bidding process is too long, tying up funds and land  The bidding process takes too long. Bidding officially takes only two years (unless a city fails to make the shortlist), but most cities spend nearly a decade working on their bids. Obviously the bidding process costs money but it also ties up the land needed for any future Olympic Village or stadia from being developed until the bid outcome is known, as well as diverting government funds away from other sporting events and activities. Furthermore, the way the IOC works with each member deciding which city they wish to vote for means that personal relationships and international tension can count for more than the quality of the bid. For example, American foreign policy is thought to be disadvantaging New York in the 2012 bidding process. Given that the Olympics are 'rotated' between continents, if a city fails to be selected it will be 12 years before it has another chance."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con03a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting is very expensive  Hosting is very expensive. In recent times the Olympics have never made a direct profit. The bidding process alone for 2012 will cost each bidding city around \u00a320m and whichever is selected will expect to pay at least \u00a36.5bn (Paris). With increased security fears Athens spent $1.5bn on security out of a total of $12bn on the 2004 games. The burden of this cost falls on government (and therefore the taxpayer), companies and individuals. Both Paris and London\u2019s local governments have put aside around \u00a32.4bn which will mean \u00a320 per year extra in tax for every household in the cities. Big projects are notoriously hard to budget for (so much so that London is estimating the total cost may go up by up to 50%) and residents in Los Angeles have only just stopped paying for the over-budget 1984 Olympics through their local taxes. If cities want to regenerate or improve their infrastructure then they should use this money directly on those projects rather than wasting it on subsidising a sporting event."}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con01a","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"Hosting only affects one city  In large countries like the United States or China, the benefits of the Olympics are almost entirely focused on the host city. Even in smaller countries, the benefits of a event played outside the host city or a training camp are negligible. Capital cities are often chosen (after failed bids from Birmingham in 1992 and Manchester in 1996 and 2000 the IOC told the United Kingdom that only a bid from London was likely to win), which concentrates growth and development where it is least needed. 90% of the economic impact of London 2012 is expected to come to London1; not surprising given that 'seventy-five pence in every pound on the Games is going towards the regeneration of East London.'2Furthermore, house prices have been seen to rise in host cities like Barcelona and Sydney around the time of their Olympics, without comparable rises elsewhere in Spain and Australia respectively2. As such, hosting only serves to entrench geographical economic divides.  1 Grobel, W. (2010, April 15). What are the London 2012 Olympics 2012 worth? Retrieved May 13, 2011, from Intangible Business:  2 Ormsby, A. (2010, May 21). Benefits of hosting Olympics unproven. Retrieved June 29, 2011 from Reuters:"}
+{"id":"test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con02b","title":"y business finance government sport olympics house believes hosting olympics good","text":"The bidding process is not too long and does not tie up funds or land that would otherwise be developed. Furthermore, the Olympic bidding process would not be as difficult, expensive or long if the benefits to the eventual victor were not deemed worth all the time and effort. The unsuccessful bids are not wasted, the plans drawn up and experience of the process can be utilized for later bids. Moreover, the exposure granted to land earmarked for Olympic redevelopment can both generate interest in the area and lead to further development in the area regardless of an unsuccessful Olympic bid. The bidding process is now open and trustworthy. Whilst the 1998 Salt Lake City scandal did reveal huge levels of endemic corruption, IOC president Jacques Rogge has taken significant steps to stamp it out. Cities can now be confident that the best bid will win and that they should not be put of bidding to host because they fear they will lose simply for not being corrupt enough."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro02b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are much less a part of the game than people believe. The notion that collisions have been in the game for ages is a widely held misconception. In fact, collisions were specifically banned in baseball\u2019s early history, and the collisions we see today came about only since around the late 1960s. Bill James, one of the best-respected authorities on baseball, wrote: \u201cBasepath obstruction was a major problem in the 1880s and nineties, when baseball was in danger of becoming a contact sport. In 1897 the rules on obstruction were tightened up, and the principle of free access to the bases met with general acceptance at the other three positions. There was always something of a problem with catchers blocking the plate, but there were always limits.... I think it has changed a lot just in the last fifteen or twenty years. . . . I don\u2019t remember [well-respected catchers] Elston Howard or Bill Freehan doing some of the things that [catchers] do now [in the 1980s].\u201d [1]  Clearly, collisions are not a necessary part of the balance between offense and defense. Baseball did quite well for decades without allowing runners to crash into catchers. Just because something is now erroneously regarded as a \u201ctradition\u201d does not make it deserving of respect. Toughness in baseball is better measured by playing hard every day, rather than by meaningless, destructive collisions.  [1] \u201cThe MLB Rulebook, Bill James, and the Buster Posey\u2013Scott Cousins Collision,\u201d Misc. Baseball, May 26, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro02a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are a part of the game.  First, collisions are part of the tradition of baseball. They have been part of the game for a very long time. Fans, players, and managers all expect home plate hits to occur from time to time. \u201cSome things are part of the game. There\u2019s not a whole lot you can do,\u201d said Red Sox catcher Jason Varitek, who has been on the receiving end of numerous crashes in his career. [1] Varitek\u2019s manager at the time, Terry Francona, agreed: \u201cNobody wants to see anybody get hurt, but you got to play the game.\u201d [2] And former catcher Brad Ausmus, who had also been hit multiple times in his career, echoed the sentiment: \u201c[I]t's part of the game.\u2026 When you put on the shin guards and chest protector, you know that if there\u2019s a play at the plate and you\u2019re blocking the plate, you could take a hit at any moment.\u201d [3] As the Associated Press put it, many people believe \u201chome plate collisions are as much a part of baseball tradition as peanuts and Cracker Jacks and the seventh-inning stretch.\u201d [4]  Second, home plate hits are an essential element of playing the game hard. Without them, baseball would be much less deserving of its nickname \u201chardball.\u201d One commentator notes, \u201c[An injury is] extremely unfortunate, but it's the result of a hard-nosed play that is as old as the game itself. To take away the potential for a high-intensity, physical play in an otherwise non-physical sport would be a mistake.\u201d [5] In that vein, collisions are also part of the dynamic between the offense and defense that, once removed, will make the game much poorer: \u201cA baserunner wants to get there at all costs, whereas a catcher wants to protect it at all costs. The mutual discomfort that's evoked in both the catcher and the baserunner as a play at the plate develops is one of the intriguing peculiarities that makes the game of baseball so great.\u201d [6]  [1] Antonio Gonzalez, \u201cPosey\u2019s injury stirs debate on baseball collisions,\u201d Associated Press, May 27, 2011,  .  [2] Ibid.  [3] Jayson Stark, \u201cOn a collision course,\u201d ESPN.com (Rumblings & Grumblings blog), May 28, 2011,  .  [4] Ibid.  [5] Ricky Doyle, \u201cBuster Posey\u2019s Injury Unfortunate, But Home-Plate Collisions Still Have Place in Baseball,\u201d NESN, May 29, 2011,  .  [6] Ibid ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro03b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions increase the risk of injury dramatically. Though it\u2019s true that most collisions do not result in significant injury, they result in a higher rate of injury than almost any other baseball play. And just because a collision doesn\u2019t necessarily result in an injury that derails a player\u2019s entire career does not mean that it didn\u2019t take a toll. This is especially true now that we\u2019re learning more about concussions, which might be suffered without someone immediately realizing it. After a catcher on his team suffered a concussion in a collision, Yankees manager Joe Girardi referred to this type of injury as \u201cso unpredictable. That\u2019s what\u2019s so scary.... You just don\u2019t know what\u2019s going to happen\u201d with a concussion. [1]  When catchers are trained to block the plate, they\u2019re taught how to reduce the risk of injury, not how to eliminate the risk of injury. No matter how a catcher positions himself, there will still be a risk of injury, and it will still be much higher than for any other play in baseball.  (Opposition Point #1 elaborates more upon the risk of injury.)  [1] Mark Feisand, \u201cYankees manager Joe Girardi not counting out catcher Francisco Cervelli for postseason roster,\u201d New York Daily News, Sept. 17, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro01a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are exciting and fun to watch.  Baseball is a form of entertainment, and few plays are as entertaining as bang-bang plays (a close call on whether the runner is thrown out) at the plate. As a sport that\u2019s often criticized for being too slow and boring\u2014\u201cbaseball has no clock,\u201d the saying goes [1] \u2014it\u2019s important that it hold onto perhaps the most dramatic, vivid play it has to offer. One columnist described it this way: \u201cWhen [collisions] do occur, they\u2019re exciting. We watch to see how well the catcher blocks the plate, how hard the runner slides, and whether the catcher can hold the ball. As dangerous as that play may be, it\u2019s exciting to watch.\u201d [2]  Other sports\u2014like American football, ice hockey, and rugby\u2014feature plenty of violent hits. Baseball has so few of them that when they do happen, they are doubly entertaining. It is just not necessary for baseball to prohibit a small dose of something that is extremely common in other sports.  [1] William Deresiewicz, \u201cMetaphors We Play By,\u201d American Scholar, June 6, 2011,  .  [2] Nick Cafardo, \u201cLet\u2019s keep rule change off our plate, please,\u201d Boston Globe, May 29, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro01b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are often not entertaining, and when they are, it\u2019s for the wrong reasons. Most collisions do not show two athletes engaged in a skilled showdown; they feature athletes awkwardly trying to achieve their goal (scoring or getting the out) without injuring themselves. It\u2019s not fun or exciting.  Fans also tend to be horrified by the injuries they witness in these crashes. Watching Buster Posey\u2019s leg snap at an odd angle was hardly entertaining or amusing; it was stomach-turning.  And if fans do find this sort of thing entertaining, they\u2019re wrong to do so. Violence should not be glorified, at least not in this sport. Nobody should delight in watching baseball players put their careers in jeopardy. Baseball is fundamentally different from other sports; if people want to see athletes impose harmful blows on each other, they can watch boxing or ice hockey or ultimate fighting."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro04b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"In the match-up between catchers and runners, home plate should be treated like the other bases. At first base, second base, or third base, fielders are expected not to block the base and runners are expected not to collide with the fielder. By imposing both of these requirements, neither the catcher nor the runner would have an unfair advantage. Each player would be required to contribute to a situation that allows both of them to avoid a collision."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro03a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are not as dangerous as they\u2019re feared to be.  Some hits lead to injury, but the vast majority do not. One commentator challenged proponents of a rule change \u201cto name as many as five MLB catchers in the last 30 years who have had their careers ended or shortened as a result of a home plate collision. Personally, I can\u2019t think of one.\u201d [1] In posing some\u2014though not a substantial\u2014risk, home plate collisions are very much like other aspects of the sport. Every time a pitcher throws a pitch, the batter could get struck and hurt. Every time two outfielders converge on a fly ball, there\u2019s a risk of injury. Baseball, as with many other sports, inherently involves the risk of injury. It makes little sense to focus on this play, which doesn\u2019t often result in significant injury.  Moreover, catchers are trained to position their bodies in ways that minimize the injury risk from crashes. [2] If catchers do as they\u2019re trained, they\u2019re very unlikely to get hurt.  [1] Joe Janish, \u201cBuster Posey Aftermath: What Should Be Done?,\u201d On Baseball, May 30, 2011,  (internal quotation marks omitted).  [2] See, for example, \u201cRelays, Cutoffs, and Plays at Home,\u201d Baseball-Catcher.com,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro04a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Without collisions, either the catcher or the runner would have an enormous and unfair advantage.  There are two often-discussed ways to change the rules: require the runner to slide, just as they must do when attempting to reach other bases; or disallow catchers to block runners\u2019 paths. Each results in an imbalance between the catcher and runner. A commentator describes this dynamic very well:  \u201cIf Major League Baseball was to employ a rule stating that runners must avoid contact with the catcher\u2014similar to the \u2018slide or avoid\u2019 rule employed in amateur baseball\u2014it would give the advantage to the catcher. The catcher would have the benefit of dictating the course of action that a baserunner must take, and would\u2014perhaps more importantly\u2014have peace of mind knowing that there is no chance of an ensuing collision. If Major League Baseball was to make a rule stating that the catcher cannot block the plate, the advantage would certainly go to the baserunner, who would enjoy the luxury of a straight path to the most sacred ground on a baseball diamond.\u201d [1]  Allowing collisions is the fairest, most even match between the catcher and runner.  [1] Ricky Doyle, \u201cBuster Posey\u2019s Injury Unfortunate, But Home-Plate Collisions Still Have Place in Baseball,\u201d NESN, May 29, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con03b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are an occasionally necessary part of the game. When two professional athletes are involved in a dramatic, exciting play that could change the direction of a game (or decide the outcome of the entire season), they will do whatever they can to ensure the play turns out favourably for their team. That means that collisions will occur. To try to remove this aspect of baseball is to ask the players to do something that is completely at odds with their objective: to score, or to prevent the run from scoring.  Though home-plate collisions are prohibited in amateur leagues, the stakes are different. MLB players are paid millions of dollars to score\u2014or prevent\u2014runs. They should be permitted to do what they\u2019re handsomely paid to do."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con01b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are not as dangerous as they\u2019re made out to be. (Proposition Argument #3 is directly relevant here, though it\u2019s not repeated in this cell.) People remember vivid example of injuries in home-plate crashes, but that does not mean that they happen as often as people believe. This is a textbook example of the availability heuristic: people believing that an event is much more likely because they can think of an example of it very easily. [1] Yes, those injuries were quite bad, but it was their very severity that leads people to overestimate the frequency and severity of home-plate collisions in general.  Any simulation of a hit at home plate will be imperfect. In a game situation, a runner will have to make a split-second decision of whether to slide around the catcher or to barrel into him, and this will often reduce his speed or remove the decisiveness of his impact. The catcher is also wearing protective pads. The crash-test dummy does not accurately represent reality.  If a team does not want its catchers to be involved in collisions, it can instruct them to avoid collisions, just as the Oakland Athletics did. This is their choice; they have decided that the risk is not worth it. But this is not a reason for MLB to step in and change the rules.  Fans want to see players playing their hardest. A player is much less exciting to watch if he\u2019s always worried first and foremost about whether a particular action is going to injure him. Yes, there\u2019s always a risk of injury, but fans understand that, and they still want to see collisions and players giving their all.  [1] See Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, \u201cAvailability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability,\u201d Cognitive Psychology, 1973, 4, pp. 207-232,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con02a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are an example of violence that has no place in baseball.  Baseball is not a contact sport. It is not a sport that is supposed to rely on violence. This is one commentator\u2019s point: \u201cif you want to watch violent collisions, you can watch [American] football. Or hockey. Or MMA. There\u2019s no reason baseball needs to have similar kinds of plays; it\u2019s an entirely different sport with a different premise and different rules.\u201d [1]  Baseball tries to make the game safe for its players. That\u2019s why beanballs\u2014pitches that endanger hitters\u2014are disallowed. Baseball should not promote violence, and it certainly shouldn\u2019t allow it when players\u2019 careers hang in the balance.  [1] Dave Cameron, \u201cIt\u2019s Time to End Home Plate Collisions,\u201d FanGraphs, May 26, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con04a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions heighten antagonisms.  When someone gets hurt in a collision at the plate, the injured player\u2019s teammates are more likely to hold a grudge\u2014and to try to get even. There are numerous opportunities to do that, whether by aiming a pitch at that player, or by seeking another opportunity to hurt him. When Posey was injured, the Giants\u2019 General Manager Brian Sabean said, \u201cIf I never hear from Cousins [who hit Posey] again or if he never plays another game in the big leagues, I think we\u2019ll all be happy.... We\u2019ll have a long memory.\u201d [1] This is exactly the unsportsmanlike behaviour engendered by these dangerous and unnecessary plays.  Former MLB catcher Mike Matheny noted that catchers don\u2019t forget when they get hit, saying, \u201cI think you just put a mark in the column that that kid took a run at a catcher. To me as a catcher I know the next time I get the ball I'm going to stick it to him. You make those notes as a catcher.\u201d [2]  [1] \u201cSource: Joe Torre to call Brian Sabean,\u201d ESPN.com News Services, June 3, 2011,  .  [2] R.B. Fallstrom, \u201cMatheny critical of Cousins\u2019 hit on Posey,\u201d Associated Press, May 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con03a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are unnecessary.  Baseball doesn\u2019t need collisions. By requiring the runner to slide, just as they must do when attempting to reach other bases, or disallowing catchers to block runners\u2019 paths, or\u2014best of all\u2014requiring both those steps, baseball can eliminate collisions.  Unlike in football or rugby, hits at the plate are not a necessary component of the sport. The game is played quite well at the amateur level without such brutal physical contact. [1] Collisions occur relatively infrequently, and the complexion of the game will not be dramatically different without them. Yet the benefits of improved safety are dramatic.  [1] See, for example, American Legion Baseball Rules, Rule 1(E),  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con01a","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Collisions are dangerous and lead to injury.  Ray Fosse and Buster Posey (mentioned above in the Introduction) are just two examples of players who suffered major injuries in crashes at home plate. Texas Rangers star Josh Hamilton, reigning Most Valuable Player of the American League, broke his arm when he collided with a catcher in 2011. In August 2010, Cleveland Indians catcher Carlos Santana suffered a season-ending knee injury when he was hit by Red Sox runner Ryan Kalish. To go back a few more seasons, Braves catcher Greg Olson was having a career year in 1992 until Ken Caminiti broke his leg in a collision. There have been literally dozens of severe injuries suffered in bang-bang plays at the plate.  This high rate of injury should come as no surprise, given the physics involved in this type of play. A simulation with a crash-test dummy wired with sensors showed that a catcher can get hit by a runner travelling 18 miles per hour, resulting in 3,200 pounds of force\u2014much worse than an American football hit, with much less padding. [1]  Teams make heavy investments in their players, paying them millions of dollars a year. Thus, serious injuries are very expensive, both because of the treatment required and because the player is missing many games. This is why the Oakland Athletics instructed their top catcher, Kurt Suzuki, to avoid blocking the plate\u2014because their investment in him is worth more than whatever runs he allows by failing to stop the runner from scoring. [2]  When players are injured in these plays, it\u2019s also bad for fans, who will lose the opportunity to see their favourite athletes on the field. As Bruce Bochy, Busty Posey\u2019s manager with the Giants, told the media after he lost his star catcher to injury: \u201cAnd here\u2019s a guy that\u2019s very popular in baseball. Fans want to see him play, and now he\u2019s out for a while.\u201d [3]  [1] Joel Siegel, Barbara Pinto, and Tahman Bradley, \u201cCatcher Collision Ignites Baseball Rules Debate,\u201d ABC News, May 28, 2011,  .  [2] Buster Olney, \u201cBilly Beane issues home plate directive,\u201d ESPN The Magazine, June 1, 2011,  .  [3] Tim Kawakami, \u201cBochy on Posey\u2019s injury: \u2018Hopefully the guys are not happy\u2014I\u2019m certainly not happy,\u2019\u201d MercuryNews.com (Talking Points blog), May 26, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con04b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"A clean hit will not heighten tensions between teams. Players recognize when a collision is \u201cdirty\u201d and when it is entirely within the rules and spirit of the game. After the Posey hit, a baseball columnist summed up \u201cthe consensus viewpoint\u201d of baseball professionals and journalists: \u201cIt was a clean play.\u201d [1]  In the 2011 playoffs, Texas Rangers Mike Napoli was barrelled over by Sean Rodriguez of the Los Angeles Angels. Napoli said afterward, \u201cIt was a fine, clean play. He was trying to score. I\u2019m going to try to do the same thing if I\u2019m trying to score and a guy is blocking the plate in that moment.\u201d [2] As long as a player is not intending to hurt another and does not use unnecessary force, players on both teams are unlikely to hold grudges.  The threat of retaliation for \u201cdirty\u201d hits is actually a useful deterrent to gratuitous force. Players are much less likely to hurt each other if they know that there will be consequences for that behaviour.  [1] Bruce Jenkins, \u201cBuster Posey\u2019s injury provokes anger, reflection,\u201d San Francisco Chronicle, May 27, 2011,  .  [2] Richard Durrett, \u201cCatcher Mike Napoli fine after collision,\u201d ESPN.com, October 5, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con02b","title":"team sports house believes major league baseball should continue allow collisions","text":"Some level of violence is called for in baseball. Just because most plays in baseball do not involve contact does not mean that no plays should involve contact. It has been a part of the game for decades, so it is false to argue that it is not part of the game, or to assert that baseball is not a contact sport at all.  There is also a clear difference between violence that is intended to injure an opponent\u2014for example, in a boxing match or an ice hockey fight\u2014and physical contact that is aimed at a valid objective, such as scoring a run. A beanball is not a way to achieve a valid objective. In addition, a beanball is much more dangerous than a collision at home plate. A beanball has resulted in a fatality at an MLB game [1] ; no home-plate collision has even come close.  [1] \u201cBeaned by a Pitch, Ray Chapman Dies,\u201d New York Times, Aug. 17, 1920,  ."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro02b","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"While it is inexpensive to set up and run this is relatively expensive for the community compared to commercial radio, which is free to the user and perfectly capable of promoting the ideas of the free market which have had a proven benefit to democratic structures the world over.  In addition to which, realistically, democratic participation will end up involving larger national bodies such as trades union, political parties and civil society organisations who need to operate on a nationwide basis but also have larger budgets."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro02a","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Radio is cheap to produce and easily accessible.  Community radio relies on the power of its ideas and the thirst for those ideas among its audience. It accepts the notion that it is the exchange of information and views, freely given and received, that is more important than the ideas themselves.  It doesn\u2019t require massive budgets and radio waves can be received on equipment that costs pennies; more importantly it can be shared.  For all of its pretensions of accessibility the devices used to access the Internet tend to be expensive and they also tend not to be shared \u2013 unlike radios [i] .  To give some context to this, even paying Western prices, a small radio station can be started for as little as $10,000 with monthly costs of $1,000 [ii] . Some of that, of course, relates to government issued licences, clearly this does not apply if the station is planning to be ignored by the authorities. These costs can be further reduced when the founders have a pre-existing knowledge of radio engineering or work with a partner organisation such as the BBC World Service or the various NGOs who specialise in the field [iii] .  [i] Plunkett, John, Community radio: A rare success story. The Guardian. 9 March 2009.  [ii] Prometheus Radio Project.  [iii] Wikipedia. Community Radio."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro03b","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Once again, Proposition is conflating things that tend to go along with community development and those that cause it. The fact that vibrant and active communities, duly engaged in wider society, frequently set up institutions such as community radio in no way demonstrates that it encourages civic participation."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro01a","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Community radio gives voices to the people rather than imposing those of the powerful.  The events of the Arab Spring (and previous events such as the revolutions of 1989) have shown that effective means of communicating are vital. In a country where people have heard only one perspective, anything that can break the monopoly is to be welcomed. As Orwell put it, \u200e'In an age of universal deceit, to tell the truth is a subversive act'.  Community radio can both encourage an initial outpouring of democracy and, just as importantly, ensure that a diversity of opinions means that one autocratic regime is not just replaced by another.  In almost all other forms of mass communication, genuinely democratic voices are easily swamped by those with either the power or the money to drown out the competition [i] . As the focus of community radio is public service, rather than profit, responsible to \u2013 and frequently produced by \u2013 their listener base there do not have commercial advertisers\u2019 aversion to upsetting authority \u2013 either political or cultural. As a result they are free to eschew the bland lowest common denominator approach that is so typical of commercial radio.  [i] AMARC (World Association of Community Radio) booklet. What is Community Radio? 1998."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro01b","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Community radio can indeed do the many wondrous things that Prop seems to trust it to do. It can also do more or less anything else. If proposition is trying to demonstrate that community radio, per se, supports democracy, then it needs to demonstrate how it does so more than, say, libraries or coffee shop discussion groups. It may be a public service that is responsible to the community but that does not mean that it cannot be infiltrated and controlled by the state like any other service."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro03a","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Community radio evens the playing field against state and corporate broadcasters.  Autocracy has, at its root, the premise that only one perspective, or group of perspectives is legitimate. Certain assumptions are unquestionable, certain rules inviolable and, more often than not, certain voices unchallengeable.  It\u2019s all too easy for that state of affairs to be normalised. Community radio offers another voice. More to the point it offers many.  As well as the value of the messages themselves, the very fact that they are there and broadcast is a powerful statement against autocratic assumptions. The process of establishing and running a community radio station is, in and of itself, a powerful fillip for community cohesion.  Giving voices to communities supports them as groups in their own right; cohesive, engaged and worthy of respect. In doing so it can provide a focus which increases the homogeneity of those communities without requiring the approval of a central structure of control [i] . In addition to well known examples such as Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, radio stations across the Middle East And, especially, Africa have been key movers in the shift to democracy [ii] .  [i] Siddharth. Riding the radio wave; Community radio in South-East Asia. Culture360.org 18 February 2010.  [ii] Buckley, Steve, President, World Association for Community Radio Broadcasters. Community Broadcasting: good practice in policy, law and regulation. UNESCO. 2008."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con03b","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"It is a platform, but it\u2019s a platform with history \u2013 one that has allowed small or marginalised groups to have a voice. Of course a radio station won\u2019t build democratic strength on its own but it is an important tool in normalising the concept that the voices of those communities have both worth and power."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con01b","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Opposition is letting state-sanctioned media off the hook fantastically lightly. Just staying within the Arab world, the number of broadcasters that sully the name of journalism by acting as apologists for butchers and torturers is astonishing. One example of this \u2013 selected utterly at random from an embarrassment of riches \u2013 was the state media\u2019s declaration of historic victories by both Milosovich and Saddam Hussein after both had received drubbings from Western allies [i] . There is at least a chance that a broadcaster won\u2019t be just a voice for the state if it isn\u2019t funded or run by the president or one of his closest allies or appointees.  [i] Ash, Timothy Garton, Facts are Subversive. The Strange Toppling of Slobodan Milo\u0161evi\u0107. Atlantic Books. 2009. This account is one of many, many others that highlight the importance of the control of media centres in democratic shift. However, it highlights the Serbian state media\u2019s proclamation of Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s \u2018victories\u2019 against the west but also the impact of this when, fallowing the dictator\u2019s fall, it was the seizure of the state TV and Radio stations, rather than parliament or the presidential palace, that denoted victory."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con02a","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Radio is yesterday\u2019s technology.  Proposition is right to point out the role that has traditionally been filled by relatively small scale radio \u2013 providing a relatively cheap method of getting in touch with anybody willing to listen. However, that has, effectively, been rendered redundant by Internet technology. The power of Facebook, Youtube and other sites to disseminate ideas and information as well as phone texting has not only matched that role but surpassed it.  With no capital costs in an era of internet cafes and omnipresent cell phones, the free exchange of information through digital and portable technology has met exactly the needs and concerns Proposition highlights. [i]  Suggesting that community radio will somehow supplement or enhance that process it taking a step backwards; support for the relatively monolithic radio model runs all of the risks of empowering extremists already mentioned without even equalling the benefits of texting and social media [ii] .  [i] Helling, Alex, \u2018This House would use foreign aid funds to research and distribute software that allows bloggers and journalists in non democratic countries to evade censorship and conceal their online activities\u2019, freespeechdebate.idebate.org, 18 May 2012.  [ii] Hood, Michael, NPR CEO: Internet will replace broadcast radio in 5-10 years. Blatherwatch, 3 June 2010."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con03a","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Community radio is just a platform, there is nothing innately democratic about it.  To associate a medium with a particular virtue is missing the point. Radio has been used for atrocity and tyranny (Rwanda would be an obvious example) just as much as the promotion and development of democracy. Equally the suggestion that community radio has a more significant role to play in this regard as opposed to, say, the BBC world Service, is ignoring the facts.  Particular media cannot be said to support democratic renewal any more than particular languages can. Equally, the revolutions of 1989 demonstrated the reality that taking control of the national radio station is, in some situations, more important than seizing the Presidential Palace. Neither the \u2018community\u2019 element nor the \u2018radio\u2019 aspect are innately democratic.  Different media have, undeniably, produced different types of social change \u2013 but they all have possibilities for democratic progress [i] .  [i] Sedra, Mark, Revolution 2.0: democracy promotion in the age of social media. The Globe and Mail. 2 February 2011."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con01a","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"Community radio just gives a megaphone to extremists.  Experience suggests that the airwaves, unregulated, tend to attract pedagogues seeking followers more than democrats seeking the views of others. Particularly in areas of high sectarian divisions, technologies that propagate the views of every mullah with a mic are unlikely to help democracy in the middle east. Indeed the experience with the nearest equivalent in the US, talk radio, shows how fantastically divisive it can be. [i]  Community radio in areas that do not have a history of plurality and diversity of opinion would be likely to see the spread of radio stations pandering to the specific views of every shard and splinter of opinion, reinforcing that particular set of beliefs while ignoring all others \u2013 it is difficult to imagine a more toxic \u2013 and less democratic \u2013 option to encourage in the Arab world [ii] .  The difficulty, as shown in the reference given in the previous paragraph, is that exactly the same ease of access applies to fanatics as to democrats \u2013 who may, frequently, be the same people. In the instance of Rwanda, extremists inciting violence (almost entirely Hutus) had acquired small scale radio equipment. The government couldn\u2019t afford the jamming equipment (the US jamming flights would cost $8500 per hour) and sought assistance from the Americans. The UN objected as such actions were clearly sectarian. However, the wide use of Radio \u2013 initially funded by the West \u2013 which, in part at least had lead to the genocide then left a toxic legacy of fanatics dominating the airwaves, those involved were eventually convicted in 2003. [iii]  [i] Noriega, Chin A, and Iribarren, Francisco Javier, \u2018Quantifying Hate Speech on Commercial Talk Radio\u2019, Chicano Studies Research Center, November 2011.  [ii] Wisner, Frank G., \u2018Memorandum for deputy assistant to the president for national security affairs, national security council, Department of Defense, 5 May 1994.  [iii] Smith, Russell, \u2018The impact of hate media in Rwanda\u2019, BBC News, 3 December 2003.  Dale, Alexander C., \u2018Countering hate messages that lead to violence: The United Nations\u2019s chapter VII authority to use radio jamming to halt incendiary broadcasts\u2019, Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, Vol 11. 2001."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con02b","title":"media and good government house believes community radio good","text":"For all of its potential, the idea that the Internet is a worldwide force is something of a Western conceit. That fact is doubly the case when discussing the social media sites that Op seems to think are such a panacea. These sites \u2013 and the Internet in general \u2013 are overwhelmingly white, Western and wealthy."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro02b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"Proposition are obfuscating attacks on the right to a free expression of religious faith, free of ridicule or threat for doing so behind the BBCs obligation to be fair. This right is established in national and international law where it is not treated as comparable to what someone might find interesting as part of the nights viewing. The latter is clearly trivial by comparison to the former.  Those leading the protests have been quite clear that they have no objection to free speech and discussing, and disagreeing with, various religious themes \u2013 so long as that is done in a respectful manner. It was offensive that it had been shown at the National Theatre and then in Cambridge; for it to be broadcast on the de facto \u2018flag carrier\u2019 of British broadcasting is simply unfair to the many Christian licence fee payers who help fund the BBC\u2019s output [i] .  [i] The Christian Voice. Statement from their website in 2005."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro02a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"Many people find the views expressed by much of the church offensive, those views are given airtime, a public service broadcaster should provide a level playing field for ideas.  The role of a public service broadcaster, especially one of the stature of the BBC, is to provide a portal for ideas from all perspectives. There are many who take either irritation or offence at the idea that the Corporation devotes a disproportionate time and resources to what, in modern Britain, is a strictly minority interest [i] with fewer than seven per cent of people regularly attending religious worship.  Many perceive commonly held positions in the mainstream churches \u2013 let alone more extreme sects \u2013 to be offensive or reactionary and, in some cases, a cover for homophobic, illiberal or sexist opinions.  If religious opinion is to be granted this airtime for the benefit of a small, if vocal, minority then it seems both unfair and unprofessional for that broadcaster to be constrained by that groups views in relation to the rest of its output.  The BBC, like most major broadcasters, meets the challenge of divergent or conflicting views by providing some output that is considered likely to be of interest to each viewpoint.  [i] National Secular Society. Press Release: \u201cBBC Must Not Become the Evangelical Wing of the Church of England.\u201d 9 February 2010."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro03b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"It is wrong to suggest that the BBC has any duty on account of its relative funding freedom to give a platform to controversial works of art. On the contrary the BBC has a higher obligation to viewers not to offend them because they are also licence payers. Highlighting the BBC\u2019s global audience also has little meaning as the global audience did not all have the opportunity to watch the programme \u2013 the numbers are global and include radio. The 1,500 protesters outside BBC studios was a small slice of the tens of thousands who voiced their protest in one form or another. These protests took place outside productions around the world involving Christians from many walks of life as well as the numerous complaints. However the BBC, dominated by an out of touch urban elite, clearly had little interest in the huge amount of offence that it had caused."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro01a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"This was a piece of art, advertised and described as such, those likely to be offended were quite welcome not to watch it.  The allegation made by those who objected to the airing of this show was that it was blasphemous. There were also objections to the graphic nature of the language and sexual reference. It seems staggeringly unlikely that 55,000 [i] people had accidently been watching opera on BBC 2 having failed to watch any of the warnings in advance or the fairly extensive media discussion in advance of the broadcast.  Therefore, those who watched it made a choice to do so \u2013 and it seems reasonable to consider that an informed choice. A free society is predicated on the fact that adults have the right to make choices. In turn that is based on the shared understanding that those choices have consequences; which may, potentially, cause some degree of harm to the person making that choice. Having been warned that watching the broadcast may cause them offence, viewers still chose to and some, it seems, were duly offended.  It seems reasonable, therefore, to assume that the shock was either feigned or a matter of pretence. Which leaves the matter of blasphemy; an offence against a belief system. There was no secret that religious issues were likely to feature in the broadcast and no secret was made of the fact that those views were likely to be both critical and forthright. Tuning in, specifically to be offended by something that the viewer had been warned they might find offensive seems perverse.  By contrast, art lovers who wished to see the production - which had received four Lawrence Olivier Awards among other tributes \u2013 had the opportunity to experience a theatrical work they would have had a limited opportunity to witness had it not been broadcast nationally.  It would be bizarre to disadvantage those who wanted to \u2013 and actually did \u2013 see the performance (about 1.7 million [ii] )because of the views of those who neither wanted to see it or refused to do so  [i] Wikipedia entry: \u201cJerry Springer: The Opera\u201d  [ii] BBC News Website. \u201cGroup to Act Over singer Opera.\u201d 10 January 2005."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro01b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"As Proposition suggest, the broadcast had been widely discussed in the media before the event and there had been reviews of the stage performance as well as coverage of the subsequent awards. It cannot have come as a huge surprise that this would attract attention from, and cause great offence to, many people with an interest in the popular portrayal of religion. The trick of deliberately stoking allegations of blasphemy and obscenity to improve the ratings of a fairly obscure art form is as old as it is contemptible.  Equally there is a secondary level of impact in terms of how the deep beliefs of people of faith will be represented to those who choose to watch and are not offended. They are hardly likely to have their perceptions of those beliefs enhanced by seeing matters portrayed in this way. There is, therefore, the risk that the interaction between those two groups will be effected in a deleterious way."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro04b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"There is clearly a different threshold between the questions \u201cdo I like soap operas?\u201d and \u201cdo I appreciate having my beliefs excoriated on national TV?\u201d The difficulty here is that many who took offence saw the programme as a direct attack on themselves personally, their beliefs and the others who shared their faith."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro03a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"There is a duty for a broadcaster that is not dependent on either commercial or state funding to give a platform to controversial works of art.  The BBC is in an unusual position, simply because of its funding structure, to promote new or challenging works of art. The licence fee means that it is freed of many of the pressures brought to bear by either commercial or political masters. Although it has never taken that to mean it has a carte blanche, it does allow for opportunities simply not available to many broadcasters in terms showcasing new works of art and encouraging creative development.  The BBC\u2019s global audience in 2007 was 233 million [i] . That audience provides some context for the 1,500 who actively protested this particular broadcast.  It seems reasonable to suggest that many of those millions follow the BBC because they trust the Corporation\u2019s approach of providing the widest possible range of output and opinion. For such an organisation to capitulate to a prudish group \u2013 who were outside BBC venues at the time so couldn\u2019t have seen the broadcast \u2013 would be a huge betrayal of that trust.  [i] BBC News Website. \u201cBBC Global Audience Hits New High\u201d. 21 May 2007."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro04a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"It is simply impractical for a major international broadcaster to hand out powers of veto to small sectional interests.  The BBC would quickly be left with a content either devoid of interest or of content were it to allow such a veto to become normative. Especially were it, as appears to be the case here, to offer such a veto to people who didn\u2019t watch the programme.  As a result, although some of the responsibility for avoiding offence lies with the broadcaster at least an equal share must lie with the viewer. Even at the more basic level of \u2018will I like this\u2019, responsibility lies with both parties. The BBC undertakes to provide a diverse range of programming so that there is a reasonable chance that the overwhelming majority should be able to find something of interest but does so on the assumption that people will watch what they find interesting.  Likewise, it is reasonable to assume that people will not go out of their way to watch things that they already expect to find offensive."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con03b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"The BBC may be unusual but it is designed to fulfill particular functions. The very reason for its existence is to provide a platform for the free expression of a wide range of views, tailored to a wide range of viewers. Within that context, it cannot be expected that everyone will feel equally comfortable with every programme \u2013 indeed if that were the case, they would be breaching their own commitments to reflect diverse, often special, interests. There are other services and broadcasters who receive support from the licence fee, so those who wish to view elsewhere are not throwing away their investment. [i]  [i] Holmwood, Leigh et al., \u2018Digital Britain: BBC licence fee to help fund broadband and ITV local news\u2019, the Guardian, 16 June 2009."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con01b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"BBC Director General, Mark Thompson, who is himself a practising Christian, said that he found \u2018nothing blasphemous\u2019 about the programme [i] . The protests were small and overwhelmingly organised by one group. There is simply no case for a right not to be offended by something you\u2019ve seen; far less for something you haven\u2019t. This would equally apply if the programme had been offensive to some Muslims as it does to a programme that is offensive to some Christians.  [i] BBC News Website. \u201cProtests as BBC Screens Springer\u201d. 10 January 2005."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con02a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"Tens of thousands of licence fee payers objected to this, ultimately they are the BBC\u2019s key stakeholder and that view is worthy of respect.  As an institution, the BBC may like to position itself as a global media brand but that doesn\u2019t alter the fact that it is funded by, and chartered to serve, the British population. The whole British population. That combination \u2013 paying the pipers and calling the tune \u2013 would suggest that the corporation might be sensitive to that group.  If 50,000 to 60,000 users of any other brand registered their protest or objection to a product put forward by that brand, it would cause chaos, resignations, sackings and a rethink of whatever strategy had caused the problem in the first place.  In the case of the BBC, it caused a few slightly dismissive comments from senior managers, one editor resigned because he felt that the protesters comments were not being taken seriously and the organisation continued as though nothing had happened.  The sheer arrogance required for that response beggars belief. The BBC, as a public institution has a duty of care that might be thought of as greater than that of a private corporation. And yet it gave the impression of acting like it was just one of the other venues who had staged the opera. There is clearly a difference between a theatre that I choose to attend or not \u2013 and choose whether to support financially \u2013 and the national broadcaster which is beamed into people\u2019s living room paid for by a compulsory licence fee."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con03a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"Why should those who foot the bill have chunks of airtime from which they are, effectively, excluded.  How can it be okay for a broadcaster, funded by a compulsory levy on anyone who owns a television, to willingly produce programmes they know will cause offence to that consumer?  The charge of blasphemy is far more than saying \u2018I didn\u2019t enjoy this\u2019 or \u2018not my kind of show\u2019, it is a deeply held belief that what has been said is a deliberate and willful attack on values and beliefs that the viewer holds sacred and fundamental to who they are.  All major broadcasters, including the BBC, routinely test shows and monitor audience response and yet, in this particular regard, feel relaxed about producing material that certain viewers would consider it not only uncomfortable but sinful to watch. By definition, those viewers cannot watch those shows or, quite probably, that station and yet they are still expected to pay for it.  Even if a British viewer were to choose never to watch the BBC again because of the offence caused by programmes such as Jerry Springer: The Opera, they would still be paying the salaries of those who had caused the offence in the first place. That cannot be reasonable by any standard."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con01a","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"If this work had been an attack on Mohammed it would never have been broadcast, the BBC is applying double standards.  A week before the broadcast of the opera, protest by Sikhs in Birmingham about the play Bezthi by the Birmingham Rep, brought the show to a close. Like many organisations, the BBC panics when it believes it has caused offence to some religions and yet Christianity \u2013 by far the world\u2019s most populous and diverse creed [i] - is routinely ignored or expected to \u2018take it on the chin.  Christian symbols and imagery are routinely profaned by major broadcasters, publishers and others in a way that would simply not be tolerated if they were directed at \u2018minority\u2019 faiths in the UK.  Article Four (4) of the BBC\u2019s charter [ii] stipulates quite clearly that all of the UK\u2019s communities should be reflected in all of its activities. Despite this the interests of the community that is represented by the established church of the country, headed by the monarch, receives the least support or consideration from the institution.  [i]   [ii] BBC Charter."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con02b","title":"nothing sacred house believes bbc should be free blaspheme","text":"In the same way that the BBC is routinely criticised from the political Right for its Left-wing bias and from the Left for a supposed favouritism to the Right, maintaining balance in any sphere of life is difficult. Freedom of speech demands that such a balance is maintained, however hard to do. That balance can mean that last week\u2019s bosom buddies may be this week\u2019s fiercest foes. The reality of both free expression and a public service ethos mean that one cannot, constantly yield to the cry of \u2018more of what I like\u2019. Any broadcaster could not show a greater disrespect to its viewers than by assuming they could not be capable of dealing with new ideas."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro02b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"The media always want a good story; they are interested in the health of celebrities when there is no clear reason why they should have any right to this private information. The health of the leader is not something that the press or public needs to know about unless it is an illness that is likely to affect the president\u2019s capacity to make decisions. A government\u2019s decision should not be based upon the possibility that information on the leader\u2019s health will leak and should take a consistent line that it is a private matter or provide a bare minimum of information."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro02a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"The people are interested in the health of their leader  The health of the leader of the state is an issue that the people and the media inevitably want to know about. There will always be a lot of interest in it. Occasionally this can be played by the administration as with Kissinger saying he was ill and using time to fly to Beijing to arrange for Nixon\u2019s visit without press attention. But most of the time keeping things from the press is purely negative; it drives rumors.  This was the case of John Atta Mills, people were not allowed to know about his health. The presidential staff and communication members constantly lied about his health but there were two reports that he had died. Mills spent time in a US hospital, on returning to Ghana, he was made to jog around the airport to show the media that he was healthy. 1  1 Committee for Social Advocacy, 'Who and what killed President John Evans Atta Mills?', Modern Ghana, 13 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro03b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Administrative capabilities should not be compared to health. Unhealthy leaders may perform better than the healthy ones, people could be misled to choose inappropriate leaders while taking health as a black spot while the leader could actually have a better potential than the rest. If the electorate had just elected on the basis of health, or had been fully informed about presidents health then it is plausible that neither FD Roosevelt of JF Kennedy would have been elected. Neither completely hid their illnesses but they were not discussed and did not become election issues as they would have in a modern election. 1  1 Berish, Amy, \u2018FDR and Polio\u2019, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro01a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"The head of state\/government must be accountable to the people  Secrecy in relation to the leader\u2019s health shows a distrust or distain of the electorate. Not being open about health issues almost invariably means that the administration is lying to those who elected them, those who they are accountable to. A couple of days before John Atta Mills died Nii Lantey Vanderpuye a candidate for Mills\u2019 party stated \u201cHe [Mills] is stronger and healthier than any presidential candidate\u201d, information that in retrospect was clearly untrue. 1  1 Takyi-Boadu, Charles, \u2018Confusion Hits Mills\u2019, Modern Ghana, 21 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro01b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"If a candidate has a condition during an election campaign then there is a clear right to know when the electorate is making the decision. But does such a right to know apply at other times when it will make no difference to the people? There can only be a right to know if it is going to affect the people, something that many illnesses won\u2019t do."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro04b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"All of these procedures could be put in place even if there is secrecy. Doctors are already committed to patient-doctor confidentiality so are unlikely to tell the press if they are told beforehand to be ready to receive the President."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro03a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Transparency allows citizens to choose for a healthy leader as to ensure proper functioning  The health and fitness of a leader is a vital issue when choosing a leader; the electorate deserves to know if they are likely to serve out their term. When health conditions are hidden from the people they may mistakenly elect a leader who is unable to serve a full term or is at times not in control of the country. There would be little point in voting for a leader who will often not truely be in charge of the country, if voters are told it becomes their choice whether this is a problem. Transparency in terms of clear, accurate and up-to-date information is necessary for the electorate to judge the fitness of a leader which is a necessary precondition for election. In a democracy a leader needs to be accountable, he can only be accountable if the elctorate knows such vital information."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro04a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"A lack of transparency can endanger the leader  A person is most likely to survive when they have an accident, a heart attack, or some other condition if they get prompt treatment and doctors are aware of any underlying conditions. Mills may well have lived, or lived longer if there had been more transparency about his death. There had been no prior warning that the president might be rushed to hospital despite the doctors having been called in the previous day. For the same reason his outriders were not available leading to indecision over whether to send off the ambulance. And finally he was initially turned away from the emergency ward because they did not know it was the President they were being asked to treat. 1 Transparency would allow procedures to be in place and advance notice given possibly gaining a few minutes and enabling survival.  1 Daily Guide, \u2018How Mills died: Sister tells it all\u2019, My Joy Online, 31 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con03b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Deputy leaders are appointed and they are well versed with how the leader is managing issues and are capable of taking up the role immediately after the leader resigns or dies. Being open and transparent about a leader being ill simply creates the lack of stability. If he lives it is best if the illness is not revealed as everything will carry on as before. If the leader dies then it is best nothing is known until his successor is announced so reducing the period of uncertainty."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con01b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"When leaders choose to serve the country they should be ready to sacrifice their privacy for the country. There is clearly a different standard for those who are in government and should be publicly accountable to those who are not. Even more minor illnesses can damage the running of the country through either affecting the judgment of the leader or limiting the amount of time he can work. The people have the right to demand their leader has his full attention of the issues affecting the nation. If he can't do that then he should resign."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con02a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Rivals could misuse the opportunity  While the leader suffers from an illness, rivals can use the opportunity to ease the leader out of office. A period of illness is a period of vulnerability in which the government is less able to respond to external and internal threats. Not telling the public about the leader's health during an illness helps prevent such attempts. The same is the case with a leader's death; a few days of secrecy allows for smooth succession as the appointed successor has the time to ensure the loyalty of the government, army and other vital institutions. In 2008 when General Lansana Conte of Guinea died power should have been transferred to the president of the National Assembly Aboubacar Sompare with an election within 90 days. Instead a group of junior military officers took advantage of the quick announcement to launch a coup. 1  1 Yusuf, Huma, \u2018Military coup follows death of Guinea\u2019s President\u2019, The Christian Science Monitor, 23 December 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con04a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Damages diplomacy to be too open  Diplomacy can be very personal; diplomatic initiatives are often the result of a single person, and the individual leader is necessary to conclude negotiations. Transparency about a leader's health may therefore prevent deals being done; Nixon went to China despite Mao's ill heath meaning the supreme Chinese leader contributed little to the historic change in diplomatic alinements. 1 Would such a momentous change in alignment have been possible if both the Chinese and American public knew about Mao's ill health? The Americans would have considered any deal unreliable as they could not be sure it was Mao who made the decision, while opponents in China could have argued that it was advisers like Zhou Enlai who made the deal not Mao himself potentially enabling them to repudiate or undermine the deal.  1 Macmillan, Margaret, Seize the Hour When Nixon met Mao, John Murray, London, 2006, p.76"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con03a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Markets like stability  Business and the markets prize political stability. Clearly when the leader of a country is ill this stability is damaged but the damage can be mitigated by being transparent. The markets will want to know how ill the leader is, and that the succession is secure so that they know what the future holds. Secrecy and the consequent spread of rumour is the worst option as businesses can have no idea what the future holds so cant make investment decisions that will be influenced by the political environment.  Leaders do matter to the economy; they set the parameters of the business environment, the taxes, subsidies, how much bureaucracy. They also influence other areas like the price of energy, the availability of transport links etc. It has been estimated that \u201ca one standard deviation change in leader quality leads to a growth change of 1.5 percentage points\u201d. 1 The leader who follows may be of the same quality in which case there will be little difference but equally it could mean a large change.  1 Jones, Benjjamin F., and Olken, Benjamin A., 'Do Leaders Matter? National Leadership and Growth Since World War II', Quarterly Journal of Economics, February 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con01a","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Denial of privacy to the leaders  The leaders of states deserve privacy in exactly the same way as anyone else. Just like their citizens leaders want and deserve privacy and it would be unfair for everyone to know about their health. Leaders may suffer from diseases such AIDS\/HIV or embarrassing illnesses which could damage a leader.  The people only a need for the people to know when the illness significantly damages the running of the government. The government can function on its own without its leader for several days; only if the illness incapacitates the leader for a long period is there any need to tell the people. Clearly if the President is working from his bed he is still doing the job and his government is functioning. William Pitt the Younger, Prime Minister of Great Britain was toasted as 'the Saviour of Europe' while he was seriously ill but still running the country during the height of the Napoleonic Wars. 1  1 Bloy, Marjie, 'William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806)', Victorian Web, 4 January 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con04b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"If the leader in-charge is in illness, to avoid any repudiation, the representative from the other side could meet the leader in order to confirm or even have a video conference with the leader in charge. The leader only needs to set the overall policy, not negotiate the fine details. When Nixon went to China the Americans knew Mao was ill but realised that he still set the overall direction of policy."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con02b","title":"free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Transparency is still better than secrecy. There are several reasons why the opportunity of instability is as present when keeping the leader's health a secret. The first is that it is likely that at least some of the leader's rivals are in government so are likely to be in the loop on any illness. In this case secrecy simply gives these individuals more opportunity to do as they wish. Secondly a lack of transparency creates uncertainty which can be filled by a rival wanting to seize power; if the leader is just ill and there is a void of information it is simply for rivals to seize the narrative and claim he is dead enabling their takeover."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro02b","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"A bargaining chip, by definition needs to be part of a bargain. Using it to demand a change in the structure of the state as a whole is hardly reaching a bargain \u2013 it\u2019s dictating a fiat. An invitation from a country to a university is a big step in expressing an interest in how that institution works and the values it promotes. Using that as an opening to demonstrate the strength of those ideas is an opportunity that should not be dismissed."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro02a","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"A bargaining chip  In much the same way that material investment in countries can be used as a bargaining chip to secure improvements in areas of legislation, so cultural investment can be used to secure rights associated with related fields of endeavour. Free speech is merely the most obvious. It is reasonable for a western university to insist that its graduates will need to have access to the fruits of a free press and democratic speculation of experts and the wider public [i] .  The cases of the lecturer, Chia Thye Poh who is arguably the world\u2019s longest serving prisoner of conscience or the political opposition leader, Vincent Cheng who was barred from addressing a talk organised the History Society of NUS at the national library [ii] both give examples of how Singaporean government actions impact directly on university life and academic freedoms. In the light of this, it seems the height of reasonableness for Western universities to say that they will only operate in areas that offer the same academic freedoms they would expect in their home country. If the Singaporean government wants that benefits that Yale graduates can bring, they should be prepared to accept such a change.  [i] Stateuniversity.Com. western Europe \u2013 Educational roots, reform in the twentieth century, contemporary reform trends, future challenges.  [ii] Ex-detainee Vincent Cheng barred from speaking in history seminar, The Online Citizen, 28 May 2010"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro03b","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Employers measure degrees by the academic results they indicate. The level of political engagement of the individuals is not critical \u2013 or even relevant \u2013 to that measure. In a global market of tens of millions of students graduating every year [i] an increase of a few thousand in those graduating from top universities will do little to dilute their iconic brands while taking advantage of communications technologies to justify their global reputation. University Senates determine whether degrees can be awarded in their name and it is scarcely in their interest to damage their own reputation. [ii]  [i] There are approximately 150 million students in the world and for the purposes of this debate, that number has simply been divided by three. Source material can be found here .  [ii] Jones et al., \u2018The Academic Senate and University Governance in Canada\u2019, The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, Vol.XXXIV, No.2, 2004, pp.35-68, p.50, 57"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro01a","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"The academic tradition of the West  The growth of universities as beacons of free speech has been a fundamental part of their history in the West; notably during the renaissance, reformation and enlightenment. The democratisation of that process with the expansion of the university sector in recent decades is merely the latest stage in an ongoing process.  However, that entire process has been driven (along with the artistic, cultural and scientific changes they have inculcated) on the basis that universities allow for the free exchange of ideas and flourish in environments where that approach is standardised throughout society [i] . Marxist scholars have gone further in calling for a critical pedagogy in which perspectives other than academic orthodoxy are normalised within universities.  Such institutions produce the best graduates because they have the best academics and the best academics will stay where they are free to publish whatever their research is and express their own views. For example in the 1990s 55.7% of those who had immigrated to the USA from the USSR described themselves as academics, scientists, professional or technical workers. [ii] Those academics in turn respect the intellectual tradition of dissent and critical scrutiny of which they are the inheritors. To take something else and slap the name \u2018Yale\u2019\u2013 or for that matter Oxford, Harvard or ETH Zurich \u2013 on it and pretend that nothing has changed devalues the qualification. Without the intellectual dissent and freedom of academic inquiry it is intellectually dishonest to call the degree the same thing.  [i] The Nebraskan. Doug Anderson. Learning depends on the free exchange of ideas, Nebraskan says.  [ii] Harvard, \u2018Russians and East Europeans in America\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro01b","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Universities also survived the inquisition, the French revolutionary terror and the tyrannies of twentieth century Europe. The issue being discussed here is not in the same league as any of those. There is, as a result, clearly nothing innate that requires an appreciation of free speech for universities to operate. Furthermore universities do not locate or relocate en masse depending on the direction of the political wind."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro03a","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Maintaining the value of the degree  Employers and others expect certain degrees to mean certain things; they are more than just an expensive badge. In the case of elite western universities part of what that means is a critical approach to the world and the willingness to challenge ideas, regardless of the authority that holds them. Part of their exclusivity derives from their admission standards, partly from the academic rigour of their scholars and partly from the simple fact that there are only a relatively small number of graduates.  In other areas universities are all too aware of selling their reputation \u2013 impartiality, avoiding plagiarism and so forth \u2013 the same should be true here. If a degree from a western university does not mean that it recognises issues such as creativity and free thinking then it devalues the degree itself.  As a result the very governments that are so keen to acquire the creative, critical skills offered by graduates of western-style education will end up undermining the very thing that they seek. This impacts not only the graduates from Asian campuses of western universities but also their peers at the home institution [i] .  [i] US-China Today. Jasmine Ako. Unraveling Plagiarism in China. 28 March 2011."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con01b","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"There is gradualism and then there is inertia. Refusing to cooperate with governments where individuals can be banned from addressing a group of students would seem to be setting the bar relatively low. In this particular instance, the bar doesn\u2019t appear to have been set anywhere. The example given by opposition is of one between states, this is between state actors and organisations who rely on the free expression of ideas as part of their raison d\u2019etre."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con02a","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"\u2018Separation of town and gown\u2019  There are two parties involved in this interaction, the state and the university. To pretend that is an entirely one way process is to ignore reality. Contrary to the belief of many Senior Common Rooms, states do not exist for the convenience of universities. Indeed universities quite happily accept the political and economic stability provided by states at exactly the same time as criticising the methods they need to use to maintain it.  However, ultimately universities are service providers from the point of view of the state, training and skilling the workforce. The university provides its expertise in exchange for funding and student fees. Where, exactly, the opinions of the faculty enter into such an equation is not clear and appears to have been assumed by proposition. Of course individual academics and students have the right to their own political views but the idea that a university as an institution has rights distinct from, say, a supermarket chain is impossible to justify. If a supermarket announced that it should be free to ignore local laws and adopt those of its base state instead, that would clearly be rejected. Just as when a food chain invests in a country for, say, beef, the arrangement is predicated on the understanding that both parties benefit and each has a little room for negotiation. [i] The same should apply here. If prop were to argue that Asian nations should relax there approach to cannabis so that it students could enjoy a more genuine \u2018Western student experience\u2019 the statement would be the subject of ridicule, so should this be.  [i] Smith, David, \u2018Tesco should give us some of these billions\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 15 May 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con03a","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Universities should exchange ideas not impose them  Of all possible institutions, for a university to suggest that it is not open to defending its ideas rather than insisting that they be artificially imported seems counter-intuitive. As Asian and European intellectual traditions increasingly interact as a result of economic interaction there are going to be clashes between and attempts to integrate the Confucian and Socratic approaches [i] . Part of that is the relationship between academia and the state. Western institutions seeking to establish themselves as a presence in Asia should at least be open to the idea that a different approach may have something to offer. After all a willingness to accept new ideas and attitudes is key to the ethic of any university \u2013 the assumption that such an exchange would only flow in one direction is astonishingly arrogant.  [i] This is true at every level, including simple things such as the approach taken by students to their studies. Inevitably, universities have responded to these in different ways in the two traditions.  Paton, Michael, \u2018Asian Students, Critical Thinking and English as an Academic Lingua Franca\u2019, Analytic teaching and philosophical praxis, Vol.32, No.1, pp.27-39 p.28"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con01a","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Argument One: Contact leads to the dissemination of values  There is certainly some evidence to suggest the view that trade with a country can benefit human rights as increased wealth provides many with more choice and better standards of living. [i] Certainly that argument has been made by governments and multi-nationals based in the West. It is not unreasonable to suspect that this may relate to academic cooperation as well, as Richard Levin suggests in the introduction. However it seems likely that in this latter case, as in the former, that a gradualist approach is the sensible one to take. We build on existing strengths while agreeing to differ in certain areas. To extend the trade example, China, the US and the EU all manage to trade with each other despite differing approaches to the death penalty. They trust that through cooperation over time, changes can be achieved. This will happen slowly in some instances \u2013 as with the \u2018drip, drip\u2019 affect in China - or quickly in others as has been the case in Burma [ii] .  On key difference to note with the shift towards establishing elite universities around the world rather than shipping the world\u2019s elite in to attend them in the UK and the US is that it opens opportunities to a much wider social group. For decades a small handful \u2013 children of the wealthy and political elite - have had the opportunity to have a Western education before returning home as well-educated tyrants and sycophants. Expanding the learning opportunities to the rest of the nation seems both just and reasonable.  [i] Sirico, Robert A., \u2018Free Trade and Human Rights: The Moral Case for Engagement\u2019, CATO Institute, Trade Briefing Paper no.2, 17 July 1998  [ii] Education has long been seen as a critical starting point for the development of human rights in any country as is examined in this UNESCO report ."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con02b","title":"y free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Singapore in this particular instance is securing far more than a \u2018service provider\u2019 from a university whose foundation precedes that of the state by over a century. Yale is an internationally identifiable brand, as would any other major university be, and Singapore and NUS benefit from that association. Yale is in a strong position here to argue for things that stretch well beyond the lecture theatre."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro02b","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"It is usually the task of movie classification organisations such as the MPAA and the British Board of Film Certification to judge whether the content of a film should be cut or altered. In most cases these groups will be politically independent, but may be politically appointed. They will make the decision to cut content based partly on the criteria described above. A movie will only be censored if it contains shocking or offensive images used in a way that suggests that violence is glamorous, entertaining or without consequences.  There is a broad consensus in western liberal democracies on what constitutes a highly shocking or offensive image. For example, in even the most permissive societies, open and public images of sexual intercourse would be considered problematic. Similarly, graphic depictions of violence against vulnerable individuals would be open to wide condemnation. The thing that unifies each of these categories of image is that they can be easily understood and interpreted by the majority of people. Even a casual observer can understand that pornography is pornography. This is part of the reason why some states try to control extreme images \u2013 because they are both powerful and emotive, and easy to produce, display and distribute.  However, music and lyrics are different from images. Language contains a degree of abstraction, depth and nuance that only the most unconventional (and non-commercial) film could replicate. This is problematic, because it is much harder for censors and members of the general public to agree on an exact definition of an offensive statement or form of words. Complex legal processes are used to determine whether or not offensive statements are sufficiently offensive to be classed as hate crimes. Even more complex are the legal procedures used to determine when an individual\u2019s reputation has been damaged by allegations published in books or periodicals.  It will be much harder for ratings or certification boards to decide when a particular song is violent or offensive due to the range of meanings and ambiguities that are built into language. For example, the verse  \u201cGot a temper nigga, go ahead, lose your head\/ turn your back on me, get clapped and lose your legs\/ I walk around gun on my waist, chip on my shoulder\/ \u2018til I bust a clip in your face, pussy, this beef ain\u2019t over,\u201d  can either be seen as a series of boastful threats, delivered directly by the musician, but it could also be reported speech \u2013 a lot of hip hop music is based on narratives or performer\u2019s accounts of past events. It could also be intended to invite condemnation of the behaviour of the character that the speaker has assumed. Hip hop artists frequently use alternative personas and \u201ccasts\u201d of characters to add depth to the narrative dimension of their tracks.  Under these circumstances, the process of classifying and censoring potentially violent lyrics is likely to become laborious. More important than the expense that this process will entail is the possibility that the chilling effect of a prolonged classification process will cause music publishers to stop promoting hip hop, metal and other genres linked with violent imagery. Lack of funds will curtail innovation and diversity in these genres."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro02a","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Hate speech  The enforcement of the laws proposed in this article will be fraught, complex and difficult. However, the difficulty of administering a law is never a good argument for refusing to enforce it.  The censorship of the written word ended in England with the Lady Chatterley and Oz obscenity trials, but this liberalisation of publication standards has not prevented the state from prosecuting hate speech when it appears in print. It is clear that, although we have more latitude than ever to say or write what we want (no matter how objectionable), standards and taboos continue to exist. We can take it that these taboos are especially important and valuable to the running of a stable society, as they have persisted despite the legal and cultural changes that have taken place over the last fifty years.  Hate speech is prosecuted and censored because of its power to intrude into the lives of individuals who have not consented to receive it. As pointed out in Jeremy Waldron\u2019s response [1] to Timothy Garton Ash\u2019s piece [2] on hate speech, hateful comments are not dangerous because they insight gullible individuals to abandon their inhibitions and engage in race riots. Hate speech is harmful because it recreates- cheaply and in front of a very large audience- an atmosphere in which vulnerable minorities are put in fear of becoming the targets of violence and prejudice. Additionally, hate speech harms by defaming groups, by propagating lies and half-truths about practices and beliefs, with the objective of socially isolating those groups.  Gangsta rap does all of these things, yet legal responses to the publication of songs containing such lyrics as \u201cRape a pregnant bitch and tell my friends I had a threesome,\u201d have been timid at best. Even if we maintain our liberal approach to taboo breaking forms of expression, we can still link hip hop to many of the harms that hate speech produces.  Gangsta rap gives the impression that African-American and Latin-American neighbourhoods throughout the USA are violent, lawless places. Even if the pronouncements of rappers such as 50 cent and NWA are overblown or fictitious they enforce social division by vividly discouraging people from entering or interacting with poor minority communities. They damage those communities directly by creating a fear of criminality that serves to limit trust and cohesion among individual community members. Finally, violent hip hop is also defamatory. It propagates an image of minority communities that emphasises violence, poverty and nihilism, whilst loudly proclaiming its authenticity. It is completely irrelevant that these images of minority communities are produced by members of those communities.  It is on this basis, however protracted the process of classification must become, that the content of hip hop songs should be assessed and censored. Liberal democracies are prepared to go to great lengths to adjudicate on speech that could potentially promote racial or religious hatred. The same standards should be applied to hip hop music, because it is capable of producing identical harms.  [1] Waldron, J. \u201cThe harm of hate speech\u201d. FreeSpeechDebate, 20 March 2012.  [2] Garton-Ash, T. \u201cLiving with difference\u201d. FreeSpeechDebate, 22 January 2012."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro03b","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Banning one type of hip hop is not an effective way to intervene in a market that is in danger of dismantling itself.  Governments are not record companies. They are not in a position to make nuanced judgements about the content, meaning and themes of singles and albums. In short, the state cannot be relied on to understand when a musician has produced a work of violent fantasy, or a piece of social commentary with broad appeal.  The state can perform a positive correction for inequalities and failures in the hip hop market by subsidising niche or experimental performers, in the same way that is provides financial support to opera, theatre and the fine arts.  The policy that proposition side seem to be advocating, however, would only do further harm the reputation of hip hop. Once officially censured by the state- which is still seen as a significant moral authority- it is likely that the public profile and popularity of hip hop will be further damaged. The ambivalent position of hip hop in popular culture, as both a commercially successful medium and the subject of wide scale condemnation, is a significant opportunity for the medium, rather than a spectre of its imminent demise. However, larger record companies will be more likely to disengage from hip hop culture if they believe that their businesses affairs might be compromised by intrusive government legislation."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro01a","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Classification, not censorship  We should expect fans of an art form that is subjected to public criticism and vilification to leap to its defence. Some of these aficionados- whether the medium in question is cinema, fine art or pop music- make the case for the value of their favourite mode of expression by overstating its positive effects.  Hip hop has long been the focus of controversies surrounding violent music. Hip hop is closely associated with low-level criminality, as noted above. A number of highly successful hip hop artists have been attacked or killed as a result of feuds within the industry and links between managers, promoters and criminal gangs.  As the academic John McWhorter has pointed out in numerous [1] publications [2] , the positive political and social impact of rap music has been massively overstated, as a result of highly charged media coverage of hip hop-linked violence. As a result, attempts to address some of the hips hops most objectionable content- lyrics that are misogynist and blankly and uncritically violent- have been condemned as unjust assaults on the right to free expression. Attacks on negative content in hip hop have been made all the more emotive, because they appear to be an attempt to restrict the speech of members of vulnerable and marginalised communities.  Side proposition agrees with McWhorter that listening to music that contains violent themes will not, in the absence of other factors, cause individuals to behave in a violent way. However, the content of rap, and its strong links with the youngest inhabitants of marginalised, stigmatised urban areas mean that it damages the developmental opportunities of teenagers and young people, and harms others\u2019 perceptions of the communities they live in.  Hip hop trades on its authenticity \u2013 the extent to which it faithfully portrays the lived experience of the inhabitants of deprived inner city areas. The greater the veracity of a hip hop track, the greater its popularity and cache among fans. Musicians have gained public recognition as a result of being directly involved in street crime and gang activities. 50 Cent, a high profile \u201cgansta\u201d artist owes his popularity, in part, to a shooting in 2000 that left him with 9 bullet wounds [3] . This supposed link to reality is the most dangerous aspect of contemporary hip hop culture. Unlike the simplistic make-believe of, say, action films, the \u201cexperiences\u201d related by rappers are also their public personas and become the rationale for their success.  Rap, through materialist boasting and sexualised music videos tells vulnerable young men and women from isolated neighbourhoods that their problems can be solved by adopting similarly nihilistic personas. The poverty that affects many of the communities that hip hop artists identify with does more than separate individuals from economic opportunity. It also confines the inhabitants of these communities geographically, politically and culturally. It prevents young men and women from becoming aware of perspectives on the world and society that run contrary to the violence of main stream rap. With television dominated by the gangsta motif, marginalised youngsters are left with little in the way of dissenting voices to convince them that hip hop takes a subjective and commercialised approach to the lives and communities that rappers claim to represent.  In effect, controversial hip hop is capable of sponsoring violent behaviour, when it is marketed as an accurate portrayal of relationships, values and principles. Under these circumstances, adolescents, whose own identity is nascent and malleable can easily be misled into emulating the exploits and attitudes of rappers [4] .  Side proposition advocates the control and classification of controversial forms of music, including but not limited to hip hop. Consistent with principles 1 and 10, classification of this type will follow similar schemes applied to movies and videogames. Assessments of the content of music will be conducted by a politically independent organisation; musicians and record companies will have the ability to appeal the decisions of this body. Crucially, the \u201cban\u201d on music containing violent lyrics will take the form of a categorisation scheme. Content will not be blocked from sale or censored. Instead, as with the sale of pornographic material in many liberal democratic states, music found to contain especially violent lyrics will be confined to closed off areas in shops, to which only adults (as defined in law) will be admitted. Its performance on television, radio and in cinemas will be banned. Live performances of restricted music will be obliged to enforce strict age monitoring policies. Online distributors of music will be compelled to comply with similar age restrictions and intentionally exposing minors to violent music will be punishable under child protection laws.  This approach has the advantage of limiting access to violent content only to consumers who are judged, in general, to be mature enough to understand that its \u201cmessage\u201d and the posturing of singers does not equate to permission to engage in deviant behaviour.  [1] McWhorter, J. \u201cHow Hip-Hop Holds Blacks Back.\u201d City Journal, Summer 2003. The Manhattan Institute.  [2] McWhorter, J. \u201cAll about the Beat: Why Hip-Hop Can\u2019t Save Black America.\u201d  [3] \u201cWhat\u2019s In a name?\u201d The Economist, 24 November 2005.  [4] Bindel, J. \u201cWho you calling bitch, ho?\u201d Mail & Guardian online, 08 February 2008."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro01b","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Crime and deviance existed in marginalised communities long before the creation of pop music or hip hop. Side proposition is attempting to claim that a particular genre of hip hop is harming efforts to improve living standards and social cohesion within these communities.  Many of the problems associated with poor socialisation and a lack of social mobility in inner city areas can be linked to the closed, isolated nature of these communities \u2013 as the proposition comments correctly observe. However, these problems can be traced to a lack of positive engagement between these young people and wider society [1] .  Violence may be discussed or depicted in popular culture for a number of reasons, but it is still comparatively rare- especially in mainstream music- to celebrate violence for violence\u2019s sake. Violence is discussed in hip hop in a number of contexts. Frequently, as in British rapper Plan B\u2019s single Ill Manors, or Cypress Hill\u2019s How I Could Just Kill A Man, descriptions of violent behaviour or scenarios serve to illustrate negative or criminal attitudes and behaviours. These forms of conduct are not portrayed in a way that is intended to glorify them, but to invite comment on the social conditions that produced them. As the opposition side will discuss in greater detail below, the increased openness of the mainstream media also means that impoverished young people can directly address mainstream audiences.  Proposition side contends that the impression of the world communicated to potentially marginalised adolescents by pop culture is dominated by the language and imagery of gangsta rap. Proposition side\u2019s argument is that, in the absence of aggressive and negative messages, a more engaged and communitarian perspective on the world will flourish in schools and youth groups from Brixton and Tottenham to the Bronx and the banlieues. By controlling access to certain hip hop genres, young people made vulnerable and gullible by the desperation of poverty will supposedly start to see themselves as part of the social mainstream. Nothing could be further from the truth. Why? Because efforts at including and improving the social mobility of these young people are underwhelming and inadequate. Social services, youth leaders and educators are not competing to be heard above the din of hip hop \u2013 they are not being given the resources or support necessary to communicate effectively with young people.  The nurturing environment that proposition side fantasises about creating will not spring into being fully formed if hip hop is silenced and constrained. The existence of an apparently confrontational musical genre should not be used to excuse policy failures such as the disproportionate use of the Metropolitan Police\u2019s stop and search powers to arbitrarily detain and question young black men.  [1] \u201cKeeping up the old traditions.\u201d The Economist, 24 August 2003 ."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro03a","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Defending hip hop artists\u2019 right to free speech  The intervention of the state is necessary in order to ensure that aggressive forms of hip hop remain accessible only to adults, especially in neighbourhoods and home environments that are not part of a cohesive, caring community. Some degree of public control over the content of hip hop will also help to preserve the diversity, accessibility of the genre in the face of commercial dominance by violent forms of rap.  Mainstream success in hip hop has become synonymous with gangsta rap, and with artists who have backgrounds that lend veracity to their lurid verses. However, many of these supposedly \u201cauthentic\u201d experiences consist of little more than exaggeration and invented personas. When being interviewed about the controversial content of her son\u2019s single \u201cFuck tha\u2019 police\u201d, the mother of rapper Ice Cube commented that \u201cI don\u2019t see [him] saying those curse words. I see him like an actor.\u201d  The existence of pornography attests to the market for forms of media that fulfil base and simplistic human fantasies. Much the same can be said for the violent and cynical content of rap singles. Unlike the relationship between cinema and pornography, however, many commentators appear to regard gangsta rap as being synonymous with hip hop \u2013 a position as deceptive as a film critic claiming that all movies are inevitably tied to pornography.  The significant public profile and poor regulation of hip hop have meant that gangsta rap fans have become the genre\u2019s dominant class of consumer. The amount of money that fans are willing to spend on singles, albums, concert tickets and associated branded goods means that labels that cultivate relationships with gangsta rappers have become the gatekeepers of the hip hop genre in general. \u201cConscious\u201d rappers, who do not glorify violence, along with musicians working in other hip hop genres must work with labels that promote acts containing violent lyrics in order to publish their own music.  Either consciously, or by design, the terrain of contemporary hip hop is hostile to musicians who are not prepared to discuss \u201cguns, bitches and bling\u201d in their work. This constitutes a significant barrier to rappers ability to communicate novel messages and listeners\u2019 ability to receive them. It could be called a market failure \u2013 the pervasive public presence of gangsta rap has effectively denied an audience to other rappers.  Classification has the potential to maximise the freedom and effectiveness of musical expression by hip hop artists who choose not to trade in brutality and misogyny.  The alternative is to allow hip hop to continue to be dominated by businesses such as Death Row Records, Low Life Records and Machete Music. This will lead to hip hop as a medium becoming inextricably linked with violent lyrics and the dubious businesses practices of gangsta labels\u2019 bosses. Popular disengagement is much more likely under these circumstances, and will actively deny a voice, and opportunities, to musicians with a different perspective on hip hop."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con03b","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"This argument makes a claim of bias against academics and commentators who portray the audiences that hip hop music is targeted at as vulnerable. Unfortunately, this is a viewpoint that is closer to the truth than the aspirational narrative provided in the opposition side\u2019s case.  Hip hop emerged from environments that were extremely poor and that had been pushed to the margins of society. This situation has persisted until well into this century. The cyclical effects of racism and discrimination continue to be felt in minority communities. Although anti-discrimination laws now protect access to employment and government services, inequalities in cultural capital and high-impact policing have led to the exclusion of large numbers of young men from the social economic opportunities that are made available to middle class society. Under these circumstances, it is entirely appropriate to describe the adolescent inhabitants of impoverished urban communities as vulnerable.  Poverty- either financial or of opportunity- breeds desperation. An individual placed in a situation of urgent need will not have the ability to reason clearly. This is especially true of young people undergoing the difficult transition to adulthood. Adolescence is characterised by a desire to test the boundaries of social norms and parental authority. Therefore, expression that legitimatises and encourages ever more dangerous forms of rebellion should be kept out of the hands of young people. They are unusually susceptible to the behavioural distortions that side opposition goes out of its way to deny.  We limit the content of the media that children and young people can consume all the time, recognising that the process of education and socialisation changes the individual\u2019s relationship to wider society and their ability to which forms of behaviour will best help them to live freely and happily.  Children and teenagers are more impressionable than adults. Similarly, the rate at which individuals mature and develop can vary wildly. We recognise that, for example, exposure to pornography or violent cinema could have serious behaviour consequences for young children. Objections to the restricted availability of pornography are nonsensical, given that they do a great deal to protect children, and present only a minor inconvenience to an adult\u2019s attempts to access such material.  Although we do not place onerous restrictions on the ability of adults to access media of this type, we can be strict in regulating children\u2019s access. This does not constitute a permanent form of censorship, but instead fulfils the broad remit that the state is granted to protect its citizens. Moreover, classification of expression that is geared toward protecting the vulnerable also aids in protecting the primacy and utility of free speech itself. Free expression- as has been restated throughout this exchange- can harm as easily as it liberates. In some instances, the state must temporarily restrict the access of certain classes of people to certain forms of free expression, in order to ensure that free, frank and controversial discussion and expression can take place in society in general."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con01b","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Hip hop is a diverse genre. The quote that opened this discussion is taken from a song by the English surrealist rapper Scroobius Pip. His albums cover themes entirely different from those found in \u201cgangsta\u201d rap. Similarly, artists such as MIA, Optimus Rhyme and the Wilcania Mob have used hip hop to discuss the conflict in Sri Lanka, computer games and life as a member of the aboriginal community in Australia. Each of these artists share a single common link. They all cater to a relatively niche market and have encountered little in the way of mainstream success.  Rappers who write lyrics about cynicism and aggression- from Slim Shady to JayZ- have recorded numerous number one tracks and attracted a wide range of industry accolades. In 2006 the founder of Death Row records, a major gangsta rap label, was found to have assets valued at $7 million. It is clear that rap discussing crime and violence is the dominant genre within hip hop. It is clear that there is a significant popular and public appetite for rap of this type.  As the comment opposite notes, there will always be a need for classification boards, as gratuitous or pornographic content will always form a significant part of the media landscape. Moreover, despite efforts to control access to such content, pornography and wilfully violent movies continue to make money. Hip hop appeals to a similar market \u2013 individuals seeking to indulge violent fantasies via the safe, sanitised environment of their iPod\u2019s headphones, as discussed above.  There are no nuances of context and meaning to discuss in gangsta rap, only potentially damaging content that, at best, should be regulated and monitored."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con02a","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"A ban will be ineffective  A new legal prohibition on any type of behaviour or conduct can only be set up by investing large amounts of political capital in order to transform vague proposals into a legislative document and then into a fully-fledged law. This expense can only be justified if the ban is effective \u2013 if it is seen as a legitimate use of a state\u2019s power; is enforceable; and if it brings about some form of beneficial social change. The change being sought in this instance is a reduction in the violence, criminality and social disaffection that some people associate with hip hop music and its fans.  Laws do not create changes in behaviour simply because they are laws. It is unlikely that the consumers of hip hop will refrain from listening to it. The ease with which music can be distributed and performed means that any ban on violent songs will, inevitably, be ineffective. File sharing networks and cross border online stores such as eBay and Silk Road already enable people to obtain media and controlled goods with little more than a credit card and a forwarding address. The total value of all of the music illegally pirated during 2007 is estimated to be $12.5 billion. The same network of file sharing systems and data repositories would be used to distribute banned music if proposition\u2019s policies became law.  Current urban music genres are already defined and supported by grassroots musicians who specialise in assembling tracks using minimal resources before sharing them among friends or broadcasting them on short-range pirate radio stations. Just as the internet contains a resilient, ready-made distribution network for music, urban communities contain large numbers of ambitious, talented amateur artists who will step into fill the void created by large record company\u2019s withdrawal from controversial or prohibited genres.  Although a formal ban on the distribution of music has yet to happen within a western liberal democracy, similar laws have been created to restrict access to violent videogames. Following widespread reports of the damaging effects that exposure to violent videogames might have on children, Australia banned outright the publication of a succession of violent and action-oriented titles. However, in several instances, implementation of this ban led only to increased piracy of prohibited games through file sharing networks and attempts by publishing companies to circumvent the ban using websites based in jurisdictions outside Australia. Similar behaviour is likely to result in other liberal democracies following any ban on music with violent lyrics.  If banned, controversial music will move from the managed, regulated space occupied by record companies and distributors- where business entities and artists\u2019 agents can engage in structured, transparent debate with classification bodies- to the partly hidden and unregulated space of the internet. As a consequence it will be much more difficult to detect genuinely dangerous material, and much harder for artists who do not trade in violent clich\u00e9s to win fans and recognition.  As discussed in principle 10, effective control and classification of controversial material can only be achieved if it is discussed with a high specificity and a nuanced understanding of the shared standards that it might offend. This would not be possible under a policy that effectively surrenders control of the content of music to the internet."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con03a","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"A ban will further marginalise young members of impoverished communities  Hip hop is an extremely diverse musical genre. Surprisingly, this diversity has evolved from highly minimal series of musical principles. At its most basic, raping consists of nothing more than rhyming verses that are delivered to a beat. This simplicity reflects the economically marginalised communities that hip hop emerged from. All that anyone requires in order to learn how to rap, or to participate in hip hop culture, is a pen, some paper and possibly a disc of breaks \u2013 the looped drum and bass lines that are used to time rap verses. Thanks to its highly social aspect, hip hop continues to function as an accessible form of creative expression for members of some of impoverished communities in both the west and elsewhere in the world.  Point 7 suggests that free speech flourishes when we respect believers but are not forced to respect their beliefs. Free Speech Debate discusses this principle in the light of religious belief and religious expression. However, it is also relevant when we consider how our appraisal of an individual\u2019s background, culture and values affects our willingness to accept or dismiss what she says.  The positive case for banning- or at least condemning- hip hop often rests on its ability to reinforce the negative stereotypes of impoverished and marginalised communities that are propagated by majority communities. Critics of hip hop note that black men have often been stigmatised as violent, uncivilised and predatory. They claim that many hip hop artists cultivate a purposefully brutal and misogynist persona. The popularity of hip hop reflects the acceptance of this stereotype, and further entrenches discrimination against young black men. This line of thinking portrays hip hop artists as betrayers or exploiters of their communities, reinforcing damaging stereotypes and convincing adolescents that a violent rejection of mainstream society is a way to achieve material success.  Arguments of this type fail to recognise the depth of nuance and meaning that words and word-play can convey. They are predicated on an assumption that the consumers of hip hop engage with it in a simplistic and uncritical way. In short, such arguments see hip hop fans as being simple minded and easily influenced. This perspective neglects the \u201crecognition respect\u201d, the recognition of equality and inherent dignity that is owed to all contributors of a debate. Moreover, it also bars us from properly assessing the \u201cappraisal respect\u201d owed to the content of hip hop and other controversial musical genres. When hip hop is seen as being inherently harmful, and as being targeted at an especially impressionable and vulnerable part of society, we both demean members of that group and prevent robust discussion of rap lyrics themselves. Academics such as John McWhorter see only the advocacy of violence and nihilism in lyrics such as  \u201cYou grow in the ghetto, living second rate\/ and your eyes will sing a song of deep hate\u201d.  But these are words that can also be interpreted as astute observation on the brutality that is bred by social exclusion. In point of fact, there is little in the previous verse, or those that follow it,  \u201cYou\u2019ll admire all the numberbook takers\/ thugs, pimps and pushers, and the big money makers\u201d,  that could be interpreted as permitting, popularising or endorsing violence. That is, unless the individual reading the verse had already concluded that its intended audience lacked his own critical perspective and understanding of social norms and values.  Even if an observer were ultimately conclude that a particular hip hop track had no redeeming value, a broad interpretation of point 7 suggests that he should, at the very least, credit its artists and listeners with a modicum of intelligence and reflectiveness. When we approach music with a custodial mind-set, determined to protect young listeners from what we see as harm or exploitation, we prevent those individuals from access a form of speech that may be the only affordable method of expression open to them.  Just as we allow individuals the right to be heard in a language of their choosing (see point 1), we should also accept that perspectives from marginalised communities may not appear in a conventional form. Under these circumstances, it would be dangerous for us to curtail and marginalise a form of speech geared toward discussing the problems faced by impoverished young people that has, against the odds, penetrated the mainstream. We are likely to deepen existing prejudices by viewing rappers and their fans as infantile, impressionable and in need of protection."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con01a","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Violent imagery can serve different purposes.  Calls for a ban on music that references or glorifies violence are frequently based on an overly simplistic understanding of contemporary and popular musical genres. It is instructive that the loudest voices of protest raised against violent content in hip hop and rock music are, overwhelmingly, white, middle class, middle-aged newspaper columnists. Any ban created under these circumstances would reduce the diversity and depth of popular musical genres, by preventing musicians from commenting- in any way- on violent events.  Banning particular musical tracks due only to the fact that they discuss violent acts would be damaging to the creative industries and would not reflect methods currently used to classify and restrict content appearing in other media. Criminal acts are punished when an act results in a damaging outcome and because that act is performed with a particular dishonest or malicious intention. Generally, someone cannot be found guilty of murder if they did not intend to kill their victim. Similarly, it is unusual for films or videogames to be censored or banned because they happen to depict violent acts. The intention that underlies the use of graphic images or words must also be examined. As BBC director general Mark Thompson noted when discussing the controversial religious content of Jerry Springer: The Opera with freespeechdebate.com  \u201c\u2026 Jerry Springer I saw without feeling that it was offensive to me because the intention of the piece was so clearly a satire about an American talk show host and his world rather than the religious figures as such.\u201d  Classification boards will look at the context in which an offensive act is shown. The violence of war is portrayed vividly in Saving Private Ryan, but the film has not been banned on this basis. Private Ryan portrays violence and suffering in order to remind us of the inhumanity that pervaded the Second World War. It uses violence to make a didactic point, to move its audience to sympathy and disgust. If a film were to use images of extreme violence or suffering as a form of entertainment, inviting the audience to take pleasure in brutality, a classification board would try to restrict or censor its content.  Comparably, \u201cviolent\u201d music can use brutal language and themes to make moving and engaging observations about the world. Violent music does not automatically glorify violence, nor does it cause its audience to see violence as something that is glamorous.  Listened to out of context, without any attempt to critically analyse the imagery of the song and the intentions of the artists, it is easy to condemn many acclaimed examples of popular music as containing violent lyrics. By giving into the populist pressure that is represented and generated by newspaper columnists and talk show hosts, we risk creating a chilling effect, not only on mainstream hip hop culture, but on any other musical form that dares to discuss themes that fall outside narrowly and arbitrarily defined limits of social acceptability."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con02b","title":"living difference house would ban music containing lyrics glorify","text":"Modern policy making does not rely on the force of law to bring about social change. This is an archaic approach to addressing the harms and deficiencies that might appear in communities.  We can reasonably assume that any ban on violent lyrics will be linked to wider reaching education and information campaigns that attempt to address misogynist attitudes and violent crime. Concerns expressed above that other hip hop genres, and musical innovation in general, might suffer could be adequately countered by offering subsidies and support to non-confrontational forms of hip hop. In this way legal regulation and policy interventions could help the music industry to address the more pernicious aspects of hip hop, while promoting its more innovative side. This reflects the state\u2019s role in promoting and safeguarding free speech, by giving those who do not have access to public forums the means to have their voice heard, while ensuring that the principle of free speech is not abused or used to limit the liberal freedoms of others.  These contentions adequately address the problems that the opposition side links to the distribution of illegal and unregulated content via the internet. The implication that a ban on music containing violent lyric might increase piracy is irrelevant \u2013 states will still act to address all forms of piracy, and measures taken against the violation of copyright online will be just as effective against prohibited content."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro02b","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Nobody is being forced to perform acts of violence by the words of another; it is their choice to do so. Equally, there are plenty of people who would hold views that could be considered homophobic but would be appalled by acts of violence. It is fundamental to the principles of respect for the individual that I cannot be held liable for the actions of others. There is no dividing line between the incitement Proposition claims exists and my jokingly suggesting to a broke friend that they rob a bank. Ironically, perhaps, the defence of \u201cThe Devil made me do it\u201d is not one that is taken seriously by any credible framework of laws."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro02a","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Because religion promotes certainty of belief, divinely inspired hatred is easy to use to justify and promote violent actions and discriminatory practices.  Free speech must come second when there is the potential for that speech to cause harm. The mantra of \u201cWith God on our side\u201d has been used, and continues to be used, to justify massacre and barbarity throughout history. Although it is rarely the prelates and preachers who do the killing the certainty they promote gives surety to those who do.  The purpose of the Act [1] used in this particular case was an entirely practical one. It\u2019s main role was to tidy up existing legislation on rioting and public disorder but one section recognised that homophobic and racist language do lead to violence. It is all well and good to talk of freedom of speech but the reality is that homophobic speeches, particularly those of a religious nature, may well lead to violence. For example in New York there were a series of homophobic attacks after anti-gay statements by republican politicians. [2] Preventing hate speech helps prevent that violence from occurring so justifying restrictions on freedom of speech.  [1] Legislation.gov.uk, \u2018Public Order Act 1986\u2019, The National Archives, 1986 c.64.  [2] Harris, Paul, \u2018US shaken by sudden surge of violence against gay people\u2019, The Observer, 17 October 2010 ."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro03b","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Homophobia should indeed be confronted but penalising it is not the solution \u2013 just as it wasn\u2019t for racism and sexism. These views should be confronted and challenged, which doesn\u2019t happen by banning their expression. Indeed using legislation in this way is more likely to make the homophobe feel justified. Freedom of speech and equality have generally worked hand in hand and will do so in the case of homophobia as well. Banning ideas doesn\u2019t threaten bigotry; indeed historically it has tended to be the tool of the bigot, not the liberal."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro01a","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Religion simply justifies reactionary views which many find offensive. There is no reason for vitriol to be tolerated just because it presents a mask of religion.  Views on issues such as abortion, women, and what constitutes an acceptable family expressed by those who are extremely religious are simply bigoted views which are given credibility by being wrapped in a cassock.  It is in the nature of religious belief that any set of views can adopt a religious justification and there is no objective measure against which to hold the views. For example the homophobic views which have common currency in many churches can be contrasted with a gay liberation trend discernible in others. In the light of this, it makes sense to judge the views on their own basis, regardless of the religiosity surrounding them.  The views expressed by Harry Hammond, and others [1] , need to be stripped of their religious veneer and shown that at their heart they are simply offensive. There is absolutely no reason why LGBT people should have to endure vitriol and condemnation as they go about their daily lives. It is a useful exercise to consider how we would respond to a secular speaker saying that the actions of two people who were in love with each other should condemn them to torment and suffering. Oddly however, the moment this is done in the name of God, it somehow becomes acceptable.  [1] Blake, Heidi. \u201cChristian Preacher Arrested for Saying Homosexuality is a Sin\u201d. The Daily Telegraph, 2 May 2010."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro01b","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Religious belief is the most widely used and historically enduring framework for discussion of the universe around us and our place and role within it. Pretending that it not part of civic discourse is simply living in a fantasy world. The views expressed by Hammond are widely and genuinely held and deserve to be heard. Those who oppose them should, of course, be free to do so. Simply banning their expression doesn\u2019t make the views go away. However impossible opposing sides in this argument may believe it to be, the other side could be right, that gives them the right to be heard [1] .  [1] Tatchell, Peter, \u2018Lords are right to limit homophobic hatred law\u2019, 10 July 2009."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro03a","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Ill-informed prejudice has no place in society. The veneer of religion has been used to justify hatred, prejudice and division and should be confronted.  Homophobia is the last respectable prejudice [1] and should be tackled with the same passion and force that others have been, and continue to be, confronted. If the speaker had been condemning black people or women they would have been arrested for public disorder if they represented an organisation that was overtly racist, it would be quite likely to be banned.  For some reason Churches that hold views on homosexuality that are comparable in their vitriol to those on race held by neo-Nazi groups are not only tolerated but frequently supported by the state.  Hatred is hatred and there is no reason why homophobia should be given a free pass that would not be given to racism or sexism.  All of the Abrahamic faiths have, at their core, an authority focussed on maintaining \u2018the natural order\u2019. From the fourteenth century on \u2013 although interestingly less so before that point \u2013 homosexuality has been singled out as one of the gravest of sins [2] , with the Catechism identifying it as one of four sins that \u201ccalls out to Heaven for vengeance\u201d. That is not merely offensive but dangerous in a modern society.  [1] Maguire, Daniel C., \u2018Heterosexism in Contemporary World Religion\u2019, The Religious Consultation.  [2] Boswell, John, The Marriage of Likeness, Harper Collins, Chapter Eight."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con03b","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Issues of sexuality tend to raise great passion but to accept that people should be harangued, threatened or intimidated for just getting on with their lives, quite legally and posing no threat to others is absurd. A liberal society should be free to defend that liberalism, if people wish to change that reality then there are democratic ways of doing so that do not incite hatred on the streets. Homosexuality has been legal in the UK for over forty years; it is absurd that gay people should still have to face this kind of barracking on a regular basis."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con01b","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"It is simply unfair to ask people to be the victims in a societal experiment on the basis that it will all be okay in the end. In a context like this the language used is not only offensive but also threatening. This legislation may not be great constitutional theory but provides very real protection of people\u2019s safety and quality of life.  In addition to which, homophobia long enjoyed the sanction and protection of the state it is interesting that when that is reversed just a little it becomes an assault on free speech."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con02a","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"There is no right not to be offended, enforcing what is acceptable to be thought or said places far too much power in the hands of the state.  It is impossible to ensure that nobody is ever offended and it is questionable as to whether it is even desirable [1] . There is simply no way of protecting against offence. The state clearly has a role in protecting the physical safety of citizens and in other relevant areas such as preventing dismissal from employment on the grounds of sexuality but this is not the case with speech that may cause offense.  Governments that attempt to lead, ahead of public opinion, on matters such as this do little to resolve the problem. In doing so in this manner, they may well pour fuel on the fire of the very prejudice they are aiming to combat as well as creating additional problems by justifying the idea that it is okay to silence views simply because you happen to disagree with them.  Banning the expression of ideas has, historically, be the recourse of those who have run out of arguments to defeat them; doing so is an acknowledgement that the proposal is a weak one. Admitting that \u2013 or appearing to do so \u2013 for the principle of equality set a dangerous precedent.  [1] Harris, Mike, \u201cIt shouldn\u2019t be a crime to insult someone\u201d. Guardian.co.uk, 18 January 2012."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con03a","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Silencing views that are considered offensive is self-defeating and would be detrimental to those attempting to advance gay rights.  If freedom of speech is to mean anything then it needs to be a principle that is universally applied. Unless speech represents a direct and immediate threat to public safety then it should not be curtailed. The overwhelming majority of the world would agree with Hammond. Globally this is a significant, possibly a majority, view. Certainly the 24% of people in the UK who believe that homosexual sex should be illegal [1] could be assumed to be sympathetic. These people might well consider gay pride marches to be offensive and a threat to public order but these are allowed to go ahead and so should Hammond\u2019s protest and those like it. The freedom of expression must be allowed equally in both cases.  [1] The Guardian. \u201cSex uncovered poll: Homosexuality\u201d. 28 August 2008."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con01a","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"Regardless of the views expressed, freedom of speech means that all opinions should be heard.  Allowing politicians to regulate what it is acceptable to say \u2013 or think \u2013 is not something that has a happy history. This isn\u2019t the result of a purely intellectual construct but one of altruistic self-interest; once people start banning ideas, they tend not to stop at one.  Voltaire\u2019s comment that \u201cI may not agree with what you say but I will defend to the death your right to say it\u201d is a statement of the very same principle that that demands equality for all groups in society.  In exactly the same way that all views are, at the very least, worthy of a hearing, so are all lifestyles acceptable. Locking people up in the name of liberty makes no sense at all. Equally, banning statements on the basis that it might be offensive to some people has been used as an excuse to prevent social and cultural developments, the process of being offended usually made society and culture stronger for it. We tend to fear or hate that which is hidden or unspoken. The emancipation and liberation of other groups has tended to suggest that open debate is a more productive answer than trying to ban opinions and views."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con02b","title":"living difference house would penalise religious hate speech","text":"This is simply a myth. Society routinely legislates to prevent offence with restrictions on what can be said or done within a broadcast or in print. This particular case does not relate to a private conversation between friends but to a public address. As such the response of the police officers was not some Orwellian nightmare but a responsible protection of public order and a show of respect for those who, quite rightly, had taken offence at the remarks. We are rightly cautious of the state intervening too far into the private sphere but this was a public event \u2013 by the speakers own choice."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro02b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Just because groups and individuals have a Freedom of Expression, does not mean it can be used without proper consideration of whom maybe hurt and offended by connotations implied in the image. A White artist portraying the Black leader of the country and the ANC as someone who leads with their genitals goes someway to dehumanising him, launching into character assassination that fails to actually examine policy.  Pluralism can exist without needlessly causing offence in the way Murray has done in this painting. The Constitution protects Freedom of Expression; however the grave offence causedto many people by dehumanising President Zuma in this way can justify the protests against the artworks installation and replication in the news media. No constructive criticism is meted out in the painting, thus justifying counter-protests against it.  While there were supporters of the ANC and COSATU, who are allied with the government, who took part in protests, it is a stretch to suggest that this is political overreach in action. The image attacked the President in ways that evoked previous allegations against him that were later disproven in court. The President took legal action in a personal capacity, whilst other exhibits created by Murray which highly critical of the ANC were not targeted in this manner, hinting at there being a free platform for criticism and satire in South African Political discourse."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro02a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Pluralism and Political Interference  The removal of \u2018The Spear\u2019 from the Goodman Gallery and the City Press also hints at a threat to pluralism, especially when one considers the political nature of the campaign to have such images removed.  While Jacob Zuma attempted to have the image banned in a personal capacity, the intensive campaigning by both the ANC and the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) against both the Goodman Gallery and City Press [1] hints at a dangerously political action taken by those with close access to power over the South African state.  This should be cause to worry. Chapter Two of the Constitution of South Africa, in place since 1997, protects freedoms such as Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Association. [2] The intimidation of Art Galleries and Newspapers threatens the free exchange of ideas that occurs in these areas, as well sending an implicit image by its supports that criticism of the Government cannot be tolerated.  If neither the Gallery nor City Press removed the image of \u2018The Spear\u2019 from public view, then a clear message would have been sent that the principles of Free Speech, Free Association and Freedom of Intimidation outlined in the Constitution is to be upheld at all times, regardless of who may take offence at what is being said. It is important in the South African context to protect the right to criticise the government and voice opinions that vary from the ideals of the majority. It is worrying what kind of message is sent by those close to the South African Government that intimidation seems to be the appropriate response to criticism such as this rather than asking why such criticism is there in the first place.  [1] Mthembu, Jackson, \u2018ANC calls on all South Africans to boycott buying City Press Newspaper and to join the protest match to the Goodman Gallery\u2019, African National Congress, 24 May 2012,   [2] \u2018Constitution of the Republic of South Africa\u2019, Statutes of the Republic of South Africa, 4 February 1997,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro03b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"To somehow state that racism is the motivation to criticisms of \u2018The Spear\u2019 is fanciful and far-fetched. People were massively offended by the piece and as such used their right to protest to demonstrate the fact. The artwork itself was vulgar, displaying images that would be offensive to anyone, regardless of race.  No-one is accusing Murray of being in favour of restoring Apartheid; indeed his early works in the 1980\u2019s attacked the government of the day, highlighting their crimes. But when a public gallery and a newspaper releases an image that is seen as offensive to many people on many levels, provoking angry responses in the process, then it is only right that such images are removed to prevent further protest and controversy for those involved.  It is also erroneous to accuse the ANC of race-baiting. It is a multi-racial organisation and has had prominent non-Black members leading the organisation during the struggle. If any criticism of White Opponents including the Democratic Alliance is seen to be racialised, then it is probably a reflection upon the DA\u2019s ineffectiveness in gaining the support of poor black voters, remaining a party for privileged whites as a result. Criticism of Murray was not based on race, rather the shocking and offensive artwork that hurt so many people, not least the President himself."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro01a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Artistic Freedom  A core principle of art is that it should be free from any form of inhibition, as the particular artwork is an expression of the particular views and ideals of the artist. The subject matter in many instances is their own choice; therefore they have the right to say what they want about the subject matter, safe in the knowledge that is their opinion alone being portrayed.  The artist that painted \u2018The Spear\u2019, Brett Murray, created the piece as part of an exhibition that reflected his own discontent at the lack of major progress since the ruling African National Congress took power in South Africa after the end of Apartheid in 1994. Murray used his work to promulgate an idea that he has, allowing for others to see the art work for themselves and make up their own minds about President Zuma and the ANC. [1]  Art Galleries have a right to display any artist they feel will attract visitors as well showcase the forms of art that they believe is suitable. The Goodman Gallery saw no issue with Murray\u2019s work to the extent that they prevented any particular works from being displayed. As it was their venue which was the setting for \u2018The Spear\u2019s display, The Goodman Gallery had the right to take decisions independently of external pressure. The removal of the exhibit sets a dangerous precedent whereby government can unduly censor artworks, threatening the free actions of artists and the galleries that display their work in turn affecting plural, democratic discourse. [2]  [1] Du Toit, \u2018Artist Brett Murray explains why he painted \u2018The spear\u2019, 2 Ocean\u2019s Vibe, 2012,   [2] Robins. P, \u2018The spear that divided the nation\u2019, Amandla, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro01b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"While public art is valuable, it can serve a purpose to educate and send a message, influencing discourse. Criticism of a political figure, when expressed via an art form, can change perceptions of that figure, particularly when their policy is under scrutiny. However, the image portrayed in \u2018The Spear\u2019 does not do these things. It does not focus on the policies of President Zuma, but rather relies on innuendo surrounding the President\u2019s personal life, graphically represented by Zuma\u2019s exposed penis, which is a prominent feature of the painting.  While artists have a right to criticise those in authority and galleries have a right to display any art it wants, such rights are balanced by responsibilities over how such artists conduct themselves when they choose to enter political discourse. A provocative image such as \u2018The Spear\u2019 flouts those responsibilities by relying upon graphic innuendo instead of policy criticism to get the point across. This is damaging for a number of reasons specific to the South African context which will be explained in the Opposition Arguments."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro03a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Racialised Opposition  Some critics of \u2018The Spear\u2019 have criticised the artwork on the grounds that it \u2018dehumanises\u2019 black people in general [1] and President Zuma in particular and criticises him based upon his personal life rather than policy, using vulgar means to do it. This line of opposition is part of a dog-whistle tactic that the ANC has consistently used against white critics of its government in the past. [2]  ANC criticisms of its white critics, including the opposition Democratic Alliance have made discreet reference to the injustices of the past as a means of creating distrust in the minds of poor, black voters who maintain ANC support as a result. Some politicians within the ANC, most notably the former President of its youth wing Julius Malema, have made incendiary statements that could be seen to stoke up hatred against whites.  It is against this back drop that the double standards over criticism of Murray should be viewed. Murray, a white artist, has been criticised roundly for \u2018The Spear\u2019, while black artists have created works that could be seen to denigrate President Zuma in a similar manner to \u2018The Spear\u2019. A noticeable example is \u2018Ngcono ihlwempu kunesibhanxo sesityebi\u2019 (Better a fool than a rich man\u2019s nonsense) by Ayanda Mabulu, that carried a much more graphic depiction of the President and other leading politicians of the past and present with barely a murmur raised. [3]  By bowing to the pressure exerted by the ANC and its followers, the Goodman Gallery and City Press have bowed to pressure, denying criticism of the government and accepting the implied view that White South Africans are unable to criticise the government without seeking to re-assert any forms of superiority that had existed under Apartheid. Whilst there may still be underlying problems of Far-Right activity in South Africa, to smear anyone who criticises the government based on their race does nothing to help move the country on from autocracy and institutionalised racism. The Goodman Gallery and City Press should have stood by displaying the image as it represented the opinion of Brett Murray, free from intimidation or race based slander.  [1] Dana, Simphiwe, \u2018The 'Sarah Baartmanisation' of the black body\u2019, Mail & Guardian, 12 June 2012,   [2] Hlongwane, Sipho, \u2018The ANC's best friend: Brett Murray & The Spear\u2019, Amandla,   [3] Ndlovu, Andile, \u2018'Spear' sparks hot Twitter debate\u2019, Times Live, 23 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con03b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"What is termed a decent or otherwise is largely subjective and depends on an individual\u2019s viewpoint. Those who use the cause of \u2018public decency\u2019 to call for \u2018The Spear\u2019s removal fail to understand the point of the artwork. Murray created such a visceral image in order to trigger debate and cause South Africans to look at the political class and their antics. Such a debate over Zuma\u2019s fitness for office would not have been possible without an image that brought home the seriousness of the personal accusations against him and whether such allegations make him incompatible with the office of President. Murray was free to depict an image that at best a plurality of people would disagree with, and given the subject matter, that image was appropriate to use."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con01b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Jacob Zuma had a right to sue, which he made use of before dropping his claim for defamation. However, for his supporters inside and outside the ANC to attack The Goodman Gallery, City Press and Brett Murray personally is irresponsible and stifles debate over the credibility of Jacob Zuma for the office of President. Zuma has done controversial things before and during his time in office that are worthy of criticism and \u2018The Spear\u2019 amongst the rest of the exhibition reflects this. No one should be above criticism, especially if their actions will have an impact upon many people."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con02a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Infantilisation and Prejudice  Those who dismiss the reaction to \u2018The Spear\u2019 forget the historical context which may trigger the sorts of responses seen to the artwork. [1]  South Africa\u2019s past problems can be seen to derive from the gross caricaturing of Black people and Black Men in particular as lascivious, overtly sexual and threatening, playing into a narrative of Blacks as \u2018inferior beings\u2019 justifying inhumane treatment over a number of centuries.  Portraying the President with his genitals exposed could also be seen to pass negative comment upon his polygamy, which is permitted in his Zulu culture. Such comment upon something which can determine social standing can also be viewed as offensive by many, triggering such reactions. [2]  With this in mind then the right action for both The Goodman Gallery and City Press to take would be to remove such offensive art to avoid any hurt caused and to quell the protest which were borne out of genuine offence, not political grandstanding as opposition seem to imply.  [1] Hlongwane, Sipho, \u2018The Spear: Millions of people were insulted\u2019, Daily Maverick, 28 May 2012,   [2] Dana, Simphiwe, \u2018The 'Sarah Baartmanisation' of the black body\u2019, Mail & Guardian, 12 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con04a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Masculinity  The problem with leaving the painting, the spear, up is that to many young men President Zuma symbolises what excessive wealth can \u2018buy\u2019 you. He is the figure head of the nation, the pinnacle of capitalism and masculinity, of which the penis and sex are instrumental in this image. By leaving the painting up, it encourages hyper-masculinity (which is inherently violent), [1] because it assumes there is an inherent link between power and the penis. This is unhelpful, both for women and men who are trying to live in equity.  [1] Scheff, Thomas J., \u2018Hypermasculinity and Violence as a Social System\u2019, Universitas, Vol.2, Issue 2, Fall 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con03a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Public Decency  Freedom of Speech is something that is highly valued, particularly in a country such as South Africa, where it was in short supply for a large part of its history, but surely for such speech to be worthwhile, it has to be able to convey a message that actually enriches the public domain. Such messages can be critical of government, but it must be best if they do not cause widespread offence in the process.  The problem with \u2018The Spear\u2019 is that is causes widespread offence with the graphic depiction of the male genitalia. As a result, the underlying message that Brett Murray is trying to convey is lost in the offence image of the exposed penis, causing needless controversy in the process. [1]  The utilisation of an exposed penis in \u2018The Spear\u2019 breaches all notions of public decency, not only causing offence in the public domain, but also personal offence, by depicting President Zuma in such a lewd manner. As such, it is right to ask for the removal of the artwork from public display to prevent further offence from being caused.  [1] Robins. P, \u2018The spear that divided the nation\u2019, Amandla, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con01a","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"Defamation  While South African Law does allow for freedom of speech, and the constitution is one of the most liberal in the world for protecting such freedoms, it must be measured against the need for responsibility in the use of such freedoms to prevent offence.  Whatever one believes about \u2018The Spear\u2019 it is clear that Murray attacked President Zuma based upon his personal life rather than any critique of policy. The depiction of the President with his penis exposed is a reminder of the accusations of rape against him, of which he was acquitted in 2007.  To remind those who view the painting of the accusation is to hint at Zuma\u2019s guilt in the case despite it being proved otherwise in a court of law. This is effectively libel and as such defames Zuma\u2019s character. As such, Zuma was right to sue for defamation and it was right for the artwork to be removed as it implied and spread a falsehood in the public domain that is damaging to Zuma."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con04b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"The painting should remain hanging as a reminder to young men that society is noting the particularly high prevalence of cases of rape, that are committed by all peoples within society, from the bottom to the top. This is not to argue that the President has ever necessarily raped anyone, although his defence in his rape-trial in 2005 was flimsy and without doubt he abused his power, as the girl he is supposed to have had consensual sex with was like a daughter to him. It is to critique his infidelity, and his lack of support in the AIDS pandemic. Just because he is the president does not mean he should be above being publically ridiculed for putting his own sexual desires above the safety of others."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con02b","title":"reputation and defamation house believes spear should have remained","text":"To attach historical abuses to the symbolism of \u2018The Spear\u2019 is outlandish, irresponsible and fully indicates the way in which the ANC and its supporters use the past to excuse its poor record in government. \u2018The Spear\u2019 followed a theme criticising Zuma and his actions as a public figure. Criticism of the piece is welcome as part of debate based on facts, not emotion like what was seen during the controversy. Maintaining \u2018The Spear\u2019s display is part of this, triggering a debate over ANC policies in the here and now, as opposed to referring to past injustices. Removing \u2018The Spear\u2019 prevents that rational debate and instead sends a message that merely shouting down opponents is a suitable solution to an argument, harming South African political discourse in the long term."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro02b","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"A free press can only function if it is also a responsible press. Journalists are allowed a leeway not enjoyed by most because they act responsibly and within boundaries. Realistically, the test of whether the risk posed to third parties is balanced by the public interest is a difficult one. Although much has been made of the risks to Assange himself \u2013 at least he has made a lot of it \u2013 he has less to say on the dangers posed by the impact of his actions on military and, especially, diplomatic operations. Endangering U.S. relations with other nations by making public the opinions of Western diplomats about their hosts may be good copy but scarcely serves the cause of peace or the national interest. Mexico\u2019s President Felipe Calderon for example said he had lost confidence in the U.S. ambassador to the country as a result. [1] Equally, the information disclosed on Guantanamo or in the Iraq and Afghanistan diaries of soldiers revealed little that wasn\u2019t either known or widely suspected and so it is difficult to see how the public interest was served at the cost of operational efficacy.  [1] Sheridan, Mary Beth, \u2018Calderon: WikiLeaks caused severe damage to U.S.-Mexico relations\u2019, The Washington Post, 3 March 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro02a","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"Governments have always struggled with the idea of press investigation and freedom of information, claiming Assange is not a journalist is simply a stunt.  We know that most governments struggle with the idea of not having control over information and are suspicious of the media. In a pre-Internet age working with a handful of proprietors made controlling information far easier.  Since the creation of the Internet, the idea of controlling the media has become harder, now there are those who can broadcast themselves directly; a mass of information and opinion that doesn\u2019t rely on the patronage of publishers or political favour.  Assange has simply taken a journalistic position that makes sense for the new media age.  In contrast to the opinion driven mainstream press and much of the blogosphere, Wikileaks actually breaks new stories [1] . New media requires new skills and attitudes of its journalists because the relationship with their readers has changed dramatically but the core of the role, speaking truth to power, remains the same. Furthermore they do so in such a way as allows them to publish their source material and allow the reader themselves to make a judgement as to whether their story really reflects that material. This ability, reflecting effectively limitless capacity for providing textual information, meets the frequently heard desire for news without spin \u2013 routinely featured in research into people\u2019s views on the press. This may be a new approach, just as Assange is a new type of Journalist but he is still a journalist.  [1] John Pilger and Julian Assange discuss citizen journalism here ."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro03b","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"Historically, journalists have been protected from prosecution for espionage (Assange is threatened with prosecution under the Espionage Act) whereas their sources were not. Assange is providing the information which he has acquired illegally. The fact that he, in turn, had a source does not qualify him as a journalist. Surely it makes more sense to view him as a source, someone simply providing information to the journalist of the Guardian, Times and elsewhere, who subsequently used the data in actual journalism. Assange doesn\u2019t seem interested in Freedom of information as much as he is in simply causing trouble."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro01a","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"The concept of what is a journalist needs to be clarified to deal with the reality of new forms of mass communication. Assange gathers, collates and disseminates information, ergo, he is a journalist.  Few industries have been changed more radically by the advent of the Internet than journalism. The traditional role of the journalist, disseminating information to which they had special or privileged access, has changed beyond recognition. Now readers and viewers have direct access to much of that information and can access it at their own convenience and through their own choice of media. Sales of newspapers are in freefall and the stranglehold of a handful of broadcasters on political access has been lost forever. There are still extraordinary journalists finding news and genuinely affecting the society around them. For the most part, however, journalists increasingly comment on the news rather than directly collecting it. In many ways, Assange has taken journalism back to basics \u2013 acquiring information to which most people do not have access and making it public. The very fact that the powerful and the privileged dislike what he is doing so much could even be taken to suggest that he has to be doing something right as one of the roles of the fourth estate is to act as a check on government. [1]  At a time when much of the traditional media seems to have lost its sense of what its role is, Wikileaks is providing a timely reminder [2] .  [1] Hume, Ellen, \u2018Freedom of the Press\u2019, Issues of Democracy, December 2005,   [2] The Guardian. Julian Assange Wins Martha Gellhorn Journalism Prize. Jason Deans. 2 June 2011."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro01b","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"Journalists fulfill a multitude of roles. Of course revealing information is part of that but only one part. Further, journalists do not reveal information, as Assange does, purely because it\u2019s secret but within a wider narrative. It is however difficult to see what wider narrative Assange is pursuing. Realistically, there are some things that need to be confidential; diplomatic and military communications would come high up that list. Assange seems primarily interested in reveling things purely because they are secret. One of the curious things about Wikileaks is that, while some of it has been embarrassing, it has been published indiscriminately. The US Diplomatic Cables, the most famous of the leaks and the ones that caused the most debate, have mostly been described as embarrassing rather than reveling corruption or illegality. It\u2019s difficult to see what journalistic goal such voyeurism could fulfill."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro03a","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"There is a difference between actual journalists and those who like having their names published in newspapers. Assange has far more claim to the description than many of them.  One of the things that the Leveson Inquiry [1] has made all too apparent is that simply working for a newspaper or broadcaster is not a satisfactory definition of journalist. In terms of maintaining a professional ethic, the difference between those who hacked into phones \u2013 including that of murdered schoolgirl Millie Dowler \u2013 and the journalists who broke the story, Nick Davies and Amelia Hill [2] could not be starker. Equally many popular blogs that focus exclusively on opinion or areas of news far more specialist than has traditionally been considered the role of the daily media.  A more useful definition, it would seem, relates more to the ethics and aims of the individual or organisation involved. This has the advantage of ruling out those organisations devoted to advertising (such as listings magazines or shopping channels) or those focused purely on entertainment.  A Journalist should therefore have a commitment to revealing and disseminating information that is held by those with power to those over whom they wield that power. This means that the journalist gains access to information through various sources and then publicises that information as a story. Anonymous sources such as those used by Assange are a key part of journalism with many of the biggest stories such as Watergate only being published because of anonymity. [3]  By such a definition, Assange would clearly qualify [4] . This was clearly felt to be the case by the New York Times, the Guardian, Le Monde and others who reprinted his original material and drew conclusions from it. It would come as something of a surprise to such publications to discover they were not staffed by journalists.  [1] For a link to the inquiry\u2019s website, click here  [2] The Guardian. \u201cMissing MIlly Dowler\u2019s Voicemail was Hack by News of the World\u201d. Nick Davies and Amelia Hill. 5 July 2011.  [3] Myers, Steve, \u2018Study: Use of anonymous sources peaked in 1970s, dropped by 2008\u2019, Poynter.org, 9 August 2011,   [4] The Spectator. \u201cYes, Julian Assange is a Journalist\u201d. Alex Massie. 2 November 2010."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con03b","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"The fact that Wikileaks specialises in one form of news gathering is hardly revolutionary \u2013 a little like saying magazines specialise in features or blogs tend to be dominated by opinion pieces. The idea, however, that journalists should provide their source material so that readers can make a decision for themselves is one that constantly finds praise from audiences and many journalists regret they cannot provide because of the pressures of printable space or broadcast schedules.  At the time of writing, the lead item on Wikileaks\u2019s front page read;  WikiLeaks: 542 days of banking blockade - no process  Assange: 539 days detainment - no charge  Manning: 737 days in jail - no trial  Grand Jury: 622 days US secret Grand Jury into WikiLeaks - no transparency  If the purpose of a news organisation is to hold account the powerful and act as an independent check on the use of that power then Assange would certainly seem to be having an impact.  By contrast, on the other side of the Atlantic, the Leveson Inquiry is now months into an investigation focussing on the largest media organisation in the world, which stands charged of breaking not so much the basic principles of good journalism but, rather, those of simple humanity. Surprisingly, the publisher of this group, Rupert Murdoch, remains at liberty on the basis that he had no idea what was going on in his empire.  The first group pointed out the failings of the powerful, the latter invited them to parties. It is interesting to consider which one comes truer to the spirit of journalism."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con01b","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"It is worth noting the people who are happy to say that he is a journalist \u2013 in addition to many other journalists around the world. He has received the 2008 Economist Freedom of Expression award, the 2009 Amnesty International Media Award, La Monde Person of the Year (2010) [1] and the Martha Gelhorn Prize for Journalism in 2011. [2] Wikipedia\u2019s media partners include Der Spiegel, The New York Times, Le Monde, The Guardian and El Pais. If we accept the idea that \u2018by his works shall you know a man\u2019 then the fact that Wikileaks has produced game changing information \u2013 and stories that have changed policy - on extra-judicial killings in Kenya, the dumping of toxic waste in Cote d\u2019Ivoire, the Church of Scientology, procedures at Guantanamo bay [3] and the financial dealings at Kaupthing and Julius Baer [4] \u2013 all before the revelations about the State Department imbroglio that is suddenly of interest to \u2026 well, to the State Department.  There are few other journalists in the word that could make such claims.  [1] AFP, 'Assange named Le Monde Man of the Year', ABC News, 24 December 2010,   [2] Deans, Jason, 'Julian Assange wins Martha Gellhorn journalism prise', guardian.co.uk, 2 June 2011,   [3] Chivers, Tom, 'Wikileaks' 10 greateststories', The Telegraph, 18 October 2010,   [4] The Economist, 'Be afraid' 9th December 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con02a","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"It is a basic principle of journalism that sources should be checked and verified by another, independent, source.  British Foreign Secretary William Hague has pointed out that the actions of Wikileaks put British lives at risk. [1] Congressman Peter King described the mass leaking of documents as \u201cWorse even than a physical attack\u201d on America and Assange as \u201can enemy combatant\u201d. [2] Vice-President Joe Biden refers to him as a \u201cHigh-tech terrorist.\u201d [3]  He has condemned governments, endangered operations and undermined diplomatic activities, all without knowing the identity or motives of his sources. For all we know the information could be quite false or released only in part by someone with an axe to grind. Those parties who are damned by the revelations are hardly in a position to say, \u201cNo that isn\u2019t one of our cables and here\u2019s the real one to prove it.\"  Furthermore, as the site itself proudly proclaims, it has no way of knowing who the source is and, therefore, no way of knowing the accuracy of the information published beyond the educated guesswork of their editorial staff [4] . Who is it making these guesses? It is impossible to say as only Assange\u2019s name is associated with the site.  It\u2019s an interesting exercise \u2013 how many other Editors-in-Chief could you name? How many star reporters can you name? Wikileaks must be the only media organisation \u2013 or such is its claim \u2013 where the only name that is widely known is that of the publisher.  It is a fairly basic principle of journalism that not only should more than one person know the identity of the source but that the information should be possible to ratify. To prove the confidence that journalist has in the source, they are prepared to put their name to it.  Assange cannot say whether he has confidence in the sources because he has no way of telling whether that is really a person with access to information or whether it is the agent of and unfriendly power, a disaffected employee or is simply making the whole thing up  [1] BBC News, 'Julian Assange ready to meet police says his lawyer', 7 December 2010,   [2] James, Frank, 'Wikileaks Is A Terror Outfit: Rep. Peter King', NPR, 29 November 2010,   [3] The Sydney Morning Herald, 'Joe Biden calls Julian Assange a 'hi-tech terrorist', 20 December 2010,   [4] The Slate. \u201cThe Wikileaks Paradox: Is Radical Transparency Compatible with Total Anonymity?\u201d Farhad Manjoo. 28 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con03a","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"Wikileaks is not a news organisation, it exists exclusively to disseminate classified information, no genuine news organisation has such an agenda.  News organisations provide a variety of functions, from reporting the weather to breaking news. Even the most hardened investigative outlet does not dedicate itself exclusively to revealing classified information. It appears to have no interest in what that information is or whether its disclosure causes more harm than good, the sole interest is that it is classified.  That isn\u2019t journalism, at best it\u2019s prurience and, at worst, egocentricity \u2013 \u2018I know something you don\u2019t know\u2019. The fallout for people\u2019s jobs, liberty and safety appears not to interest those involved.  Their own \u2018About Us\u2019 section makes a point of stating that \u201cWe accept (but do not solicit) anonymous sources of information [1] .\u201d Interestingly, the whole of the rest of the page talks about maintaining anonymity for both readers and sources and little else. It provides screeds of text about themselves, a free press and the importance of releasing classified information. Unusually for a media organisation, there are no details about how to complain if a reader feels they or someone else has been misrepresented. This means that Wikileaks is denying someone\u2019s freedom of speech by not giving them a right to reply and have corrections published.  In an age where even the most stentorian paper of record enshrines such rights, one might assume that such devout proclaimers of free speech would shout it from their mast head. Instead, their Chat page is mostly full of dire warnings that security forces are watching the reader\u2019s every keystroke. Hardly encouraging for the little guy wishing to clear their name.  [1] The link to the page is here ."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con01a","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"Assange is mostly interested in self-promotion, not being a serious journalist.  Journalists are judged by far more than their ability to acquire and disseminate knowledge or information. The quality of their writing, the skills and contacts developed to acquire it, the training used to enter the trade (which incidentally would have included the difference between the legitimate use of privileged information and espionage) and many other characteristics.  Assange doesn\u2019t seem to have taken any interest in any of this. He undertook no formal training \u2013 he studied but did not graduate in Physics \u2013 and worked as a computer programmer and hacker before founding Wikileaks. His interest in data seems to do with the technological side of the process rather than the ideas.  Were a printer in the same situation to attempt the same defence, it would be ignored. Assange is an irresponsible geek, self-proclaimed hacker and someone who clearly has no interest in, or understanding of, the notion that there are occasions when a responsible journalist does not release information, frequently out of concern for those whose lives it might engender.  His entire background has been in hacking, he is described as a cryptographer in articles written by or about him before the launch of Wikileaks. This sudden commitment to journalism seems awfully convenient in the event of the threat of a trial."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con02b","title":"free challenge house believes julian assange journalist","text":"The source material is at least open to scrutiny, and anyone can decide if it appears to be genuine.  Equally many serious journalists take Assange and the rest of the Wikileaks team seriously enough and have no difficulty with trusting the stories put forward. If he is really a patsy of agents unknown then governments, notably the US, seem to be going to extraordinary lengths to silence him and the rest of the organisation. Presumably the banks blockading his site have reason to believe that he is a threat to their commercial interests, otherwise it would be a bit of a waste of time to give him the added credibility.  The very fact that the people he attacks take him sufficiently seriously to have taken the actions they have would seem to add a lot of weight to his argument and suggest strongly that the sources are quite genuine.  The more likely explanation is that the political classes of many nations simply do not know how to respond to this new kind of journalism which can neither be bought nor bullied and, unlike the traditional media, can be based anywhere in the world. As a result they use frightening words like \u201cTerrorist\u201d and \u201cEspionage\u201d in an attempt to discredit him."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro02b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Legislation takes account of particularities. Christianity does not, and never has, required the wearing of the cross as a demonstration of faith and few representations are found before the fifth century [i] \u2013 indeed in early Church history it was discouraged. In much of the West, the cross has become simply another piece of jewellery and legislation should reflect that reality. To allow a Christian to wear such an adornment but not to allow a non-Christian to wear exactly the same thing would be unworkable. That is the consistent position.  [i] Maurice Dilasser, The Symbols of the Church, 1999, P.21,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro02a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Other religions have the right to wear prescribed clothing enshrined in British law, it is hypocritical not to offer Christianity the same protection.  Legislation should be consistent; otherwise it is, by definition, discriminatory. [i] If some faiths are allowed to show outward demonstrations of their faith in the workplace, then that should apply across the board.  Christianity is an established part of the state, as shown by the monarch being head of the Church of England. So it is perverse for two national brands to accept attire that demonstrates an employee\u2019s profession of other faiths but to reject one that is universally recognised as a symbol of Christianity.  The very fact that both women were willing to risk, and lose, their jobs over the issue shows that they considered wearing the cross to be an important part of their faith. That should be enough to demonstrate that it is a matter of conscience. It is demonstrably true that allowing other religious symbols to be worn does not create immense difficulties, both the NHS and Heathrow airport allow sikh\u2019s to wear a kirpan (small dagger). [ii] Their right to do so is respected because it is important to the individual concerned. The same is clearly true here.  Either legislation should respect that commitment in all faiths or it should not do so in any.  [i] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000,   [ii] The Kirpan, A submission to the Department of Communities and Local Government (UK), British Sikh Consultative Forum, April 2009, P12"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro03b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Virtually every employee dresses differently for work than they do outside. We accept the fact that there are behaviours and attitudes that must be left at the door when we enter the workplace. Those unwilling to make such an accommodation simply don\u2019t work for organisations with those requirements. If the women concerned had such a great commitment to their faith, then they should find a different job."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro01a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Declaration of the faith is a key part of Christianity and that should be respected.  The UK is a nation that claims to be tolerant of all faiths and to respect religious beliefs. If that is the case then it must be accepted that the law should respect actions in accordance with those beliefs insofar as they do not harm or infringe on the rights of others. Demonstrating one\u2019s commitment to the cross is part of that faith [i] and should, therefore be shown some respect in a religiously diverse and tolerant society.  There may be more militant forms of religious profession that would be inappropriate in a workplace but wearing a simple piece of jewellery causes no harm or offence to others.  Both women have stated that they felt that wearing the cross was an important part of their faith [ii] and respect for those beliefs should be shown if society\u2019s claims of tolerance and diversity are to have credibility.  As with the demonstration of any right, the fact that its exercise may not be convenient does not supersede its validity. Indeed the only way of demonstrating that a society is, in fact, a tolerant one is, by definition, when it tolerates the exercise of legitimate practices which are inconvenient.  [i] Galatians 6:14 among others  [ii] BBC News Website. \u201cShirley Chaplin and Nadia Eweida Take Cross Fight to Europe.\u201d 12 March 2012."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro01b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"There is no requirement within Christianity that the cross should be worn. This makes it quite different from other items of religious clothing \u2013 specifically required as articles of faith - that are accepted in the workplace. It is an entirely reasonable distinction to draw a line between iconography that the employee believes it would be a sin to go without and that which is an active choice."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro04b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Proposition is completely over-reacting. Nobody is stopping the women involved from practising their faith but there is nothing within mainstream Christianity that requires the wearing of a cross as a public statement. Furthermore, a tolerant society can only function if it works within a framework of rules that are evenly applied.  This case demonstrates that as even the established religion is expected to confine to that framework."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro03a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"The confession of religious faith is far more important than the rather petty rules that banned the wearing of the cross.  People of faith attest that those beliefs determine the nature of their own identity and their place in the Universe. In the case of Nadia Eweida, at least, the employer\u2019s case was based on the idea that wearing a symbol of that faith might not enhance their uniform. The difference between the significance of the claims could not be greater.  Indeed, British Airways, Eweida\u2019s employer, has since changed their policy to permit staff to wear religious or charitable imagery [i] in large part because of the absurdity of the position.  The case against Chaplin was based on health and safety legislation - but not because the cross and chain posed a risk to others but to herself [ii] ; a risk she was, presumably, prepared to accept.  On one hand there are individuals protecting their sincere beliefs in the most profound of issues and, on the other, managers applying what the Archbishop of Canterbury described as \u201cwooden-headed bureaucratic silliness\u201d. [iii] There is no suggestion that harm to another could have been caused here and, therefore, no reason not to respect the heartfelt beliefs of the individuals involved.  [i] BBC News Website. \u201cChristian Airline Employee Loses Cross ban Appeal\u201d. 12 February 2010.  [ii] Daily Mail. \u201cIt's a very bad day for Christianity: Nurse's verdict after tribunal rules she can't wear crucifix at work\u201d  [iii] The Telegraph, \u2018Archbishop of Canterbury hits out at cross ban\u2019, 4 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro04a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Freedom of expression, like any right is fairly meaningless if it\u2019s only respected when it\u2019s convenient.  Recognising rights when there is no inconvenience to anybody involved is verging on the irrelevant. This is, perhaps, especially true, with freedom of expression. If I recognise your right to express yourself freely - so long as I never have to see, hear or be aware of you doing \u2013 rather misses the point.  Likewise if the individual is free only so long as there aren\u2019t any rules saying they shouldn\u2019t be, goes somewhat against the grain of defending liberties. Indeed the history of the idea that people can exercise all the freedom they like as long as it\u2019s out of sight, out of mind and doesn\u2019t break any rules is not a noble one; among other absurd forms of \u201cfreedom\u201d, it was used to justify both segregation and apartheid.  Although the effect and extent of the prejudice is clearly different here, the logic is the same: you are completely free to do whatever I think you should do.  Having a right to freely express oneself means to do so when it is inconvenient, challenging or offensive to others [i] . The rules being broken here were, as has already been mentioned, fairly petty and the sanctions comparatively minor \u2013 although the loss of someone\u2019s livelihood should not be understated. The case is important because of the precedent it sets; what if the two women were risking not just their jobs but their liberty?  The UK considers itself to be a tolerant country. Tolerance means accepting those declarations and statements that are inconvenient. If the law is incapable of defending a statement as benign as wearing a small piece of jewellery, it is worrying to think how it would cope with something more forthright.  [i] UN Declaration of Human Rights. Articles 18, 19 and 23."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con03b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Recognizing that people have different views is a fairly fundamental part of maintaining societal cohesion. Freedom of expression requires the corollary that there is no right not to be offended \u2013 it is hard to see how such a right would be manifest in practical terms. It is also worth reiterating that there were no complaints from customers or patients in either case."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con01b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Both women were long-standing employees. The rules changed around them, it is, however, difficult to see how not wearing a cross was innate or fundamental to the job they were doing. Employers hire a worker\u2019s labour, not their soul."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con02a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Both employers acted out of concern for the interests of their clients, employees should respect that.  Employers don\u2019t introduce rules because it\u2019s fun but, rather, because they serve a purpose. Ms. Chaplin has expressed concern about the legal costs incurred by the NHS Trust which employed her in fighting the action she initiated. Health and safety rules exist, in part, to avoid the possibility of subsequent legal action; it might be reasonable for her to support such rules given her concern [i] .  Likewise, airlines have uniform policies to make their services, well, uniform. It\u2019s what their customers expect. In much the same way as many Christians refuse to receive communion from a woman or a homosexual, it simply goes with the job.  For any workplace to function, the lifestyles of the employees need to accommodate the needs of the customers or users of the service provided by the employer. Clearly there is a degree of balance involved and the values of the employee need to be respected. However, this case isn\u2019t about the values of the employee \u2013 they weren\u2019t fired for being Christian \u2013 it was about and active decision in how to demonstrate those values. A decision not taken by their co-religionists and one that seemed to owe more to belligerence than to belief.  [i] Daily Mail. \u201cIt's a very bad day for Christianity: Nurse's verdict after tribunal rules she can't wear crucifix at work\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con03a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"If this were about wearing a badge with a political slogan or something similar, everyone would agree that it was inappropriate. The same principle should apply to iconography.  If the image they were wearing endorsed a political candidate or another company, the issue would never have got to court. Neither complainant was employed in a capacity where their religious conviction was relevant to the job. If the situation were reversed and they were compelled to profess a religious faith in such a situation there would, rightly, be an outcry.  In neither situation would the consumer of the service being provided expect to be confronted with endorsements for which candidate to vote for or which soda to drink.  The question then arises, if political and corporate branding is out, why should suggestions about which god to pray to be okay? The very fact that they were willing to pursue this action demonstrates that images and symbols carry meaning beyond the explicit statement they make. If that is true, then it is equally true that others may object to, or be offended by, what that symbol represents. People who have bought airline tickets or are in need of healthcare should not be confronted by imagery they may find unpleasant."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con01a","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"Employers impose rules relating to conduct in the workplace, it\u2019s one of the things that everyone accepts when they take and continue in a job.  Put simply, if you don\u2019t like the rules, don\u2019t do the job. The fact that the world of work and the life of faith can come into conflict should hardly have come as a surprise to the women concerned. From Biblical times onward, that has been a reality.  However, they chose these particular jobs and that choice comes with consequences. Their actions would seem to suggest that they prize their faith more highly than their jobs, the solution seems fairly straightforward \u2013 get another job.  Religious belief is also a choice. Nobody is compelling the two women into one particular faith and nobody, including the Church, is compelling them to wear a cross as a demonstration of that decision.  The problem seems to have arisen because one thing they chose to do was in conflict with another thing they chose to do. It is difficult to see how that is the responsibility of either the employer or the courts."}
+{"id":"test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con02b","title":"nothing sacred house believes christians should be allowed wear cross","text":"No customer or patient complained in either case. Neither employer demonstrated that wearing the cross prevented either employee from performing their duties efficiently. Indeed, given the size and diversity of both organisations\u2019 client base, a demonstration that they support free expression might be welcomed.  The key point here is that both of the employees concerned did believe that the right to not only hold, but proclaim, their beliefs was core to their faith. By denying them the right to express that impeded not just their actions but their beliefs."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-pro02b","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"The business community is far from united in its supposed support of a third run-way. Surveys suggest that many influential businesses in fact do not support expansion. A letter expressing concern was signed by Justin King the Chief Executive of J Sainsbury and BskyB\u2019s James Murdoch. [1] Therefore to conflate the business community as one voice calling for expansion is misguided. We should also remember, when considering the alternatives to Heathrow\u2019s new run-way such as a new runway at another London airport or a completely new airport, that these would likely have a similar economic impact as the Heathrow expansion would. If it is the connections that matter to bring in business and tourists then so long as the connection is with London it does not matter which airport the connection is from. There may even be less need for the airport to be a hub airport if we are focused on benefits to London as Bob Ayling, former British Airways Chief Executive stated Heathrow should be focused on passengers that want to come to London not simply as a transfer point, he said that a third runway could therefore be \u201ca costly mistake\u201d. [2]  [1] Osborne, Alistair, \u2018Kingfisher chief Ian Cheshire questions Heathrow runway success\u2019, The Telegraph, 13 July 2009,   [2] Stewart, John, \u2018A briefing on Heathrow from HACAN: June 2012\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-pro02a","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"The expansion of Heathrow is vital for the economy  Expanding Heathrow would ensure many current jobs as well as creating new ones. Currently, Heathrow supports around 250,000 jobs. [1] Added to this many hundreds of thousands more are dependent upon the tourist trade in London which relies on good transport links like Heathrow. Loosing competitiveness in front of other European airports not only could imply wasting the possibility to create new jobs, but lose some of those that already exist. Expansion of Heathrow would also be building a vital part of infrastructure at a time when British infrastructure spending is very low as a result of the recession so helping to boost growth. Good flight connections are critical for attracting new business and maintaining current business. This is because aviation infrastructure is important for identifying new business opportunities. The UK\u2019s economic future depends on trading not just with traditional destinations in Europe and America but also with the expanding cities of China and India, cities such as Chongqing and Chengdu. [2] Businesses based in these cities will be much more likely to invest in Britain with direct flights. [3]  [1] BBC News, \u2018New group backs Heathrow expansion\u2019, 21 July 2003,   [2] Duncan, E., \u2018Wake up. We need a third runway\u2019. The Times, 2012,   [3] Salomone, Roger, \u2018Time to up the ante on roads and airports\u2019, EEF Blog, 2 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-pro03b","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"Location is a relatively unimportant issue when talking about \u2018hubs\u2019. In hub airports an important proportion of passengers and cargo is only passing through; it arrives to the airport by plane only to leave it again by plane without even reaching the city. As a result for these passengers the links to the city do not matter. Even for those going into London the location of the airport itself is not an issue per se, rather the length of time to get into the center of the city is. In which case wherever becomes the new hub should have new transport links built or it should be built at a location that has, or will have, good transport connections such as to the North West of London where the High Speed 2 railway will run. [1]  [1] Leftly, Mark, and Chorley, Matt, \u201cIoS exclusive: Secret plan for four-runway airport west of Heathrow\u201d, The Independent, 2 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-pro01a","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"Heathrow is full; it must expand  Put simply Heathrow is at the limits of its capacity so there needs to be expansion. Heathrow is already at 99% capacity and running so close to maximum capacity means that any minor problem can result in large delays for passengers. London\u2019s major rivals have four-runway hub airports Paris, Frankfurt, even Madrid [1] this means these cities have much greater capacity as they can take up to 700,000 flights a year compared to Heathrow\u2019s 480,000. [2] Britain does not want to be left behind, crumbling in the dust. These airports therefore clearly have the capacity to take flights that would otherwise be going to Heathrow. Heathrow needs to expand to maintain its competitiveness so that the airport retains its position the most popular place to stop-over in before catching a connecting flight. Colin Matthews, the chief executive of Heathrow (formerly BAA) has argued that Heathrow\u2019s lack of hub capacity currently costs the UK \u00a314billion. [3] Heathrow is in danger of falling behind continental rivals in Frankfurt and Amsterdam.  [1] Leunig, T., \u2018A third runway? Yes, and a fourth too, please\u2019 The Times, 2012,   [2] Lundgren, Kari, \u201cHeathrow Limit Costs U.K. 14 Billion Pounds, Airport Says\u201d, Bloomberg, 15 November 2012,   [3] Topham, Gwyn., \u2018Heathrow must be expanded or replaced, airport chief announces\u2019 The Guardian, 15 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-pro01b","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"It is not as simple as considering that Heathrow is at capacity so everything will go to competitor airports. So far it is simple alarmism to warn of traffic going to European competitors, John Stewart (chairman of HACAN, Heathrow Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise) points out that the airport already has more departure flights each week to key global business centres than its two closest rivals in Paris and Frankfurt combined. [1] Heathrow being at capacity may encourage other forms of transport, for example encouraging passengers to take the train rather than the plane to Edinburgh, Paris, or Brussels. Secondly it is not always simple just to change hub. As a transfer point if moving airport it would be necessary to change dozens of flights to enable the same transfers not just one or two. And finally of course Heathrow\u2019s expansion is not the only way to deal with excess demand at Heathrow, numerous other options have been proposed from the \u2018Boris island\u2019 airport, to linking Heathrow and Gatwick by high speed train. [2]  [1] Topham, Gwyn, \u2018Airline chiefs slam government for blocking Heathrow expansion\u2019, The Guardian, 25 June 2012,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Heathrow and Gatwick airports: Ministers mull rail link\u2019, 8 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-pro03a","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"Heathrow is in the best location for London  Flying is critical for business. Heathrow is well located for the people that will pick up the bill funding its expansion. People need to be able to get to their homes and work easily from the airport otherwise it is impractical. According to the Civil Aviation Authority 25% of business passengers start their journey within 30 minutes of Heathrow, far more than any other airport. [1] This demonstrates that the demand for Heathrow\u2019s services from the local area is real and pronounced. Heathrow is closer to London than its rivals Gatwick and Stansted and has better transport links through the Piccadilly line and Heathrow Express. A new airport could potentially be closer, but finding space within the M25 for a large airport without attracting the same kind of opposition that expanding Heathrow has would be next to impossible  [1] Leunig, Tim, \u2018A bigger and quieter Heathrow is the answer to our aviation capacity problem\u2019, The Spectator, 5 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-con03b","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"London has a lot of runways in total because it has a lot of airports however Heathrow is the only one that has the benefit of being a hub airport as each of these existing airports only have one or two runways. Suggestions that short haul flights should go to other London airports misses the point of a hub airport which is that there should be quick transfers \u2013 something that would not be possible if the passengers from the feeder services have to cross London from one airport to another and there is not the demand to use larger planes on these routes. [1]  Of course we cannot be certain that passenger numbers will keep going up in line with predictions and long term trends. However we can be certain that the numbers using UK airports won\u2019t go up if we don\u2019t provide the capacity to enable them to come.  [1] Thomas, Nathalie, \u2018Heathrow rejects Gatwick rail link plan\u2019, The Telegrapoh, 29 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-con01b","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"An additional run-way would not necessarily result in a large increase in noise pollution as this would depend on where the runways are located. If the runway was established to the West of its current location incoming planes would cross over areas not occupied by as planes would fly over the M25, the Poyle industrial estate, the Wraysbury reservoir and part of Stanwell Moor. On the other hand all the runways could be moved to the other side of the M25 and closely spaced potentially reducing the noise level over what it is at the moment even with three or four runways. [1] Therefore the noise complaints argument is overstated. No airport will ever be silent but with proposals to increase the number of airbus A380s, which are half as noisy as the 747 when taking off and only produce a quarter of the noise when landing, the noise argument really does lose a lot of credit. [2] We should also remember that a third runway will ease capacity problems so potentially allowing the first and last flights to be at more sociable hours than is currently the case.  [1] Leunig, Tim, \u2018A bigger and quieter Heathrow is the answer to our aviation capacity problem\u2019, The Spectator, 5 October 2012,   [2] Heathrow Media Centre, \u2018Heathrow set to more than triple its A380 fleet by 2020\u2019, 25 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-con02a","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"Expanding Heathrow would be at the expense of the environment  Expanding Heathrow will directly contribute to climate change and make it impossible for the UK to stay within the EU legal limits. The EU has established limits on the levels of harmful pollution and the UK has signed a commitment to reduce Green House Gases by 80% by 2050 and also to emit no more CO2 in 2050 than it did in 2005. However, building a third runway would be enabling and encouraging greater number of flights which would result in Heathrow becoming the biggest emitter of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the country. [1] Attempts by the government to weaken pollution laws by lobbying Brussels would enable the third runway but at a deeply nefarious price, that of human health, currently fifty deaths a year are linked to Heathrow but with expansion this would go up to 150. [2]  [1] Stewart, John, \u2018A briefing on Heathrow from HACAN: June 2012\u2019   [2] Wilcockm David, and Harrism Dominic, \u2018Heathrow third runway \u2018would triple pollution deaths\u2019\u2019, The Independent, 13 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-con03a","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"The economic case for expansion does not add up  A study conducted by the NEF revealed that the cost of expansion will outweigh the benefits by at least \u00a35billion. [1] London has six airports and seven runways meaning that London already has the best connections globally. Together, London airports have a greater number of flights to the world\u2019s main business destinations than other European cities, despite serving less \u2018leisure\u2019 destinations than Paris\u2019s airports. [2] The solution to making air travel efficient lies in increasing the size of planes and filling them up rather than running half empty flights on small planes, something which is particularly prevalent on short haul flights. Short haul flights could also be re-directed to alternative airports such as Gatwick, City airport, Luton and Stansted so as to free up more space at Heathrow.  The expansion case also assumes ever increasing numbers flying, yet passenger numbers dropped for the first time in the wake of the recession, [3] and eventually technology may reduce demand for business travel. There are also other restrictions aside from runway capacity that prevents more flights, for example the UK has an agreement with China that restricts the UK to 62 flights to China per week. [4]  [1] New Economics Foundation, \u2018A new approach to re-evaluating Runway 3\u2019, 19 April 2010,   [2] Stewart, John, \u2018No economic case for expansion\u2019, November 2011,   [3] Rutherford, Tom, \u201cAir transport statistics\u2019, House of Commons Library, 4 July 2011, SN\/SG\/3760, p.4 www.parliament.uk\/briefing-papers\/SN03760.pdf  [4] HACAN, \u2018BAA challenged on claim that it is lack of runway capacity at Heathrow that is limiting flights to China\u2019, airportwatch, 14 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-con01a","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"The third run-way would cause noise and pollution problems  The high population density of the area around Heathrow means it is not an ideal location for a bigger airport. It makes sense to increase capacity in an area with lower population density instead of trying to do so within a location that is constrained by adjacent urbanized areas. Expanding Heathrow airport would mean increasing the problem of noise for the about 700,000 people living under the flight path. According to the HACAN report the Department for Transport only accepts that noise is a problem if a community is subjected to over 57 decibels of noise over the course of a year according to a 1985 Government study. In which case only the boroughs of Richmond and Hounslow would be affected. However this does not tie in with Londoner\u2019s experiences. BAA says that 258,000 people are currently affected by high noise levels but the local community believes the real number is more like 1 million people affected. [1] Any argument that states that noise levels will not increase is flawed at best and outright fraudulent at worst, clearly a large expansion in the number of flights will increase the amount of noise and possibly the numbers affected.  [1] Johnson, Tim, \u2018Approach Noise at Heathrow: Concentrating the Problem\u2019, HACAN, March 2010,  p.12"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egecegphw-con02b","title":"economy general environment climate environment general pollution house would","text":"The former Labour government when considering expansion made it clear that environment would be taken into account when considering the construction of a third run-way so there would be environmental restrictions to make sure that this is not an issue. [1] However not expanding Heathrow also contributes to CO2 emissions; with so little spare capacity flights are often delayed due to any small disruption on the ground leaving planes circling above London increasing their emissions. Building more runways anywhere else would have a similar environmental impact to the expansion plans.  [1] The Labour Party, \u2018A future fair for all; The Labour Party Manifesto 2010\u2019. 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro02b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"There is no evidence that gambling prevents people from caring for their family. The vast majority who gamble do so responsibly. It isn\u2019t right to ban something that millions of people enjoy just because a few cause problems. And banning gambling, whether online or in the real world will not stop these problems. Sadly, even if it is illegal, people with problems will still find a way to hurt those around them \u2013 just look at drugs."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro02a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Online gambling affects families  A parent who gambles can quickly lose the money their family depends on for food and rent. It is a common cause of family break-up and homelessness, so governments should get involved to protect innocent children from getting hurt [5]. Each problem gambler harmfully impacts 10-15 other people [6]. The internet makes it easy for gamblers to bet secretly, without even leaving the house, so people become addicted to gambling without their families realising what is going on until too late."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro03b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Unlike drugs, gambling is not physically or metabolically addictive. Most gamblers are not addicts, simply ordinary people who enjoy the excitement of a bet on a sporting event or card game. The large majority of people who gamble online keep to clear limits and stop when they reach them. The few people with a problem with being addicted will still find ways to gamble if gambling is illegal either through a casino, or else still online but in a black market that offers no help and that may use criminal violence to enforce payment."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro01a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Gambling is bad for you.  Gamblers may win money from time to time, but in the long run, the House always wins. Why should governments allow an activity that helps their citizens lose the money they have worked so hard to earn? The harm is not just the loss of money and possible bankruptcy; it causes depression, insomnia, and other stress related disorders [4]. The internet has made gambling so much easier to do and encouraged lots of new people to place bets so dramatically multiplying the harm."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro01b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Every leisure industry attracts a few troubled individuals who take the activity to harmful extremes. For every thousand drinkers there are a few alcoholics. Similarly some sports fans are hooligans. Those who gamble enough to harm themselves would be those who would gamble in casinos if the internet option was not available."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro04b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Criminals will always try to exploit any system, but if governments allow legal online gambling they can regulate it. It is in the interest of gambling companies to build trustworthy brands and cooperate with the authorities on stopping any crime. Cheats in several sports have been caught because legal websites reported strange betting patterns. Betfair for example provides the authorities with an early warning system \u2018BetMon\u2019 to watch betting patterns."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro03a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Gambling is addictive.  Humans get a buzz from taking a risk and the hope that this time their luck will be in, this is similar to drug addicts [7]. The more people bet, the more they want to bet, so they become hooked on gambling which can wreck their lives. Internet gambling is worse because it is not a social activity. Unlike a casino or race track, you don\u2019t have to go anywhere to do it, which can put a brake on the activity. The websites never shut. There won\u2019t be people around you to talk you out of risky bets. There is nothing to stop you gambling your savings away while drunk."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro04a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Online gambling encourages crime  Human trafficking, forced prostitution and drugs provide $2.1 billion a year for the Mafia but they need some way through which to put this money into circulation. Online gambling is that way in. They put dirty money in and win clean money back [8]. Because it is so international and outside normal laws, it makes criminal cash hard to track. There is a whole array of other crime associated with online gambling; hacking, phishing, extortion, and identity fraud, all of which can occur on a large scale unconstrained by physical proximity [9]. Online gambling also encourages corruption in sport. By allowing huge sums of money to be bet internationally on the outcome of a game or race, it draws in criminals who can try to bribe or threaten sportsmen."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con03b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"It is only in the interests of big gambling sites that aim to create a long term business to go along with tough regulation. Online gambling sites can get around government regulations that limit the dangers of betting. Because they can be legally sited anywhere in the world, they can pick countries with no rules to protect customers. In the real world governments can ban bets being taken from children and drunks. They can make sure that the odds are not changed to suit the House. And they can check that people running betting operations don\u2019t have criminal records. In online gambling on the other hand 50% of players believe that internet casino\u2019s cheat [14]."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con01b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"People are not free to do whatever they want whenever they want. When their activities harm society it is the government\u2019s role to step in to prevent that harm. Online gambling simply provides the freedom for more people to get into debt, not a freedom that should be encouraged."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con02a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Cant enforce an online gambling ban  Governments can\u2019t actually do anything to enforce a ban on the world wide web. Domestic laws can only stop internet companies using servers and offices in their own country. They cannot stop their citizens going online to gamble using sites based elsewhere. Governments can try to block sites they disapprove of, but new ones will keep springing up and their citizens will find ways around the ban. So practically there is little the government can do to stop people gambling online. Despite it being illegal the American Gambling Association has found that 4% of Americans already engage in online gambling [11]."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con05a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Government only objects to online gambling because they dont benefit  Governments are hypocritical about gambling. They say they don\u2019t like it but they often use it for their own purposes. Sometimes they only allow gambling in certain places in order to boost a local economy. Sometimes they profit themselves by running the only legal gambling business, such as a National Lottery [15] or public racecourse betting. This is bad for the public who want to gamble. Online gambling firms can break through government control by offering better odds and attractive new games."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con04a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Other forms of online gambling  What is the difference between gambling and playing the stock market? In each case people are putting money at risk in the hope of a particular outcome. Gambling on horse-racing or games involves knowledge and expertise that can improve your chances of success. In the same way, trading in bonds, shares, currency or derivatives is a bet that your understanding of the economy is better than that of other investors. Why should one kind of online risk-taking be legal and the other not?"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con03a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Only regulation can mitigate harms  It is where the sites operate, not where they are set up that matters for regulation. It is in gambling sites interest to run a trustworthy, responsible business. Whatever they are looking for online, internet users choose trusted brands that have been around for a while. If a gambling site acts badly, for example by changing its odds unfairly, word will soon get around and no one will want to use it. Regulation will mean that sites will have to verify the age of their users and prevent problem gamblers from accessing their site. When there is regulation consumers will go to the sites that are verified by their government and are providing a legal, safe service [13]."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con05b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Because people will gamble anyway, the best that governments can do is make sure that their people gamble in safe circumstances. This means real world that casinos and other betting places that can easily be monitored.  The examples of government using gambling for their own purposes are really the government turning gambling into a benefit for the country. Physical casinos benefit the economy and encourage investment, and lotteries can be used to raise money for good causes. Online gambling undermines all this, as it can be sited anywhere in the world but can still compete with, and undercut organised national betting operations."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con01a","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Personal freedom  Gambling is a leisure activity enjoyed by many millions of people. Governments should not tell people what they can do with their own money. Those who don\u2019t like gambling should be free to buy adverts warning people against it, but they should not be able to use the law to impose their own beliefs. Online gambling has got rid of the rules that in the past made it hard to gamble for pleasure and allowed many more ordinary people to enjoy a bet from time to time. It provides the freedom to gamble, whenever and wherever and with whatever method the individual prefers."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con04b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Gambling is quite different from buying stocks and shares. With the stock market investors are buying a stake in an actual company. This share may rise or fall in value, but so can a house or artwork. In each case there is a real asset that is likely to hold its value in the long term, which isn\u2019t the case with gambling. Company shares and bonds can even produce a regular income through dividend and interest payments. It is true that some forms of financial speculation are more like gambling \u2013 for example the derivatives market or short-selling, where the investor does not actually own the asset being traded. But these are not types of investment that ordinary people have much to do with. They are also the kinds of financial activity most to blame for the financial crisis, which suggests we need more government control, not less."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beplcpdffe-con02b","title":"business economic policy law crime policing digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Governments have the power to ban online gambling in their own country. Even if citizens could use foreign websites, most will not choose to break the law. When the United States introduced its Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act in 2006 gambling among those of college-age fell from 5.8% to 1.5% [12]. Blocking the leading websites will also be effective, as it makes it very hard for them to build a trusted brand. And governments can stop their banks handling payments to foreign gambling companies, cutting off their business."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro02b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Possessing greater wealth does not obligate an individual to contribute more to the state by any moral precept. All people\u2019s property rights should be protected equally. Citizens who succeed by their own industry and accrue wealth should not be punished for their success, or be expected to contribute more to a state that provided the same basic framework of law and rights to all citizens, rich and poor."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro02a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Those who have more owe more to the state  Wealthier people benefit from the state more than do those who are worse off for two reasons. First, they have more to lose in the absence of the state. Without the rule of law, people would no longer be bound by any power to respect one another\u2019s property rights. A rich person has much more to lose should there be a reversion to the state of nature; nothing would shield him from the mob. For this reason it is in the interest of the wealthy to preserve the just rule of law in the state and to uphold its institutions. It does so by funding it through taxation, and those who have more to lose have a greater interest in paying more to ensure its continuity. The second benefit the rich have is that they have gained more from the state than have the poor and less well off. It is only within a state system that maintains order and provides vital services that markets can form and be maintained. [1] Warren Buffett, for example, has argued that he could never have amassed anywhere near the sort of wealth he has in a country without the rule of law, such as Bangladesh. [2] Wealthy business owners and corporations use state utilities far more than poorer individuals quite often, when for example they use public roads to move their vast fleets of trucks, while individuals only drive their personal car. The state guarantees property rights, which allows markets to form and provides the protections and services to businesses that need them to function. Those who profit from that have an obligation to contribute to its upkeep.  [1] Lakoff, George and Bruce Budner. \u201cHidden Truths of Progressive Taxes\u201d. Institute for America\u2019s Future. 2007. Available:   [2] Terkel, Amanda. \u201cWarren Buffett: \u2018I Should Be Paying a Lot More in Taxes\u2019\u201d. Huffington Post. 2010. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro03b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"It is not the state\u2019s role to efficiently distribute economic resources; the market does a much better job of that. When the state seeks to distribute income, there is substantial efficiency loss. This is due to the so-called \u201cleaky bucket\u201d of distribution, as money is lost or wasted through the bureaucratic processes necessary to redistribute income and wealth. Progressive taxation only serves to exacerbate these inefficiencies by breeding more and more complex structures for their implementation."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro05a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"A well-implemented progressive taxation scheme serve to promote economic growth  Progressive taxation can serve very effectively to increase the economic welfare and development of societies. It does so in three ways. First, it lifts the poor out of poverty by redistributing the tax burden from them onto the wealthy who are more able to pay, and gives them more disposable income to put back into the economy, which increases the velocity of money in the system, increasing growth. [1] Second, workers will be more likely to work harder since they will feel the system is more equitable; perceptions of fairness are very important to individuals. People will still work and save since they will want the goods and services they always did in the presence of progressive taxation, and will thus not be less motivated as detractors of progressive systems suggest. Third, progressive taxes serve as an automatic stabilizer in the event of recessions and temporary downturns in the market, in the sense that a loss of wages due to unemployment or wage cuts places an individual in a lower tax bracket, dampening the blow of the initial income loss. The American economy is a perfect example of how progressive taxation promotes broader economic growth; data shows that average yearly growth has been lessened since the 1950s after the reduction in progressively in the tax system. In the 1950s annual growth was 4.1%, while in the 1980s, when progressively in taxes fell dramatically, growth was only 3%. [2] Clearly, a progressive tax regime is best for workers and the economy generally.  [1] Boxx, T. William and Gary Quinlivan. The Cultural Context of Economics and Politics. Lanham: University Press of America. 1994.  [2] Batra, Ravi. The Great American Deception: What Politicians Won\u2019t Tell You About Our Economy and Your Future. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1996."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro01a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Those able to pay more should pay more into the tax system  The wealthy have more disposable income and are more financially secure than are the poor and economically tenuous. For this reason, a progressive system of taxation puts the tax burden more heavily on the wealthy which has the wherewithal to pay. Progressive taxes make everyone sacrifice equally, since true equality of taxation means equality of sacrifice. [1] It is ludicrous to expect the poor and less well-off to pay the same proportional amount in taxes as the wealthy since they have to spend most of their income on essential goods like food and shelter; it is unjust to gain all state revenues from regressive taxes like VAT, since the wealthy have excess resources they can do without while not overly influencing their standard of living. [2] Progressive taxation serves to help the poor and worst off while not leaving the wealthier worse off, since they still have more money. Clearly, progressive taxation is just in terms of burdens on individual taxpayers.  [1] Young, H. Peyton. 1990. \u201cProgressive Taxation and Equal Sacrifice\u201d. The American Economic Review 80(1): 253-266.  [2] Shapiro, Robert. \u201cFlat Wrong: New Tax Schemes Can\u2019t Top Old Progressive Wrongs\u201d. Washington Post. 1996. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro01b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Simply because someone can feasibly pay more does not mean he should be obligated to do so. Everyone\u2019s property rights should be considered equal; the property rights of the wealthy should not be trodden upon by the state while leaving that of the less well-off alone. Fundamentally, any amount of appropriation of what belongs to an individual for the benefit of others is a kind of theft, and if the state is going to tax people, morally it can only do so if it treats everyone equally, which progressive taxation certainly does not do."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro05b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Progressive taxation does not improve economic growth. This is because, when the rich are heavily taxed, they have less likely to invest in new enterprises. Higher taxes serve as a disincentive to investment, both domestic and foreign. As to economic growth in the United States, statistics can also be misleading. The high growth of the 1950s was due to the fact that the United States was essentially the only industrial power whose infrastructure was not devastated by World War II. A better data set can be seen between the stagflation of the 1970s with its high taxes, and the relative increase in economic growth that followed with the tax cuts of the 1980s. Soaking the rich only serves to reduce the economic success of a country."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro04b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"A more equal society is not necessarily a more harmonious society, and is certainly not a more just one if it was created through the process of progressive taxation. Social harmony relies on trust between all citizens, rich and poor. Progressive taxes only serve to divide society, as the rich become resentful of the poor and the poor feel more and more entitled to the possessions of the wealthy cash cow. In terms of justice, equality is not an end in itself. Opportunities can be afforded without compromising the rights of citizens by enacting a draconian scheme of leveling."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro03a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"The state should promote the efficient distribution of income in order to maximize the utility derived by society from its economic resources  All goods suffer from diminishing marginal utility, and this includes money. The more money someone, the less happy they are made from each successive addition of wealth after a certain point. One might be able to buy a second car or a second house with extra money, but eventually one runs out of things one particularly wants to buy or own. [1] When wealth is unevenly distributed in society, the wealth of society is inefficiently distributed. The aim of the state must be to attempt to maximize the aggregate utility of its citizens insofar as it is able without damaging the economy. With progressive taxation, wealth is effectively reallocated to poorer people, who gain more utility than the wealthy lose in the process. The state has a right to do this not only because it generates a more efficient distribution of income than the market does, but also because income is partly a collective good. [2] Ownership rights to property and the ability to expand them is only possible within the framework of the state; thus the state can make a moral ownership claim to some of the products of the services it provides, and does so most effectively through the mechanism of progressive taxation.  [1] Thune, Kent. \u201cThe Diminishing Marginal Utility of Wealth\u201d. The Financial Philosopher. 2008. Available:   [2] Weisbrod, Burton. Public Interest Law: An Economic and Institutional Analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1978."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-pro04a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Progressive taxation promotes a more equal, more harmonious society  Progressive taxation provides real equality of opportunity, and serves to level the playing field so that social classes are not fixed. Everyone deserves a chance to climb the economic ladder, but without a regime of progressive taxation this is nearly impossible. [1] If tax revenues are generated by flat or regressive taxes the poor will necessarily have to contribute substantial portions of their own income to the state, cutting into their ability to consume and save. Social services must still be financed, and the best way to do that is through a progressive tax regime that makes those most able to pay more pay more; if more of the burden is placed on the poor and disadvantaged, as it must in a flat-rate system, fewer people will be able to climb out from the social strata in which they are born. [2] The more equal society created by these taxes is thus more equitable, since it affords people greater opportunities. It is also more harmonious, since well-funded services keep people from feeling desperate and to turn to such things as crime. But greater equality itself can also be beneficial, as it reduces distinctions between groups in society, and prevents stratification into social classes based on wealth. People who are more alike can sympathize and empathize more with one another. Progressive taxation thus promotes a very real and powerful social message that can greatly benefit social cohesion.  [1] Young, H. Peyton. 1990. \u201cProgressive Taxation and Equal Sacrifice\u201d. The American Economic Review 80(1): 253-266.  [2] Benabou, Roland. \u201cSocial Mobility and the Demand for Redistribution: The Poum Hypothesis\u201d. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2001. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con03b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"A state with the ability to levy taxes will not necessarily be evil and dominating of the wealthy. People can always leave a country, so governments must always be accommodating of wealthy citizens, and can be so even within a progressive tax system. The tyranny of the majority can only persist when there are no legal protections for individual citizens and minorities, but these exist almost universally in Western states; there is no reason to think this would somehow change in the presence of progressive taxation."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con01b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Income alone is not a sufficient measure of an individual\u2019s contribution to society. Much income, and proportionally more so among wealthy people, is not the product of effort, but rather is unearned. The state is not punishing people for their contributions to society when it taxes them in a progressive manner, but rather simply acknowledges that some people are more able to pay greater amounts, namely the wealthy, and can thus be levied from accordingly."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con02a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Progressive taxes place an unfair and disproportionate burden on the wealthy  The revenues the state acquires through taxation are used to pay for various services and benefices. Lower income individuals consume these services to a disproportionate degree. It is they who require income supplements and child benefits when they lack the wherewithal to provide for themselves, and they avail more readily than the wealthy of such things as public healthcare and transport services. There is thus clearly no correlation between the amount people pays in taxes and amount of benefits they receive from them. [1] The rich make less use of such services, often preferring to use of privately provided services, yet they are expected to pay a greater proportion of their wealth to the public services they do not use under a progressive system of taxation. As a matter of fairness it is only just that everyone contribute to the provision of public services equally, in accordance with their wherewithal to do so. Wealthier people thus can pay more units of wealth to the system than poor people justly, but when they are expected to pay a disproportionate percentage of wealth, through a system that levies contributions according to a progressive rather than proportional scale, they are being used unfairly and being stripped of their rightful possessions to the use of others.  [1] Mayer, David. \u201cWealthy Americans Deserve Real Tax Relief\u201d. On Principle 7(5). 1999. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con05a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"The aim of taxation should be to provide equality of opportunity, not of outcom  Taxation should not be about trying to engineer a more equal society. The purpose of taxes is to furnish necessary services people need to become competitive free agents in the economy. Progressive taxes take unduly from some to give to others in the hope of fostering social equality. Yet such efforts can only be harmful, as they breed resentment from rich toward the poor for taking undue amounts of their wealth for their consumption, and feelings of entitlement from poor who feel the wealthy owe them the money they pay, and thus feel happy to levy ever more odious taxes from them. [1] Society is best served by promoting a system of taxation that fosters equality of opportunity, by providing essential services to which everyone contributes in accordance with their ability to pay. This is better serviced through a system of flat-taxes, such as in Russia where there is a flat tax of 13%, [2] that promote a system of proportionality in taxation, rather than progressive taxes that focus unduly upon the contributions of the few to the many.  [1] The Frugal Libertarian. \u201cImmorality of Progressive Income Tax\u201d. Nolan Chart. 2008. Available:   [2] Mardell, Mark, \u2018Pros and cons of Rick Perry\u2019s flat tax plan\u2019, BBC News, 26 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con04a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Progressive systems are invariably highly complex and inefficient in implementation, breeding the knock-on inefficiencies of evasion and avoidance  The modern progressive tax system has created whole industries of firms and specialists geared toward helping people file their taxes and to ensure the system runs smoothly. It has also bred armies of officials who oversee and audit tax issues, costing the United States for example more than $11 billion a year to operate its tax collection and verification systems. [1] People are forced under the progressive system to waste hours filling out returns, to hoard and sift through receipts to be accurate and to maximize their rebates. There is thus a huge efficiency loss in terms of people\u2019s time as they are forced to dedicate effort and resources to the often arduous task of filing taxes in an ever more complicated system, arising from a progressive regime. The extreme complexity of the system has generated further negative incentives, encouraging the wealthy to seek ways around the system, to exploit loopholes in the bloated system for their personal benefit. [2] The very wealthy can thus evade obligations through the manipulation of complex tax codes and loopholes, and can sometimes even lead less scrupulous people to pay less than less wealthy people. Flat and regressive consumption taxes, on the other hand, offer an easier mechanism of taxation that is easier to understand, less time consuming to deal with, and harder to manipulate.  [1] White, James. \u201cInternal Revenue Service: Assessment of the 2008 Budget Request and an Update of 2007 Performance\u201d. United States Government Accountability Office. Available:   [2] Wolk, Martin. \u201cWhy the Tax System Keeps Getting More Complex\u201d. MSNBC. 2006. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con03a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"The ability to orchestrate a progressive taxation regime gives undue and dangerous power to the state  The power to tax is power to destroy. A state with power over a progressive taxation system can put the wealthy in effective thrall, and use them to benefit its own ends. This is exacerbated by such phenomena as the tyranny of the majority which can lead the majority of less wealthy and have-nots to demand more and more services and paying for them by inflicting ever more onerous taxes on the wealthy while diminishing their own burdens. Furthermore, so long as the tax burden is disproportionately leveled on the few, no one can see the growing size of the state. [1] With flat or regressive consumption tax everyone can feel the growth of the state. They can also understand the costs associated with it, driving them to have more realistic preferences and to make more rational demands of the state rather than treating the rich as a perpetual piggy bank.  [1] Dorn, James. \u201cEnding Tax Socialism\u201d. Cato Institute. 1996. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con05b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"The state\u2019s sole role in taxation is not merely to provide equality of opportunity, but also to foster social justice through the promotion of greater social equality. This does not mean that there should not be any inequalities between citizens, but rather it means that by limiting income disparities individuals in society have more in common and are thus more able to interact in a peaceful societal framework. Progressive taxes promote this end by reducing the incomes of the very top and using the tax revenues to improve the situation of the worst off, closing the gap between the two groups and fostering broader social interaction and cooperation."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con01a","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Individuals\u2019 property and income are an index of deserving achievement, and of value contributed in the market place to society  A progressive taxation system essentially assumes that the property rights of the poor are more sacred than those of the wealthy. Somehow the wealthy have a less proportionate ownership right than do the less well-off simply by dint of their greater wealth. [1] This is the height of injustice. An individual\u2019s income is a measure of his overarching societal worth, by reflecting his ability to produce goods and services people find socially desirable and to signify his level of competence and desirability by his employer. The state should not punish people for this greater social worth by taxing them disproportionally to others. When it does so it expects people to work for the sake of others to an extent that is not fair, effectively consigning them to a kind of forced labor, by which parts of the wealth they work to acquire is appropriated by the state to a degree beyond which it is willing to do to others. [2] Such a regime is manifestly unjust.  [1] Seligman, Edwin. \u201cProgressive Taxation in Theory and Practice\u201d. Publications of the American Economic Association 9(1): 7-222. 1894.  [2] Nozick, R. Anarchy, State and Utopia. New York: Basic Books. 1974."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con04b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"While tax codes are complicated, their sophistication is not justification for their abolition. Rather, progressive systems can be more streamlined. New Zealand can be used as an example where a progressive taxation system is also simple, it has been praised by the OSCE; [1] in 1958 it introduced the PAYE, pay as you earn system. Where employees were taxed from their salary rather than paying their taxes in full at the end of the financial year. [2] As Complex systems and loopholes do arise due to the piecemeal development of such taxation systems, by organizing it properly a progressive system of taxation can be every bit as easily regulated and navigated as a flat-rate system.  [1] Dalsgaard, Thomas, \u2018The tax system in new Zealand: An appraisal and options for change\u2019, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No.281, 31 January 2001,   [2] Goldsmith, Paul, \u2018Taxes\u2019, Te Ara \u2013 the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 5 March 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thsptr-con02b","title":"tax house supports progressive tax rate","text":"Taxation need not be proportional to be fair; individuals earning significantly higher income than others have benefited from many societal factors that allowed them to accumulate wealth in peace and safety. Such people thus owe a greater burden to the state for the greater benefits the opportunities it bestowed upon them allowed. A just system of taxation should reflect this, and a progressive system does so by levying from people in accordance with their wealth that without the state could not have existed. A study of 54 nations shows that the public preserve flattening the tax adds to the risk of wellbeing and thus prefer progressive tax as a way in order to for a better over quality of life. [1]  [1] Hyde, Lucy, \u2018A More Progressive Tax System Makes People Happier\u2019, Association for Psychological Science, 6 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-pro02b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Again employment needs to be contextualised with what type of jobs are provided and entered into. It remains questionable as to whether the mental health of women improves if women are employed to work within hazardous work environments, or where there is no job security.  For example domestic workers remain vulnerable to different abuses - such as non payment, excessive work hours, abuse, and forced labour. Women may be vulnerable to gender based violence on their way to work. Furthermore, street traders are placed in a vulnerable position where the right to work is not respected. The forced eviction and harassment of female street-traders is a common story, underlined by political motivations. A recent example includes the eviction of street hawkers in Johannesburg [1] .  [1] See further readings: WIEGO, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-pro02a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"The effects of unemployment  Unemployment has been linked to several health and wellbeing effects. Firstly, the psychological impact of unemployment involve a range of issues - from confidence to mental well-being. Issues of mental health problems - such as depression, suicide, anxiety, and substance abuse, need recognition in Africa. The impact of mental health may not only be on the individual, but dispersed within families and across generations. Secondly, unemployment may result in a loss of social networks and networking skills. The power of social capital, or networks, in reducing vulnerability has been widely noted. Therefore encouraging women to participate within the labour market ensures new networks are built and retained through the vital communication skills used. Finally. unemployment may affect physical health status.  Unemployment may place individuals in a downward spiral, making it harder to re-enter the job market."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-pro03b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"For rights to be granted women need to be able to have a position within trade unions, and policy change is required.  A recent study shows fewer women than men are found in trade unions across eight African countries looked at in a study(Daily Guide, 2011). The greatest degree of women\u2019s involvement was from teacher and nurses unions, however, there remains a lack of representation at leadership levels. The lack of a united, or recognised, women\u2019s voice in trade unions undermines aims for gender equality and mainstreaming for those women who are working.  Additionally, at a larger scale, policy change is required. Empowerment cannot occur where unequal structures remain - therefore the system needs to be changed. Governments need to engender social policy and support women - providing protection, maternity cover, pension schemes, and security, which discriminate against women and informal workers."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-pro01a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"The importance of jobs in livelihoods - money  Jobs are empowerment. Building sustainable livelihoods, and tackling poverty in the long term, requires enabling access to capital assets. A key asset is financial capital. Jobs, and employment, provide a means to access and build financial capital required, whether through loans or wages. When a woman is able to work she is therefore able to take control of her own life. Additionally she may provide a second wage meaning the burden of poverty on households is cumulatively reduced. Having a job and the financial security it brings means that other benefits can be realised such as investing in good healthcare and education. [1] .  Women working from home in Kenya, designing jewellery, shows the link between employment and earning an income [2] . The women have been empowered to improve their way of life.  [1] See further readings: Ellis et al, 2010.  [2] See further readings: Petty, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-pro01b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"The relation between employment, money, and household poverty is not a simple correlation when we consider the type of jobs women are entering. In developing countries work in the informal economy is a large source of women\u2019s employment (Chen et al, 2004). In the case of Sub-Saharan Africa, 84% of women in non-agricultural work are in the informal economy (ILO, 2002). Only 63% of men work in the informal economy. Women represent a large proportion of individuals working in informal employment and within the informal sector. Informal employment means employment lacks protection and\/or benefits, and the informal sector involves unregistered or unincorporated private enterprises.  Such a reality limits the capability to use employment to escape poverty (see Chant, 2010). With wages low, jobs casual and insecure, and limited access to social protection schemes or rights-based labour policies, women are integrated into vulnerable employment conditions. Data has shown informal employment to be correlated with income per capita (negative), and poverty (positive) (ILO, 2011). Further, the jobs are precarious and volatile - affected by global economic crisis.  Women\u2019s employment in Africa needs to be met with \u2018decent\u2019 work [1] , or women will be placed in risky conditions.  [1] See further readings: ILO, 2014."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-pro03a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Labour participation and rights  Labour participation enables an awareness, and acquirement, of equal gender rights. Firstly, labour participation is challenging cultural ideologies and norms of which see the woman\u2019s responsibility as limited to the reproductive sphere. Entering the productive sphere brings women equal work rights and the right to enter public space. By such a change gender norms of the male breadwinner are challenged. Secondly, labour force participation by women has resulted in the emergence of community lawyers and organisations to represent them. The Declaration of the African Regional Domestic Workers Network is a case in point. [1] With the rising number of female domestic workers, the network is working to change conditions - upholding Conferences, sharing information, and taking action.  [1] See"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con03b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Yes education may help to determine the extent to which labour participation empowers women but it is the participation itself that is the actual tool that empowers. A well-educated woman who is kept at home doing nothing is not empowered no matter how good her education might have been. In Saudi Arabia there are more women in university than men yet there is 36% unemployment for women against only 6% for men (Aluwaisheg, 2013). The women are educated, not empowered."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con01b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"With the right to work within the productive sphere, the responsibility of care becomes shared. This may take some time but eventually equality will be the result. If you consider the changes occurring within the developed world - such as improved access to child-care facilities and the rise of stay at home dads, the integration of women into paid employment shows changes in gender roles. The double burden may occur temporarily, but in the long-run it will fade."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con02a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Women need alternatives for empowerment  Empowerment cannot be gained for women through employment, alternatives are required. A gender lens needs to be applied to women\u2019s life course from the start. To tackle the discriminatory causes of gender inequality access to sexual and reproductive health rights is required for women. Access to such rights ensures women in Africa will be able to control their body, go to school, and choose the type of employment they wish to enter into.  The importance of enabling sexual and reproductive health rights for women is being put on the agenda for Africa [1] . There is a lot to be done beyond workforce participation - ending violence against women, promoting equal access to resources, opportunities and participation. Such features will reinforce women\u2019s labour market participation, but in the jobs they want.  [1] See further readings: Chissano, 2013; Puri, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con04a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Where are the men?  Is the feminisation of labour emerging with a de-masculinisation of jobs? If so, how do women cope in the work environment? Are methods being integrated to ensure a just work environment is maintained?  Overa\u2019s (2007) study on gender relations within the informal economy indicates how tensions emerge with women and men being forced into similar occupations. The informal economy of retail trade in Ghana is becoming overcrowded as men enter into female jobs; competition is causing reductions in returns, and further, frustrations are rising against the state. Therefore if more women are entering male jobs, what are the reactions?"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con03a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Who are the women?  Women are a diverse group, and the feminisation of labour has incorporated a range of women of different ages, race, socioeconomic backgrounds and education. Such intersectionalities are important to recognise, as not all women are empowered and the empowerment is not equal.  For example, a study by Atieno (2006) revealed female participation in the labour market was influenced by education. Human capital influenced the transition into work: who was able to access labour opportunities, and which ones. Therefore inequalities among women determine the degrees, and capability, of empowerment it is therefore not labour force participation that empowers but education."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con01a","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"The double burden  Despite a feminising labour market there has been no convergence, or equalisation, in unpaid domestic and care work. Women still play key roles in working the reproductive sphere and family care; therefore labour-force participation increases the overall burden placed on women. The burden is placed on time, physical, and mental demands.  We need to recognise the anxieties and burdens women face of being the bread-winner, as survival is becoming \u2018feminised\u2019 (Sassen, 2002). Additionally, women have always accounted for a significant proportion of the labour market - although their work has not been recognised. Therefore to what extent can we claim increased labour force participation is empowering when it is only just being recognised?"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con04b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Within Gender and Development the importance of bringing men into the picture of gender discrimination has been recognised. Therefore working with men will change enable gender roles to be changed."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epiasghbf-con02b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"How we define empowerment is broad - encompassing all changes that women are able to make, through agency, to tackle their subordinate position. Therefore labour force participation does provide empowerment. Labour participation provides an opportunity for women to control household resources, demand rights, and organise for equal justice. There is no silver bullet, or objective, to achieve women\u2019s empowerment."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-pro02b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Latin American countries do not have the same interests to protect. There are high disparities within the region itself. It would be na\u00efve to believe that Brazil, a country of nearly 200 million people who recently overtook the UK as the world\u2019s 6th largest economy, and Haiti, that has 10 million people and one of the lowest GDPs in the world, have the same national interest to protect. Even among richer South American nations, there are differences. Brazil tries to protect its industry from American competition while Argentina is strongly against farming subsidies. A country like Brazil will not necessarily stand up for those most vulnerable in the region at the negotiating table."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-pro02a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Multilateralism is preferable to bilateralism.  It is preferable for Latin American countries to band together when negotiating trade deals with the US and Canada, to better protect their interests. After FTAA negotiations failed, the US focused on bilateral strategies and trade deals where the imbalance of power was much greater in favour of the US, and it therefore could more easily dictate terms of the agreement that were detrimental to the interests of the developing country. For example, El Salvador, who is a member of CAFTA (Central America Free Trade Agreement), together with only five other Central American countries, has found itself under legal attacks by foreign investors when it refused to lower its environmental standards in the gold mining industry [1] . Having an emerging global power, like Brazil, be part of the agreement, would counterbalance US influence over the terms.  [1] Gallager, Kevin. \u201cStop private firms exploiting poor states.\u201d The Guardian. 5 February 2010."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-pro03b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"The US has a long history of toppling unfriendly regimes in Latin America and propping up dictators who were agreeable to the US, from Panama to Nicaragua. This has made the people of Latin America very mistrustful of any American intervention in their politics and economy. In fact, many South American leaders see the FTAA as another attempt by the US at imperialist expansions in their continent. This would give them more reasons to rally around Chavez rather than isolate him."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-pro01a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Free trade is good for development and growth.  Free trade essentially removes barriers for companies to do business across countries and regions. This leads to competition between countries in those regions, and between companies and industries in those countries. It leads to the sharing of innovation, drives down the cost of production, and allows workers to move freely where their labour and skills are needed. This is good for all those involved in the transaction. It is good for companies, because they have more resources and markets at their disposal, good for consumers, because competition between companies drives down prices and drives the innovation that improves products, and it is good for workers, because they have greater opportunities to find employment for their labour and skills [1] .  [1] DanBen-David, H\u00e5kan Nordstr\u00f6m, LAlanWinters. \u201cTrade, Income Disparity and Poverty\u201d. World Trade Organization. 1999."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-pro01b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Free trade does not benefit everyone equally. Rich corporations from developed countries are not interested in growth in developing nations; they are interested in making profits. They just view developing nations as sources for cheap labour and materials, that can be harnessed more easily, due to low levels of environmental and labour regulation. For example, the so-called Maquiladoras in Mexico, which were put in place by NAFTA were rife with labour and environmental violations [1] . Therefore, free trade agreements between rich and poor countries can trap developing nations in the economic cycle as raw material providers, thus preventing them from developing their own national industries.  [1] Human Rights Watch. \u201dMexico\u2019s Maquiladoras. Abuses Against Women Workers.\u201d 16 August 1996."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-pro03a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Trade is good for democracy.  Venezuela\u2019s Hugo Chavez has been making sustained efforts to boost his influence in Latin America, with regional tours and substantial investments in neighbouring economies, fuelled by Venezuela\u2019s oil money [1] . He is staunchly anti-American and a supporter of Iran. Meanwhile, he has been restricting freedom of speech in his own country, has done away with presidential term limits, and has essentially proven himself as yet another Latin American dictator in the making. If the US hopes to counterbalance his influence, it needs to become more economically connected to Latin America. Showing that the United States is willing to trade fairly with Latin America would undermine his message. This would not only be the case for the United States as it would also allow Brazil and other successful democratic Latin American states to boost their influence.  [1] Carroll, Rory. \u201cChavez Opens His Wallet Wider to Boost Latin American Influence.\u201d The Guardian. 9 August 2007."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con03b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"A multinational trade agreement could equally raise environmental standards across the region. Under the status quo, nothing stops companies from moving to countries that have low environmental standards and few regulations. But if governments agreed, the US could push for higher standards across the entire continent. That way, it would ensure its business environment remained competitive in the American region."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con01b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Protectionism cannot create a healthy national industry. Only by competing openly against each other on the global market, companies become truly efficient and effective. And small, local companies and industries can often have the advantage in such a confrontation. They can be more flexible and innovative than large multinational corporations, and they are better adapted to the local climate and culture."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con02a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"The FTAA is bad for South American Agriculture.  During the FTAA negotiations, the US has consistently refused to eliminate subsidies for American farmers [1] . Because of subsidies, great agricultural surpluses are produced that are then sold on developing markets at prices lower than the cost of production. Farmers in places like Brazil or Argentina, who are much more efficient in their process of production but do not benefit from subsidies, could not compete with these low priced imports, either locally or on the American market. Farmers would soon go out of business.  [1] Marquis, Christopher. \u201cPanama Challenges Miami as Free Trade Headquarters.\u201d New York Times. 11 November 2003. www.nytimes.com\/2003\/11\/11\/world\/panama-challenges-miami-as-free-trade-h..."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con04a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"FTAA is bad for labour in developed countries.  Liberalizing the labour market across the entirety of the Americas would be a severe blow to workers in the US and Canada. It would put them in direct competition with workers from countries where the average salary is much lower than in the US, who would be willing to work for a fraction of what a US or Canadian worker currently makes. In order to stay competitive in such a market, they would have to accept lower salaries and a cut in benefits. This would reverse decades of progress in the direction of better protections for workers and workers\u2019 rights, as well as lead to higher unemployment levels in developed countries [1] . This has occurred as a result of previous free trade agreements in the Americas for example the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) after it was implemented resulted in the displacement of 682,000 US jobs [2] this then gives employers a chance to reduce working conditions as there is surplus labor.  [1] Suroweicki, James. \u201cThe Free-Trade Paradox.\u201d The New Yorker. 26 May 2008.   [2] Scott, Robert E., \u201cHeading South: U.S.-Mexico trade and job displacement after NAFTA\u201d, Economic Policy Institute, 3 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con03a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"FTAA is bad for the environment.  Free trade creates a \"race to the bottom\", whereby developing countries lower their labor and environmental standards in an effort to attract foreign investment. Developed countries, which may have higher standards, are then forced to lower them as well in order to make sure companies don\u2019t relocate or outsource their jobs abroad [1] .  [1] Hassoun, Nicole. \u201cFree Trade and the Environment\u201d. Environmental Ethics, Vol. 31."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con01a","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"The FTAA is bad for industries in developing nations.  This agreement would put farmers and workers in some of the world\u2019s most impoverished nations in direct competition with some of the richest companies in the developed world. FTAA would have small, domestic industries in countries like Bolivia or Haiti compete with massive American corporations, and prevent their governments from aiding them in any way. The disparity of power and resources would be so great in the case of such a collision, that it would mean these small industries could easily be wiped out and never develop to a level where they can sustain a healthy national economy and become competitive against giant multinational corporations. This would be disastrous for development and poverty reduction in South America [1] .  [1] Robinson, Mary. \u201cFree Trade Area of the Americas: Latin America Deserves Better.\u201d New York Times. 18 November 2003. www.nytimes.com\/2003\/11\/18\/opinion\/18iht-edrob_ed3_.html?scp=1&sq="}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con04b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Employers will always pay a premium for workers who have the necessary education, technical and language skills that are needed to do the jobs that insure the companies\u2019 financial success. Such workers would be primarily sourced from developed countries, which have the education systems required to educate them. Meanwhile, there are numerous low skill, menial jobs that find no takers, even during high unemployment. Bringing in workers from abroad that would be willing to do those jobs and pay taxes would be mutually beneficial for everyone involved in the exchange."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epegiahsc-con02b","title":"economic policy economy general international americas house supports creation","text":"Subsidies for farming and agriculture mean cheaper food. If Americans were forced to pay the price of production for the food they consume, poverty rates in the US would be much higher. Conversely, in developing South American countries, which have high levels of poverty and wealth disparity, driving down the price of food would actually be of great benefit to those who live below the poverty line."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro02b","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"While it is true that the quota of women in African politics is growing, it is still a far stretch from the control needed to have a credible influence on the economy. It is true; they have high representation in Rwanda, in South Africa, in Liberia and Malawi [1] . But the rest of the continent is lacking in women representation.  Africans appear to not be ready to empower their women; the overall representation of women in the continent is lower than in Europe or North America.  Politics is also not always central to running the economy. There may be women in parliament but do they have an influence on the economy as ministers? In South Africa only 19% of board members are women and they make up less than 20% of top management positions. [2] The future for Africa\u2019s economy hinges not on the representation of women in politics but in investments, good resource managements, developing infrastructure and a cleansing of the system of corruption.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Africa\u2019s female politicians: Women are winning\u2019, 9 November 2013,   [2] Thorpe, Jen, \u2018Why are there still so few female leaders?\u2019, women24,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro02a","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Women provide a platform for economic development  Where women in Africa are treated more as equals and are being given political power there are benefits for the economy. Africa is already surging economically with 6 out of the world\u2019s ten fastest growing economies in the past decade being a part of sub-Saharan Africa [1] .  While some of the fastest growing economies are simply as a result of natural resource exploitation some are also countries that have given much more influence to women. 56% of Rwanda\u2019s parliamentarians are women. The country\u2019s economy is growing; its poverty rate has dropped from 59% to 45% in 2011 and economic growth is expected to reach up to 10% by 2018. Women become the driving force of the socio-economic development after the 1994 genocide with many taking on leadership roles in their communities. [2]  In Liberia, since Ellen Johnson Sirleaf took the presidency seat on January 2006, notable reforms have been implemented in the country to boot the economy, and with visible results. Liberia\u2019s GDP has grown from 4.6% in 2009 to 7.7% by the end of 2013.  Men in Africa on the other hand have often lead their countries into war, conflict, discord, and the resulting slower economic growth. Men fight leaving women behind to tend the household and care for the family. Giving women a greater voice helps encourage longer term thinking and discourages conflict, one of the main reasons for Africa\u2019s plight in the second half of the 20th century. The feminisation of politics has been identified by Stephen Pinker as one of the causes for a decline in conflict. [3] When peace brings economic growth women will deserve an outsize share of the credit.  [1] Baobab, \u2018Growth and other things\u2019, The Economist, May 1st 2013   [2] Izabiliza, Jeanne, \u2018The role of women in reconstruction: Experience of Rwanda\u2019, UNESCO,   [3] Pinker, S., The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro03b","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"An increase in literacy does not necessarily translate into greater economic participation by women in the future. Yes more women are being educated but it is not just a lack of education that hinders them. It also requires infrastructure and facilities that are missing in almost every African country, especially in the rural areas. For all of these to happen, first there needs to be political stability [1] . Discrimination against women also needs to go, as proposition has already pointed out in agriculture where women provide the workforce they don\u2019t keep the benefits of their labour; the same could happen in other sectors too.  [1] Shepherd, Ben, \u2018Political Stability: Crucial for Growth?\u2019, LSE.ac.uk,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro01a","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Women are the backbone of Africa\u2019s agriculture  It sounds dramatic, but when more than 70% percent of the agricultural labor force of Africa is represented by women, and that sector is a third of GDP, one can say that women really are the backbone of Africa\u2019s economy. But the sector does not reach its full potential. Women do most of the work but hold none of the profit; they cannot innovate and receive salaries up to 50% less than men. This is because they cannot own land [1] , they cannot take loans, and therefore cannot invest to increase profits. [2]  The way to make women key to Africa\u2019s future therefore is to provide them with rights to their land. This will provide women with an asset that can be used to obtain loans to increase productivity. The Food and Agriculture organisation argues \u201cif women had the same access to productive resources as men, they could increase yields on their farms by 20\u201330 percent. This could raise total agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5\u20134 percent, which could in turn reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12\u201317 percent.\u201d [3]  The bottom line is that women work hard but their work is not recognised and potential not realised. What is true in agriculture is even truer in other sectors where women do not make up the majority of workers where the simple lack of female workers demonstrates wasted potential. The inefficient use of resources reduces the growth of the economy.  [1] Oppong-Ansah, Albert, \u2018Ghana\u2019s Small Women\u2019s Savings Groups Have Big Impact\u2019, Inter Press Service, 28 February 2014,   [2] Mucavele, Saquina, \u2018The Role of Rural Women in Africa\u2019, World Farmers Organisation,   [3] FAO, \u2018Gender Equality and Food Security\u2019, fao.org, 2013,  , p.19"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro01b","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Women do indeed work on small farms, but it is this very size that means they will not be key to the future. A 2.5-4% increase in agricultural production is not much. Even with agriculture as a third of the economy this is only a one off 1% increase in GDP.  This small size is also the reason they do not get loans and the opportunity to develop the land or business; they are not profitable over the long term. Subsistence farming is necessary and investing to create some surplus is beneficial but it will not have sufficient impact.  Instead women need to be taken out of their traditional role where they are the caretakers of the family. They are not the future for Africa\u2019s economy just because they are fulfilling their traditional role, quite the opposite. The fact that women still continue to work in agriculture and they have yet to stand out in the more competitive areas of the economy shows that they are not ready yet to have an impact over the economy, and that this job, securing the future of Africa\u2019s economy as a whole, is still in the hands of men."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro03a","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"There is greater potential for African women  There is great potential in educating African women. Two out of three illiterate Africans are women. In 1996 the countries with the highest illiteracy rates in women are Burkina Faso with a staggering 91.1%, Sierra Leone with 88.7%, Guinea with 86.6% and Chad with 82.1% of women illiterate [1] . The situation is however improving. Women are starting to reach their educational potential: by 2011 the illiteracy rate among female youth (15-24) had dropped to 52% in Sierra Leone, 22% in Guinea and 42% in Chad. [2]  Women in Africa are becoming much better educated. This means they are much more likely to be able to reach their full potential in the economy. Education provides opportunities as educated women will be better able to work in the manufacturing or services sectors. They will also be much more capable of setting up and running their own businesses or organisations. As a more educated cohort of women enters the workforce they will have a much greater effect on the economy than women have had in the past.  [1] \u2018The role of Women in Post-independent Africa\u2019, African Women Culture, 29 April 2011,   [2] UNESCO Institute of Statistics, \u2018Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24)\u2019, data.worldbank.org, 2009-2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-con03b","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Neither education not infrastructure can discount the possibility of women being key to the economic future. Yes infrastructure is needed before many businesses can reach their full potential. But the same limits are on men and women. The lack of infrastructure does not necessarily mean that men will be the ones who benefit. Nor can we be certain that Africa will develop through building infrastructure in the manner than China has. Some infrastructure may become unnecessary; for example there is now no need to build extensive systems of landlines as a result of the use of mobile phones. Other technologies in the future may make other large scale infrastructure projects less necessary \u2013 for example community based renewable energy.  Similarly education is not destiny; those who do not go to university may well contribute as much as those who do. Moreover this education gap simply shows that when it is closed the impact from women will be all the greater."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-con01b","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"While Africa has huge reserves of natural resources they are not its economic future. Mining employs few people and provides little value added to the economy. Also not every African country has natural resources to exploit while all have people, including the currently underutilised women, who could with better education bring about a manufacturing or services economy. Such an economy would be much more sustainable rather than relying on resource booms that have in the past turned to bust."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-con02a","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Women are not the future for Africa\u2019s economy  In the short to medium term women are unlikely to be the key to Africa\u2019s economic future. Even in western economies, there is still a gap between genders at the workplace. Women are still paid less than men, there are more men CEO\u2019s than women and so forth. This is likely to remain replicated in Africa for decades after there has been full acceptance that women should be treated equally as has happened in the west.  In some parts of Africa there are cultural reasons why women are unlikely to obtain a key role in the near future. In Egypt for example, where 90% of the populations is Muslim, women account for 24% of the labour force, even though they have the right to education. This is true across North Africa where women amount for less than 25% of the work force. [1] Just because there is clearly a large amount of potential being wasted here does not mean that is going to change. Women often have few political or legal rights and so are unlikely to be able to work as equals except in a very few professions such as nursing or teaching.  [1] International Labour Organisation, \u2018Labour force, female (% of total labor force)\u2019, data.worldbank.org, 2009-2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-con03a","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Africa's greatest needs are for infrastructure and education  Africa\u2019s greatest needs for development are infrastructure and education. Neither of these needs implies that women are about to become key to the African economy.  Africa is severely deficient in infrastructure; Sub Saharan Africa generates the same amount of electricity as Spain, a country with one seventeenth the population. The World Bank suggests \u201cif all African countries were to catch up with Mauritius in infrastructure, per capita economic growth in the region could increase by 2.2 percentage points. Catching up with Korea\u2019s level would increase economic growth per capita by up to 2.6 percent per year.\u201d [1]  There are numerous projects to alleviate this deficit such as immense projects like the Grand Inga Dam in the Democratic Republic of Congo which could power not just the country but its neighbours too. [2] However if construction is the key to the future then this implies men are going to continue to have more impact as the construction industry is traditionally dominated by men.  Africa has been making strides in education for women. Yet there still remains a gap. To take a few examples the youth female literacy rates in Angola 66%, Central African Republic 59%, Ghana 83% and Sierra Leone 52% is still lower than youth male literacy rates or 80%, 72%, 88%, and 70%. [3] And the gap often increases with further education. To take Senegal as an example there are actually more girls than boys enrolled in primary education, a ratio of 1.06 but for secondary this drops to 0.77 and to 0.6 for tertiary. The situation is the same in other countries; Mauritania 1.06, 0.86, 0.42, Mozambique, 0.95, 0.96, 0.63, and Ghana 0.98, 0.92, 0.63. [4]  With women not breaking through to the highest level in education it is unlikely that they will be the main driver of the economy in the future. Their influence may increase as a result of increasing education at lower levels but without equality at the highest level they are unlikely to become key to their countries economic future as the highest skilled jobs and the roles of directing the economy will still be carried out primarily by men.  [1] \u2018Fact Sheet: Infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa\u2019, The World Bank,   [2] See the Debatabase debate \u2018 This House would build the Grand Inga Dam\u2019  [3] UNESCO Institute for Statistics, \u2018Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15-24)\u2019, data.worldbank.org, 2009-2013,   [4] Schwab Klaus et al., The Global Gender Gap Report 2013, World Economic Forum, 2013,  , pp.328, 276, 288, 208 (in order of mentioning, examples taken pretty much at random \u2013 though there are one or two where the ratios actually don\u2019t change much such as Mauritius, but that is against the trend)"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-con01a","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"Natural resources are key  Africa has a very significant amount of resources that have not yet been exploited and put to good use. The continent has 12% of the world's oil reserves, 40% of its gold, and 80% to 90% of its chromium and platinum. Moreover, it is home to 60% of the world\u2019s underutilized arable land and has vast timber resources. [1]  Given the economic changes, and the recent continent\u2019s economical upraise, Africa has now a real opportunity to capitalize on their resource endowments and high international commodity prices. [2] The major point is that Africa\u2019s resources fuel the world. Commodities from laptops to cell phones, cars or airplanes, all are made from using minerals that come from Africa. For example, catalytic converters are fitted to cars in order to reduce air pollution. Platinum and rhodium are the key components, both resources found in abundance in Africa. Cell phones or laptops use parts made out of tantalum, which is exported from African countries such as Mozambique or Rwanda, and so on. [3]  Africa is also the continent, excluding Antarctica, which is least explored so has most potential growth in raw materials. New explorations reveal much larger reserves than previously known. If these resources and wealth are well managed, in an efficient and equitable way, it could boost Africa\u2019s economy, helping all categories of people, from women to children, offering jobs and generally raising the level of life on the continent.  [1] Lopes, Carlos, and Tony Elumelu, \u2018How Africa\u2019s natural resources can drive industrial revolution\u2019, CNN, 20 November 2013,   [2] Economic Commission for Africa, \u2018Making the Most of Africa\u2019s Commodities: Industrializing for Growth, Jobs and Economic Transformation\u2019, uneca.org, 2013,   [3] Tutton, Mark, and Milena Veselinovic, \u2018How Africa\u2019s resources fuel the world\u2019, CNN, 25 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egiahbwaka-con02b","title":"economy general international africa house believes women are key africas","text":"There is little reason to believe Africa will follow the path that western countries have when it comes to the role of women. Change could come much more quickly than expected. Already there are African countries that have most women in Parliament; Rwanda has by far the highest percentage in the world with 63.8% of seats in the lower house taken by women with three other African countries (South Africa, Seychelles, and Senegal) in the top 10. [1] If Africa, with the exception of the North, has accepted women in politics much faster than the west there is little reason to assume the same won\u2019t happen with business.  [1] \u2018Women in national Parliaments\u2019, Inter-Parliamentary Union, 1 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro02b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Under capitalism property is privatised under the presumption that it will not harm anyone or even that it will benefit everyone. This is not the case and what actually takes place is that property becomes concentrated into the hands of a relatively few well-off people leaving the rest more or less without property. The capitalist's bargaining position is far superior in comparison to the worker's (since he is a capitalist) and he can use it as an advantage in order to concentrate wealth for himself. If the capitalist has everything and the worker nothing it leaves the worker with nothing more than the mercy of the rich for work, charity, etc. Even if the capitalist offers the worker a salary on which he can survive (in comparison to unemployment a salary on which he can survive \"makes him better off') it is a forced contract out of necessity from the worker's part1\/2. Consequently private ownership is by no means on par with the possibilities of owning goods in common and is thus contradictory to the capitalists premise of not harming others3. Capitalism makes the majority more dependent on a minority than they would have been if property were shared.  1 Marx, K. (2010). On The Jewish Question. Marxist Internet Archive. Retrieved March 17, 2011  2 Marx, K. (2009b). A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy - Preface. Marxist Internet Archive. Retrieved March 19, 2011  3 Cohen, G. A. (2008). Robert Nozick and Wilt Chamberlain: How Patterns Preserve Liberty. Erkenntnis (1975-), Vol. 11, S(No. 1), 5-23. D. Reidel and Felix Meiner. Retrieved June 9, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro02a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Each man has a right to private property  The right to own property is central to man's existence since it ensures him of his independence of survival. It provides a means to sustain himself without relying on others inasmuch as he has control over a property and can make a living from it. However in order to acquire property the person must gain it from his own labour, if he takes the fruit of someone else's labour without consent that would be plain stealth. However, this is not the only requirement which must be fulfilled in order to gain property: imagine a scenario where I pour out tomato juice into the ocean, I have mixed my own labour with nature and made an \"own\" creation, but could it be said that the ocean is my property? Most people would certainly say no and therefore one of the following two provisos must also be met before one can fully acquire property: 1. It does not impact on others chance of survival\/ comfort of life 2. Leaves the others better off than before. Let us presume that we have a wasteland which generates very little harvest since it is uncultivated. If I privatise and cultivate a bit of this land it will generate more harvest since I have put work effort in it. Presuming that the privatisation does not leave the others worse off than before e.g. there is plenty of other wasteland they can cultivate on their own and does thus not harm anyone else's opportunities\/chances to cultivate their own land, privatisation is allowed for the individual good. Alternately, others are better off if they do not have the skill to cultivate land themselves and can lease their labour working on my privatized land, they would win on the deal since the wage I pay them would be better than what they would have gained on their own1\/2.  1 Locke, J. (n.d.). Chapter. V. Of Property. Constitution Society. Retrieved June 7, 2011  2 Nozick, R. (1974). Anarchy State and Utopia (pp. 54-56, 137-42). Basic Books."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro03b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Capitalists often disregard the fact that people, although being individuals, also are formed by their social circumstances 1\/2. People's class belonging, sexuality, sex, nationality, education etc. have a major impact on people's opportunities; there might be cases of individuals achieving the American dream like Barack Obama despite their social background, however this is not applicable to the majority of people. In capitalism the people with the most opportunities are usually the people who have the most capital, take the example of university students: universities in many countries such as the United States and United Kingdom charge students high tuition fees, if one is not wealthy enough to pay for these fees the likelihood to continue into further education is much lower (if a loan is provided one would have to risk to be indebted for a long period of one's life, or not have the opportunity to study at university at all)3. This can by no means be called an equal opportunity for everyone. It is not enough to provide opportunities; people must also be in a position to grab them.  1 Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (2007). Kunskapssociologi : hur individen uppfattar och formar sin sociala verklighet. (S. T. Olsson, Ed.). Falun: Wahlstr"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro01a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"The market should determine the price of products and services  A free market gives the power to the people to choose and decide what products and services should be offered to them. If many people want the same thing the demand will be higher and it will be profitable to offer them on the market since it will sell, therefore the people are in command of what products are being offered to them through their own want. The market is thus decided upon what people need and therefore there will be no excess products or services offered e.g. let us presume that many people want to see high quality basketball, a person like Michael Jordan who has a talent for basketball and has honed his basketball skills would in this case be much in demand. People are ready to pay for the service he offers (excellent basketball) and consequently his high wage will be justified. On the other hand a mediocre basketball player would not be paid at all since there is no demand to see mediocre basketball, his service does not have an attraction on the market and will thus be eliminated1\/2. This is all part of what could be called a \"dynamic capitalist system\" which values individuality (honing your basketball skills), rewards ability (having basketball skills) and risk-taking (risking that you will succeed with it).  1 Adam Smith. (n.d.). The concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Retrieved June 20, 2011  2 Nozick, R. (1974). Anarchy State and Utopia (pp. 54-56, 137-42). Basic Books."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro01b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Often when consumers buy things they might ostensibly believe that they have a choice, when in reality they do not, since they are presented with several options; I could e.g. either watch this blockbuster movie or that blockbuster movie on the cinema. However, there is no option to watch anything else than a blockbuster movie and consequently there is no real choice offered. Capitalism has already decided what is going to be produced and the consumer is left with nothing else than purchasing whatever is provided. Another example could be that there might be a whole range of food options in the supermarket, but the good food is expensive and therefore the people with less income end up eating unhealthy food since they cannot afford the good food, therefore in practice there is no real choice since one of the options is not available for the people with less income because it is too expensive1. An additional counterargument might also be to question the validity that a product\/service's price should be determined by the pure fancy of the market, is it really justifiable that Michael Jordan earns much more than e.g. a nurse? The nurse provides a service which saves lives while Michael Jordan only supplies entertainment, even if it is only Michael Jordan who can play a certain kind of high quality basketball and many more people are qualified nurses, it does not justify at all the wage difference between the two2.  1 Adorno, T., & Horkheimer, M. (2005). The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception. Retrieved June 7, 2011  2 Sandel, M. (2004). Justice: What is the right thing to do? Allen Lane."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro04b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"According to Karl Marx work should not be regarded as just a means to achieve a reward in the form of profit, work should (i) be directed to the need of their fellows, (ii) be an enjoyable, meaningful activity which develop human capabilities. In the capitalist system labour becomes distorted e.g. industrial work tends to be monotonous and dulling without any enjoyment at all. People are more or less coerced to work for their survival and accept even the most horrific work conditions; work is only performed on the capitalist's terms1\/2. If workers did not have to fight for their survival and labour was directed to the meaningful activity of helping others instead of profit making for capitalists, incentives in the form of profit would be without value. The want to share wealth and material amongst the community is inscribed in the human essence and constitutes meaningful activity. It is not merely possible"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro03a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"The capitalist society enhances personal freedom  The Western democratic capitalist system protects individual's rights and liberties through freedom from of interference by other people. Mature adult citizens are believed to have the capacity to choose what kind of life they want to lead and create their own future without paternalistic coercion from the state (Berlin, 1958). The capitalist society's ideals could perhaps be best exemplified with the American dream where everyone has an initial equal opportunity to reach their full potential, each individual being choosing their own path free from external coercion,. James Truslow Adams defines the American Dream as the following in 1931 \"life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement\"1. The current President of United Stated Barack Obama is a typical example of a person who has achieved the American dream. Barack Obama did not start his life with a traditional \"fortunate circumstance\" previous presidents had enjoyed (e.g. George Bush). Nevertheless he succeeded in transcending his social class, his race etc. and became the president of United States2. Thus capitalism provides everyone with a fair chance to reach great achievements in their life if they seize the opportunities.  1 James Truslow Adams papers, 1918-1949. (n.d.). Columbia University Library. Retrieved June 7, 2011  2 Barack Obama is the American Dream writ large. (2008). Mirror. Retrieved June 7, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-pro04a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Incentive in form of profit benefits society as a whole  The strongest motivational force a human being can feel towards work is a potential reward for their effort, therefore those who work hard and contribute most to society should justly also gain the most in form of increased wealth (e.g. private property). When work is uncoupled from reward or when an artificial safety net provides a high standard of living for those who do not work, society as a whole suffers. If those who work will benefit equally as the ones who do not there will be no reason to work and the overall productivity will be lowered, which is bad for society. Incentives are therefore necessary since it increases the overall standard for the whole society in form of material wealth, the fact that individuals are driven to succeed and earns what is rightfully theirs is thus in all our interest. With an overall higher productivity even the worst off may benefit more than they would have if the productivity had been low e.g. through charities etc.1\/2\/3\/4  1 Rawls, J. (1999). A theory of justice (Rev.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.  2 Bradford, W. (1856). History of Plymouth plantation. Little, Brown and company.  3 Nozick, R. (1974). Anarchy State and Utopia (pp. 54-56, 137-42). Basic Books.  4 Perry, M. J. (1995). Why Socialism Failed. University of Michigan- Flint, Mark J Perry?s personal page."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-con03b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"In order to avoid economic crisis there is a need to return to a separation of commercial banking from investment banking which was e.g. implemented as legislation in the U.S.A. under the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act (scrapped under President Clinton in the 1990s). It is dangerous to allow banks to get into a position where they can be shut down by pursuing exciting, but high risk investment banking activities such as real estate speculations. The rationale for this separation is that it was a commercial banking crisis which posed the systemic risk, investment banks should be left alone from state interference and left to the influence of the market. \"This leaves a much more limited, and practicable, but still absolutely essential, role for bank supervision and regulation: namely, to ensure that the core commercial banking system is thoroughly sound and adequately capitalised at all times. The crisis can thus be resolved through a separation of the banks since the commercial banking won't be affected when investment banks go bust, the whole system will not be dragged down if only a few investment banks misbehave since commercial banks are the backbone of the economy. Financial crisis doesn't have to be something \"inherent\" in the capitalist system due to overproduction but can be accommodated through some regulations1.  1 Lawson, N. (2009). Capitalism needs a revived Glass-Steagall. Financial Times. Retrieved June 14, 2011 1."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-con01b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"The reasons behind the poverty gap are not purely because of a capitalist expansion; a clear example may be seen at the development of the African region between the 1960.  Free market economics also provides the solution to such inequality; labor will gravitate towards companies which provide the best working conditions and wages. For example, while most automobile companies offered two dollars per day as wages, Henry ford offered five, guaranteeing him the best of the best by way of labor. The important point is that the employers do not enslave the workers, the workers are more than free to try to find better employment, be it in better pay, better conditions, easier work, better benefits or more satisfaction."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-con02a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Socialism provides a more sustainable way of living  Capitalism always acts on the cost of nature and its ecological balance. With its imperative to constantly expand profitability, it exposes ecosystems to destabilizing pollutants, fragments habitats that have evolved over time to allow the flourishing of organisms, squanders resources, and reduces nature to the exchangeability required for the accumulation of capital. Socialism requires self-determination, community, and a meaningful existence. Capital reduces the majority of the world's people to a mere reservoir of labor power while discarding much of the remainder as useless. The present capitalist system cannot regulate, much less overcome, the crises it has set going. It cannot solve the ecological crisis (e.g. global warming) because to do so requires setting limits upon accumulation"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-con03a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Socialism is a more secure system than the free market in Capitalism  'Credit bubbles' and resultant credit crunches (financial crisis) are inherent in the capitalist system. The economy undergoes a crisis whenever productive economic sectors begin to undergo a slowdown resulting in falls in profits. The recent crisis was caused due to the fact that there was an inflated investment in real estates. It was invested in with the purpose of keeping up profits which lead to a rise in the price of properties. Because of the increased price in property many people took out loans on their house and bought goods for the credit, thinking they could easily pay back their loans since their house would be more valuable at sale. However, since the rise of price was fabricated and not corresponding to an actual need (it was a bubble), house prices had to invariably go down at some point. When the prices eventually went down people could no longer afford to pay back what they had bought on their loaned houses and the installed payments were the trigger of the financial crisis. It could perhaps be said that the economy was surviving on money which did not exist (thereof the name 'credit bubble'). The result was that there were countless goods which no one could buy because no one could afford to pay for them, in turn this lead to a stagnation in the economy and hence to a crisis. A socialist system would not produce overconsumption since its aim is not profit but human needs, it would not have a reason to fabricate an investment for the sake of keeping up the profits and would therefore not cause a capitalist crisis1.  1 Roberts, M. (2008). The credit crunch - one year on. In Defence of Marxism. Retrieved June 7, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-con01a","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"Socialism leads to a more humane equal society  The gap between poor and rich countries has never been as great as it is today, Warren Buffet's wealth was estimated to be a net worth of approximately US$62 billion in 20081, this while one in seven people on earth goes to bed hungry every night and 6.54 million children die of starvation and malnutrition every year2. The absurd inequality between people's wages is because of the capitalist system, since the capitalist's only aim is to generate profit there is no reason to keep anything other than a minimum wage for the workers. In a globalized world, rich countries can outsource industries to poorer countries where workers will not expect so high a wage. The lower the wages a capitalist can pay to the labourers, the more profit he can generate. A capitalist does not care whether his labourers' living standards are good, acceptable or bad (although he does want to maintain a level where the labourers will not die or rebel), as long as they deliver the work for the lowest wage possible3. Therefore a company CEO can gain an absurd amount of money since he will reap all the profit made from all the labourers in his company while the lowest worker in the hierarchy will only earn enough to survive. The ordinary worker does not have a free choice whether he wants to work or not since he is at such an inferior bargaining position that he has to accept the capitalist's offer in order to survive. According to socialism this inequality is atrocious, it can by no means be justifiable that an ordinary labourer who works equally as hard, or harder than a CEO should struggle for his survival while the CEO lives in unimaginable luxury. In socialism, production and wages are directed to human needs, there is consequently no need to maximise profit and thus this gross inequality would be evened.4  1 The World?s Billionaires: #1 Warren Buffett. (2008, March). Forbes.  2 Hunger. (2011). World Food Programme. Retrieved June 7, 2011  3 Engels, Frederick. (2005). The principles of Communism. Marxist Internet Archive. Retrieved June 7, 2011  4 Marx, K. (n.d.). Critique of the Gotha Programme: I. Marxist Internet Archive."}
+{"id":"test-economy-egppphbcb-con02b","title":"economy general philosophy political philosophy house believes capitalism better","text":"In practice capitalism and environmentalism do not necessarily have to clash with each other as can been proved by small enterprises that can directly implement green criteria by, for example, using renewable energy sources, avoiding toxic chemicals, repairing or recycling used products, and minimizing reliance on long-distance shipment for either supplies or sales. Because the free market is directed ultimately by its consumers if the consumers demand more eco-friendly products the suppliers will also increase its efforts to be eco-friendly, thus the two of them don't have to be incompatible. Here are a few suggestions of how capitalism and environmentalism could go hand in hand: (i) energy-saving and other cost-cutting measures are advantageous to companies; (ii) maintaining good public relations with consumers involves having an eco-friendly policy1.  1 Wallis, V. (2010). Beyond \"Green Capitalism.\" The Monthly Review. Retrieved 2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro02b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"f the government wants to save money, they should not be trying to reduce smoking levels, since smokers are the source of a great deal of tax income. While the NHS might spend some of their money on smokers (whose health issues may or may not be directly to their smoking habit), the government receives much more money from the taxes paid on cigarettes. For example, smoking was estimated by researchers at Oxford University to cost the NHS (in the UK) \u00a35bn (5 billion pounds) a year [1] , but the tax revenue from cigarette sales is twice as much \u2013 about \u00a310bn (10 billion pounds) a year [2] . So governments which implement smoking bans actually lose money.  [1] BBC News. \u201cSmoking disease costs NHS \u00a35bn.\u201d BBC News. 8 June 2009.  [2] Tobacco Manufacturers\u2019 Association. \u201cTax revenue from tobacco.\u201d Tobacco Manufacturers\u2019 Association. 2011."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro02a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"This ban would lower healthcare costs.  The health problems that smokers experience cost taxpayers (where healthcare is provided by the government) or the individual (for private healthcare) a lot of money. Decreasing the number of smokers \u2013 as a result of a reduction in both \u201csocial smokers\u201d (those who smoke when out with friends) and \u201cpassive smokers\u201d (those who do not smoke themselves but are exposed to the second-hand smoke of others) \u2013 will lead to a decrease in these healthcare costs. This has been reported \u2013 for example \u2013 in Arizona, where a study found that hospital admissions due to diagnoses for which there is evidence for a cause by smoking have decreased since the statewide smoking ban, and that costs have thus decreased [1] .  [1] Herman, Patricia M., and Walsh, Michele E. \u201cHospital Admissions for Acute Myocardial Infarction, Angina, Stroke, and Asthma After Implementation of Arizona\u2019s Comprehensive Statewide Smoking Ban. American Journal of Public Health. 101(3). March 2011."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro03b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"While some studies have shown that numbers of smokers in countries in which a smoking ban has been introduced have fallen, it seems that these results only represent those people who were trying to quit smoking anyway, with the smoking ban acting as an added incentive. Studies in England have shown that while there was a rise in the number of smokers trying to quit soon after the ban in 2007, that rise has fallen again since1. So, while there was an initial fall in the number of smokers, the smoking ban in England is not having a continuing effect on whether more people are giving up the habit.Additionally, it can be argued that since people are continuing to smoke in countries with a smoking ban, but not doing so in public, there must be more smoking going on within the home. If there are any dangers of second-hand smoke, then a smoking ban moves those dangers from responsible adults who can choose whether to go somewhere where smoking is allowed (in public) to children who cannot (in the home), which is immoral.  1 Lies, Elaine, 'Smokers quit after ban, but numbers ebb: study', Reuters, 6 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro01a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"Exposing non-smokers to second-hand smoke goes against their rights.  The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (a list of rights to which the United Nations has declared that all human beings should be entitled) states that \"Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family\"1. More than 50 studies carried out worldwide have found that people are at an increased risk of lung cancer if they work or live with somebody who smokes2. Given these very serious health risks, it goes against people's human rights to be exposed to second-hand smoke when they have not chosen to breathe it in. To avoid this happening, smoking should be banned in public places, so that non-smokers can be sure that they will not have to breathe in second-hand smoke.  1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights', General Assembly of the United Nations,   2 'Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking', World Health Organisation, Vol.83, 24 July 2002,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro01b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"It is very difficult to properly scientifically measure the risk for non-smokers of being exposed to second-hand smoke. To do a proper experiment, scientists would need to find a large group of people who had never been exposed to cigarette smoke before, split them into two groups, and then systematically expose one group to second-hand smoke for a period of time while the other group stayed smoke-free. They would then have to wait and see if more of the group exposed to second-hand smoke developed lung cancer than the other group over their lives. This would be a very expensive and time-consuming experiment. Besides this, it would be very difficult to find people who had never breathed in cigarette smoke and keep half of them that way for their whole lives for comparison. Because of these difficulties in the ideal experiment, scientists often just use questionnaires, asking people to try and remember how many cigarettes the person they live with smokes in a day, for how many hours a day they are exposed to smoking, etc. These kinds of studies are far from precise, since human memory is not very accurate, and so no truly scientific conclusions can be drawn1. Therefore, it is not a fact that non-smokers exposed to the smoke of others are at a serious health risk, so the proposition cannot say that having to sometimes be around other people who smoke goes against non-smokers' human rights.  1 Basham, Patrick, and Roberts, Juliette, 'Are Public Smoking Bans Necessary?' Democracy Institute, Social Risk Series Paper, December 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro04b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"This ban would not be so easy to introduce. A ban on smoking in all public places would not be easily accepted by all. For example, there are groups in England seeking to change the existing ban there so that more places are exempt; the Save Our Pubs & Clubs campaign wants to change the smoking ban so that large venues can have a designated smoking area which can be avoided by non-smokers1.  1 'Why we want government to amend the smoking ban', Save Our Pubs & Clubs,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro03a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"This ban would encourage smokers to smoke less or give up smoking altogether.  Not being able to smoke in public will make it more difficult for smokers to keep up with their habit. For example, if they are no longer able to smoke in the pub, smokers would have to go outside \u2013 possibly in the rain or other uncomfortable weather \u2013 and be away from their non-smoking friends every time they wanted to have a cigarette. So, a smoking ban would encourage smokers to smoke less frequently and maybe even give up. This can be seen in countries already with smoking bans. For example, a study in England found that in the nine months after the smoking ban was introduced, there was a 5.5% fall in the number of smokers in the country, compared to the much lower fall of 1.6 % in the nine months before the ban [1] . This can only be a good thing, since giving up smoking decreases the risk of death, even for those suffering from early stage lung cancer [2] .  [1] Daily Mail. \u201cSmoking ban spurs 400,000 people to quit the habit.\u201d Daily Mail. 4 July 2008.  [2] Parsons, A., Daley, A., Begh, R., and Aveyard, P.. \u201cInfluence of smoking cessation after diagnosis of early stage lung cancer on prognosis: systematic review of observational studies with meta-analysis.\u201d British Medical Journal. 340. 21 January 2010."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro04a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"This ban would be easy to introduce.  A ban in all public places would be no more difficult to introduce than existing bans preventing smoking in only some public places. As long as people are given plenty of notice of changes, as was done in airports in Saudi Arabia, and the rules are made clear and readily available1 there should be few difficulties in introducing this ban.  1 Smith, Louise. \u201cSmoking in public places: the ban in force \u2013 Commons Library Standard Note.\u201d Parliament. 20 May 2011."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-con03b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"While pubs and restaurants might lose money from some smokers initially, they will gain money from those who are more likely to eat\/drink somewhere if they know they will not have to breathe in second-hand smoke. Even the Save Our Pubs & Clubs campaign admits that pub business is on a decline in the UK anyway, and that the current economic environment in the country is probably partly to blame1. Some pubs have actually seen improved business since the introduction of a smoking ban, like the Village Pub and Grill in Wisconsin, who say that they get more families coming to eat during the day, and have non-smokers staying longer in their bar 2 The lack of smoke indoors also makes pubs a better environment in which to work.  1 'Why we want government to amend the smoking ban', Save Our Pubs & Clubs,   2 Linnane, Rory et al., 'One Year After State Smoking Ban, Village Pub Sees Better Business, Health', ShorewoodPatch, 6 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-con01b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"In some countries, compliance rates have actually been high, proving that it is not a problem with the idea of having a ban but with the authorities themselves in different countries. In Scotland, for example, reports from 3 months after their smoking ban was introduced showed that about 99% of premises were following the law properly1. This shows that the opposition should not use the fact that a smoking ban might be difficult to enforce in some places in the initial stages of the law change as a reason not to introduce such a ban in the first place. Lots of laws are difficult to enforce, but still necessary in order to protect people.  1 'Smoking ban gets seal of public approval', The Scottish Government, 26 June 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-con02a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"Smokers have a right to enjoy themselves.  Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that \"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood\"1. So, smokers have the same rights as non-smokers and should not be targeted because of how they choose to live their lives. Article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that \"Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay\" 1.If some people get their rest and leisure by smoking with friends in a pub, it seems that governments should make it possible, by at least having smoking areas in pubs, restaurants, etc. A ban on smoking in all public places would mean smokers could never enjoy themselves like they want to, at least not legally. There are many groups which feel that the rights of the smoker are being ignored, e.g. \"Forest\".  1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly of the United Nations,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-con03a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"This ban would put many pubs, clubs, etc. out of business.  If smokers are not allowed to smoke in pubs, they will not spend as much time in them, preferring to stay at home where they can smoke with their friends. This will put many pubs out of business. In fact, since the smoking ban was introduced in the UK, many pubs have closed and blamed their loss of business on the smoking ban1. The Save Our Pubs & Clubs campaign estimates that the smoking ban in the UK is responsible for 20 pub closures a week2. This is an unfair consequence for the many pub-owners across the world.  1 'MPs campaign to relax smoking ban in pubs', BBC News, 29 June 2011,   2 'Why we want government to amend the smoking ban', Save Our Pubs & Clubs,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-con01a","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"This ban would be difficult to enforce.  Given the popularity of smoking, a ban on smoking in all enclosed public places would be difficult to enforce, requiring constant vigilance by many police officers or security cameras. It has been reported that smoking bans are not being enforced in Yakima, Washington 1, Atlantic City2, Berlin 3and other places. In New York City, the major has said that the New York Police Department (NYPD) are too busy to enforce the ban on smoking in their parks and on their beaches, and that the job will be left to citizens4.  1. Guenthner, Hayley, 'Smoking Ban Difficult to Enforce in Yakima', KIMA TV, 1 April 2011,   2. Sajor, Stephanie, 'Smoking Ban Not Enforced at Atlantic City Casinos', ThirdAge.com, 25 April 2011,   3. AFP, 'Smoking Ban not Enforced in Parts of Germany', Spiegel Online, 2 July 2008,   4. 'NYC Smoking Ban In Parks Will Not Be Enforced By NYPD: Mayor', Huffington Post, 2 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bhahwbsps-con02b","title":"business health addiction house would ban smoking public spaces","text":"While all humans do have the right to rest and leisure, they should not be allowed to do so at the expense of the health and safety of other human beings. Serial killers enjoy killing people1, but it is against the law to commit murder. Smoking in public places should be banned despite the fact that smokers enjoy doing it, because it endangers the health of others.  1 Blackwelder, Edward, 'Serial Killers: Defining Serial Murder', Criminology Research Project Inc."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro02b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"The costs of starting and maintaining business in agriculture vary among European countries as well \u2013 the costs of additional materials can be much cheaper in for example Poland than in France. The costs of life vary among European countries as well. Subsidies which are sufficient for Polish farmers to live a decent life are simply not enough for French one. If one of the reasons behind this policy is to preserve traditional ways of life, then part of the role is to keep farmers out of relative poverty as well.  Also the current reform of CAP address these issues \u2013 the conditions for all countries should converge in the next years as there is a change replacing the Single Payment Scheme with a basic payment scheme. [1] It is a matter of setting the system right \u2013 not giving up on it altogether. Even for farmers in discriminated countries, it is far better that they receive some benefits than no benefits at all.  [1] European Commission, \u2018establishing rules for direct payments to farmers under support schemes within the framework of the common agricultural policy\u2019, Europa.eu, 19 October 2011,  p.7"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro02a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"It is unfair to new members of EU  Not only are the largest recipients of CAP western countries \u2013 France, Spain and Germany - also the payments per hectare of arable lands differ significantly between new and old members of EU. The new members of EU with their economies often struggling and more dependent on agriculture (as is the case of Poland, Bulgaria or Romania) need more monetary support compared to their western counterparts to produce food of same quality and be competitive in EU market. However, the payments for hectare of land vary from 500\u20ac in Greece to less than 100 \u20ac in Latvia. [1] These different conditions undermine the EU\u2019s ethos of fairness and equality of countries.  [1] EurActive, \u2018Eastern EU states call for \u2018bolder, speedier\u2019 farm reforms\u2019, 14 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro03b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"Developing countries often face a problem when the local people simply cannot afford food (for example as a result of drought or floods destroying local crops) \u2013 thus giving them food for greatly reduced price helps a lot of people to survive at day to day basis. Even for farmers they are unlikely to grow the full range of crops so benefit from being able to obtain cheap foodstuffs. These countries can also if they wish control their import tariffs to ensure that the price of European food is comparable to local one \u2013 it is not that they are entirely helpless. The local producers have other benefits given by European Union \u2013 reduced taxation on exported agricultural products and development help \u2013 which help to compensate for these possible detrimental effects. Even without these programs, EU is still the biggest importer of foodstuff from the developing world by a big margin \u2013 therefore in balance the developing countries still receive more than lose by these seldom exports from EU."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro01a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"CAP is costly and unfair to other industries  Currently CAP costs the European Union approx. 40% of its whole budget. However, this money is used to provide subsidies for industry that only employs less than 5 % of workforce and creates less than 2 % of GDP. [1] We can easily assume that nearly half of EU\u2019s budget can be used more effectively and can, instead, be used to support other, more potential industries which can boost the currently sluggish economic growth. Moreover, the subsidies for European farmers are so high they can contribute up to 90 % of farmers\u2019 pre-tax income. [2] No other industry has such privileges \u2013 when European coal and iron industry became uncompetitive and needed to be slimmed down, the European union did not subsidise the industry to such degree even though such action could have saved thousands of jobs.  [1] Charlemagne, \u2018Milking the budget\u2019, The Economist, 22 November 2012,   [2] The Economist, \u2018Europe\u2019s farm follies\u2019, 8 December 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro01b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"The importance of agricultural industry cannot be valued on the merit of how much percent of GDP it creates. It is one of the industries that are vital for the society as whole \u2013 without food the society cannot properly function. In the case of complicated world we are now living in food security \u2013 the ability to be self-sufficient in producing food at least to some degree \u2013 is important. Also agriculture is not the only industry which is subsidised \u2013 the subsidies to other industries such as coal and steel come directly from member states\u2019 budget and not EU\u2019s. Thus for example Germany subsidizes car production by about $1300 per vehicle. [1] The 40% figure is therefore deceptively high as it is the only industry through which subsidies go through the EU budget rather than individual member states.  [1] Davison, Remy, \u2018Far from pole on car subsidy grid\u2019, Business Spectator, 26 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro04b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"Even the larger companies can have difficulties in a market in which their consumers, the supermarkets, have so much power over prices. The result is often that supermarkets buy their produce at below the cost of production \u2013 as is happening with milk in the UK where it costs 30p per litre to produce but they are only being paid 25p per litre. [1] The costs of producing food in Europe even with mechanisation can be high because of the expensive workforce, and smaller farms on average than in the US. Therefore subsidies to larger companies are needed to keep even larger farmers in business. Often the larger companies involve smaller producers who produce the original, unique specialties and enjoy the stability of larger firm. It is hard to say that support of these companies is not useful.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Q&A: Milk prices row and how the system works\u2019, 23 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro03a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"It harms the economies of developing world  The current model of CAP results in major oversupply of food and beverages. In 2008 the stockpiles of cereals rising to 717 810 tons while the surplus of wine was about 2.3 million hectolitres. [1] This excess of supply is then often sold to developing countries for prices so low that the local producers cannot cope with them. The low prices of European food can be attributed to the higher efficiency of producing food because of use of advanced technologies as well as the CAP. Agriculture makes a small fraction of GDP in Europe, but in developing countries of Africa or Asia it is entirely different with large numbers dependent on much smaller plots of land. Hence, the consequences of CAP and high production in the EU can be the rise of unemployment and decline of self-sufficiency of these affected countries.  [1] Castle, Stephen, \u2018EU\u2019s butter mountain is back\u2019, The New York Times, 2 February 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro04a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"It doesn\u2019t serve its purpose (subsidies to larger farmers)  The CAP as originally proposed was aimed to support small, local, family farmers which have difficulties with sustaining their business in competitive environment. The conference in Stresa in 1958 that helped define CAP\u2019s objectives stated \u201cGiven the importance of family structures in European agriculture\u2026 all means should be taken in order to strengthen the economic and competitive capacity of the family enterprise.\u201d [1] However, the current model of CAP gives direct payments to farmers according to area of their farms. That means that the major recipients of CAP are actually the biggest players in agricultural industry. According to Economist, 80 % of the subsidies go to 20 % of the richest farmers. [2] Therefore, the money is spent to support large companies and wealthy landowners who could easily compete in EU market even without such abhorrent support from EU taxpayers.  [1] Knudsen, Ann-Christina, \u2018Romanticising Europe? Rural Images in European Union Policies\u2019, Kontur, no.12, 2005,  p.52  [2] The Economist, \u2018Europe\u2019s farm follies\u2019, 8 December 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-con03b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"The standards of quality can and are checked for imports. Only food, produced without potentially harmful agents and in a certain way, can be sold on European market. The fact that food was not produced in EU does not mean that food is of lower quality, or that there are fewer checks to ensure their quality. In a recent years there were many cases when the food produced in EU was not what it should be \u2013 horse meat scandal in 2013 [1] or scandals in Poland with rotten meat. [2] The CAP and EU are not enough to ascertain the quality of produced food and therefore it is unreasonable to follow this argument.  [1] Meikle, James, and McDonald, Henry, \u2018Cameron tells supermarkets: horsemeat burger scandal unacceptable\u2019, theguardian.com, 16 January 2013,   [2] UPI, \u2018Europe\u2019s food scandals multiply\u2019, 8 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-con01b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"In the current interconnected world it is hard to imagine a situation when the EU will be unable to buy enough food for its citizens on the global market. Countries of the EU are among the richest in the world and have enough soft power to negotiate favourable terms of trade from developing countries in nearly any situation. [1] Even if the subsidies created by CAP were abandoned, the agricultural industry will hardly be decimated. The numbers of farmers may decline, there would be consolidation into bigger farms, however there always will be markets where European food will be sold \u2013 due its regional specifics, high quality or simply patriotism, when people buy food produced in their own country to support it.  [1] Zahrnt, Valentin, \u2018Food Security and the EU\u2019s Common Agricultural Policy: Facts against fears\u2019, Ecipe Working paper, No. 1, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-con02a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"It protects rural communities  People in EU are hard to convince that staying in rural areas and working as a farmer is a viable life choice. The profit is often low, the starting costs are high and work is hard. The income of a farmer is usually around half of the average wage in a given country and the number of these farmers fell by 20% in the last decade. [1] By having CAP we have an additional incentive for the people to stay in villages. The direct payments help the people with the starting of business, subsidies helps them to sell their goods at reasonable prices. The process of urbanisation is at least slowed and that, by extend, helps to preserve traditional culture of such communities and thus diversity of European culture itself.  [1] Murphy, Caitriona, \u2018Number of EU farms drops 20pc\u2019, Independent, 29 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-con03a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"CAP protects the quality of the food in EU  The role of CAP is to produce food at affordable prices while maintaining its quality. By having policies which favour agriculture in Europe it is easier to control the quality of the food, maintain it and also support the diversity of the food produced in EU. [1] The goods imported from developing countries are often not produced under such scrutiny as are those in EU. In EU the quality standards of production are one of the highest \u2013 the hygiene, the amount of additives in products \u2013 all these are set and controlled by the EU. The result of it is that European citizens eat healthy food of high quality which is still affordable \u2013 mainly due to subsidies and payments obtained via CAP.  [1] European Commission, \u2018The Common Agricultural Policy A partnership between Europe and Farmers\u2019, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-con01a","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"CAP maintains European food security  The subsidies to agriculture are important for maintaining self-sufficiency to enable Europe to feed its own citizens. In the world of fluctuating markets, global climate change, commodity crisis such in 2008, the state intervention is even more important because that means that the needed goods can become unavailable. Without EU\u2019s help the prices can fluctuate wildly which can be of concern mainly for poorer parts of EU, where the major part of household spending is still food and non-alcoholic beverages. To prevent this kind of situations only the continent-wide policy can be an effective measure. The markets of other countries can compensate losses from others and vice versa. The result of a secure supply of affordable food has been that the amount an average EU household devotes to food has halved since 1960. [1]  [1] European Commission, \u2018CAP \u2013 how much does it cons\u2019 \u2018Food Prices\u2019, ec.europa.eu,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepiehbesa-con02b","title":"business economic policy international europe house believes eu should abandon","text":"We can see from continuous decline of farms in Europe that the CAP has been ineffective in creating enough incentive for people to stay in villages and farms. And it is doubtful if even the reform of CAP can change this situation. In the last 40 years CAP was reformed in one way or another however the declining trend has still continued. It is reasonable to assume that leaving the agricultural sector without state interventions (which are basically CAP) will eventually result in some sort of stable equilibrium emerging with farmers who can make money from farming, or other activities remaining without subsidy."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro02b","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"Choosing to introduce a new policy based on experience with a different, seemingly similar case, is not a good idea.  Tobacco and fatty food are vastly different things for a couple of reasons. An obvious one is the fact that fat is in fact necessary nourishment, even the trans-fat kind. Cigarettes on the other hand have absolutely no value to a persons\u2019 health \u2013 their detrimental impact is quite infamous.  A different one is the importance of dosage. While smoking is harmful in all doses, indulging in larger amounts of fatty food isn\u2019t. Consuming what we consider \u201cjunk food\u201d in moderation has no ill effect on health. [1] This results in legislating for any kind of fat tax much more difficult as the tax needs to allow consuming fat in moderation while preventing excess.  [1] Roberts A., Let Them Eat Cake (Why Junk Food Is OK For Kids, In Moderation), published 5\/9\/2011,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro02a","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"There is ample precedent in the form of other \u201csin\u201d taxes  A sin tax is a term often used for fees tacked on to popular vices like drinking, gambling and smoking. Its roots have been traced back to the 16th century Vatican, where Pope Leo X taxed licensed prostitutes. [1]  More recently, and with greater success, US federal cigarette taxes were shown to have reduced consumption by 4% for every 10% increase in the price of cigarettes. [2]  Given the success achieved with uprooting this societal vice, which on a number of counts is similar to the unhealthy food one - immense health costs linked to a choice to consume a product \u2013 we should employ this tried and true strategy to combat the obesity epidemic.  In fact, a recent study published in the Archives of Internal Medicine followed 5000 people for 20 years, tracking food consumption and various biological metrics. The report states that \u201cResearchers found that, incremental increases in price of unhealthy foods resulted in incremental decreases in consumption. In other words, when junk food cost more, people ate it less.\u201d [3]  Thus leaning on the successful tradition of existing \u201csin\u201d taxes and research that points out the potential for success of a similar solution in this arena, it should be concluded that a fat tax is an important part of a sensible and effective solution to the obesity epidemic.  [1] Altman, A., A Brief History Of: Sin Taxes, published 4\/2\/2009,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011  [2] CDC, Steady Increases in Tobacco Taxes Promote Quitting, Discourage Smoking, published 5\/27\/2009,  , accessed 14\/9\/2011  [3] O'Callaghan, T., Sin taxes promote healthier food choices, published 3\/10\/2010,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro03b","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"While the tax might level out the playing field, it does so to the detriment of those that would need our protection the most.  Instead of making healthy food more accessible, we would make all foods less accessible \u2013 a truly nonsensical and harmful situation that we should do our utmost to avoid. Moreover, given that many individuals in lower socio-economic groups will have become used to eating \u201cjunk\u201d food, when prices rise they will not necessarily move to the healthier alternative. It is likely that they will stick to what they know, and end up paying more from their limited budgets for it. The end result is likely to be that these people will still buy junk food first but will pay more and thus will not be able to afford any healthier foods."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro01a","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"An individual's BMI is no longer a purely personal matter  The obesity epidemic is taking an enormous toll on global medical costs. In the US alone the health care costs attributable to either direct or indirect consequences of obesity have been estimated at $147bn. [1] Put into context, this amounts to roughly 9% of the health spending in the US. [2]  The figure might seem excessive, but we need to remember that obesity is linked to Type 2 Diabetes, several kinds of cancer, coronary artery disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, asthma, chronic back pain and hypertension, to name just a few.  We also need to realize that many of the diseases on this list are chronic in nature, requiring lifelong pharmacological therapy, which often follows complex and expensive diagnostic procedures, frequent medical specialist consultations, and not infrequent emergency interventions. [3]  Adding to the list is the value of income lost due to decreased productivity, restricted activity, and absenteeism, not to mention the value of future income lost by premature death.  Thus it becomes increasingly clear that due to the substantial cost obesity presents to the society, individual choices that might lead to excessive weight gain, can no longer be considered as solely individual in nature. [4]  Therefore the government is legitimate in its action to introduce a form of a fat tax in order to try to dissuade the population from becoming obese and cover the increasing societal costs the already obese individuals are responsible for.  [1] CDC, Obesity: Economic Consequences, published 3\/28\/2011,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011  [2] RTI international, Obesity Costs U.S. About $147 Billion Annually, Study Finds, published 7\/27\/2009,  , accessed 9\/14\/2011  [3] The Council of State Governments, Costs of Chronic Diseases: What Are States Facing?, published in 2006,  , accessed, 9\/14\/2011  [4] Los Angeles Times, Should there be a 'fat tax'?, published 4\/11\/2011,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro01b","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"An important source of extravagant medical spending around the world, especially in the US, can be traced to inherent inefficiencies of current medical care systems. [1] And the current trends show the situation to be worsening.  It is thus impossible for anyone to really say whether the rising cost of the medical care system can really be attributed to obesity related diseases, especially since those are some of the most common ailments of the modern age.  It is also unfair to single out obesity as the single cause that should get such intense scrutiny and attention. What about the connection between consumption of meat and colorectal cancer? [2] Should we introduce an additional levy in that case as well?  [1] Connolly, C., U.S. \u2018Not Getting What We Pay For\u2019, published 11\/30\/2008,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011  [2] The HMS Family health guide, Red meat and colon cancer, published in March 2008,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro03a","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"A fat tax levels out the playing field for healthier food  An important reason why people continuously turn to unhealthy, fat, sugar and salt laden food, is the simple fact that it\u2019s often cheaper than a more wholesome meal comprised at least in part of fresh produce.  A study done at the University of Washington found that \u201cwhen they compared the prices of 370 foods\u2026 junk foods not only cost less\u2026 but junk food prices are also less likely to rise as a result of inflation.\u201d [1]  A similar conclusion was reached by a group of Australian researchers, who found that the prices of healthy food have risen 20 per cent above inflation, while the harmful counterpart have actually dropped below inflation \u2013 as much as 20 per cent below. [2]  Noting that obesity is more prevalent in groups of lower socioeconomic status, we find that the price of food is a substantial incentive for consumption.  Thus it is only reasonable to levy a tax against unhealthy, fatty food in order to give healthy food a fighting chance.  [1] Parker-Pope, T., A High Price for Healthy Food, published 12\/5\/2007,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011  [2] Burns, C., The rising cost of healthy foods, published 10\/16\/2008,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-con03b","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"Even if this policy might cause some families to spend more on their food \u2013 even more than they feel like they can afford \u2013 it still is more important to start significantly dealing with the obesity epidemic. We feel that nothing short of forcing these low income families \u2013 which are also the ones where obesity is most prevalent \u2013 to finally change their eating habits will make a dent in the current trend.  But there is a silver lining here. These are also the families that are afflicted most by obesity related diseases. Thus spending a couple dollars more on food now will \u2013 necessarily \u2013 save them tens of thousands in the form of medical bills.  Reducing obesity will also make them more productive at work and reduce their absenteeism, again offsetting the costs of this tax. [1]  We should look at this tax as a form of paying it forward \u2013 spending a little time and effort now and reap the benefits for the individual and the society in the future.  [1] ACOEM, Obesity Linked To Reduced Productivity At Work, published 1\/9\/2008,  , accessed 9\/14\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-con01b","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"Such a limited view of the role of government may be something we have seen in the past, but even conservative governments today are warming to the ideas of social support, progressive taxation, etc.  This shows a clear trend that the perception of government is changing \u2013 and rightly so. The challenges of the 21st century are vastly different from those of a hundred or more years ago, when that idea of government was popular or mainstream.  Given the very recent and very cataclysmic events involving the world\u2019s economy, that were arguably sparked by some very bad financial choices made by consumers, one could think that societies around the globe would be more than ever inclined to answer yes to those questions.  In fact, what the government is doing in this case is respecting its boundaries \u2013 it cannot ban certain choices of food outright, although this might be the fastest solution. What it\u2019s doing instead is providing a disincentive for a certain individually and societally harmful choice. That sort of action is entirely legitimate, as it doesn\u2019t infringe on a person\u2019s right to make a certain choice, yet it awards those who make the socially conscious one and it also protects the society in general from harm, since it takes important steps to reduce medical spending."}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-con02a","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"A tax is not an effective instrument to fight obesity  There are very legitimate concerns whether artificially increasing the cost of fatty food by specifically targeting it with a tax would have a significant effect on the obesity trend.  In fact, research shows that a fat tax would produce only a marginal change in consumption \u2013 not the dramatic shift in public awareness the proponents of the fat tax are hoping for. The reason, LSE researchers believe, is simple: \u201cthose on the very poorest diets will continue to eat badly.\u201d [1]  Other than the economic reasons for such behavior, it could be argued that is also a thing of habit and culture: fast fatty food is quick, accessible and tasty. [2] Thus while a tax might be useful in reducing things such as the use of cigarettes \u2013 which are at heart an unnecessary \u201cluxury\u201d and thus more easily affected by the price \u2013 eating food, whether junk or not, is necessary. It also seems that the fast fatty kind of food is fulfilling a specific need, a need for a quick, tasty and filling meal, something people consider worth paying good money for.  The fight against obesity ought to be multifaceted, complex and well thought out \u2013 and a fat tax is none of those things. We should approach the issue with more cunning and introduce other programs: such as increasing the availability of healthy food by introducing healthy vending machines; [3] increasing the amount of physics exercise by requiring it in school, improving possibilities for recreation and access to public transportation thus encouraging people to burn more calories [4] and, most importantly, proper education on the topic if we want to create lasting change. [5]  [1] Tiffin, R., Salois, M., A fat tax is a double whammy for the poor \u2013 it will do little to prevent obesity in those on lower incomes, and will hurt them financially, published 9\/2\/2011,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011  [2] Hitti, M., Top 11 Reasons For Fast Food's Popularity, published 12\/3\/2008,  , accessed 9\/14\/2011  [3] Yara, S., Best And Worst Vending Machine Snacks, published 10\/6\/2005,  , accessed 9\/14\/2011  [4] CDC, Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States, published 7\/24\/2009,  , accessed 9\/14\/2011  [5] Bunce, L., \u2018Fat tax\u2019 solutions ignore wider social factors driving junk food habits, published 8\/16\/2010,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-con03a","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"It hits the most vulnerable part of society hardest  The practical consequence of an additional tax on what the government considers fatty unhealthy food will disproportionately affect the poorest part of the population, who often turn to such food due to economic constraints.  These were the concerns that stopped the Romanian government from introducing a fat tax in 2010. Experts there argued, that the countries people keep turning to junk food simply because they are poor and cannot afford the more expensive fresh produce. What such a fat tax would do is eliminate a very important source of calories from the society\u2019s economic reach and replace the current diet with an even more nutritionally unbalanced one. Even the WHO described such policies as \u201cregressive from an equity perspective.\u201d [1]  Clearly, the government should be focusing its efforts on making healthy fresh produce more accessible and not on making food in general, regardless if it\u2019s considered healthy or not, less accessible for the most vulnerable in our society.  [1] Stracansky, P., 'Fat Tax' May Hurt Poor, published 8\/8\/2011,  , accessed 9\/12\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-con01a","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"A fat tax infringes on individual choice  Introducing such a tax would constitute an overstepping of the government\u2019s authority. The role of government in a society should not expand further than providing basic services such as education, legal protection, i.e. only the services necessary for a society to function and for the individual\u2019s rights to be protected.  Such a specific tax is completely uncalled for and very unreasonable in the context of a fair society with a government that knows its place in it.  Protecting the individual should go no further than the protection against the actions of a third person. For instance: we can all agree that governments should put measures in place to protect us from thieves, scammers, etc. But should it also protect us from frivolous spending? Limit us in the number of credit cards we can own? Tell us how we can invest our money?  Of course not. But what this tax does is exactly that \u2013 it is punishing the citizens for a specific choice they are making by artificially inflating its cost.  Thus it is clear that levying such a tax against a specific choice an individual should be able to legitimately make is a clear overstepping of the government\u2019s authority. [1]  [1] Wilkinson, W., Tax the fat, not their food, published 7\/26\/2011,  , accessed 12\/9\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-thhghwhwift-con02b","title":"tax health health general healthcare weight house would implement fat tax","text":"Though one might be inclined to agree with the statement, that a fat tax on its own would be insufficient to solve the problem of rising obesity, it is also simply not the case.  There are numerous educational campaigns underway, from celebrity chef Jamie Oliver\u2019s school dinners to the first ladies \u2018Let\u2019s move\u2019 that are effectively targeting that aspect of the fight against obesity.  What is needed to balance these is tangible action by the government that is able to underwrite and solidify what these campaigns are saying. In short, to help our society practice what we preach."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro02b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"One of the key benefits highlighted about Oxfam\u2019s Saving for Change Initiative is the empowerment provided for women. Women are argued to be more independent, able to organise within communities, and provided with a voice of power. However, are women empowered?  In the cases of microfinance in Cameroon, Mayoux (2001) highlights the inequalities operating within community groups. The message is we cannot rely on communities, and social capital, for empowerment as women within such communities have different relations to power. The ability for women to use savings and credit for self-empowerment is limited by wider, traditional, gender inequalities. Microfinance may act to reinforce unequal power relations and positions within society.  Furthermore, women\u2019s empowerment needs to be understood as complex. [1] Real, and strategic, empowerment for women goes beyond increased access to economic resources. So how can microfinance ensure true empowerment?  [1] See further readings: Sutton-Brown, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro02a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Small is beautiful: community empowerment  Microfinance is empowering the communities that are using it - showing in development, small is beautiful. Communities are empowered to change their conditions. For example taking the case of savings - microfinance allows for savings. Half of the adults that saved in Sub-Saharan Africa, during 2013, used an informal, community-based approach (CARE, 2014). First, having savings reduces household risk. CARE is one of many organisations working in innovations for microfinance. At CARE savings have been mobilised across Africa by working with Village Savings and Loans Associations. Overtime, CARE has targeted over 30,000,000 poor people in Africa, to provide necessary finance. Savings ensures households have financial capital, can invest resources in education, health, and the future. Savings is security in livelihoods.  Second, microfinance is providing key skills. Oxfam\u2019s Savings for Change Initiative provides training on savings, and lending, to women in communities in Senegal and Mali. Evidence from Mali indicates startup capital provided has ensured better food security, women\u2019s empowerment in the financial decision-making of households, and crucially, a sense of community bond among the women (Oxfam, 2013). Gender based violence within households may also be reduced [1] .  [1] See further readings: Kim et al, 2007."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro03b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Can we rely on business to solve social problems? Ultimately the model proposed through microfinance schemes is the creation of a consumer market where risks are already high. This has shown to be one of the key factors of microfinance failing in South Africa (Bateman, 2013). The microcredit provided across South Africa, post-apartheid, aimed to solve social problems - however, it has acted to support risky consumption not investment. With a lack of secure incomes, due to high levels of unemployment, underemployment, and informal employment, the rate of repayment is low. Households have been forced into severe poverty by being provided with credit which they can\u2019t pay back. Even among those who do invest how many of their business ideas will succeed?"}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro05a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Microfinance and protection  Access to a small loan provides benefits for the poor\u2019s ability to access high quality health care. A lack of access to banking facilities - loans and credit - may mean the poor are left excluded from health care services as these are usually not free. Microfinance institutions accept the irregularities of the poor\u2019s income, so enabling health care to be affordable to the poor by providing access to finance. As Ofori-Adjei (2007) shows the integration of microfinance institutions within healthcare systems in Ghana is required to resolve the issue of inaccessibility. Ill health should not put a household into a state of poverty - microfinance provides this protection.  Microfinance schemes not only provide loans to access health care but are now integrating non-financial services, such as health education, within their finance schemes."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro01a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"A livelihoods approach  The livelihoods approach provides a useful model to understand how poor people live [1] ; and remains important to recognising the benefits of microfinance.  The provision of microfinance reduces vulnerability to shocks and changes such as losing a job; enhances people\u2019s access to assets that they use and need (such as finance, friend networks, and land); and this fundamentally acts to change the lives of the poor. Microfinance provides social protection through tapping into social capital. Further, microfinance means aid is not simply provided, but the individual is taught valuable financial skills and given the means to sustain themselves for their lifetime.  [1] See further readings: IFAD, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro01b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"The provision of microfinance within livelihoods is based on a positive view of social capital [1] and cohesion. The idea relies upon a perception whereby social networks within the community are able to positively organise funds and remain democratic in how they manage poverty. It fails to acknowledge negative aspects of social capital - such as how networks can act to exclude and restrict who becomes a part of the scheme. Civil society is not without internal politics, with competing interests, and can be uncooperative.  [1] Social capital represents the relationships and linkages between people and\/or groups, of which are formulated with rules and norms. See further readings:"}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro05b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Loans provided are embedded with conditions, which can constrain what an individual can do with the money. A microfinance loan is still a loan, it needs to be paid back, if someone is in poor health for a long period they will run into difficulty. Can saving schemes enable social protection in the long term when the amount saved is just enough to cover one sick person? We need to realistically evaluate what the loan enables, provides, and how long for. To provide real health security a much more comprehensive finance system is needed, such as insurance"}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro04b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"There is a need to reinvigorate Africa\u2019s agricultural system; however, the ability for microfinance to do this is debatable. The distribution of loans is not necessarily adequate or responsive to the need. The loans provided need to be able to provide security and protection in the face of environmental crisis. There are some things microfinance can\u2019t solve; more variable rains and desertification for example. Loans can only be provided if the risks are known and the risks are getting higher so too will be the costs of loans.  Additionally, multiple factors are responsible for Africa\u2019s agrarian crisis. The lack of an agriculture marketing board for farmers to control price, insufficient infrastructure, and the legacies of structural adjustment, all act to constrain the agricultural system."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro03a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Ending poverty through entrepreneurialism  Introducing finance provides communities with access to startup capital. Access to financial capital is vital in several respects for initiating capitalism. Firstly, access to capital enables entrepreneurialism. The poor have business ideas that would benefit both themselves and their community they just require access to capital to invest in such ideas. The Initiative \u2018Lend with Care\u2019 is providing access to capital to empower entrepreneurs [1] .  Secondly, the cumulative effect of small-scale savings and borrowing, enabled through microfinance enables individuals, families and communities, to enter markets - of land and property. Being able to buy property and land can enable personal security, dignity, and increasing returns.  [1] See further readings: Lend with Care, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro04a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Rebuilding agricultural systems  Africa is faced with an agrarian crisis. Microfinance is providing rural communities a chance to gain food security and reduce vulnerability to risks such as climate change, unstable demand, and political tensions. Microfinance supports small scale agriculture \u2013 which is more sustainable, effective for growth, and beneficial for communities than larger scale agriculture. In Zimbabwe, small scale farming has the capability to improve production, benefiting households, communities, and the Nation (IRIN, 2013; Morrison, 2012).  Kiva, a microfinance NGO, is providing affordable capital to remote communities. Loans have been provided to small-scale farmers and a rental system has been set-up enabling farmers to borrow tools and resources needed."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-con03b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Africa\u2019s microfinance schemes can be different, and are fundamentally different. Across Africa there is a history of informal lending. Microfinance is not new, but rather embedded in traditional practices. This means communities are aware of the obligations, rules, and practice of microfinance.  Additionally, the path taken by microfinance lenders shows stricter controls are being taken to ensure that the loans are not subprime. In a bid to ensure the safety of the poor the Bank of Ghana has set up minimum capital requirements for the borrower and new regulations to ensure money-lent is repayable."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-con01b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"All policies have barriers and potential disadvantages and for a scheme to be rolled out the advantages must outweigh the costs. In the case of microfinance advantages are higher. Microfinance has a low cost for implementation, and can therefore be distributed nationwide. Rolling out microfinance schemes means a majority of the population will become able to access vital services through a flexible loan.  Microfinance not being able to reach everyone is not a reason to enable it for those it can reach. If bad governance prevents sustainability then something needs to be done about governance \u2013 it does not invalidate microfinance as a concept. And all those involved in supply do have close enough objectives to run the scheme there simply needs to be compromises to ensure they remain the same."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-con02a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Deeper issues unresolved  Microfinance provides a quick-fix solution for the poor. The individual, or community, is provided with a loan to invest in their future. However, although access to capital is a key concern for enabling entrepreneurialism it is not the silver bullet. Microfinance schemes will fail without providing a stable political and economic environment that makes a good climate to invest in.  Microfinance is essentially short-termist. It encourages investment but only in things that will bring a quick return. With interest rates as high as 30% the person taking the loan needs to pay it back as quickly as possible. This can sometimes be against an individual\u2019s long term interests, for example access to microfinance often reduces primary school attendance as this is a long term investment that will not pay back the loan money (IOE, 2011)."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-con03a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Debt cycles and the curse of microfinance  Microfinance is incorporating free market ideologies and subprime (lending to those who may not be able to repay) lending at a smaller scale. Unstable crises\u2019 form as a result, and debt is intensified for the poorest - of which are given access to credit they are not able to repay. This is a problem with all lending, microfinance is no exception.  In India the pressures of microfinance repayment has become linked to suicide and early mortality (Biswas, 2010). The stress of looking for microcredit, and then how to pay it back, has created a crisis within the microfinance industry. Regulation is required on the microfinance organisation: controlling the distribution of credit and the use of threats if the individual defaults."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-con01a","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Realistic barriers  There are significant barriers to introducing microfinance. Microfinance can\u2019t reach everywhere; a lack of infrastructure, or poor infrastructure, can mean that microfinance initiatives often can\u2019t reach where need is greatest. Those who are poorest most need money just to get buy, not to invest. They would be unable to repay even tiny loans. It returns to the question of who is the poorest, and what do we know about them - where they are, what they need, and why are they poor?  Secondly, structural constraints limit the ability for microfinance to be sustainable and provide a long term solution. Bad governance, inadequate structures to regulate microfinance, and political instability, mean the theoretical benefits of microfinance may not become a lived reality.  Thirdly, who is involved in the supply? The involvement of multiple actors - NGOs, communities, the state, and private sector, complicates how microfinance is being run and therefore the effectiveness. Tensions emerge with such partnerships as each actor has the different objectives and motivations."}
+{"id":"test-economy-fiahwpamu-con02b","title":"finance international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Microfinance does not have to be short term financing. Because it is a community based loan that is based on trust if those wanting the loan can explain why they want a loan over the longer term then it is possible to get longer loans. Moreover long term investment should not be something those who are struggling day to day have to think about; such investments as education should be made by the government not relying on individuals to realise their long term interests. No one would argue that microfinance is the solution to a poor education system."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro02b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"The reason for the apparent superiority of Democrat administrations is that they use government as a job creation service; using taxpayers\u2019 money to create jobs in a bloated federal administration [i] .  Ultimately, these are not real jobs as they are not actually producing wealth, merely circulating what already exists. Real growth and real economic health comes from unleashing the innovativeness and industry of the American people to create new businesses and expand existing ones. The Democrat approach leads to taxes rising The Republicans can reduce taxes because they leave the creation of jobs where it belongs \u2013 in the private sector.  [i] \u201cHistorical U.S. Job Creation \u2013 Under Democratic and Republican Presidents and President Obama\u201d Democraticunderground.com. 2 September 2011."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro02a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"Historically Democrats have presided over more economic stability whereas the GOP is the party of boom and Bust  During the past 60 years Democrats have been considerably more likely to preside over a balanced budget than their Republican rivals. Since the OPEC shocks of the mid-70s the average unemployment rate under Republican Presidents has been 6.7 % as opposed to 5.5% under democrats. Even expanding that period out to the whole of the post-war period, unemployment has averaged 4.8% under democrats and 6.3% under democrats [i] .  Republican presidencies have been marked by higher unemployment, bigger deficits and lower wages.  [i] Larry Bartels. \u201cWhy the economy fares much better under Democrats.\u201d Christian Science Monitor. October 21st, 2010 ."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro03b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"It is really not up to the Government to decide when a job is \u201cgood enough\u201d, frankly when the alternative is welfare any job looks fairly attractive. It is also much easier to find new work when you are already in the job market. As well as providing an income, jobs also give the worker pride and self-respect.  It is in the interests of employers to pay as much as the market can bear \u2013 this way they get the best person for the job, however, it is not the role of government to tell them how much they should be paying as this removes the incentive to work hard."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro01a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"Bush squandered an extraordinary economic legacy on tax cuts for the wealthy and too expensive and unnecessary wars.  The Clinton legacy was one of extraordinary economic health including an enormous $4,000 billion surplus. This could have been used to improve services and create jobs. Instead the Bush administration squandered this, mostly on tax cuts for the wealthy and two expensive wars. He turned the surplus on its head, leaving a budget deficit of $482 billion in 2009 with, frankly, not a lot to show for it [i] .  [i] Andrew Taylor. \u201cBush Leaving Next President Record Federal Deficit\u201d. Huffington Post. 28 July 2008."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro01b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"The logic behind tax cuts is two-fold. The first is that it isn\u2019t the government\u2019s money, it belongs to the people who worked hard to earn it. The second is that cash in people\u2019s pockets acts as a stimulus to the economy which it doesn\u2019t sitting in the government\u2019s vaults.  In terms of who benefited from the cuts, a single person earning $30,000 a year was paying $4,500 by the end of Bush\u2019s presidency as opposed to $8,400 at the end of Clinton\u2019s.  It\u2019s easy to create a surplus if you simply take people\u2019s money away from them [i] .  [i] \u201cTaxes: Clinton vs Bush\u201d. Snopes.com 22 April 2008."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro04b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"The events of late 2008 had a variety of complex causes. To try and blame them on one thing alone is not to understand the problem.  What is clear however is that an active financial sector creates jobs and wealth for the American people providing them with the security of a job, a pension and a home in a way that government can only dream of.  There is also no doubt that light regulation allows business to grow and create jobs, the only way out of recession is to allow business to do what it does best; grow America for all our futures.  As Ronald Reagan put it \u201cGovernment is not the solution to our problems. Government is the problem\u201d."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro03a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"Democrats focus on increasing wages, creating better consumers.  Quality customers can only be created by paying people enough to allow them to purchase goods and services. You can create as many jobs as you like but if they\u2019re created at a level where consumers can\u2019t even afford to survive it does absolutely nothing to stimulate the economy. Instead Democrats believe in working with labour to ensure that wages are set at levels that both respect the worker and have a positive effect on the economy. [i]  [i] Mark Pash, CFP_ wi8th Brad Parker. \u201cProgressive Economic Principles: Creating a Quality Economy.\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro04a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"Deregulation contributed to the banking crises and, therefore the 2009 economic crash  It is clear that the economic meltdown was, in large part, caused by deregulation of the banking and financial sectors. The Republican obsession causes not only environmental damage and low wages but it doesn\u2019t even succeed in its avowed aim of leaving the market free to generate wealth. In just a way of letting the parties friends in the boardrooms of corporate America to get even richer by gambling with the homes and pensions of ordinary, hard-working Americans [i] .  The Congressional Republican response to the 2008 crash was to pass a bill that curtailed 38 environmental regulations, blaming the EPA for the stalled economy. Why is anyone\u2019s guess.  [i] \u201cWhy Government Becomes the Scapegoat\u201d. Governemtnisgood.com"}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-con03b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"The Obama administration received one of the worst political legacies in US history. A broken economy, half a trillion dollars\u2019 worth of debt, two expensive wars, a sick healthcare system and much more besides. In just three short years he has stopped the country haemorrhaging Money in Iraq and Afghanistan, introduced a healthcare system based on medical need rather than the ability to pay and has made progress in improving the economy. Although things are still difficult for many Americans and there are not enough jobs, the idea that having the Republicans back in the Whitehouse is clearly untrue. They were in large part responsible for creating the economic mess in the first place with reckless over-spending and unjustified tax hikes. They turned one of the best economic inheritances in history on its head, leaving the country broke, in debt and with nowhere to go."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-con01b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"George Bush announced that cutting government was one of his greatest priorities, his actions could not have been further from this ambition. As with most Republican presidents, government spending grew considerably on his watch. Indeed no president since FDR presided over a larger rate of growth in the federal budget. The largest recipient has been the military with over $5tn dollars spent on defence during his two terms. To take one example, when the Transportation Security Administration took a guess at the cost of a national computer system in 2002, it pegged the price at $1bn. A few years later the price was running at five times that [i] .  [i] Jon Ward. \u201cBig Government Gets Bigger\u201d. The Washington Times. 19 October 2008."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-con02a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"Republicans more enthusiastically support market capitalism  A free market is at the core of many of the other freedoms we enjoy. When government gets too involved in the running of commerce \u2013 whether through taxation, regulation or the state ownership of companies, history has shown us that they start controlling other aspects of citizens lives in an effort to get the economic outcomes that they want. Corporations \u2013 along with organised religion \u2013 provide useful counter-balance to too much government power. As nice as it sounds that we should divert the wages of the rich to bring the poor up to middle class standards of living, it just doesn\u2019t work [i] .  [i] \u201cWhy am I a Republican?\u201d Early Riser. 7 February 2006."}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-con03a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"\u201cAfter three years, it is clear that President Obama\u2019s budget-busting policies have not created jobs and have only added to our debt,\u201d  The Obama administration has been profligate with taxpayers\u2019 money, has failed to deal with the economic crisis and has increased the debt. His policies on health care show that he is more interested in controlling people\u2019s lives than he is in encouraging enterprise and industry. It\u2019s the same story that is always heard from Democrats; they say that they\u2019re interested in encouraging business but instead all they really want to focus on is getting the government involved in as many areas of life as possible \u2013 especially in the running of the market. After three years in office Obama has done nothing to improve the life chances of the American people, growth and employment have stagnated, GDP growth has been under 1% per year while unemployment is up to 9.1% from 7.8%, [i] while regulation and taxation have blossomed.  [i] Kristol, William, \u2018Weekly Standard: Obama No FDR ON Unemployment\u2019, npr, 2 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-con01a","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"Republicans are the best at stimulating economic growth  The tax cuts proposed by President Bush and passed by a Republican Congress ensured that real, after-tax income was up 15% by 2006. The Dow Jones hit record Highs during his time in office.  These tax cuts were responsible for the creation of 6.6 million jobs, primarily in the private sector \u2013 real jobs producing real goods and providing real services not tax-payer funded sinecures to mask the reality of the economic situation. [i]  [i] The White House, \u201cFact Sheet: Job Creation Continues \u2013 More than 6.6 Million Jobs Created Since August 2003\u201d, 6 October 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-eptpghdtre-con02b","title":"economic policy tax politics government house doesnt trust republicans economy","text":"The idea that free markets are innately linked to democracy in some way is simply untrue. Equally there is a difference between markets that are free and those that are unfettered.  Free markets are good to the extent that they create jobs and generate wealth. They cease to be good when they become an end in themselves, indeed when that happens, it very rarely encourages democracy.  In a situation where corporations are, by law, required to maximise profits no matter what there is clearly a role for government in setting some parameters in terms of what terms of what can be considered acceptable behaviour for corporate citizens within a civilized society."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro02b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Developing nations are plagued with corruption as well as desperate economic situations and are often in competition with each other in exporting whether that is manufacturing for slightly richer countries of South East Asia or natural resources in Africa.  In the context of such an economic rat race, it would be unfair to impose a western standard on these countries. An increase in standard is not a cheap process as it increases the costs of labour and will stretch resources resulting in cutting back the number of jobs and hence will increase unemployment and poverty just as happened in many Latin American countries [1] . It is better to employ many and provide some means of sustenance to all, as will happen with very low wages and standards, rather than employ less and give (relative) luxury to a few. Developing nations that have lower labour standards can gain a comparative advantage in trade: the lower the cost of the industry, greater the turnover of the industry. [2]  [1] Stern, R. and Katherine Terrell, \u2018Labor Standards and the World Trade Organization\u2019, Discussion Paper N 499,2003   [2] \u2018The benefits of International Labour Standards\u2019, International Labour Organisation,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro02a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"International labour and business standards go hand in hand with development standards and will de facto increase implementation levels  What are international labour and business standards? They are globally acceptable methods of doing business and employing labour. These include Conventions Against Forced Labour [1] , Discrimination [2] and Child Labour [3] . These also form guideline structures for social policy such as labour dispute resolution bodies, employment services and good industrial relations. Therefore, this goes hand in hand with reducing poverty and increasing the standard of living of the employees, and hence the standard is a facet of development in itself. This helps in achieving the goals of a stable long term plan for economic growth as well paid workers are necessary for consumer spending. Employing higher standards would be a way to tackle the problems with distribution of aid at the grassroots and increase efficiency within the system organically. [4]  The poorest countries invariably have the lowest standards of labour and business. It is essential to raise these standards to an international level, implementing standards against practices like child labour. If this is done then the purpose of development aid, which is to increase the day to day standard of living of the people, will improve. In an absence of such a pre-requisite, a developing country will be free to employ standards that do not reflect the same principles of the donor nation. Thus, to avoid a hypocritical scenario, this pre-requisite is necessary.  [1] C029 - Forced Labour Convention, Adoption: Geneva, 14th ILC session, 28 June 1930,   [2] International Labour Office, \u2018Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention\u2019, International Labour Organisation, 1958 No.111,   [3] \u2018ILO Conventions and Recommendations on child labour\u2019, International Labour Organisation,   [4] \u2018How International Labour Standards are used\u2019, International Labour Organisation,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro03b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"This is a common logical fallacy. With limited resources, there is a limited bandwidth within which one can stretch the standard above the capable standard. It is not favourable to increase this gap too much for then it is not realistic. Many countries have ratified ILO Conventions but not implemented any of it. [1] For example India has ratified both ILO core conventions on discrimination but domestic laws have not managed to curtail the widespread discrimination on the basis of caste, particularly for being a Dalit, gender, and ethnicity. [2]  It is important that the standards not only need to be raised, but rather the current standards need to be implemented better \u2013 which means a stricter hand to the current regulations.  [1] Salem, Samira and Rozental, Faina. \u201cLabour Standards and Trade: A Review of Recent Empirical Evidence\u201d Journaln of International Commerce and Economics. Web Version August 2012.   [2] \u2018India Hidden Apartheid\u2019, Center for Human Rights and Global Justice, Human Rights Watch, February 2007,  P.80"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro05a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"When developing countries employ poor labour standards, other countries follow the example in order to be competitive  As long as developing nations constantly keep employing poor labour standards, it will keep putting a strain on the global economy. This is because other countries will be pressured to do the same just to remain competitive. This creates a race to the bottom effect and would create \u201cpoor conditions and loss of freedom in the global South, and causes workers in the global North to lose their jobs to cheap outsourced labour\u201d. [1] Higher labour standards in developing countries therefore also benefits developed countries. However the converse is also true; labels like \u2018fair trade\u2019 provide a guarantee of ethical quality and show that consumers are willing to pay more to ensure good labour standards.  [1] \u2018Changing Global Trade Rules\u2019, International Labor Rights Forum,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro01a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Labour standards are necessary to protect basic human rights  Labour and business standards are a cornerstone of agreement on universal human rights between various international actors and so it is right that they should be linked to aid. In 1998 the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work were adopted and are considered binding on all members regardless of whether they have ratified the conventions. [1] The business and labour regulations protect the basic worker rights and improve job security through demanding the elimination of discrimination and empower workers through the recognition of \u201cfreedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining\u201d [2] like in those in developed western countries. This then provides a minimum standard and aid should only be given to those that ensure those minimum standards they have signed up. It would also help compliance to prioritise those who go further in their protections of labour when it comes to receiving aid. It should be remembered that there has been general acceptance of international labour standards not just for human rights reasons but also because having minimum standards is beneficial economically \u2013 for example a 40 hour working week is more productive per hour than a 60 hour week. [3]  [1] the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, \u2018About the Declaration\u2019, International Labour Organisation,   [2] ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-up, Adopted by the International Labour Conference at its Eighty-sixth Session, Geneva, 18 June 1998 (Annex revised 15 June 2010),   [3] Robinson, Sara, \u2018Bring back the 40-hour work week\u2019, Salon, 14 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro01b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Not all standards benefit human rights and some could even undermine individual\u2019s most basic human rights such as that to sustenance and shelter. Standards combating child labour, for example, could be misguided. In many developing countries, child labour is an important source of income for children\u2019s food and education.  Holding to the ILO\u2019s convention on child labour would therefore affect families\u2019 and children\u2019s income and development opportunities. Since child labour is dependent on level of economic development, developing countries should work on combating poverty before reducing child labour. India implemented most international standards, including the convention for child labour. However, research has found that children working full time have better chances of making it to adulthood than those who work less, because they\u2019re better fed [1] . Children\u2019s physical wellbeing will often therefore benefit from being allowed to work.  Rather than imposing labour standards the way to end such practices is to provide incentives that pay for parents to send their children to school as with the Bolsa Familia in Brazil. [2]  [1] Cigno, Alessandro, and Rosati, Furio C., \u2018Why do Indian Children Work, and is it Bad for Them?\u2019, IZA Discussion paper series, No.115, 2000,  , p.21  [2] Bunting, Madeleine, \u2018Brazil\u2019s cash transfer scheme is improving the lives of the poorest\u2019, Poverty Matters Blog guardian.co.uk, 19 November 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro05b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"This is similar to the debate of imposing uniform carbon emission caps on all nations. This would be unfair as the developing world would be at a disadvantage as it takes away one of the ways in which poorer countries compete effectively in the global market; through having lower prices as a result of those lower standards. That is why keeping lower standards that are more easily met is better than having an unachievable and unfair standard."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro04b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Strategic interests can be put to risk by such pre-requisites. Donor nations have strategic interests when awarding aid, which ensure that future trade relations are well secured (such as United States and the Middle Eastern oil states). This is why aid goes to countries that often have links with the donor.  If there are too many conditions attached and when the developing countries cannot meet them these countries will go elsewhere. China is increasingly a competitor in giving aid and overtly at least ties in far fewer conditions into the aid they give. Sudan was cut off from aid programmes due to its internal conflict, but China invested in development projects without asking for any conditions [1] .  [1] Zafar, A. \"The Growing Relationship Between China and Sub-Saharan Africa: Macroeconomic, Trade, Investment, and Aid Links.\" The World Bank Research Observer 22.1 (2007): 103-30."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro03a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Increasing a standard, even if not as high as the donor would want, increases the standard of the present situation  Increasing the required standard of business and labour will result in increases to the current standard labour and business standards even before aid is entirely tied as countries implement changes to ensure they get the most possible aid. Simply setting an expected level of labour and business standards will therefore create improvement in those standards. In the case of the Decent Work Country Programme for Bangladesh 2006-2009 Bangladesh has been implementing the program due to its positive benefit towards achieving the millennium development goals. This is despite challenges such as the lack of employment opportunities in the country. The programme has been successful in improving social protection, working conditions and rights for female, male, and children workers in a few sectors and areas [1] .  [1] International Labour Organization, Bangladesh: Decent Work Country Programme 2012-2015, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro04a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Historically the donor of Foreign Aid has always set down pre-requisites  When a donor nation parts with foreign aid for development to a nation, it must always choose who it prefers to give it to as there is a limited pot of money to donate there needs to be a way of allocating it. It is not surprising therefore that countries with shared colonial histories tend to dominate aid flows, thus Britain has historically given most aid to countries that were its colonies; in 1960 Malta and Cyprus received most, while India was the biggest recipient for much of the rest of the 20th Century. [1] Further, often countries offering aid, such as the US, the UK, and the EU, require the pre-requisite of democracy or the start of a democratisation process. Therefore, it is justified to add a pre-requisite for better standards of business and labour as it helps implementation, and principally meets the goals of the developmental aid itself. [2]  [1] Provost, Claire, \u2018UK aid: where does it o and how has it changed since 1960?\u2019, Datablog guardian.co.uk, 14 April 2011,   [2] Dollar, David and Alesina, Alberto. \u201cWho Gives Foreign Aid to Whom and Why?\u201d Journal of Economic Growth, Volume 5, No. 1(Mar., 2000)."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con03b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"The concept of a nation\u2019s sovereignty is losing weight against the rights of a global citizen. Citizens everywhere in the world should be able to enjoy equal standards of employment and not suffer at the hands of a nation\u2019s neglect. The rights of a nebulous entity such as the state should not be equated with the much more vital rights of individual workers to humane standards of treatment and good working conditions."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con01b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Achieving development at the cost of principles of development is not acceptable. The means by which you achieve development is equally important, and will remain integral in the principles and priorities of a nation once it achieves developed status. The road is as important as the destination! Building the economy on poor labour standards is building on unstable ground as those jobs will simply move as soon as costs rise in any way."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con02a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"There is nothing wrong with individualised standards. It is the question on implementing them better and not raising standards  The chances that these international labour standards are even relevant to these developing nations are low. For example, India need not ratify the two core conventions on protecting trade union rights because these are rights that pertain to workers in formal employment. A majority of India\u2019s workforce is not in formal employment, and hence not covered by any legal provisions. Similarly in many developing economies a large portion of the workforce is engaged in subsistence farming, something that labour standards are never going to apply to as those involved will do whatever they need to in order to get by. Therefore, there needs to be a different standard applied to the situation specific problems. What needs to be recognised is how no to low labour standards in developing countries can be a significant improvement over the only alternative that was previously available; subsistence farming. One size fits all does not work in such a diverse global economy and donors should recognise the benefits of helping development to bring people out of subsistence farming."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con04a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"There is uneven implementation of labour standards even in western countries  Western countries often do embrace high levels of labour standards or do not follow their labour regulations. Germany for example has no minimum wage [1] while the USA has no legal or contractual requirement to provide minimum amounts of leave. [2] Moreover it is the demand for the cheapest possible products that drives down labour standards worldwide. If western nations truly want to change labour standards then the way to do it is with the consumer\u2019s wallet not the aid chequebook. British clothing retailers such as Primark are often shown to be buying their products from sweatshops that use illegal workers, and exploit their labour [3] . If there is to be real lasting change in labour standards western firms need to be the ones pushing high labour standards and consumers would need to not automatically go for the cheapest product available.  [1] Schuseil, Philine, \u2018A review on Germany\u2019s minimum wage debate\u2019, bruegel, 7 March 2013,   [2] Stephenson, Wesley, \u2018Who works the longest hours?\u2019, BBC News, 23 May 2012,   [3] Dhariwal, Navdip. \"Primark Linked to UK Sweatshops.\" BBC News. BBC, 01 Dec. 2009. Web."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con03a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Development has many facets of which pure economic growth is a priority, especially in the context of a developing nation  It is a nation\u2019s own sovereign decision to decide its own standards and pace itself. It is a sovereign right of self-determination of a nation to freely comply or refuse to comply with international standards. It is unfair to back a developing nation up against a wall and force them to ratify higher standards in return for aid.  It is notable that the countries that have developed fastest have often been those that have ignored the whims of the aid donors. The Asian tigers (Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, later followed by South East Asia and China) did not receive aid, but preserved authority over their developmental policies. Their success story does not involve the international labour standards and goes against many of the policy prescriptions, such as free trade, of international institutions, such as the World Bank and the ILO [1] . This shows that nations that follow their national interest rather than bending to the whims of donors are the ones that ultimately do best economically. These states only implement labour standards when they become beneficial; when it is necessary to build and maintain an educated labour force.  [1] Chang, Ha-Joon, \u201cInfant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective \u2013 A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?\u201d, a paper for the conference \u201cDevelopment Theory at the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century\u201d, 2001,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con01a","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Universal standards of labour and business are not suited to the race for development  Developing countries are in a race to develop their economies. The prioritisation of countries that are not currently developed is different to the priorities of developed countries as a result of their circumstances and they must be allowed to temporarily push back standards of labour and business until they achieve a level playing field with the rest of the world. This is because economic development is a necessary precondition for many of the kinds of labour standards enjoyed in the west. For there to be high labour standards there clearly needs to be employment to have those standards. Undeveloped countries are reliant upon cheap, flexible, labour to work in factories to create economic growth as happened in China. In such cases the comparative advantage is through their cheap labour. If there had been high levels of government imposed labour standards and working conditions then multinational firms would never have located their factories in the country as the cost of running them would have been too high. [1] Malaysia for example has struggled to contain activity from the Malaysian Trades Union Congress to prevent their jobs moving to China [2] as the competition does not have labour standards so helping keep employment cheap. [3]  [1] Fang, Cai, and Wang, Dewen, \u2018Employment growth, labour scarcity and the nature of China\u2019s trade expansion\u2019,  , p.145, 154  [2] Rasiah, Rajah, \u2018The Competitive Impact of China on Southeast Asia\u2019s Labor Markets\u2019, Development Research Series, Research Center on Development and International Relations, Working Paper No.114, 2002,  P.32  [3] Bildner, Eli, \u2018China\u2019s Uneven Labor Revolution\u2019, The Atlantic, 11 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con04b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"It is irrelevant that some western countries do not always meet the highest labour standards; does it matter that Germany does not have a national minimum wage when there are minimum wages for each sector? These are countries where one labour standard can be sacrificed because the pay and standards elsewhere are much higher.  Of course consumers should be supporting attempts to increase labour and business standards but this is hardly exclusive; there is little reason for aid donors not to be demanding high standards at the same time as consumers are."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epehwmrbals-con02b","title":"economic policy employment house would make raising business and labour standards","text":"Individualised standards can be dangerous. International standards could be set at a minimum level on which every country could add measures tailored to its needs as is the case with the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Countries tend to ignore the importance on long term development and concentrate on plans for relatively short term success. By neglecting important issues countries suffer because they wake up when the issue at hand is too large to handle. For example, China\u2019s economy has grown tenfold since 1978 but at the cost of great environmental damage. China now hosts 16 of the 20 most polluted cities of the world. The country has also landed itself with over 70% of its natural water sources polluted and is now the largest emitter of greenhouse gases. [1] Encouraging greener development earlier would have helped prevent this problem.  [1] Bajoria, Jayshree, and Zissis, Carin, \u2018China\u2019s Environmental Crisis\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 4 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-pro02b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"Less than $6billion seems to be suspiciously low. Some land would undoubtedly need to be purchased if only to allow for less tight corners. Added to this there would still be delays due to the need for permits for noise, light and vibration which will mean rising costs. [1] A study of 250 major transport infrastructure projects has found that 90% of come in over budget and this escalation is 45% on rail projects. [2] And it should be remembered that this is dealing with systems were we know the costs not something that is completely new. Additionally there would be costs associated with the closures of the main road routes between Los Angeles and San Francisco \u2013 though these might be moved to the people of California the cost would still be there.  [1] Fernholz, Tim, \u2018Does the Hyperloop even make sense for California?\u2019, Quartz, 12 August 2013,   [2] Flyvbjerg, Bent et al., \u2018How common and how large are cost overruns in transport infrastructure projects?\u2019, Transport Reviews, vol.23, no.1, 2003, pp.71-88,  , p.85"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-pro02a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"The Hyperloop is comparatively cheap  The Hyperloop would be cheap to build. The pods themselves would only cost $1.35million each, the pressurised tube just $650million (or double if wanting vehicles), with only two stations their cost would only be $250million. The biggest cost would be the construction of the pylons carrying the tube which is estimated at $2.55 or $3.15billion. There is an estimated total cost of $4.06billion for the passenger only version or $5.31billion for the vehicle version. [1] This should be compared to the current cost for California\u2019s high speed rail project which is estimated to be $68billion while covering much the same ground. [2]  [1] Musk, Elon, \u2018Hyperloop Alpha\u2019, SpaceX, 12 August 2013,  pp.23, 27, 32, 28, 32  [2] Slosson, Mary, \u2018California moves forward on $68 billion high-speed rail project\u2019, Reuters, 18 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-pro03b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"While it seems reasonable that the cost will be low it is questionable that it will be quite as low as suggested. If the cost of construction rises \u2013 as it inevitably does \u2013 then because this is the basis for the pricing calculation the prices will surely go up. Musk is also forgetting all the extra costs that would be incurred such as the cost of airline style security measures. [1]  [1] Fernholz, Tim, \u2018Does the Hyperloop even make sense for California?\u2019, Quartz, 12 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-pro01a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"Fastest possible transportation over a short distance  Public transportation has not been getting much faster over the last few decades. The fastest method of transport, supersonic jets in the form of Concorde ceased operation in October 2003. [1] Even if at some point a new generation of supersonic planes are built these will not be ideal for travelling between cities that are comparatively close together. The time spent getting the plane up and down from cruising altitude means they would take longer over these short distances than a slower option at ground level. The Hyperloop at more than 700mph will be twice as fast as high speed rail. To take the different options on the San Francisco-Los Angeles route cars take 5hours 30minutes, the proposed high speed train would take 2hours 38minutes, by plane takes 1hour 15minutes whereas the Hyperloop would only take 35minutes. [2]  [1] \u2018End of an era for Concorde\u2019, BBC News, 24 October 2003,   [2] Musk, Elon, \u2018Hyperloop Alpha\u2019, SpaceX, 12 August 2013,  p.8, 56"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-pro01b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"People are not always interested in the fastest possible option; they often want comfort as well. Trains allow riders to work or relax as well as travel the Hyperloop has little space for passengers to move around in. This means that passengers may actually be more productive on a train on which they can move around and work as they travel than they would be in a confined space on the Hyperloop."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-pro03a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"The Hyperloop will be a low cost system for the user  The Hyperloop would be the cheapest mode of intercity transport possible. \u201cTransporting 7.4million people each way and amortizing the cost of $6 billion over 20 years gives a ticket price of $20 for a one-way trip for the passenger version of Hyperloop.\u201d [1] There are very few additional costs. Usually the main cost for transportation beyond the infrastructure is the energy but the Hyperloop produces more energy than it uses so would make a profit here. There would be additional maintenance costs and some minor staff costs but this is unlikely to add too much to the ticket price. The Hyperloop would therefore be very price competitive compared to the $100 and up for flights.  [1] Musk, Elon, \u2018Hyperloop Alpha\u2019, SpaceX, 12 August 2013,  p.56"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con03b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"That there have been similar suggestions before does not mean they are not commercialisable today. The very high speed trains are an inspiration for the Hyperloop but have serious disadvantages by comparison. Because of their vacuum tube the system would be stopped at the slightest leak. [1] They are also astonishingly expensive with the cost associated with construction estimated at as high as $1trillion, the hyperloop is much more economic and therefore practical.  [1] Musk, Elon, \u2018Hyperloop Alpha\u2019, SpaceX, 12 August 2013,  p.3"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con01b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"That there will be some opposition to such a construction is inevitable. This however does not matter in a rational look at the advantages and disadvantages of such a transportation system. The politicians will ultimately decide on the same calculus as everyone else.  That the Hyperloop does not connect into infrastructure in the same way that the maglevs fail to is not a relevant argument to the United States where there are few rail services to connect into. Instead the possibility of having a Hyperloop that transport vehicles invites the prospect of connecting into the road network. A much more useful alternative in California."}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con02a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"Lack of capacity or room for expansion  The plans for the Hyperloop provide that \u201cThe capacity would be 840 passengers per hour which more than sufficient to transport all of the 6 million passengers traveling between Los Angeles and San Francisco areas per year.\u201d With only 28 people per capsule and a maximum of one capsule every 30 seconds there is not much room for expansion. It would seem surprising if this service only carried 6million passengers a year. The Taiwan High Speed Rail running between Taipei and Zuoying carried 41.6 million passengers in 2011 [1] considering that Taiwan has a population of 23 million compared to the combined population of the San Francisco Bay and Los Angeles metropolitan areas of 26million this does not seem an unreasonable comparison. [2] Even if we assume it will not be used at all for commuting and take the Eurostar as the point of comparison the Hyperloop still has only two thirds of the capacity it would need as Eurostar\u2019s ridership is currently approaching 10million. [3]  [1] \"Table 2-8 Passenger Traffic of High-Speed Rail\" . Monthly Statistics of Transportation & Communications . MOTC Department of Statistics .  [2] \u2018Annual Estimates of the Population of Combined Statistical Areas\u2019, Census.gov, 2012,   [3] \u2018\u2019Strong\u2019 2012 for Eurostar\u2019, Global Rail News, 25 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con04a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"If Musk won\u2019t build it who will?  Elon Musk himself is unwilling to build his Hyperloop. He has stated \u201cMaybe I would just do the beginning bit, create a subscale version that is operating and then hand it over to someone else. Ironing out the details at a subscale level is a tricky thing. I think I would probably end up doing that. It just won\u2019t be immediate in the short term because I have to focus on Tesla and SpaceX execution.\u201d [1] If the visionary for the project is having little to do with the project itself it seems unlikely that the proposal will come to anything. The Hyperloop being such a low priority for Musk is also likely to put off anyone else who might be interested in being involved.  [1] Elliott, Hannah, \u2018Hyperloop Update: Elon Musk Will Start Developing It Himself\u2019, Forbes, 12 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con03a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"There have been similar suggestions before for intercity travel  The Hyperloop is not the first proposal to use tubes with low \u2013 or no \u2013 pressure in them. A very high speed train was proposed by Robert M. Salter in 1972. This as a train running in a vacuum would have gone substantially faster than anything that is currently being proposed travelling at around 3000 mph. [1]  Nor is this the first proposal for a pneumatic transport system; such trains were around in the 19th century. They were first proposed as far back as 1812 [2] and several short demonstration tracks were constructed such as the Beach Pneumatic Transit in New York which opened in 1870. [3] Such idea has not got off the ground in the past and there seems no reason why they should now when the basic technology is pretty much the same.  [1] Salter, Robert M., \u2018The Very High Speed Transit System\u2019, RAND Corporation, 1972,   [2] Medhurst, George, \u2018Calculations and Remarks, Tending to Prove the Practicability, Effects and Advantages of a Plan for the Rapid Conveyance of Goods and Passengers: Upon an Iron Road Through a Tube of 30 Feet in Area, by the Power and Velocity of Air\u2019, D.N. Shury, 1812,   [3] Mihm, Stephen, \u2018New York Had a Hyperloop First, Elon Musk\u2019, Bloomberg, 14 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con01a","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"It will never work  The plan for the Hyperloop is sound technically but would it work politically? It is unlikely that the California high speed rail project will be scrapped simply because there is a new competitor on the block. The Hyperloop has the advantage of being cheap but it is cheap because it is being built in the middle of an existing highway, the interstate-5. Building the Hyperloop would therefore cause traffic chaos so there would not be much political support. [1] Build it elsewhere and land would need to be bought just as with proposals for high speed rail.  Maglevs are, like the Hyperloop, practically sound \u2013 one travels from Shanghai Airport into the center of the city [2] \u2013 but they have not been built. High speed trains, despite being slower, have been the preferred method for creating high speed transportation systems because they can easily connect into the existing rail infrastructure, a problem for both the Hyperloop and maglevs.  [1] Yarow, Jay, \u201941 Years Ago, A Scientist Explained Why Elon Musk\u2019s Hyperloop is Doomed\u2019, Business Insider, 12 August 2013,   [2] Kidman, Alex, \u2018Shanghai\u2019s Maglev Train: Astonishingly Fast\u2026 and a little dull\u2019, Gizmo, 12 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con04b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"Even if Elon is not currently willing to lead the project himself he is willing to both build a demonstration prototype to prove the technology and to invest money in the development himself. [1]  [1] Elliott, Hannah, \u2018Hyperloop Update: Elon Musk Will Start Developing It Himself\u2019, Forbes, 12 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-beghwbh-con02b","title":"business economy general house would build hyperloop","text":"It is very unlikely that the Hyperloop would quickly reach its capacity. Currently the number of people travelling from Los Angeles to San Francisco by plane only number 2.8million so there would clearly be plenty of room for expansion. [1]  [1] Amin, Saurabh, \u2018Ride the Hyperloop before decade\u2019s end?\u2019, CNN, 13 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro02b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Even an all inclusive package holiday benefits the economy through buying local products and hiring staff locally. To get beyond the lower end of the market Tunisia is diversifying its tourism for more profitable gains through cultural activities which can be charged separately to board and lodging.  Cultural tourism equates to around 37% of worldwide tourism1 and Tunisia is beginning to further embrace this aspect. The set of the fictional planet of Tatooine from the Star Wars films is a popular destination for tourists, although this is now threatened by sand dunes2. There are other notable locations which are not threatened however. The ancient city of Carthage, excavated in the mid-19th century, the world heritage site of Kairouan, and the Saharan desert are prominent destinations for cultural tourism. The growth of this sub-sector could incur more profitable gains."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro02a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Profit margins are too small  A major problem for Tunisia\u2019s tourism sector is the small profit margin. The industry\u2019s main targets are European, middle class income visitors on package holidays to sea-side resorts. This has resulted in a low per-capita spending rate as food, drink and travel are all usually included in sea-side holiday resorts. Average per-capita spending for tourists in Tunisia amounted to around $385 in 2012 which is low when compared to Egypt\u2019s $890 and Greece\u2019s $10001. This reliance on a low-profit niche in the tourism industry is a systematic flaw which will not provide the economic growth which the country needs.  1) Achy,L. \u2018The Tourism Crisis in Tunisia Goes Beyond Security Issues\u2019, Al Monitor, 26 June 2012"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro03b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"The majority of modern economic industries have to face overseas competition. Tunisia, like its North African neighbours, was convinced in the 1990s to emplace neo-liberal reforms in return for increased lending from the World Bank and other lenders. These reforms, based on the free market principles, ensured that protectionism ended and domestic industries had to compete against other international actors. Sectors such as agriculture have become increasingly threatened by overseas competition since the 1990s1. The disparity between rich and poor created by the reforms has been listed as one of the major factors for the Jasmine revolution2.  1) Aoun,A. \u2018The Performance of Tunisian Agriculture: An Economic Appraisal\u2019, New Medit, vol.3 no.2, 2004 pg.5  2) Nazemroaya,M. \u2018Dictatorship, and Neo-Liberalism: The Tunisian People\u2019s Uprising\u2019, 19 January 2011"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro01a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Vulnerable to unrest  Relying on tourism ensures that the economy is at the mercy of unrest. The violence and break down in law and order following the Tunisian revolution resulted in a notable decrease in tourists as tourists were unwilling to visit an area which they view as dangerous. This is demonstrated by the footfall of tourists which declined from 6,487,000 in 2010 to 4,456,000 in 2011 1. The increase in attacks by Salafists, a conservative sect of Islam which promotes Sharia law and has attacked tourist destinations, has dissuaded many potential visitors2. This has been exacerbated by government travel information which generally advises against visiting regions during periods of unrest, especially for Westerners who are perceived as profitable targets for ransom3. The resultant decrease in tourists reduces revenue, making tourism an unreliable industry for Tunisia.  1) African Manager, \u2018Tunisia-Tourism: Clear Improvement, but a timid pace!\u2019, data accessed 24 January 2014  2) Whewell,T. \u2018Justice kiosk: Tunisia\u2019s alternative law enforces\u2019, BBC, 30 July 2013  3) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade \u2018Kidnapping threat worldwide\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro01b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"The long term affects that instability have on industries such as tourism is overstated. Since the Tunisian revolution, there has been a continued effort by Salafists to attack tourist destinations. However, tourism has recovered from the low point of 2011. In the first ten months of 2013 Tunisia attracted 5.5 million tourists, increasing by 5.7% over 20121. The continued growth of the sector demonstrates that the impact which instability has is exaggerated. Besides instability would equally affect other industries; closing factories, damaging perceptions of an ability to complete orders etc.  1) Reuters, \u2018Tunisia tourism up by 5.7 pct in first 10-months of 2013\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro04b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Environmental damage caused by alternative sectors is far worse. Pollution in the industrial sector has become much more evident since the removal of Ben Ali\u2019s regime. 13,000 tonnes of industrial pollution are released from the Gulf of Gabes every year, causing high rates of infertility, miscarriages and deaths1. This is a common theme amongst Tunisia\u2019s industrial areas and is far more destructive than tourist activities.  1) Addala,R. & McNeil, \u2018Pollution in Gabes, Tunisia\u2019s shore of death\u2019, Al-Jazeera, 14 June 2013"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro03a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Overseas competition  Tunisia\u2019s tourism industry is at risk from overseas competition. International tourism is a very competitive market, relying on the industry is therefore an illogical policy. Tunisia is already being undercut on prices by other countries despite its low fees. Morocco, Spain and Turkey can afford to charge a lower price for package tours than Tunisia due to better air transportation links1. Even before the Jasmine revolution, Tunisia was starting to lose ground to these countries. The ten years before the removal of Ben Ali saw the number of tourists to Tunisia rise from five to seven million, whilst Morocco rose from five to nine million2. Outside of the Mediterranean, Tunisia must compete with popular tourist destinations such as the Far East, North America and Australasia.  1) African Manager, \u2018Tunisia-Tourism: Clear Improvement, but a timid pace!\u2019, data accessed 24 January 2014  2) Achy,L. \u2018The Tourism Crisis in Tunisia Goes Beyond Security Issues\u2019, Al Monitor, 26 June 2012"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro04a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Tourism causes pollution  The tourism industry in Tunisia results in notable damage to the environment. Without sustainability, economic growth will only last in the short term. This is especially pertinent for tourism, where environmental beauty is of particular importance. From the construction of infrastructure and travel, to the general waste produced, tourism is problematic in the sense that it can often cause pollution; which in turn damages the country\u2019s reputation1. Most tourists to the region are from Europe, although there are an increasing number of Russians which means travel becomes a major source of pollution. A return journey via plane from London to Tunis creates around 310 kg of CO2 (standard passenger jets create around 0.17kg of CO2 per km) 2. This is disproportionately damaging compared to other vehicles, but is the most practical way of reaching Tunisia. Other impacts such as overuse of water, land degradation and littering can all cause problems as well3.  1) United Nations Environment Programme \u2018Environmental Impacts\u2019 data accessed 28 January 2014  2) BBC, \u2018Pollution warning on holiday flights\u2019, 1 May 2000  3) United Nations Environment Programme \u2018Tourism\u2019s Three Main Impact Areas\u2019 data accessed 28 January 2014"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con03b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"The potential for growth within other sectors of Tunisia\u2019s economy is far greater than that of tourism, if invested in properly. The energy sector has been highlighted as a potential avenue for development, as energy efficiency projects would provide employment and a lower cost of production in the industrial sector1. At present, the industrial sector\u2019s low profits are the product of high-energy costs due to energy imports. Sustainable energy production in Tunisia through projects such as solar panels would help increase profit margins.  Research and development in industry and agriculture also has the potential to increase profits and employment. At present there are few private R&D departments in comparison to those in the public sector, but it provides another avenue for greater technical efficiency in other areas which could then create a higher revenue2.  1) World Bank, \u2018Energy Efficiency in Tunisia: Promoting Industry While Protecting the Environment\u2019, 23 May 2013  2) Aoun,A. \u2018The Performance of Tunisian Agriculture: An Economic Appraisal\u2019 pg.7"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con01b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"While the sector does provide employment, there is a regional and gender disparity. The number of women employed by the generally female friendly industry is below the national average. Only 22.5% of those employed in tourism are female, while the national average is 25.6%1, demonstrating a clear under-representation. Regional disparity also exists between coastal and inland regions. Years of coastal-focused economic growth has resulted in an underdeveloped interior region with few jobs in the tourism sector2.  1) K\u00e4rkk\u00e4inen,O. \u2018Women and work in Tunisia\u2019, European Training Foundation, November 2010  2) Joyce,R. \u2018The Regional Inequality Behind Tunisia\u2019s Revolution\u2019, Atlantic Council, 17 December 2013"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con02a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Investment  Tourism should be relied upon for economic growth as it attracts significant foreign investment. Tourism is the largest form of foreign currency income, with around \u00a3728 million being produced by external visitors in 20121. Attracting Europeans, who have relatively large disposable incomes, has been a prominent tactic of the industry with favourable results. It is estimated that Europeans account for 95% of all overnight stays in Tunisia2. The other major sectors of services and agriculture do not inspire foreign investment of this magnitude.  1) Khalifa,A. \u2018Foreign direct investment and tourism receipts pick back up in Tunisia\u2019, Global Arab Network, 7 October 2012  2) Choyakh,H. \u2018Modelling Tourism Demand in Tunisia Using Cointegration and Error Correction Models\u2019 pg.71"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con03a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Other industries are less reliable  Other sectors, such as agriculture and the industrial sectors, have proven to be unreliable as well. Tunisia\u2019s agriculture sector is the largest employer in the country and has received significant investment since the 1980s. Despite this, the sector performed poorly between 1985-2000 and was costly to the Tunisian economy; ensuring low returns and importation of food to meet domestic demand1. The industrial sector also demonstrated itself to be vulnerable in the 2008 economic recession. In addition, the low value of produced goods creates little opportunity for lucrative profits2. The flaws of these sectors make them unviable as alternatives to tourism.  1) Aoun,A. \u2018The Performance of Tunisian Agriculture: An Economic Appraisal\u2019 pg.7  2) Elj,M. \u2018Innovation in Tunisia: Empirical Analysis for Industrial Sector\u2019 2012"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con01a","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"Produces Employment  Tourism is the second largest employer in the country. The industry produces over 400,000 jobs for Tunisians1. This employment figure is vital to Tunisia which has a large number of students in higher-education, around 346,000 in 2010, and a consequentially high expectation of employment2. Tourism also has a positive effect on other linked industries such as transport, creating jobs in these sectors as well. This creation of employment allows more people to sufficiently contribute to society through taxes and the purchasing of goods through their wages. This, in turn, produces economic growth and should therefore be encouraged.  1) Padmore,R. \u2018Tunisia tourism industry looks to rebuild\u2019, BBC, 22nd August 2013  2) Global Edge, \u2018Tunisia: Economy\u2019, data accessed 27 January 2014"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con02b","title":"business economic policy africa house believes tunisia should not rely tourism","text":"The prominence of foreign investment in tourism has decreased since Ben Ali\u2019s fall. Prior to the Jasmine revolution, financial actors who were close to the ruling regime were encouraged to invest and given a privileged position. Once the regime was removed, so were the favourable conditions1. Reliance on Europe for tourists, and the foreign investment that accompanies them, has also proven to be unwise. Since the 2008 economic crisis, many potential European tourists have been out of work, or have reduced disposable incomes at the very least, which has decreased the flow of tourists and financial investment2.  1) Achy,L. \u2018The Tourism Crisis in Tunisia Goes Beyond Security Issues\u2019, Al Monitor, 26 June 2012  2) Padmore,R. \u2018Tunisia tourism industry looks to rebuild\u2019 , BBC, 22nd August 2013"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro02b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"People who move to the cities have chosen to move from their families and dear ones, because they want to create a new and better life for themselves. Armed with great motivation, they enter the cities and are often prepared to undertake work that others do not want to do, hoping to climb the social ladder later on. Interestingly it is often the case that those in slums have a higher rate of employment than those not living in slums. In Uganda for example only 9% of young men are neither in school or employment compared to 16% for those not living in slums. [1] This benefits the development of the city and it is only with this extra workforce that the city can fully develop, thus most big cities have at some point had slums, such as London\u2019s East End in the 19th Century. It might take time, but for the long-term benefits of the cities, rural-urban migration should be promoted. An example of this slow kind of development is the progress that is seen today in Kibera outside of Nairobi where small parts of the shanty-towns are gradually converted into lower middle-class communities.  [1] Mboup, Gora, \u201cMeasurement\/indicators of youth employment\u201d, Expert Group Meeting on Strategies for Creating Urban Youth Employment Solutions for Urban Youth in Africa, June 2004, www.un.org\/esa\/socdev\/social\/presentation\/urban_mboup.ppt"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro02a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Restrictions on migration would benefit people in the cities economically and socially  Cities are very appealing to poor people. Even if their living standards in cities might be unacceptable, they get closer to basic goods, such as fresh water, sanitation etc. However, these things exist because there are productive people in the cities who work and pay taxes. What happens when too many people come at the same time is that public money is stretched too thinly and these basic goods can no longer be provided. This leads to severe humanitarian problems such as malnutrition, thirst, lack of medication, etc.  However, this humanitarian crisis does not only harm those directly affected, it also creates an unattractive environment for business. Thus, people who enter the city cannot find work, as production does not grow in relation to the people who enter. They become excluded from society and often turn to crime, which further erodes the economy. [1]  Limiting migration to reasonable levels give the cities a chance to develop progressively and become the kind of places that people in rural areas currently believe them to be.  [1] Maxwell, Daniel., \u201cThe Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.\u201d 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999, World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939\u00b11953. S0305-750X(99)00101-1."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro03b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The argument is based on the idea that there is a lot of investment that is just waiting to be made in rural areas. In reality, this is not so. Until there are real investors who are prepared to change the conditions of rural areas in developing countries, it is morally bankrupt to force people to remain in an untenable situation as marketing material for hypothetical investment."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro01a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The government has a right to make decisions in the best interest of the people  Man is a social being. Therefore people live in communities where decisions that affect the many, are taken by representatives of the many. Thus, a social contract exists between the people and their government. [1] In exchange for part of their autonomy and freedom, the government ensures that policies are made in the best interest of people, even if this might come at the expense of short-term interests for some individuals. This is a typical example of this kind of case. The trend is emptying the countryside, stopping the production of agricultural goods and hollowing the amenities provided by the cities. Even if each individual has a personal incentive to move to the cities, the harm to the cities is greater than their accumulated individual gains. It is in these cases that the state must act to protect its people and ensure long term benefits.  [1] D'Agostino, Fred, Gaus, Gerald and Thrasher, John, \"Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro01b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The government has a right to make some decisions on behalf of the people, but not any decision. Once the state acts against one group of people to further the interest of an already privileged group of people it loses this right as the state exists to protect everyone in society not just the majority or a privileged group. This is precisely the case in this motion. People who live in rural areas are already disenfranchised and condemned to terrible conditions, and the proposal only serves those who want their comfortable bourgeois life to be even more comfortable."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro04b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The principle at the heart of this debate is that of the rights of the individual. While it might be true that a large group of people make uninformed decisions, a ban on any decisions in relation to where people live will keep the individuals from making any decisions, informed and uninformed. The damage to those who actually could improve their lives greatly outweighs the benefits, especially as the resources that would be needed for this policy could be used to educate and inform people in rural areas and thus improve the basis of their decisions."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro03a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Restrictions would benefit rural areas  Unlimited rural-urban migration erodes the economy of the cities, as shown in the previous argument, and limits their economic growth and available resources. On a national level, this causes decision makers to prioritise the cities, as the country relies more on urban than rural areas, thus preventing them from investing in the country-side. [1] China is a good example of this where urban privilege has become entrenched with \u2018special economic zones\u2019 being created in urban areas (though sometimes built from scratch in rural areas) with money being poured into infrastructure for the urban areas which as a result have rapidly modernised leaving rural areas behind. This leads to a whole culture of divisions where urbanites consider those from rural areas to be backward and less civilized. [2]  Moreover, there will be little other reason to invest in rural areas, as the workforce in those areas has left for the cities. By preserving resources in the cities and keeping the workforce in the rural areas, it becomes possible to invest in rural communities and change their lives for the better as these areas maintain the balanced workforce necessary to attract investors.  [1] Maxwell, Daniel., \u201cThe Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.\u201d 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999, World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939\u00b11953. S0305-750X(99)00101-1.  [2] Whyte, Martin King, \u201cSocial Change and the Urban-Rural Divide in China\u201d, China in the 21st Century, June 2007,  p.54"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-pro04a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Poor, uneducated people are lured into cities  The cause of rural-urban migration in developing nations and the main reason why it becomes problematic is that people who move to the cities are not making informed decisions. They are led to believe that the cities contain opportunities that they cannot find where they live, and there are no mechanisms such as efficient media or adequate education to eradicate this misconception. [1] Myths can be easily propagated by a single successful migrant returning home to visit that then attracts many others to try their luck without any knowledge of the possible costs. [2] This is exacerbated by unscrupulous organisations that prey on their desperation to take all their money to organise their move to the city. Some of those who are trafficked find themselves brought to the city and exploited through forced labour, begging, or even prostitution. [3] Many of those who move to cities find themselves in a worse situation but have lost any moving power they originally had and are thus trapped.  [1] Zhan, Shaohua. \u201cWhat Determines Migrant Workers' Life Chances in Contemporary China? Hukou, Social Exclusion, and the Market.\u201d 243, 2011, Vol. 37.  [2] Waibel, Hermann, and Schmidt, Erich, \u201cUrban-rural relations\u201d, in Feeding Asian Cities: Food Production and Processing Issues, FAO, November 2000,   [3] \u201cUNIAP Vietnam\u201d, United Nations Inter Agency Project on Human Trafficking, accessed March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con03b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"This kind of argument underestimates the capacity of human potential. People in rural communities devote all their efforts and their creativity towards getting to the cities because they believe it is the best for them and their families. If they do not have this option, they can devote that energy to their community and make it grow to compete with the cities. It is then the duty of the government that imposes this restriction to support such commitments by giving them the right conditions to improve their situation by investing in rural areas as much as urban ones."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con01b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Freedom of movement is not an intrinsic human right, but rather a right that can and should be given by the state where it is possible. For example the state puts people into prisons; this infringes their freedom of movement. This is partially as punishment, but the core rationale for this is to protect the people outside of the prison from potentially dangerous people. [1] But for that, there would be significantly cheaper and more efficient ways of punishing criminals. The people whose freedom of movement is restricted are a threat to people living in the cities and to the economy of the nation as a whole. In the better interest of the nation and to protect innocent people whose lives will be damaged by unrestricted migration, these people must accept restricted freedom of movement.  [1] See the debatabase debate \u2018 This House believes criminal justice should focus more on rehabilitation \u2019"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con02a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"It is practically impossible to control people's movement  One of the major problems with the proposal lies in the very fact that we are indeed dealing with developing nations. These nations have very limited capacity to manage this kind of system. What will happen instead, will be a state of confusion, where the law will be upheld in some parts while ignored in others. The case in China clearly shows that corruption follows in the wake of this kind of legislation, where urban Hukous are sold illegally or officials are frequently bribed to ignore the law. [1]  Furthermore, it only causes those who choose to move to the cities, in spite of the law, to be alienated from society and live a life outside of the law. Once outside of the law, the step to other crimes is very small as these people have little to lose. [2] In short, the law will only work in some cases and where it works it will lead to increased segregation and more crime.  [1] Wang, Fei-Ling. \u201cOrganising through Division and Exclusion: China's Hukou System\". 2005.  [2] Wu. s.l., and Treiman, The Household Registration System and Social Stratification in China: 1955-1996. Springer, 2004, Demography, Vol. 2."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con04a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Restrictions cause an incredible loss of potential  One of the best things about a functioning developed nation is that young people can choose their profession. Apart from this being beneficial for the individual, this means that the best suited person for a given trade will often be the same that pursues it. If we prevent people from moving freely we deprive the cities of talented people whose talents and skills are much better suited for urban professions than for rural jobs. In short, this policy would make farmers out of the potential lawyers, politicians, doctors, teachers etc. Indeed this is the whole basis of most models of migration, people leave rural areas because there is surplus labour in that area while the cities needs new workers. [1]  [1] Taylor, J. Edward, and Martin, Philip L., \u201cHuman Capital: Migration and Rural Population Change\u201d, Handbook of Agricultural Economics,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con03a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Rural life is miserable and has higher mortality rates than cities  This planet does not find worse living standards anywhere than in the rural areas of developing countries. These are the areas where famine, child mortality and diseases (such as AIDS) plague the people. [1] China\u2019s Hukou system has condemned millions of people to premature death by locking them in areas that never will develop. [2] While the cities enjoy the benefits of 12% growth, the villages are as poor and deprived as ever. [3] It is a poorly concealed policy aimed at maintaining a gaping social cleavage and allowing the rich to remain rich.  [1] Maxwell, Daniel., \u201cThe Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.\u201d 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999, World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939\u00b11953. S0305-750X(99)00101-1.  [2] Dik\u00f6tter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine. London : Walker & Company, 2010. 0802777686.  [3] Wang, Fei-Ling. \u201cOrganising through Division and Exclusion: China's Hukou System\". 2005."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con01a","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Freedom of movement is an intrinsic human right  Every human being is born with certain rights. These are protected by various charters and are considered inseparable from the human being. The reason for this is a belief that these rights create the fundamental and necessary conditions to lead a human life. Freedom of movement is one of these and has been recognised as such in Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [1] If a family finds themselves faced with starvation, the only chance they have of survival might be to move to another place where they might live another day. It is inhuman to condemn individuals to death and suffering for the benefit of some nebulous collective theory. While we might pass some of our freedoms to the state, we have a moral right to the freedoms that help us stay alive \u2013 in this context freedom of movement is one of those.  [1] General Assembly, \u201cThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights\u201d, 10 December 1948,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con04b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"While factually true for developed nations, this point completely disregards the reality of developing nations. Most of the labour that is available is unskilled, whether it is in the rural or urban communities. There is little reason to believe that the poor will automatically be able to gain better education should they move to the city. The harm caused by letting migrants flood the cities to lead a miserable life greatly outweighs that of having one or two too intelligent farmers who miss out on their calling."}
+{"id":"test-economy-epsihbdns-con02b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"No amount of confusion can compare with the nearly anarchical state of places like Nairobi, where there is no law and very little state. [1] In the current situation where there is a menacing trend that threatens the very fabric of society, even if the law would not work to its full effect, it is better for it to work partially than not to have it at all. Corruption is a separate issue that already festers in these regions under the status quo and does not need this extra policy to thrive. This must be dealt with separately, but it is indeed regrettable if a good policy is kept from being put into practice from fear of a phenomenon that is in no manner causally contingent upon the policy.  [1] Maxwell, Daniel., \u201cThe Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.\u201d 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999, World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939\u00b11953. S0305-750X(99)00101-1."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-pro02b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"In addition to the moral concerns, it is not proven that dictatorships are sustainable in the long term. There will always be groups seeking a democratic government, which could lead to revolution.  There is a particular issue with handovers of power in dictatorships, especially those with personality cults \u2013 for example the transition to democracy after the death of Francisco Franco in 1975, or the collapse and disintegration of Yugoslavia in to ethnic conflict following the death of Tito. Many authoritarian regimes require a lot of upkeep in terms of propaganda which counterbalances the cost of elections [1] .  An election may be costly but it is also a good indicator of the performance of a government, providing a mechanism of monitoring the performance of the \u201csocial contract\u201d. Democratic governments are accountable to their people at the ballot box, which gives those in power an incentive to perform well. If the government is not performing well they will be thrown out. In an authoritarian country if the government performs badly the people have no way to remove them and so change policies to ones that work.  Dictatorships have a different problem with political stability and that is on a smaller scale; it is difficult to know if an investment is safe because the government is arbitrary not bound by the rule of law. The results of this may not be the sweeping changes in economic policy found in democracies but can be more significant locally such as demands for high payments to operate, confiscation, or preferential treatment for competitors.  [1] Marquand, Robert, \u2018N. Korea escalates \u2018cult of Kim\u2019 to counter West\u2019s influence\u2019, The Christian Science Monitor, 3 January 2007"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-pro02a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Dictatorships assure low cost political stability  Due to the lack of rotation in office, a dictatorship allows for a more stable government with more ability to plan for the long term, which is crucial for attracting foreign investment.  Given that a democracy requires regular elections, each election can change the economic environment of a country. A change in government may lead to a switch in policies, partisan appointments to government bodies, and a medium term focus always set on the next election.  Close elections can lead to disorder as votes are recounted and appeals lodged in the courts. After the 2006 Mexican presidential election, tight results lead to popular unrest and mass protests calling for a recount. The president elect had to deal with a large legislative faction that did not recognise him, and his opponent refused to concede defeat. [1] Without a stable framework, the lack of foreign confidence may impede development. The countries that have developed rapidly have tended to be those that have managed to attract this foreign direct investment thus in 2012 China managed to get $243 billion of FDI (18% of the total) against only $175 billion for the United States which is still a much bigger economy. [2]  Additionally the resources needed to operate a democratic society and run elections are a large expense for the state and society as a whole; the US presidential election costs $6bn, [3] money which would be much better spent investing in building infrastructure or businesses.  [1] See for example the case of Mexico\u2019s 2006 elections. \u2018Mass protest over Mexico election\u2019, BBC News, 9 July 2006,  \u2018Fracas mars Mexico inauguration\u2019, BBC News, 2 December 2006,   [2] OECD, \u2018FDI in Figures\u2019, April 2013,   [3] Hebblethwaite, Cordelia, \u2018US election: How can it cost $6bn?\u2019, BBC News, 2 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-pro03b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Dictatorships generally focus only on supporting one element of society, which means that there are often opposition groups from other demographics ready to oppose them. When the repression fails, the state will no longer be stable. Even if a dictatorship can create economic growth, it will not necessarily permeate through all elements of society, making them more likely to object to the government.  If a dictatorship manages to create an inclusive economy, demands for an inclusive political system will follow. While a dictatorship may work in the short term, political change will then result from this very success as shown by the countries like South Korea and Taiwan that grew rapidly as autocracies before having democratic revolutions.  According to Adam Smith, \u201c\u201c[c]ommerce and manufactures can seldom \ufb02ourish long in any state which does not enjoy a regular administration of justice, in which the people do not feel themselves secure in the possession of their property, in which the faith of contracts is not supported by law, and in which the authority of the state is not supposed to be regularly employed in enforcing the payment of debts from all those who are able to pay. Commerce and manufactures, in short, can seldom \ufb02ourish in any state in which there is not a certain degree of con\ufb01dence in the justice of government\u201d [1] .  [1] Smith, A. (2009). An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. Digireads.com. [1776]. p. 546"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-pro01a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Dictatorships are more effective than democracies at mobilizing resources for investment.  Dictatorships are superior to democracies in that they can make decisions and implement policies quicker. They can easily modify institutional and legal frameworks towards development goals, as there is no need for a political consensus behind their actions. This also insulates government from special interests that must be reconciled with in democracies. This allows dictatorships to create a pro-investment legal, economic and institutional framework such as low taxes, exchange rate manipulations and import tariffs, without facing political opposition.  For example, fracking, a technique used to extract hard to obtain gas, has generated widespread opposition in the West, leading to it being banned in France [1] . An autocratic government would find it easier to allow cheap access to this energy, boosting industry, as it could disregard this opposition.  Dictatorships can also control resources to allow for better health and education services, by determining curricula, salaries and supplies. Cuba has one of the best healthcare systems in the world, with more doctors per capita than much of the Western world [2] , and in 2009 Shanghai came first in the PISA test [3] .  [1] Castelvecchi, Davide, \u2018France becomes first country to ban extraction of natural gas by fracking\u2019, Scientific American, 30 June 2011,   [2] The Economist, \u2018Reshoring manufacturing: Coming Home\u2019, 19 January 2013,   [3] Brouwer, Steve, \u2018The Cuban Revolutionary Doctor: The Ultimate Weapon of Solidarity\u2019, Monthly Review, Vol.60 No.8, January 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-pro01b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"This makes the assumption that dictators are rational, wise and seek to encourage development, rather than operate as kleptocrats. This is why dictatorship usually does not benefit development; the very concentration of power means when they make poor decisions the effect on the country is much greater. There is a similar result with corruption, a lack of checks and balances mean that decisions can be taken and implemented quickly but this same lack also means there is little to prevent corruption.  Corruption is often rife in non-democratic societies. For example, in Cuba the healthcare system is largely reliant on bribery and is often under-resourced. One US diplomatic cable points out \u201c[i]n one Cuban hospital, patients had to bring their own light bulbs. In another, the staff used \"a primitive manual vacuum\" on a woman who had miscarried. In others, Cuban patients pay bribes to obtain better treatment.\u201d [1]  [1] \u2018Wikileaks cables highlight Cuba\u2019s health care issues\u2019, McClatchyDC, 29 December 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-pro03a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Dictatorships can prevent social unrest  Dictatorships are better at controlling discipline and order within society. They generally promote a state based on hierarchical values, through strict policies based on security. This allows them to prevent financial losses due to strikes and riots, and reduce crime rates, making the country more stable.  Singapore is a de-facto one party state, in which the ruling People\u2019s Action Party, is accused of stopping the operation of opposition parties. A former Foreign Minister of Singapore has asked \u201cHow many Singaporeans really want free speech anyway? They want orderliness, a decent living\u201d [1] . This both makes the country more competitive because there are more productive days and more attractive to invest in as expats will want to live in countries with little crime. Moreover when it comes to attracting immigration for sectors of the economy there is none of the opposition that would occur in democracies.  Autocracy may be the only way to stabilize some countries that have never had a democratic government. It has been suggested by Mancur Olson, a leading economist, that \u201canarchy not only involves loss of life but also increases the incentives to steal and to defend against theft, and thereby reduces the incentive to produce [2] \u201d. A dictatorship may be the only way to restore order and create a political framework stable enough for trade and investment.  [1] Huff, W.G. (1994). The economic growth of Singapore: trade and development in twentieth century\u201d. Cambridge; New York; Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 358  [2] Olson, M. (2000). Power and Prosperity: Outgrowing Communist and Capitalist Dictatorships. New York: Basic Books. p. 64"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con03b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Those cases show that the dictatorship helped the economy. Even if it did not trigger the growth, it laid the ground work for it. In Spain\u2019s case it was a dictator who was able to change to the necessary free market policies while in South Korea it was the previous autocrats that launched the country\u2019s miracle. While economic policy is more important than political freedoms, dictatorships are better at implementing such a framework of policies."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con01b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Those cases show that the dictatorship helped the economy. Even if it did not trigger the growth, it laid the ground work for it. In Spain\u2019s case it was a dictator who was able to change to the necessary free market policies while in South Korea it was the previous autocrats that launched the country\u2019s miracle. While economic policy is more important than political freedoms, dictatorships are better at implementing such a framework of policies."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con02a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Development is about more than economic growth  Amartya Sen has argued that \u201cthe removal of substantial unfreedoms [\u2026] is constitutive of development [in so far as give people] the opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency [1] \u201d. In a broader sense, democracy is necessary for a developed society because a precondition of a developed society is for that society to be able to decide for itself what its objectives are. It is society as a whole that needs to define what it considers to be development. The Myanmar under the junta may have considered its goals to be a strong military showing that Burma was developed. But without the citizenry agreeing this would not make Burma a strong state. Quite the opposite the lack of freedoms would show the country is not actually developed. Development means more than economic growth, it has to include other indicators as in the Human Development Index, but also things that are not even captured by that measurement such as freedom of speech.  Economic growth and GDP are even worse at demonstrating which countries are developed. Development only occurs when the wealth, and the choices it brings, reaches the people which is why Equatorial Guinea is not a developed nation despite its high income. Even in the economic realm therefore it is not just the absolute growth that matters but how it is distributed. Przeworski and Limongi show that from 1951-1990 dictatorships had higher growth rates than democracies (4.42% against 3.95%) yet the growth rate in GDP per capita was higher in democracies (2.46% against 2%). [2]  [1] Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxfor University Press. p. xii  [2] Przeworski, Adam and Fernando Limongi, 1997a; in M. ANTI\u0106: \u201cDemocracy versus Dictatorship: The Influence of Political Regime on GDP Per Capita Growth\u201d. EKONOMSKI PREGLED, 55 (9-10) pp. 773-803 (2004)"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con04a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Democratic rule of law is the best ground for political stability and growth  In order for a society to develop economically, it needs a stable political framework and dictatorships are often less stable. A dictator will have to prioritize the retention of power. As repression is inevitable, a dictator will not necessarily be entirely popular. There will regularly be a doubt about the future and sustainability of a dictatorship. Bearing in mind the messy collapses of some dictatorships, a democracy may be a more stable form of government over the long term [1] .  Only democracies can create a stable legal framework. The rule of law ensures all of society has access to justice and the government acts within the law. Free and fair elections act as a bulwark against social unrest and violence. Economic freedoms and human rights protection also have positive effects on economies. Private property rights, for example, encourage productivity and innovation so that one has control of the fruits of their labour.  It has been argued by Acemolgu and Robinson in their book Why Nations Fail? The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty that inclusive political institutions and pluralistic systems that protect individual rights are necessary preconditions for economic development [2] . If these political institutions exist then the economic institutions necessary for growth will be created, as a result economic growth will be more likely.  [1] See for example the work of Huntington, S, P., (1991), The third wave: democratization in the late twentieth century, University of Oklahoma Press,   [2] Acemolgu, D., and Robinson, J. (2012). Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. London: Profile Books."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con03a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Political regime has a limited impact on development  It can be argued that a good economic policy, such as China\u2019s economic policies, have helped development. But a free market policy can be done with any form of government, and cannot be exclusively attached to a dictatorship or a democracy. Any political system can use it. Although it has been noted that South Korea was an autocracy during economic \u2018takeoff\u2019 its economy has also grown significantly since democratization with GNI per capita growing from $3,320 in 1987 to $22,670 in 2012. [1]  Another example is that Spanish economic growth in the 1950-2000 period. The 1960s economic miracle in Spain was not necessarily caused by Franco\u2019s regime \u2013 he controlled the country in the 1950s, when the country did not have such economic success. In 1959, Franco opened up the Spanish economy internationally, ending the isolationist economic policies established following the Civil War so making the country free market bringing dividends. As a result Spain also grew economically after the collapse of the Franco government, continuing on following on from EU membership.  [1] The World Bank, \u2018GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$)\u2019, data.worldbank.org,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con01a","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Democracy acts in the interest of the general population, which is good for development  It can be argued that a good economic policy, such as China\u2019s economic policies, have helped development. But a free market policy can be done with any form of government, and cannot be exclusively attached to a dictatorship or a democracy. Any political system can use it. Although it has been noted that South Korea was an autocracy during economic \u2018takeoff\u2019 its economy has also grown significantly since democratization with GNI per capita growing from $3,320 in 1987 to $22,670 in 2012. [1]  Another example is that Spanish economic growth in the 1950-2000 period. The 1960s economic miracle in Spain was not necessarily caused by Franco\u2019s regime \u2013 he controlled the country in the 1950s, when the country did not have such economic success. In 1959, Franco opened up the Spanish economy internationally, ending the isolationist economic policies established following the Civil War so making the country free market bringing dividends. As a result Spain also grew economically after the collapse of the Franco government, continuing on following on from EU membership.  [1] The World Bank, \u2018GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$)\u2019, data.worldbank.org,"}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con04b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Economic development is not exclusively bound up with regimes or institutions. Natural factors such as rivers for transport, potential land use and natural resources are key to explaining why some countries are more prosperous than others. Many countries with higher economic growth are authoritarian or unstable democracies [1] . These may have the necessary economic conditions for growth even without these inclusive political institutions.  [1] GDP growth on an annual basis adjusted for inflation and expressed as a percent, CIA World Facbook, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-economy-bepighbdb-con02b","title":"business economic policy international global house believes dictatorship best","text":"Certain economic standards have to be met to genuinely satisfy individual autonomy and freedom. If economic growth is a necessity for democracy, dictatorships are better at gaining the required growth. If dictatorships grow faster while not redistributing wealth then at least there will be more wealth to redistribute when the state does eventually start to do so. It might therefore be considered once again that it is the autocratic state that sets the conditions for democracies to take over and increase development in the non-economic areas."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro02b","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Self-determination is not an absolute right. Not every territory and region in the world that seeks independence has the right to it. This is due in no small part to the fact that such a system would be unworkable. Certain criteria must be met for a territory and people to obtain a legitimate right to self-determination, including not compromising the fundamental security or territorial integrity of the original state, which a Palestinian state created through Israel withdrawing to its 1967 borders arguably, would do. Moreover, it is possible for Israel to withdraw from most of the West Bank, as it has offered to do in the past, while keeping some strategically essential land. This would allow for Palestinian self-determination whilst falling short of falling back totally to the 1967 borders."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro02a","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Failure to withdraw blocks legitimate Palestinian aspirations to statehood.  The Palestinian people since 1967 have demonstrated through resistance to Israeli occupation their desire for an independent state of their own. [1] Throughout the years polls have consistently showed respectable Palestinian majorities in favour of a negotiated two-state settlement, which would offer them an independent state as well as allowing Israel to continue to exist as an independent state alongside the new Palestinian nation. [2] Israel's refusal to withdraw to the 1967 borders means that the majority of Palestinian people are compelled to live under the control of a state they do not wish to be a part of, a violation of their right to self-determination under international law. The 1993 Vienna Declaration, which reaffirmed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Charter (and so sets the standard in current international law), unequivocally gives all peoples the right to self-determination: \u201cAll people have the right to self-determination. Owing to this right they freely establish their political status and freely provide their economic, social and cultural development...World Conference on Human Rights considers refusal of the right to self-determination as a violation of human rights and emphasizes the necessity of effective realization of this right\u201d. [3] Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva said in 2006 that the pre-1967 borders uphold the \u201clegitimate aspiration of the Palestinian people for a secure, united, democratic and economically viable state coexisting peacefully with Israel.\u201d [4] By this measure, the Palestinian majority in the occupied territories have the right to self-determination (by democratic processes), and Israel's suppression of that right through its refusal to withdraw to the 1967 borders should be seen as a human rights violation. Consequently, Israel should withdraw to its 1967 borders in order to end its violation of the rights of the Palestinian people.  [1] BBC News. \u201cIsraeli settlements condemned by Western powers\u201d. BBC News. 2 November 2011.   [2] Kennedy, Hugh. \u201cThe Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In\u201d. Da Capo Press. 2007.  [3] United Nations World Conference on Human Rights. \u201cVIENNA DECLARATION AND PROGRAMME OF ACTION\u201d. United Nations. 14-25 June 1993.   [4] Agence France-Presse, NDTV. \u201cBrazil recognises Palestinian state on 1967 borders\u201d. NDTV. 5 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro03b","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Simply withdrawing to its 1967 borders would not end the Israel-Palestinian conflict. Violence between Israelis and Palestinians long pre-dates the 1967 war. The 1967 war itself was caused by the fact that even an Israel within its 1967 borders was hated by neighbouring states for existing. [1] Palestinian support for two-state solution, even one where Israel withdrew to its 1967 borders declined around 2008, and is waning even among the 'moderate' Palestinian camp, as well as among additional Arab elements. [2] Regarding Hamas, the reason it speaks only of \u201clong term truces\u201d with Israel and not peace is because it only wishes to make a deal allowing it to grow strong enough to eventually destroy the Israeli state, not to make permanent peace. [3] It is also na\u00efve to think that an Israeli state existing within its 1967 borders would gain the favour or even support of Iran. Iran wants to be the dominant power in the Middle East, and any form of Israeli state is a threat to this. Iran has a history of supporting violent Islamist terrorist groups dedicated to Israel's destruction, such as Hamas and Hezbollah. [4] The political futures of Syria and Egypt are also uncertain, due to the unrest of the 2011 'Arab Spring', and it is not beyond the realm of possibility that both could come under the sway of Islamist groups seek Israel's total destruction.  [1] BBC News. \u201c1967: Israel launches attack on Egypt\u201d. BBC News On This Day. 5 June 1967.   [2] The Reut Institute. \u201cThe Trend of Palestinian and Arab Inversion towards the Two State Solution\u201d. The Reut Institute.1 May 2008.   [3] El-Khodary, Taghreed and Bronner, Ethan. \u201cHamas Fights Over Gaza\u2019s Islamist Identity\u201d. New York Times. 5 September 2009.   [4] Los Angeles Times. \"Two States? Many Problems\". Los Angeles Times, Letter to the Editor. 7 May 2009"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro01a","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Israel has no right to the occupied territories.  Because Israel won the land during war, it is considered occupied territory under international law, and it is illegal for Israel to annex it. [1] In July 2004, the International Court of Justice delivered an Advisory Opinion observing that under customary international law as reflected in Article 42 of the Regulations annexed to the Hague IV Convention, territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army, and the occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. Israel raised a number of exceptions and objections, but the Court found them unpersuasive. The Court ruled that territories had been occupied by the Israeli armed forces in 1967, during the conflict between Israel and Jordan, and that subsequent events in those territories, had done nothing to alter the situation. [2] Even the Israeli Supreme court has ruled that \u201cJudea and Samaria [a.k.a. The West Bank] areas are held by the State of Israel in belligerent occupation.\u201d [3] Therefore, Israel has no better claim to these lands than that it won them in a war, which is an illegitimate claim under international law, and also illegitimate as a thinly-disguised, morally abhorrent \u201cmight makes right\u201d argument. The fact that Arab states initiated the 1967 war does not justify Israel responding by annexing Palestinian territory. [4] A just settlement would have been a return to the previous borders in exchange for security guarantees, etc. Instead, Israel unjustly used the opportunity to take land from an innocent people. One bad act does not justify another bad act in return. Moreover, it is notable that the nations which Israel took Gaza and the West Bank from in 1967 (Egypt and Jordan, respectively) were not representative nations of the areas' majority inhabitants, the Palestinian people. [5] It is thus illegitimate for Israel to claim ownership of Palestinian land because it defeated non-Palestinian nations in a war, and Israel should therefore return to its pre-1967 borders, leaving Gaza and the West Bank to the Palestinian people.  [1] BBC News. \u201cIsraeli settlements condemned by Western powers\u201d. BBC News. 2 November 2011.   [2] International Court of Justice. \u201cLegal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory\u201d. International Court of Justice, United Nations Organisation. July 2004.   [3] The Supreme Court of Israel. \u201cMara'abe vs The Prime Minister of Israel\u201d. The Supreme Court of Israel. June 2005.   [4] BBC News. \u201c1967: Israel launches attack on Egypt\u201d. BBC News On This Day. 5 June 1967.   [5] BBC News. \u201cIsraeli settlements condemned by Western powers\u201d. BBC News. 2 November 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro01b","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Israel won the 1967 war, even though this tiny nation was up against numerous Arab nations that aggressively initiated the conflict. [1] It had and has a right, therefore, to govern territory it rightfully fought and died for. All land held by any nation was gained through conflict at one time or another; the Palestinian people came to be in possession of their land in the West Bank through the Arab Conquests of the 7th Century. [2] Why are Israel's conquests any less legitimate, especially seeing as Israel took this land in self-defence and has kept only the land it needs for its continuing security? Moreover, hundreds of thousands of Israeli citizens now live in settlements beyond the 1967 borders, and Israel has both the right and responsibility to protect their lives and homes by continuing to hold this territory.  [1] BBC News. \u201c1967: Israel launches attack on Egypt\u201d. BBC News On This Day. 5 June 1967.   [2] Kennedy, Hugh. \u201cThe Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In\u201d. Da Capo Press. 2007"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro03a","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Returning to the 1967 borders would bring peace to Israel.  If Israel were to withdraw to its 1967 borders, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) would recognise Israel as legitimate within its remaining territories and end the conflict. In October 2010 Senior Palestine Liberation Organization official Yasser Abed Rabbo said that the Palestinians will be willing to recognize the State of Israel in any way that it desires, if the Americans would only present a map of the future Palestinian state that includes all of the territories captured in 1967, including East Jerusalem. \u201cWe want to receive a map of the State of Israel which Israel wants us to accept. If the map will be based on the 1967 borders and will not include our land, our houses and East Jerusalem, we will be willing to recognize Israel according to the formulation of the government within the hour... Any formulation [presented to us] \u2013 even asking us to call Israel the 'Chinese State' \u2013 we will agree to it, as long as we receive the 1967 borders \u201d added Rabbo. [1] Even Ismail Haniyeh, leader of the more extreme Hamas organisation, has said Hamas will accept a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders and will offer Israel a \u201clong term truce\u201d if it withdraws accordingly. [2] Significant international support for Israel withdrawing to the 1967 borders also exists, even from states with a history of hostility with Israel such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, who have made such a withdrawal a precondition of peace and recognition talks with Israel. [3] [4] Even then-Israeli Prime Miniser Ehud Olmert acknowledged in 2008 that \u201calmost all\u201d of the territory seized during the Six-Day War in 1967 will have to be given back to the Palestinians return for peace. [5] Therefore Israel should withdraw to its 1967 borders as this would bring peace and security to Israel by ending the conflict with the Palestinians and neighbouring states.  [1] Haaretz. \u201cPLO chief: We will recognize Israel in return for 1967 borders\u201d. Haaretz.com. 13 October 2010.   [2] Amira Hass News Agencies, Haaretz. \u201cwilling to accept a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders\u201d. Haaretz.com. 9 November 2008.   [3] Al-Quds. \u201cAhmadinezhad and the Implications of the Two-State Solution\u201d. Pro-Fatah Palestinian newspaper Al-Quds. 29 April 2009  [4] UPI.com. \u201cSaudi to Israel: Return to 1967 borders\u201d. UPI.com. 5 November 2010.   [5] MacIntyre, Donald. \u201cIsrael will have to reinstate pre-1967 border for peace deal, Olmert admits\u201d. The Independent. 30 Septemebr 2008."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con03b","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Israel has forcibly removed settlements when transferring back occupied land in the past, most notably in 1982 in the Sinai and 2005 in Gaza. While difficult, it is possible, and any ensuing difficulties are the fault of the Israeli government for allowing these settlements in the first place, and as such the cost (of not having their own state) should not be borne by the Palestinian people."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con01b","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Israel won the 1967 war, demonstrating that despite a major coordinated Arab attack on Israel, it could defend its pre-1967 borders adequately. [1] This puts the lie to the central argument that the pre-1967 borders are indefensible. They defended them before under extremely hostile conditions; they can defend them again now under less conventionally threatening conditions, with a greater conventional military capacity to wage a defence, and with the unwavering support of the United States.  [1] Johnson, Paul. \u201cA History of the Jews\u201d. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1987."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con02a","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Returning to the 1967 borders would make war more likely.  The Foreign Minister of Israel, Avigdor Lieberman, said in 2009: \u201cA return to the pre-1967 lines, with a Palestinian state in Judea and Samaria, would bring the conflict into Israel's borders. Establishing a Palestinian state will not bring an end to the conflict.\u201d [1] This is why the American ambassador to the UN at the time of the 1967 war pointed out that \u201cIsrael's prior frontiers had proved to be notably insecure\u201d, and American President Lyndon Johnson, shortly after the war, declared that Israel's return to its former lines would be \u201cnot a prescription for peace but for renewed hostilities.\u201d Johnson advocated new 'recognized boundaries' that would provide \"security against terror, destruction, and war.\u201d [2] An Israel that withdrew completely to the 1967 borders would offer a very tempting target, since it would be a narrow country with no strategic depth whose main population centres and strategic infrastructure would be within tactical range of forces deployed along the commanding heights of the West Bank. This would hurt Israel's ability to deter future attacks and thus make conflict in the region even more likely. This ability of Israel to deter aggressors is particularly important not only due to the region's history of aggression against Israel, but also due to the unpredictable future events in the highly volatile Middle East. There is no way, for example, to guarantee that Iraq will not evolve into a radical Shi'ite state that is dependent on Iran and hostile to Israel (indeed, King Abdullah of Jordan has warned of a hostile Shi'ite axis that could include Iran, Iraq, and Syria), nor that a Jordan's Palestinian majority might seize power in the state (leaving Israel to defend itself against a Palestinian state that stretches from Iraq to Kalkilya), nor that in the future, militant Islamic elements will not succeed in gaining control of the Egyptian regime. [3]  Given its narrow geographical dimensions, a future attack launched from the pre-1967 borders against Israel's nine-mile-wide waist could easily split the country in two. Especially seeing as Islamic militants throughout the Middle East are unlikely to be reconciled to Israel even by a withdrawal to the 1967 borders, such a withdrawal therefore would actually make peace in the region less likely and encourage war against Israel. [4]  [1] Lazaroff, Tovah. \u201cLieberman warns against '67 borders\u201d. Jerusalem Post. 27 November 2009.   [2] Levin, Kenneth. \u201cPeace Now: A 30-Year Fraud\u201d. FrontPageMag.com. 5 September 2008.   [3] Amidror, Maj.-Gen. (res.) Yaakov. \u201cIsrael's Requirement for Defensible Borders\u201d. Defensible Borders for a Lasting Peace. 2005.   [4] El-Khodary, Taghreed and Bronner, Ethan. \u201cHamas Fights Over Gaza\u2019s Islamist Identity\u201d. New York Times. 5 September 2009."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con03a","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Many Israelis now live in the occupied territories.  Israel has more than just national security at stake in the occupied territory of the West Bank -hundreds of thousands of Israeli citizens now live there, many in areas which are not strategically essential (the areas described above). Between the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights (all outside of Israel's 1967 borders), over 400,000 Israelis live in settlements in the occupied territories. [1] These ever-expanding settlements represent a barrier to Israeli withdrawing to its 1967 borders. In 1993, when Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat famously shook hands on the White House lawn, there were only 109,000 Israelis living in settlements across the West Bank (not including Jerusalem). Today there are more than 230 settlements and strategically placed 'outposts' designed to cement a permanent Jewish presence on Palestinian land. [2] Forcibly removing these settlers would be too difficult, could foment a kind of Jewish civil war, and would create a level of resentment among fundamentalist Jews that would likely inflame the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Furthermore it should be remembered that these settlers are Israeli citizens, with families, who moved to these areas because the Israeli government told them it was safe and that they would be allowed to stay, and thus Israel has a moral duty to live up to these promises by not withdrawing. Israel cannot afford this sort of internal turmoil, and should not neglect its duty to protect the rights of these citizens, and so it should not withdraw to its 1967 borders.  [1] Levinson, Chaim. \u201cIDF: More than 300,000 settlers live in West Bank\u201d. Haaretz.com. 27 July 2009.   [2] Tolan, Sandy. \u201cGeorge Mitchell and the end of the two-state solution\u201d. The Christian Science Monitor. 4 February 2009."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con01a","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"Israel has the right to claim minimal territory to ensure security  Israel has been the victim of multiple major illegal wars of aggression on the part of the Arab world, most notably in 1948 and 1967. These wars invalidate any special claim made by Arabs and Palestinians to pre-1967 territory, and justify Israel in keeping as much territory as is necessary to secure itself against these hostile states. Israel could have gone much further and taken more territory than it did in 1967 (as it was easily winning the war), but instead it restricted itself to only taking the territory that was necessary for it to create security buffer. [1] When peace deals have allowed Israel to improve its security through giving up land historically, it has done so, for example when it returned the Sinai peninsula to Egypt in 1982 in exchange for a peace treaty with Egypt, or when Israel returned the small swath of Jordanian territory it held when King Hussain of Jordan wanted to make peace. To date, Israel has withdrawn from approximately 93 percent of the territories it captured. In return for peace with Syria and an end to Palestinian terror, it is prepared to withdraw from most of the remaining 7% in dispute, although not all. Israel remains committed to trading land for peace, and never annexed the West Bank or Gaza Strip because it expected to return part of these territories in negotiations. When the Palestinians finally declared that they would recognize Israel and renounce terrorism, Israel agreed to begin to withdraw. Since 1993, Israel has turned over approximately 80% of the Gaza Strip and more than 40% of the West Bank to the Palestinian Authority. Thus, Israel's objection is not so much against returning any of the land captured in 1967, but against returning absolutely all of it and going back completely to the 1967 borders, as this would mean giving up territories vital for Israel's security. The minimal slivers of territory that Israel it seeks to maintain through a peace settlement (after returning 90% of the pre-1967 territory), is very important to its national security as it offers a buffer against future Arab wars of aggression. This why Ehud Olmert stressed that only most of the occupied territory could be returned. He still argued that some had to be kept for security reasons: \u201cWe can never totally return to the indefensible pre-1967 borders, ... We simply cannot afford to make Israel [9 miles] wide again at its center. We can't allow the Palestinians to be a couple [miles] from [Tel Aviv's] Ben Gurion Airport in the age of shoulder-fire missiles with the capacity to shoot down jumbo jets.\u201d [2] Moreover, Israel is in an anomalous situation: It is an embattled democracy that historically has had to defend itself repeatedly against the armies of neighbouring Arab states whose declared goal was nothing less than Israel's eradication. The Israel Defense Forces could not afford to miscalculate. While other nations, like France or Kuwait, have been overrun, occupied, and nonetheless have survived to reconstitute themselves, Israel, in contrast, cannot depend on obtaining a second chance. Miscalculation on its part could have had devastating consequences and, thus, its situation is unique. [3] For this critical purpose of national survival, therefore, the annexed land serves a legally legitimate purpose, especially considering that the Arab wars of aggression were what caused the annexation of the land in the first place. In such circumstances, a nation that won a defensive war has a right to set terms to ensure against future wars of aggression.  [1] Johnson, Paul. \u201cA History of the Jews\u201d. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1987.  [2] Thinkexist.com. \u201cEhud Olmert Quotes\u201d. Thinkexist.com   [3] Amidror, Maj.-Gen. (res.) Yaakov. \u201cIsrael's Requirement for Defensible Borders\u201d. Defensible Borders for a Lasting Peace. 2005."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con02b","title":"global middle east house believes israel should return its pre 1967 borders","text":"The Middle East, and the world more generally, is a far different place than it was in 1967. There is a significantly smaller risk that Arab states will gang up in a conventional war against Israel. This owes significantly to the fact that Israel is much more powerful militarily, Arab states are less powerful relatively, and the military alliances and dynamics in the region tend to favour Israel more. All of this means that maintaining a buffer in Israel, with the post-1967 borders, for the sake of defending against a collective Arab assault is highly unreasonable. Israel does not need this buffer. It can return to its pre-1967 borders."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro02b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Migration results from poverty; poverty will not be solved through migration. Migration is a survival strategy - therefore development initiatives are required first for poverty to be reduced. Three points need to be raised. First, patterns of migration showcase the prevalence of a 'brain drain' [1] across Africa, and inputting a free labour market will continue to attract skilled migrants to desired locations. Research by Docquier and Marfouk (2004) indicates Eastern and Western Africa accounted for some of the highest rates of brain drain; with rates increasing over the past decade . Rather than promoting free movement African nations need to invest in infrastructure, health and education, to keep hold of skilled professionals.  Second, the extent to which remittances are \u2018developmental\u2019 are debatable. Questions emerge when we consider who can access the money transferred (gender relations are key) and therefore decide how it is used; the cost, and security, of transfer.  Lastly, migration is not simply \u2018developmental\u2019 when we consider social complexities. Research has identified how increased mobility presents risks for health, particularly with regards to the HIV\/AIDS epidemic [2] . Therefore migrating for jobs may put the migrant, or their partner, at risk of HIV\/AIDS.  Migration cannot resolve poverty disparities across Africa. Poverty disparities, both spatial and social, reflect the unequal, growing, gap between the rich and the poor. Neither economic growth, or migration, will reduce poverty in the face of inequality.  [1] \u2018Brain drain\u2019 is defined as the loss of high-skilled, and trained, professionals in the process of migration.  [2] See further readings: Deane et al, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro02a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Migration is 'developmental'.  Recent reports by the HDR (2009) and WDR (2009) have shown migration is a means of development \u2013 free movement has the power to alleviate poverty, enable markets, and connectivity. Taking recent evidence concerning worldwide remittance flows, the developmental nature of free movement is shown.  In 2013, it is estimated, through international migration, $414bn were remitted back to developing countries [1] . Remittance flows into Africa (from within and internationally) accounted for $40bn in 2010, accounting for an increasing percentage of GDP (AfDB, 2013; IFAD, 2013). Northern Africa articulated the largest total of remittances received. Remittances remain beneficial for supporting livelihoods. The influx of remittances to households provides security, an additional income for support, enables household consumption, and investment in alternative assets, such as education and land, of which present crucial benefits in reducing poverty. Although the geography of remittances remains uneven, and currently barriers remain to sending and receiving money, the developmental potential of remittances from African diasporas (both outside and within Africa) is now recognised [2] .  [1] See further readings: World Bank, 2013.  [2] For additional information on the debate of migration, remittances and social development see further readings: De Haas, 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro03b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"A unified labour market will not be achieve if root issues remain unresolved.  Within East Africa, the construction of an East African Community has been met with political tensions. The recent evictions of nearly 7,000 Rwandan refugees from Tanzania indicate the idea of free movement does not provide a sufficient basis for unity [1] . Despite regional agreements for free movement, political tensions, the construction of ethnicity and illegality meant forced deportation was carried out by Tanzanian officials. Political hostilities amongst heads of government is continuing to divide the nations within East Africa.  Further, cases of xenophobia remain prevalent across Southern Africa. Frequently reported cases of xenophobic attacks on foreign nationals - including nationals from Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Malawi [2] - indicate the inherent tensions of migration when jobs remain scarce and poverty high. Dangers occur in advocating a free labour market when the perception of migration is misunderstood, and\/or politically altered.  [1] See further readings: BBC News, 2013.  [2] See further readings: IRINa."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro05a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"The freedom to move is a human right.  Mobility is a human right - which needs to be enabled across national spaces and Africa. Obstacles need to be removed. Mobility enables access to interconnected rights - such as ensuring women their right to move enables empowerment in the political, social and economic spheres.  Taking the case of migration of young people, the process reflects a right of passage, a means of exploring opportunities and identity.For example the Mourides of Senegal have established a dense network sustaining informal trading across multiple scales based on a foundation of \u2018Brotherhood\u2019 youths leaving rural areas become integrated into dynamic social networks and educated within the Mouride culture. As research in Tanzania shows although migration is not a priority for all youths, many identify the opportunity as a time to prove yourself and establish your transition into adulthood. The process empowers human identity and rights."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro01a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Free movement will provide benefits for productivity.  A free labour market provides a space for sharing (knowledge, ideas, and socio-cultural traditions), competing, and sustaining efficiency in development. As neoliberal theory advocates a laissez-faire approach is fundamental for growth. A free labour market will enhance economic productivity. Free labour movement enables access to new employment opportunities and markets.  Within the East African Community the Common Market Protocol (CMP) (2010) has removed barriers towards the movement of people, services, capital, and goods. Free regional movement is granted to citizens of any member state in order to aid economic growth. Free movement is providing solutions to regional poverty by expanding the employment opportunities available, enabling faster and efficient movement for labour, and reducing the risk of migration for labour. Similar to initial justifications of Europe\u2019s labour market, a central idea is to promote labour productivity within the region [1] .  [1] Much criticism has been raised with regards to the flexible labour market in Europe - with high unemployment across national member states such as Spain, Ireland, and Greece; the prevalent Euro-crisis, and backlash over social welfare with rising migration. Disparities remain in jobs, growth, and productivity across the EU."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro01b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"The benefits of a free labour market are merely based on an idealistic reality. The CMP has only existed for three years so it is impossible to draw any conclusions. When looking at whether migration enhances productivity questions need to be raised. First, what jobs are provided in the new destination? Are the jobs safe and secure, or within informal employment? Second, where is productivity actually encouraged? Is the distribution occurring across an even geography; and assisting the poor? As yet there are no answers."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro05b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"The reality of achieving free labour movement is not as simple as it may seem in practice. Contradictions have emerged in the laws implemented by national governments, such as Uganda, and the desired EAC regional laws. In addition, the recent eviction and detainee of refugees from Rwanda and Burundi, from Tanzania, indicate political tensions are at the heart of ensuring 'free' movement. Labour and migrant workers rights cannot be guaranteed until the duty, and responsibility, is taken on at multiple scales - from local, national, and regional authorities.  Finally, in order for mobility to be seen as a right, labourers and migrants need to be granted the right to organise. Currently, labour unions operate at a national scale - for mobility to be accepted as a right and migrant rights to be recognised labour unions are required across COMESA, EAC, and ECOWAS."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro04b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Promoting a free labour market across Africa will exacerbate difficulties for planning. The geography of migration is uneven; and spatial disparities in the proportion of migrants presents challenges for urban and rural planning, which needs to be considered.  First, where will migrants be housed? The housing crisis, and prevalence of slums, across Africa show an influx of new workers will overburden a scarce resource. In addition, the complex, and insecure, nature of land tenure across Africa raises further questions for housing and productivity - will new migrants be able to buy into land markets to enhance their capabilities? Second, are road infrastructures safe enough to promote the frequent movement of labour? Will implementing a free labour market ensure the safety of those migrants?  We need to ensure planners and policy can establish fundamental rights to a home, land, and personal safety, before promoting free movement."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro03a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Policies towards a free labour market will create unity.  National borders are a result of Africa\u2019s colonial history. The boundaries constructed do not reflect meaning or unite ethnic groups across the continent. The border between Togo and Ghana alone divides the Dagomba, Akposso, Konkomba and Ewe peoples. [1] Therefore encouraging freedom of movement across Africa will erase a vital component of Africa\u2019s colonial history.  The erasing of boundaries, for labour markets, will have significant impacts for rebuilding a sense of unity, and reducing xenophobic fears, of which have been politically constructed.  A sense of unity will motivate citizens to reduce disparities and inequalities of poverty.  [1] Cogneau, 2012, pp.5-6"}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-pro04a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Implementing a free labour market will enable effective management of migration.  Even without the implementation of a free labour market, migration will continue informally; therefore policies introducing free movement and providing appropriate travel documents provides a method to manage migration. In the case of Southern Africa, the lack of a regional framework enabling migration is articulated through the informal nature of movement and strategic bilateral ties between nation-states.  Several benefits arise from managing migration. First, speeding up the emigration process will provide health benefits. Evidence shows slow, and inefficient, border controls have led to a rise in HIV\/AIDs; as truck drivers wait in delays sex is offered [1] . Second, a free labour market can provide national governments with data and information. The provision of travel documentation provides migrants with an identity, and as movement is monitored, the big picture of migration can be provided. Information, evidence, and data, will enable effective policies to be constructed for places of origin and destination, and to enable trade efficiency. Lastly, today, undocumented migrants are unable to claim their right to health care. In Africa, availability does not equate to accessibility for new migrants. In South Africa, migrants fear deportation and harassment, meaning formal health treatment and advice is not sought (Human Rights Watch, 2009). Therefore documentation and formal approval of movement ensures health is recognised as an equal right.  [1] See further readings: Lucas, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-con03b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Positives arise from a predominantly male out-migration. Women are provided with a means of strategic, and practical, empowerment - as power is redistributed within the household. Women are placed in a position whereby capital assets and time can be controlled personally [1] .  [1] For more on the debate see: Chant (2009); Datta and McIlwaine (2000)."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-con01b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"The prevalence of trafficking across Africa today is not new so it is likely a free labour market will make little difference. Further, uncertainty remains as to whether or not the extent of human trafficking is actually rising. With the exact number of cases unknown [1] - are concerns sensationalised hype or a growing reality?  [1] See further readings: IRINb, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-con02a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Urbanisation without industrialisation, the dangerous livelihoods of migrants.  Across Africa a reality of \u2018urbanisation without industrialisation\u2019 is found (Potts, 2012). Economic growth, and activity, have not matched the urban phenomena across Sub-Saharan Africa. The sombre picture of urban economics questions - what do new migrants do as opportunities are not found?  More than 50% of Youth in Africa are unemployed or idle. [1] With migrants entering urban environments presented with a lack of safe and secure jobs unhealthy sexual politics are found, and precarious methods are used to make a living. The scarcity of formal jobs, means a majority of migrants are forced to work in informal employment. Informal employment will continue to rise creating its own problems such as being barrier to imposing minimum wages and employment security.  [1] Zuehlke, 2009"}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-con03a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Who is left behind?  In promoting a free labour market, we need to ask: who is left behind? To understand the developmental nature of migration investigation is needed into who doesn\u2019t migrate - the non-migrant\u2019s lifestyles raise key concerns.  Data from the EAC indicates the EAC labour market remains popular among over 65's and in favour of men; and further, a majority of employment occurs within agriculture [1] . The labour market remains inadequate in providing jobs for women and youths. Women and youths reflect disproportionate numbers of those forced to adapt, and create, new livelihoods following migration. Further, migrants are returning home, retiring, and therefore with limited effect on productivity.  The impact of migration is distributed unequally. In a previous study by Brown (1983) the detrimental effect of male out-migration from rural areas in Botswana was indicated. Family units were altered, changing to being predominantly female-headed households, the lack of human capital resulted in sustaining the agrarian crisis, and women were forced to cope with the burden of care. Little assurance was found as to whether the men would return, or remit resources.  [1] EAC, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-con01a","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Migration reasonings and exploitation.  A free labour market perceives migration in a predominantly neoclassical light - people migrate due to pull factors, to balance the imbalance of jobs, people move due to economic laws. However, such a perspective fails to include the complex factors enticing migration and lack of choice in the decision. Promoting a labour market, whereby movement is free and trade enabled, makes it easier to move but does not take into account the fact migration is not only purely economical. By focusing on a free labour market as being economically valuable, we neglect a bigger picture of what the reasons for migration are.  Without effective management a free labour market raises the potential of forced migration and trafficking. Within the COMESA region trafficking has been identified as a growing issue with the 40,000 identified cases in 2012 being the tip of the iceberg (Musinguzi, 2013). A free labour market may mean victims of trafficking will remain undetected. Moving for \u2018work\u2019, how can distinctions be made to identify trafficked migrants; and clandestine migration be managed?  A free labour market, across Africa, justifies cheap and flexible labour to build emerging economies - however, remains unjust. Promoting free labour movement needs to be matched with a question on \u2018what kind of labour movement\u2019?"}
+{"id":"test-international-miasimyhw-con02b","title":"ment international africa society immigration minorities youth house would","text":"Working within informal employment is better than nothing. Although debates have raised over the costs-benefits of informal employment - when considering the need for capital, money, and an income, informal employment presents a better alternative."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro02b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"Not all nations are equal. In an area where high technology is essential rich nations may be able to monitor all cyber intrusions but there will be many countries without the necessary systems. This treaty would therefore in effect be making poor countries without cyber defences into fair game. In theory they would be protected by the treaty, in practice with no monitoring there would be nothing they could do."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro02a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"States will monitor each other, and an international body could be set up  Once a treaty is set up to limit or eliminate cyber-attacks monitoring is unlikely to be a problem because states will be willing to monitor each other. States in order to defend themselves from cyber-attacks already monitor the cyber-attacks that occur \u2013 the United States for example already has several cyber defense forces. [1] If that is not enough then there are numerous private groups that will be monitoring cyber-attacks as most are made against corporate rather than government targets. For example private company Mandiant exposed a unit of the People\u2019s Liberation Army for its cyber-attacks in February 2013. [2] Once a cyber-attack has been traced and evidence gathered if the appropriate domestic authorities won\u2019t deal with the culprit then an independent international institution can decide on the punishment for the government that is not living up to its treaty commitments.  If there is a need for international monitoring rather than simply a dispute settlement mechanism then there are models available through current treaties; a UN organisation similar to the International Atomic Energy Agency or International Criminal Court could be set up that can investigate incidents when asked.  [1] US Department of Defense, \u2018The Cyber Domain Security and Operations\u2019   [2] Mandiant, \u2018Exposing One of China\u2019s Cyber Espionage Units\u2019, mandiant.com, February 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro03b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"While it is true that governments for the most part seek to prevent non-state actors that engage in violence we should not assume that the response will be the same for activities that are not violent. The rise of multinational companies has sometimes (particularly in the 1970s) been mentioned as a threat to the state (particularly poorer states where the MNC may be richer than the state) yet many countries promote their MNCs because they bring them wealth and therefore power. [1] Similarly having non state groups that are able to engage in cyber-attacks bring an advantage to those states that have them as they provide benefits both in conflicts (essentially creating a cyber-militia) and in peace where they engage in espionage so damaging competitors businesses.  [1] Kobrin, Stephen J., \u2018 Sovereignty@Bay : Globalization, Multinational Enterprise, and the International Political System\u2019, The Oxford Handbook of International Business, 2000,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro01a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"Arenas of potential conflict must be regulated  Conflict needs to be regulated, and something that can start conflicts even more so. Warfare and conflict is currently regulated by the Geneva Conventions that seek to limit the effects of armed conflict and regulate the conduct of the involved actors. [1] Just as importantly there are rules on what weapons can be used through various treaties that ban weapons such as the Land Mine Ban, [2] and on when a state can legally initiate conflict through the UN Charter.  In just the same way when a new area of potential conflict arises that too must be regulated by treaty. The internet and the threat of cyber-conflict is that new area at the moment. While cyber warfare is not currently a large scale threat it is still a form of conflict that could escalate just like any other - the Pentagon has explicitly stated it could respond militarily to a cyber-attack. [3] As a result it is most sensible to draw up the rules and regulations early, to ensure everyone knows the consequences and prevent damage by making sure that states agree not to engage in offence cyber-attacks against each other.  [1] \u2018The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols\u2019, ICRC, 29 October 2010,   [2] \u2018Convention on the prohibition of the use, stockpiling, production and transfer of anti-personnel mines and on their destruction\u2019, un.org, 18 September 1997,   [3] Brookes, Adam, \u2018US Pentagon to treat cyber-attacks as \u2018acts of war\u2019\u2019, BBC News, 1 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro01b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"While there are bans on certain weapons these are because such weapons are considered beyond the pale. This is either because they are horrifying as in the case of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, or indiscriminate as with land mines. This does not apply to cyber warfare. Other regulations similarly do not provide a good parallel as the Geneva conventions seek to limit the effects of armed conflict a similar treaty is clearly not necessary for cyber-conflict because the effects will already be limited by the type of conflict. Ultimately cyber-attacks are much more akin to espionage and are not regulated because they are small scale, localised, and have limited effects as well as being difficult to trace."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro04b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"It is unlikely that all states would see this as beneficial to them. There will always be some states that benefit more from engaging in cyber-attacks than others \u2013 usually the underdog in other areas. If cyber-attacks are an area being used to redress the balance then why should they be willing to restrict their freedom of action? This is why Russia is unwilling to engage in deep cuts in the number of nuclear weapons it has \u2013 they are the main area of armaments in which they have an advantage over their potential adversaries."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro03a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"The use of the internet undermines the state by demonopolizing the use of force  Ever since the state rose to ascendancy over powerful internal actors, such as the nobility in a feudal system, the state has had a monopoly on the use of force. The state quickly became the only institution with the resources to maintain military forces and has become the only legitimate wielder of force. The internet however changes this. Cyber-attacks are often by individuals or groups who can carry out a cross border attack without the aid of their home country.  In 2011 CIA director Leon Panetta told Congress \u201cwhen it comes to national security, I think this represents the battleground for the future. I've often said that I think the potential for the next Pearl Harbor could very well be a cyber-attack.\u201d [1] If cyber-attacks are so important it stands to reason that the groups who are able to engage in such activities should be as limited as possible. While it is not always possible states try to make sure that the weapons of war for the most part remain in the hands of responsible actors. This should apply as much in cyberspace as elsewhere. While terrorist groups do exist \u2013 and are occasionally armed by states \u2013 for the most part they are seen by every government as being illegitimate.  [1] Serrano, Richard A., \u2018U.S. intelligence officials concerned about cyber attack\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 11 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-pro04a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"A cyber treaty benefits everyone  A treaty that bans, or sharply curtails cyber-attacks would benefit every state. Even those who may currently benefit from cyber espionage would be better off signing up to the treaty.  First most cyber-attacks are not carried out by the state even in countries like China where the state is using the internet as an offensive tool. In its annual report to congress the Department of Defence stated some cyber-attacks \u201cappear to be attributable directly to the Chinese government and military\u201d but this does not sound like a majority. [1]  Secondly no state wants a risk of conflict as a result of an unregulated new field of potential conflict. Or even to risk relations with other nations; cyber-attacks in large part go on because they are cost free.  And finally all nations are the victims of cyber-attacks. The United States has repeatedly condemned cyber-attacks against it but China also claims that it is the victim of cyber-attacks. China\u2019s Minister of National Defense General Chang Wanquan says \u201cChina is one of the primary victims of hacker attacks in the world.\u201d [2] Having a treaty against cyber attacks would not only make business easier for all countries but it would build up trust between nations where it is currently being eroded.  [1] Office of the Secretary of Defense, \u2018Annual; Report to Congress Military and Security Developments Involving the People\u2019s Republic of China 2013\u2019, Department of Defense,  p.36  [2] Brook, Tom Vanden, \u2018Cyber attack? What cyber attack?\u2019, USA Today, 19 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-con03b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"Clearly cyber-attacks are not currently deadly but this does not mean they will not become so in the future. Leon Panetta has warned \u201cA cyber-attack perpetrated by nation states or violent extremist groups could be as destructive as the terrorist attack of 9\/11\u201d. Such an attack would be indirect \u2013 unlike setting a bomb \u2013 but could be just as effective \u201cAn aggressor nation or extremist group could gain control of critical switches and derail passenger trains, or trains loaded with lethal chemicals. They could contaminate the water supply in major cities, or shut down the power grid across large parts of the country.\u201d [1] At the moment systems are not really connected enough to allow this but it is pretty much certain that technology will become more sophisticated, control more systems, and become more and more connected. This is immensely beneficial economically but does create vulnerability.  [1] Garamone, Jim, \u2018Panetta Spells out DOD Roles in Cyberdefense\u2019, American Forces Press Service, 11 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-con01b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"There is no reason to assume that nations cannot get along on the issue of cyber security just because cooperation has not been prevalent so far. The US and China despite regularly accusing each other of launching cyber-attacks have set up a joint US-China working group on cyber security. [1] There is clearly a willingness to work together on this issue.  As to working out who is behind attacks the United States at least claims to be capable of doing this. Panetta says the Department of Defence can track attacks so \u201cPotential aggressors should be aware that the United States has the capacity to locate them and hold them accountable for actions that harm America or its interests.\u201d [2] That computers in multiple countries should be taken over in order to launch an attack should simply provide another reason why all nations should want to be involved in preventing cyber-attacks.  [1] \u2018US-China cyber security working group meets\u2019, BBC News, 9 July 2013,   [2] Garamone, Jim, \u2018Panetta Spells out DOD Roles in Cyberdefense\u2019, American Forces Press Service, 11 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-con02a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"A treaty would benefit larger powers over the small  Any treaty that seeks to ban cyber-attacks would simply be an attempt to cement the position of the most powerful countries at the expense of weaker ones. This is because cyber-attacks are, like terrorism, weapons that can be used by anyone to attack a much bigger target. To launch a cyber-attack there is little need for training, only a small amount of comparatively cheap equipment (to military hardware at any rate), and an internet connection. [1] And it is difficult to defend against. This makes it ideal for poor nations to maintain cyber warfare as a credible threat to their bigger neighbours while their neighbours threaten them conventionally with their bigger militaries. We have seen before arms treaties that are fundamentally biased in favour of a small group of powerful states. Most notable is the Nuclear non-proliferation treaty where there are five recognised nuclear weapons states who are allowed the horrific weapons and everyone else is banned from having them. This discrimination was accepted as a result of the agreement that the nuclear weapons states would eventually disarm. It has not happened so leaving a troubled treaty system that appears to be regularly flouted. [2]  [1] Phillips, Andrew T., \u2018Now Hear This \u2013 The Asymmetric Nature of Cyber Warfare\u2019, U.S. Naval Institute, Vol.138\/10\/1316, October 2012,   [2] Miller, Steven E., \u2018Nuclear Collisions: Discord, Reform & the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime\u2019, American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-con03a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"Unlike warfare cyber-attacks don\u2019t kill so they don\u2019t need to be restricted in the same way  Warfare needs to be closely regulated because of the numbers of people who can be killed and the devastation that can result. This is not something that is a concern with cyber-attacks. So far cyber-attacks have not been very effective. \u2018Stuxnet\u2019 was a computer worm targeted an important control system in the Iranian nuclear program sabotaging gas centrifuges by making them run out of control. It was created by US and Israeli intelligence yet was not particularly effective, and certainly did not kill anyone. [1] Other major attacks have infected a large number of machines, such as \u2018Shamoon\u2019 that attacked the Saudi state oil company ARAMCO which affected 30,000 computers, but again this is simply destruction of property. [2] No matter how indiscriminate cyber-attacks may be that they don\u2019t cause large numbers of deaths means there is little need to ban such attacks \u2013 it simply does not matter if attackers don\u2019t follow a set of conventions like the Geneva conventions.  [1] Barzashka, Ivanka, \u2018Are Cyber-Weapons Effective? Assessing Stuxnet\u2019s Impact on the Iranian Enrichment Programme\u2019, RUSI Journal, Vol.158, Issue 2, 28 April 2013,   [2] Garamone, Jim, \u2018Panetta Spells out DOD Roles in Cyberdefense\u2019, American Forces Press Service, 11 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-con01a","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"It would never work  There are immense challenges to making a treaty seeking to prevent or curtail cyber-attacks work. Even on issues where there are clear security concerns it is unusual for the involved nations to be willing to get along and cooperate. This has proven to be the same with regards to the internet governance with Russia and China wanting greater state control while the US and Western Europe is opposed. [1] Even on issues where lives are being lost there is often no global agreement as can be seen by the deadlock in the UN security council over what to do about the civil war in Syria. [2]  Additionally there is the problem that working out who engaged in a cyber-attack is difficult. Such attacks are often routed through proxy computers to launch their attacks. If attacking a difficult target that may seek to strike back the attack will be through numerous proxies which will be in numerous countries to make tracking back difficult. [3] This means there can be misattribution of attacks creating confusion about which state needs to act domestically to prevent the cyber-attacks \u2013 or in the worst case resulting in a response aimed at the wrong country. For example South Korea has blamed its Northern neighbour for an attack on the website of the South Korean Presidency but the hacking is more likely to have been the work of someone in South Korea itself as a South Korean detailed his plans on Twitter before the attack. [4] If it is difficult to attribute who launched the attack then it would clearly be easy to get around any ban.  [1] Nebehay, Stephanie, \u2018China, Russia seek greater control of Internet\u2019, Reuters, 7 March 2013,   [2] Black, Ian, \u2018UN may struggle to respond to reports of Syrian chemical attacks\u2019, The Guardian, 21 August 2013,   [3] Greenemeier, Larry, \u2018Seeking Address: Why Cyber Attacks Are So Difficult to Trace back to Hackers\u2019, Scientific American, 11 June 2011,   [4] Koo, Soo-Kyung, \u2018Cyber Security in South Korea: The Threat Within\u2019, The Diplomat, 19 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghwcitca-con02b","title":"global house would create international treatyban cyber attacks","text":"Everyone would benefit from the potential closure of a zone of possible future conflict. While cyber warfare may give a smaller state a brief advantage due to some low cost methods of attack ultimately the superior resources, both in defence and attack in cyberspace of the richer state would be telling. In the United States the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) alone has a budget of $1.54billion for research into cyber offence from 2013-2017 [1] considering that there are numerous other agencies involved in cyber warfare or defence, or monitoring the internet it is clear that cyber-attacks are not some wonder weapon that can even the odds between states.  [1] Kallberg, Jan and Thuraisingham, Bhavani, \u2018Cyber Operations: Bridging from Concept to Cyber Superiority\u2019, Joint Force Quarterly, Vol.68, no.1, January 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro02b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"The west has historically not been good at picking the winner in the Middle East; take its backing of Saddam in the 1980, the Shah in the 1970s, or the mujahideen in Afghanistan. All have either lost power or turned on those who supported them. If we back the wrong group in Syria then we end upon a worse position than backing none at all; the west is already perceived as being pro Sunni and is seen as being partisan rather than attempting to build a broad inclusive democracy for all communities. [1] So backing any group simply undermines longer term western aims to create a democracy.  [1] Yacoubian, Mona, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro02a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"It is in the national interest for democracies to support those seeking to oust dictators  Democracies should support moderate groups seeking to oust dictators because the result will hopefully be a moderate, democratic state. This would then be a reliable partner for the future that would be more willing to help engage and resolve the region's problems. But this is not all about being high minded and wanting to promote democracy in the Middle East, arms need to be provided in order to ensure future influence in Syria. We already know that there are jihadis operating in Syria so it is plain that this is a conflict that will eventually have wider implications for the west. If we want to have influence in Syria after Assad is overthrown then we need to begin helping opposition groups. It is in our interest to build up the moderate groups so as to deny support to the extremists; once this is over we would be in a much better position if we have grateful friends on the ground rather than groups who are resentful that we provided fine words but no real help. We don't want to find ourselves having to root out terrorists from the air using UAVs. [1]  [1] Hokayem, Emile, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro03b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"And what happens to these weapons afterwards? Air defensive systems that can destroy Syrian jets could pose an equal risk to Israeli or western warplanes. While Israel was surprised by Hezbollah's use of anti tank systems that did not stop the Israeli army from ultimately prevailing in the conflict so there is little reason to believe that 'evening the odds' will really alter the outcome of the conflict."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro05a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Diplomacy is not going anywhere  The best solution would be a ceasefire between the two sides in the Syrian civil war and a negotiated settlement, but it is clear we are long past the point where this approach stood a chance of success. The United Nations peace effort under Kofi Annan failed in the middle of last year [1] and there has been no progress since. Similarly all attempts to bring pressure to bear throughout the security council have failed as a result of Russia supporting Assad's regime. This leaves the unilateral initiatives to help the rebels. No state wants full intervention as France did in Mali [2] so the only alternative is simply to help the Free Syrian Army. To do so means providing what they need to win the conflict; primarily arms that can defeat the Syrian army. This need not be considered to be exclusive with diplomacy; the intervening state should continue to try to find a diplomatic solution just as before the Dayton accords NATO helped the Croats militarily while at the same time looking to diplomacy to provide an overall solution to the conflict. [3]  [1] Plett, Barbara, \u2018Syria crisis: Kofi Annan quits as UN-Arab League envoy\u2019, BBC News, 2 August 2012  [2] See the debatabase debate \u2018 This House believes France is right to intervene in Mali \u2019.  [3] Hokayem, Emile, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro01a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Syria clearly meets the standards for intervention  The Assad regime has clearly lost its legitimacy and has precipitated a humanitarian crisis in Syria. The February estimate of 70000 killed [1] is up from an estimate of 60000 only a month before, [2] so clearly the violence is escalating. The conflict is also affecting neighbours; refugees have flooded into Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey, and Israel is already believed to have attacked a convoy or research facility involved in chemical and biological weapons development. [3] Clearly the presence of these weapons show how much worse the situation could get if Assad is not overthrown. Not intervening risks the whole region being slowly destabilised and drawn in to the conflict. [4]  [1] Nichols, Michelle, \u2018Syria death toll likely near 70,000, says U.N. rights chief\u2019, Reuters, 12 Feb 2012  [2] \u2018Data suggests Syria death toll could be more than 60,000, says UN human rights office\u2019, UN News Centre, 2 January 2013  [3] \u2018Q&A: Israeli \u2018strike\u2019 on Syria\u2019, BBC News, 3 February 2013  [4] Byman, Daniel, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro01b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"The if the rebels are armed and the regime gets close to losing surely it will simply increase the bloodshed and have greater motive to use its chemical and biological weapons. Therefore arming either side simply increases the potential for killing. A balance of death is not what anyone should be looking for in Syria."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro05b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Simply because there is stalemate in diplomacy and on the ground does not make arming the rebels the option that should now be taken, indeed it does not mean that outside powers need to take any action at all. Those with Syria's best interests at heart would remain on the sidelines, provide humanitarian assistance, and encourage new diplomatic initiatives. The response should not be to turn Syria into a rerun of the proxy wars of the Cold War with the west arming be side and Russia the other."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro04b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Balance in this case would not be a good thing as this would simply mean a much longer continuation of a bloody civil war. The longer the conflict continues the more difficult it is to put Syria back together again when peace finally does arrive."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro03a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"The Free Syrian Army is outgunned  The Syrian army is one of the biggest armies in the world; it is nothing like the poorly equipped Libyan army that was beaten by western backed rebels in 2011. The government has aircraft, and helicopters that are used to bomb the rebels, and heavy Russian built tanks that are impervious to most of the small arms the free Syrian army has. Providing arms would quickly even the odds; light anti-tank weapons would be effective against Syrian armoured vehicles repeating the success with which Hezbollah employed them when they knocked out sixty Israeli armoured vehicles in 2006, [1] while man portable air defence systems would quickly make the skies too dangerous for the Syrian airforce so protecting free Syrian controlled areas from the threat of attack from the air. [2]  [1] Cordesman, Anthony H., \u2018Preliminary \u201cLessons\u201d of the Israeli-Hezbollah War\u2019, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 17 August 2006, P.18  [2] Doran, Michael, and Shaikh, Salman, \u2018Arm the Syrian Rebels. Now\u2019. Foreign Policy, 8 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-pro04a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Would balance the support for Syrian government  Syria's government has been receiving outside support from a variety of sources; Russia and Iran being the most prominent. Iran has been training the Jaysh al- Shabi, a Syrian government-controlled force modelled on Iran's Basij militia. Far from just providing weapons, both Iran and Hezbollah from Lebanon have been sending fighters to support the Syrian government. [1] The rebels have received some support for Qatar and Saudi Arabia but not to the extent the Syrian government has. Anyone with an interest in the free Syrian cause should realise that they cannot do so simply by sitting on their hands expecting a victory when those doing the fighting are only provided diplomatic support.  [1] Doran, Michael, and Shaikh, Salman, \u2018Arm the Syrian Rebels. Now\u2019. Foreign Policy, 8 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con03b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"This is a pointless argument; the consequences of inaction are just unknowable. Doing nothing could lead to exactly the same consequences. Alternatively arming the moderates could speed the end to the civil war and the creation of a democratic state."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con01b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"This makes the assumption that the Assad government is considered the legitimate authority within Syria, the Russians accept this, but other countries are less sure. Both the US and UK now recognise the Syrian opposition as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people [1] which would mean arming them would be legal in the same way that the Russians consider arming Assad to be internationally legal.  [1] Malas, Nour, and Solomon, Jay, \u2018U.S. Formally Recognizes Syria\u2019s Main Rebel Group\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 12 December 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con02a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Arming the rebels would be unpopular  Ten years after the Iraq war interventions in the Middle East are no more popular than they were back in 2003. Getting involved in Syria would not be popular no matter how small the commitment. In the United States voters oppose the idea of supplying arms to Syrian rebels by 45% against to only 16% in favour, in the United Kingdom opinion is even more opposed; while there are still 16% in favour there are 57% opposed. [1] Clearly arming the rebels would not be popular with voters - there can therefore be no domestic reason for this policy.  [1] Clark, Tom, \u2018US and UK public reject stronger military support for Syrian rebels\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 22 March 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con05a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Would it work?  The most fundamental question for any policy is whether it would actually work if implemented? In this case it seems to be doubtful that in practice arming the rebels would be enough to allow them to prevail. It will simply be helping to even the odds; providing enough arms to prevail over a fully equipped army that is supplied by Iran and Russia would require a truly colossal effort. No one is seriously going to consider providing M1 Abrams tanks to overcome Syrian armour when there are even concerns about providing anti-aircraft missiles. Even supporters of arming the rebels such as Senator John McCain say \"this alone will not be decisive\". All arming the rebels does then is make the government appear to be doing something (in a bad way since it is an unpopular policy), and stick a toe in the water (also bad as that may lead to escalating commitments), and another decision point six months down the line. [1]  [1] Lynch, Marc, \u2018Shopping Option C for Syria\u2019, Foreign Policy, 14 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con04a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Possibility of being drawn into a long drawn out conflict  Even just providing the rebels with arms risks drawing the powers that supply those arms into the conflict. [1] This is because it gives the intervening power a stake in the conflict. Once weapons have been supplied allowing the Syrian government to reassert control would be a large foreign policy reversal and would damage relations with the Syrian government for years to come.  We need only look at the Vietnam conflict to know that what starts out as a very small commitment can rapidly escalate when the government decides it cannot afford to back down. What starts as just arming the rebels could quickly lead to troops on the ground. Indeed it might require men on the ground right from the start as if we were to be providing heavy weapons the rebels would need training in how to use those weapons if they are to seriously be considered an equaliser.  [1] Byman, Daniel, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con03a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Unforeseeable consequences  We do not know where arming the rebels will lead. The most obvious parallel has to be Afghanistan in the 1980s where the United States armed the mujahideen and succeeded in their objective of damaging the USSR through a war of attrition much as the US had suffered in Vietnam. Afghanistan became an albatross around the Soviet Union\u2019s neck. [1] But the US did not win the peace, Afghanistan descended into civil conflict which had a Taliban victory that sheltered Osama bin Laden; US arms in Afghanistan unintentionally lead more than a decade later to September 11. In this case we would be arming a movement that has many jihadi elements that could end up with the weaponry. Other countries such as Turkey are also worried about where powerful weapons such as anti aircraft missiles could end up if provided to the rebels. They fear they could easily find their way across the border to militant Kurds. [2] Other paths that this could lead to are just as bad; for example helping the Libyan rebels lead to the conflict in Mali. [3] In this case the short term consequences could be just as bad. Arming the Sunnis could provoke retaliation from either Iran or Hezbollah who could feel undermined by the move, in the worst case scenario they could even attack western assets in the area. [4]  [1] Hoffman, David E., The Dead Hand: Reagan, Gorbachev and the Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race, Icon Books Ltd, 2011, p.211  [2] Hokayem, Emile, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013  [3] Jones, Owen, \u2018The war in Libya was seen as a success, now here we are engaging with the blowback in Mali\u2019, The Independent, 13 January 2013  [4] Yacoubian, Mona, in \u2018Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels\u2019, Foreign Policy, 21 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con05b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"We cannot know whether this policy will work until it is tried. The Free Syrian Army has been remarkably successful so far capturing large swathes of the country and taking the fight to the regime in the capital Damascus. [1] With more sophisticated weaponry to naturalise the tanks, warplanes, helicopters of the regime the Free Syrians may well be able to finish the job.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Syria: Mapping the insurgency\u2019, 4 December 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con01a","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Sovereignty and non intervention in internal affairs  It is a clear international rule that nations are sovereign and other states are simply not allowed to be making interventions into another country\u2019s domestic affairs. The UN Charter emphasises \u201cNothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state\u201d. [1] Within a state only the government is legitimate as the supreme authority within its territory. [2] This is to prevent the bigger and richer powers from doing exactly this sort of thing to obtain the result they want inside another country. This is why Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov stated \"International law does not permit the supply of arms to non-governmental actors and our point of view is that it is a violation of international law,\" in response to suggestions that the UK would arm the Syrian rebels. [3]  [1] UN General Assembly, Article 2, Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945  [2] Philpott, Dan, \"Sovereignty\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)  [3] Abbas, Mohammed, \u2018Russia says arming Syrian opposition would be illegal\u2019, Reuters, 13 March 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con04b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"The strategic situation in Syria is nothing like that which meant the US felt it could not withdraw from Vietnam. There is no line of 'dominos' that could be knocked over in a row as a result of a victory by the Syrian government. Far from it, some of Syria's neighbours like Jordan may be strengthened by a government victory as it would halt the momentum of protest against rulers in the region. There is also no large scale outside power that would take advantage of Syrian government victory as was the case with the USSR in the Cold War. In this case such a result would mean a return to the status quo, not something the west would desire, but hardly a strategic disaster so cutting losses if the policy does not work would be comparatively easy."}
+{"id":"test-international-gmehwasr-con02b","title":"global middle east house would arm syrian rebels","text":"Public opinion is not the decider of what is right and wrong in foreign policy; people are rarely in favour of any kind of action in a volatile international situation. Had public opinion been the decider the allies would have rolled over and let Poland be taken in World War II."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro02b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"This proposition line does not lead to a situation where developing countries forgive their colonisers and forget the suffering of the past; rather, it will lead to a situation where they identify those colonial forces as the source of their suffering, but also as the power which tried to undermine their human integrity by paying them off. Such developing countries will always view reparations as \u2018insufficient compensation\u2019 [1] , because there is no lump sum on money which can atone for the acts and atrocities committed against human life. This motion is not only ineffective but will exacerbate the current situation by portraying the West as a place where money has a higher value than the human lives of developing countries; as such, there is no reason for former colonies to believe that their have gained any status other then an \u2018opportunity\u2019 for the West.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro02a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Reparations would be a step towards closing colonial scars.  It is difficult for former colonies to feel as if they can move on and develop a wholly independent identity when their ties to the past, and to their former colonisers, have not been definitively ended. For example, while it is important to remember those who suffered under slavery, the overwhelming memory of it [1] overpowers the history of those countries and innately links them back to former colonial powers. Furthermore, many of the problems now faced by former colonies can be traced back to the actions of colonial-era masters, for example the birth of ethnic tensions between minorities in Rwanda [2] and Burundi [3] . In order to move on from that damaging legacy, and to conclusively prove that such prejudices are always wrong, it is necessary for former colonial powers to show a tangible move towards closing that colonial chapter of their history. In this way they can begin to move towards a fresh, equal and co-operative relationship with the developing countries which were their former colonies, without the background of history which currently warps such relationships. Italy\u2019s payment of reparations to Libya [4] allowed Libya to \u2018mend fences with the West\u2019 [5] and to improve international relationships. This is a step to recognise developing countries as a nation, rather than an economic opportunity. In this way, reparations would be an effective way of demonstrating a global community and spirit.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11.  [4] Time. \u2018Italy Pays Reparations to Libya\u2019. Published 02\/09\/2008. Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11.  [5] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro03b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"These reparations have done little to satisfy the recipient countries. For example, Israel asked Germany to improve the reparations agreement [1] , which resulted in Germany withdrawing reparations entirely [2] and only served to increase tensions between the two nations. Furthermore, Israel has become reliant on German reparation money [3] , suggesting that reparations do not in fact allow the recipient country to develop their whole national identity without ties to former dominating countries. Moreover, despite the payment of reparations from Italy to Libya, Libya still believes that it was \u2018insufficient compensation for colonial damages\u2019 [4] . Just because reparations have been made in the past does not, by any means, show that they were successful or indeed that they are the best option available in the present day.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11.  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro05a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Reparations demonstrate a true concern for the developing world.  Even alongside the colonial justifications for providing reparations, there are also many other strong reasons why former colonial powers should grant reparations. Former colonial powers tend to be economically developed, like America, Britain and France. The developed world should recognise the dire poverty and social challenges fed by the developing world today. Giving aid as an act of charity can sometimes be seen as derogatory [1] , and is even rejected by the potential recipients [2] [3] [4] . However, reparations allows a transfer of wealth between these countries in a way which is sensitive to the history between them, and which also demonstrates a desire to improve their relationship. It allows aid to be given to the developing world in a means which is dignified but not spurious.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro01a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"What happened during the colonial era was morally wrong.  The entire basis for colonisation was predicated on an innate \u2018understanding\u2019 and judgment of one superior culture and race [1] . This ethnocentric approach idolised western traditions while simultaneously undermining the traditions of the countries which were colonised. For example, during the colonisation of America, colonists imposed a Westernised school system on Native American children. This denied their right to wear traditional clothing [2] or to speak their native language [3] , and the children were often subject to physical and sexual abuse and forced labour [4] . The cause of this was simply ignorance of culture differences on behalf of the colonists, which was idyllically labelled and disguised as \u2018The White Man\u2019s Burden\u2019 [5] . Colonial powers undermined the social and property rights [6] of the colonies, using military force to rule if civilians should rebel against colonisation in countries such as India [7] . After Indian fighters rebelled against British colonial force in the Indian Mutiny of 1857-58 [8] , the British struck back with terrible force, and forced the rebels to \u2018lick up part of the blood\u2019 from the floors of the houses [9] . The actions which occurred during colonisation are considered completely inappropriate and undesirable behaviour in a modern world, and in terms of indigenous rights to culture and to property, as well as human rights more generally. Reparations would be a meaningful act of apology for the wrongs which were committed during the past.  [1] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [5] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [6] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [7] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11.  [8] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [9] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro01b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"This is a very one-sided assertion of past events. It was not only the colonists who acted in an unacceptable manner; for example, during the Indian Mutiny, a party of sepoys \u2018execute[d] the 210 women and children\u2019 with guns and knives [1] . Some, though horribly wounded, remained alive until morning [2] . History is very complex; while there were certainly atrocious events, it is unfair and untrue to apportion blame to only one party \u2013 namely, the colonists. In any case, in the face of such atrocities, it is completely superficial to imagine that mere money could wipe the slate clean. Reparations are used to correct a past wrong [3] ; it would be derogatory to assume that we can pay people off for acts such as these, and that they require no more hindsight or consideration.  [1] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 11\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro05b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Disguising the purely economic balance illustrated here as a demonstration of heartfelt regret undermines the principles outlined by previous proposition arguments. This is, in fact, a hollow gesture \u2013 one that is disguised as a reparation to overcome a country\u2019s right (though we may not agree with it) to reject the aid which is offered to them. The rejection of aid is a demonstrative action in itself; it sends a message that the recipient country does not wish to associate themselves with the donor country. By trying to use reparations as a loophole, this concept simultaneously criticised the recipient country\u2019s right to choose whether they receive aid or not, and undermines the value of reparations elsewhere as a genuine gesture."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro04b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Most of the Western world is currently undergoing a financial crisis [1] . However prosperous these former colonies might have been, in the modern world they simply do not have the money to provide reparations to these countries on any scale which might come close to closing the economic gap between them. America\u2019s enormous debt almost caused a complete economic collapse in August [2] ; Britain was struggling under \u00a32252.9 billion of debt as on July 2011 [3] . The proposition\u2019s naive balancing argument fails to take into account the realities of the economy and debt in raising this motion \u2013 it would be impossible to achieve.  [1] The Telegraph. \u2018Double-dip fears across West as confidence crumbles\u2019. Published on 30\/09\/2011. Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] BBC. \u2018IMF calls for US to raise debt ceiling and cut spending\u2019. Published 25\/07\/2011. Accessed at  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro03a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"There is already a precedent for paying reparations to such states.  In the past, dominating global powers have paid reparations and compensation for historical wrongs. For example, Germany pays an annual amount of money to Israel to recognise wrongs committed against Jews during the Holocaust, and to recognise the theft of Jewish property at this time [1] . These reparations have helped Israeli infrastructure enormously, providing \u2018railways and telephones, dock installations and irrigation plants, whole areas of industry and agriculture\u2019 [2] and contributing to Israeli economic security. Japan also paid reparations to Korea after World War II as the Koreans were \u2018deprived of their nation and their identity\u2019 [4] . Britain has paid compensation to the New Zealand Maoris for the damage done during colonial times and the seizure of their land [5] , and Iraq pays compensation to Kuwait for damage done during the invasion and occupation of 1990-91 [6] . There is little reason why other nations should not be paid for the grievances caused to them by domination countries. There is support for the notion that colonial powers should pay for free universal education in Africa [7] ; this would be an entirely appropriate and desirable measure.  [1] 'Holocaust Restitution: German Reparations', Jewish Virtual Library, accessed 16\/1\/2014,   [2] 'Holocaust Restitution: German Reparations', Jewish Virtual Library, accessed 16\/1\/2014,   [4] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [5] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [6] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [7] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro04a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Reparations would effectively right the economic imbalance caused by colonialism.  Given that much of the motive for colonisation was economic, many former colonies have suffered damage to their natural resources [1] or human resources, [2] which has left them less able to sustain a healthy economy. Colonists targeted countries with rich natural resources and little ability to defend themselves from invasion and manipulation. By this method, they could supply their own markets with the natural resources which they had already exploited at home [3] , and find cheap (or free) human labour for their markets [4] . Given that powerful countries such as Britain [5] and France [6] gained their own economic prosperity through the exploitation of the economic potential of the colonies, it is entirely appropriate and logical that they should pay reparations as compensation. In this way, the economic disparity between former colonies and colonists would be equalised.  [1] Accessed from  on12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  12\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [5] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [6] \u2018The Haitian Revolution and its Effects\u2019. Patrick E. Bryan. Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con03b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Taxpayers already fund the foreign aid which is distributed habitually [1] [2] ; they are not to blame for a famine in Somalia, for example, but they continue to pay for it [3] . There is frequently a disconnection between the people who pay for aid and the people who receive it. However, we recognise that the need is great enough in such countries to make it not only legitimate, but a moral duty. Most citizens of former colonial powers can recognise that some of the acts committed during colonial times was wrong and deserves repairing. Given that this is a productive means of doing so, and already has the precedent of foreign aid more generally, it is entirely appropriate.  [1] The Daily Mail. \u2018Foreign aid budget to cost every family \u00a3500\u2019. Published 22\/10\/2010. Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] BBC. \u2018Somalia famine: UK insists aid is \u201cgetting through\u201d\u2019. Published 18\/08\/2011. Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con01b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Given that many former colonies remain poor (even after so many years), it is very unlikely that these people would have no need for such money. The difference in timescale is irrelevant; what is relevant is that such former colonies have a demonstrated need for this money, and that atrocities occurred during the colonial era. If it became to hard to track down specific people, it would also be easily possible to give money to the government as Italy did to Libya [1] , in which case the potential for improved infrastructure and basic living conditions could have a nation-wide benefit. Just because it may be difficult does not overrule the many powerful arguments that we should do this.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con02a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Such reparations would do little to actually improve the developing countries.  Reparations are an incredibly short-term economic measure. To have any substantial impact, long-term systems would need to be put in place to truly benefit such countries, and it would be far better to encourage sustainable growth [1] than a one-off bumper payment. Developed countries should look towards improving their long-term relationship with former colonies and establishing measures such as fairer trade rules or debt relief as an efficient measure. This would allow the aid to be focused in the places where these countries need it most.  The symbolism of reparations is also potentially dangerous. Firstly, paying reparations may bring the belief that former colonial powers have \u2018paid their debt\u2019 and no longer have to seek to improve their own conduct of foreign policy. Secondly, this measure would allow dictators such as Robert Mugabe to feel justified in their declarations that colonial powers are independently responsible for all the problems affecting their countries [2] [3] [4] . In this way, Mugabe tries to hide his own shortcomings and place blame entirely on the West, which has negative impacts on the potential for international relations. In the case of Italy\u2019s reparations to Libya, this could be seen as strengthening the Gaddafi dictatorship at the expense of the Libyan people and the West, particularly as Gaddafi is prone to blaming the West [5] or indeed anybody else he can [6] .  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [5] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [6] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con04a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"The very payment of reparations exerts a neo-colonial power over former colonies.  The recognition that many former colonies are in desperate economic need only adds to the sense that former colonial powers desire to hold sway over them. Giving reparations induces dependency and can weaken the appearance of government in the former colonies, and may allow the donor government to exert influence over policy areas within the recipient country [1] . Far from giving the recipient country the means to develop itself as an independent nation, this motion simply recalls the old power structure which existed during colonisation.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con03a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Reparations unfairly target the taxpayers of former colonial powers who had nothing to do with the deeds committed under colonisation.  It is unclear who exactly is being punished under this mechanism. Ordering reparations rather than, for example, a public apology from a monarch or government, only serves to harm tax-paying citizens whose money would be used to pay such reparations. There is a huge disconnection between the people who actually committed wrongs and the people who are now forced to literally pay for them. This is likely to lead to an increase in hostility from the taxpayers who do not understand why they are being punished, towards the people of former colonies. It is no longer a case where reparations could ever be paid from the direct profits of exploitation as any profit from that must have been spent long ago. It is wrong to impose undue guilt and obligation of payment on to people who are entirely disconnected from that history."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con01a","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"Time has removed the opportunity to truly make reparations to those who may have deserved it.  Reparations are used to make \u2018amends for wrong or injury done\u2019 [1] ; it is impossible to truly achieve this when the victims of wrongdoing are long since dead. Moreover, reparations which may have been made immediately after colonisation could have had a specific purpose \u2013 for example, to rebuild property which was destroyed, or to restore items which were wrongfully taken. However, the development of both countries has led to a very different state of affairs in both, and there may no longer be an obvious end for the money from reparations. There is also no precedent for giving reparations to countries after so long a period of time. For example, Germany began paying reparations to Israel in 1952 [2] , only 7 years after World War II ended in 1945. Time also makes it very difficult to judge who the \u2018victims\u2019 are now. The descendants of original victims may well be independently wealthy now \u2013 would it be right to financially cripple of Western country and their people, already suffering from economic depression, to pay people who may not need it now? In any case, it would take a very long to even work out how we could pay reparations, let alone whether we should.  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con04b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"There is a fundamental difference here between colonisation and the modern day; whereas colonial powers were formerly damaging infrastructure [1] and natural resources [2] , in the modern day under reparations they would be helping to preserve such resources and finance the development of a sound infrastructure. Nor would the former colonial powers be exerting military strength [3] [4] [5] . There is an obvious difference between the relations of a colonial power and its colony, and a developed nation offering reparations to a less developed nation. One notable change is that the flow of money has changed direction \u2013 instead of exploiting the economic potential of the colony, the developed country is actually giving money to the former colony. This opposition point simply does not stand  [1] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11  [5] Accessed from  on 12\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghbfcpspr-con02b","title":"africa global house believes former colonial powers should pay reparations","text":"It is entirely possible that reparations could be paid in smaller instalments over a much longer term as Germany has done [1] , thereby providing a longer-term solution rather than one lump sum. Furthermore, it is likely that if former colonial powers offer reparations as a genuine attempt to accept and apologise for the wrongs previously committed, the longer-term relationship between the two countries would be eased. Finally, it is at least more likely that citizens in countries such as Zimbabwe and Libya might re-think their opinion of the West if reparations and help were offered, rather than blankly refused. While the dictators may continue to denounce the West, it will be harder for them to do so if former colonial powers show every attempt to help and communicate with the people they have wronged.  [1] Rising, David, 'Germany increases reparations for Holocaust survivors', Times of Israel, 16 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro02b","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"Georgia's government is democratic and modern in its institutions. It is fully capable and intent on governing S. Ossetia democratically and honestly. Moreover, if the aim of the S. Osseitans' is to join with Russia, upon seceding from Georgia (as seems likely), then the many arguments it is putting forward in support of its national identity and right to self-determination do not apply in the same way, as they would be simply exchanging minority status in one state for minority status in another, and not truly seeking their own homeland where Ossets would be a majority, as they claim. This means that arguments about Ossetian being its own language and the Ossets having a long history of self-rule are not in fact arguments for secession, as secession would simply result in a transfer to Russia and not a truly Ossetian state. Therefore, the real question is: does Georgia or Russia have a greater claim to S. Ossetia as part of its territory? The historical arguments made by proposition clearly should Georgia to have a greater claim here."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro02a","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"Georgian rule in South Ossetia is historically illegitimate and oppressive  Modern Georgia never really controlled S. Ossetia. South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia shortly after Georgia gained independence from the disintegrating USSR in 1991. South Ossetia has maintained de facto independence ever since. [1] Georgia, therefore, cannot really claim to have had sustained, legitimate sovereign control over South Ossetia in modern times. Even the USSR recognised S. Ossetia as distinct from Georgia, with the Kremlin stating in 1920 that \u201cwe consider that Ossetia should have the power it prefers. Georgian intrusion into affairs of Ossetia would be an unjustified intervention into foreign internal affairs\u201d. [2] S. Ossetia was an autonomous region within the USSR. It was not considered part of the same region that is now Georgia, and thus during its years under the USSR, S. Ossetia built up a significant degree of autonomy and independence in its internal functioning. Therefore, Georgia's only real claim to South Ossetia must extend back nearly a century, before the time of the Soviet Union.  This significantly weakens Georgia's claim over South Ossetia, but moreover Georgia's historical claim on South Ossetia is quite weak even in isolation. This is because S. Ossetia has its own distinct language and history to that of Georgia. Ossetian or Ossetic is a member of the Northeastern Iranian branch of Indo-European languages. About 500,000 people speak Ossetian in Ossetia. [3] , [4] That Ossetia has this distinct language is an important fact in favour of its status as a nation-state and in favor of its independence. Georgia, however, has been accused of committing genocide against the South Ossetians in 1920, 1993, and 2008, with tens of thousands of S. Ossetians dying over the course of these conflicts. [5] The Georgian government has also attempted to suppress S. Ossetian culture and identity, for example banning the use of the Ossetian language in official documents and abolishing S. Ossetian autonomy within Georgia. [6] Georgian rule in S. Ossetia is therefore both ahistorical, due to S. Ossetia's long and recognised history of independence and cultural and linguistic distinctness, and illegitimate, as the Georgian government has waged war upon the very lives and identity of the S. Ossetian people.  [1] BBC News. \u201cS Ossetia votes for independence\u201d. BBC News. 13 November 2006.   [2] Bzarov, Ruslan. \u201cIndependence of the Republic of South Ossetia \u2013 a guarantee of safety and reliable future of the Ossetian people\u201d. Speech of Doctor of historical sciences, Professor Ruslan Bzarov at the VI congress of the Ossetian people. September 2007.   [3] BBC News. \u201cS Ossetia votes for independence\u201d. BBC News. 13 November 2006.   [4] Omniglot. \u201cOssetian\u201d. Omniglot.   [5] Portyakova, Natalya and Sysoyev, Gennady. \u201cMeasuring South Ossetia by Kosovo\u201d. Kommersant. 15 November 2006.   [6] Makarkin, Alexei. \u201cHow is South Ossetia different from Kosovo?\u201d. RIA Novosti. 9 March 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro03b","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"If S. Ossetians renounce violence, no future conflicts will occur. S. Ossetian militant separatists argue that, if S. Ossetia is not given independence, that future violence and chaos will result. Yet, this is only the case if S. Ossetian separatists continue to resist Georgia's sovereignty violently. If S. Ossetians renounce the use of force and their separatism, there will be no future conflicts. This is an equally valid solution as independence. Furthermore, the US State Department rejected the 2006 independence referendum and warned that it would \u201conly serve to exacerbate tensions and divert attention from the need to peacefully resolve the conflict.\u201d [1]  [1] The Georgian Times Online. \u201cUS slams separatists' decision\u201d. The Georgian Times. 9 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro01a","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"South Ossetia has a right to self-determination  The 1993 Vienna Declaration, which reaffirmed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Charter (and so sets the standard in current international law), unequivocally gives all peoples the right to self-determination: \"All people have the right to self-determination. Owing to this right they freely establish their political status and freely provide their economic, social and cultural development...World Conference on Human Rights considers refusal of the right to self-determination as a violation of human rights and emphasizes the necessity of effective realization of this right\". [1]  By this measure, South Ossetia has the right to self-determination (by democratic processes), and any suppression of that right should be seen as a human rights violation. In 2006, South Ossetia held a referendum that found over 99% of its population of over 100,000 desire independence from Georgia. 95% of the population turned out to vote. The referendum was monitored by a team of 34 international observers. [2] These facts are the core of the case for South Ossetian independence. It demonstrates that South Ossetians are entirely unified and enthusiastic in their desire for independence. The strength and unity of these calls for independence are almost unprecedented and cannot be ignored by the international community. And, certainly, the percentage of a population that desires independence is of relevance to assessing the legitimacy of the call and a country's right to self-determination. By this standard, South Ossetia's right to self-determination is highly legitimate.  [1] United Nations World Conference on Human Rights. \u201cVIENNA DECLARATION AND PROGRAMME OF ACTION\u201d. United Nations. 14-25 June 1993.   [2] BBC News. \u201cS Ossetia votes for independence\u201d. BBC News. 13 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro01b","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"Self-determination is not an absolute right. Not every territory and region in the world that seeks independence has the right to it. This is due in no small part to the fact that such a system would be unworkable. Certain criteria must be met for a territory and people to obtain a legitimate right to self-determination (for example, viability as an independent state and an authentic internal drive for independence), and S. Ossetia arguably does not meet many of these criteria. Therefore S. Ossetia possesses no absolute right to self-determination, and its calls for independence must be evaluated in the context of what the consequences of independence would be. Furthermore, no countries recognized South Ossetia's 2006 referendum and vote for independence at the time it was carried out, and few do now. Without such approval, the referendum should be considered illegitimate. The European human rights watchdog, the Council of Europe, denounced the referendum as \"unnecessary, unhelpful and unfair\". [1]  [1] Walker, Shaun. \u201cSouth Ossetia: Russian, Georgian...independent?\u201d. Open Democracy. 15 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro03a","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"South Ossetian independence will help prevent future conflict  The status quo in the region is one of militarized clashes and tensions. It is important to recognize that South Ossetia has been de facto independent for some time. If it does not achieve independence, the proposed alternative is that it re-integrate into Georgia. Yet, of South Ossetians have made it clear that they will not accept this. The only possible course of action, therefore, would be to force over 100,000 South Ossetians to live under the tyranny of the majority of the Georgian state. This would not only be a clear violation of self-determination and basic democratic principles, but it would also risk a protracted war or insurgency in S. Ossetia against any re-assertion of Georgian authority. S. Ossetia and Georgia have been battling each other for over a century. Georgia has been accused of ethnic cleansing there, and of launching a 'war of aggression' which killed a large number of S. Ossetian civilians in 2008. [1] This war, as the culmination of Georgian aggression against S. Osstia, has made finally made any sort of reconciliation between the two impossible, and hardened S. Ossetian desires for independence. Keeping S. Ossetia within Georgia will simply prolong this ethic struggle, which has demonstrated itself to be irreconcilable in the foreseeable future. This conflict could easily draw in other powers (such as Russia) and cause a wider war once again. Granting S. Ossetian independence, therefore, would help avoid future conflicts and their awful humanitarian consequences.  [1] Walker, Shaun. \u201cSouth Ossetia: Russian, Georgian...independent?\u201d. Open Democracy. 15 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con03b","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"It is invalid to criticize S. Ossetia's referendum for risking instability. The US State Department as well as the European Union both argued that the South Ossetia referendum was wrong on the basis that it was \u201cunhelpful\u201d and could exacerbate tensions with Georgia. [1] This, however, is an invalid status quo argument. It posits that any vote taken by the South Ossetians that disrupts the status quo is invalid, while a vote that might uphold the status quote could be considered valid. This is an unprincipled argument. The South Ossetians have a right to express their beliefs, and those beliefs are legitimate and should be respected, irrespective of whether it disrupts the status quo or even leads to conflict with Georgia. And, if Georgia and other states want to maintain stability, they can do so by not reacting violently to an independent South Ossetia.  [1] The Georgian Times Online. \u201cUS slams separatists' decision\u201d. The Georgian Times. 9 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con01b","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"Russia\u2019s Ministry of Foreign Affairs described the 2006 referendum as a \u201cfree expression of the will of South Ossetia\u2019s people through democratic procedures. Many countries in Europe and America could only envy the level of organization and democratic transparency [in South Ossetia].\u201d [1] (10)Similarly, Luis Tasc\u00f3n, a member of the National Assembly of Venezuela, stated during visit to S. Ossetia that \u201cThose people who wish to be free will be free. And the free peoples will help South Ossetia with it.\u201d [2] (13) Denying the legitimacy of this democratic referendum (whose flaws have not been proved to have been so severe as to discredit it entirely) is to deny the South Ossetian people the right to self-determination.  [1] Socor, Vladimir. \u201cMOSCOW\u2019S FINGERPRINTS ALL OVER SOUTH OSSETIA\u2019S REFERENDUM\u201d. Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 3 Issue: 212. The Jamestown Foundation. 15 November 2006.   [2] Enotes. \u201cSouth Ossetian independence referendum, 2006\u201d. Enotes."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con02a","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"A South Ossetian state is unviable  There are many factors that make South Ossetia unviable as a state. South Ossetia is very small with a very small population. It is also a landlocked state and very poor. These facts make it unlikely that South Ossetia could act effectively as an independent state. The result is that it would become dependent on other states. [1] This can already be seen from the fact that S. Ossetia has only been able to secure its current de facto independence with substantial military and foreign aid from Russia. [2] S. Ossetia is economically unviable as an independent state. It is landlocked and only has meaningful road access to the sea through Georgia. S. Ossetian GDP was estimated at US$ 15 million (US$ 250 per capita) in a work published in 2002. S. Ossetia is arguably lacking in the basic economic necessities for autonomy. Indeed, a $15 million GDP would make South Ossetia one of the poorest nations in the world. Particularly following a war with Georgia in the 1990s, South Ossetia has struggled economically. Employment and supplies are scarce. The majority of the population survives on subsistence farming. Virtually the only significant economic asset that South Ossetia possesses is control of the Roki Tunnel that links Russia and Georgia, from which the South Ossetian government reportedly obtains as much as a third of its budget by levying customs duties on freight traffic. The separatist officials admitted that Tskhinvali received more than 60 percent of its 2006 budget revenue directly from the Russian government. [3] [4] Finally, S. Ossetia has a population of roughly 70,000. [5] This would make it one of the smallest states in the world. This fact, combined with its high level of poverty, makes it a poor candidate for independence, and shows that its \u201cindependence\u201d would compel it to become even more dependent on Russia, or else risk disintegrating as an unviable state.  [1] BBC News. \u201cS Ossetia votes for independence\u201d. BBC News. 13 November 2006.   [2] Socor, Vladimir. \u201cMOSCOW\u2019S FINGERPRINTS ALL OVER SOUTH OSSETIA\u2019S REFERENDUM\u201d. Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 3 Issue: 212. The Jamestown Foundation. 15 November 2006.   [3] Walker, Shaun. \u201cSouth Ossetia: Russian, Georgian...independent?\u201d. Open Democracy. 15 November 2006.   [4] Vaisman, Daria. \u201cNo recognition for breakaway South Ossetia's vote\u201d. The Christian Science Monitor. 10 November 2006.   [5] BBC News. \u201cS Ossetia votes for independence\u201d. BBC News. 13 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con03a","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"Georgia has a right to territorial integrity  Georgia has a legitimate sovereign right to maintain its territorial integrity as well as the social contract accompanying it. Georgia has the right to take action to secure the integrity of these things, unless blocked by a higher international authority. Internationally, S. Ossetia's independence is recognised by only five nations (including Russia), demonstrating that the international community is not convinced that S. Ossetia's claim to self-determination trumps Georgia's claim to territorial integrity. [1] In order to obtain independence, it is important that a country be recognized diplomatically by a significant number of the members of the United Nations. This is important in large part because it ensures that a state will have viable diplomatic relations internationally if it becomes independent. It also demonstrates that the international system supports a certain action being taken internationally. Thus Georgia's claim should continue to stand until the international community changes its mind, and at the moment the international community has legitimate concerns regarding the regional instability and conflict that an independent S. Ossetia might foster. Moreover, as shown above the S. Ossetian state is entirely dependent on Russian support, and so it can be accurately stated that the issue of S. Ossetian independence, and its threat to Georgian territorial integrity, has arisen only because of Russian interference within Georgia. Even those who argue that any region has the right to self-determination would probably reject the idea that nations have the right to foster and encourage parts of other nations to secede from their current state and join another. The S. Ossetian independence movement can thus be correctly seen simply as Russian aggression against Georgia for its own advantage, not an issue of self-determination.  [1] RIA Novosti. \u201cNicaragua recognizes South Ossetia and Abkhazia\u201d. RIA Novosti. 4 September 2008."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con01a","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"Illegitimacy of the 2006 referendum  South Ossetia was wrong to hold elections under conflict conditions. In 2006, South Ossetia can be said to have been in 8 conflicts with Georgia when it held its 2006 referendum on independence. Holding referendums under such conflict conditions is generally illegitimate because the results of the elections are skewed by the conflict, threats, and the various risks for the voters involved. This caused David Bakradze, the chairman of a Georgian parliamentary European Integration Committee, to comment, \u201cUnder conflict conditions, you cannot speak about legitimate elections.\u201d [1] This mirrors European human rights watchdog, the Council of Europe\u2019s, denunciation of the referendum as \"unnecessary, unhelpful and unfair\". [2] Furthermore Russia's involvement in the 2006 referendum arguably corrupted its validity, as many of the authorities in S. Ossetia were installed there by the Russian government. [3]  [1] Radio Free Europe. \u201cOverwhelming Support For South Ossetia Independence\u201d. Radio Free Europe. The Journal of the Turkish Weekly. 13 November 2006.   [2] Walker, Shaun. \u201cSouth Ossetia: Russian, Georgian...independent?\u201d. Open Democracy. 15 November 2006.   [3] Socor, Vladimir. \u201cMOSCOW\u2019S FINGERPRINTS ALL OVER SOUTH OSSETIA\u2019S REFERENDUM\u201d. Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 3 Issue: 212. The Jamestown Foundation. 15 November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con02b","title":"global politics society minorities house believes south ossetia should be","text":"S. Ossetia has an effective democratic government which carries out an effective control over the territory and the population. It has independent legal procedure, army and militia and security service. The state levies taxes, provides property rights and social service \u2013 public health services, provision of pensions, public safety, power and road and transport services, etc. [1] (4) All this clearly points to the viability of an independent S. Ossetian state -a fact which already exists on the ground. Or, if it wants, after independence S. Ossetia is morally within its rights to re-join with its kith-and-kin in North Ossetia, which is part of Russia. Of course, it would have to first separate from Georgia, whereupon it will have the capacity to then decide to join Russia. Moreover, few states n the world are truly self-sufficient, and there are plenty of poor landlocked countries, so in this sense S. Ossetia would not be unique. Furthermore, poverty from continual conflict is an argument to end the conflict, not against independence.  [1] Bzarov, Ruslan. \u201cIndependence of the Republic of South Ossetia \u2013 a guarantee of safety and reliable future of the Ossetian people\u201d. Speech of Doctor of historical sciences, Professor Ruslan Bzarov at the VI congress of the Ossetian people. September 2007."}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro02b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"At that rate, war in Africa is not going to be ended by 2020. Moreover, progress in the past does not mean that the progress will continue into the future."}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro02a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Progress in ending conflict in Africa  Conflict in Africa is slowly being ended. In 1992 there were 18 conflicts in Africa; by 2009 this had been halved to 9. [1] But a decline in the number of conflicts is not the only positive trend in African conflicts: there has also been a decline in the size of wars. They have changed from wars between two organised armies to being small scale insurgencies. In 1984 the conflicts were on average causing more than 20,000 battle deaths per year, but by 2008 only around 1,000. Even the number of incidents of genocide and mass killing has been going down from 9 in the 1980s to five in the 2000s. [2] Ending war might therefore be considered to be ambitious but it is not against the trend and not inconceivable.  [1] Straus, 2012, pp.183-184  [2] Straus, 2012, pp.189-191"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro03b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Increasing the number of peacekeeping missions does not always mean that the result will be peace; clearly if there is a need for peacekeeping or even more so combat troops then peace has broken down. The United Nations has almost 70,000 peacekeepers deployed in Africa ,yet new conflicts and crises keep erupting; in 2013 there were new conflicts in Mali, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic. In the case of Southern Sudan this is despite there being 7500 UN peacekeepers in the country. [1]  [1] Raghavan, Sudarsan, \u2018Record number of U.N. peacekeepers fails to stop African wars\u2019, Washington Post, 4 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro01a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"The Solemn Declaration  The Solemn Declaration did not just highlight the goal but also that it would be achieved through three techniques: by 1, addressing the causes of conflicts \u2013 economic and social disparities, strengthening judicial systems to ensure accountability, and reaffirming collective responsibility, 2, preventing emerging sources of conflict such as piracy getting a foothold, and 3, engaging in conflict prevention. [1]  Africa has been building the African Peace and Security Architecture to address these causes of conflict. It has created the Peace and Security Council that facilitates the AU\u2019s response to crises; it can engage in actions from humanitarian assistance to military intervention if there are particularly grave circumstances such as genocide. [2] When it does authorise action, this action is coordinated by the AU commission. When it comes to peaceful resolution of conflict, the AU has a \u2018Panel of the Wise\u2019 made up of former presidents and others with lots of influence and moral authority who use preventative diplomacy to try to resolve conflicts. [3]  [1] African Union, 2013, p.5  [2] Williams, Paul D., \u2018The African Union\u2019s Conflict Management Capabilities\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, October 2011,  , p.7  [3] Ibid, p.12"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro01b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Having a system is useless if it is not sufficiently funded to fulfil its objectives, at the moment the AU does not provide sufficient funding for peacekeeping. [1]  Moreover, reaction does not prevent war - just shortens it and reduces the intensity. The Panel of the Wise is one method of attempting to stop conflict before it becomes really violent but external mediators can only do so much in preventing conflict; most needs to come from the parties in conflict.  [1] Williams, 2011, p.12"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro04b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Fiddling around with what is considered to be a war is not resolving the problem of conflict in Africa. The most devastating conflicts have been internal conflicts \u2013 if we want to end war in Africa we need to prevent these conflicts from occurring too."}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro03a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"The increasing effectiveness of the African Union  The African Union has been taking a much more active stance in preventing and resolving conflict. Since 2003 responsibility for peace in Africa has been with the Peace and Security Council. This body has authorised AU interventions in Somalia, Sudan, Burundi, and the Central African Republic. [1] The African Union is not the only organisation engaged in peacekeeping; the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has also been actively engaged in peacekeeping, having been deployed in numerous conflicts since the 1990s, most recently in Mali where they took part alongside French forces in defeating an Islamist insurgency. [2]  The AU is also boosting its collective capacity to respond to crises creating the African Standby Force made up of five regional brigades of 4000 soldiers. This force, when complete, will enable rapid deployment anywhere in Africa so helping to prevent crises becoming full scale wars. [3]  [1] \u2018Peace and Security Council\u2019, peaceau.org, 23 July 2013,   [2] News24, \u2018Ecowas urges members to send troops to Mail\u2019, 23 October 2013,   [3] Cilliers, Jakkie, \u2018The African Standby Force An update on progress\u2019, Institute of Strategic Studies, March 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro04a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Not all conflict is war  What is War? The AU\u2019s declaration does not define it. Ending all conflict is ambitious, ending only inter state war in Africa on the other hand is not. The vast majority of conflicts in Africa have been internal. The only true inter state conflicts have been the wars between Israel and Egypt, the Eritrean-Ethiopian war, the Uganda-Tunisia war, and the Second Congo War. [1] None of these are ongoing. The only conflicts that might count as inter-state that might be considered ongoing are the situation in Western Sahara and border clashes between the Sudans. Western Sahara might be considered to be frozen with very few deaths as a result of it and the Sudan conflict is in large part a result of the border being new.  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018List of conflicts in Africa\u2019, accessed 10 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con03b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"While events cannot be foreseen, fixing fragile states to make conflict less likely is possible. Eradicating poverty is already an international goal and improving governance is a regular concern among donors. The AU recognises that development, democracy and good governance are necessary to ensure stability and peace. [1]  [1] Cilliers, Jakkie, \u2018Towards a Continental Early Warning System for Africa\u2019, ISS Africa, paper 102, April 2005,  , p.2"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con01b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"While we know that so long as there has been recorded history there has been war, we do not know that war is a part of human nature. Indeed there is some evidence that it is not. Research by Abo Academy University has found that primitive societies \u2013 tribes that don\u2019t rely on agriculture or domesticated animals \u2013 don\u2019t have group conflicts; violence is almost exclusively between individuals. As these societies are a good analogue for society before what we term civilisation arose it is likely that war is a result of civilisation not human nature. [1]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Primitive human society \u2018not driven by war\u2019\u2019, 18 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con02a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Africa is the most warlike continent  In 2012 Africa had the most distinct conflicts of any region with 13 ongoing conflicts. [1] While Africa and Asia have throughout most of the last fifty years had roughly similar numbers of conflicts \u2013 approximately 10 per year [2] - Africa has had many more non state conflicts and the number has not declined since 2004 when there were 20 non-state conflicts; in 2011 there were 22. [3] All in all there is little hope of managing to end all these conflicts by 2020.  [1] \u2018Armed Conflicts 2012\u2019, Uppsala Conflict Data Program, 2013,   [2] \u2018Armed Conflict by Region\u2019, UCDP, 2013,   [3] \u2018Non-state Conflicts by Region, 1989-2011\u2019, UCDP, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con04a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"No mechanism to prevent crises and war exists  Within countries it is the state that ensures that conflict does not occur: the state has a monopoly on the use of force so ensures law and order. There is no such hierarchy between states. African nations, as with most other states in the world, believe in the sovereign right of states to manage their own affairs. In the same document as there is a pledge to end war \u201crespect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each of its [AU\u2019s] Member States\u201d is reaffirmed. [1] While states are considered sovereign there is no possible way to create a mechanism to ensure that conflicts do not happen. The AU cannot dictate to its members to ensure they avoid internal conflicts even if the AU knows a conflict is coming as those members are the stakeholders. [2] All that the AU can do is react to ongoing conflicts when it is already spilling out of control and encourage good practice.  [1] African Union, 2013, p.1  [2] Williams, 2011, p.9"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con03a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Gains may be reversed; events can\u2019t be foreseen  Africa still has many fragile states. The Institute of Strategic Studies Africa identified 26 \u2018fragile\u2019 states (meaning they have weak governance, conflict and violence, inequality and poverty) including DR Congo and Ethiopia and forecasts that there will still be 11 fragile states by 2050. [1] This rather implies that war will not be ended by 2050, let alone 2020.  Even in countries that are considered stable events can quickly spiral into conflict. Mali was considered to be democratic and reasonably stable before a coup in 2012: there were multiparty elections in 1992, it held regular elections that passed international inspections, its first president Konar\u00e9 willingly stood down, there was comparatively good freedom of speech and media. [2] Yet after a coup in 2012 it went downhill to the point of requiring intervention by French troops in early 2013.  [1] Cilliers, Jakkie, and Sick, Timothy D., \u2018Prospects for Africa\u2019s 26 fragile countries\u2019, ISS Africa, p.7,   [2] Whitehouse, Bruce, \u2018What went wrong in Mali?\u2019, London Review of Books, Vol.34, No.16, 20 August 2012,  , p.17"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con01a","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"War is in human nature  War and conflict between groups is in human nature. As Hobbes famously wrote \u201cthe life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short\u2026 Nature should thus dissociate and render men apt to invade and destroy one another\u201d. [1] Although the motives have changed, conflict has been a constant throughout human history. The first militaries were created around 2700 BC but conflict between societies almost certainly occurred before this. [2] Pledging to end all war is high minded, but it is unlikely to actually succeed in overturning human nature.  [1] Hobbes, Thomas, \u2018Chapter XIII of the Natural Condition of Mankind as concerning their felicity and misery\u2019, Leviathan,   [2] Gabriel, Richard A., and Metz, Karen S., A Short History of War, 1992,"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con04b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"While the AU cannot completely prevent conflicts from breaking out it is establishing a Continental Early Warning System. This will use publically available information and involve organisations at all levels from international to local to enable the AU, and any threatened states, to take preventive action in the common good. This is linked to regional organisations such as ECOWAS which has its own conflict prevention mechanisms and has the authority to react with peacekeeping, mediation of disputes or other peace building mechanisms. [1]  The AU can also ensure any conflicts that do break out are ended quickly. The creation of the African Standby Force should give the AU the strength to react to crises and prevent conflicts escalating.  [1] Cilliers, 2005, pp.1, 10"}
+{"id":"test-international-apwhbaucmip-con02b","title":"africa politics warpeace house believes african union can meet its pledge","text":"Africa is not the most warlike continent in terms of the frequency or duration of conflicts. Asia had 1.88 wars per country from 1960 to 2008 compared to 1.65 per country in Africa. [1] Moreover many more of these armed conflicts are internal and are smaller.  [1] Straus, 2012, p.186"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-pro02b","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"While there are sure to be some countries that won\u2019t live up to their pledges this is also the case with binding agreements even if they have built in penalties. This has been shown by the European Union where Germany and France both flouted budget rules that allowed a maximum deficit of 3% at the start of the millennium despite the threat of fines. [1]  [1] Osborn, Andrew, \u2018France and Germany to flout budget rules until 2006\u2019, The Guardian, 30 October 2003,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-pro02a","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"Only an international treaty can create penalties for non-compliance  A non-binding agreement will not have any penalties for any countries that do not comply with it, this sets the agreement up for failure. Without a binding agreement a government will find it difficult to bind its successors who may back track in the decades that follow. Some states are backtracking even before the agreement is finalised; the UK has been abandoning its green policies \u2013 cutting subsidies for renewables, cancelling carbon capture and storage, reducing funding for domestic energy efficiency, and selling the green investment bank. [1] If governments will take such measures before the agreement is even finished then what hope does it have in the future if there is nothing to persuade sovereign governments to comply with their pledges?  [1] Monbiot, George, \u2018On climate change this government is indifferent to life, in love with death\u2019, The Guardian, 2 December 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-pro03b","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"Voluntary measures have got much further than previous attempts to get a binding agreement \u2013 at least there is going to be a good working agreement to build on in future this time. The changes that could mean countries ultimately targeting 2C or even 1.5C are technological; if solar becomes the cheapest form of electricity generation, if electric cars become competitive with petrol, and biofuels taken up for aviation fuel. [1]  [1] Mathiesen, Karl, \u2018Should we be aiming to keep global warming to 1.5C, not 2C?\u2019, The Guardian,. 2 December 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-pro01a","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"The hard part is the cutting of emissions  The problem with a non-binding agreement, even one where the targets have been submitted by the governments themselves is exactly that it is non-binding. If governments are not bound to cut emissions then there is a good chance that many of them wont. [1] The British government, which has binding targets, has been on course to miss its 2025 targets with reductions of only 23% against targets of 31% due to a decision to reduce subsidies for housing insulation. [2] If countries which have set targets for themselves in the past are missing them what hope do we have for these voluntary targets?  [1] Taylor, Lenore, \u2018Paris climate talks: the real test is whether countries will keep their word\u2019, The Guardian, 30 November 2015,   [2] Harvey, Fiona, \u2018UK on track to miss carbon targets, climate change advisers warn\u2019, The Guardian, 15 July 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-pro01b","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"Each government has put in targets that they believe are realistic and that they are willing to try to reach. The countries involved are therefore much more likely to want to meet the target than if they had been imposed on them by a binding international treaty. Europe has found that binding refugee quotas are almost impossible to agree and equally difficult to implement. [1] Instead it has generally been accepted that only voluntary systems will work when it comes to taking in the majority of refugees with Hungary willing to take legal action to prevent mandatory quotas. [2] The same is the case on greenhouse gas emissions.  [1] Euractive, \u2018Commission ready to drop mandatory quotas for refugees\u2019, 17 September 2015,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Migrant crisis: Hungary challenges EU quota plan in court\u2019, 3 December 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-pro03a","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"It is too late for half measures  Two degrees Celsius has generally been regarded as that safe level which agreements should be aiming for. This agreement does not go so far with it expected to keep the temperature increase to around 2.7 degrees if everyone sticks to their commitments and makes deeper ones after 2030. [1] Unfortunately however the world will still most likely be heading towards a 3.5 degrees rise if no further cuts are made later. [2] Now is the time to be much more ambitious and part of that means binding cuts to prevent backsliding or those agreeing carrying on as usual.  [1] Nuttall, Nick, \u2018Global Response to Climate Change Keeps Door Open to 2 Degree C Temperature Limit\u2019, UNFCCC Press Office, 30 October 2015,   [2] Romm, Joe, \u2018Misleading U.N. Report Confuses Media on Paris Climate Talks\u2019, thinkprogress.org, 3 November 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-con03b","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"The United States Senate would be a potential sticking point for any treaty however it would be unlikely that the United States would hold out against the rest of the world. At the worst case it would simply sign next time the democrats gain a majority."}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-con01b","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"Sovereignty is often taken to mean that states can do what they like without interference. This is not the kind of mentality that will help solve climate change or ensure that this deal sticks. Unfortunately climate change is a global issue where what happens in one country affects everyone else just as much as the miscreant. The atmosphere is a global commons, currently free for everyone to use, and more often abuse. As such the principles of sovereignty and non-interference can have no place."}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-con02a","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"Only a non-binding agreement would get the targets necessary  Fully binding treaties with mechanisms for compliance are the gold standard for agreements between nations. But because they are onerous they are the most difficult kind of treaties to get agreed to start with. If the aim were such an agreement it would unfortunately never happen. This has been demonstrated by the years of successive failures in crafting climate agreements. COP 15 is the most notable; expectations were immensely high for a binding international treaty but there was a failure to deliver, largely because governments did not want a binding international solution which is what was being negotiated at Copenhagen. [1]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Why did Copenhagen fail to deliver a climate deal?\u2019, 22 December 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-con03a","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"A more informal agreement avoids the US congress  The United States Congress is a potential hurdle for any climate agreement. While President Barack Obama is keen to make tackling climate change a legacy of his Presidency the Republican dominated Congress is both likely to try to block the President for that very reason and is sceptical of climate change. It is therefore a major benefit to have an agreement that will not need to be submitted to Congress for approval as any treaty needs to be confirmed by the Senate.  The Secretary of State Kerry argues that it is \u201cdefinitely not going to be a treaty,\u201d and \u201cnot going to be legally binding reduction targets like Kyoto\u201d. It won\u2019t need to be passed to the Senate because the President already has the power to implement the agreement through existing law. [1]  [1] Mufson, Steven, and Demirjian, Karoun, \u2018Trick or treaty? The legal question hanging over the Paris climate change conference\u2019, Washington Post, 30 November 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-con01a","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"Sovereign states should be allowed to set their own targets and be trusted to meet them  States are sovereign entities meaning that only they have power within their borders and climate change should not be a cause for groups of countries meddling in the business of others. Each state making its own commitment and then doing its own monitoring and enforcement is the right way to go about preventing climate change. By doing it this way no countries will feel unduly burdened or persecuted."}
+{"id":"test-international-iighbopcc-con02b","title":"imate international global house believes outcome paris climate conference","text":"There is little reason why countries can\u2019t voluntarily come up with their quotas and then be bound to them by treaty. Being willing to be bound by a treaty would show that the targets submitted are really the targets that countries are setting for themselves rather than a public relations exercise."}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-pro02b","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"This is really not an issue about the reporting of gay marriage or the opportunities to host a pride march. In many of these countries gay men and women face repression, imprisonment and violence. Regardless of the victims of such actions, it says something fundamental about the perpetrators of those actions \u2013 governments, security services or religious groups \u2013 that they perform the actions at all. Privacy is an argument to be used to prevent discrimination, not cover-ups of discrimination and abuse; those who are offended by such reporting can invoke their privacy simply by tuning out.  Equally it is questionable that proposition would make such an argument based on the view that certain racial, ethnic or religious groups were less than human and it might trouble bigots of another stripe to see their interests of those communities mentioned in the media. It is difficult to find a definition of Human Rights that would not condemn the suppression of individuals on the basis of sexuality that does not also have to argue that gay men and women are less than human. Such an argument is as offensive as it is palpably untrue."}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-pro02a","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"On issues such as gay marriage, human rights activists have taken the line that the right to marry is nobody else\u2019s business. That principle of privacy should work both ways.  Many have argued that issues relating to homosexual relations are, fundamentally, a matter of privacy. That we should respect the rights of individuals to live their lives as they see fit without having the views, actions and opinions imposed upon them. [1] It\u2019s a reasonable position but must surely relate to viewers and readers as much as it does to the subjects of news stories.  If gay men and women have the right to live their lives free from the intervention of other traditions and beliefs then so do those communities \u2013 religious and otherwise \u2013 that find some of their demands offensive or objectionable.  If the rights to privacy and self-determination are supported by those who support gay rights, then it would be inconsistent to suggest that this does not generate a right to avoid offence on behalf of those receiving news.  [1] Human rights campaign, \u2018Should gay marriage be legal?\u2019, procon.org, updated 10th August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-pro03b","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"It seems perverse to suggest that consumers of news would be likely to abandon a channel on the basis of one story \u2013 or even several. Decisions by consumers of news are determined far more by the general outlook of a channel than by particular stories \u2013 it is rare to find individuals who are interested in the entire output of a news organisation.  In addition, new organisations clearly have an interest in covering areas that are ignored by their competitors because it gives them a commercial advantage both through appealing to new groups but also through enhancing their reputation for impartial reporting. There is clearly a gap in the market to provide reporting of gay issues and it therefore should be in news organisations interests to fill that gap. This is exactly what al Jazeera did when it was set up; it filled a gap left by the closure of BBC Arabic for a broadcaster that is willing to \"report the news as they see it.\" [1]  [1] \u2018History of Al Jazeera Television\u2019, Allied Media Corp,  accessed 14 August 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-pro01a","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"Broadcasters almost never show scenes of torture or torment because they know this will cause offence, the same principle should apply here.  Journalists and editors use their judgement all the time on what is acceptable to print or broadcast. Expletives [1] or graphic images of violence or sex are routinely prevented because they would cause offence, giving personal details might cause distress and are omitted as a courtesy, and the identities of minors are protected as a point of law in most jurisdictions. It is simply untrue to suggest that journalists report the \u2018unvarnished truth\u2019 with no regard to its ramifications. Where a particular fact or image is likely to cause offence or distress, it is routine to exercise self-censorship \u2013 it\u2019s called discretion and professional judgement [2] . Indeed, the news outlets that fail to do so are the ones most frequently and vociferously denounced by the high-minded intelligentsia who so frequently argue that broadcasting issues such as this constitutes free speech.  It is palpably and demonstrably true that news outlets seek to avoid offending their market; so liberal newspapers avoid expos\u00e9s of bad behaviour by blacks or homosexuals otherwise they wouldn\u2019t have a readership. [3] Most journalists try to minimise the harm caused by their reporting as shown by a study interviewing journalists on their ethics but how they define this harm and what they think will cause offence differs. [4] Western journalists may find it awkward that many in the Arab world find the issue of homosexuality unpleasant or offensive but many of the same journalists would be aghast if they were asked to report activities that ran counter to their cultural sensibilities simply as fact.  [1] Trask, Larry, \u2018The Other Marks on Your Keyboard\u2019, University of Sussex, 1997,   [2] For example see the BBC guide to editorial policy.  [3] Posner, Richard, A., \u2018Bad News\u2019, The New York Times, 31 July 2005,   [4] Deppa, Joan A, & Plaisance, Patrick Lee, 2009 \u2018Perceptions and Manifestations of Autonomy, Transparency and Harm Among U.S. Newspaper Journalists\u2019, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, pp.328-386, p.358,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-pro01b","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"All of the issues that Prop raises are matters of choice - the use of expletives or the visual portrayal of a brutal act are the representations of an active choice, either by the subject of the story or the reporter. The endemic homophobia in the Arab world attacks people on the basis of their humanity, if people were being imprisoned for having green eyes or red hair or black skin or breasts or an attraction to the opposite sex, nobody would suggest that there were cultural sensitivities involved. Journalists would report it as a crime of apartheid.  Free speech is grounded in giving voice to the voiceless, not only regardless of the fact that some may find that inconvenient but in active defiance of it. Journalism at its best recognises that fact. For example the ethics guide of the American Society of Professional Journalists states that journalists should, \u201cTell the story of the diversity and magnitude of the human experience even when it is unpopular to do so.\u201d [1] At its worst it\u2019s merely a handy way of filling space between adverts for washing powder; the best of journalism happens when it challenges, takes risks and, frequently, offends. In demonstrating that an American President was, in fact, a crook, [2] or reminding Western viewers that there was a famine happening in much of Africa, the journalists concerned made their readers and viewers uncomfortable because they reminded them that they were complicit.  [1] Quoted in Handbook for Journalists. Publ. Reporters Without Borders. P 91.  [2] \u2018Watergate at 40\u2019, Washington Post, June 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-pro03a","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"Where there is a clear objection to discussing a certain subject, insisting on doing so is not news, it\u2019s propaganda.  Ultimately all news outlets report that which is of interest to their viewers. Where there is no interest or, more frequently, an active lack of interest, news outlet do not - and should not \u2013 impose a particular set of judgements or interests on their customers. Doing so would arguably be patronizing and certainly be financial suicide [1] .  As a result they report what is both interesting and acceptable to those who consume the news and, for the vast majority of news outlets, the companies that advertise on the station, website or in the paper. Expecting news outlets to ignore those simple realities is asking them to self-destruct by ignoring their market. It is a clear example of sacrificing the good in the name of the best \u2013 in the example given, the writer mentions that Al Jazeera covers stories relating to gay rights but does so on its English language channels. [2] This exactly shows the market in action; Al Jazeera English broadcasts mostly to a European audience who are not offended by reports on gay rights whereas \u201cAl Jazeera Arabic is geared towards a Middle Eastern audience and does not challenge cultural values or orthodox religion\u201d. [3]  [1] For example the actions of advertisers and readers killed the News of the World.  [2] Pellot, Brian, 2012, \u2018(Not) reporting homosexuality in the Middle East\u2019, Free Speech Debate,   [3] Krajnc, Anita, \u2018Al Jazeera Arabic ignores gay news\u2019, Toronto Media Co-op, 2 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-con03b","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"A liberal bias among the journalistic elite in the West is hardly reason for changing the editorial policies of news outlets in nations that do not share those values. The first duty of the journalist must be their role as the eyes and ears of those for whom they do their reporting \u2013 the readers and viewers who both directly and indirectly pay their salaries. As a result, there is a duty on journalists not only to report those issues of interest to that group but to avoid those issues which their customers consider either irrelevant or distasteful."}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-con01b","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"It is routine to make determinations on the basis of the race or religion of those affected in a story as to whether it is newsworthy or not. Sixty people of another nationality die in an accident, it may be barely reported, if two people of the news outlet\u2019s home nationality dies in such a tragedy then it is a major story. The interests and prejudices of the consumers of news are reflected all the time in what editors consider to be important."}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-con02a","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"Citizens deserve the right to know what is happening in their name.  It is up to the public to decide whether those actions that are reported are right or wrong, journalists and broadcasters should not act as a filter in that process. Many of these actions \u2013 imprisonments, internments, brutality and others \u2013 are conducted by governments in the name of the people. Sometimes this is done under euphemisms such as \u2018protecting public morality\u2019 or in the name of a majority religion. This is used as a catch all as shown by the case of journalist Sofiene Chourabi who was arrested for \u2018harming public morals\u2019 in response to calling for a protest against the governing party in Tunisia. [1] It seems only reasonable that people have the right to know what is being done in their name, how their morality is being \u2018protected\u2019 or what their faith is being used to justify.  The failure to do so assumes that the public \u2013 individually and collectively \u2013 are either to foolish to understand or too callous to care. Either or both of those things may be true, although it seems unlikely, but it is certainly not the role of the individual journalist or editor to make such an assumption. Even was that assumption true, it still does not change the facts. In the words of C.P. Snow, \u201cComment is free but facts are sacred\u201d. [2] These events happened, they happened to citizens of that country, they affect how the rest of the world views that country and how the government views and treats its citizens. On every count, that is news.  [1] \u2018Tunisian journalist faces \u2018public morals\u2019 charge after criticizing government\u2019, Amnesty International, 8 August 2012,   [2] \u2018Comment is free\u2019, guardian.co.uk,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-con03a","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"Journalism should report the experiences of the vulnerable and oppressed just as much as those of the elite and powerful.  The idea that people are not widely interested in the lives of their fellow citizens is clearly untrue. Indeed, \u2018people sell papers\u2019 is one of the oldest sayings in journalism. However, there is also a moral obligation on journalists to report the news that impacts on the marginalized the most. This is demonstrably the case as it tends to those stories that bring to life disadvantage or the vulnerable just as much as those that report the misdeeds of the powerful that win journalists the recognition of their peers and the professional awards and prestige that goes along with that. Pulitzers and others are rarely handed out for reporting what is comfortable, mundane or safe. For example the 2012 Pulitzer for local reporting was for an article on the sex scandal at Penn State and Feature Writing on \u201chaunting story of a woman who survived a brutal attack that took the life of her partner\u201d. [1]  [1] \u20182012 Winners and Finalists\u2019, The Pulitzer Prizes,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-con01a","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"The job of a journalist is to report the world and events as they see them. Cultural sensibilities do not alter the fact that these events have happened.  It is difficult to see how a matter that is undeniably controversial on the international stage and impacts on the perception of the perpetrating government around the world could not be deemed newsworthy [1] . It should not be the responsibility of journalists to determine whether or not viewers and readers might find something of interest but, rather, to report events that have happened and that may have an impact on the lives of consumers either as individuals or as a nation. By that standard, these matters are clearly news.  News organisations and individual journalists do not report on military, political, financial or terrorist actions because they agree with them but do so because of their impact on the world in which their consumers live. Often the very stories which are the most important to report \u2013 and do so impartially \u2013 are those very stories that evoke strong feelings on both \u2013 or all \u2013 sides. Al Jazeera gained its reputation by being willing to go where other Arabic channels had not gone such as showing Israeli guests speaking Hebrew which shocked the Arab world. [2] It should be willing to do the same with gay issues.  [1] CNN. Hala Gorani. The Struggle for Gay Rights in the Middle East. June 02 2006.  [2] Yeginsu, Ceylan, \u2018Al Jazeera English Fresh outlook from the Middle East\u2019, Global Media Wars,"}
+{"id":"test-international-bldimehbn-con02b","title":"bate living difference international middle east house believes news","text":"If Op\u2019s argument were true then news programmes would never end \u2013 and never need to repeat a story. Governments undertake an enormous number of actions every day that in some way impact upon their citizens and have wider implications for the wider world. By any objective standard, it is quite routine for all but the most important of these to go unreported \u2013 most consumers of news have little interest in or understanding of many of the complexities of economics or foreign policy. For example in 1999 only 29% of Americans said they were very interested in news about other countries. [1] Likewise many important developments in science or literature \u2013 frequently involving public money \u2013 are barely mentioned by a media that knows its consumers to be uninterested.  [1] Bostrom, Meg, 1999 \u2018Public Attitudes Towards Foreign Affairs An Overview of the Current State of Public Opinion\u2019, Frameworks Institute  p.11"}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-pro02b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"Independent nations are capable of trying war crimes themselves.  The ICC is an unnecessary intrusion on national sovereignty. It should be up to each state to determine its own legal system as to how criminal matters should be prosecuted.  If the US and Israel do have issues where military officials have broken the international criminal law, they can be dealt with by the existing Courts-Martial of their respective militaries. Both Israel and the US are states that obey the rule of law. The ICC was unnecessary when the US military convicted William Calley for the My Lai massacre, or the Mahmudiyah case.  The principle of complementarity is no guarantee as it is up to the ICC itself to determine if the state is unable or unwilling, meaning it could take over a case for its own ends."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-pro02a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"Domestic courts are often incapable of providing a fair trial, when they fail the ICC fills the void.  Domestic legal systems will often suffer from a lack of judicial independence and potentially politicised prosecutions, and are also open to allegations of victors\u2019 justice, or whitewashes by a judiciary biased towards the winners of the conflict.  The ICC, as an effective court and with an independent judiciary, provide a suitable and unbiased climate for these cases to be heard in. While it is difficult to give any former head of state a fair trial, it is even more so in cases involving states divided along ethnic and political fault lines where any conviction could be seen as one based on continuing hatreds rather than evidence and criminal procedure.  It is clearly in the interests of the United States and Israel to support the principle that where there is no independent judiciary cases can be moved to a higher level. These states as much as any other desire that those who commit large scale international crimes be brought to book. The ICC for example might provide an alternative method of going after terrorists.  In addition, the principle of complementarity \u2013 that the ICC should only prosecute where states have shown themselves unable or unwilling to prosecute - means that when a state can take effective action against war crimes, there will be no role for the ICC. This means that the US and Israel with independent judiciaries should have nothing to worry about unless their judiciary proves unwilling to prosecute if one of their own nationals commits a crime prosecutable by the ICC."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-pro03b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"Just because there is widespread public support for a thing or measure does not mean that it should automatically be the case. The issue should be debated on its own merits, rather than resting on a potentially ill-informed public. Ratification of treaties is left to congress and the Knesset to ensure that their consequences are properly considered."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-pro01a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"The ICC is a force for good, and the all states should be seen to be standing fully behind it.  The International Criminal Court is a major breakthrough in providing a permanent and durable system that can effectively prosecute and independently try war criminals.  In the past there was no permanent framework for dealing with grave breaches of human rights protection, often allowing states to perform evil acts with impunity. Only for the very worst atrocities were special courts and tribunals set up. It should also act as a deterrent to future violations; it may not reduce conflict but will encourage states to keep a tighter rein on their militaries.  An attempt at a solution to the problem of enforcement of international criminal law is something to be applauded, for the same reason the criminal law on the domestic sphere is \u2013 it saves lives, protects human rights and provides civilization to what would otherwise be anarchy."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-pro01b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"It took nearly two years for the ICC to launch an investigation into atrocities in the Central African Republic. This has helped defeat the argument that it would be faster than the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and International Tribunal for Rwanda were. So far being indicted by the ICC has had little impact; for example it failed to prevent the election of Uhuru Kenyatta, who is currently facing trial by the ICC for crimes against humanity, as President of Kenya.  The ICC is also hamstrung by its inability to capture defendants itself. It can only do so with the co-operation of its member states.  The US and Israel have nothing to gain from membership, and everything to lose in terms of being on the receiving end of politically motivated and abusive prosecutions."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-pro03a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"The American people support ICC membership.  In a democracy the voice of the people should carry weight in determining how the country acts internationally. According to a 2005 poll carried out by the Chicago Council on foreign relations 69% of the US population are in favour of US participation in the ICC. This clearly shows that the US people are unconvinced by the arguments on the theorized drawbacks of the International Criminal Court and are happy for it to be ratified."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con03b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"The only effect on US freedom of action would be prohibition of clear and significant violations of international law.  If the US stays within the international criminal law, they will not be affected by the ICC. It would be harmful for any state to have special treatment \u2013 if the US were to be granted such special treatment to the United States other large states could request the same due to their self-perceived international roles. Such exceptions and opt outs would mean that the International Criminal Court would be granting impunity to large states, whatever gargantuan violations of the international law are committed, and only investigate smaller ones. This would clearly be an unfair system of international justice. If a country engages in more military engagements, and is larger and more powerful, it is all the more necessary that they are held to the same standards as smaller powers."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con01b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"It is accepted that there is now such a thing as international criminal law \u2013 from Nuremberg onwards, there are some matters that can be punished by multinational courts. The US also supported the ICTY and ICTR \u2013 if the ICC is a breach of national sovereignty, so are all the single use tribunals. The ICC is essentially an intergovernmental institution in the mould of the United Nations or the IAEA \u2013 an institution that can sometimes lead to a decision that goes against the wishes of individual members but that does not mean the members sovereignty is undermined.  While the ICC does have jurisdiction over nationals of non-party states, that only applies if referred by the UN Security Council or if the acts in question. The principle of complementarity will allow states to deal with issues themselves if they are willing and able to do so. Therefore the ICC is perfectly compatible with national sovereignty."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con02a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"Risk of \u201clawfare\u201d against Israel  The specific position that Israel is in, places it at a unique risk of \u201clawfare\u201d, the use and abuse of the legal process by states for political ends.  A particular concern is Article 8(2)(b)(viii), which could be used as a particular tool to attack Israel over the settlements policy. Issues over settlements in the West Bank should be resolved by negotiation during the existing, albeit fractious, peace process, rather than being used as a tool for those who wish to derail good faith negotiations by dragging matters in to the hands of the international courts.  Israel has regularly been singled out for particular beration by UN bodies. For example, over half of the country-specific resolutions passed by the UN Human Rights Council have been about Israel, while praising Muammar Gadaffi."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con04a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"ICC trials violate the due process guarantees of the US constitution  US ratification of the Rome Statute would lead to the possibility of Americans being subject to trials with procedures that violate the American Constitution. For example, there are no jury trials at the ICC \u2013 a majority vote of the judges is enough to convict - is a violation of the Sixth Amendment to the US Constitution.  The independence and neutrality of some of the judges may be doubtful if they come from countries with definite foreign policy interests that run contrary to those of the US. This is particularly pertaining to judges who are from backgrounds where judicial independence from the executive is not a defining feature of the legal system who will be more likely swayed by political considerations.  There is, in addition, a lack of rules against double jeopardy, and the glacial rate of progress made by the ICC with lengthy waits in pre-trial detention for defendants, affecting the right to a speedy trial. It has also been argued that the procedures for special measures to protect witnesses hamper the defence."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con03a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"The rest of the world is better off with the US out  The crucial role that the US plays for international security means that, for the benefit of the rest of the world, it is advantageous for the US to be outside of the ICC jurisdiction.  When military intervention is needed , it will often be the US that does so. The US being in a position where its actions would be constrained by a fear of ICC prosecution.  This would be even worse if the crime of aggression were to take effect, a broad definition of which could harm US interests. With the notable exceptions of the 1991 Gulf War and the invasion of Afghanistan, most recent US overseas missions could be seen as amounting to the crime of aggression. Depending on the definition used, it has been argued that every single US president since Kennedy has committed the crime of aggression. In an increasingly uncertain world, it could be necessary for the US to intervene  American ratification of the ICC would therefore have the unintended consequence of constraining US actions that would otherwise save lives. If the United States does not intervene in cases where there may be considered to be a responsibility to protect then it is unlikely that any other state will either."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con01a","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"Ratification of the International Criminal Court would be a violation of national sovereignty  Any state ratifying the Rome Statute, is placing its citizens at the mercy of a court that operates outside of national control. This is an unacceptable ceding of national sovereignty \u2013 thus no state other than the US has the power to deal with American criminals, and no one but Israel should deal with Israeli criminals. International criminal law and national sovereignty are inevitably enemies  Not only does the ICC threaten American sovereignty, it threatens the sovereignty of all nations \u2013 the ICC can, in some cases, prosecute citizens of nations that are not state parties. Authority for justice within one\u2019s territory is however at the heart of the concept of sovereignty. As a matter of principle the US should not be supporting measures that affect the sovereignty of any nation, let alone the US itself."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con04b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"While the ICC operates its own rules of procedure and uses its own formulation for due process rights, it has protections as strong as the top legal systems around the world.  While the ICC is unique, it meets the standards accepted for a fair trial. For example, article 66(2) of the Rome Statute guarantees the presumption of innocence, article 54(1) covers disclosure, article 67 includes the right to counsel and a speedy trial. These safeguards are considered more than adequate by human rights campaign groups such as Amnesty International.  While the ICC does not use juries, in many cases it would be difficult to find an impartial jury or to transport them, and they would be unlikely to cope with the weighty and complex legal issues that occur in complex international criminal trials. At any rate, many states, even common law ones such as the US, do not use juries at all (such as Israel), and in some circumstances they can be allowed in the US."}
+{"id":"test-international-amehbuaisji-con02b","title":"americas middle east house believes us and israel should join international","text":"If Israeli nationals have not committed any criminal offences against international law, they have nothing to fear from joining the International Criminal Court system. While some may agitate for action to be brought against Israel for political reasons, the International Criminal Court has an independent prosecutor and complex procedures that will act as an adequate filter to stop it being hijacked as a tool for \u201clawfare\u201d  No state should have immunity from the international law, whatever their circumstances or potentials for mischievous uses of the legal system.  In addition, Israeli membership of the ICC would be useful part of the bargaining in the peace process, to allow any criminal cases against Israel to be handled by an impartial international court obeying full rules of law."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro02b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"Impartiality is not defined by the constitution of the forces, but the decision-making process which determine their use. A UN standing army would not alter the injustice of the UN Security Council and its veto system, which institutionalizes self-interest in the decisions of the body. As the recent proposal for an independent UN force indicates, the force could move swiftly to avert catastrophe but only specifically \u2018after UN authorization\u20191. Therefore whilst a UN standing army would ostensibly be neutral, the uses for which it would be deployed would still have the same, underlying self-interested motives on the part of the UN Security Council. The problem is therefore not resolved, but pushed further up the line.  \u201cWe have to walk a fine line in order to build support in the U.S. and in developing countries. This sort of thing creates suspicion that Western countries want to use this for political purposes.\u201d 2  On speed of deployment, the UN\u2019s ability to respond more quickly is not a serious problem. Many of the UN\u2019s most embarrassing incidents occurred when its troops were very much on the ground already. The three oft-quoted examples are Srebrenica, Somalia, Rwanda; in the 1990s all three states played host to UN peacekeeping forces, and in each case further bloodshed ensued. At Srebrenica, Serbian troops marched the Bosnian Muslim men out of a UN-declared \u2018safe area\u2019 3; the fault for their massacre does not rest with speed of deployment or troop cohesion. As Morrison states, \u2018until U.N. member states devote as much attention to solving the underlying political causes of national and international disputes as they have to the creation of a U.N. permanent military force, true solutions will remain elusive\u20194. The UN needs to be able to respond more effectively, not necessarily more quickly.  1 .Johansen, R. C. (2006). A United Nations Emergency Peace Service to Prevent Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. p22  2. Perelman, M. (2007, September 5). Calls Grow for Creation of Standing U.N. Army. Retrieved May 10, 2011, from Forward:   3. Canturk, L. (2007, October 25). Anatomy of a Peacekeeping Mission: Srebrenica Revisited. Retrieved May 10, 2011, from Worldpress:   4. Morrison, A. (1994). Fiction of a U.N. Standing Army. Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 83-96"}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro02a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army would be ideally suited to respond to contemporary crises.  Changes in modern warfare dictate the need for an impartial, rapidly-deploying, multi-national force. Modern warfare is no longer the trench battles of battalions aligned to a flag, it is increasingly police actions designed to prevent the resort to warfare in the first place or enforce ceasefires once they have begun. As such, the impartiality of a UN standing army would be highly valuable, offering both parties in the conflict a neutral peacemaker and peacekeeper. Contrast this to the perceived differences in attitude between troops from Britain, the US, Russia and France to warring sides in the Balkans. It would be free of accusations of meddling and self-interest that accompany the participation of troops from neighbouring states in UN interventions (for example, Nigeria in West African missions). A UN standing army could overcome local civilian suspicion, free from the threat of propaganda from those opposed to it and free from the restraints of state power on those troops involved.  Furthermore, a UN standing army would be able to deploy much faster than current peacekeeping missions which are held back by the bureaucracy of finding troops, equipment and funding. The present system takes months to put forces in the field, and these are often inadequate to the task in hand, as member states have pledged fewer troops than were requested and they then struggle to co-ordinate across cultural and linguistic barriers. This has meant the UN has often acted too late, with too little force, and has thereby failed to avert humanitarian disasters in such places as Central Africa, Bosnia, Sierra Leone and Somalia. A UN standing army would be permanently available and able to deploy rapidly to contain crises before they turn into full-scale wars and humanitarian disasters. Without an independent army, the UN has \u2018no capacity to avert such catastrophes\u2019 1 for it simply cannot raise forces quickly or effectively enough.  [1] Johansen, R. C. (2006). A United Nations Emergency Peace Service to Prevent Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity, p.23."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro03b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army would still have the same drawbacks as the current model. Differences in language, culture, etc. will seriously mar operational effectiveness, especially in combat situations, irrespective of whether they have been trained together. In the heat of the battle, troops that have grown up in different cultures, speaking different languages will understandably fall back upon what they know. Cultural instincts cannot be retaught or unlearned in a military barracks; they will prove an obstacle to operational effectiveness. In addition, in a truly multinational force there will always be a great many individual soldiers who could be suspected of taking sides in a particular conflict (e.g. Muslims or Orthodox Christians in the Balkan conflicts); are such soldiers to be pulled out from a particular mission, thereby perhaps weakening the whole force? A UN army might also end up being very poorly equipped, for if the advanced military powers start to see the UN as a potential rival or adversary, they will refuse to provide it with quality arms and armour. In that case, the UN standing army becomes both another rival in the global balance of power and may drive opposition to the institution itself and its long fight to garner respect."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro01a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN Standing Army would solve the problem of American military hegemony.  A strong, effective and impartial United Nations standing army would deny powerful military states the right to bully and blackmail rivals into submission with the threat of military force. A UN army would be able to balance that threat with their own willingness to come to the aid of states under military duress. The United States, unwilling to risk a protracted conflict against a respected, well-trained multi-national force would have to fall back. To use an example, American military intervention in Vietnam, against the wishes of the majority of the population, could have been prevented had a U.N. standing army existed to respond to the wishes of the Vietnamese people and stand against the United States\u2019 intervention. The existence of such a military rival would therefore force the United States to increase its investment in its State Department and diplomatic solutions to political crises. Ultimately, peace would be more effectively maintained."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro01b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army would not solve 'the problem of American military hegemony', even if there is such a problem. It is perhaps unlikely that the US would fund such an army. Nor would other major military spenders like the United Kingdom be likely to since they already send troops to NATO, possibly in the near future to an EU army, and having its own army it would be significantly overstretched. This United Nations could not raise sufficient funds to create such a force. To establish military parity with the US would require a large nuclear arsenal and an enormous military infrastructure. States will not ever finance such a force at the expense of building up their own forces. The army would have to be willing to be pitched against the interests of the US or other permanent members of the Security Council, yet any U.N. standing army would require the blessing of that Security Council, where those members have a veto. Therefore making this not possible, as only the UNSC can be responsible for security. American military hegemony will not be challenged by a force that is under its own direction."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro03a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army would be more effective in operations themselves.  A UN standing army would be more effective than the variety of troops staffing missions under the current system. At present most UN operations are supplied by developing nations who hope to make a profit from the payments they receive for their services, but who are under-equipped and badly trained. Forces from the major powers are provided sparingly and only after substantial public pressure or when there exists an incentive for their use. A UN standing army would be better prepared, both in regards to training and equipment, and its soldiers would have greater motivation as they would have made a choice to enlist, rather than being conscripts forced by their own states to fight someone else\u2019s war. A single UN force would also have better command and control than in current situations, when different national forces and their commanders often fail to work effectively together in the field for cultural and linguistic reasons. Successful forces such as the French Foreign Legion, the Indian army and the Roman army show that issues of language and culture need not be problems in combat situations. They can be overcome through a strong professional ethos and a commitment to a mutual cause, values that can only be expected to develop if troops prepare, train and fight together."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con03b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"Although other reforms of the UN may be desirable in their own right, without involving the creation of a standing army they will not address the central problems of peacekeeping. Proposals for a rapid reaction force formed from member states may speed up the arrival of troops a little, but it will still make the UN dependent upon the goodwill of member states; if they choose not to participate in a particular mission, then the usual long delays and inadequate forces will result. The predominant concern is the safety of civilians, and the existence of a force or process for establishing a force able to quickly and effectively achieve this wherever necessary in the world. A UN standing army is the only solution able to provide both quick and effective force in every possible case."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con01b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army would be cost effective. It would bring benefits to the world economy, and therefore offset its own expense, through avoiding the protracted costs of refugee crises and other humanitarian disasters. These costs are both direct (through aid) and indirect (as developed nations often become the destination of illegal immigrants fleeing conflicts at home, e.g. Sri Lankans and Kurds). War also disrupts trade and thus damages the global economy, while a greater confidence that war can be avoided in future will encourage more long-term investment and thus greater prosperity. Moreover, member states providing troops for current UN missions are paid for their services, so a UN standing army would not be much more expensive that the present system."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con02a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army is simply impossible to form.  A standing army for the United Nations has an existing legal framework; it has never been attempted in practice because it would be impossible to create. Article 43 of the original UN Charter specifies that all member states are expected, upon the signing of a future UN agreement, to provide \u2018forces, assistance and facilities\u2019 for the maintenance of international peace and security 1. That it is has never been attempted is the direct result of its sheer impracticality; who would contribute the troops? How would they be trained, and ensure that troops trained in one state would not be asked to thereafter fire on their own colleagues? Furthermore, where would the U.N. standing army be located, for the United Nations has no land, and the United States would not take kindly to a reprisal attack on the UN Army at the United Nations Headquarters. And who would fund this army? The United States hasn\u2019t paid its bills to the United Nations in years due to their opposition to some of its actions\/ What is there in place to prevent that continuing? Lastly, and most importantly, whose will would they be implementing, for the United Nations is not a single voice but the aggregated noise of its member states? The Security Council, which currently dictates the form that U.N. peacekeeping operations take, are not a group to whom impartiality can be attributed. A U.N standing army at the behest of the Security Council would be used sparingly at best and only in regions and conflicts for whom all the P5 had a vested interest in the maintenance of peace. Any impartiality that the U.N. standing army had in theory would be lost in practice.  1. U.N. Charter, (1945)"}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con05a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army is unnecessary  A UN standing army is unnecessary; in many cases UN missions are very successful. In Guatemala for example, a UN peacekeeping mission was essential in enabling the conclusion of a decades-long civil war in 1997. When there are problems these are more to do with lengthy and difficult Security Council deliberations, inadequate mandates, etc. rather than how long it took to gather a force together. In Srebrenica for example, where thousands of Bosnian men and boys were slaughtered by Serbian troops, the problem was not the absence of peacekeepers on the ground, but an inadequate mandate to use force. The UN would be much better spending its efforts on setting up a proper peacekeeping department, and streamlining the UN as a whole."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con04a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A U.N. standing army renders the United Nations a de facto state, but without a territory or a population.  Essentially only governments have standing armies, so this plan would inevitably make the UN more like a world government \u2013 and one which is not democratic and where, in China, a totalitarian state has veto power over key decision-making. This means a standing army may actually be counter-productive, impairing current perceptions of the UN\u2019s selfless neutrality, undermining its moral authority and its ability to broker peace agreements. If the UN becomes an institution with its own voice, the fears that the UN would lose its role as the honest broker in international affairs would come to fruition 1.  1.Miller, 1992-3, p.787"}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con03a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"There are better alternatives to solving the problems of contemporary warfare.  If it is granted that the UN currently reacts too slowly to crises, alternatives for an improved response could be implemented without resorting to a standing army. A Rapid Reaction Force made up of fast-response units from member states with elite military capability, pledged in advance for UN operations, would build upon the best features of the current system. Security Council reform to remove the veto powers from the Permanent 5 members would allow deadlocks in decision-making to be rapidly broken and avoid the compromises which produce weak mission mandates. An improved prediction capability through better intelligence and analysis, and central logistical planning at UN headquarters would allow forces to be assembled and mandates drafted before problems became full-blown crises. Security Council rules could be changed so that resolutions requiring force could not be passed until troops have been pledged in advance."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con05b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"The lessons from failed UN peacekeeping missions are that \u2018coalitions of the willing\u2019 do not work effectively; forces used to training with each other will demonstrate cohesion in a conflict zone 1. Furthermore, states can be unwilling to get involved if they have bad memories; the UN failed to go into Rwanda because of American objections following events in Somalia in 1990 2. A rapid response team that did not rely on American troops would have been able to prevent much of the Rwandan bloodshed, or at the very least alleviate conditions until which time the US could have decided to offer its political will and military support. A standing army is required for those opportune moments when force is required to protect those for whom the major powers are not willing to make sacrifices.  1. Wedgwood, R. (2001). United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and the Use of Force. Washington University Journal of Law and Policy, 69-86  2, Ibid"}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con01a","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A UN standing army would not be cost-effective.  The cost of such an army would be very high, especially if it were to include purchase of air and sea transport to reach theatres of operation, added to the high costs of permanent establishment and training, and equipping the force for every possible type of terrain. State armed forces have the advantage of preparing for specific battles with specific enemies. Any UN standing force would be forced by its very nature to prepare for every enemy, in every environment. Such a scope is neither desirable nor easy to overcome without great expense and large numbers. At present, the UN model is preferable; it can draw upon different kind of troops for different kinds of missions from whatever member states feel best equipped to deal with a particular situation."}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con04b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A U.N. standing army does not render the United Nations a de facto state, for the army would still be under the authority of the Security Council and therefore subject to the will and control of its sitting members. As such, a standing army does not qualitatively alter the decision-making process which is the foundation for the moral authority of the United Nations and its ability to broker peace agreements. The decision to deploy troops will still have to be ultimately authorized by the UN Security Council; the only development being that the force will be both quicker to deploy, averting humanitarian catastrophes, and more effective, due to group cohesion, in its actions 1. The institutional restraints of the General Assembly vote and Security Council veto would remain as a leash on the use of any standing army, with the proviso that once unleashed, the UN would be both quicker and more effective in its use of force to implement security council mandates.  1. Johansen, R. C. (2006). A United Nations Emergency Peace Service to Prevent Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity.p.26"}
+{"id":"test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con02b","title":"global politics defence warpeace house would create un standing army","text":"A U.N. standing army is not impossible to form. The United Nations has already conclusively proved, in numerous peacekeeping among other missions, its ability to play a constructive, effective military role in interventions; a standing army would merely replace the top level of command. Instead of taking orders from the top brass in a national military, the orders would come from United Nations commanders. For soldiers trained to listen and respond to commands, this would constitute merely a subtle shift that would not alter their operational effectiveness. Furthermore, funding would be provided through similar streams to how peacekeeping forces are funded contemporaneously,; however, once the U.N. standing army has proved itself capable, funding will surely come from those states who recognize that pooling resources to form a U.N. army is more prudent than scratching together a under-resourced, native army."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro02b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"As argued below (Opposition argument 2), the UN has in fact been instrumental in developing the modern concept of human rights, which prior to its foundation essentially did not exist as an idea, and certainly not as a body of coherent international law. And the UN has acted to prevent and condemn human rights abuses all over the world.  Where the UN has failed to prevent genocide or human rights violations, it has generally been due to the failure of the international community rather than the UN itself. For example, the bloodshed in Rwanda went unstopped not because the UN was unconcerned, but because those nations that might have intervened, such as the US, France or neighbouring African countries, were unable or unwilling to do so - not a failure that can fairly be laid at the door of the UN."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro02a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"UN ignores or enables human rights abuses.  Despite the development of the concept of human rights in the post-war world, the UN has totally failed to protect the rights of citizens, ethnic minorities, women and children. It has stood by during episodes of genocide in Cambodia, Rwanda, Congo and Yugoslavia among many others [1] , tolerates some of the world\u2019s worst dictatorships as members, and does nothing to improve the situation of women in developing nations. Indeed, where UN peacekeepers have been sent into war-torn countries, they have sometimes been guilty of the most horrendous human rights abuses themselves. [2]  As of 2011, the UN\u2019s Human Rights Council itself is comprised of members such as Saudi Arabia, Cuba and China. [3]  [1] \u201cUN admits Rwanda genocide failure\u201d. BBC website, 15th April 2000.   [2] MacFarquhar, Neil. \u201cPeacekeepers\u2019 Sex Scandals Linger, On-Screen and Off\u201d. New York Times, 7th September 2011.   [3] \u201cMembership of the Human Rights Council\u201d. United Nations website, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro03b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"Stories of bureaucracy and delay in the General Assembly obscure the vital work that goes on, often unnoticed, through United Nations agencies every day. It is true that the UN\u2019s decision-making processes are not terribly efficient but in a body comprising nearly 200 members this is probably inevitable. If there are problems with the structure of the UN, such as the Security Council veto, the answer is to reform those institutions to fit the challenges of the 21st Century. As an analogy, national governments have often been accused of being slow to change and reform, but we do not conclude from this that \u201cgovernment has failed\u201d and seek to abolish them!"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro05a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"Most international co-operation can takes place outside UN framework.  The major economic, political and trade issues around the world are almost all dealt with either through bilateral agreements between nations or by specialised bodies set up for that purpose \u2013 the World Bank, IMF, EU, ASEAN, NATO, WTO and so on. In all of these fields the UN is little more than an irrelevance. Even where the UN does get involved in international affairs \u2013 such as in the Libyan crisis of 2011 \u2013 it is other bodies, in that case NATO, which serve as the vehicle for international cooperation. [1]  [1] . Bolopion, Philippe. \u201cAfter Libya, the question: To Protect or Depose?\u201d. Los Angeles Times.25th August 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro01a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":": Main purpose of UN, to prevent war, has clearly not been achieved.  The UN was set up with the express purpose of preventing global wars, yet it has done absolutely nothing to prevent them. Indeed, the UN has often served merely as a forum for countries to abuse and criticise each other, rather than resolve disputes peacefully.  In some cases, such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq, UN resolutions have arguably been used as a justification for wars, rather than to prevent them. Research shows that the number of armed conflicts in the world rose steadily in the years after 1945 and has only begun to plateau or fall since the end of the Cold War. [1]  [1] Harrison, Mark & Wolf, Nikolaus. \u201cThe Frequency of Wars\u201d. University of Warwick, 10th March 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro01b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"It is unfair to say that the United Nations has failed just because conflict has not been eradicated from the world. The causes that drive nations to war with one another often cannot be resolved by diplomatic means; to set global peace as the test for the UN\u2019s efficiency is clearly unfair. Nonetheless the UN has served as an effective forum for behind the scenes diplomacy in many international crises. It has come to the aid of countries when attacked, as in the examples of [South] Korea and Kuwait in 1950 and 1990 respectively; it has also kept the peace in, for example, the former Yugoslavia, Cyprus and East Timor. The fact that armed conflicts around the world have become less common since 1990 is, arguably, at least partly down to the good offices of the United Nations."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro05b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"Despite the proliferation of supranational organisations, the United Nations remains the indispensable global forum for meeting to discuss world affairs. Indeed, in a way this expansion in the number and range of international organisations is a testament to the success of the UN model. Furthermore, many international organisations work very closely with the United Nations, or even partially within its system. For example, when the International Atomic Energy Authority assesses the compliance of nations such as Iraq or Iran with the Non-Proliferation Treaty, it is to the UN Security Council that it reports. [1]  In any case, this debate is about whether or not the United Nations has failed. Even if many decisions are now taken outside the UN framework that does not reflect badly on that body.  [1] \u201cHow many times has the IAEA reported cases to the UN Security Council?\u201d. IAEA Infolog. 15th February 2006."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro04b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"The United Nations is no more corrupt than any large organisation, much less national governments, and far more transparent than many comparable institutions.  It is true that the Human Rights Council contains some nations with bad records on civil liberties but it is surely better to engage with such regimes and shame them into slowly improving their human rights standards, than simply excluding them from UN organs and losing any influence over how they treat their citizens."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro03a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"UN decision-making procedures are very inefficient.  The UN displays all the worst traits of bureaucracies the world over. The General Assembly is little more than a forum for world leaders and ambassadors to lambast each other. The Security Council is systemically unable to take decisive action in many of the world\u2019s trouble-spots due to its outdated permanent membership structure, which gives five nations a totally disproportionate power to prevent the world body from acting against their interests. In the UN\u2019s 65 years, the veto has been used nearly 300 times. [1]  [1] \u201cGeneral Analysis on the Security Council Veto\u201d, Global Policy Forum website."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-pro04a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"Many UN bodies are corrupt or compromised.  As mentioned above, the Human Rights Council consists of some the worst human rights abusers in the world. The NGO UN Watch has accused the HRC focusing almost exclusively on alleged human rights abuses by Israel to the exclusion of almost every other country. [1]  There have been widespread allegations of corruption in UN bodies. [2] It is for these reasons that the US long refused to pay its full dues to the United Nations and threatens to do so again in future, as well as withholding funding from UNESCO in 2011 after it voted to recognise Palestine as an independent state. [3]  [1] \u201cAnti-Israel Resolutions at the HRC\u201d, UN Watch 2011.   [2] \u201cCorruption at the Heart of the United Nations\u201d, The Economist, 9th August 2005.   [3] \u201cUS cuts UNESCO funds over vote for Palestinian seat\u201c. BBC website. 31st October 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con03b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"It is obviously true that some UN agencies and organs carry out valuable and useful work. However, there are two ways of looking at this. The first is that UN work often duplicates programs and programs carried out by NGOs, national governments and charities. Its work is useful, but by no means indispensable.  The second way of approaching this question is to ask whether these are core functions of the UN \u2013 in other words, whether preserving world heritage or co-ordinating vaccination programmes is what the UN is really \u201cfor\u201d. We can admit that some UN agencies do good work but still believe that as a body; overall the United Nations has failed."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con01b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"No-one is suggesting that the test of a successful United Nations should be an end to all armed conflict. But even judged on its own criteria, it has been remarkably ineffectual. The examples of Kuwait and Korea are both situations where defensive wars were fought by the US and allies for their own reasons \u2013 the containment of Saddam Hussein and Communism, respectively \u2013 not UN ideals. Where the UN did not authorise military action, such as in Vietnam or Iraq in 2003, this made no difference. It is hard to think of an example where imminent conflict was definitely averted due to UN influence.  As for UN peacekeepers, they usually come into conflicts only after they have ended and thousands of civilians been killed. They often do a good job, but they are seldom indispensable. Other regional organisations, such as NATO or the African Union, can equally well perform this function."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con02a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"The UN has been at the forefront of promoting respect for international law and human rights.  When the United Nations was founded in 1945, the idea of \u201cinternational law\u201d, in so far as it had any meaning, was little more than the customary behaviour of states towards each other. Over the succeeding 60 years, the UN and its various offices and organs have taken a lead role in codifying and promoting the concept of international law and the protection of human rights. For example, the crime of genocide was first enshrined in international law in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. [1]  [1] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, \u201cWhat is Genocide?\u201d."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con05a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"As world becomes more globalised, the need for a global forum for resolving problems becomes ever more important.  In a globalised economy nations depend on each other as never before, and the costs of war and conflict grow ever higher. So it is more important than ever than countries have a forum for resolving their disputes and simply talking to each other. Regional bodies such as the EU or ASEAN can perform some of these functions, and specialised bodies such as the WTO some others; but there can never be a substitute for the global forum provided by the UN. If the United Nations did not exist, we would have to invent it. [1]  [1] Hammarskjold, Dag. \u201cDo We Need The United Nations?\u201d. Address to the Students\u2019 Association, Copenhagen, 2nd May 1959. www.un.org\/depts\/dhl\/dag\/docs\/needun.pdf"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con04a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"Solution to problems of UN is to reform outdated structures.  It is undeniably true that some of the UN\u2019s procedures need to be improved, and standards of financial transparency improved. However, this is true of many governments and international organisations, not just the UN. The answer to the UN\u2019s problems is not to give up on it but rather reform it for the 21st century, including perhaps changing or augmenting the permanent membership of the Security Council to reflect the reality of the modern world. [1]  [1] London, Jacqueline. \u201cReform of the United Nations Security Council\u201d. International Affairs and Foreign Policy Institute. 29th June 2007."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con03a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"Many UN organs carry out valuable work around the world.  The United Nations is far more than simply a debating forum; it does a massive amount of vital work around the world through its other organs. Examples of these are the World Health Organisation (WHO), UNESCO, UNICEF, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) among many others. [1]  Even if the slow speed of diplomacy at the UN General Assembly can sometimes be frustrating, the idea that the United Nations as a whole has \u201cfailed\u201d simply does not take account of all these very important bodies. Furthermore, the UN remains one of the most respected of international organisations among ordinary citizens.  [1] \u201cUnited Nations: Structure and Organisation\u201d. United Nations, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con05b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"It is arguable that the era of globalisation makes the United Nations less important, not more. Trade disputes are settled bilaterally or through the WTO; economic crises through the offices of the World Bank and IMF; security problems, as often as not, through the mediation of the US or other interested powers. All too often, the UN is a forum not for dispute resolution but the airing of grievances against other nations. For example, in the run up to the 2003 Iraq War, both the United States and its detractors, such as France, used the UN to publicise and justify their position on military action, not to discuss it in any meaningful way. If a United Nations did not exist, and we were obliged to invent one, we would hopefully do a better job next time!"}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con01a","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"The UN has performed a valuable service in preventing wars and in peacekeeping.  It is clearly unrealistic to imagine that the United Nations could prevent all wars, but nonetheless it has been successful at negotiating peaceful resolutions to international disputes. It has also authorised military force to defend countries from unprovoked attacks; Kuwait and South Korea, to name just two, owe their freedom to UN action. Finally, UN peacekeepers do vital work all over the world from Cyprus to Korea. [1]  [1] \u201cWhat is Peacekeeping?\u201d. United Nations, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con04b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"This debate is about whether or not the UN has failed. It may well be that the response to a failing organisation is not abolition but wholesale reform, as the opposition argue here, but that would not change the fact that the UN has not achieved what it was designed to do. And while reform has been promised for many decades, nothing has ever been done to resolve the systemic flaws of this organisation. So promises of reform are an unsatisfactory answer to the charges against the UN."}
+{"id":"test-international-ghbunhf-con02b","title":"global house believes united nations has failed","text":"The UN has been only one among many organisations which have shaped the modern doctrine of international law. More influential in developing our contemporary understanding of human rights, arguably, was the worldwide horror at the Holocaust, Nuremberg war crimes trials, and the determination of the West to hold developing nations and Communist states to the same standards that they [supposedly] adhere to. When activists in undemocratic regimes fight for better civil rights, it is seldom the UN they cite as their model.  It is fair to ascribe the United Nations its due share of credit for this emerging consensus, then, but it has been remarkably bad at actually encouraging, let alone enforcing, the rules it has helped to create."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro02b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Despite the change in nominal governmental structure, the real holders of power have remained the same. The president Thein Sein was handpicked by the outgoing military leader Than Shwe. The top posts in government and one-fourth of parliament is reserved was the military. Arbitrary laws prevented leaders of the NLD, including Aung San Suu Kyi, from participating in the elections. Elections do not equal democracy. Other than the sugar-coated words of the new government, there has been no real movement towards democratic reform. The international community has long called for an impartial investigation into the systematic human rights violations to bring its perpetrators to justice. None of this has been promised, or is likely to be achieved under a military-controlled government, the main aim of which is to hoodwink the international community and provide security to the guilty leaders of the military junta.1  1 Ellgee, \u2018Myanmar hides behind \u2018democracy\u2019\u2019, Aljazeera, 27 January 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro02a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Myanmar is no longer a military dictatorship  Myanmar has taken significant steps towards democratisation in the last three years. The new constitution and the elections that resulted in the current civilian government being appointed represent a marked shift in its governance structure. Though there may be scope for improvement in its democratic framework, institutions for democratic functioning have been created and this is a huge step forward. Aung San Suu Kyi has also been released from house arrest, and the tone of the statements made by the new government has been a reconciliatory one. A new human rights commission has also been established. While the pace of reform may not match the supposed expectations of the US and the EU, Myanmar\u2019s choice to change gradually and engage with them on its own terms must be respected. The fundamental circumstances under which a policy of limited engagement was adopted with Myanmar have changed, and this calls for reassessment."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro03b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Since the government is still controlled by the military and there is no evidence to that corruption levels will go down in the new regime, engaging in trade with Myanmar will only strengthen the ruling elite. There is little accountability for developmental aid actually reaching its desired goals.1 Trading with Myanmar means trading with organisations controlled by the state\/military in a nationalised economy. Common people are exploited and kept in poverty while the profits are reaped by a few. This has been the experience of international trade with Myanmar involving countries other than US and EU, and there is no reason that this will change. Further, there is no necessary link between business activity and development of the rule of law, as the experience of many African countries has shown. Opportunistic business entities are more likely to be involved in rent-seeking monopolistic practices that benefit them, instead of causing social change.  1 BBC News, \u2018UN frustrated at Burma response\u2019, 13 May 2008."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro05a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Regional factors favour re-engagement  Myanmar has continuing economic and political relations with many other countries, including members of the ASEAN, and significantly, China (which is also the source of a large proportion of foreign investment in Myanmar). These countries, some of which are major economic and political partners of the US and the EU, do not share the same attitude about the legitimacy of the Myanmar government and the approach that should be taken towards it. For the purposes of regional stability, it would be better for the US and the EU to align their positions with the others. This reduces the risk of diplomatic rifts which could destabilise the region. Further, if the international community presents a united viewpoint on what steps Myanmar should take to improve its democracy, such steps are more likely to be taken."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro01a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"States should not be isolated on political grounds  The isolation of Myanmar by some of the developed Western powers is arbitrary and marked by hypocrisy. The real reasons for the stance taken by these countries are political. There is little consistency in the attitude taken towards other governments and dictatorships across the world that also have questionable human rights records (Saudi Arabia and Egypt, to name a few), but either offer other strategic and economic benefits, or are much more influential in international affairs than Myanmar. Myanmar is only part of a group of countries (also including Cuba and North Korea) whose economic and political policies have remained relatively opaque to arm-twisting by the US and the EU. It is unfair to impose sanctions on and isolate Myanmar on this basis, especially in an emerging multi-polar international environment."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro01b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"This argument is not a defence of the government in Myanmar. Making it a question of who is pointing fingers itself politicizes a principled stance against an undoubtedly unjust system. The US and the EU have been consistent in their criticism of the military-controlled government and in their principled support for pro-democracy activists in Myanmar. This is in line with their stated positions on human rights and democracy across the world \u2013 with political allies or enemies - and in accordance with international treaties that they are signatories to. They have long voiced concerns over human rights violations in China and India, for instance. Only because their moral position may not have been as influential in relation to certain countries, or that it has been diplomatically unfeasible to take stronger positions in certain circumstances due to global power relations, it does not mean they should not take such a position in the case of Myanmar as well.1  1 Schmahmann, David, The unconstitutionality of state and local enactments in the United States restricting business ties with Burma (Myanmar) Vanderbilt journal of transnational law. March 1997, vol 30, no 2."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro05b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Though countries in South Asia have displayed ambivalence in their attitude towards Myanmar, it is not a reason for the US and the EU to change their stance. Regional players have sometimes tended to support the pro-democracy movement in their rhetoric, but have not adopted policies that are aligned with it. Therefore, they have not been able to cause any real democratic reform. If there is a united international community that does not actively seek to isolate Myanmar, but to the contrary engages with it, the force that can drive such reform will become even weaker. The risk of harm from long-existent differences in attitudes between regional players and those who seek to disengage is very low, and nothing has occurred since 1990 to suggest otherwise."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro04b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"While the policy of disengagement may not have achieved all its goals, it has brought to the forefront a moral standard by which the government can be judged. This has helped frame global opinion and influenced regional players\u2019 attitudes to Myanmar as well to some extent. More harm is done by continuing to engage with Myanmar since that option offers no incentive or pressure for democratic reform. Trading with Myanmar will only add to the economic and political clout of the ruling elite, as the \u2018trickle down\u2019 to the population as a whole is minimal. A policy of disengagement, at the very least, prevents the military (which is sensitive to international opinion) from becoming even stronger."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro03a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"There is scope for further diplomatic progress in the region through disengagement  Reengagement has potential for having a positive influence in various contexts. Myanmar is rich in natural resources, including forest products, minerals and gems. Removing trade restrictions and offering developmental aid would benefit the local economy and population.1 In the longer term, economic activity can act as a stimulus for development of a stronger legal and business framework to reduce corruption. If the US and the EU create confidence in the Myanmar government that they are willing to offer something constructive rather than critical, it may be possible to ask for greater transparency in government and reduce systematic violations of human rights as well.2 The newly elected civilian government has indicated it is willing to pursue democratic reform, and the US and the EU should not lose this opportunity for change.  1 BBC News, \u2018India and Burma expand trade ties and sign gas deals\u2019, 14 October 2011.  2 Human Rights Watch, \u2018China: press visiting Burmese leader on elections and accountability\u2019, 6 September 2010, (example of how state relations can encourage democracy)"}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-pro04a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Disengagement has done more harm than good in the region  The policy of disengagement has not resulted in any meaningful change in Myanmar, politically or economically. Since Myanmar has not been dependent on the US or the EU, sanctions and arms embargoes have not had any effect on the government. The changes in 2010-2011 have been due to the influence of the NLD, and certain regional players (like Thailand and China) which have sought to directly engage with Myanmar. Further, the sections of the population that are most affected by the sanctions are those not in the top tier of the political and economic class, but smaller manufacturers and the working class. Restrictions on exports and developmental aid from the US and the EU prevent local manufacturers and consumers from having access to them. On the other hand, restrictions on imports from Myanmar weaken the market for its exporters. These factors only further impoverish and alienate the local population, increasing economic disparity, and consequently the power of the ruling elite in the national context as well."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con03b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Reengagement will send a message to the Myanmar government that the steps it has taken have not gone unnoticed by the international community, and may lead to more substantive change over time. It will project the US and the EU as constructive actors in the process of reform. Reengagement is a way of gaining political and economic influence in Myanmar and in the region. It may lead to negotiations at some stage, and reengagement now would allow them to have a greater say at that time. By not engaging, the US and the EU are not actually able to increase the influence of the opponents of the current government either."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con01b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"This argument assumes that democracy, and that too a particular kind of democracy, is the only legitimate form of government possible. The kind of democracy that is followed in the West may not be appropriate for Myanmar, in any case not at this stage. There are economic and political inequalities in Myanmar and its democracy is not perfect. However, if everyone was allowed to participate in elections, the country is likely to slip into a situation of civil war, since the elected individuals may not wield real power. Attempts at imposing a particular style of democracy in countries that may not be ready for it can be counter-productive (as in East Timor, for instance). Further, not every country in the world has claimed itself to be a champion of democracy across the world. Such countries have no obligation to denounce a foreign regime, and have a right to decide what their policies should be. An apparently democratic government may not be a good one (for instance, Zimbabwe), and an undemocratic government may not necessarily be a bad one (for instance, China and Venezuela). There is no basis to say that any uniformity has been achieved in accepted international standards for the legitimacy of governments."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con02a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"The international community and political legitimacy  The military-controlled government in Myanmar clearly does not have popular domestic support - otherwise the artificial election process would not have been necessary. Therefore, it derives its strength from the fact that many international players other than the US and the EU have continued to recognise it, while there is historic precedent for concerted international opinion having influenced illegitimate regimes (Haiti and South Africa, for instance). Having a nationalised economy increases the control the military has over trade and investment, while a majority of the country finds itself in poverty. The choice for the international community is between continuing to strengthen the military by engaging with it, or by disengaging (like the EU and the US) until the ruling elite runs out of resources and options. The former option does not give hope to any real democratic reform, while the latter option would take away the legitimacy of the government in the international arena."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con04a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Vested international interest are harming Myanmar  Certain members of the international community, especially regional players like China and India, have tended to ignore questions of legitimacy of the regime for economic and political benefits. While this may be beneficial to them in the short term, it is very harmful for Myanmar as a democracy in the future. Politically, a blind eye is being turned to a culture of violating human rights. If and when Myanmar becomes a real democracy, it is unlikely that it will magically transform into a model democratic state, unless enough emphasis is provided to fundamental principles of good governance at the outset. Economically, investment is being provided in a highly monopolistic and imperfect environment, without addressing problems of corruption and inadequacy of legal processes. In the long run, even if a democratic constitutional framework exists, the country is likely to continue to have high economic disparity and corrupt markets due to these reasons (in a manner comparable to how Russian markets have evolved since the 1990s). Reengagement should not be setting the stage for a shift from a military-controlled government to a poor democracy, which would also be harmful for stability in the region as a whole."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con03a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Re-engagement will weaken the reform movement  International and domestic pressure has forced the military junta to set up a nominal civilian government. It is important to make sure that change goes further and becomes meaningful. This will involve bringing into force a fair constitution, curbing human rights violations and bringing its perpetrators to justice, and creating conditions for legitimate democratic elections to take place. By reengaging at this juncture, the signal the ruling elite in Myanmar will get is that this piecemeal, nominal change is sufficient to hold them in good stead in the international political arena for a longer period. It would also be a betrayal of the pro-democracy supporters in Myanmar, who continue to be cast out of the constitutional process and have little actual political influence under the existing system.1  1 Thanegi, Ma, \u2018Burma sanctions: The case against\u2019, BBC news, \u20184 March 2002\u2019."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con01a","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Liberal democracies have a moral obligation to denounce illegitimate regimes  The new civilian government in Myanmar is as illegitimate as the rule of the military junta which led to its creation. The military junta itself was guilty of overruling the democratic verdict in 1990 that gave power to the NLD. Under the new constitution, 25% of all seats in parliament and the most influential governmental posts are reserved for the military, and more than 75% majority is required for amending the constitution. Political prisoners (including Aung San Suu Kyi) were not permitted to participate in the elections. Further, the election process itself has been described as a sham, involving violence and intimidation of democratic activists. The current government is only a tool for the preceding military junta to consolidate its power and provide a safety valve for its leaders through apparently legitimate means. It attempts to use the false democratic process as a veil to resist international criticism. Widespread human rights violations, ethnic violence, and undemocratic curtailment of the freedom of speech have characterised the period of rule of the military junta. By engaging with it at the political or economic level, other countries provide it with a false sense of legitimacy. This is morally at odds with established standards in of human rights and international relations, especially where other illegitimate governments (Syria, Iraq, and North Korea for instance) across the world continually face censure and isolation."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con04b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"Regional players like China and India are interested in border security and internal stability for Myanmar. There is no basis to say that their political and commercial relationship with Myanmar must necessarily be for short-term benefit. It is unfair to compare Myanmar with Western standards of preserving human rights or with \u2018a model democratic state\u2019, though there may not be any countries in the world that fit the description. It is sufficient if it is at a stage where its standard of governance is comparable with other countries in South Asia that do not face international isolation or censure. There is also evidence to show that exposure to more sophisticated markets does have a positive influence on the development of internal legal systems. Though Russia may not be a model economy, its economic growth has been accompanied by gradual changes to attitudes and institutions internally. Reengagement would make it easier for these changes to take place, while a policy of disengagement would, in effect, be a policy of apathy."}
+{"id":"test-international-aghwrem-con02b","title":"asia global house would re engage myanmar","text":"While international support is important to some extent for the government, Myanmar has significant political and economic relations with many countries in the region, including China and North Korea, whose stance is strategically motivated and is not going to be influenced by what the US and the EU do. It is hard to fathom a situation in the foreseeable future where the military and government leadership will be forced to bow down to international pressure, whether or not certain countries choose to engage with it. The only way for the international community to remain relevant to Myanmar would be by engaging with it. The situation is different from that in South Africa and in Haiti because of the existence of strong allies, whose interests are different, if not opposed to in some respects, from those who follow a policy of disengagement with Myanmar."}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro02b","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Divisionism in Rwanda did not spark as a result of the controlled media and government propaganda in 1994, there were killings reported in the 1960\u2019s 1970\u2019s and 1980\u2019s[1] even before the media was part of society. This came as a result of long standing grudges and misunderstandings between the Tutsi and Hutu groups in the country.  That the media bears responsibility for spreading hate speech and broadcasting where the other could be killed moreover does not absolve the individuals involved. Each individual had the choice whether they acted on what the media was telling them. In a completely free media there would be some of the same hate speech and it would still be up to the individual to decide whether to follow that message. Far better to ensure that message cannot be aired in the first place.  [1] History world, \u2018History of Rwanda\u2019, historyworld.net"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro02a","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Blind obedience to authority  One of the major factors that exacerbated genocide ideology was the \u201cAKAZU\u201d controlled media which made most of the Hutu population wrongfully obey authority and government propaganda of divisionism[1].  This was achieved by proclaiming that the Tutsi are snakes and cockroaches in newspapers, and directing the Hutu extremists to where killings were to be conducted on radio RTLM. Meanwhile they also refused to broadcast speeches calling out for unity among people helping to lead to the assassination of the then Prime minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana who opposed government restrictions. There was no space to question policies and ideas that were encouraging genocide by manipulating people to believe it was right path for Rwanda.  The genocide should therefore serve as an example that restricting freedoms of speech and press can cause severe damage. This is especially harmful to a healing and reconciling country like Rwanda that needs the freedom to debate the past and analyse how far it has come openly. Rwanda should learn from the past that freedom of speech is necessary to prevent conflict while having only one side potentially exacerbates it.  [1] Chalk, Prof. Frank \u2018Radio propaganda and genocide\u2019, Concordia.ca, November 1999"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro03b","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Many donors have been deeply reluctant to stop or reduce aid, whatever the arguments over eastern Congo[1]. Donors like to see their money have an impact, something that Rwanda\u2019s transformation has provided. There might be concern about freedom of speech and the press but donors recognise that the way to change this is not to simply stop aid; an act that simply damages those the donors are trying to help not those who are limiting freedom of speech.  [1] The economist, \u2018The pain of suspension\u2019, economist.com, 12 January 2013  [2] Timmins, Jerry, \u2018Free speech, free press, free societies\u2019, li.com"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro01a","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Authoritarian leadership  President Kagame though considered a visionary leader has made Rwanda a country based on one man\u2019s ideas. He has silenced critics, opposition and any counter arguments that may not support his opinions through tough rules imposed against the media and free speech. This sparked misunderstandings within the government forcing 4 four high rank officials in exile, one, an ex-intelligence chief was recently murdered in South Africa[1].  Rwanda is essentially a hard-line, one-party, secretive police state with a fa\u00e7ade of democracy[2]. To avoid future conflict and government break down Kagame needs to convene a genuine, inclusive, unconditional and comprehensive national dialogue with the aim of preparing and strengthening the country\u2019s future progress.  The fact that most Rwandans still want him to run for re-election after his two terms in 2017 shows how much he has controlled people to believe he is the only potential leader in a country of more than 11 million citizens. If Rwanda is to have a stable future democracy it needs to be recognised that the opposition are patriots too and should be entitled to freedom of speech and press to give them an opportunity to share their views on how the country can be improved. For democracy in Rwanda to progress the country needs to accept the idea of freedom of speech and a \u2018loyal opposition\u2019.[3]  [1] Aljazeera Africa news, \u2018Rwandan ex-spy chief found dead in S Africa\u2019, Aljazeera.com, 2 January 2014  [2] Kenzer, Stephen, \u2018Kagame's authoritarian turn risks Rwanda's future\u2019, thegurdian.com, 27 January 2011  [3] Fisher, Julie, \u2018Emerging Voices: Julie Fisher on Democratization NGOs and Loyal Opposition\u2019, CFR, 13 March 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro01b","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Rwanda does not limit freedoms of press and speech as such but discourages the use of sensitive articles or speeches that would provoke insecurity in a country still trying to heal from the wounds of genocide. This cannot be therefore considered abusing people\u2019s rights.  Misunderstandings with the 4 officials were not as a result of restricted freedoms but instead the desire of power[1] and cannot be taken a model for Rwanda\u2019s future.  Past conflict broke out due to divisionism which was given space through hate speeches and publications a behaviour that has no room in the country today \u2013 indeed there are anti divisionism laws.  Having a large population supporting a leader doesn\u2019t mean they are controlled, he has done so much to revive lost hope hence winning the favour of the people.  [1] Smith, David, \u2018Exiled Rwandan general attacks Paul Kagame as 'dictator', thegurdian.com, 30 July 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro03a","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"International concern  Rwanda, though a progressing country is still aid dependent which has been a backbone for its achievements today[1]. Spoiling Rwanda\u2019s relations with the international community would therefor be destabilising Rwanda\u2019s focus and growth. This has been evident when some countries cut aid to Rwanda recently following allegations of the government supporting insecurity in Congo [2].  Most donor governments are strong backers of human rights and freedom. Continued restrictions to freedom of speech may provoke international reaction through cutting aid and trade ties a move that may hinder the success of Rwanda\u2019s goals. Aid has been cut on other human rights issues for example donor countries have recently acted to cut aid to Uganda as a result of their criminalisation of homosexuality.[3]  [1] DFID Rwanda, \u2018Growth and Poverty reduction grant to the government of Rwanda (2012\/2013-2014\/2015), gov.uk, July 2012  [2] BBC news, \u2018UK stops \u00a321m aid payment to Rwanda\u2019 bbc.co.uk, 30 November 2012  [3] Plaut, Martin, \u2018Uganda donors cut aid after president passes anti-gay law\u2019, theguardian.com, 25 February 2014"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-con03b","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"It is a wrong assertion that Rwandans are valued in the process of policy making when their genuine opinions are limited to a certain level. The national dialogue is a three day event and cannot cover the concerns of more than 11 million Rwandans. Moreover when people still fear to say the truth as they go through in daily life [1], how can one expect such people to raise the right issues on a public platform with the most powerful people in the country?  [1] Amnesty International, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-con01b","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Restricted press and speech also limits political debate and engagement which are crucially needed in adopting fruitful policies[1]. The best policies are those that are rigorously debated and analysed. The current leadership may have acted to check corruption but without institutionalised freedom of the press to encourage whistleblowing there is no guarantee that corruption won\u2019t return in the future. Rwanda\u2019s progress is therefore dependent on individuals, fine in the short term but development takes decades. In the long term for a state to progress there has to be balancing mechanisms so as to prevent misrule and importantly persuade investors there will be stability.  Moreover Rwanda is trying to create a knowledge economy. It is not like China\u2019s creation of a manufacturing based economy, instead it relies upon critical thinking, ideas and analysis \u2013 all things that benefit from freedom of speech.  [1] UNESCO, \u2018Press freedom and development: an analysis of correlations between freedom of the press and the different dimensions of development, poverty, governance and peace\u2019, unesco.org"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-con02a","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Setting Rwanda's priorities  Rwanda is an emerging democracy healing from the wounds of the horrific past. To achieve the set vision, there should be a priority which in this case is economic development[1].  A large number of Rwandans believe that the government should focus on transforming the nation economically although it may mean restricting free speech, which has prompted a huge participation in government development programs like Ubudehe[2]. Freedom of speech and press needs to be restricted if the government wants to engage in unlimited development; there is no time to engage in long debates over whether a particular project is being implemented the correct way. Having freedom of speech and press would hinder the government\u2019s ability to manage the resources of the state and to encourage investors who don\u2019t want to have protests to their building factories, or have labour complaining about not being paid enough.  Whether a country puts rights or the economy first is up to the individual country, Rwanda has chosen.  [1] Horand, Knaup, \u2018Kagame's Priorities for Rwanda: First Prosperity, then Freedom of Expression\u2019, Spiegel.de, 12 August 2010  [2] NS world, \u2018Rwanda Engages Citizens in Community-Level development\u2019, nsworld.org"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-con03a","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"There is accountability without a free press  Freedom of speech and the Press is not the only way of creating accountability in a country \u2013 especially a comparatively small one such as Rwanda. Rwanda has been ranked a transparent and is the least corrupt state in East Africa [1] where everyone is accountable and equal before the law.  How can this be without an aggressive free press? Annually, all government officials are cross examined by locals publicly in a forum called national dialogue \u201cUmushyikirano\u201d, to ensure that they meet the needs of citizens and assess their performance[2]. This has given Rwandans courage to express their desires and feel much valued in the process of policy making and engagement. It puts ministers and even the Prime Minister on the spot on individual issues. Restricted press and speech is therefore rendered irrelevant by such programs as people can question authorities and demand justification directly rather than relying on the press.  In Africa, most countries lack transparent government systems and institutions, a factor responsible for continued corruption, poor governance and crime which in turn destroy progress in societies [3], but this is not the case with regard to Rwanda.  [1] Zegabi East Africa news, \u2018Transparency International Ranks Rwanda the Least Corrupt Country in East Africa\u2019, 5 December 2013, zegabi.com  [2] Hunt, Swanee \u2018Rebuilding Rwanda: Access and Accountability\u2019, inclusivesecurity.org, 30 December 2013  [3] Jones Lang Lasale, \u2018Sub-Saharan Africa: A region with opportunities amid transparency challenges\u2019, joneslanglasale.eu"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-con01a","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"Focused leadership  Progress in Africa has been hindered by factors like corruption, conflicts and poor infrastructure, all of which are linked to the incompetent or greedy leaders.  Rwanda is a different case, ranked among the best countries with a strong and focused leadership in Africa, the country has set up clear policies like EDPRS [Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy] which aims to change Rwanda from an agriculture based economy to knowledge and service economy [1]. It is well known for zero tolerance to corruption, improved infrastructure and technology all of which are core factors in achieving development. In Africa, Rwanda tops list of easiest countries to do business a move that has encouraged more investors into the country[2].  Limited freedom of speech and press does not hinder economic development. What matters is that the government is trusted to fulfil all its commitments. After all, nothing has stopped China progressing despite human rights violations and censorship of both free speech and the press.  [1] The world bank, \u2018Rwanda overview\u2019, worldbank.org  [2] International finance corporation, \u2018Rwanda top business reformer\u2019, ifc.org"}
+{"id":"test-international-bmaggiahbl-con02b","title":"bate media and good government international africa house believes limited","text":"While the government of Rwanda has chosen the economy this does not mean the people agree \u2013 simply that the government controls the narrative so giving the impression, or persuading them that they agree.  Restricting free speech and press has increased critics from the Rwandan diaspora evidence that inside the country, citizens have no way of putting forward their say[1]. Economic growth is not the only kind of progress. In order to drive forward the economy Rwanda is stunting the progress of individual rights.  [1] Keung, Nicholas, \u2018Paul Kagame: Rwanda\u2019s saviour or strongman?\u2019, thestar.com, 26 September 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro02b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"The Basotho people existed as a separate state for decades before colonization. There was a separate Basotho identity long before the instauration of the apartheid in SA. Their history and roots gives Lesotho an identity that is different from that of their only neighbors. That Lesotho never suffered under apartheid is in itself a big difference from South Africa where the legacy still looms large. Lesotho has taken measures to highlight their differences from South Africa; In 2013 Lesotho introduced national identification documents. [1]  [1] Tefo, Tefo, \u2018Lesotho finally introduces national ID\u2019, Public Eye, 5 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro02a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"The historical reasons for which the state of Lesotho exists are no longer relevant in a post-apartheid South Africa  The reason why Moshoeshoe, the leader of Lesotho, wished to become a British protectorate was because of the Boers of the Orange Free State was trying to take their land. In 1966, when the Kingdom of Lesotho gained its independence from Britain, it remained separate from SA as it had been a separate colony. Lesotho was under direct rule while South Africa was a dominion. There was no incentive to change at the point of independence because SA was ruled by the apartheid regime. Lesotho was a strong public opponent of the regime and granted a number of SA refugees\u2019 political asylum. The African National Congress, the ruling party in SA since 1994, was founded in Lesotho. Moreover, during the struggle against apartheid, the ANC\u2019s armed wing organized its guerilla units from the enclave. [1] We can firmly say that Lesotho vas a very important actor in a post-apartheid SA, but the times have changed. The ANC is now in power in South Africa and SA and Lesotho are closer together than ever before.  [1] Smith, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro03b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"There is no guarantee that the SA government will indeed try to make a change after the integration of the Lesotho territory. The narrative is quite different in Europe for example where regions like Catalonia, Venice and Scotland are trying to secede because they do not feel the national government is addressing their problems as they should. Even if we agree that SA is the most powerful country in Sub-Saharan region and that they have more money that the Kingdom of Lesotho, there is no certainty that the money will be redirected toward that region. SA already has a lot of problems of its own."}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro01a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"Annexation will allow the free movement of Basotho people, goods and services  For the Basotho in a landlocked country the free movement of their people is a right that is in large part dependent on the South African (SA) government rather their own national one. Its importance is shown by 40% of border crossings into South Africa being from Lesotho. Acknowledging the fact that Lesotho is an enclave state surrounded by SA, the ability of people to move freely depends on whether they are allowed to enter SA or not. There is corruption at border posts and the number of crossings results in long queues and slow service; 63% of border crossers experience problems. [1] This is sometimes made even more difficult by SA government actions as before the World Cup in 2010 when border restrictions were tightened making it almost impossible for Basotho to leave their country. [2] This happened due to the detention of several Lesotho nationals after a spate of criminal activities along the border.  The same situation applies to trade. Lesotho is dependent on the trade with South Africa, even for goods that come from beyond South Africa as Lesotho has no port of its own most goods will have to be transported through South Africa. This dependency is rising. In 1980, Lesotho produced 80% of the cereals it consumed. Now it imports 70%. [3] Annexation would eliminate these borders boosting trade between the countries, helping to make both richer. In the best interest of Basotho is to be able to control and be listened to by the entity that is metaphorically and literally feeding them.  [1] Crush, Jonathan, \u2018The border within: The future of the Lesotho-South African international boundary\u2019, Migration Policy Series No.26,   [2] Patel, Khadija, Lesotho and South Africa: \u2018Good fences make good neighbours\u2019, 19 April 2013,   [3] Smith, Alex Duval, \u2018Lesotho's people plead with South Africa to annex their troubled country\u2019, theguardian.com, 6 June 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro01b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"While the ability of Basotho people to travel abroad is something that we should take into consideration, we should also seek to understand the SA government intention to secure their territory. As a sovereign state that is primarily responsible towards its citizens, SA has the right and the duty to secure its borders in order to prevent any kind of security problems that might occur when people from a poor, underdeveloped country like Lesotho try to enter their premises. If SA is concerned about the security of its border with Lesotho how much less secure is it when the border disappears? On the other hand, progress regarding border control is already being made through bilateral cooperation and agreements. [1] Certainly, there are less drastic solutions, such as border-unions that permit the exact same advantages as annexation when it comes to borders.  [1] Magubane, Khulekani, \u2018SA, Lesotho to ease border control\u2019, Business Day Live, 22 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro04b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"While any annexation would be mutually agreed there is no guarantee that the whole international community would see it positively; any resistance from groups within Lesotho and it could be a PR nightmare. Moreover the spin of it being a humanitarian gesture is reliant on it following through and improving conditions. If it succeeds then SA will likely be called upon to resolve other humanitarian situations in the region such as in Swaziland."}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro03a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"Lesotho is in a dire condition and needs help from its closest ally  With about 40% of Basotho people living below the international poverty line [1] , Lesotho needs urgent help both from the economic and social perspective. A third of the population is infected with HIV and in urban areas; about 50% of the women under 40 have the virus. [2] There is a major lack of funding and corruption in the system is halting any progress. The Kingdom of Lesotho is clearly unable to deal with its issues and should be annexed by SA. Annexation is the only way in which the SA government is going to care about this enclave territory. Give Basotho citizenship and the right to vote in elections and they will be taken into consideration. Give SA the power to control and they will assume the responsibility for pulling the Basotho out of poverty, giving them a better social system and a country in which they can thrive. A simple look at the GDP per capita of each state shows the potential benefit to Lesotho and ability of SA to deliver. While Lesotho is stable at $1,700 per capita, SA has a GDP of $10,700 per person. Only by giving them full responsibility of the territory, the SA government is going to step in and make the necessary change.  [1] Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Project,   [2] The World Factbook, \u2018Lesotho\u2019, cia.gov, 11 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-pro04a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"South Africa will gain influence, stability and a better image on the international stage  Bringing South Africa and Lesotho will benefit SA on the global stage. The move would be one to provide aid to a smaller state and provide stability. The dire conditions for the Basotho people are acknowledged by the UN and the Africa Union. Firstly, SA, by the annexation of Lesotho, will prove good intentions in creating a sustainable Sub-Saharan Africa. This will ultimately create a better image and a greater influence in the region if they choose to respond positively to the People\u2019s Charter Movement in Lesotho [1] , a social structure pleading for annexation. The movement, driven by trade unions, has collected 30,000 signatures in favor of their goal and is rising in popularity. Secondly the annexation will provide a boost for the South African Development Community and South African Customs Union by demonstrating the willingness of South Africa to integrate with poorer neighbours and take on some of the responsibility for them.  [1] Smith, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-con03b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"The population in Lesotho might be suffering from poverty but this is not their fault but rather the result of the bad governance. Lesotho is investing 12% of its GDP in education and 85% of its population over 15 is literate. [1] This can provide an knowledgeable, smart workforce for SA which can help develop both countries. On the other hand, South Africa is also dependent on one resource from Lesotho and this is water. Over the past 25 years, a mutual, bilateral agreement has been made between the two sovereign states so that the Lesotho Highlands Water Project can provide SA with clean water. [2] Moreover, the textile industry in Lesotho is competitive and profitable. The industry still contributes close to 20 percent of Lesotho's annual gross domestic product, and is its largest employer. [3] Lesotho would clearly not just be a burden.  [1] The World Factbook, 2014,   [2] Ashton, Glenn, \u2018A Case for Closer Integration between South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland?\u2019, The South African Civil Society Information Service,   [3] \u2018LESOTHO: Textile industry gets a lifeline\u2019, IRIN, 24 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-con01b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"Assuming the two countries are so well integrated, there should be no reason for not taking the last step that is the annexation of the territory. Furthermore, the current sovereignty of the Kingdom of Lesotho exists as a fiction rather than reality. The authorities are not able to provide and take care of the basic human needs of their people; there was a humanitarian crisis as recently as 2012 when a third of the population needed food aid after flooding. [1] Lesotho does not even have control over its own defence with South Africa having launched a military \u2018humanitarian intervention\u2019 in 1998 to save democracy but which was also about South African concerns over water. [2] Rather than permitting for the local government to loose its authority, annexation represents the short step towards real and sustainable development for the land-locked country.  [1] Beukes, Suzanne, \u2018Food crisis aggravates the already massive social challenges Lesotho faces\u2019, unicef, 28 November 2012,   [2] Hedebe, Siyabonga Patrick, \u2018South Africa\u2019s Military intervention in Lesotho in 1998 \u2013 A critical overview\u2019, academia.edu,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-con02a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"A local, decentralized authority can provide better opportunities and solutions for Lesotho  With a population of only 2 million people the Basotho would not have the voice and the votes for legislative and executive authority in SA. South Africa\u2019s population of 53million would swamp their voice. Moreover, keeping the local government in place provides a better option for the people in Lesotho as they are closer to their government than they would be in a bigger state. Lesotho needs a decentralized government that can respond to the wishes and needs of the people. This is something the SA government might not be able to provide it as they are trying to provide general solutions for all of its territory. [1] Lesotho is one of the leaders for democracy in Southern Africa [2] ; joining South Africa would not provide an improvement in accountability. In Europe and even in South Africa, secession movements exists because people feel they are better represented in a smaller state as their vote is more important. This is the case with the king of the abaThembu who is seeking an independent state from the SA government. [3]  [1] \u20189 major problems facing South Africa - and how to fix them\u2019, Leader, 18 July 2011,   [2] Jordan, Michael J., \u2018Lesotho leads southern Africa in democracy\u2019, globalpost, 7 June 2012,   [3] \u2018Angry king Dalindyebo seeks independent state\u2019, City Press, 23 December 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-con03a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"It is not in the interest of South Africa to annex a poor, underdeveloped country  It is not in South Africa\u2019s interests to annex Lesotho. Lesotho would be a burden; it is poor, might cause instability, and has no resources as compensation. On a simple cost-benefit analysis made by the SA government they would clearly see they would have more responsibility towards the Basotho population but new resources to fulfil those responsibilities. South Africa has its own problems that it should be focusing on first. Poverty is officially at 52.3% [1] and unemployment is a great problem for South Africans; a quarter of the majority black workforce is unemployed. [2] Moreover, Only 40.2% of black infants live in a home with a flush toilet, a convenience enjoyed by almost all their white and Indian counterparts showing the inequality that still exists in the \u2018rainbow nation\u2019. [3] Why add more people under your protection when you can\u2019t take care of your own?  [1] \u2018Statement by Minister in The Presidency for Performance Monitoring and Evaluation, Collins Chabane, on the occasion of the launch of the Development Indicators 2012 Report\u2019, thepresidency.gov.za, 20 August 2013,   [2] Mcgroarty, Patrick, \u2018Poverty Still Plagues South Africa's Black Majority\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 8 December 2013,   [3] Kielburger, Craig & Marc, \u2018Why South Africa is Still Dealing With Segregation and Poverty\u2019, Huffington Post, 18 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-con01a","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"Annexation is not needed where there is already extensive cooperation between the countries  Lesotho and South Africa already cooperate on a wide variety of issues. If we look at the example of the law system; the two systems are almost the same and all but one of the Justices on the Court of Appeal in Lesotho are South African jurists. [1] Moreover, there are at least four inter-governmental organizations that maximize the trade, help and social connections between the two states. Starting with the African Union, going on to the Southern African Development Community [2] that promotes socio-economic cooperation as well as political and security cooperation, moving to the Southern African Customs Union [3] and the Common Monetary Area. Lesotho is not only helped by SA but this is happening without them having to let go of their national identity and history. In much the same way as different nations, large and small, benefit from the EU so the countries of Southern Africa can benefit from some integration without the negative consequences of complete annexation with the loss of control that would bring.  [1] U.S. Department of State, \u2018Lesotho (10\/07)\u2019, state.gov,   [2] Southern African Development Community Official website   [3] \u2018Continued economic reforms would attract more foreign investment\u2019, World Trade Organisation, 25 April 2003,"}
+{"id":"test-international-appghblsba-con02b","title":"africa politics politics general house believes lesotho should be annexed","text":"Of course, the local Lesotho authorities have a mandate to act upon the interest of Basotho, but the problem is that they are not able to do so; Lesotho is dependent on foreign aid. The state simply doesn\u2019t have to money to fund a health system that could deal with the fact that 1 in 3 Basotho are infected with HIV. Moreover, the problems in SA and Lesotho are not that different. In SA, one in ten people have AIDS and a majority deal with poverty. Of course, economies of scale can deal better and cheaper with problems such as poverty and health issues because of their ability to provide more money, resources and expertise. The point about what kind of influence Basotho might have on the SA authorities is not entirely true. The National Council of Provinces, the upper house, gives each province ten delegates regardless of population size [1] ; Lesotho would have an outsized influence.  [1] National Council of Provinces, Parliament.gov.za, accessed 28\/3\/2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro02b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Actually national governments are more effective. The more authority international governing bodies, organizations and institutions have, the less can they afford to \"bother\" with local problems applying less effective problem solving procedures. Not fully understanding local tensions, burning issues in one particular area can, in the long term, bring great harm to the citizens of the whole federation. One spark can set ablaze a much larger fire than a federal government can possibly imagine. Therefore creating one European federal body will shift the focus of the local problems and the problems of the average person to more global ones which will be problematic on its own. Furthermore the advantages in the face of connection to the political process, respect for local cultural traditions and responsiveness to differing economic and physical situations will not be achieved, because boundaries fade away and people become more interested in the activities on a higher level, rather than on smaller.  Devolution and subsidiarity can be applied by existing states, as Britain and France have both showed in the 1990s, and as Germany has done since 1945. Spain\u2019s problem with separatist terrorists in the Basque Region shows that even a great deal of regional autonomy fails to satisfy extremists."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro02a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"A federal Europe will protect the cultural diversity of its member states  A federal Europe will be more advantageous for individual citizens, since they will be living in a powerful state, yet with respect of their cultural and local situation  Subsidiarity combines maximum effectiveness with maximum accountability, with decisions being made at the lowest appropriate level. Citizens gain the advantages of living in a large, powerful state in terms of international economic, military and political power, all available more cheaply in a state of 450 million people, and through their increased opportunities for work, study, etc. Yet the advantages of living in a smaller state are preserved in terms of connection to the political process, respect for local cultural traditions and responsiveness to differing economic and physical situations. Such checks and balances prevent tyranny and increase willing obedience to laws.  Overall, we now have something resembling parliamentary democracy at the European level. EU political institutions now look more like those of a member state than they do those of an international organisation. The challenge facing the European Union in the future is to fill the gap between itself and the citizen, providing a political connection equal to the social, cultural and sporting connections that the single market has already provided.  Federalism and subsidiarity can allow for regional identities in a way national states cannot \u2013 e.g. for Northern Ireland, Corsica, Basque Region, Lombardy. In a Federal Europe such peoples would not feel under threat from a dominant culture and long-running conflicts could be resolved, as issues of sovereignty become less relevant within the new political structures."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro03b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Actually if the EU became a unified state, there would be s loss of UN Seats - a major democratic, liberal voting block in international institutions such as the UN would be lost, in return for one vote (for an incredibly powerful state). Due to the UK and France, both EU members and also UN Security Council permanent members (UNSC P5 - along with the US, China and Russia), and with Germany (G4 - along with India, Japan and Brazil) hopeful to gain a seat in the future, removal of these nations from the UNSC would leave it open to greater sway by American, Russian or Chinese influence. As it is, the UK and France provide a powerful voting bloc in the SC. (Italy has offered the plan of a revolving seat for EU member states.). Therefore countries from the EU are powerful enough as it is and creating only 1 country can result in the exact opposite situation.  None of the benefits, listed in the Proposition argument are actually benefits of a federal Europe. They all have been achieved via the EU. This means that the EU itself is strong and influential enough. There is no need for deeper development as it will only bring disadvantages. \u201cIn these days of renewed gloom about the future of Europe, a quick test is in order. Who has the world\u2019s biggest economy? [...] Who has the most Fortune 500 companies? [...] Who attracts most U.S. investment? [...] The correct answer in each case is Europe, short for the 27-member European Union (EU), a region with 500 million citizens. They produce an economy almost as large as the United States and China combined\u201d. [1]  [1] Debismann, \u2018Who wins in U.S. vs Europe contest?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro05a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"A federal Europe will ensure that large, multinational businesses remain accountable for their actions  In a globalised economy, there is a need to tame multinational corporations, which would be otherwise capable of playing national governments off against each other in search for low wages, social costs and state protection. A federal Europe would be powerful enough to demand high standards of behaviour from such companies, because only a powerful and economically significant player can dictate restricting conditions. This would ensure fair wages, safe working conditions and - additionally - Europe would be able to force the multinational companies to implement correct and holistic policies and would also be in a position to make a greater difference on environmental issues such as global warming. Sovereignty becomes less relevant when effective independence is lost anyway as the economy and the problems faced by all nations are increasingly globalised."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro01a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"A federal Europe will benefit the citizens of its member states  A federal Europe would build upon the success of the EU and its predecessors in taming the nationalism that caused so much conflict in the twentieth century. The EU is drawing nearer to realising the vision of its founders for an \u201cever-closer union\u201d. Despite the EU\u2019s relative success in this regard, while national governments still exist they will regard policy-making within Europe as a competitive business, abusing vetoes and damaging the potential prosperity of all of Europe\u2019s citizens. Such is the case with Britain's veto over the carbon tax, which the EU wants to implement - \u201cThe British government is \"highly likely\" to block European Commission proposals for a carbon tax contained in a widely-circulated draft version of the Energy Taxation Directive, EU diplomatic sources said yesterday\u201d. [1]  A federal European state can build on the shared history and culture of its members to further the common good, while accommodating regional differences.  [1] EurActiv.com, \u2018Britain set to veto EU carbon tax plans\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro01b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"National identity and differences remain far more important than supposedly shared European values. Existing national governments operate on different models which recognise the historical, cultural and economic distinctiveness of each nation, and thus provide an important focus for the loyalty of their citizens (e.g. various monarchies, the French republican system, hallowed by successive revolutions). The further power is removed from a citizen, the more detached he is from the democratic process, the less accountable that power becomes, and the more likely it is to make decisions badly, damaging the interest of tens of millions of people."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro05b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"The assumptions about the multinational corporations are not actually proved. National governments close deals with such corporations if both sides have interest in it. Even if we assume such a thing existed nowadays \u2013 in a federal Europe the same problem would occur only not with countries, rather with regions. That is because every region would want the company to create more business in its area so we will end up with the assumed status quo today.  The EU today is already strong enough in regards to implementing environmental policies and restrictions \u2013 the carbon tax, the cap and trade system. Dealing with the international issue of global warming is not a point of a federal Europe or the EU, but a completely different matter."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro04b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Europe is not like America and Australia, which were founded by immigrants with considerable homogeneity of language and culture. Canada\u2019s relations with Quebec show that where such differences exist they can be politically destabilising, while federal states such as Brazil and the USSR have not avoided dictatorship, human rights problems and economic backwardness. Within the EU there is often no commonality of interests on key federal issues such as defence and foreign policy. Even today there are big splits on major issues such as agricultural reform and trade policy.  In actuality, Europeans don\u2019t envy Americans because right now EU is far better in every aspect than the US \u2013 \u201cLoory: What we have heard today is that the problems here in the U.S. are certainly much worse than in Europe.\u201d [1] \u201dAnybody who claims that the US provides a model which the EU should copy needs to consider the basic economic facts of the case.\u201d [2]  [1] Loory, \u2018Europe's economy doing better than US\u2019  [2] Irvin, \u2018Europe vs. USA: Whose Economy Wins?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro03a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"A federal Europe will be a stronger international actor  A federal Europe will be better equipped to promote the interests of its citizens in the world, carrying more influence in the UN, WTO, IMF and other intergovernmental and treaty organisations than its individual states do now. Furthermore, Europe has a lot to contribute to the world in terms of its liberal traditions and political culture, providing both a partner and a necessary balance to the USA in global affairs.  Once unified, Europe will become an (even more) important negotiating and trading partner \u2013 one of the biggest economies in the world. It will have a population of 450 million \u2013 more than the United States and Russia combined. It will be the world\u2019s biggest trader and generate one quarter of global wealth. It presently gives more aid to poor countries than any other donor. Its currency, the euro, comes second only to the US dollar in international financial markets. France, Germany, Poland - these countries can hardly ever negotiate something with giants such as the US or China. Europe as one country stands a better chance of putting its message across effectively."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-pro04a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"The federal model has proved to be a success previously  The success of federal states elsewhere in providing peace and prosperity for their citizens, alongside democratic safeguards, point to the advantages of pursuing this model in Europe. The USA, Australia and Canada provide standards of living for their citizens which most Europeans would envy, while federal India is the best example of a long-term democratic success in the developing world.  The application of the principles of federalism to the European social and environmental policy s the key to European success. The creation of the single market meant that much national regulation of social and environmental issues ceased to be effective: only a European approach at the same level as the regulation of business would be able to work. Otherwise, companies might simply transfer from one member state with a great deal of regulation in these areas to another member state with less. If what economists call \u201cexternalities\u201d were not to go unaddressed altogether, European social and environmental policies became necessary. Therefore only federal unity can bring EU states closer together in order for them to work as successfully as others federal countries."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con03b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"This is all a matter of PR. Politicians and leaders need to work harder in order to present the benefits of an eventual federal Europe, which will also deal with some of the problems the EU has today. The public opinion is not a constant; it is rather variable and changeable.  Furthermore the EU is getting some bad evaluation at the moment due to the economic crisis, but this doesn\u2019t mean the overall opinion toward it is negative."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con01b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Surely an ill-advised dash to build a federal Europe and forcing people in a direction they do not wish to go is a bad idea. However a federal Europe is the normal concurrence of the process of integration. And this is not against people\u2019s will- \u201c\u2026He (Belgian ex-prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt) said, \u201cI don\u2019t think people have said that they are against a United States of Europe\u201d. The no votes in France and the Netherlands were, according to Verhofstadt, not \u201cno votes against Europe, but were votes against a certain type of Europe\u2026 what people want is a strong Europe, a United States of Europe that can give an answer to their concerns\u201d. [1]  [1] Eurealist.co.uk, \u2018United States of Europe\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con02a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Existing contributive inequalities within the Union would be amplified by a formal federal system  There is a possibility that once a federation, Europe will adopt certain policies that might be harmful for a minority of the member states. In consequence, any economic downturn in those states could manifest itself on a larger scale in the United States of Europe as economies of the member states rely (more than ever) on each other.  Furthermore different states may not contribute equally. States, because inducements to cooperate or threats to punish may be low, fail to provide for the collective benefit, therefore essentially \"passing the buck\" to other states, and most frequently to the most economically powerful participants. Citizens of large states like France, Great Britain, and Germany frequently complain that smaller states are not paying their \"fair share\" of the costs of the European Union. Meanwhile, smaller states may complain that they are overlooked or even disregarded because of their economically weaker status. These issues will be exacerbated in a European federation.  Decentralization decreases economic progress. [1] European countries where regions have more powers and responsibilities in terms of taxation, legislation and education policies tend to do better economically than centralised ones. Centralism hammers development of countries at the cost of its citizens.  [1] EUObserver, \u2018Centralised states bad for economy, study shows\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con04a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Subsidiarity will deal with regional identities\u2019 problem  Federalism and subsidiarity, that things should be dealt with at the lowest, most local, level possible, [1] can allow for regional identities in a way national states cannot. For example for Northern Ireland, Corsica, Basque Region, Lombardy. In a Federal Europe such peoples would not feel under threat from a dominant culture and long-running conflicts could be resolved, as issues of sovereignty become less relevant within the new political structures.  [1] Europa, \u2018Subsidiarity\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con03a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"The concept of federalism lacks political support  Euroscepticism is highest in Latvia, the United Kingdom, and Hungary, with only 25%\u201332% viewing membership as a good thing. Belief that the citizen's country has benefited from EU membership is lowest (below 50%) in the UK, Hungary, Latvia, Italy, Austria, Sweden and Bulgaria. A significant minority (36%) do not tend to trust the European Parliament. The European Parliament does not command the same sense of respect as national Parliaments, nor the connection with ordinary people. [1]  [1] Directorate-General for Communication, \u2018EUROBAROMETER 71 Public opinion in the European Union\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con01a","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Moves toward federalism will endanger the stability of the EU  There are great dangers of forcing people in a direction they do not wish to go. An ill-advised dash to build a federal Europe could raise dormant nationalist feelings, promote the rise of populist politicians with xenophobic agendas and endanger the stability of the EU. A Gaullist \u201cEurope of Nations\u201d [1] preserves the current benefits of EU without the risks of further unwanted political integration.  \u201c(...)Dominant groups have more to gain from the majoritarian principle which is indispensable for constitutional democracies. As such, minorities would be placed at an ever more disadvantaged position in a European state. Thus, the progression of the EU into a federal state is bound to have a more negative than it would a positive impact on European integration.\u201d [2]  [1] Ross, \u2018Chirac the Great or de Gaulle the Small?\u2019  [2] Cocodia, \u2018Problems of Integration in a Federal Europe\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con04b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"Devolution and subsidiarity can be applied by existing states, as Britain and France have both showed in the 1990s, and as Germany has done since 1945. Spain\u2019s problem with separatist terrorists in the Basque Region shows that even a great deal of regional autonomy fails to satisfy extremists."}
+{"id":"test-international-ehbfe-con02b","title":"europe house believes federal europe","text":"On the contrary a federal Europe will bring the countries a lot closer together. Matters of harmful policies will be a lot less than they are right now in the EU simply because separate states do exist now. However when there is just one state with all the nations in it \u2013 the harmful policies toward a certain state will be reduced to a minimum \u2013 after all the leaders will be managing one country and will be watching for the interests of all its people equally. Furthermore in a federal Europe the economic situation will even far better and faster than it is doing so now in the EU. As a matter of fact there are examples with the recently joined states, Bulgaria and Romania, which after 3 years still cannot catch up with the more advanced western states. In a federal Europe this particular problem will be sorted out, because everybody will be a part of one major and powerful country. Therefore in an economical aspect a federal Europe will manage a lot better than the European Union is right now."}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-pro02b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Tougher protection of Africa\u2019s nature reserves will only result in more bloodshed. Every time the military upgrade their weaponry, tactics and logistic, the poachers improve their own methods to counter them. In the past decade, over 1,000 rangers have been killed whilst protecting Africa\u2019s endangered wildlife. [1] Every time one side advances its position the other side matches it. When armed military patrols were sent out, poachers switched their tactics so every hunter has several \u2018guards\u2019 to combat the military. The lack of an advantageous position in the arms race has ensured that the poaching war is yet to be won. [2]  [1] Smith, D. \u2018Execute elephant poachers on the spot, Tanzanian minister urges\u2019  [2] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-pro03b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Not all endangered animals have such cultural significance within Africa. Pangolins are armoured mammals which are native to Africa and Asia. Like rhinoceros, pangolins are endangered due to their demand in East Asia. They are relatively unknown however, and therefore have little cultural significance. [1] This is the case for many of Africa\u2019s lesser known endangered species. Any extension of protection for endangered animals based on their cultural significance would be unlikely to save many of these species.  [1] Conniff, R. \u2018Poaching Pangolins: An Obscure Creature Faces Uncertain Future\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-pro01b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Human development is of great importance to the African continent, arguably more so than conserving endangered animals. In 2010 it was estimated that there are 239 million sub-Saharan Africans living in poverty. [1] Poverty can be the cause of a wide array of political, security and socio-economic issues. Possible sources of income, such as cotton plantations and food crops, should therefore be embraced as they will have a more positive impact on the region than the survival of endangered species.  [1] World Hunger, \u2018Africa Hunger and Poverty Facts\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-pro05b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Deterrents in the criminal justice system have not worked in similar cases. The US drug war, which identified a specific activity and made it a matter of national security, has resulted in harsh sentences for those who deal or smuggle illicit substances. Despite these harsh punishments however, there has been little success in defeating the drug business as the profit margin for the trade is too high. [1] With Ivory and other products for which poachers are hunting the same will happen; if some poachers are put up the prices will simply go up encouraging others. Tougher protection of animals through increased conviction rates and extended terms is likely to fail.  [1] BBC, \u201cGlobal war on drugs \u2018has failed\u2019 says former leaders\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-pro04b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Linking animal endangerment and poaching to terrorism as a justification for action unnecessarily securitises the issue. This will only serve to create a situation where state actors can use poaching as an excuse to exploit threats. As with the war on drugs and the war on terror, this power is apportioned to actors who are then capable of abusing it for the sake of national security. [1]  [1] Crick,E. \u2018Drugs as an existential threat: An analysis of the international securitization of drugs\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-con03b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"There is no guarantee that legalising the trade would satisfy demand in East Asia. [1] Nor is there any substantial evidence to suggest that prices would drop to the point where hunters could no longer sustain themselves. If neither of these factors transpires then there is a strong likelihood that endangered animals would be hunted to extinction.  [1] Player, I. & Fourie, A. \u2018How to win the war against poachers\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-con01b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"There are numerous sponsors who contribute towards animal protection schemes, reducing the government\u2019s burden. Private wildlife custodians spend significant sums of money ensuring they are fully equipped to deal with poachers. There are also private donors and interest groups such as World Wildlife Federation (WWF) who supply funding for the governments\u2019 conservation efforts. [1] This financial support has made projects such as the increased military presence in South Africa\u2019s game parks possible.  [1] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-con04b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"If tough approaches to conservation did not exist then the situation would be far worse. [1] The lack of legislation and an armed response to the poaching threat has led to the extinction of many species, such as the Western black rhinoceros. [2] Without the boots on the ground then poaching would most likely expand due to the lack of deterrent which armed guards cause.  [1] Welz, A. \u2018The War on African Poaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?\u2019  [2] Mathur, A. \u2018Western Black Rhino Poached Out of Existence; Declared Extinct, Slack Anti-Poaching Efforts Responsible\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-iiahwagit-con02b","title":"imals international africa house would african government implement tougher","text":"Most of these human deaths are caused by humans invading the territory of the animals at hand. Even giraffes, usually considered peaceful animals, will attack if they feel that humans are too close. Generally, it is the human\u2019s responsibility rather than the animal\u2019s. Increased protection may save more lives as methods such as fencing will forcibly separate humans from animals and decrease the chances of the two coming in to contact. [1]  [1] Morelle, R. \u201cFencing off wild lions from humans \u2018could save them\u2019\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-pro02b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"The Lisbon Treaty is limited in significance and has less problematic superstate aspects that the Constitutional treaty of 2004 such as an official flag, anthem and bill of citizen's rights [1]. The Constitution wanted to found the European Union on an entirely new basis, whereas the Lisbon Treaty is a conventional amending Treaty. It is this fundamental difference that justifies the lack of referendum for the Lisbon Treaty when it was essential for the ratification of the Constitution. However the association with the previous Treaty would have seen the public wary and progress stifled as a result. The Lisbon Treaty was more concerned with technical reforms than constitutional significance and therefore did not need the ratification of the national electorates. The result of a referendum is more likely to reflect public opinion on the current government than on the proposed reforms. Furthermore on important foreign policy issues the elected government is better informed to make decisions than the electorate [2].  [1] BBC News, \u2018EU leaders sign landmark treaty\u2019, viewed on 13 June 2011   [2] Parliament, Referendums \u2013 for and against, viewed on 13 June 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-pro02a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Major changes need to be put to the people and the people must be trusted.  The Lisbon Treaty significantly affects the workings of each member country. It gives the European Union a legal personality, allowing it to sign international agreements and member countries are now made subject to majority voting [1]. The Lisbon Treaty does not only affect international policies, criminal law and national justice systems, it also gives power over to the Commission and European Court. Such major changes must be put to popular vote, the citizens of each EU member state have a right to legitimise or reject these changes that push for a more centralized European superstate. Furthermore the will of the people needs to be trusted, if a reform is intentionally ambiguous and complicated, which was one of the criticisms of the Lisbon Treaty [2], it is the job of the politician to explain the cause to the public. Voters should be included in the debate and key issues need to be highlighted not just ignored.  [1] European Commission, Your Guide to the Lisbon Treaty, viewed on 13 June 2011   [2] Foley, Kathy, \u2018Lisbon treat: yes, no or eh?\u2019, Sunday Times (13 January 2008)."}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-pro03b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Democracy itself is the delegating of decision making to elected officials and this is exactly what has taken place in the government's decision to not hold referendums but pass changes through national parliaments. Referenda undermines democracy by negating the representative government and parliamentary sovereignty, they have been chosen as the representatives of the people, by the people, and therefore have the right to make informed decisions on their behalf about what to do in the nation's best interests. If there are longer term issues with a government's decision then they can be made accountable at the next general election."}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-pro01a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"The decision not to hold a referendum directly ignores the wishes of the people and is therefore undemocratic.  The Lisbon Treaty and the Constitution have 96% of the same text. Former French President Val\u00e9ry Giscard d\u2019Estaing, who wrote the original EU Constitution, has publicly stated that the Lisbon Treaty is essentially the same as the proposed Constitution [1]. The decision from countries not to hold referendums in 2007 that they had previously agreed to is a flagrant disregard for the wishes of the people. Moreover the decision to ratify the Lisbon Treaty through national parliaments in France and the Netherlands where the 2004 Treaty was rejected in popular vote demonstrates that the decision not to hold referendums was in the fear that they would be rejected when put to the people. Any decision that is forced through parliament in the fear that it would fail when opened to the citizens of that country lacks legitimacy.  [1] Val\u00e9ry Giscard d'Estaing: The EU Treaty is the same as the Constitution\u2019, The Independent (30 October 2007), viewed on 13 June 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-pro01b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"The decision not to hold a referendum was not one taken against the wishes of the people. Firstly, citizens of France and the Netherlands, who voted no to the Constitution in public vote, accepted the decision to not repeat a referendum in 2007. Furthermore, the accusation that the two texts are 96% identical is a crude one that ignores the fundamental difference in meaning that a few words can make [1] therefore the decision to not hold a referendum to ratify The Lisbon Treaty should not be seen in conjunction with the result of the Constitution referendum. This demonstrates that the decision not to hold a referendum was not against the people's wishes: it was largely accepted that accepting constitutional changes through the elected national parliament was democratically acceptable.  [1] 'The EU Reform Treaty"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-pro03a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Reform treaties are too important to be left to politicians of the day  Decisions that affect the national sovereignty of a country should not just be left to elected politicians who have power for a limited time but should be given to the citizens through direct vote. The nature of the Lisbon Treaty changed the relationship between member states and Brussels; it is clearly a constitutional issue and therefore needs to be ratified by all citizens. The Blair Labour Government held referenda on a whole range of constitutional changes, including not only devolution in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, but even on whether individual cities should have directly elected mayors"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con03b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"All politics is PR. If democracy was abandoned every time that the media held sway with the public, then government would soon become a dictatorship. It is a government's job to take up this PR war and to inform the public about the pros and cons of possible reform so that they can make an informed decision. It is not simply good enough to declare that referendums don't work"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con01b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"The lack of referendums in the making of past decisions is not reason enough to neglect democracy in the present. Decisions that were made by past governments should be made accountable by present governments, because voting has been denied in the past gives even more reason to now open up these important decisions to popular vote."}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con02a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"If all member states held a referendum on all EU treaties nothing would get passed.  The pure size and logistics of the European Union is such that if every member state had to hold a referendum on all EU Treaties, no EU Treaties would get enacted. It is too likely that one of the member states will vote against a motion. The EU should be able to vote on issues without consulting the citizens of all member states, in the UK legislation is voted on in parliament which is made of constituency representatives. The concept for government's voting in representation of their countries within the EU is the same. Furthermore the UK did not hold a referendum on the war with Iraq, so why should a referendum be held for issues of lesser importance."}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con04a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Voters do not understand or care about EU reforms.  They would have found the legal jargon off-putting and a detailed knowledge of the existing EU Treaties is necessary to understand the amendments proposed 1. They have limited understanding of the current system and therefore cannot evaluate how reform treaties would benefit or harm the EU and their nation's interest. Due to this lack of understanding citizens are too likely to be swayed by media bias and anti Europe campaigners. All this is shown by the low turnout in European parliament elections. Elected representatives on the other hand, do understand the impact of the treaties and therefore can make an informed decision on the behalf of their people and in the nation's interest.  1 'An unloved Parliament', The Economist (7 May 2009), viewed on 13 June 2011 'Elections 2009', eu4journalists viewed on 13 June 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con03a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Referendums are more about PR than politics.  Referendum votes always end up being about something other than the issue on the ballot paper. In many referendum campaigns the real issue becomes one of confidence in the government of the day and its management of the economy, law and order, public scandals, etc. So when people vote they are expressing their unhappiness at their national government rather than making a considered judgment about the future of the EU. This is exactly what happened in the French and Dutch votes on the EU Constitution in 2005. When asked what influenced their decision, most voters said that they disliked aspects of EU enlargement, especially the arrival of Eastern European workers who might take local jobs, and the proposed entry negotiations with Turkey \u2013 but none of this was anything to do with the Constitution [1]. Furthermore a referendum would be pray to media distortion, which could have swayed the votes with biased coverage. Referendums are too often about government confidence rather than the issue at hand, people may have voted to express other grievances with their current government and not the future of the EU.  [1] The Further Enlargement of the EU: threat or opportunity?\u2019 House of Lords European Union Committee (23 November 2006) viewed on 13 June 2011  , p.10"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con01a","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Significant changes in the past have not been put to popular vote.  In the past treaties with more far reaching consequences have been ratified by ruling parliaments without ever going to popular vote. For example the 1986 Act establishing a Single Market and the 1996 Maastricht Treaty. These treaties gave the EU power in economic regulation, immigration and monetary policy and yet were not put to majority voting. It was understood that progress was important and popular voting could halt progress. If these changes were made it is nonsensical that treaties with less significance should use a referendum."}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con04b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"Voters do care about EU reforms, and they are owed the respect of being told in layman's terms what specific treaty changes would do in real terms. The Lisbon Treaty was unnecessarily complicated and full of jargon (Browne, 'Gobbledegook'). It is the role of the politicians to make sure that treaties are easy to understand and accessible to all the citizens of the countries that they will affect. If the public is apathetic it is because they know their vote will ultimately be ignored. Democracy is paramount and in order to remain democratic EU reform needs to be passed by a public vote and not just the elected: prolonged elite avoidance of the engaging the public will be more detrimental in the long run1  1 Lu, Chien-Yi Lu, 'Fallacies in Embracing a"}
+{"id":"test-international-epvhwhranet-con02b","title":"europe politics voting house would hold referendum any new eu treaty","text":"There is a difference between holding a referendum for every decision and holding one for important constitutional changes that will affect a nation's future sovereignty. The logistics and the fear of rejection should not be a reason to not hold a referendum. If anything the current controversy surrounding the war on Iraq and its legality is proof that referendums are fundamental in important issues to ensure that the ruling government still reflects the will of the people."}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro02b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Most often, prosecutions that occur are not just with only the losing side being prosecuted for their crimes. The Nuremburg trials prosecuted Nazi\u2019s for offences they committed, but none of the Allied forces were ever brought for trial; Curtis LeMay who commanded the US Air Force in fire bombings that killed hundreds of thousands of Japanese himself said \u201cI suppose if I had lost the war, I would have been tried as a war criminal.\u201d[1]  Prosecutions also focus on a small number of scapegoats, to the exclusion of the majority who showed sympathy for that regime, civilians that marched with the regime, or political supporters. An example of this is the prosecution of the military junta in Argentina in 1984-5 while Peronist supporters (the new government was peronist) were given amnesties under the \u2018full stop\u2019 program. It took another 20 years before more \u2013 267 members of the military and police \u2013 were convicted.[2]  The third reason why these trials may be unjust is that the laws that get created \u2013 in order to ensure that no one slips through the cracks \u2013 are usually so broad and generalist that they are virtually indefensible and fail to take context of the crimes into account. As such, the laws themselves are often manifestly unjust.[3]  [1] \u2018General Curtis E. LeMay, (1906-1990)\u2019, PBS, accessed 24\/2\/2014,   [2] Lay\u00fas, Rosario Figari, \u2018Better Late than Never: Human Rights Trials in Argentina\u2019, RightsNews, Vol.30, no.3, May 2012,   [3] Osiel, Mark J. \u2018Why Prosecute? Critics of Punishment for Mass Atrocity\u2019 118 Human Rights Quarterly 147"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro02a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"The only just method  Prosecuting offenders is the only way to get a just outcome when there have been horrific crimes committed. At a most principled level, those who commit a crime ought to be held accountable for their actions even if they are powerful or it damages the chances of peace because the powerful must be shown not to be above the law. Even where the law did not exist, or the leaders were in control of the law, international norms provide a standard for what actions merit prosecution, and judiciaries have been very good at convicting those who committed atrocities[1]. Having those who committed crimes convicted by law courts helps prevent those affected by atrocities holding grudges and put the past behind them so aiding the healing process [2].  [1] Moore, John J Jr \u2018Problems With Forgiveness\u2019 43 Stanford Law Review 733, February 1991  [2] abc news, \u2018Dallas Holocaust survivors welcome prosecution of former Nazi guard\u2019, wfaa.com, 20 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro03b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"By using international courts, countries do not actually gain skills or dependence within their own systems, but may instead become reliant on that system.  However, such an international institution cannot handle all the cases and delays the process of justice; The ICTR have completely finished 47 cases in 20 years [1], a slow operation compared to the Rwandan local courts. The domestic Gacaca system has done much more trying nearly 2million suspects.[2] But this system has been reconciliatory in nature without forensic evidence and cross examination.  [1] Will, Ross, \u2018Rwanda genocide: Did Bizimungu trial take too long?\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 17 May 2011,   \u2018Status of cases\u2019, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, accessed 24\/2\/2014,   [2] Kimenyi, Felly, and Asiimwe, Bosco, \u2018Legal experts hail Gacaca\u2019, newtimes.co.rw, 18 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro01a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Prosecutions are needed for victims  Prosecutions are the only way for victims to see those who caused pain against them brought to justice. The alternative of some kind of reconciliation often leaves those who perpetrated crimes able to retain power as has happened in countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Colombia and Guatemala[1]. When this happens there is clearly a concern both that these individuals are not being held to account and that they could act in a similar way again if given the opportunity. Under the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948, victims have a right to see offenders prosecuted[2]. And it is only prosecution that will ensure that such acts cannot occur again so giving peace of mind to victims.  [1] Osiel, Mark J. \u2018Why Prosecute? Critics of Punishment for Mass Atrocity\u2019 118 Human Rights Quarterly 147   [2] Akhavan, Payam, \u2018Beyond Impunity: Can International Criminal Justice Prevent Future Atrocities' American Journal of International Law, 95(1), 2001, pp.7-31"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro01b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Victims are often no better off by seeking prosecutions, especially because prosecutions are often hard to make stick in the first place. But moreover, the process often involves victims having to relive their story while being cross examined, which further harms the victim.  The continued trauma among genocide survivors in Rwanda is largely due to having to give testimonies in such cases [1].  [1] Redress and African rights, \u2018Survivors and post genocide in Rwanda\u2019, redress.org, November 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro04b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Deterrence doesn\u2019t work as people who commit these atrocities usually don\u2019t believe they will be caught, or don\u2019t care. Further, prosecutions can actually cause more offenses in the future, as supporters of those prosecuted seek revenge for the prosecution occurring. We have seen this in Sudan where President Bashir\u2019s indictment by the ICC has done little to halt attacks on civilians in both Darfur and, more recently, South Kordofan [1].  [1] Jennifer, Christian and James, Bair, \u2018 Why does the world allow Sudan\u2019s Bashir to target civilians? \u2019, globalpost.com, 30 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro03a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"International prosecution encourages domestic justice  By introducing internationally based prosecution, the laws are able to effectively filter down into the domestic system. The international system takes care of powerful offenders who might otherwise not receive a fair trial or be brought to justice. This then allows domestic courts to prosecute those involved in the crimes at a lower level. This has worked in Ivory coast where the former leader was brought to face charges committed at home and also helped stabilize the situation in the country [1].  [1] Smith, David, \u2018Laurent Gbagbo appears before international criminal court\u2019, thegurdian.com, 5 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-pro04a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Deters future offences  By prosecuting those who commit crimes against humanity and war crimes future leaders are dissuaded from committing such acts [1]. When criminals are held accountable, the belief in the reliability of the legal system is enhanced, society is strengthened by the experience that the legal system is able to defend itself and the sense of justice is upheld or rectified [2].  Since the Office of the Prosecutor announced its interest in Colombia in 2006, the government has taken a number of measures particularly the Peace and Justice Law to ensure domestic prosecution of those who could potentially be tried by the ICC. The threat of ICC prosecution appears to have concerned former President Pastrana. Vincente Castrano (AUC) a paramilitary leader was fearful of the possibility of ICC prosecution, a fear that reportedly directly contributed to his group\u2019s demobilisation[3].  [1] Safferlin, Christoph J.M., \u2018Can Criminal prosecution be the answer to massive Human Rights Violations?\u2019, issafrica.org,   [2] Grono, Nick, \u2018 The Deterrent Effect of the ICC on the Commission of International Crimes by Government Leaders \u2019, globalpolicy.org, 5 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-con03b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"It is the threat of prosecutions that cause leaders to fear committing crimes in the first place. The best way to stop leaders causing damage is for them to be deterred from doing so by being held accountable of their deeds."}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-con01b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"This often leads to a scenario where leaders grant themselves immunity, or continue to commit atrocities, in the comfort of knowing that immunity is coming. Those in the CIA who committed what many consider to have been torture were granted immunity by the justice department claiming that it would be unfair to prosecute men and women working to protect America [1]. Such an immunity or amnesty can then be used to close discussions to find the truth and effectively shut of the healing process.  [1] Greenwald, Glenn, \u2018Obama's justice department grants final immunity to Bush's CIA torturers\u2019, thegurdian.com, 31 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-con02a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Prosecutions don't get to the real truth  Truth is the most important factor that supports the healing process. Individuals when being prosecuted have incentives to hide crimes and lie about the true motivations for offences occurring as they don\u2019t want to go to prison for telling the truth. This means that the whole truth of matters never really come to light. TRC\u2019s, such as that in South Africa, do a very good job of ensuring that the full record of human rights abuses come to light [1].The Rwandan Gacaca courts which encompasses three important features of relevance to broader experiments of reconciliatory justice serve as a lesson. Those who confess their crimes are rewarded with the halving of prison sentences and as a result, 60,238 prisoners have confessed to participating in the genocide [2]. Second, gacaca law highlights apologies welcomed by many as an important ingredient to promote reconciliation.  [1] Linfield, Susie, \u2018Trading Truth for Justice? Reflections on South Africa\u2019s Truth and Reconciliation Commission\u2019, bostonreview,net, 01 June 2000,   [2] Graybill, Lyn, and Lanegran , Kimberly, \u2018Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation in Africa: Issues and Cases\u2019, ufl.edu, Fall 2004,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-con03a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Fear of prosecutions cause leaders to do more damage  Instead of giving up fighting, leaders continue to fight, disrupting the ability of a country to move on, for fear of prosecution. Pol Pot, for example, rebuilt armies and continued to fight long after his regime was overthrown, killing thousands more people. Had an amnesty been offered, he might well have given up and allowed the country to heal with far less death. Joseph Kony also continues to plague Uganda from within bush land even though he has offered to surrender for amnesty, because the ICC refuses to grant him any indemnity for his crimes [1].  [1] BBC news Africa, \u2018LRA leader Joseph Kony 'in surrender talks' with CAR\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 20 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-con01a","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Peace more important than Justice  In practice, prosecutions often come at the expense of other forms of reconciliation. For instance before Truth and Reconciliation Commissions can work amnesties have to be given for people to be willing to tell their stories. In order for people to put down weapons, or agree to tell stories, prosecutions must be given up.  This is evident with the conflict is South Sudan; the opposition which had signed the ceasefire agreement to restore stability in the region, breached it and started fighting again when many of its members were indicted for the crimes they had committed [1]. In such case the most important thing is to prevent future atrocities as healing can only start when there is no conflict or atrocities going on.  [1] Deustche Welle, \u2018South Sudan: Rebels Strike Oil Centre, Breaching Ceasefire\u2019, allafrica.com, 18 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aglhrilhb-con02b","title":"africa global law human rights international law house believes","text":"Prosecutions allow an equal chance for both prosecution and defense to show the truth as they believe it with the result that far more facts are brought to life than a process that is reliant only on the individual being \u2018truthful\u2019. Moreover an amnesty may not be forever as it is against the norms of international justice so it is unlikely that they will tell the whole truth.[1] Argentina for example has seen the prosecution of those who were given amnesties two decades earlier [2].  [1] Ahmed, Anees and Quayle, Merryn, \u2018Can genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes be pardoned or amnestied?\u2019, sas.ac.uk, 28 January 2008,   [2] Lay\u00fas, Rosario Figari, \u2018Better Late than Never: Human Rights Trials in Argentina\u2019, RightsNews, Vol.30, no.3, May 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro02b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Currently 3 in 4 youths work informally or within vulnerable employment - working without a formal written contract (Work4Youth, 2013). Although technology may create new markets it will not change the type of employment youths engage in. The use of technology will mean a majority of youths will continue to work informally - without access to social security, a valuable pension scheme, and social protection in the event of a crisis. Self-employment and having the flexibility to connect to different markets provides a temporary fix and income. Stability and security is not provided for youths."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro02a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology has driven youths to identify new markets  A key technology for youths are mobile phones and devices. Across West and East Africa the possession of mobile phones has enabled citizens to network and form solutions to social problems. By 2015, there are expected to be 1 billion mobile cellular subscriptions in Sub-Saharan Africa (Sambira, 2013). This is the first African generation directly accessing high-technology, although uncertainty remains in the amount of youths having access to technology. Through mobile phones new business opportunities, and flows of money, are being created. Furthermore, mobile phones are providing innovative solutions to health care treatment, ensuring better health for future entrepreneurs and youths.  SlimTrader is a positive example [1] . SlimTrader uses mobile phones to provide a range of vital services - from airplane and bus tickets to medicine. The innovative e-commerce provides a space to advertise skills, products, and opportunities - to, on the one hand, identify new consumer demands; and on another hand, create notices to exchange goods.  Mobile technology is making it faster, quicker, and simpler to tap into new markets [2] .  [1] See further readings: SlimTrader, 2013; Ummeli, 2013.  [2] See further readings: Nsehe, 2013. Inspite of challenges Patrick Ngowi has earned millions through the construction of Helvetic Solar Contractors."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro03b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Such platforms are known, and accessible, by a minority within Africa - limiting who benefits from the technology available. Rising entrepreneurs across Africa typically are able to access resources required and network their ideas, whilst a majority of youths remain out of the innovation loop.  As inequality disparities continue to increase in Africa, a similar trend is identifiable to youth technology and entrepreneurialism. Entrepreneurs rising in Africa show the future of a \u2018young millionaire\u2019s club\u2019. They hold the right connections, access to credit and electricity, and time to apply to their business model. The millionaire entrepreneurs continue to create new technologies - not vice-versa."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro05a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology has enabled Africa\u2019s cultural industries to grow.  Technology has enabled the development of entrepreneurial ideas for business, but also within Africa\u2019s cultural industry. Access to video recording mobile phones, the internet, and televised publications has created a new culture of expression for African youths. Cultural industries are raising critical questions for politics, and empowering youth to tell their stories. The use of journalism has become mobilised by youths - as seen in initiatives such as, African Slum Voices, of which are encouraging youths to pro-actively raise their opinions and voices on issues occurring within their communities.  Furthermore, the music and film industry in Africa has arisen as a result of access to new technologies at a lower-cost. Two key components responsible for the growth of Nollywood (Nigeria\u2019s Film Industry) include access to digital technology and entrepreneurship. Youths have become vital within Nollywood, as actors, producers and editors. Today Nollywood\u2019s low-budget films have inspired the growth of regional film industries across Africa and contributed to its status as the third largest film industry. Nollywood\u2019s revenue stand\u2019s at around $200mn a year [1] .  [1] See further readings: ABN, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro01a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology will lead job growth for youths.  The rate of unemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa remains above the global average, at 7.55% in 2011, with 77% of the population in vulnerable employment [1] . Economic growth has not been inclusive and jobs are scarce. In particular, rates of youth unemployment, and underemployment, remain a concern [2] . On average, the underutilisation of youths in the labour market across Sub-Saharan Africa stood at 67% in 2012 (Work4Youth, 2013). Therefore 67% of youths are either unemployed, inactive, or in irregular employment. The rate of unemployment varies geographically and across gender [3] .  There remains a high percentage of youths within informal employment. Technology can introduce a new dynamic within the job market and access to safer employment.  Secure, high quality jobs, and more jobs, are essential for youths. Access to technology is the only way to meet such demands. Technology will enable youths to create new employment opportunities and markets; but also employment through managing, and selling, the technology available.  [1] ILO, 2013.  [2] Definitions: Unemployment is defined as the amount of people who are out of work despite being available, and seeking, work. Underemployment defines a situation whereby the productive capacity of an employed person is underutilised. Informal employment defines individuals working in waged and\/or self employment informally (see further readings).  [3] Work4Youth (2013) show, on average, Madagascar has the lowest rate of unemployment (2.2%) while Tanzania has the highest (42%); and the average rate of female unemployment stands higher at 25.3%, in contrast to men (20.2%)."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro01b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Recent evidence by the World Bank indicates unemployment is not only due to the limited availability of jobs. A high proportion of youths have been identified as \u2018idle\u2019 - not in school, training, or work, and not actively seeking employment. Although variations are found, in 2009 only ~2% of male youths, aged 15-24, and ~1% of female youths, who were not in school or employment in Tanzania, were actively looking for work [1] . Without motivation technology will not make a difference.  [1] WDR, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro05b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Cultural industries don\u2019t always provide a positive role. If entrepreneurial youths today are using technology to create films on witchcraft in the public sphere, what effect will this have on future generations? Growth cant just rely on creative industries as there needs to be money created to drive demand for these films, and any money that might be made by the creative industries are undermined by piracy. Without a solution small time films are hardly the most secure of jobs."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro04b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Despite programs distributing technology into schools does the availability of technology provides future benefits? Having a tablet does not ensure teachers are well-trained to assist and guide the children. Without proper oversight it might prove more of a distraction. Technology in schools might also mean students having technology substituted for teachers. With programs still being implemented, and results variable, the causality between technology, education, and the rise of well educated, motivated, youths remains precarious."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro03a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology is building a platform for sharing ideas.  Entrepreneurialism can be encouraged through an awareness, and sharing, of new ideas. The technological revolution has provided a platform for personal expression, delivery of up-to-date news, and the vital sharing of local ideas and thoughts. In Nigeria the Co-Creation Hub has emerged, encouraging an entrepreneurial spirit. Further, Umuntu and Mimiboards\u2019 are connecting individual communities to the web by encouraging local content creation [1] .  Such platforms are enabling the transfer of knowledge and innovative ideas. Innovative solutions are being introduced to routine problems, such as \u2018Mafuta Go\u2019 an app to find the best price for petrol (Christine Ampaire).  [1] See further readings: Co-Creation Hub Nigeria, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-pro04a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Changing education systems and democracy.  Technology has enabled access to e-books and resources for students and teachers [1] . Such changes have enabled improved efficiency in teaching, with the availability of up-to-date resources and awareness of relevant theories. Furthermore, the ease by which students are able to access multiple resources and buy books online is expanding their intellectual curiosity and library.  In addition to raising new students, technology can be seen as a tool for democracy. Technology provides a tool for government accountability, transparency in information, and for good governance. Organisations, such as Ushahidi (Crowdmapping) following Kenya\u2019s 2007 post-election violence; and mySociety which updates citizens on parliamentary proceedings in South Africa, show how technology is feeding democratisation for youths [2] .  [1] See further readings: Turcano, 2013.  [2] See further readings: Treisman, 2013; Usahidi, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con03b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology is enhancing security, not threatening it. Measures are being implemented to ensure cyber-security and further technology is creating new, local, initiatives for security on the ground. Ushahidi Crowdmapping - an interactive, collective, mapping tool - was used to expose, and remember, political violence that occurred in Kenya\u2019s 2007 presidential election [1] .  [1] See further readings: Ushahidi, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con01b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Credit is now becoming more accessible through technology. Mobile-banking schemes such as MPESA across East Africa and ZAAB in Somalia, use mobile phones to transfer money and payments. The mobile banking scheme is increasing the efficiency of borrowing money from social circles, enabling quick transactions to be carried out, and introducing users to a wealth of market opportunities.  Technology is integral to entrepreneurship."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con02a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"The technological revolution has been hyped.  Debates may be raised as to whether the technological revolution is actually a reality across Africa [1] . Have expectations been too high; the benefits exclusive; and the reality over-exaggerated?  On the one hand, the type of technology raises significant questions. Although the population with access to a mobile phone has risen, the quality of the phones indicates a hyped-reality. Although technology has become easily accessible, the quality of such technologies puts constraints on what it can be used for. A vast majority of mobile phones are imported from China - at low-cost but also poor quality. Quality testing on imports, and locally produced products, is needed to approve market devices.  On another hand, the reality of internet connectivity is not high-speed, and therefore of limited use. Better connectivity emerges in certain geographical locations, to those who can afford higher prices, and within temporary fluxes.  [1] See further readings: BBC World Service, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con04a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology has only benefited private companies.  Ultimately, technology, its provision, distribution, and function, is based on a business model. Profits are sought and losers emerge. The technology hype has attracted global technology giants, ranging from IBM to Google \u2013 a key issue as to whether entrepreneurialism can emerge amongst youths and technology used sustainably. The monopolisation of technology markets by multinational companies puts constraints on the ability for small businesses to break through. Any profits created are not recirculated in their locality, or Africa, but return to the country of origin.  For entrepreneurialism to be gained, and youth jobs emerge, the technological giants investing in Africa\u2019s rising future need to partner with communities and small businesses."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con03a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology remains insecure and a security risk.  The internet remains at risk. Cybersecurity is a key concern, and the prevalence of hacking events across Africa identifies the need to promote security for the new digital users. Cyber-crime costs the Kenyan government around Ksh.2 billion (Mutegi, 2013); and affects around 70% of South Africans. In order to encourage more users in technology their safety, against fraud, hacking, and identity theft, needs to be prioritised. Without security technology can\u2019t help entrepreneurs as customer details, business plans etc can\u2019t be kept private."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con01a","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Technology will not result in entrepreneurialism without providing a foundational basis.  The key constraint for entrepreneurship is the lack of access to finance, credit, and basic infrastructure - whether a computer or technical skills on how to use different systems. Limited accessibility acts as an obstacle to entrepreneurialism.  In order to encourage an inclusive capability for youths to get involved in entrepreneurial ideas, technology training and equal start-up credit is required. Furthermore, dangers arise where credit has become easily accessible - putting individuals at risk of debt where a lack of protection and payment planning is provided.  Kenya\u2019s Uwezo Fund provides a positive example, whereby action has been taken to provide youths with safe credit. The government collaboration is calling for youths to apply for grants and loans in a bid to encourage entrepreneurial activity for all. Loans are interest-free."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con04b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"Several examples may be found on established partnerships between multinational technology firms and civil-society groups. Microsoft has become a key investor in South Africa to tackle youth unemployment.  Microsoft has established a Students to Business initiative in South Africa, aiming to build human capital and provide professional skills to students, thus assisting job opportunities. Multinational companies are investing in youths as they recognise the burden of high unemployment and the potential talents youth have. By providing young students with key skills and sharing knowledge, a new generation of technology developers, leaders, and entrepreneurs will arise."}
+{"id":"test-international-siacphbnt-con02b","title":"ss international africa computers phones house believes new technologies","text":"The technological revolution across Africa is broad, ranging from mobile technology to internet connectivity. The availability of mobiles has broadened who can use technology - being more inclusive to multiple socio-economic groups.  Internet.org [1] has been established to resolve issues, making connectivity affordable. The initiative, which involves a collaborative partnership between Facebook and technological organisations, has a vision of ensuring access to the internet for the two-thirds who remain unconnected. Connectivity is a fundamental necessity to living in our \u2018knowledge economy\u2019. Their mission has centred on three aspects: affordability, improving efficiency, and innovative partnerships to expand the number of people connected. Intervention has therefore focused on removing barriers to accessing information by connecting people.  Furthermore in Kenya, mobile phones have been made accessible to a wider audience through the removal of the general sales tax in 2009.  [1] See further readings: Internet.org, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro02b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"There are big differences between Romania and Bulgaria and Turkey; this is caused by the political situation regarding Turkey\u2019s support for North Cyprus. Cyprus is a member of the European Union having joined in 2005 and would be likely to block any attempt by Turkey to join so long as Turkey supports the breakaway north of the island, the European Union admitted that Cyprus would become an obstacle as soon as it joined. [1]  [1]  University of Miami study, \u2018Turkey\u2019s Membership Application: Implications for the EU\u2019, Jean Monnet\/Robert Schuman Paper Series, Vol 5 No 26 August 2005."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro02a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey has precedents, such as Romania and Bulgaria, both of whom were accepted into the EU  Romania and Bulgaria, who have by far the worst human rights\u2019 records, were prioritized over Turkey when they were granted the right of accession, joining the EU in 2007. The EU rewarded states that have made a big effort to democratize and change policy in order to be allowed in to the EU. By essentially procrastinating on Turkey's case, the EU are discouraging Turkey from making the required changes to their legislature and norms and thus hindering their chances of accession. Countries such as Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic were pressurized to reform at a rapid pace after being promised by the EU they would likely be in the EU in a relatively short period of time; Turkey has been given no such promises. Turkey should have even more 'right' to be in the EU as these states, as it formally applied for membership long before these states and should thus be given priority over them."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro03b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"There are fears that Turkey joining the EU would create the possibility of a \u2018single market\u2019 in terrorism. \"Turkey will not be admitted to the E.U. It will not be admitted because, at this point, given the behaviour mainly of Arab Muslims (for does anyone doubt that it was the Arab influence that caused some Chechens to embrace not only the idea of Jihad, but all of the current methods being used to further it), Europeans have lost their stomach for parroting phrases about the religion of \"peace\" and \"tolerance.\" They do not want to admit a country of 70 million Muslims, who would then move freely about Europe. They do not want Turkey admitted because it will be an easy conduit for non-Turkish Muslims to enter Europe, posing as Turks.\" [1]  [1]  \u2018Turkey will not be admitted to the EU\u2019 by Hugh Fitzgerald, 6th December 2005"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro01a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey is a poverty stricken country and entry into the EU would help to raise the living standards for its entire population  The EU has welcomed poorer entrants than Turkey without disaster; Ireland, Spain, Portugal and Greece were all much poorer than the EU average when they joined and all are now well integrated and much more prosperous. Disastrous migration was forecast in their cases too, but did not occur. Nor is Turkey as poor as has been suggested; Turkey with a GDP per capita of $8215 in 2009 is richer than Romania at $7500 and Bulgaria with a GDP per capita of $6423 [1] both of which are already members. Turkey\u2019s economy is also in the process of reform, including the restructuring of its banking system and IMF programmes; in the next few years this process will allow for faster, more sustained growth. Turkey provides a large new market for EU goods; should it be accepted into the single market the economic benefits would not be solely limited to that country.  Turkey\u2019s inclusion in the EU would not threaten other members with overwhelming economic or immigration issues. It is possible that, as has happened with Bulgaria and Romania, that a delay is enacted for the Schengen passport-free zone [2] . This would give both the current EU and Turkey a period of time to adjust.  [1]  The World Bank, GDP per capita (current US$), 2009  [2]  \u2018EU newcomers smart over Schengen delay\u2019 by Chris Bryant, 21st Jan 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro01b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"The EU will never be able to integrate Turkey economically. Turkey is too poor, with millions of subsistence farmers and living standards far below the European norm (making massive migration to richer EU countries inevitable). \"Despite its current population accounting for 15% of the EU-25 population, its GDP is equivalent to just 2% of the EU-25 GDP. Its GDP per capita is 28.5% of the EU-25 GDP (European Commission, 2004)\" [1] . It would be a significant drain on EU funding to bring its economy and living standards to an acceptable level.  Turkey is a nation of over 70 million with significantly lower living conditions and wages than most EU member states. Most EU states are already going through a recession and credit crunch and are suffering enough without a potentially huge number of Turkish migrants legally given the right to live and work in 27 member states, but who would be expected to choose to reside mainly in the more prosperous member states such as the UK, Germany, France, Spain and Italy. This is especially a problem for Germany, who by 2004 already had 1.74 million Turkish people living in Germany [2] who make up approximately one fourth of the immigrant population in Germany. To allow migrants to come in legally could potentially hinder Germany's economy significantly by increasing unemployment levels even further.  [1]  University of Miami study, \u2018Turkey\u2019s Membership Application: Implications for the EU\u2019, Jean Monnet\/Robert Schuman Paper Series, Vol 5 No 26 August 2005.  [2]  \u2018Turkish Migration in Germany\u2019, chart breakdown of German immigration figures by country."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro04b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey first applied to join the EU back in the 1960s but there is no document where EU leaders have promised unconditionally to include Turkey in the future. In a decade of candidacy Turkey has managed to satisfy less than half of the chapters, and these are only the minimum prerequisites. Even if they had, past declarations (as opposed to treaties) cannot be held to bind today\u2019s leaders in weighing both their own national interest and the wider European interest. The possibility is therefore a long way off. The possible negative impact of Turkish EU membership upon existing members must be considered. The recent rise of far-right anti-immigration politicians, such as Marine Le Pen, Jorg Haidar and Pym Fortuyn, point to a dangerous public reaction to more open borders and unchecked migration."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro03a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey joining the EU would help the international fight against terrorism  Turkey is a key geo-political strategic ally to the West and should be integrated fully in order to ensure its continued cooperation. \"Turkey is a secular Muslim democracy and a crucial ally for the West. The eastern flank of NATO, straddling Europe and Asia, it played a critical role in containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War. In the 1990s, it helped monitor Saddam Hussein and protect Iraqi Kurds by permitting U.S. warplanes to use its bases. After the September 11, 2001, attacks, it became a staging area for coalition forces in Afghanistan, where Turkish forces eventually assumed overall command of the International Stabilization Force. Turkey continues to be a pivotal partner in the fight against al Qaeda and other terrorist groups, despite attacks by radical Islamists at home.\" [1]  [1]  \u2018Turkey\u2019s Dreams of Accession\u2019 by David Phillips, Foreign Affairs September\/October 2004"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-pro04a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Any country that fulfils the accession criteria should be allowed to join  Turkey was promised a chance to join the EU by a unanimous vote at the Helsinki summit in 1999, when its candidacy was unanimously accepted after three decades of consistent Turkish requests. As a candidate country Turkey should be allowed in once it meets the membership criteria which were first set out in the Copenhagen European Council of 1993. These were stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities, the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union and the ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political, economic & monetary union. [1] Clearly economic and political reforms are necessary, but that is true of all states attempting to join the EU and should not be used as an excuse to backtrack now. It would be hypocritical to apply one set of criteria to Central and Eastern European states and another to Turkey. Such blatant hypocrisy would have consequences, if the EU is seen to break its promise to Turkey it may turn a potential friend and partner into a suspicious and hostile neighbour.  [1]  European Commission Enlargement, Accession criteria, 30th October 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con03b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey has a large number of pending cases to be addressed by the European Court of Human Rights [1] . Police use of torture is widespread against PKK members and sympathisers. Turkey refuses even to acknowledge that Kurds have a separate culture and ethnicity, referring to them as 'Mountain Turks'. Peaceful protestors, including (but not only) those wanting improved rights for the Kurdish minority, are still tried and imprisoned under anti-terrorist laws. The UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances reported that in 1994 there were over 50 disappearances in Turkey, more than in any other country [2] . There are also restrictions on the freedom of the press.  It is true that reforms have begun, but there are questions as to how thoroughly these will be implemented. And in cases where judgments have been put forward by the European Court of Human Rights, Turkey is often loath to implement the advice of the court, as in the Loizou Case [3] . Until political dissidents are freed, those accused of human rights abuses are brought to trial and punished, and Kurds are given equal rights, Turkey cannot be judged a suitable candidate for EU accession.  [1]  Report by Thomas Hammarberg, Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, 1st October 2009  [2]  United Nations Commission on Human Rights  [3]  Netherlands Institute of Human Rights, summary Loizuo and others v Turkey"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con01b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey is not a European country - 95% of the nation\u2019s landmass is on the wrong side of the Hellespont, in Asia. If Turkey is allowed into the European Union, not only would the institution\u2019s very name become nonsensical, but it would be impossible to place a limit upon its potential future expansion. If Gibraltar belonged to Morocco rather than Britain, would we have said yes to Morocco\u2019s application to join the European Union? Former French President Valery Giscard d'Estaing told Le Monde in 2002 - \"The day after you open negotiations with Turkey, you would have a Moroccan demand (for membership of the union)\" [1] . One could of course then argue that Turkey should not be the only geographically non-European member of the European Union and that Morocco and Armenia would make excellent candidates. But if Morocco, why not Algeria? If Armenia, why not Azerbaijan?  French President Nicolas Sarkozy said in January 2007: \"Turkey has no place inside the European Union. I want to say that Europe must give itself borders, that not all countries have a vocation to become members of Europe, beginning with Turkey which has no place inside the European Union. Enlarging Europe with no limit risks destroying European political union, and that I do not accept.\" [2] If there is to be a limit then it makes sense that this limit should be at Europe\u2019s geographical borders.  [1]  \u2018Turkey not part of Europe\u2019 by Randall Parker, 8th November 2002  [2]  15th January 2007"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con02a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey is a highly unstable democracy in an unstable part of the world  Turkey has a better history of democratic elections than a number of the former communist states currently negotiating their membership of the EU. Its election of a party with Islamist roots has led to a smooth transfer of power, with no attempt at intervention by the secularist military (as in the past). In 2010 the EU welcomed the success of a referendum on changes to the Turkish constitution which reduced the power of the military and made it fully subject to democratic authority.  Turkey is near some global flash points, but its entry into the EU would not bring these potential dangers closer to current EU members. The EU is already engaged in conflicts in Libya, Iraq, and Afghanistan; Turkey\u2019s inclusion would not have made that more or less likely. Turkey is already a long-standing member of NATO; this means that any security crisis on Turkey\u2019s borders, for example between Palestine and Israel, already involves its Western neighbours and the EU has had to involve Turkey over issues of planning and access.  Furthermore, Turkey as a strategic gateway to the Middle East does not only involve conflict; it also provides the West with the opportunity for reconciliation and cooperation. Turkey is potentially a crucial alternative conduit for oil and gas to and from central Asia [1] , making Europe less dependent on Russian favour. Engagement between Turkey and the EU has greatly reduced historic enmity between Turkey and Greece, and held out hope for a solution to the division of Cyprus, showing the benefits of a closer relationship. The EU was created to encourage political cooperation in just such circumstances [2] , and Turkey\u2019s entry would be important for strengthening relationships with the increasingly important Muslim countries in the Middle East and breaking down the artificial barriers between \u2018East\u2019 and \u2018West\u2019.  [1]  \u2018Turkey: still America\u2019s best ally in the Middle East?\u2019 by Joshua W Walker, 25th June 2010  [2]  \u2018Turkey: an honest broker in the Middle East\u2019 by Bulent Kenes, 9th June 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con05a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey would have the largest population of all member states and would therefore hold a disproportionate amount of voting power  Turkey is a large country in European terms, but even if its population would make it the largest single EU member by 2020, this would still only give it some 15% of the total in an enlarged EU of 25 countries or more. This is a much smaller proportion than Germany represented in the EU of 15 before the 2004 enlargement (21.9%) [1] , so it is ridiculous to argue that Turkey would dominate EU decision-making. It would not gain full status for many years anyway; an inauguration period, in which it had semi-membership status, would introduce it slowly to the process. Turkey would not be able to change EU policy to suit itself as soon as it arrives.  [1]  European Union (EU-15) & Constituent Nation Population from 1950 & Projections to 2050, Demographia, 2001"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con04a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey would be an unstable Muslim state in a traditionally Christian union  Turkey\u2019s citizens may be Muslims, but the state is as firmly secular as France in terms of its constitution and government. The new Justice and Development Party (AK) which is currently in government is not seeking to overturn the secular constitution, although it does want to amend some laws that positively discriminate against devout Muslims. These include rules such as the ban on women wearing headscarves in government buildings; restrictions on expressing religious belief which would break human rights laws within the EU.  Regardless of one's beliefs surrounding Turkey's possible ascension to the European Union, the fact that the nation's predominant religion is Islam is surely not one of the issues to be considered. Millions of Muslims already live within the EU; excluding Turkey from membership on the grounds of religion would suggest these European Muslims were second-class citizens in a Christian club. It would also presumably rule out future EU entry for Albania, Bosnia and Kosovo. If the EU is to be regarded as an institution that promotes freedom for the citizens of its member states then surely this also means that it promotes freedom of religion. If EU member states are fearful of building closer relations with Islam, which they will inevitably have to, proceeding with the world's most moderate and 'western' Islamic country is the most logical first step. The EU should welcome a state which could provide a positive example of how Islam is completely compatible with democracy, progress and human rights."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con03a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey has a poor human rights record  Turkey\u2019s human rights record is improving rapidly, with the abolition of the death penalty and the removal of restrictions on the use of the Kurdish language. \"Encouraged by the EU, Turkey has pursued legislative and constitutional reforms liberalizing the political system and relaxing restrictions on freedom of the press, association, and expression. Turkey signed and ratified Protocols 6 and 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights. It abolished the death penalty and adopted measures to promote independence of the judiciary, end torture during police interrogations, and reform the prison system. In addition, Turkey has significantly reduced the scope of its antiterrorism statutes, which had been used to curtail political expression, and it amended the Penal Code and Codes of Criminal and Administrative Procedure. Police powers have been curbed and the administration of justice strengthened, due partly to the dismantling of state security courts.\" [1]  The Kurdish minority is also enjoying better treatment. \u201cThe protection and promotion of the rights of the Kurds, which make up about a fifth of Turkey's population, have also progressed\u2026 In June, an appeals court ordered the release of Leyla Zana and three other Kurdish parliamentarians who were jailed ten years ago after the Kurdistan Workers' Party was banned.\" [2]  Surely countries with a history of bad human rights activities should be embraced by the EU, in the hope that the EU will have a positive influence on them. It is true that banning them from membership is an effective punishment but that will not enforce any change. If we wish to see compliance with Human Rights conventions we have to ensure that countries that may contravene them are under its jurisdiction in the first place. Once they are members we can then encourage better behaviour through punishing any further contraventions.  [1]  \u2018Turkey\u2019s Dreams of Accession\u2019 by David Phillips, Foreign Affairs September\/October 2004  [2]  \u2018Turkey\u2019s Dreams of Accession\u2019 by David Phillips, Foreign Affairs September\/October 2004"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con05b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey is too big to be safely included within the EU. The Turkish population - estimated at 65.6 million in 2000 - is on current growth trends forecast to rise to 87.3 million by 2025, making it the largest single state in the EU [1] . As population size determines representation and voting strength in the Council of Ministers, and in the European Parliament, Turkey would be able to dominate EU decision-making and set its own agenda, to the disadvantage of existing members.  [1]  Population projections of countries and their coastal regions: Turkey"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con01a","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"The geographical definition of Europe must be limited and does not include Turkey  There is no obvious and widely accepted geographical definition of a frontier to Europe. Is Russia a European country? Are Georgia and Armenia? Are Cyprus and Malta? The fact that the Mediterranean country Italy became a member of a regional organisation, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), was certainly not determined by geography, but was an act of political imagination. Today the location of a Mediterranean state in the North Atlantic is no longer considered as something \"odd\". Another example of changing perceptions of a region is the change from regarding the border of Europe as falling between East and West Germany; Europe broadened to include all the former Eastern European countries as potential members of the EU.  Given that part of Turkey\u2019s territory is on what everyone accepts is the European mainland, why shouldn\u2019t it be allowed to join the main European club? While Turkey's land area is almost entirely in Asia the European part does have immense historical significance, and Turkey has a population in Europe of about 14million, larger than many of the smaller EU members. It already belongs to NATO, the OECD and the Council of Europe, and participates in the Eurovision Song Contest and European football competitions. Turkey is a westward-looking country."}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con04b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey is not a Christian country but a Muslim one, unlike all the current or prospective EU states, which have been shaped by a shared legacy of Christian values, history and culture. Turkeys AK party has brought on many changes that are interpreted as being non-secular or rooted in Islam. Indeed Turkey\u2019s history represents a clear rejection of any Christian tradition, from the centuries-long Ottoman Muslim conquest of Byzantine Christian territories, to the early twentieth-century population exchange with Greece which removed millions of long-established Christian families from Turkish territory. Most recently, Turks have several times elected to government a party with Islamist roots, suspected of wishing to undermine the country\u2019s secular constitution [1] . Turkey is not as moderate a country as it would seem.  [1]  \u2018Turkey denies break with Europe\u2019, BBC 10th June 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-aegmeppghw-con02b","title":"americas europe global middle east politics politics general house would","text":"Turkey does not have a stable democracy. The military has intervened three times to remove governments of which it disapproved in recent decades, most recently in 1997 [1] . The nature of the struggle between Turkey's generals - who try and keep the country as secular as possible (arguably at the expense of the right of the people to decide for themselves which party best represents their views) - and the increase in votes and influence for conservative Islamic political views paves for an unstable political environment which is vulnerable to extremism [2] .  Turkey has some dangerous neighbours and its inclusion within the EU would expose Europe to a greatly increased risk of crisis and conflict. The Caucasus is very unstable, with some of its nations looking to Turkey for support for religious and cultural reasons. A Middle Eastern border would heavily involve the EU in the Israeli-Arab conflict and give it a border with an aggressive and unstable Iraq (and Iran), with whom it would share an assertive Kurdish minority seeking statehood. Turkey even has major disputes with Greece, a current EU member, over territory in the Aegean and over the divided Island of Cyprus, where it alone recognises and backs the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus, preventing a settlement.  [1]  Map of Freedom in The World: Turkey  [2]  \u2018Secularism and Democracy in Turkey\u2019, Editorial New York Times, 1st May 2007"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro02b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"An attempt at a plebiscite in 1921\/22 under the specter of a war of independence and civil war would have been fraught with danger and even more open to intimidation than the House of Commons.  It would be undemocratic to relinquish Northern Ireland today, because recent polls have shown that the majority of people want to remain within the UK. *  *Moriarty, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro02a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"The partition of Ireland was undemocratic  The people of Northern Ireland should have decided whether or not they wanted to be united with Northern Ireland, rather than it being battled out in the British Parliament and the country partitioned by the Government of Ireland Act of 1920* that created a separate parliament for the six counties of Northern Ireland.** It was because the vote was not put to the Irish that the Unionists could twist arms and manipulate British politicians into allowing the six counties to remain part of the UK. After partition, the Unionists fixed electoral boundaries so there would never be a Republican majority in an electorate. This was unjust and illegitimately prevented a pro-Republic vote passing in future.  * Government of Ireland Act, 1920,   ** Ferriter, \u2018Ireland in the Twentieth Century\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro03b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"There is no evidence that the Catholic population today suffers a bias in the current political system, except for that which they make for themselves. As of 2010 the Catholic representation in the House of Commons is 5 Sinn Fein and 3 SDLP against 8 Democratic Unionists,* it is only the fact that the Sinn Fein members do not take up their seats that make things uneven. In the NI Assembly things are slightly more skewed. As of 2011 there are 55 Unionists and 43 Republicans.**  Attacks against Catholics are not based on religious lines. Unionist attacks are only focused on those Catholics that are Republicans. In general Catholics are perfectly safe in Northern Ireland.  Additionally in united Ireland, the Protestants would become the marginalized minority. Abortion is illegal in the Republic of Ireland***, for example, which will inhibit the freedom of non- Catholics. Such laws are likely to stay because of the overwhelming Catholic majority.  *Parliament.uk, 2011,   **Northern Ireland Assembly, 2011,   ***Wikipedia,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro05a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"Economic efficiency  A Unified Ireland would be better off economically. \u201cIreland is too small for two separate administrations\u2026.There is a draw towards the greater integration of services, structures and bodies on an all-Ireland basis in order to deliver quality services and economies of scale.\u201d \u2013 Martin McGuinness, Deputy First Minister for Northern Ireland*  Having two electricity grids, two transport networks, two separate police and judiciary hamper economic growth and waste resources that could be better used in a unified system, as cost would lower as efficiency rises.  *McGuinness, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro01a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"Britain is morally obliged to permit the secession of northern Ireland  The age of colonialism is over. We recognize that the dominance of one country over another is morally wrong. Ireland was already in the hands of the Irish people before English earls and kings invaded. The Irish had a right to the ownership of their land because they cultivated it and so put their labor into it. The use of force to seize that land from the people\u2019s control is unjust because it denies them the right they had to their land. They had no choice to voluntarily hand over their land either.  To right this historical wrong, the British government should relinquish Northern Ireland, just as they have decolonized the rest of the world ending the British empire except for a few scattered outposts. Since Hong Kong was handed back to China in 1997 Northern Ireland is the only remaining colony with a significant population and independent identity."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro01b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"The Unionists in Northern Ireland who wish to remain part of the UK should have the freedom to do so. To disown Northern Ireland would be a second involuntary decision made by an outsider."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro05b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"If you were to adopt a federal system, which would best please Unionists, the systems would not integrate very much anyway as Northern Irish \u2018states\u2019 would want their own state constitution and have separate judiciary to the rest of Ireland, as is the practice in the US."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro04b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"We are at peace now. The Good Friday Agreement has created stability, with the exception of occasional outbreaks but nothing like the horror of The Troubles. We do not need re-unification to have stability. In fact, the positive outcome that might happen is unsure and not a reason worth gambling on.  It is likely that there will be conflict in the beginning. Such a huge move will come to Unionists as a shock and without knowing how much power they will have, having to answer to Dublin, it is likely that paramilitary activities will flare up again. This will, of course, spark off IRA and other Republican attacks. If escalations get worse, the British may intervene as well as the Irish army and there may be an entire repeat of The Troubles."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro03a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"It would be easier to protect the rights of religious minorities within a united Ireland  Unrest in Northern Ireland was started by the appalling treatment of the Catholic minority there. When there was a Northern Ireland Parliament there was some gerrymandering, while the discrimination in representation was slight very few nationalists were able to get senior jobs, in the civil service for example in 1927 fourteen of the 229 officers of staff officer rank or above, or 6 per cent, were Catholic, while in 1959 there were forty-six Catholics out of 740 in such ranks, or once again, 6 per cent.* Over the years reforms have been introduced but there is still huge stigma against the Catholic community in Northern Ireland, who have little representation in politics, because it is dominated by Unionist rhetoric.  The best way to ensure equal treatment of the Catholics in Ireland is to unite majority Protestant Northern Ireland with Catholic majority Republic of Ireland, where they will be better represented in politics and not stigmatized by their neighbors.  *Whyte, 1983,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-pro04a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"Uniting Ireland would bring about an end to sectarian violence  A united Ireland doesn\u2019t have to marginalize the Protestant population. If they are included more in the political process there can be debate, discussion and an airing of grievances which can then be resolved.  There is little sense of attachment to the UK, and British institutions. Much like the Scottish and Welsh, the Northern Irish feel Northern Irish. This shows that the ties to Britain are not emotional, but political. It is clear that Unionists just want to have power over how they run their lives. If Unionists are included in the political process in a united Ireland they will have no grievances and there will finally be a lasting peace."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-con03b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"There are many ways to resolve some of these issues. Firstly, regarding political resentment, a system of federalism is likely to ensure some level of political autonomy on both sides. Secondly, such a huge project is likely to attract funds from the UN, EU, the IMF, from charities from private donors etc. So, the former Republic of Ireland will not be subsidizing the Northern Irish, nor will the Northerners be left without support. There will most likely to be international bodies and charities monitoring the transition too, so that any outburst of violence can be contained or reported."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-con01b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"Economic fortunes rise and fall all the time. Many in Northern Ireland looked up enviously during the Republic\u2019s boom. There were even clamors from Northern Irish politicians to lower the corporate tax in Northern Ireland to match the Republic\u2019s success. So, economic reasons for opposing unification don\u2019t stand in the long run."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-con02a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"The majority of the inhabitants of Northern Ireland do not support unification  The Good Friday agreement affirmed \u201cThat if, in the future, the people of the island of Ireland exercise their right of self-determination \u2026 to bring about a united Ireland, it will be a binding obligation on both Governments [UK and Ireland] to introduce and support in their respective Parliaments legislation to give effect to that wish\u201d.* However as yet the Northern Irish do not wish to exercise this right. In a recent survey conducted by The Northern Ireland Life and Times it transpired that, \u201cOverall, 73 per cent believe the long-term policy for the North should be maintaining the union, with 58 per cent supporting devolution and 15 per cent in favour of direct rule. Just 16 per cent want a united Ireland, with 3 per favoring an independent Northern Ireland.\u201d This is not just amongst the Protestant population. The survey also showed that, \u201cjust one in three Catholics (33 per cent) wants a united Ireland, while 52 per cent want the North to stay in the UK, with 46 per cent of Catholics happy with the devolved arrangements and 6 per cent favoring a return to direct rule from Westminster.\u201d**  *NIO, 1998,   **Moriarty, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-con03a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"Unification would reignite civil disorder and violent factionalism among Irish communities  As shown above, the Northern Irish don\u2019t want to unite with the Republic. The Irish in the Republic will also resent the new drain on their economy. Either the Republican parties in Ireland will resent having to concede some power to new political entities or the Unionists will resent being marginalized. The recent reoccurrence of violence in Belfast is being attributed to the breakdown of protestant communities and low job prospects for young protestants. Both of these problems will be exacerbated in a majority Catholic Ireland. All of these examples illustrate how unrest is likely to breakout again in a united Ireland."}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-con01a","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"Unification would be damaging for the economies of both parts of Ireland  The Republic of Ireland is currently in a crisis. It is the I in P.I.G.S, the European Union countries whose economies are bust and require a bailout package. It would not be to the benefit of either Northern Ireland joining such a fragile economy, nor would it be good for the Republic of Ireland, having the cut back on public spending whilst trying to integrate Northern Irish transport\/police systems etc.  Northern Ireland is a weak economy anyway and a lot of employment comes from the public sector, 30% compared to the UK average of 21%.* The region is \u00a39billion in the red or \u00a35,502 per person, three times the UK average.** These jobs will obviously no longer be an option under re-unification and so there is likely to be mass employment amongst the newly integrated Northern Irish. To counter this, money from Republican taxpayers will have to go to subsidize business\/building projects etc in the way the Germans in the West still subsidize the Eastern parts of Germany, over 50 years since the wall came down.  *HM Treasury, 2011, p.9   **Fitzpatrick, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epglghbni-con02b","title":"europe politics government local government house believes northern ireland","text":"It is highly probable that opinion will shift. Current statistics reflect the fact that this generation has lived through The Troubles. The next generation is likely to see a nation divided, which appears to so obviously belong together. There is no evidence that current opinion will not change with time."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro02b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Reducing nuclear arms through New START will not compel others to stop pursuing nukes. The logic behind New START asserts that for every neg\u00adative development in the area of nuclear proliferation the US needs to take a substantive step in the direction of nuclear disarmament. Ultimately, this approach effectively assumes that the possession of nuclear arms by the US (and Russia) is the incentive driving other nations to pursue nuclear weapons programs so as to be able to deter the United States. Not only is the assumption misplaced, but the policy will undermine deterrence and increase the likelihood of the use of nuclear weapons. It is foolish for the U.S. to take substantive steps toward nuclear disarmament at the same time the nuclear proliferation problem is growing worse. [1] The US should also not seek to improve relations by bribing them with New START at the cost of damaging US defence capabilities.  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro02a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty will help against Iran\u2019s nuclear program.  New START will help bolster US-Russian cooperation, which is necessary for solving the problem of Iran\u2019s nuclear proliferation. On Nov. 19, 2010, the Anti-Defamation League released a statement, which came from Robert G. Sugarman, ADL National Chair, and Abraham H. Foxman, ADL National Director: \"The severe damage that could be inflicted on that relationship by failing to ratify the treaty would inevitably hamper effective American international leadership to stop the Iranian nuclear weapons program. The Iranian nuclear threat is the most serious national security issue facing the United States, Israel, and other allies in the Middle East. While some Senators may have legitimate reservations about the New START treaty or its protocol, we believe the interest of our greater and common goal of preventing Iran from developing nuclear weapons must take precedence.\" [1] New START is crucial in getting Russian support against Iran and other rogue nuclear states.  Although the United States needs a strong and reliable nuclear force, the chief nuclear danger today comes not from Russia but from rogue states such as Iran and North Korea and the potential for nuclear material to fall into the hands of terrorists. Given those pressing dangers, some question why an arms control treaty with Russia matters. It matters because it is in both parties' interest that there be transparency and stability in their strategic nuclear relationship. It also matters because Russia's cooperation will be needed if we are to make progress in rolling back the Iranian and North Korean programs. Russian help will be needed to continue our work to secure \"loose nukes\" in Russia and elsewhere. And Russian assistance is needed to improve the situation in Afghanistan, a breeding ground for international terrorism.  Obviously, the United States does not sign arms control agreements just to make friends. Any treaty must be considered on its merits. But the New START agreement is clearly in the US\u2019 national interest, and the ramifications of not ratifying it could be significantly negative. [2] As US Vice President Joe Biden argued in 2010: \"New Start is also a cornerstone of our efforts to reset relations with Russia, which have improved significantly in the last two years. This has led to real benefits for U.S. and global security. Russian cooperation made it possible to secure strong sanctions against Iran over its nuclear ambitions, and Russia canceled a sale to Iran of an advanced anti-aircraft missile system that would have been dangerously destabilizing. Russia has permitted the flow of materiel through its territory for our troops in Afghanistan. And\u2014as the NATO-Russia Council in Lisbon demonstrated\u2014European security has been advanced by the pursuit of a more cooperative relationship with Russia. We should not jeopardize this progress.\" [3] Therefore, because New START will have significant positive consequences in terms of aiding relations with Russia, and thus in dealing with rogue nuclear states like Iran, it should be supported.  [1] Weingarten, Elizabeth. \u201cHow did New START become a Jewish issue?\u201d. The Atlantic. 1 Decemebr 2010.   [2] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010.   [3] Biden, Joseph. \"The case for ratifying New START\". Wall Street Journal. 25 November 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro03b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"New START will cause American missile and nuclear capabilities to atrophy, not to be maintained. This is because it locks the US in to agreements of defensive reductions which are tied into Russian offensive reductions. This could eventually leave the US badly under-defended by its missile systems when compared against the offensive capabilities of other nuclear states. Moreover, New START leaves in place the pre-existing Russian tactical nuclear advantage harming US capabilities by comparison. [1] Overall New START hams US missile and nuclear capabilities, and further advantages Russia and other nuclear powers, and so should not be supported. As Mitt Romney argued in 2010: \"Does New START limit America\u2019s options for missile defense? Yes. For the first time, we would agree to an interrelationship between strategic offensive weapons and missile defense. Moreover, Russia already asserts that the document would constitute a binding limit on our missile defense program. But the WikiLeaks revelation last weekend that North Korea has supplied Iran with long-range Russian missiles confirms that robust missile defense is urgent and indispensable.\" [2]  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [2] Romney, Mitt. \"Stop START.\" Boston.com. 3 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro01a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty will make for a safer world.  Reducing US and Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles makes for a safer world, as Dr. David Gushee states: \"The issue on the table is a nuclear arms reduction and verification treaty between the United States and Russia. The treaty, called New START, would reduce Russian and American deployed nuclear weapons to 1,550 and delivery vehicles to 700 each. This would be a 33 percent reduction in the existing arsenals, which is worth achieving and celebrating even as we know that countless cities and millions of precious human beings could be destroyed by the use of even part of the remaining arsenals. Still, these reductions would be a great step on the way to a safer world, as would the re-establishment of bilateral, intrusive verification measures for both sides, also part of the treaty.\" [1]  The world is simply a much less secure place without New Start, and not just because New START means there are physically fewer nuclear weapons and thus a lesser chance of nuclear disasters (although this in itself is compelling). Rather, New START also has immense symbolic value, in demonstrating that the two greatest powers have enough in common and are interested enough in their mutual security that they can agree to deduce nuclear weapons together. It shows that these nations regard each other as partners for world peace, not as enemies.  The alternative world, without New START, would be one in which the mutual suspicion and animosity of the Cold War might continue. It is notable that Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said in an interview released in early December 2010 that Russia might be forced to build up its nuclear forces against the West if the United States fails to ratify the New START treaty. [2] The threat of Russia, or even the US, resuming nuclear build-ups is a frightening thought for both nations, for the world and for peace.  On top of its other benefits, New START is key to opening Russian nuclear weapons up for verification, which contributes to trust and peace. As former Secretaries of State Kissinger, Shultz, Eagleburger, Baker and Powell argue \u201cthe agreement emphasizes verification, providing a valuable window into Russia's nuclear arsenal. Since the original START expired last December, Russia has not been required to provide notifications about changes in its strategic nuclear arsenal, and the United States has been unable to conduct on-site inspections. Each day, America's understanding of Russia's arsenal has been degraded, and resources have been diverted from national security tasks to try to fill the gaps. Our military planners increasingly lack the best possible insight into Russia's activity with its strategic nuclear arsenal, making it more difficult to carry out their nuclear deterrent mission.\u201d [3] Therefore New START should be supported as it represents a positive step for peace and cooperation in the world.  [1] Gushee, Dr David P. \"Security, Sin and Nuclear Weapons: A Christian Plea for the New START Treaty\". Huffington Post. 4 December 2010.   [2] Abdullaev, Nabi. \u201cPutin Issues Warning on New START\u201d. The Moscow Times. 2 December 2010.   [3] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro01b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"New START is about national politics, not about the interests of the world or peace. As George Will argued in 2010: \"The (Obama) administration's ardor for ratification is understandable, as is Russia's. The president needs a success somewhere; Russia needs psychotherapy. It longs to be treated as what it no longer is, a superpower, and it likes the treaty's asymmetries.\" [1] New START is about serving these domestic political interests, not securing peace, which it will not achieve as the inspections it puts in place are highly flawed, and there remains a high probability that Russia will cheat on the treaty and augment its nuclear capabilities regardless. All this treaty does is weaken the US, and a situation where one power weakens and the other grows stronger is not good for world peace.  [1] Will, George. \"Obama's time-warp focus on the New START treaty\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro03a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty maintains US nuclear and missile defence.  The US\u2019 Nuclear armament will be modernized along with New START. \u201cThe Obama administration has agreed to provide for modernization of the infrastructure essential to maintaining our nuclear arsenal. Funding these efforts has become part of the negotiations in the ratification process. The administration has put forth a 10-year plan to spend $84 billion on the Energy Department's nuclear weapons complex. Much of the credit for getting the administration to add $14 billion to the originally proposed $70 billion for modernization goes to Sen. Jon Kyl, the Arizona Republican who has been vigilant in this effort. Implementing this modernization program in a timely fashion would be important in ensuring that our nuclear arsenal is maintained appropriately over the next decade and beyond.\u201d [1]  Both US Military and civilian leaders insist that the new START treaty will still allow the US to deploy effective missile defenses, something which Russia was opposed to, and so will not affect US missile defense plans. The main limit on missile defense is that the treaty prevents the conversion of existing launchers for this purpose this would be more expensive than building new missiles specifically for defense purposes. [2]  Furthermore, as Joe Biden argues, New START is important to Russian cooperation on missile defense: \"This [missile defense] system demonstrates America's enduring commitment to Article 5 of the Washington Treaty\u2014that an attack on one is an attack on all. NATO missile defense also provides the opportunity for further improvements in both NATO-Russian and U.S.-Russian relations. NATO and Russia agreed at Lisbon to carry out a joint ballistic missile threat assessment, to resume theater missile-defense exercises, and to explore further cooperation on territorial missile defense\u2014things that were nearly unimaginable two years ago. These agreements underscore the strategic importance the alliance attaches to improving its relationship with Russia. But trust and confidence in our relationship with Russia would be undermined without Senate approval of the New Start Treaty, which reduces strategic nuclear forces to levels not seen since the 1950s, and restores important verification mechanisms that ceased when the first Start Treaty expired last December.\" [3]  In many ways, in the 21st Century having an abundance of nuclear weapons, particularly having too many, is more of a liability than an advantage. The United States will be far safer with fewer nuclear weapons in the world and a stronger, more stable relationship with Russia under New START, and this is desirable. Therefore it is clear that New START maintains the important parts of US nuclear capabilities while removing the over-abundance which may become a liability due to security and medical concerns, and so New START should be supported.  [1] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010.   [2] ibid  [3] Biden, Joseph. \"The case for ratifying New START\". Wall Street Journal. 25 November 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con03b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Agreements between the biggest nuclear powers are a good starting point towards disarmament. We cannot expect countries with a very small number of nuclear weapons to be disarming if the countries that have the vast majority of the world\u2019s arsenal have not already begun the process of getting rid of their own. Even the reductions in New START will not bring either Russia or the United States anywhere near the level of any other nuclear power whose nuclear weapons number in the hundreds not thousands. Both countries would need to reduce a very long way before they lose deterrence against China, let alone North Korea. As former secretaries of state argue America has \u201clong led the crucial fight to protect the United States against nuclear dangers\u2026 The world is safer today because of the decades-long effort to reduce its supply of nuclear weapons. As a result, President Obama should remain similarly courageous with New START.\u201d [1]  If linkage between the New START and Russian action on Iran exists then this would not always be a bad thing. Linkage has been used successfully in the past, and to the advantage of the U.S., for example Kissinger credited the peace agreement with North Vietnam in Paris in 1973 as being down to linkage which resulted in pressure on North Vietnam from the People\u2019s Republic of China and the USSR. If linkage could be successful in bringing Russia onside in pressurizing Iran on the issue of nuclear weapons it could be to the benefit of the United States.  [1] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con01b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Many of the worries about the impact of the treaty are much more of a political problem than problems with the treaty itself. U.S. missile modernization in particular is still up to the President and Congress to sort out the funding between them \u2013 the restrictions are minor. [1] Worries about the impact on missile defense are also a red herring. Missile defense is not aimed at Russia and the United States simply needs to make sure that its defenses are obviously aimed at who it says they are aimed at: rogue states such as Iran and North Korea. Regarding other defence capabilities, the New START Treaty preserves America\u2019s ability to deploy effective missile defenses, and simply prevents it from being effective enough to undermine deterrence, something which Russia would be right in worrying about if the United States had any intention of building such a comprehensive missile defence. The prohibition on converting existing launchers will have little impact on the United States as the military believes that such conversion would be more expensive and less effective than building new purpose built defensive missiles. [2] Finally if Russia did exercise its right to withdraw then both parties would be in no worse a position than they would have been without the new treaty and could simply restart negotiations.  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [2] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con02a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty helps Russia more than the US  Not only does New START leave in place Russia\u2019s extant tactical nuclear advantage but it has further loopholes for Russian weapons. As Mitt Romney argued in 2010: \"Does the treaty provide gaping loopholes that Russia could use to escape nuclear weapon limits entirely? Yes. For example, multiple warhead missile bombers are counted under the treaty as only one warhead. While we currently have more bombers than the Russians, they have embarked on new programs for long-range bombers and for air-launched nuclear cruise missiles. Thus, it is no surprise that Russia is happy to undercount missiles on bombers.\" [1]  New START also fails to limit rail-mobile intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), which Russia could potentially make use of. The definition of rail-mobile ICBM launchers was established in the expired START as \u201can erector-launcher mechanism for launching ICBMs and the railcar or flatcar on which it is mounted.\u201d [2] This and associated restrictions and limitations in START, are not in the New START. This makes it possible for Russia to claim that any new Rail Mobile ICBMs are not subject to New START limitations. [3] Mitt Romney worries that Russia is already working to take advantage of these omissions: \u201cAs drafted, it lets Russia escape the limit on its number of strategic nuclear warheads. Loopholes and lapses -- presumably carefully crafted by Moscow -- provide a path to entirely avoid the advertised warhead-reduction targets. \u2026. These omissions would be consistent with Russia's plans for a new heavy bomber and reports of growing interest in rail-mobile ICBMs.\" [4]  This means that under the treaty limits, the United States is the only country that must reduce its launchers and strategic nuclear weapons. Russia has managed to negotiate the treaty limits so that they simply restrict it to reductions it was already planning to do. As a result the United States is making what are effectively unilateral reductions. [5] Therefore, New START is an unequal treaty as it offers more to Russia than to the US. This is bad for the balance of power and thus bad for world peace, and so New START should be opposed.  [1] Romney, Mitt. \"Stop START.\" Boston.com. 3 December 2010.   [2] \u2018Terms and Definitions\u2019, The Treaty Between The United States Of America And The Union Of Soviet Socialist Republics On The Reduction And Limitation Of Strategic Offensive Arms And Associated Documents, 1991,   [3] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [4] Romney, Mitt. \"Stop START.\" Boston.com. 3 December 2010.   [5] Romney, Mitt. \"Stop START.\" Boston.com. 3 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con04a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Problems with Verification.  Verification is vital in any agreement to limit arms. Both sides need to trust each other a bit but a lot of this trust needs to come from comprehensive mechanisms to monitor and ensure that both sides are carrying out their commitments. If the verification system is not good enough then neither side will have faith in the agreement and will be more likely to try and bypass it.  Unfortunately the expired START\u2019s verification regime was robust when compared to that for the New START. Baker Spring at the Heritage foundation lists some of the specific areas that are significantly less robust: A narrowing of the requirements for exchanging telemetry (electronic transmissions that give details of missile performance that helps give a good idea about whether Russia is complying with the treaty) , A reduction in the effectiveness of the inspections (the Russians feel that inspections are unfairly biased against them), Weaknesses in the ability to verify the number of deployed warheads on ICBMs and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), Abolition of the START verification regime governing mobile ICBMs, and A weakening of the verification standards governing the elimination of delivery vehicles. [1]  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con03a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty sets a bad approach for a changing world  New START reduces US deterrence in world that is arming, not disarming. The United States has relied on deterrence for sixty years and as a result has prevented war between the great powers. A US drawdown, especially as other new powers are arming, will undermine deterrence. This will then encourage rivals to try to catch the United States while the reductions show that the United States is in decline. [1]  While proponents of reducing nuclear weapons, or reaching global zero, argue that possession of nuclear weapons by the nuclear weapons states is the incentive behind proliferation, this is not true. The US has consistently taken leadership in the reduction of nuclear arms through treaties but this has so far had no effect in encouraging other nuclear powers to reduce their arsenals and indeed new powers have joined the club. Reducing nuclear arms through New START will therefore not encourage others to stop pursuing nukes. The U.S. should not be taking steps towards disarmament without all nuclear weapons states, including those not signed up to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty, also being involved. [2]  New START also fails to speak to the issue of protecting and defending the U.S. and its allies against strategic attack. The treaty fails to recognize that deterrence is no longer simply between the U.S. and Russia and that the whole policy should no longer be based on just against strategic attacks on the United States or very close allies. Instead it is much more critical to deal with nuclear policy towards \u2018rogue\u2019 states and rising powers. [3]  Finally, the US should not set a precedent that it will sacrifice its own interests to bribe Russia over issues like Iran. As the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA) argues: \u201cwe are told that the real purpose of New START is to create a stronger U.S.-Russia bond in a broader international effort to restrain Iran's nuclear weapons program. Such a justification is wrong. Iran's nuclear ambitions are no secret; neither are Russia\u2019s past efforts in aiding that program. We seriously question whether Russia is serious about stopping Iran, with or without New START. There is no reason why the United States should be required to sacrifice its own defense capabilities to inspire Russia to a greater degree of diplomatic fortitude. If Russia is indeed concerned with a nuclear-armed Iran to its immediate south, it should need no extra incentive to take the action necessary to stop it.\" [4] If the U.S. bribes Russia over Iran China might expect to get similar treatment over North Korea. New START puts the US in a disadvantaged position in a changing world, and consequently should not be supported.  [1] Brookes, Peter. \u201cNot a new START, but a bad START\u201d. The Hill. 13 September 2010.   [2] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [3] Ibid.  [4] Weingarten, Elizabeth. \u201cHow did New START become a Jewish issue?\u201d. The Atlantic. 1 Decemebr 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con01a","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty harms US nuclear capabilities  As David Ganz, the president of the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA), argues: \"This treaty would restrain the development and deployment of new nuclear weapons, missile defense systems, and missile delivery systems.\" [1] The atrophying U.S. nuclear arsenal and weapons enterprise make reductions in the U.S. strategic nuclear arsenal even more dangerous. The new START treaty allows nuclear modernization but while the US capacity to modernize nuclear weapons is limited and either congress or the president is likely to prevent modernization on cost grounds. The Russians have a large, if unknown, advantage over the United States in terms of nonstrategic, particularly tactical, and nuclear weapons. The New START treaty however ignores these weapons entirely as it is focused on strategic arms. This therefore leaves the Russians with an advantage and potentially reduces the potential for deterrence in areas beyond the US. [2]  New START also restricts US missile defence options. The Obama Administration insists the treaty doesn\u2019t affect it, but the Kremlin\u2019s takes a different view: \"[START] can operate and be viable only if the United States of America refrains from developing its missile-defense capabilities quantitatively or qualitatively.\" [3] New START imposes restrictions on U.S. missile defence options in at least four areas. First the preamble recognizes \u201cthe interrelationship between strategic offensive arms and strategic defensive arms\u201d it seeks to make sure defensive arms \u201cdo not undermine the viability and effectiveness of the strategic offensive arms of the parties\u201d so defensive arms must be reduced to allow offensive arms to remain effective. [4] Russia also issued a unilateral statement on April 7, 2010, Russia reinforced this restriction by issuing a unilateral statement asserting that it considers the \u201cextraordinary events\u201d that give \u201cthe right to withdraw from this treaty\u201d to include a buildup of missile defense. [5] Second, Article V states \u201cEach Party shall not convert and shall not use ICBM launchers and SLBM launchers for placement of missile defense interceptors\u201d and vice versa. [6] There are also restrictions on some types of missiles and launchers that are used in the testing of missile defense. And Finally, article X established the Bilateral Consultative Commission (BCC), the treaty\u2019s implementing body, with oversight over the implementation of the treaty which may impose additional restrictions on the U.S. missile defense program. [7]  [1] Weingarten, Elizabeth. \u201cHow did New START become a Jewish issue?\u201d. The Atlantic. 1 Decemebr 2010.   [2] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [3] Brookes, Peter. \u201cNot a new START, but a bad START\u201d. The Hill. 13 September 2010.   [4] Obama, Barak, and Medvedev, Dmitri, \u2018Treaty Between The United States of America And The Russian Federation On Measures For The Further Reduction And Limitation Of Strategic Offensive Arms\u2019, U.S. Department of State,   [5] Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation, \u2018New START Treaty Fact Sheet: Unilateral Statements\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 13 May 2010,   [6] Obama, Barak, and Medvedev, Dmitri, \u2018Treaty Between The United States of America And The Russian Federation On Measures For The Further Reduction And Limitation Of Strategic Offensive Arms\u2019, U.S. Department of State,   [7] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con04b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The verification requirements of New START have satisfied not only the Obama Administration but also a large number of foreign policy experts. A panel including Henry Kissinger argues that New START \u201cemphasizes verification, providing a valuable window into Russia's nuclear arsenal.\" [1] Howard Baker argues that: \"President Reagan was famous for his adage about dealing with the old Soviet Union: \u201cTrust but verify.\u201d Since the last START treaty expired in December 2009, we\u2019ve had no right to conduct inspections of Russian nuclear bases, and thus no way to verify what the Russians are doing with their nuclear weapon systems. For us veterans of the Cold War, that\u2019s an alarming fact and a compelling reason to ratify this New START treaty without further delay.\" [2]  When the allegations are gone through individually they do not stand up to scrutiny. On the telemetry issue the treaty does not limit throw-weight so the data is not needed; the number of warheads per missile can be verified by other means. There are less facilities being inspected, but more inspections and the decline in Russia\u2019s nuclear forces means that not so many facilities need to be inspected. [3] There is no reason to be worried about the numbers of missiles as there will be a database detailing all the weapons both sides have and inspections to confirm this, [4] this will also mean that there are unique identifier tags on each missile, launcher and bombers so helping inspectors in their counting. [5] Mobile launchers are much less of a problem than they were as we already know the base number the Russia has whereas when START was originally negotiated the US did not know. Technology to track such mobile launchers has also become much more powerful. Finally if worried about the verification of the elimination of delivery vehicles both sides will have the right to inspect the debris and to demand demonstration of the procedures. [6] Neither side will be able to get around the new START\u2019s verification regime.  [1] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010.   [2] Baker, Howard. \"Dangerous if we reject New START.\" USA Today.   [3] Blook, Oliver, \u2018Nothing to Fear with New START Verification\u2019, Center For Strategic & International Studies, 8 July 2010,   [4] Woolf, Amy F., \u2018The New START Treaty: Central Limits and Key Provisions\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 24 October 2011, p.3,   [5] \u2018Verification of New START\u2019, Union of Concerned Scientists, 13 July 2010,   [6] Blook, Oliver, \u2018Nothing to Fear with New START Verification\u2019, Center For Strategic & International Studies, 8 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-glilpdwhsn-con02b","title":"global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty does not help Russia more than it does the United States. Former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates argued at the time the Russians are currently \u201cabove the treaty limits. So they will have to take down warheads.\u201d [1] If there really is undercounting of missiles on bombers then it affects both sides equally \u2013 as Romney says \u201cWhile we currently have more bombers than the Russians\u201d, so this too should not be a worry. Russia does not currently deploy rail-mobile ICBMs and neither does the United States, explain why the definitions are not there. However the State Department argues that \u201cIf a Party develops and deploys rail-mobile ICBMs, such missiles, their warheads, and their launchers would be subject to the Treaty.\u201d As the definitions of ICBM launchers would include them. [2] Finally we should recognize that we do not know that Russia would have reduced its bomber and missile forces without a new treaty, while Russia has more difficulty maintaining its nuclear forces than the United States so has more incentive to reduce them, but without a treaty it might even increase its forces due to a desire to keep parity with the United States while the US has a big lead in conventional weapons. [3]  Furthermore, any agreement made between Russia and the US needs to be one that benefits both parties, it does not matter if someone is getting more than the other. Getting an agreement that meets the needs of both countries is far more important, because it will be upheld more so than one that simple gives both countries the same. Fair and efficent does not mean spilting a pie in half, if one only wanted the crust, and the other only wanted the filling.  [1] Isaacs, John, \u2018Rebuttals to Additional Arguments Against \u201cNew START\u201d\u2019, The Center For Arms Control And Non-Proliferation,   [2] Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation, \u2018Rail-Mobile Launchers of ICBMs and their Missiles\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 2 August 2010,   [3] Isaacs, John, \u2018Rebuttals to Additional Arguments Against \u201cNew START\u201d\u2019, The Center For Arms Control And Non-Proliferation,"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro02b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Other countries are hypocritical in expecting Africa to develop in a sustainable way. Both the West and China substantially damaged their environments whilst developing. During Britain\u2019s industrial revolution pollution led to poor air quality, resulting in the deaths of 700 people in one week of 1873 [1] . That said, sustainable resource management has become prominent in some African countries. Most countries in the South African Development Community (SADC) have laws which regulate the impact that mining has on the environment, ensuring accountability for extractive processes. In South Africa, there must be an assessment of possible environmental impacts before mining begins, then the company involved must announce how it plans to mitigate environmental damage [2] . In Namibia, there are conservation zones and communal forests where deforestation is restricted in order to prevent negative environmental consequences [3] .  [1] Environmental History Resources \u2018The Industrial Age\u2019 date accessed 17\/12\/13   [2] Southern Africa Research Watch \u2018Land, biodiversity and extractive industries in Southern Africa\u2019 17 September 2013   [3] Hashange,H.\u2019Namibia: Managing Natural Resources for Sustainable Development\u2019 Namibia Economist 5 July 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro02a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Environmental Damage  Both licit and illicit resource extraction have caused ecological and environmental damage in Africa. The procurement of many natural resources requires processes such as mining and deforestation, which are harmful to the environment. Deforestation for access purposes, timber and cattle has led to around 3.4 million hectares of woodland being destroyed between 2000 and 2010 and, in turn, soil degradation [1] . As Africa\u2019s rainforest are necessary for global ecological systems, this is a significant loss. Mining and transportation also create damage through pollution and the scarring of the landscape. Mining produces various harmful chemicals which contaminate water and soil, a process which is worsened by illicit groups who cut corners to ensure higher profits [2] .  [1] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States \u2018World deforestation decreases, but remains in many countries\u2019   [2] Kolver,L. \u2018Illegal mining threat to lawful operations, safety and the environment\u2019 Mining Weekly 16 August 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro03b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Resources are not the problem, bad management and agreements are the problem here. The presence of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in resource extraction can have a more positive impact than if it was absent. The presence of FDI is often associated with increased bureaucracy efficiency and rule of law [1] . There have been attempts by Western governments to curtail illicit transactions as well. In 2013, the British government spearheaded the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative aimed at encouraging accountability from TNCs [2] . Governments control the resources; they simply need to be more willing to fight, and prevent corruption, to get a better deal.  [1] Bannerman,E. \u2018Foreign Direct Investment and the Natural Resource Curse\u2019 Munich Personal RePEc Archive 13 December 2007   [2] Duffield,A. \u2018Botswana or Zimbabwe? Exploiting Africa\u2019s Resources Responsibly; Africa Portal 12 December 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro01a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Resource abundance has led to poor governance  Corruption in African governance is a common feature of African governance [1] , with resources being a major source of exploitation by the political class. Natural resources are often controlled by the government. As resources fund the government\u2019s actions rather than tax, there is a decrease in accountability to the citizenry which enables the government to abuse its ownership of this land to make profit [2] . To benefit from resource wealth, money from the exploitation of mineral wealth and other sources needs to be reinvested in to the country\u2019s economy and human capital [3] . Investing in infrastructure and education can encourage long term growth. However a large amount of funds are pocketed by politicians and bureaucrats instead, hindering growth [4] . Africa Progress Panel (APP) conducted a survey on five mining deals between 2010 and 2012 in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). They found that the DRC was selling off state-owned mining companies at low prices. The new offshore owner would then resell the companies for much more, with much of the profit finding its way to DRC government officials [5] . The profits were twice as high as the combined budget for education and health, demonstrating that corruption caused by resource exploitation detracts from any long term growth.  [1] Straziuso,J. \u2018No African Leader wins $45m Good Governance Award\u2019 Yahoo News 14 October 2013   [2] Hollingshead,A. \u2018Why are extractive industries prone to corruption?\u2019 Financial Transparency Coalition 19 September 2013   [3] Pendergast,S.M., Kooten,G.C., & Clarke,J.A. \u2018Corruption and the Curse of Natural Resources\u2019 Department of Economics University of Victoria, 2008 pg.5   [4] Ibid  [5] Africa Progress Panel \u2018Report: DRC mining deals highlight resource corruption\u2019 14 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro01b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Resources don\u2019t have to mean poor governance. In 2013, attempts were made to counter corruption, the G8 and EU have both began work on initiatives to increase the transparency of foreign firms extracting resources in Africa [1] . The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative has been established in an attempt to improve governance on the continent by funding attempts to stem corruption in member countries. The results of this latter initiative has resulted in the recovery of \u2018billions of US$\u2019 in Nigeria [2] . Other projects are continuing in other African countries with great hope of success.  [1] Oxfam \u2018Moves to tackle Africa\u2019s \u2018resource curse\u2019 reach turning point\u2019 23 October 2013   [2] EITI \u2018Impact of EITI in Africa: Stories from the ground\u2019 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro04b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Kleptocrats wish to increase their personal wealth and power, and will find a means to do so. To contribute power over resources as the main motive is inaccurate, as noted by Charles Kenny in Foreign Policy; \u2018For every Gen. Sani Abacha skimming billions off Nigeria's oil wealth, there is a Field Marshal Idi Amin massacring Ugandans by the thousands without the aid or incentive of significant mineral resources\u2019 [1] . There are many ways to increase power, if mineral wealth isn\u2019t available then they\u2019ll find another way.  [1] Kenny,C. \u2018Is it really true that underground riches lead to aboveground woes? No, not really.\u2019 Foreign Policy 6 December 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro03a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Foreign companies gain most of the profits  The majority of investment in Africa by Trans National Companies (TNCs) goes towards resource extraction [1] . Many companies use transfer pricing, tax avoidance and anonymous company ownership to increase profits at the expense of resource abundant nations [2] . Production sharing agreements, where companies and states share in the profit of a venture, can often benefit the former over the latter. In 2012 Ugandan activists sued the government for one such deal where the country was to likely to receive only half the profits rather than three quarters [3] .  Kofi Annan, former United Nations Security General, has claimed that Africa\u2019s outflow of funds by TNCs in the extractive industries is twice as high as inflows to the continent. Businesses such as Barclays have been criticised for their promotion of tax havens in Africa [4] . These allow TNCs to avoid government taxation for projects such as resource extraction, a symptom of the attitude of foreign companies to investment in Africa. The unfavourable inflow\/outflow balance prevents reinvestment in Africa\u2019s infrastructure, education and health services.  [1] African Development Bank \u2018African Development Report 2007\u2019 pg.110   [2] Stewart,H. \u2018Annan calls for end to \u2018unconscionable\u2019 exploitation of Africa\u2019s resources\u2019 The Guardian 10 May 2013   [3] Akankwasa,S. \u2018Uganda activists sue government over oil Production Sharing Agreements.\u2019 International Bar Association 01\/05\/2012   [4] Provost,C. \u2018Row as Barclays promotes tax havens as \u2018gateway for investment in Africa\u2019 The Guardian 20 November 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro04a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Resources are a source of conflict  There is a strong connection between the presence of natural resources and conflict within Africa. Natural resources, especially those with a high commodity price such as diamonds, are a useful means of funding rebellions and governments [1] . The 1991 civil war in Sierra Leone became infamous for the blood diamonds which came from mines with forced slavery. These diamonds were used to fund the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) for eleven years, extending the blood-shed. Continued conflict in the Congo is also attributed to the control of mineral wealth [2] and exemplifies how resources have negatively impacted Africa.  [1] Pandergast, 2008,   [2] Kharlamov,I. \u2018Africa\u2019s \u201cResource Wars\u201d Assume Epidemic Proportions\u2019 Global Research 24 November 2014"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-con03b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Employment practices are usually discriminatory against locals in Africa. Due to a lack of local technical expertise, firms often import professionals particularly for the highest paid jobs.  The presence of these extractive industries can also disrupt local economies, causing an overall decrease in employment by forcing the focus and funding away from other sectors [1] . Returning to the Nigerian example, the oil industry directly disrupted the agricultural industry, Nigeria\u2019s biggest employment sector, causing increased job losses [2] .  [1] Collins,C. \u2018In the excitement of discovering oil, East Africa should not neglect agriculture\u2019 The East African 9 March 2013   [2] Adaramola,Z. \u2018Nigeria: Naccima says oil sector is killing economy\u2019 13 February 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-con01b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"The trade of natural resources can be unreliable for African nations. Exports on the international market are subject to changes in price, which can harm export orientated countries should there be a decrease in value. The boom\/bust cycle of oil has been particularly damaging. The drop of oil prices in the 1980s had a significant impact on African countries which were exporting the commodity [1] . The boom\/bust cycle of resource value has impaired, rather than inhibited, some states\u2019 debts. The price slump of copper in 2008 severely damaged Zambia\u2019s mineral orientated economy, as FDI stopped and unemployment rose [2] . This debt crisis had been created by another slump in prices in the 1980s that forced the government to borrow to keep spending. [3] This demonstrates how international markets are unreliable as a sole source of income.  [1] African Development Bank \u2018African Development Report 2007\u2019 pg.110   [2] Bova,E. \u2018Copper Boom and Bust in Zambia: The Commodity-Currency Link\u2019 The Journal of Development Studies, 48:6, Pg.770   [3] Liu, L. Larry, \u2018The Zambian Economy and the IMF\u2019, Academia.edu, December 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-con02a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Bring Africa out of poverty  The African continent has the highest rate of poverty in the world, with 40% of sub-Saharan Africans living below the poverty line. Natural resources are a means of increasing the quality of life and the standard of living as long as revenues are reinvested into the poorest areas of society. There are 35 countries in Africa which already conduct direct transfers of resource dividends to the poor through technology or in person [1] . In Malawi, \u00a3650,192.22 was given out in dividends to the poorest in society ensuring that they were given $14 a month in 2013 [2] . This ensures that there is a large base of citizens profiting from natural resources which increases their income and, in turn, their Human Development Index scores [3] .  [1] Devarajan, S. \u2018How Africa can extract big benefits for everyone from natural resources\u2019 in The Guardian 29\/06\/13   [2] Dzuwa,J. \u2018Malawi: Zomba Rolls out Scial Cash Transfer Programme\u2019 Malawi News Agency 11 June 2013   [3] Ibid"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-con03a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Natural resources create employment  The extraction of natural resources creates the possibility of job creation which can strengthen African economies. Both domestic and foreign firms require man power for their operations, and they will often draw from the local labour force. Employment ensures a better standard of living for the workers and injects money in to the home economy leading to greater regional economic stability. In Nigeria, for example, the company Shell hires 6000 employees and contractors, with 90% being Nigerian and at higher wages than the GDP per capita [1] . This would indicate that the presence of natural resources is economically strengthening Africa.  [1] Shell Nigeria \u2018Shell at a glance\u2019 date accessed 16 December 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-con01a","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Source of trade  Natural resources are a source of economic revenue for Africa. If managed well then this can become a genuine source of prosperity. Africa does not currently have developed secondary and tertiary sectors yet [1] , most of the continent\u2019s economics surrounds primary sector activity such as resource extraction and farming. The high commodity price of items such as gold, diamonds and uranium is therefore valuable for Africa\u2019s trade. Profits from this trade have allowed countries to strengthen their economic position by reducing debt and accumulating external reserves, a prime example of this being Nigeria.  [1] Maritz,J. \u2018Manufacturing: Can Africa become the next China?\u2019 How We Made Africa 24 May 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-sepiahbaaw-con02b","title":"ss economic policy international africa house believes africans are worse","text":"Despite projects such as direct dividends, the gap between rich and poor is still worsened by natural resources. Investment from the profits of natural resources in human development is relatively low in Africa. In 2006, 29 of the 31 lowest scoring countries for HDI were in Africa, a symptom of low re-investment rates [1] . Generally it is only the economic elite who benefit from any resource extraction, and reinvestment rarely strays far from urban areas [2] . This increases regional and class inequality, ensuring poverty persists.  [1] African Development Bank \u2018African Development Report 2007\u2019 pg.110   [2] Ibid"}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro02b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"The issue is not teachers or investment per se, rather the structure of teaching used. The curriculum is focused on passing exams to meet the MDG criteria and get students to the next stage. There remains a need to incorporate the teaching of life skills for potential career options, and encouraging students to engage in innovative thinking and explore interests. UNICEF\u2019s Child-Friendly Education approach is a clear example, whereby the child\u2019s need is the central focus.  Technology is changing teaching, and teacher training needs to be less theoretical; more focused on the subjective needs of the children.  Further, challenges to teacher training are prevalent. For example, not all schools are government owned - with faith bodies, private sector and NGOs establishing schools. The diversity of ownership creates challenges for regulating training provided. By focusing on teaching curriculum the national government can enforce national policy change."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro02a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Teacher training  Investment is required in teacher training to ensure quality control. Teachers need to be provided with qualifications and effective training both technical and theoretical. Teachers need to be introduced to methods on how to interact with students, provoke student debates, and manage large classes. In-service training and pre-teaching training are key.  Countries such as Uganda and Angola [1] have utilised on the job training for teachers, with positive results for teaching quality. In Uganda initiatives, such as INSSTEP [2] , provided capacity training to teachers and headteachers. 14,000 secondary school teachers participated between 1994-1999, followed by school inspections to monitor capacity. The \u2018mobile-caravan\u2019 approach is making it easier, more feasible, and flexible, to provide training [3] .  Additionally, investors and national governments need to provide Model schools, indicating what responsibilities teachers have and enabling knowledge transfer. Model schools can assist in alleviating work pressures for teachers by showing their terms of contract, duties and obligations. Increasingly teachers are expected to fulfil the role of carer, counsellor, and advisers on HIV\/AIDs without relevant training.  [1] See further readings: World Bank, 2013.  [2] In-Service Secondary Teacher Education Project.  [3] See further readings: World Bank, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro03b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"A positive intervention to tackle geographical disparities in education is by introducing long-distance learning. ICT and technology makes such a reality possible.  Such proposals require institutional change. The capacity of local, and regional, government bodies need to be built to enable decentralisation. Community centres can be used for distance learning, forming schools that are adaptable to the needs of rural children and families. However, for such proposals we need to focus on decentralisation and ensuring good governance amongst local and regional actors."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro01a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Social Policy: encouraging teaching careers  UNESCO (2013) report the need for 6.8mn teachers by 2015 for the right to primary education to be achieved. The teaching workforce requires includes both replacements and additional teachers. Africa has a reality of low teacher-student ratios. In 2012, 80 students were reported per teacher in the Central African Republic (World Bank, 2013). Positive schemes are needed to incentivise potential teachers to enter the profession and meet demand.  Careers can be encouraged through multiple paths. For example, providing incentives to study teaching as a profession. Tanzania\u2019s Ministry of Education provides grants to students entering University to study teaching."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro01b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Firstly, encouraging teaching as a employment path does not ensure committed or motivated teachers are gained. Secondly, the problem is advocating \u2018universal\u2019 education when the infrastructure does not match. Low teacher ratios per student indicate the need for new buildings, and bigger schools. Facilities need to be improved with space for more classes. Schools need to be designed to enable diverse learning - such as space for IT, games, and public discussions.  The experience of learning is broader, and goes beyond the classroom. Good education is not solely reliant on the teacher, but on what the student is able to engage in and how they can learn to raise new ideas and questions. Investment is therefore required in new schools and universities."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro04b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"A key concern for government\u2019s education policy is ensuring efficiency in the allocation of resources. Investment is required in management structures - to ensure teachers accept the social contract of responsibility, and duty, to the services provided and enable the efficient allocation of public resources.  Weaknesses have been identified with regards to resources being lost or misused in districts or schools. The rising cases of \u2018Ghost teachers\u2019 - teachers who are not real but created to exist on paper - indicates the scope of chaotic management structures and persistent corruption. Resources are being lost through cases of manipulation, whether by teachers or government officials embezzling money. Reports from Sierre Leone, Uganda, and Libya, showcase the concerning reality [1] . Before higher wages can be provided, forgeries need to be resolved. A system needs to be built which enables monitoring to ensure real teachers are paid and found.  [1] See further readings: All Africa, 2012; The Informer, 2013; and BBC News, 2008."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro03a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Incentivising movement so there are teachers where they are needed  Although the extent of rural-urban disparities remains debatable, geographical disparities in living standards and education are articulated across Africa. The location, and provision, of teachers does not always match need.  In Uganda, the universalisation of education has been met with inequities, regionally and across socioeconomic groups, in the quality of education (Hedger et al, 2010). Incentives are required to deploy teachers to districts according to need; and encourage teachers to relocate. For example, awards need to be provided for teachers to move to rural areas, and the development of teacher housing schemes - providing teachers with houses in new locations."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-pro04a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Social Policy for satisfied teachers  The creation of national social policies which provide secure, and stable, wages for teachers is fundamental. Social policy can make satisfied teachers. A key concern amongst teachers is finance - inadequate wages and insurance. Teacher wages is considerably lower than other formal professions - combining to enforce low morale and occupational motivation as pay is too low to sustain individuals and households (Bennell, 2004). In South Africa an average teaching salary is 19,535 ZAR in contrast to the 28,235 ZAR average granted in all jobs in South Africa (Salary Explorer, 2013).  Further, social policy is required to introduce teacher pension schemes. Pension schemes are provided for workers within the formal employment sector, by various public organisations - including the government and GEPF [1] . However, some national pension schemes are more developed than others and teachers need to be ensured the profession can provide investments for future security. An ageing population only reinforces its importance.  [1] See further readings: GEPF, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con03b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Fundamentally, structures cannot be changed without development. Human capital however, provides a means of development. Studies have shown the positive role human capital - a composite measure of education and knowledge - has on a nation\u2019s development.  The AfDB have shown that enhanced human capital amongst Africa\u2019s young population is empowering change - promoting good governance and post-conflict recovery; and intrinsic to economic growth (Diawara, 2011). In other words teachers need investment to educate the youths in order to overcome these barriers to universal education."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con01b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"A key concern in achieving the MDG is quality control - regulation is required to do so, and the standard of teaching needs to be monitored; this cannot be done at home. Investing in teachers will ensure basic needs are met.  Teachers are the vital resources to transfer knowledge, and providing universal access to standardised education. Thus direct investment is required in teachers for students well-being."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con02a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Colonial legacies: the issue of language  A fundamental restriction to achieving universal education in several African countries is not teachers, as a resource, but rather the lack of a national language. Colonialism enforced national boundaries, of which remain mismatched to ethnicity and language. African nations remain some of the most diverse in the world. With the exception of Tanzania, whereby Julius Nyerere used policy to create a sense of national unity and language, many African nations placed minimal focus on nationalisation. Around 46 languages are spoken in Zambia.  Such language diversities make universal education difficult. Therefore, presidents such as Paul Kagame, have the right approach of enforcing a national language."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con04a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"The MDG is the barrier  Significant progress has been made in meeting the MDG in Africa, therefore criticism needs to be raised on the MDG themselves. The MDG are unrealistic, unfair, and the benchmarks set fail to acknowledge progress made (Easterly, 2009).  The barrier to achieving universal education is not a lack of investment, rather inappropriate targets."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con03a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"The complex controls over enrolment  Suggesting investments are required in teachers limits a recognition of the multiple forces creating barriers to achieve a right to education. Universal education is constrained by political, socio-cultural, and economic, structures.  Firstly, gender inequalities in education raise cultural norms of the role of girls in society, and within the domestic-sphere at home. Religious and cultural beliefs mean girls account for 70% of children not attending school. Across Sub-Saharan Africa the economics of child marriage often mean girls leave school or become reluctant to go to school. A positive correlation is found between low education and countries with high rates of child marriage [1] . Niger has the highest rate of child marriage.  Secondly, poverty and hunger act as key restraints in achieving the target. As Mkandawire (2010) argues, development needs to be brought back onto the \u2018pro-poor\u2019 agenda. Human capital cannot be developed without a broader focus on social and economic policies that enable development first.  [1] See further readings: Education for Girls, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con01a","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Teaching begins at home  For the target of universal primary education to be achieved we need to look beyond a narrow education policy. Programs are required to enable teaching at home. The benefits of education need to be accessed nationwide; which will cumulatively encourage children to go to school and participate to do their best. For example, by introducing adult training\/education courses to parents and elderly populations, parents are able to assist children at home, and to recognise the benefits of gaining an education. Simply providing better teachers at school fails to recognise the importance of intra-household decisions and life. For universal education the whole population strata needs to be included; and adult courses provided on basic maths, english and science."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con04b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Critiquing the foundation of the MDG does not resolve the reality that around 56mn children are still unable to use their right to education (UN, 2013)."}
+{"id":"test-international-atiahblit-con02b","title":"ary teaching international africa house believes lack investment teachers","text":"Proposals for basing education, and teaching, on a universal language raise criticism. Will students be able to ask for assistance at home and amongst their community if the language taught is not understood? Does enforcing a national language return to unequal relations of power - overriding the history and ethnic diversity of said nation? Shouldn\u2019t national governments be more sensitive to local communities and group identities? Finally, what language will be chosen, and how will the decision be made? The implementation of a national language introduces a risk of conflict in unstable countries.  It also needs to be remembered that a national language has to be taught; something which requires investment in teachers."}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro02b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"States can get very worked up about very small pieces of land. Size appears to matter little when the issue is one of sovereignty. For that matter neither does the worth of the land or the population living on it. A great many of the world\u2019s hot spots are over very small areas of land often with small or non-existent populations such as Gibraltar, Falklands, Senkaku, and the islands of the South China Sea."}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro02a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Small size makes for ease  The Seychelles, as with the other nations whose very existence is threatened by climate change, is small. It is twice the size of Washington D.C., so smaller than many cities. As such finding enough land to relocate the country should not be a problem. Several of the states closest to the Seychelles; Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia, and Madagascar, have plenty of land that they could give up without any inconvenience to their own state. Kenya, the smallest, is more than 1200 times bigger than Seychelles"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro03b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Shared sovereignty is likely to create problems in the future. No state wants to have another state controlling some aspects of its sovereignty and any deal the Seychelles entered into would be an unequal one as the Seychelles would both be much smaller and be the state asking for help. If the host state for example maintained control over national defense what would there be to stop that country essentially mounting a takeover of the Seychelles new territory in the future?"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro01a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Moving is an imperative  It is clear that if the Seychelles wishes to remain as a sovereign nation it will have to relocate almost all of its population and it makes sense for this to be in one place so keeping the nation together. The way to do this is through purchasing land and sovereignty from another country that has land to spare. There is clearly little other choice and some of the small island states have already accepted this. Kiribati for example has already bought land from Fiji with the intent of using it as a last resort for its people. [1]  [1] Yu, Bobby, \u2018The Sinking Nation of Kiribati: The Lonely Stand Against Statelessness And Displacement from Rising Oceans\u2019, The Arizona Journal of Environmental Law & Policy, 11 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro01b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Unlike the Maldives or Kiribati the Seychelles will still have a small amount of land. [1] The government could establish a permanent outpost even if it does have difficulties with water supplies. The Seychelles would therefore be able to maintain sovereignty through this outpost much as mounting bases on small islets around the world provide sovereignty without acquiring new territories elsewhere.  [1] Conan, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro04b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"The suggestion that the polluter pays is in relation to the cleaning up of pollution and reduction of emissions not helping those who are affected by the consequences. Accepting an obligation to help everyone affected by climate change would mean developed nations taking on an immense burden in terms of rebuilding lost homes and livelihoods. No government would make such a commitment to any but its own citizens."}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro03a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Shared sovereignty  If there are no countries willing to cede complete sovereignty over territory then some kind of shared sovereignty could be considered. \u201cThis conferred jurisdiction must include rights to become a citizen, migrate, work, access health care, and access social security.\u201d [1] Additionally there would almost certainly need to be sovereignty over justice, law and order. However this would potentially leave large areas of sovereignty in the remit of the host nation; such as providing defense. The most notable compromise by both might be to maintain sovereignty over people rather than just territory.  There have been suggestions such as by Krasner that shared sovereignty should be considered, and become much more normal. And some forms of shared sovereignty have happened before such as foreign control over some tax revenues, or the status of forces agreements the USA had with Germany that restricted German ability to make war after WWII. [2] Or more obviously the members of the EU increasingly cede some sovereignty to the international entity. As the deal would be voluntary for both the Seychelles and its host country and both would potentially gain such a deal would seem feasible.  [1] Yu, 2013,   [2] Krasner, Stephen D., \u2018The case for shared sovereignty\u2019, Journal of Democracy, vol.16, No.1, January 2005,  , p.77"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-pro04a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Other nations have an obligation to help  The President of Vanuatu has noted \u201cIf such a tragedy [the disappearance of a state] should happen, then the United Nations and its members will have failed in their first and most basic duty to a Member and its innocent people, as stated in Article 1 of the Charter of the United Nations.\u201d [1] As long ago as 1992 developed nations accepted \u201cthe responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit to sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command\u201d and that \u201cpolluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution\u201d. [2] There is also a Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness in which article 10 demands that any redrawing of borders must not render a person stateless, the principle behind which would equally apply to a disappearing state. [3] The small island states are losing their countries through no fault of their own it is therefore the responsibility of other states to provide them with alternatives; be this land or the resources to purchase land.  [1] McAdam, \u2018\u2019Disappearing states\u2019, statelessness and the boundaries of international law\u2019, UNSW Law Research Paper, 2010,  , p.4  [2] The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, \u2018Rio Declaration on Environment and Development\u2019, unep.org, 14 June 1992,   [3] United Nations, \u2018Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness\u2019, unhcr.org, 1961,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-con03b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"While this is technically the case, and indeed the Seychelles would even maintain some territory, it would not be a viable long term option. While other countries would maintain recognition of a territory-less state for a while would they do so over the long term? The Seychelles government would meanwhile have immense problems exercising any kind of authority. How would a state with no, or very little, territory collect any taxes? Without a functioning government with revenues providing any of the services of a state to its citizens would be impossible. Meanwhile its citizens would likely be scattered and there would be a clash between any services offered by the state they are staying in and a government in exile trying to exercise control."}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-con01b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"The cost need not be borne by the state from which they Seychelles is given land; rather it could come from the funds that have been set up to help developing nations adapt to climate change such as the Adaptation Fund and the Green Climate Fund. [1] This would mean the money would be coming from developed countries that can easily afford the costs of helping rebuild the lives of 90,000 people not the country that provides the territory.  [1] \u2018Finance\u2019, unfccc.inc, accessed 26\/2\/2014,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-con02a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"New countries forged by those fleeing disaster  There have been very few countries that have been created in circumstances that are at all similar to that which would happen when island nations are forced to abandon their homeland. The closest parallel is Israel when Jews arrived en mass first because they were promised the land after WWI, when it is notable that they purchased the land they occupied, [1] and then after the disaster of the Holocaust. The Palestinians have not been happy about the loss of territory. Indeed there have been few examples in history of peoples\u2019 willingly giving up land to a new arrival whether it is due to colonialism or migration. The result, especially if sovereignty is involved, is usually conflict.  [1] Pipes, Daniel, \u2018Not Stealing Palestine, but Purchasing Israel\u2019, National Review Online, 21 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-con03a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Could retain sovereignty without acquiring new territory  While it is normal for states to have exclusive sovereign control over territory this has not always happened in the past. There have been governments in exile that have remained recognised as a result of wars or revolutions. Most notable perhaps was during world war II where there were governments in exile as a result of invasions by Germany and Japan. For example Philippine President Quezon set up The Commonwealth government in exile in Washington D.C. which remained the recognised government by the allies and therefore much of the world. [1]  A state therefore does not have to have control over a populated territory to maintain a sovereign government and for the world to recognise it as such. [2] Having a population on the territory over which the state has sovereignty matters little; migrants don\u2019t always change citizenship when they move to live in another country. Indeed 56.9% of Samoans live outside their own territory. [3]  [1] Jose, Ricardo, T., \u2018Governments in Exile\u2019, University of the Philippines,  , p.182  [2] Yu, 2013,   [3] McAdam, 2010,  , p.8"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-con01a","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Other states would not want to waste resources on a refugee state  The Seychelles are not a particularly rich place. Their main industries are tourism and tuna fishing accounting for 32% of employment, [1] both of which are unfortunately entirely dependent upon the territory of the islands themselves and cannot be moved. The result is that the Seychelles have little to offer those states that might consider giving up territory. The country will therefore have difficulty rebuilding its economy and would likely be a drain upon its host making countries unwilling to take on the commitment.  [1] The World Bank, \u2018Seychelles Overview\u2019, October 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-iwiaghbss-con02b","title":"imate water international africa global house believes seychelles should","text":"Israel while it may be the only obvious modern example is a terrible analogy. The number of people from small island states is tiny compared to the number of Jews wishing to live in Israel\/Palestine. Those from the small island state are unlikely ever to be in a position to dictate terms to those who are already living in the state so there will be cooperation not conflict."}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro02b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Bucking this trend of increased HDI figures are the states who are currently witnessing, or have recently experienced, armed conflict. Africa has observed many well-known and lesser known conflicts which have damaged infrastructure and made it significantly harder for local populations to access key services such as schools and healthcare. Five of seven countries with the poorest nutritional scores are African and have recently emerged from armed conflict [1] , they are also rated as some of the poorest countries in the world.  [1] Smith, \u2018Africa is not rising\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro02a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Human development indicators have significantly improved in recent years.  Human development index (HDI) indicators are used to assess levels of life expectancy, education and income indices throughout the world. The majority of African states have seen an improvement in these scores since 2001, and are predicted to continue this trend. Some African states, such Seychelles, Libya and Tunisia, are in the \u2018High Human Development\u2019 category and are positioned in the top 100 for HDI indicators, an improvement from 1990 [1] . Life expectancy has increased by 10% on the continent and infant mortality has decreased as well, thanks to the greater availability of mosquito nets and the attention given to HIV\/AIDS [2] . Education is seen as a cornerstone to growth as it allows the quicker attainment of the skills required for knowledge-intensive industries (such as agriculture and services), which will in turn lead to greater development [3] . The level of literacy in Africa has seen an increase in reports on human development from 2001 [4] and 2011 [5] . Finally, levels of poverty throughout Africa have generally decreased, including in notable countries such as Ghana and Zimbabwe.  [1] Watkins, \u2018Human Development Report\u2019, 2005, p.219  [2] The Economist, \u2018Africa Rising\u2019, 2013  [3] Haddad, \u2018Education and Development\u2019, 1990  [4] Fukuda-Parr, \u2018Human Development Report\u2019, 2011  [5] \u2018United Nations Human Development statistical annex\u2019, 2011, pp.159-161"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro03b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"FDI increases have not been universal in Africa. Both Southern and Western Africa have witnessed decreased levels of FDI in 2012 [1] . South Africa, whilst being well known for fluctuating levels of investment, saw a decrease of 24% in 2012 and Angola saw a decrease of $6.9 billion of FDI. Furthermore, companies have attempted to avoid tax whilst operating African countries, as the Barclays tax haven scheme has demonstrated [2] . FDI is also dependant on the condition of other economies. During the global recession, which began in 2008, there was a notable dip in investment and FDI has not fully recovered yet [3] . In addition to this, there is no guarantee that FDI will create employment. This suggests that the future of FDI, and the improvements that can be made to African infrastructure and employment levels as a result, are unstable to say the least.  [1] UNCTAD, \u2018Foreign Direct Investment to Africa increases\u2019, 2013  [2] Provost, \u2018Row as Barclays promotes tax havens as 'gateway for investment' in Africa\u2019, 2013  [3] The Economist, \u2018Africa Rising\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro01a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Africa\u2019s Economies are growing rapidly  Africa has recently experienced some of the most significant economic growth in the world. Amongst the top ten growing economies in the world are five African countries; The Gambia, Libya, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, and South Sudan [1] . The latter, South Sudan, witnessed GDP growth of 32% in 2013. Other economies in Africa are also doing exceptionally well, such as Ethiopia and Ghana. As ever, natural resources are a key export for these countries. Recent investments from China in exchange for Africa\u2019s abundant natural resources have enabled many African countries to develop at a significantly faster rate, with trade between the continent and China increasing by $155 billion [2] . All of this has contributed to an average GDP growth of 4.8% in the past ten years. There is a rapidly expanding middle-class and it is predicted that by 2015 there will be over 100 million Africans living on $3,000 a year [3] , showing an increasingly positive future for Africa.  [1] Maps of World, \u2018Top Ten Countries with Fastest Growing Economies\u2019, 2013  [2] The Economist, \u2018Africa Rising\u2019, 2013  [3] The Economist, \u2018The hopeful continent\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro01b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Whilst there has been significant economic growth in many African countries, the majority of people are not seeing the benefits. Despite some success stories, such as Folorunsho Alakija becoming richer than Oprah [1] , most Africans have not benefitted from economic growth. Afrobarometer conducted a survey of 34 African countries between 2011 and 2013 [2] . They found that 53% found their economic situation to be either \u2018fairly\u2019 or \u2018very bad\u2019. Only one third of respondents believed that their national economy had improved in the past year. Statistics like these demonstrate that most are seeing no improvement in their lives despite current levels of national economic growth. The finite nature of many of the resources being sold by Africa means that the current levels of trade cannot be maintained forever, calling Africa\u2019s future economic growth in to question.  [1] Gesinde, \u2018How Alakija\u2019s wealth grew\u2019, 2013  [2] Hoffmeyr, \u2018Africa Rising?\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro04b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Internet use is still very low in Africa, only 16% regularly access the internet. Some areas lag far more than others as well, highlighting regional disparity and the role that has on the economy. While East Africa benefits from large-scale mobile phone ownership, a money transfer system M-Pesa has transactions of $1 billion per month, other areas such as West Africa have failed to do the same [1] . This has led to a potential loss of business for the region\u2019s population who require communications for their farms and businesses.  [1] Felix, \u2018Insight\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro03a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Foreign Direct Investment to the continent has increased  Foreign investment into Africa has seen a large increase in recent years, which has enabled Africa to invest significant amounts of funding in to infrastructure, jobs creation and acquisition of technology [1] . In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, foreign businesses account for a much larger percentage of employment than any domestic firm, hence increasing the standard of living for a greater number of people [2] . FDI has gone from $15 billion in 2002 to $37 billion in 2006 and $46 billion in 2012. The vast majority of this investment is based on extractive industries such as agriculture and raw resources. However, Africa has recently seen an increase in FDI for manufacturing and services as well [3] . Central Africa alone received $10 billion in 2012-3, due to an increased interest in the DRC\u2019s copper-cobalt mines. The sources of this FDI vary, but China has become the major investor in the region, with investment rising from $11 billion to $166 billion in the past decade. China has helped build vast infrastructure projects in return for natural resources and food for its growing population.  [1] Moss, \u2018Is Africa\u2019s Skepticism of Foreign Capital Justified?\u2019, 2004, p.2  [2] Moss, \u2018Is Africa\u2019s Skepticism of Foreign Capital Justified?\u2019, 2004, p.19  [3] UNCTAD, \u2018Foreign Direct Investment to Africa increases\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-pro04a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Greater Access to Technology  Proponents of this view claim that the traditional image of \u2018Dark Africa\u2019 is becoming outdated in the light of greater access to technology. Due to poor infrastructure, mobile communications have had a transformative impact on African life. In the past decade there has been a notable increase in mobile phone ownership, with the trend set to continue. There are over 600 million mobile phone users in Africa, which is more than in North America and Europe [1] . Mobile phones allow the use of services such as agro-info and mobile banking to further their businesses. It is thought that by 2017, 30% of households will have a television in their house. Household technologies becoming more available have gone hand in hand with the development of more sophisticated farming and industrial techniques. A recent Pan-African project designed at improving legume technology and enrich low-nitrogen soils has made it possible for farmers to increase their yields and has reached 250,000 smallholder farmers so far [2] .  [1] The Economist, \u2018The hopeful continent\u2019, 2011  [2] Abuje, \u2018Putting biological nitrogen fixation to work for smallholder farmers\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con03b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"In recent years there has been a large amount of aid provided to Africa for the express purpose of climate change adaption, demonstrating a growing awareness to this issue. The UNEP claimed that between 2010 and 2011 it provided several hundred million dollars each year, with an unknown amount coming from other development projects, directed towards climate change adaption [1] . While this does not cover future costs, it is a start.  [1] Rowling, \u2018Africa Faces Sharp Rise in Climate Adaption Costs \u2013 Unep\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con01b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Fifteen out of the twenty countries which have made the most progress towards completing the MDGs are African states. According the UNDP the goals of universal education, gender equality and the empowerment of women, combat HIV\/AIDS, TB malaria and other diseases and Global partnership are on track to being completed. While the other goals have not been completed, there is hope that they will be completed in time. The fact that the majority of states have made at least some improvement on these goals is a positive in itself. They have attempted to improve the quality of their populations\u2019 lives, which has a positive impact upon their economies."}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con02a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Majority of states are still undemocratic  While there is a lot of contention over government type, democracy is seen as an aspiration in Western eyes, and African dictators have a history of running brutal and corrupt regimes. In Africa the majority of states are still dictatorships. Only 25 of the 55 states are democratic, whilst the rest are authoritarian or hybrid regimes. These dictators are commonly associated with poor governance, which in turn can affect economic growth. Recent pictures of Robert Mugabe and his team of ministers asleep at an African-Arab economic summit demonstrate how little enthusiasm some of these leaders have for the progress of their country [1] .  [1] Moyo, \u2018Mugabe and his ministers sleep through economic summit\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con04a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"War and Civil unrest disrupt development and economic growth  Another major barrier to economic development in Africa is the regional instability caused by the 23 wars and episodes of civil unrest. War is naturally a costly affair; the 2001 conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea cost the former $2.9 billion with extensive damage to its economic and social infrastructure. A BBC report noted that extra funding had to be diverted away from development in order to meet the rising demands of the war [1] . What makes Africa\u2019s situation far worse is the tendency of many armed groups to become bandits rather than armies with political objectives [2] . The inclination for these armed groups to forsake any ideal of governing in favour of banditry and rape makes them harder to negotiate as \u2018legitimate grievances in these failed or failing African states deteriorate into rapacious, profit-orientated bloodshed\u2019 [3] . The constant disruption to the lives of civilians in these 23 wars has led to poor levels of human development, which has further destabilised the region.  [1] Bhalla, \u2018War \u2018devastated\u2019 Ethiopian economy\u2019, 2001  [2] Gettleman, \u2018Africa\u2019s Forever Wars\u2019, 2010  [3] Gettleman, \u2018Africa\u2019s Forever Wars\u2019, 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con03a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"The Continent is still vulnerable to natural disasters  A major road block to development and economic growth in Africa is the prevalence of natural disasters. These disasters commonly affect the poorest and most vulnerable in society, as they are often the ones living in the \u2018most exposed areas\u2019, thus preventing development [1] . In Somalia, for example, the 2013 cyclone left tens of thousands homeless in an already impoverished area, worsening their economic situation [2] . Dr Tom Mitchell from the Overseas Development Institute has claimed that economic growth cannot occur until disaster risk management becomes central to social and economic policy [3] . Disaster management could cost too much however. In November 2013, a United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report demonstrated that 2070 a total $350 billion per annum would be required to deal with the threats presented by clime change such as increased Arid areas and higher risks of flooding [4] .  [1] Decapua, \u2018Natural Disasters Worsen Poverty\u2019, 2013  [2] Migiro, \u2018Somalia Reels From Cyclone, Floods and Hunger \u2013 ICRC\u2019, 2013  [3] Decapua, \u2018Natural Disasters Worsen Poverty\u2019, 2013  [4] Rowling, \u2018Africa Faces Sharp Rise in Climate Adaption Costs \u2013 Unep\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con01a","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Millennium Development Goals have not yet been reached  While the majority of African governments have made efforts to reach the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), the deadlines for achieving them are fast approaching with little sign of complete success. The MDGs were established in 2000, and laid out a set of criteria which each country should aspire to in order to become developed. These development goals are essential for Africa to be able to effectively grow. The United Nations Development Programme readily recognises that the eradication of hunger, reduction of child mortality, improvement of maternal health and ensuring environmental sustainability are all off track in Africa [1] . Observing the causes of this failure, the inequality existing in Africa is blamed as a fundamental roadblock.  [1] UNDP, \u2018MDG Progress Reports \u2013 Africa\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con04b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"Despite numerous ongoing conflicts on the continent, there have been efforts to create an end to war. The number of conflicts in Africa has decreased since its peak in the early 1990s [1] , and there is increased optimism with the resolution of the M23 rebellion in DR Congo which will hopefully bring Africa\u2019s most devastating war to an end. There is a desire by many African states to end war in the region, as illustrated by the African Union\u2019s (AU) objective to end war on the continent by 2020 [2] . Amongst other objectives, the AU has stated that it wished to \u2018address the root causes of conflicts including economic and social disparities\u2019 [3] . African peacekeeping forces have also become more prominent, with large contingents in Mali and Somalia. As of December 2013, the AU has begun preparations to send a peacekeeping force to the Central African Republic [4] , suggesting the AU will be proactive in preventing conflict on the Continent in the future.  [1] Straus, \u2018Africa is becoming more peaceful\u2019, 2013  [2] African Union, \u201850th Anniversary Solemn Declaration\u2019, 2013  [3] African Union, \u201850th Anniversary Solemn Declaration\u2019, 2013  [4] Ndukong, \u2018Central Africa\u2019, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-international-segiahbarr-con02b","title":"ss economy general international africa house believes africa really rising","text":"The rise in the number of democracies, and the Arab Spring movement in Northern Africa, demonstrates an increasing dedication to democracy. At the end of the cold war there were only three democracies; the large number of regime changes show that African governments are becoming more accountable to the people that they are supposed to represent. Arguably, one of the main goals of the Arab Spring was to seek democracy and a greater say in politics. This led to regime changes in Egypt, Libya and Tunisia with protests occurring in other states as well. In 2012 Egyptian President, Mohamed Morsi, announced laws that would make him free from judicial review [1] . The resulting protests saw him removed from power, demonstrating the continued desire for democracy in Northern Africa.  [1] Egypt Independent, \u2018Morsy issues new constitutional declaration\u2019, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro02b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"The PRC does not ignore countries that do not have diplomatic relations with it. S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 is a case in point; PRC is opening a trade mission in the country despite not change in diplomatic recognition. This is in part because the Chinese are taking part in a $400million deep-water port development. [1] Not engaging in diplomatic relations with the PRC does not damage economic relations.  [1] \u2018China to open mission with tiny Sao Tome, despite its Taiwan links\u2019, Reuters, 14 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro02a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"Economically beneficial  Switching diplomatic recognition to China can be economically beneficial. A country that changes recognition is both likely to be given a reward for the change and then be much capable of engaging in joint economic projects with the PRC. Malawi for example cut its ties with Taiwan at the end of 2007. PRC offered a $6billion financial package for the defection. [1] Malawi has since benefited from large amounts of Chinese investment; Chinese companies have been involved in building vital infrastructure such as schools and roads, and even a new parliament building. [2] And trade between China and Malawi has been booming with growth of 25% in 2010 alone. [3] Even the Chinese believe that recognition occurs as a result of the economic incentive the Chinese envoy to Malawi having been quoted calling Malawi beggars. [4]  [1] Hsu, Jenny W., \u2018Malawi, Taiwan end 42-year relations\u2019, Taipei Times, 15 January 2008,   [2] Ngozo, Claire, \u2018China puts its mark on Malawi\u2019, theguardian.com, 7 May 2011,   [3] Jomo, Frank, \u2018Malawi, China Trade to Grow 25% on Cotton, Daily Times Reports\u2019, Bloomberg, 15 December 2010,   [4] \u2018Chinese Envoy's Remarks on Malawi Breed Resentment\u2019, Voice of America, 1 November 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro03b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"While the PRC may have more people the rights of its people to consider themselves Chinese is clearly recognised the world over. It is Taiwan however whose rights are quashed by its lack of recognition; it can neither be recognised as China or exercise its right to self-determination as Taiwan as China has threatened invasion if it declares independence. [1] This would be unjust. Changing recognition to ensure \u2018peace\u2019 would not change the Taiwanese position so rendering the change meaningless.  [1] Hutzler, Charles, \u2018China Threatens War Over Taiwan\u2019, Washington Post, 21 February 2000,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro01a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"PRC is clearly the China that matters  The Chinese civil war is over, and it is clear that it is the People\u2019s Republic that has won. The 1992 consensus (though the term was coined later) between Taiwan and the PRC is that there is \u201cone China, Different Interpretations\u201d about who controls that China. [1] If there is only one China then it is clear which of the two China\u2019s that one is. The PRC is 266 times larger than RoC, has 58 times the population, and its economy is 13.7 times bigger (by purchasing power parity). [2] States should be recognising the PRC as the \u201cone China\u201d.  [1] Kan, Shirley A., \u2018China\/Taiwan: Evolution of the \u201cOne China\u201d Policy \u2013 Key Statements from Washington, Beijing, and Taipei\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 26 August 2013,  , p.47  [2] All figures from The World Factbook, China and Taiwan pages  ,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro01b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"The PRC may be much more powerful, more populous, and bigger, but that does not mean that it is the legitimate government of China. The decision to recognise other countries is a matter for each government and should be based on their perception of the legitimacy of the two contenders and their own national interests not comparisons between the two competing sides."}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro04b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 is not a large country; it is unlikely to have interests that are threatened by the kind of resolutions the UNSC makes unless it is itself the subject. Moreover Beijing has not let the lack of recognition undermine relations with the remaining members; Beijing would not engage in actions that might create enmity that would then reduce the chances of a change in recognition."}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro03a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"Should not ignore the will of 1.3billion  A small African country should not ignore one sixth of the world\u2019s population. To recognise a tiny country of 23million over one of 1.3billion is being unjust to a huge portion of humanity. When there is such an imbalance in population it is clear that the democratic path is to recognise the side with the greater population. When all the states that have recognised Taiwan finally transfer recognition to the PRC Taiwan may finally recognise that it would be best off returning to China. By changing its recognition S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and other small countries can do their bit to ensure peace in East Asia."}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro04a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"Cannot avoid dealing with a UNSC member  The PRC is a member of the United Nations Security Council and as such is one of the key members of the UN. It is therefore difficult for countries to avoid dealing with it. The Pacific island of Tonga\u2019s switched recognition because it feared the PRC would veto its membership of the UN. [1] S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 is already a member but that does not mean the PRC can\u2019t cause problems in the international body; it clearly has the ability to scupper any initiative S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 wishes to pursue. Similarly in other international institutions while the PRC does not wield as much power as it does in the UN it still has considerably more influence than Taiwan; this includes over some organisations that provide aid such as the World Bank and IMF. S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 therefore must deal with the PRC, this being the case it should not let recognition get in the way.  [1] Fossen, Anthony Van, \u2018The Struggle for Recognition: Diplomatic Competition between China and Taiwan in Oceania\u2019, The Journal of Chinese Political Science, Col.12, No.2, 2007,  , p.4"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con03b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"China is interested in African states; for decades many African states were seen as ideological partners, and now they are economic partners. [1] A President\u2019s first overseas visit is always symbolic; President Xi\u2019s firs visit was a four country tour taking in Russia and three African countries; Tanzania, South Africa, and Republic of Congo. [2] This shows how important Africa is to Beijing.  [1] Qichen, Qian, \u2018Ten Episodes in China\u2019s Diplomacy\u2019, HarperCollins, 2006, Chapter 8 pp.191-230  [2] Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, \u2018Africa: China's New President Concludes First Foreign Visit With Fruitful Results\u2019, allAfrica, 1 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con01b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"Democracy and history have little to do with recognition; PRC is recognised by many democracies around the world. The PRC is also on the side of former colonies having itself suffered a \u2018century of humiliation\u2019. The PRC is an observer of the Non Aligned Movement which contains almost all countries that have been colonies. [1]  [1] \u2018The Non-Aligned Movement: Background Information\u2019, Government Communications South Africa, 21 September 2001,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con02a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"There is a truce in the diplomatic conflict  There is a truce between Taipei and Beijing on the issue of recognition. Neither is currently aiming to poach countries from the other. China has refused advances from El Salvador and Honduras that have said they wish to change their recognition to the PRC. [1] When Gambia terminated its ties with Taiwan Hong Lei a spokesman for the PRC Foreign Ministry said \u201cWe learned the relevant information from the foreign media. Before that, China was not in contact with The Gambia.\u201d [2] The truce has been maintained and Gambia has been left essentially not recognising either China. [3]  [1] Cole, J Michael, \u2018Is China and Taiwan\u2019s Diplomatic Truce Over?\u2019, The Diplomat, 18 November 2013,   [2] Enav, Peter, \u2018Beijing was in dark about Gambia's broken ties with Taiwan: China official\u2019, The China Post, 16 November 2013,   [3] Atkinson, Joel, \u2018Gambia\u2019s Break with Taiwan\u2019, The Diplomat, 2 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con03a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"Receive much greater interest from Taiwan  There are benefits to being one of only twenty-two countries that recognise another country; you are lavished with attention. The President of the RoC visited S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 in January 2014, [1] he was last intending to visit only two years before but cancelled as President Manuel Pinto da Costa was overseas. [2] Visits also regularly go the other way; in a four month period from October 2010 S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9\u2019s President, Minister of Finance, and Prime Minister all made separate trips to Taiwan. [3] The PRC being recognised by many more countries could never provide the same level of attention. As one of the poorest countries in the world without the question of recognition the PRC would have practically no interest in such a small African state.  [1] \u2018Ma vows to strengthen ROC-Sao Tome relations\u2019, Taiwan Today, 27 January 2014,   [2] Hsiu-chuan, Shih, \u2018Ma\u2019s trip canceled due to scheduling conflict: Sao Tome\u2019, Taipei Times, 5 April 2012,   [3] Martins, Vasco, \u2018Aid for legitimacy: S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Principe hand in hand with Taiwan\u2019, IPRIS Viewpoints, February 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con01a","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"Should recognise a democracy  S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 is a multiparty democracy and has been since 1995 with free and fair elections. [1] The country is eleventh on the Ibrahim Index of African Governance. [2] It should therefore be supporting its fellow democracy; Taiwan. As a country that was a colony of Portugal for five hundred years having only secured independence in 1975 S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 should not wish to support a country that colonises others such as Tibet and Inner Mongolia, seeks to colonise Taiwan, and engages in aggressive actions to seize small islands in nearby seas.  [1] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, \u2018Sao Tome and Principe\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 2012,   [2] \u2018The Ibrahim Index of African Governance\u2019, Mo Ibrahim Foundation,  accessed 10\/2\/2014"}
+{"id":"test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con02b","title":"africa asia house would sao tome drop relations taiwan favour mainland","text":"That there is a truce at the moment does not mean that diplomatic relations with Taiwan should not be dropped. Taiwan is not China so Sao Tome should not be recognising Taiwan even if the PRC will not accept recognition at the moment. The PRC is also unlikely to keep the truce for long \u2013 any countries changing diplomatic recognition will be able to formally recognise the PRC as soon as the PRC finds it politically expedient to needle Taiwan."}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-pro02b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The proposition vastly understates the negative impact a default has on the local economy. It is unrealistic to compare Greece with Argentina. As a member of the Eurozone, the developments within the Greek debt crisis have a huge impact on nations suffering from similar problems, as well as the Eurozone as a whole. Moreover, devaluing the Drachma would be nowhere near as beneficial as the proposition suggests. Greece is not rich in natural resources or industry and so boosting exports will not make a huge difference.  Yes, a default would resolve the uncertainty about whether Greece will default and exit the Euro. However this new predictability would not be good; it would simply show investors that they cannot invest in Greece because they will lose their money. Ratings agencies are unlikely to consider Greece a safe investment for a long time so there will not be international investment.[1]  [1] Pappa, Eppi: \u201cQ&A: What happens if Greece leaves the euro?\u201d, 14 May 2012, Al Jazeera,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-pro02a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Defaulting would be the quickest route to economic recovery  Under the status quo, the Greek economy is only headed in one direction: deeper recession. There are no signs of the situation changing any time soon. Were the Greek Government to default on its debts, after a period of recession, conditions would quickly be favourable for economic growth once more. This is what was observed when Argentina and other nations [1] recently defaulted and can be explained by many factors. Firstly, defaulting and exiting the Eurozone would allow Greece to conduct monetary policy more freely: they would be able to quickly devalue their currency in order to make Greek goods and services more competitive on the international market. This would increase exports and attract investment, as well as tourists looking for cheaper holidays \u2013 all of which would contribute towards the rebuilding of the Greek economy. [2] Moreover, were Greece to default, it would put an end to the huge degree of unpredictability and uncertainty about the Greek economy. At the moment, nobody knows if the banks are safe, if the government will default etc. The constant chopping and changing of current austerity measures such as increases in varieties of corporate tax and changes in regulations also contribute to the huge degree of uncertainty in the Greek economy. Uncertainty breeds risk and risk breeds fear: a recipe that drives away foreign investors and makes it difficult for local businesses to start up. Were Greece to default, however, such elements of uncertainty would be seriously diminished, and conditions would be ripe for investment from abroad and locally. Greek would be able to start afresh.  [1] Pettifor, Ann: \u201cGreece: The upside of default\u201d, 23 May 2012, BBC News,   [2] Lapavitsas, Costas: \u201cEurozone crisis: what if\u2026 Greece leaves the single currency\u201d, 14 May 2012, The Guardian,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-pro03b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Greece\u2019s default will not decrease uncertainty. If anything, the perceived risk of investing in other Eurozone members suffering from their own debt problems like Italy, Spain, Portugal and Ireland would rocket sky-high. The Eurozone project as a whole may struggle on with Germany trying to keep it together, but claiming that a Greek exit from the Eurozone would restore stability is short-sighted. Many of Greece\u2019s creditors are European banks and financial organisations. Greece\u2019s default would, therefore, be a heavy blow for many of their creditor companies who would be unlikely to be willing to invest in other nations suffering similar problems to Greece."}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-pro01a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The current austerity measures are not working  The Austerity measures put in place by the ECB, IMF and European Commission have led to nothing but misery for the Greek people. They have failed to cut down the total debt % GDP ratio and have also failed to increase the competitiveness of the Greek economy. This is because raising taxes and slashing the minimum wage has sent the economy deeper and deeper into recession. Unemployment is at a record high of 21% and there is a severe shortage of credit leading to severe difficulties in companies financing their day to day projects. What\u2019s more, the country itself is plunged into depression. Escalated (inevitably) by the local and international media, the climate is one of despair and investment is at the bottom of anyone\u2019s priorities. This further perpetuates the cycles of recession and prevents any of the austerity measures having their desired effect. Additionally, the drastic fall in GDP every quarter means that cuts in government spending are also not having their desired effect on reducing the budget deficit % GDP ratio. Worst of all, the economic hardships have drawn many people to despair and the suicide rates in Greece have dramatically risen over the last year and access to healthcare has drastically declined. [1] In this manner, the government is failing in fulfilling its most basic duties of safeguarding the lives and wellbeing of its citizens. If the current measures are not working then a new approach is needed. A default would alleviate much of the suffering caused by austerity.  [1] Armitsead, Louise: \u201cWhy Greece should default and exit the euro\u201d 23 February 2012, The Telegraph,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-pro01b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The proposition\u2019s claims that the austerity measures have totally failed are unfounded. Although it is true that the total debt % GDP ratio has not gone down, this is not as serious as the prop make out. The budget deficit is the main problem that needs to come down because a consistently high budget deficit is what will make the situation spiral out of control and make Greece default on its debts. There is nothing per se problematic with having a large total debt (look at the USA\u2019s total debt of $10 trillion, or Japan\u2019s much higher debt to GDP ratio of 230% which unlike in Greece has not resulted in high interest rates,[1] for example). The fact that Greece\u2019s budget deficit has gone down from 16% to 9% is an encouraging sign of improvement.  In addition, the proposition are not contentious in their claims about the negative effects of austerity. What they have failed to demonstrate, however, is why defaulting is the only solution to the suffering Greek people and the inability of the austerity measures to have their desired effect. The austerity measures have failed thus far because they have been targeted at the wrong areas of the economy and because the Greek Government has not been implementing them properly. Hitting the private sector with high taxation has done nothing to fix the faulty public sector which is the real cause of the debt crisis. The Greek Government remains hugely reluctant to carry out redundancies and wage cuts within the public sectors, as well as privitisations. [2] Greece, therefore, must be made to see that they must fulfill their promises and actually tackle the public sector, while alleviating taxation from the private sector.  [1] Free Exchange, \u2018Defying gravity\u2019, 14 August 2012, The Economist,   [2] Babbington, Deepa: \u201cGreek PM sings in tune, now must hit the hard notes\u201d, Septembe 5 2012, e-kathimerini,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-pro03a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"A Greek default would increase stability for the rest of the Eurozone  A Greek exit from the \u2018Eurozone does not mean the end of the euro. It will, instead, mark a new beginning. Germany has a long and proud tradition of currency strength, but it could not cope with going back to the deutschmark because it would rocket in value and destroy the country's competitiveness. Some 97% of the Eurozone's population will continue to use the single currency and their leaders will circle the policy wagons to protect what is left.\u2019 [`] A Greek default and departure from the Eurozone would decrease uncertainty and fear within the rest of the Eurozone. This, in turn is likely to attract higher levels of investment and transactions across Eurozone members.  [1] Parsons, Nick: \u201cEurozone crisis: what if\u2026 Greece leaves the single currency\u201d, 14 May 2012, The Guardian,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con03b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The situation in Ireland, Italy, Spain and Portugal is not as extreme as that faced by Greece. It is therefore highly unlikely that a Greek default would have as severe a domino effect as the opposition suggests. Greece is the main source of political and economic uncertainty in the Eurozone, and their departure would ease the situation, facilitate investors and allow for the Eurozone to rally strongly. [1]  [1] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats: \u201cBetter off Out? The short-term options for Greece inside and outside of the euro\u201d, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con01b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"It is not necessarily true that the whole banking sector in Greece would collapse. Given that the default would be orderly and take place within the context of the European Union, the ECB and European Commission would still provide substantial liquidity aid for Greek banks. Moreover it is not true that a devaluation of domestic currency necessarily leads to high inflation \u2013 this was not the case, for example, when Britain exited the European Exchange-rate Mechanism in 1992 and pursued a devaluation policy of the British Pound. [1] Lastly, evidence of recent governments that have defaulted suggests that even though some of the harms the opposition refer to may actualise, recovery generally follows fairly quickly, as was the case with Argentina, South Korea and Indonesia. [2]  [1] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats: \u201cBetter off Out? The short-term options for Greece inside and outside of the euro\u201d, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012   [2] Becker, Garry: \u201cShould Greece Exit the Euro Zone?\u201d, The Becker-Posner Blog, 20.5.2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con02a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Defaulting would not solve Greece\u2019s problems  The proposition argue that the hardship endured by the default would only be temporary, but an analysis at the particular situation facing Greece indicates the opposite. Greece\u2019s problems arose from a horrifically inefficient public sector embedded within a mentality of corruption and tax evasion. Even if we assume that defaulting would eventually boost Greek exports and help the economy recover, this would not solve the underlying problems that caused the crisis in the first place. By leaving the Eurozone and defaulting, Greece would lose easy access to borrowing, meaning that taxpayers would soon have to face the reality that they would have to pay for the inefficiencies within the public sector and support all the other structures that need reform. [1] Greece must, therefore, address these underlying issues or face the exact same problems in the future. Given that solving these problems necessarily involve austerity measures and job cuts, it makes most sense for Greece to undergo these changes now (as it is with the current austerity measures), under the framework of IMF, ECB and European Commission funding and supervision.  [1] Barrell, Ray: \u201cEurozone crisis: what if\u2026 Greece leaves the single currency\u201d, 14 May 2012, The Guardian,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con04a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Leaving the Eurozone would be detrimental for Greece in the long-run.  Even if the proposition are correct in claiming defaulting and leaving the Eurozone would stimulate growth in the Greek economy, such benefits are transitory whereas the benefits of remaining in the Eurozone are permanent. [1] Having the Euro provides stability for the Greek economy \u2013 investors know that the currency will not collapse, making their invested capital worthless. The gravity of the outcomes of a Greek default cannot be known for sure, however some economists have even suggested that hyperinflation could occur \u2013 leading to disastrous consequences for Greece. [2] Moreover, in the long term, a single currency makes investment and transactions with other Eurozone members much more efficient and profitable. This is particularly important given that the vast majority of Greek trade is carried out with other European members. In light of these benefits, a short term cost that comes with the austerity measures enforced under the status quo, would be worthwhile in the long term.  [1] Barrell, Ray: \u201cEurozone crisis: what if\u2026 Greece leaves the single currency\u201d, 14 May 2012, The Guardian,   [2] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats: \u201cBetter off Out? The short-term options for Greece inside and outside of the euro\u201d, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con03a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"A Greek default would have a negative domino-effect on other Eurozone countries.  A Greek default will leave tremendous shockwaves across the Eurozone. Investors will instantly become wary of default in Portugal, Spain, Italy or Ireland, particularly given the sudden nature of the Greek default. Consequently, huge volumes of capital will flow out of these countries and into other more secure ones like Germany and the Netherlands. [1] This will, in turn, heighten speculation about the danger of default of other Eurozone nations. Speculation of default is particularly dangerous because it drives demand for government bonds down. This leads to the interest payments on government bonds rising which in turn raises the interest rates governments need to pay on their outstanding debt. The new, higher payments governments must make on their debt increases their budget deficit % GDP ratio, thus making it more likely that the country will actually default. We thus see how increased fears about the future of Italy, Portugal, Spain and Ireland that will arise from a Greek default, will cause big problems and will put even more strain on the ECB and primarily Germany in providing financial support.  [1] Kapoor, Sony, \u201cViewpoints: What if Greece exits euro?\u201d, BBC News, 13 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con01a","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Defaulting would cause chaos in Greece  There is no good solution for the crisis Greece finds itself in, only less bad ones. Austerity measures imposed on Greece may currently be causing suffering, but austerity is the least bad option available for the Greek people: default would be considerably worse. Here is what would most likely happen:  The Greek banking sector would collapse [1]. A large portion of the Greek debt is owed to Greek banks and companies, many of which would quickly go bankrupt when the Government defaults. This is also because Greek banks are almost totally reliant on the ECB for liquidity. [2] People would consequently lose their savings, and credit would be close to impossible to find.  The Government would quickly devalue the Drachma by at least 50%. This will lead to imported goods being more expensive and consequently to a huge rise in inflation with the living costs increasing tremendously.[3]  These two events would lead to a severe shortage of credit, making it almost impossible for struggling companies to survive. Unemployment would soar as a result. It will become increasingly difficult to secure supplies of oil, medicine, foodstuffs and other goods. Naturally, those hit worst would be the poor. The Government, in this respect, would be failing on an enormous scale in providing many citizens with the basic needs. [4]  [1] Brzeski, Carsten: \u201cViewpoints: What if Greece exits euro?\u201d, BBC News, 13 July 2012,   [2] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats: \u201cBetter off Out? The short-term options for Greece inside and outside of the euro\u201d, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012   [3] ibid  [4] Arghyrou, Michael: \u201cViewpoints: What if Greece exits euro?\u201d, BBC News, 13 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con04b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Even in the long-term, continued Eurozone membership for Greece is not sustainable. The size of their total debt % GDP ratio is such that even if Greece were to recover (eventually) with the current austerity measures, Greece would always be susceptible to yet another debt crisis in the event of a future global or European recession. Eurozone membership denies Greece fiscal and monetary policy freedom required to face economic shocks to prevent this from happening. We thus see that in the long-term growth is more sustainable for Greece without the Euro."}
+{"id":"test-international-ipecfiepg-con02b","title":"ic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"In receiving financial support from the ECB and European Commission to prevent the escalation of a major banking collapse in Greece, the Greek Government would be expected to continue with reforms of the public sector. What\u2019s more, defaulting would grant the Greek Government more time to implement such reforms, making them more likely to succeed and less painful on the Greek populous. The oppositions fears are, therefore, unfounded."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro02b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"While many things may have eased up for a few years in the 2000s China has since hardened its policies in many areas rolling back progress. On the one child policy for example Zhang Feng, director of the provincial population and family planning commission, has said there would be \"no major adjustments to the family planning policy within five years.\" [1] Meanwhile village elections have never gone further than the villages and the odd trial in townships and are still one party affairs. [2] When it comes to international affairs China is not using the veto any more than previously but its rise is no longer considered so peaceful after a string of clashes with its neighbors, particularly on its sea borders such as the South China Sea where Vietnamese vessels have been harassed inside Vietnamese waters. [3] China is obviously not following a straight line towards peaceful coexistence and democracy. The EU should keep the arms ban to pressure China into continuing progress.  [1] AFP, \u2018China province cools hopes of \u2018one-child\u2019 policy easing\u2019, 2011.   [2] Brown, Kerry, \u2018Chinese democracy: the neglected story\u2019, 2011.   [3] Miks, Jason, \u2018Vietnam Eyes Foreign Help\u2019, 2011 ."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro02a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"China has changed a lot since Tiananmen  China has changed over the past two decades, becoming more open to the world and more open domestically. For example it is experimenting with democratic elections at village level and since 1998 begun extending these to townships. [1] It has also effectively scrapped the repressive one-child policy. Internationally China is a responsible member of the international community, as befits a permanent member of the UN Security Council. At the United Nations, although it occasionally abstains from votes, it very rarely threatens to use its veto power in the Security Council, it has only used the veto six times since 1971 when the PRC joined the UN [2] - unlike the USA, for example. Its \"peaceful rise\" can also be seen in its hosting of the six-nation talks over North Korea's nuclear programme. And China is increasingly willing to operate within regional diplomatic frameworks covering East Asia, SE Asia and Central Asia.  [1] Horsley, Jamie P., \u2018Village Elections: Training Ground for Democratization\u2019, 2001   [2] Sun, Yun, \u2018China\u2019s Acquiescence on UN SCR 1973: No Big Deal\u2019, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro03b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Just because others will sell if the EU does not is not a reason to lift the arms ban. The EU\u2019s weaponry is often more advanced than those produced by Russia and may be originally built to fight alongside the US so potentially be more damaging US security. It is also not always true that China can simply go and get high tech arms elsewhere. Under US pressure Israel said that it would allow U.S. officials to review weapons transactions so making it much less likely to transfer the most high tech weapons. [1] Russia is also unwilling to sell high tech weapons to China both because it fears their impact on the balance of power in North East Asia where China could potentially be a future threat to the Russian Far East and because China has often copied Russian technology and improved upon it resulting in lost business in the long term. [2 ]  [1] Wilson, Scott, \u2018Israel Set to End China Arms Deal Under U.S. Pressure\u2019, 2005.   [2] Weitz, Richard, \u2018Why China Snubs Russia Arms\u2019, 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro05a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"A code of conduct is needed not a ban  The current arms ban is purely symbolic. China is already able to buy a range of military items from Europe ($555 million worth in 2003) [1] and the USA, which has a similar \"ban\" on weapons sales to China. This is because the EU\u2019s current ban is not legally binding and it is up to each EU member to define and implement the embargo meaning the embargo is not effective. [2] An arms ban is therefore a blunt instrument that does not work. Instead future sales should be regulated by a tough EU code of conduct which prevents military equipment being sold to any state which might use it for external aggression or internal repression. Such a code of conduct for all arms exports has already existed since 1998. [3] Such a code of conduct will be a much better guarantee that China is not sold arms unless EU states are sure they will not be misused.  [1] Tkacik, \u2018E.U. Leadership Finds Little Public Support for Lifting China Arms Ban\u2019, 2005.   [2] Archick, Kristin, et al., \u2018European Union\u2019s Arms Embargo on China\u2019, 2005, p5.   [3] Ibid, p21"}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro01a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"China can\u2019t be ignored  Europe has a developing strategic partnership with China. China is Europe\u2019s largest trading partner with EU exports in goods of \u20ac113.1billiion and imports of \u20ac281.9billion and in services of \u20ac20.2billion and \u20ac16.3billion respectively, [1] and as China's rapid growth continues it is playing an increasingly important part in the global economy and in international affairs. Clearly it is in the EU's interests to work together with this emerging superpower. Ma Zhaoxu a Foreign Ministry spokesman called it \u2018the obstacle to the sound growth of the China-EU relationship,\u2019 [2] after more than fifteen years, it is time to lift it. China has repeatedly said that it will never enjoy a normal trading relationship with the EU until the ban is lifted. Europe\u2019s first responsibility is to its own citizens economic wellbeing which would benefit from greater trade ties between China and the European Union.  [1] European Commission, \u2018China\u2019, 2011   [2] Xinhua, \u2018China calls for end to \u201cprejudiced\u201d EU arms embargo\u2019, 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro01b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"The idea of a \"strategic partnership\" with China is both vague and cause for concern. It is unclear what such a partnership would involve and questionable whether it is desirable. On one hand, by lifting the arms ban the EU will be showing that it favours stability over democracy and profit over principle. Other repressive regimes and would-be tyrants will surely take note. On the other hand it is unclear what actual harm there is to Europe from keeping the ban in place. Despite Chinese rhetoric about it damaging their trading relationship with the EU, it is not clear how European states are disadvantaged compared to other countries, as mentioned China is the EU\u2019s largest trade partner already. As a WTO member China is committed to further market opening anyway, [1] and as a member of the UN Security Council it is in its own interests to cooperate with others for mutual benefit.  [1] Kim, Ki Hee, \u2018China\u2019s Entry Into WTO And Its Impact ON EU\u2019, 2004"}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro05b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"A Ban that is not very effective is better than no ban at all. That the Chinese are so determined to get the ban lifted shows that it does make a difference and is therefore worth keeping. Either way the European Union should not give it up for nothing. Rather as the Danish lead opposition to lifting the ban argues \"Any decision to lift the arms embargo must be linked to specific Chinese steps on human rights.\" [1]  [1] EUobserver, \u2018Leaked cable shows fragility of EU arms ban on China\u2019, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro04b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Cooperation has very little to do with influence in international affairs, what matters is how aligned the national interests of the two powers are. This is the case with Russia and China where both want to blunt western power, prevent separatism, and endorse what Russia calls \u2018sovereign democracy\u2019 which means a rejection of notions of universal human rights. [1] The areas that the EU most wants progress on among the least likely for there to be Chinese action without any kind of incentive. Lifting the ban will likely help with trade, something that China sees as being in its interest, but will make little difference to China\u2019s policies towards human rights and other areas where it considers any criticism to be outside interference.  [1] Menon, Rajan, \u2018The China-Russia Relationship\u2019, 2009, pp.13-15."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro03a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"China will simply get similar products elsewhere  In a global marketplace, if EU states don't sell China arms, others will. Russia and Israel [1] already sell China much high-tech military material, between 2001 and 2010 Russia sold over $16billion of arms to China. [2] As Israel is a key American ally, US criticism of Europe over lifting this ban is particularly unfair. It is in Europe's economic interest to gain part of the huge Chinese market and so safeguard European jobs. And if European arms industries cannot find export markets, their production for domestic military forces is simply not enough to support the cost of research and development, [3] so our indigenous arms sector may collapse.  [1] BBC News, \u2018US \u2018anger\u2019 at Israel weapons sale\u2019, 2004.   [2] Ottens, Nick, \u2018Russian Arms Sales to China Drying Up\u2019, 2010.   [3] Ashbourne, Alex, \u2018Opening the US Defence Market\u2019, 2011, p1."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro04a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Cooperation is the best way to gain influence  Cooperating with China is the best way to gain influence with the regime in order to promote democracy and human rights, engage it internationally, etc. The Chinese respond very badly to being publicly lectured or threatened, [1] but they will listen to those friendly nations who have earned their trust in ways like these. China for example often follows Russia, since the beginning of the 1990s its biggest arms supplier, when it comes to voting in the United Nations Security Council. Thus both vetoed sanctions against Syria in 2011 and shortly after Russia shifted its position to urging Assad to carry out reforms China followed. [2] The influence of the United States over other East Asian states in encouraging their democratization also shows that friends can apply influence on issues such as human rights as well as where interests coincide; The United States played a key role in sheparding Philippine dictator Marcos out of office and then encouraged Korean President Chun Doo Hwan to stick to a single term of office and not to use force against the opposition in 1988. [3] Lifting the ban is an investment in the future of the Europe-China relationship, and could be of benefit to the whole world, not just the EU.  [1] Byrnes, Sholto, \u2018David Cameron\u2019s China visit\u2019, 2010.   [2] Chulov, Martin, \u2018China urges Syria regime to deliver on promised reforms\u2019, 2011.   [3] Oberdorfer, Don, The Two Koreas, 2001, pp.163-4, 170."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con03b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"China is making progress towards resolving many of its territorial disputes. It has resolved it long disputed border with Russia and has also been resolving territorial disputes with its Central Asian neighbors on terms favorable to the Central Asian powers, for example Tajikistan ceded only 1,000km2 of the 28,000 that China claimed. [1] There are good reasons to believe that even if Beijing is pulling its weight on the regional and world stage it is not a threat to peace and stability. China\u2019s booming economy relies on trade, both when importing the necessary raw materials and exporting the finished products around the world. China\u2019s trade was 44.2% of GDP in 2009. [2] Any regional conflict even against a much weaker neighbor would prevent this trade as there are many choke points such as the straits of Malacca and cause immense damage to the Chinese economy.  [1] Ramachandran, Sudha, \u2018China plays long game on border disputes\u2019, 2011.   [2] The World Bank, \u2018Merchandise trade (% of GDP)\u2019, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con01b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"The arms ban is an anachronism - only China, Myanmar and Zimbabwe are singled out by the EU in this way from all the regimes in the world. [1] China is therefore right to call this policy as showing a \u201cpolitical prejudice against China\u201d [2] as many other nations have perpetrated similar human rights violations. This is pointlessly offensive to the Chinese government and people, who see it as political discrimination against them, and it should be lifted. The new code of conduct should be sufficient to prevent worries that European weaponry will be used to repress demonstrations as it prohibits exports where there is a \u201cRisk that export would be used for internal repression or where the recipient country has engaged in serious violations of human rights\u201d. [3]  [1] BBC News, \u2018EU China arms ban \u2019to be lifted\u2019\u2019, 2005.   [2] Xinhua, \u2018China calls for end to \u201cprejudiced\u201d EU arms embargo\u2019, 2010.   [3] Archick, Kristin, et al., \u2018European Union\u2019s Arms Embargo on China\u2019, 2005, p21."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con02a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Prevents a competitor from building a high tech military  The arms ban is very effective in preventing the Chinese military gaining access to the best modern technologies. A convincing code of conduct has yet to be drawn up, but even if it looks very tight, it has a major flaw. Individual EU member states will be able to judge for themselves whether a proposed arms sale breaks the code. Past experience suggests that when exports are at stake, perhaps with the risk of job losses in an election year, then politicians interpret codes like this very loosely, so for example despite this code UK arms exports may have been used in the conflict against the Tamils in Sri Lanka. [1] This will be made worse by the thought of an EU state that if it refuses a particular military sale to China, then another member state will be more flexible. This means that each individual member will make decisions based upon what is best for it individually and not think of what is best for the Union as a whole \u2013 such as providing high tech weapons that bring in export dollars but helps undermine security.  [1] Prince, Rosa, \u2018UK arms used against civilians in Sri Lanka and Gaza\u2019, 2009."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con05a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Lifting the ban will damage relations with the U.S.  Even if it was in Europe's interest to sell arms to China, the damage from upsetting the United States by lifting the arms ban would be much greater. This is partly because America takes the human rights situation in China more seriously, but mostly because the USA has a major commitment to the freedom of Taiwan. If China did attack the island, America would almost certainly intervene. As the US State Department has said in relation to lifting the ban, \"We don't want to see a situation where American forces face European technologies.\" [1] Congress has already threatened to restrict technology transfers to Europe if the ban is removed. [2] For fear of this, BAE Systems, one of Europe's largest defence firms, has said that it would not sell to China even if the ban was lifted. [3]  [1] Brinkley, Joel, \u2018Rice Sounds a Theme in Visit to Beijing Protestant Church\u2019, 2005.   [2] Archick, Kristin, et al., \u2018European Union\u2019s Arms Embargo on China\u2019, 2005, p34-5.   [3] Evans, Michael et al., \u2018British arms firms will spurn China if embargo ends\u2019, 2005."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con04a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"There is no reason to strengthen China militarily  Lifting the arms ban will strengthen China militarily. The US fears less the Chinese purchase of EU weaponry and armour, than that the regime will get hold of advanced communications and control systems, as well as high-technology guidance systems, night-vision equipment, etc. [1] - all of which would make its existing military far more effective. Even if the EU is reluctant to sell such material to China, the possibility will give the Chinese leverage in negotiations with existing suppliers like Israel and Russia, who will feel under more pressure to sell China their most modern technology. In time, China's ability to \"reverse engineer\" high-technology equipment will also boost their own military research and development programmes. [2]  [1] Archick, Kristin, et al., \u2018European Union\u2019s Arms Embargo on China\u2019, 2005, p16.   [2] Page, Jeremy, \u2018China Clones, Sells Russian Fighter Jets\u2019, 2010."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con03a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"China is a threat to regional stability  China poses a threat to regional and international peace and should not be encouraged and helped by European arms sales. It has territorial disputes with most of its neighbours, particularly over oil and gas reserves in the South China Sea. The regime has also encouraged an assertive nationalism, damaging relations with Japan, for example with protests over the Japanese detention of a Chinese fisherman who rammed a Japanese coast guard boat. [1] Most seriously, China claims ownership over Taiwan, [2] a pro-Western Chinese democracy, and is rapidly building up the kinds of military forces it would need for an assault on that island, which it is now believed could be taken in as little as three days, [3] as well as staging exercises designed to intimidate its people. In 2005 the Chinese parliament passed a law that force should be used against Taiwan if it declared formal independence. [4] Quite apart from the principle of backing a repressive state against a democratic one, it is not in the EU's interests to make a war between two of its major trading partners more likely, especially as other powers such as the USA, as has happened in the past in 1995-6, [5] and perhaps Japan are then very likely to be drawn into the conflict.  [1] Banyan, \u2018Doth we protest too much\u2019, 2010.   [2] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People\u2019s Republic of China, \u2018What is meant by the Taiwan question?\u2019, 2000.   [3] Miks, Jason, \u2018Taiwan War Games\u2019, 2010.   [4] People Daily, \u2018China\u2019s parliament adopts Anti-Secession Law\u2019, 2005.   [5] Ross, Robert S., \u2018The 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait Confrontation\u2019, 2000."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con05b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Lifting the ban may briefly result in condemnation from the United States but it is unlikely to damage relations over the long term. The United States and Europe are strong allies in NATO and both accept that from time to time one partner will do things the other does not like."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con01a","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"The arms ban is still necessary  The European Union should stick to its principles. The arms ban was imposed for a reason - the massacre of students demonstrating for democracy and openness in 1989. Nothing China has done since shows it regrets its savage actions in Tiananmen Square - indeed many of the demonstrators are still in prison today. [1] If the ban is lifted, the EU will be implying that it should never have placed the ban on arms sales in the first place, and signalling that China can do what it likes to its own people without fear of EU objections. Indeed if there is an end to the arms ban, the next time that peaceful demonstrators are attacked by the armed forces in China, they may be able to do it with European weapons. Overall, China's human rights record is still very bad. It still hasn't ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and is regularly criticised by Amnesty International [2] and Human Rights Watch [3] for imprisoning political and religious activists without trial. This is not a state that should be rewarded with EU favours.  [1] Jiang, Shao, \u2018List of \u201cJune Fourth Tiananmen Prisoners\u201d still held in custody and their backgrounds\u2019, 2010.   [2] Amnesty International, \u2018Annual Report 2011 China\u2019, 2011.   [3] Human Rights Watch, \u2018China\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con04b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"Lifting the arms ban will not strengthen China militarily. Not only would sales be restricted by the new code of conduct, but China\u2019s Ambassador to the European Union has also clearly reiterated \"We have stated several times that we do not intend to buy European military equipment\" as \"We cannot afford to buy such expensive weapons\". [1] Even if China was sold high-tech European equipment, this could even be beneficial for the EU as it would make China dependent on the EU for such items and make it less likely to pursue its own research and development programmes.  [1] Rufino, Filipe and Vucheva, Elitsa, \u2018EU Arms Embargo is \u2018political discrimination, says Chinese Ambassador\u2019, 2005."}
+{"id":"test-international-eghrhbeusli-con02b","title":"europe global human rights house believes european union should lift its","text":"China is increasingly able to develop its own high tech weapons so by continuing to have a ban in place will make very little difference to China\u2019s capacity to build high tech weapons. This is shown by China\u2019s unveiling of a prototype stealth fighter the J-20. [1] Even if the code of conduct is not watertight neither is the current arms ban as some weapons are still sold in spite of the ban.  [1] Foster, Peter, \u2018China stealth fighter a \u2018masterpiece\u2019 of homegrown technology\u2019, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro02b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"It is not up to outside powers to decide what is and what is not in the interest of any peoples but their own. While those attempting to circumvent censorship may see themselves as promoting some kind of universal human rights in practice they are pushing their own notions on other peoples that may not share these ideals. This may be the case even when there are some in that start that share these ideas; thus for example while there are dissidents in China that want democracy, most of the population is not particularly concerned with creating a more democratic system and in 2009 95.9% were satisfied with their government\u2019s performance. [1]  [1] Saich, Tony, \u201cChinese governance seen through the people\u2019s eyes\u201d, East Asia Forum, 24 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro02a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"It is legitimate to undermine illegitimate governments to promote human rights  Autocratic governments that breach their people\u2019s human rights have no legitimacy domestically as they do not represent the people or protect their interests. They also have no international legitimacy, as they are violating their obligations that they have signed up to through various international agreements such as the universal declaration of human rights [1] and the international covenant on civil and political rights [2] which oblige states to respect their citizen\u2019s human rights. Other states therefore are legitimate in acting for the people of the repressed state to undermine their government and take up their cause. By imposing censorship the government is violating its people's freedom of expression which that government has promised to uphold therefore it is right that other governments should endeavour to uphold that standard. It was therefore right for the west to undermine the USSR and the communist governments of Eastern Europe through radio broadcasts such as Voice of America and Radio Free Europe, they gained immense audiences, a third of urban adults in the USSR and almost half of East Europeans with these sources often being considered more credible. [3]  [1] UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III),   [2] UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p. 171,   [3] Johnson, A. Ross, and Parta, R. Eugene, \u201cCold War International Broadcasting: Lessons Learned\u201d, Briefing to the Rancho Mirage Seminar,  p.54"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro03b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"The public are rarely interested in foreign policy and want to keep well clear of foreign entanglements; they may like the idea of promoting democracy but if it means anything more than simple public support then they shy away as shown by only around 20-30% considering it a priority. [1] Undermining censorship may seem to be a cheap option for governments but they then have to own the consequences; such as having to pay to build stability which may be much more costly. The American people may have supported the Iraq war but they were against the immense amounts of wealth that was spent to try to put the country back together again. By undermining censorship revolution is being promoted along with the damage and chaos this can bring so the result may be a costly rebuilding process, possibly with troops on the ground.  [1] \u201cHistorically, Public Has Given Low Priority to Promoting Democracy Overseas\u201d, Pew Research Center, 4 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro01a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Advancing national interests  A nation\u2019s foreign policy should be primarily concerned with advancing the national interest. By the national interest we mean promoting the interest of the nation as a whole rather than any of its subnational groups; whether this is building up the state's military power to protect its citizens through alliances or military bases, benefiting the nation's economy through trade deals, or encouraging the creation of friendly governments around the globe. [1] Circumventing censorship helps obtain this last objective for democracies by encouraging peoples in autocracies to find their own voice and push for democracy; a system of government that is more compatible to other democracies. Ultimately this will also provide other benefits; friendly governments with similar political systems are more likely to create trade agreements with each other so providing economic benefits, in the 1990s the volume of trade between a democracy and autocracy was on average 40% less than two democracies. [2] Equally importantly democracies do not fight other democracies so helping to create stability. [3]  [1] Realism emphasises the alliances bit, Liberalism the economic self interest, and constructivists spreading values. Walt, Stephen M, \u201cInternational Relations: One World, Many Theories\u201d, Foreign Policy, Spring 1998,   [2] Mansfield, Edward D., et al., \u201cFree to Trade: Democracies, Autocracies, and International Trade\u201d, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 94, No. 2,  p.318  [3] Rousseau, David L., et al., \u201cAssessing the Dayadic Nature of the Democratic Peace, 1918-88\u201d, The American Political Science Review, Vol.90, No.3,  p.515"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro01b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"There is little certainty that undermining an autocracy will benefit the countries that undermine it. No state can full control what goes on in another state; an even more oppressive regime could be the result. Even if there is a transition to a democracy this does not mean it will benefit those who wanted change. This is because democratic governments have to take account of the desires of their own people which may not always be in alignment with the interests of the foreign powers that supported political change. Thus while it would seem that the United States, as a democracy, should be naturally inclined to support a democratic government in Egypt in practice Mubarak operated more in line with US interests by keeping the peace with Israel that the Muslim brotherhood threatens to disrupt."}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro04b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"As foreign states are not the legitimate representative of the people it is not legitimate for them to set themselves up as the arbiter for those whom it believes are being deprived of rights. These states that are meddling in the affairs of others cannot know the full consequences of their actions; circumventing censorship could end up simply undermining a stable state without enabling anything to replace it. This is just as the Arab Spring has undermined the Syrian government but has only resulted in a conflict not the creation of a stable democracy. Countries that undermined the Syrian government cannot say that their contribution has been positive when there have been 70,000 killed [1] as a result of the collapse of the state.  [1] Nichols, Michelle, \u201cSyria death toll likely near 70,000, says U.N. rights chief\u201d, Reuters, 12 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro03a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"It is domestic not international legitimacy that matters  What matters for a state when it comes to foreign policy, and therefore with helping to circumvent censorship, is whether the policy is considered legitimate domestically. Since a government's legitimacy is domestically derived from the support of its people if they support the policy then it is legitimate. While it is often not considered a top priority people in democracies usually support promoting human rights and spreading democracy around the world. [1]  [1] Stevenson, Kirsten, \u201cStrong support for democracy promotion in national opinion ballot\u201d, Foreign Policy Association, 23 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-pro04a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"It is legitimate to enable freedom  Circumventing censorship is a cost effective method of promoting freedom. When a country has refused to recognise the right to freedom of expression of its own people and indeed is actively stopping them from exercising this right then it is legitimate for other countries to step in to act as an enabler of those rights. By circumventing censorship so the freedom of expression is returned to those that have had their voice stripped from them. Doing this costs the state that is acting almost nothing; thus Britain\u2019s Foreign Office is devoting a mere \u00a31.5million to promoting expression online, [1] and yet the benefits for those who it helps can be considerable by helping them to publicise and organise themselves by providing a platform. The small cost should be compared to the benefit of keeping activists one step ahead of the authorities by, for example providing software that helps make sure online communication is anonymous, which can save lives.  [1] \u201cWilliam Hague promises \u00a31.5m to promote freedom of expression online\u201d, BBC News, 30 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con03b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"If a regime is so intolerant as to threaten its citizens for using lines of communication that have been opened by another country then that country is clearly in need of greater openness towards freedom of expression and information. This is something that undermining censorship achieves. Clearly in a few cases the attempt to circumvent censorship may be used by the government but the creation of the path to circumvent censorship alone shows that foreign governments are watching. Even the most repressive regimes are less likely to use force when they know the outside world is watching."}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con01b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Proclamations that there can be no interference in another state are simply attempts by elites to cling on to power by preventing any help reaching those campaigning for democracy. These declarations, even the UN Charter, are negotiated, written, and signed by the leaders of governments not their people so favour those who are already in power. Something cannot be considered illegitimate just because it is supported by the status quo."}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con02a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Governments enable censorship to protect their citizens  What censorship is it legitimate to undermine? Censorship is often created in order to protect the people not to strip them of freedoms. This is most obvious when we consider that filters to prevent hate speech or child pornography are forms of censorship that may be enabled with the intention of protecting citizens not repressing them. Iceland for example has recently decided to ban pornography and it would be enabled in a similar way to censorship by regimes like China or Iran. [1] Even harsher censorship that naturally looks more repressive to us may be considered a legitimate means of protecting the people and their values. When a government is using censorship to ensure stability is that censorship not justified when compared to the alternative? While there may be divisions internally about the legitimacy of this censorship it is certainly not legitimate for outside actors to impose their own idea of how much censorship there should be.  [1] Kiss, Jemima, \u201cIceland\u2019s porn ban \u2018conflicts with the idea of a free society\u2019, say critics\u201d, guardian.co.uk, 28 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con04a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Aggressive foreign policy is not legitimate foreign policy  Foreign policy is legitimate when it is peaceful and based upon mutual respect. It is no surprise that the most controversial foreign policy actions are those that are aggressive whether this is invading another state such as the Iraq war, attempting humanitarian intervention as in Kosovo, or engaging in clandestine actions such as Iran-Contra. This is because there is a powerful norm against aggressive action in international relations in order to maintain stability.  Undermining states by circumventing censorship is simply a new method of engaging in aggressive actions against another state. NATO has accepted that cyber operations can be considered to constitute an armed conflict, [1] so it is increasingly accepted that actions on the internet can be aggressive action. Indeed \u201cIf such cyber operations are intended to coerce the government\u2026 the operation may constitute a prohibited \u2018intervention\u2019\u201d. [2] While no one would argue that this policy will create a war it is not a very big step from considering cyber attacks to be armed conflict to considering undermining states through circumventing censorship to be an aggressive action.  [1] Bowcott, Owen, \u201cRules of cyberwar: don't target nuclear plants or hospitals, says Nato manual\u201d, The Guardian, 18 March 2013,   [2] Schmitt, Michael N., ed., \u201cThe Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare\u201d, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p.17."}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con03a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"This policy is not necessary and may be counterproductive  Unless a state wishes to pull the plug on the internet entirely state censorship on the internet is never complete. Dissidents and those who are interested in getting around censorship will manage with or without help from other governments, they will use privately developed software, or proxies to get around censors and protect themselves. Having help from foreign governments to bypass censorship may even put the people this policy is trying to empower in an even worse position. The use of software that is meant to undermine censorship helps to prove that the dissident\u2019s intent is hostile towards the government and the state\u2019s policies \u2013 otherwise they would not need to software, and would not resort to using methods developed by foreign countries. Russia is increasingly cracking down on those who have contact or receive help from \u2018foreign agents\u2019 particularly foreign NGOs, such a policy could be as easily applied to online help as financial aid. [1]  [1] Earle, Jonathan, \u201cHundreds of NGOs Checked for Foreign Agents, Extremism\u201d, The Moscow Times, 19 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con01a","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"The international system is based on equality and non-interference  Relations between states are based upon \u201cthe principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.\u201d The UN Charter emphasises \u201cNothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state\u201d. [1] Within a state only the government is legitimate as the supreme authority within its territory. [2] Without such rules the bigger, richer, states would be able to pray on the weaker ones. This cannot simply be put aside because one state does not like how the other state runs its own internal affairs. The United Nations has gone so far as to explicitly state \u201call peoples have the right, freely and without external interference, to determine their political status and to pursue their economic, social and cultural development.\u201d [3] Circumventing censorship would clearly be another power attempting to impose its own ideas of political cultural and social development.  [1] UN General Assembly, Article 2, Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945,   [2] Philpott, Dan, \"Sovereignty\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),   [3] UN General Assembly, \u201cRespect for the principles of national sovereignty and non-interference in the internal affairs of States in their electoral processes\u201d, 18 December 1990, A\/RES\/45\/151"}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con04b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"The NATO manual does specifically state \u201cnetwork intrusions, the deletion or destruction of data\u2026 computer network exploitation, and data theft do not amount to a non-international armed conflict.\u201d [1] Instead it has to be persistent, and be carried out by organised armed groups; likely not criteria that would be ever satisfied by undermining censorship.  [1] Schmitt, Michael N., ed., \u201cThe Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare\u201d, Cambridge University Press, 2013, pp.87-88."}
+{"id":"test-international-gsciidffe-con02b","title":"global science censorship ip internet digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Governments do not have a monopoly on the knowledge of what is best for their people and even the people may themselves make a mistake when deciding on whether to be an open society. Thus even if it appears that many people support censorship it may be legitimate to undermine it. In particular is people have never had a chance to experience life without that censorship how can they be considered to be making an informed choice when deciding to live with censorship?"}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-pro02b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"One of the key benefits highlighted about Oxfam\u2019s Saving for Change Initiative is the empowerment provided for women. Women are argued to be more independent, able to organise within communities, and provided with a voice of power. However, are women empowered?  In the cases of microfinance in Cameroon, Mayoux (2001) highlights the inequalities operating within community groups. The message is we cannot rely on communities, and social capital, for empowerment as women within such communities have different relations to power. The ability for women to use savings and credit for self-empowerment is limited by wider, traditional, gender inequalities. Microfinance may act to reinforce unequal power relations and positions within society.  Furthermore, women\u2019s empowerment needs to be understood as complex. [1] Real, and strategic, empowerment for women goes beyond increased access to economic resources. So how can microfinance ensure true empowerment?  [1] See further readings: Sutton-Brown, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-pro03b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Can we rely on business to solve social problems? Ultimately the model proposed through microfinance schemes is the creation of a consumer market where risks are already high. This has shown to be one of the key factors of microfinance failing in South Africa (Bateman, 2013). The microcredit provided across South Africa, post-apartheid, aimed to solve social problems - however, it has acted to support risky consumption not investment. With a lack of secure incomes, due to high levels of unemployment, underemployment, and informal employment, the rate of repayment is low. Households have been forced into severe poverty by being provided with credit which they can\u2019t pay back. Even among those who do invest how many of their business ideas will succeed?"}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-pro01b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"The provision of microfinance within livelihoods is based on a positive view of social capital [1] and cohesion. The idea relies upon a perception whereby social networks within the community are able to positively organise funds and remain democratic in how they manage poverty. It fails to acknowledge negative aspects of social capital - such as how networks can act to exclude and restrict who becomes a part of the scheme. Civil society is not without internal politics, with competing interests, and can be uncooperative.  [1] Social capital represents the relationships and linkages between people and\/or groups, of which are formulated with rules and norms. See further readings:"}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-pro05b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Loans provided are embedded with conditions, which can constrain what an individual can do with the money. A microfinance loan is still a loan, it needs to be paid back, if someone is in poor health for a long period they will run into difficulty. Can saving schemes enable social protection in the long term when the amount saved is just enough to cover one sick person? We need to realistically evaluate what the loan enables, provides, and how long for. To provide real health security a much more comprehensive finance system is needed, such as insurance"}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-pro04b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"There is a need to reinvigorate Africa\u2019s agricultural system; however, the ability for microfinance to do this is debatable. The distribution of loans is not necessarily adequate or responsive to the need. The loans provided need to be able to provide security and protection in the face of environmental crisis. There are some things microfinance can\u2019t solve; more variable rains and desertification for example. Loans can only be provided if the risks are known and the risks are getting higher so too will be the costs of loans.  Additionally, multiple factors are responsible for Africa\u2019s agrarian crisis. The lack of an agriculture marketing board for farmers to control price, insufficient infrastructure, and the legacies of structural adjustment, all act to constrain the agricultural system."}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-con03b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Africa\u2019s microfinance schemes can be different, and are fundamentally different. Across Africa there is a history of informal lending. Microfinance is not new, but rather embedded in traditional practices. This means communities are aware of the obligations, rules, and practice of microfinance.  Additionally, the path taken by microfinance lenders shows stricter controls are being taken to ensure that the loans are not subprime. In a bid to ensure the safety of the poor the Bank of Ghana has set up minimum capital requirements for the borrower and new regulations to ensure money-lent is repayable."}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-con01b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"All policies have barriers and potential disadvantages and for a scheme to be rolled out the advantages must outweigh the costs. In the case of microfinance advantages are higher. Microfinance has a low cost for implementation, and can therefore be distributed nationwide. Rolling out microfinance schemes means a majority of the population will become able to access vital services through a flexible loan.  Microfinance not being able to reach everyone is not a reason to enable it for those it can reach. If bad governance prevents sustainability then something needs to be done about governance \u2013 it does not invalidate microfinance as a concept. And all those involved in supply do have close enough objectives to run the scheme there simply needs to be compromises to ensure they remain the same."}
+{"id":"test-international-eiahwpamu-con02b","title":"e international africa house would provide access microfinance unbanked","text":"Microfinance does not have to be short term financing. Because it is a community based loan that is based on trust if those wanting the loan can explain why they want a loan over the longer term then it is possible to get longer loans. Moreover long term investment should not be something those who are struggling day to day have to think about; such investments as education should be made by the government not relying on individuals to realise their long term interests. No one would argue that microfinance is the solution to a poor education system."}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-pro02b","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey today only has 3% of its total territory located on the European continent making it dubious that it counts as European geographically [1] . The core of Turkey is located geographically in Asia Minor. Turkish culture has little connection with the cultures of the other members of the European Union. This is a result of its culture deriving from a tradition as an Islamic state whereas the members of the European Union all have histories as Christian states meaning there are less shared values between Turkey and EU members than EU members have between themselves.  [1] Geography of Turkey. Wikipedia.  Accessed on: September 3, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-pro02a","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey is actually part of the European continent both geographically and historically.  Geographically, Turkey is astride the divide between Europe and Asia, it is uncontestable that Turkey is in part a European country and so has the right to become a member of the European Union. Turkey\u2019s biggest city, Istanbul, is located within Europe. One of the core values of the EU stands as \u201cevery country on the European continent after having completed all the necessary preparations has the right to join the EU\u2019\u2019 [1] . Furthermore, Turkey and its predecessors, the Ottoman Empire and Byzantine Empire were major European and World powers from the end of the Roman Empire until the breakdown of the World War I. The Ottoman Empire took part in the European state\u2019s system from its birth even if as in some ways an outsider, until the end of the eighteenth century Turkey was considered to be much more a part of the European system than Russia. [2] Turkey since the first world war has been orientated towards the west using western methods to modernize including for example making the state secular; building a law system based not on Islamic law but on Swiss civil law. [3] Turkey can therefore be said to be as much a western nation as an Islamic one.  [1] The EU: A Community of Values. EU Focus.  Accessed on September 3, 2010.  [2] Anderson, M.S., The Origins of the Modern European State System 1494-1618, Longman London, 1998, p.57  [3] Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the remaking of world order, Simon & Schuster London, 1996, pp.144-145"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-pro03b","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"False, the EU values are present in Greece for more than three decades, but problems related with their traditional way of life are persisting more and more, knowing the fact that Greece and Turkey are sharing more or less the same cultural values. Not even to mention the cases of Bulgaria and Romania which have not changed in any way, surprisingly they are getting even worse than before. By citing the examples of how the European values will attain as far as Iran, Iraq and Syria, the argument is clearly saying that Turkey is indeed not an European country by bordering those three countries and the big question is how an actual European country as Turkey-as the case is willing to promote, \u2018\u2019has to get European values\u2019\u2019?"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-pro01a","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"The admission of Turkey will help the economy of the EU develop more dynamically.  Turkey has a booming economy with one of the fastest growing economies of the world [1] . Turkey has a young, skilled and vibrant workforce contributing in the fields of innovation, industry and finance. Having a young and growing population means that Turkey is in the opposite situation to the European Union, whose population is declining. As a result Turkey joining would be very complementary to the European Economy. In Turkey 26.6% of the population are under 15 [2] while in the EU only 15.44% is. [3] This is significant because the population of the European Union as a whole will be declining by 2035 [4] and because of the aging population the working population will be declining considerably before this. Aging obviously means that the EU will not be able to produce as much, but also that much more of EU resources will be devoted to caring for the elderly with a result that there is likely to be an drag on GDP per capita of -0.3% per year. [5] One way to compensate for this is to bring new countries with younger populations into the Union.  [1] GDP growth (annual %). The World Bank.  Accessed on: September 3, 2012.  [2] \u2018Turkey\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,   [3] \u2018European Union\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,   [4] Europa, \u2018Population projections 2008-2060 From 2015, deaths projected to outnumber births in the EU27\u2019, STAT\/08\/119, 26 August 2008,   [5] Carone, Giuseppe, et al., \u2018The economic impact of aging populations in the EU 25 Member States\u2019, Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, n.. 236, December 2005,  p.15"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-pro01b","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey may have a growing economy, but this does not make it a good candidate for EU membership. Despite its growth there is still a lot of poverty in Turkey. Its GDP per capita is less than half the average of the EU. [1] When looking at Turkey, everyone thinks of Istanbul, forgetting the other \u2018\u2019invisible\u2019\u2019 Turkey, where there are major economic problems, such as unemployment, low wages, bad infrastructure and high immigration rates. [2]  [1] \u2018Turkey\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,  \u2018European Union\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,   [2] Daily News. Economy. Number of poor people increasing in Turkey.  Accessed on September 3, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-pro03a","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Strategic position and energy benefits  There would be immense strategic benefits both to Europe and to Turkey if she were allowed to join the European Union. Turkey is already a important regional power with a lot of influence in the Middle East and Central Asia and it is already a member of NATO, which most members of the EU are also a part of. [1] This is in part because Turkey is in an immensely strategic geographic situation as the border between Europe and Asia. Historically this has meant Turkey is ideally located for trade, today it means it is strategically close to the oil and gas fields advanced economies like the EU\u2019s depend on.  Turkey is therefore vital for Europe\u2019s energy security. According to the EU energy minister \u201cTurkey comes first in these countries for cooperation\u201d on energy issues because of its location. [2] This is because Turkey is an important transit point for Oil coming through the Bosporus from the Caspian Sea and Russia and also for gas. Turkey acts as a bridge both to the Caspian and the Gulf and creates a second option for importing gas into Europe through pipelines that Europe needs as shown by the cut offs caused by Russian disputes with Belarus and Ukraine. Having gas pipelines through Turkey to the EU, such as the Nabucco pipeline, would shatter Russia\u2019s gas monopoly in Europe. [3]  [1] Solana, Javier, \u2018Why Turkey must join the European Union\u2019, CNN World, 13 June 2011,   [2] Kurtaran, G\u00f6khan, \u2018Turkey vital for energy, EU commissioner says\u2019, Daily News, 10 February 2012,   [3] Tekin, Ali, and Williams, Paul A., \u2018Europe\u2019s External Energy Policy and Turkey\u2019s Accession Process\u2019, Center for European Studies Working Paper Series #170, 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-con03b","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"The issue of Cyprus will eventually be resolved; one small member state cannot hold the destiny of 550 million people hostage indefinitely. [1] Europe made a mistake by not forcing Cyprus to resolve its problems with Northern Cuprus and Turkey before joining the EU [2] however Europe once again has leverage as it is in negotiations to bailout the country. [3]  [1] Lake, Michael, \u2018Turkey: Tilting from U.S. to EU?\u2019, Atlantic Council at 50,   [2] \u2018Cyprus: Six Steps towards a Settlement\u2019, International Crisis Group, Europe Briefing No.61, 22 February 2011,   [3] Kambas, Michele, \u2018Cyprus hopes for deal with Troika in October\u2019, Reuters, 5 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-con01b","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey has a booming economy. Turkey has one of the fastest growing economies of the world Turkey is therefore rapidly catching up with Europe and this will therefore become less and less of an issue; at the same time Europe will need Turkey more while Turkey will need the EU less. [1] While many Turks may wish to move to the EU to try to find work it is unclear either that they would do so, Europe\u2019s average unemployment rate is currently higher than Turkey\u2019s, or that Europe would let them, there would likely be transitional rules such as those imposed on Bulgaria and Romania. [2]  [1] GDP growth (annual %). The World Bank.  Accessed on: September 3, 2012.  [2] EURES, \u2018Free Movement : Romania\u2019, European Commission,"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-con02a","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey is not yet up to European standards of human rights.  Turkey is a democracy but it is not yet up to the standards necessary for membership in the European Union. Turkey has numerous problems with the autocracy of its leaders, the suppressed human rights of the Kurdish and the other minorities. The State Department Human Rights Report condemns for example arbitrary arrest and says \u201cPolice detained more than 1,000 members of the pro-Kurdish Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) on various occasions\u201d during 2011. Kurds and other minorities are \u201cprohibited from fully exercising their linguistic, religious, and cultural rights\u201d and are harassed when attempting to assert their identity. [1] There is little freedom of the press in Turkey, most of the media are state-controlled resulting in turkey ranking 148th on Reporters without borders press freedom index whereas the lowest EU country is Greece ranked 70th. [2] While some countries in the EU, such as France, have criminalized the denial of the Armenian genocide [3] Turkey on the other hand hasn\u2019t even recognized that it ever happened. It is clear that while this disparity exists and human rights violations continue Turkey cannot join the EU.  [1] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, \u2018Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011 Turkey\u2019, U.S. Department of State,   [2] \u2018Press Freedom Index 2011-2012\u2019, Reporters Without Borders,   [3] De Montjoye, Clementine, \u2018France\u2019s Armenian genocide law\u2019, Free SpeechDebate, 29 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-con03a","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey must recognize Cyprus.  The biggest problem facing Turkey that will prevent its entry to the European Union is that it does not recognize Cyprus, a state that is already an EU member. It is clear that Cyprus and relations with it are the main sticking point as the EU President Van Rompuy has admitted \u201cWere it not for some challenges from one of the members of the European Union, Cyprus, we would have made more progress when it comes to Turkey, I acknowledge that negotiations on enlargement are stalled for the time being because one of the members of the club has problems with the process.\u201d [1] Negotiations towards reunification of the island have stalled since the EU backed UN peace plan was rejected by the Greek Cypriots in 2004 just before they joined the EU. Neither Cyprus nor Turkey are willing to take any possible steps that would help build confidence and break down the barriers to agreement such as reopening ports and airports. [2]  [1] Neuger, James G., \u2018Turkey\u2019s EU Bid Is \u2018Stalled,\u2019 Cyprus to Blame, Van Rompuy Says\u2019, Bloomberg, 5 September 2012,   [2] \u2018Cyprus: Six Steps towards a Settlement\u2019, International Crisis Group, Europe Briefing No.61, 22 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-con01a","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey is not enough economically developed to join the EU.  Turkey has many economic problems ranging from high inflation, high regional disparities, high wealth disparity, unemployment, bad infrastructure and poverty among others. The country must solely focus itself onto improving those problems, before obtaining EU-membership. Not resolving economic problems before joining the EU can lead to problems as exemplified by Greece, Portugal and Italy, countries which had their big economic problems that were overlooked upon joining the Eurozone. Turkey\u2019s GDP per capita is less than half the average of the EU [1] and as a large country with more than seventy million people it would pose an immense strain on the rest of the Union.  The effect of this economic disparity is likely to lead to a massive influx of immigrants from Turkey to the rest of the EU, because they will take advantage of free movement of people in the European Union and these immigrants. This immigration is likely to have the effect of forcing down the wages of workers in the existing EU nations as the Turks will be willing to work for less. [2]  [1] \u2018Turkey\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,  \u2018European Union\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 August 2012,   [2] Turkey is part of Europe. Fear keeps it out of the EU. The Guardian. August 6 2009.  Accessed on: September 3, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-international-emephsate-con02b","title":"europe middle east politics house supports admission turkey eu","text":"Turkey is a democracy but it is not yet up to the standards necessary for membership in the European Union. Turkey has numerous problems with the autocracy of its leaders, the suppressed human rights of the Kurdish and the other minorities. The State Department Human Rights Report condemns for example arbitrary arrest and says \u201cPolice detained more than 1,000 members of the pro-Kurdish Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) on various occasions\u201d during 2011. Kurds and other minorities are \u201cprohibited from fully exercising their linguistic, religious, and cultural rights\u201d and are harassed when attempting to assert their identity. [1] There is little freedom of the press in Turkey, most of the media are state-controlled resulting in turkey ranking 148th on Reporters without borders press freedom index whereas the lowest EU country is Greece ranked 70th. [2] While some countries in the EU, such as France, have criminalized the denial of the Armenian genocide [3] Turkey on the other hand hasn\u2019t even recognized that it ever happened. It is clear that while this disparity exists and human rights violations continue Turkey cannot join the EU.  [1] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, \u2018Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011 Turkey\u2019, U.S. Department of State,   [2] \u2018Press Freedom Index 2011-2012\u2019, Reporters Without Borders,   [3] De Montjoye, Clementine, \u2018France\u2019s Armenian genocide law\u2019, Free SpeechDebate, 29 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro02b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"Consultation, collaboration and the attempted creation of a common set of values has not worked and is not likely to work. This language is not much different from what we have heard with every attempt the EU has made to push for further political integration. The role of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), as agreed upon back in 1993 during the Maastricht Treaty, was in fact presented very much along similar lines. Fifteen years later however, that united front has not been created. If anything, the EU\u2019s political union, and certain any attempts towards a common foreign policy, have completely disintegrated when faced with the War in Iraq and the larger war on terror and more recently the Euro debt crisis on another front."}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro02a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The fact that it is a Representative highlights the fact that the EU is based on consultation and consensus, and that is a positive thing.  While the new \u2018EU High Representative for Foreign and Security Policy\u2019 marks only a bold first step towards a more unified voice for the EU, the decisions are indeed still based on a state by state consultation mechanism \u2013 hence the name representative. This should however not to be downplayed as a less significant change in how the EU approaches its foreign policy. The consultation aspect is in fact essential to reaching agreement and the importance of not only presenting a united front to the rest of the world (the EU is exemplary in trade policy and environmental policy, but less important when it comes to presenting a united voice in foreign policy as Belgian Foreign minister Mark Eyskens put it in 1991 \u201cEurope is an economic giant, a political dwarf, and a military worm\u201d 1, but also creating a united front through collaboration and debate. One should thus see this not only as a means to an end, but rather as an important mechanism in itself, whereby new identities are slowly created along with a deeper sense of commitment to a common set of values.  1. Craig R Whitney, \u2018WAR IN THE GULF: EUROPE; Gulf Fighting Shatters Europeans\u2019 Fragile Unity\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro03b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The creation of a combined post of High Representative for foreign and security policy and Vice President of the Commission for External Relations marks a needless complication of decision making. It adds an expensive and largely pointless layer of European bureaucracy to a substantively weak and poorly coordinated foreign policy. This failure is made worse by the member states\u2019 refusal to appoint a senior European politician with international credentials to the post. This suggests that the European Union is simply not ready to pursue a serious and substantive foreign policy. 1  1 Charlemagne, 'The test for Ashton and Europe', The Economist, 1st February 2011,accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro01a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The EU has already been unifying on multiple fronts, this is just a step in the same direction.  The EU has slowly been building up its own common military framework, with the UK and France leading the effort to pool European military capacity. In addition, the EU itself has created new institutional bodies such as the Political and Security Committee, a Military Committee and military staff. The EU has had military envoys in Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and has committed itself to the creation of a Common Security and Defense Policy with 3-4,000 troops on permanent standby in multilateral \u2018battlegroups\u2019 ready for immediate deployment(see Rockwell Schnabel\u2019s article listed below)1. While incremental, these are steps not to be ignored. The Union has also placed that military capacity within the broader context of a security strategy designed to promote international peace, justice and development.  1. Schnabel, Rockwell A., 'U.S. Views on the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy', The Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol. IX. Issue2., (Winter\/Spring 2003) accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro01b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The very creation of a common military framework has been fraught with disagreement. The UK and France have only been willing to cooperate bilaterally and outside the EU framework, within a set of nationally-framed security interests. Both states are also very traditional military powers. While some states pretend to support the creation of a credible EU military capacity, they are unwilling to contribute seriously to its construction and when faced with a crisis almost always turn to the United States for military solutions. While the EU does like to see itself as the diplomat of the world and flaunt its achievements with the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), it still ponders the possibility of a middle-of-the-road strategy of militarization and securitization. In the meanwhile, it continues to reside comfortably within the US sphere of military protection while acting as an enfant terrible who rebels against and yet continues to accept US protection. It is a contradiction to argue that the EU is both attempting to build up its military force as well as providing an alternative sense of security that does not rely on military power."}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro04b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The position of High Representative will be, and has been, largely powerless, because the member states have such divergent interests that agreement will be rare, and that attempts to devise a common foreign policy for the EU are doomed. Because control of foreign policy is such a key aspect of sovereignty, it would be wrong for national governments to give this power away to the EU, which is less democratically accountable. If the EU and its High Representative do try to pressure states into common positions this may well backfire, creating strong anti-EU feeling in both national governments and public opinion. Pushing too hard for a common foreign policy and giving too much power to an unelected High Representative may instead begin to tear Europe apart. 1  1. Traynor, Ian, 'EU foreign ministers round on Lady Ashton', guardian.co.uk, 23rd May 2011, accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro03a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The creation of the post of a High Representative marked an important change in the EU.  The creation of a post of High Representative and Vice President of the Commission (HRVP) marks an important change in the decision making process at the EU level with regards to foreign policy. Agreement on the post showed a clear commitment to the pursuit of a common EU foreign policy and to developing a unique cooperative model for foreign and defense policy decision making that goes beyond the nation state. Member states should now deliver on that commitment by seeking as much common ground as possible to ensure that the High Representative\u2019s role is truly significant. The goal of a common foreign and security policy should thus be supported not only as a mechanism to streamline EU\u2019s position and role in world politics, but also to reinforce notions of cooperation and consultation essential for maintaining a stable international system, in line with the stated goals of the EU. (The 12 stars in a circle is meant to symbolize the ideals of unity, solidarity and harmony among the peoples of Europe)1.  1 Europa.eu, 'Symbols',accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro04a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The High Representative will be a catalyst and a facilitator for decision-making.  The High Representative will not only act as a spokesman for EU nations when they agree on foreign policies, but will act as a catalyst around which external policy will increasingly become coordinated. By chairing meetings of EU foreign ministers, he or she will be able to shape the agenda and influence the outcomes of meetings, encouraging member states increasingly to think in terms of common foreign policy positions. They will have added authority from their ability to speak for the EU in the UN Security Council. The High Representative will also direct the EU\u2019s new External Action Service, which brings together policy specialists from both the Council and Commission in a unique manner (ranging from the Arctic region to nuclear safety and enlargement) 1. With representatives all over the world the EU will develop a foreign service capable of creating and articulating policy positions in a manner that few national governments can match. Over time this will promote the evolution of a true EU foreign and security policy, and will contribute significantly to increased European consciousness among EU citizens and further moves to political unity.  1. European Union External Action, Policies, accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-con03b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The EU is indeed under NATO\u2019s and US\u2019s military umbrella, and while terrorist attacks on EU\u2019s territory have certainly heightened levels of anxiety, its \u2018foreign policy\u2019 is still based on an inclusive approach: bring threatening nations under your economic and political umbrella and provide them with incentives to collaborate. Academics such as Allen David and Michael Smith have argued that the EU\u2019s \u2018foreign policy\u2019 seeks to go beyond the nation state and thus treats what lies outside its borders not necessarily as \u2018foreign\u2019 and \u2018threatening\u2019 but rather as a different system.1 The EU provides a subsystem of international relations within a larger global system, in which threats and fears subside as a result of economic and military integration. The most pressing challenge is to learn how to extend this system beyond the current borders of the EU, keeping in mind that the accession process is a mechanism not to be abused.  1. Allen, David, and Smith, Michael, 'External Policy Developments', Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol 43. (2005) pp.109-26 accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-con01b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"One should not forget that a uniting Europe in itself has been a very bold undertaking that has taken several centuries to develop, and is certainly far from being a finished product. It would be unfair to argue that the EU has made no progress in its collaboration on foreign policy since the initial establishment of the CFSP, or that the past fifteen years have seen more decay than progress on further political integration. The mixed EU reaction to the war in Iraq has long been a point of contention and criticism, yet it represents only a small and exceptional failure, in a much larger common EU foreign policy. The Enlargement Process has been by far one of the most successful elements of EU foreign and security policy, along with many other success stories with aid to third parties and management of international conflicts, for example the EU\u2019s role in Kosovo."}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-con02a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The previous arrangement of having two foreign policy centers (in the Commission and in the Council) was arguably inefficient, but consolidating these into a single office-holder has created more complexity and at significantly greater expense.  Creating a position of EU High Representative is not objectionable in itself. Previously the EU was in the ludicrous situation of having two foreign affairs spokesmen, one from the Council and the other from the Commission. Rivalry and duplication of efforts, staffs and resources results, and so focusing all the EU\u2019s external affairs work around one person makes some sense. What it does not mean is that the High Representative should lead a drive for a stronger common foreign policy position. Only when member states agree (which may not be often) will he or she have a role. In fact, by weakening the foreign affairs role within the Commission, this development may actually limit the pretensions of Brussels to develop its own agenda and dictate foreign policy to the member states."}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-con03a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"There have been tests on the EU's ability to create a common foreign policy that it has failed.  The War in Iraq, along with previous notable failures to deal with the breakup of former Yugoslavia, has been an excellent test for the extent to which the EU can claim to have a common approach to world politics and foreign policy in particular. It has clearly pointed out a whole range of diverse and often opposed national interests, and national publics that were unwilling to make compromises along EU lines of commitment. It has also showed that the economic power of the EU is not enough to turn it into a major player on the international scene: the lack in military power and presence speaks for itself. The EU still lies very much under the umbrella of NATO and US military power and as long as this military dependency continues, the EU will not be able to have its own independent voice in world politics. 1  1.  \">"}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-con01a","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The post of a High Representative is merely a shadow of what it should have been, and its failure shows the EU's inability to consolidate foreign policy.  While seemingly groundbreaking, the current agreement on the EU reform treaty was nothing but a lame attempt to salvage a much bolder initiative: an EU Constitution. The rejection of the EU Constitution in the Dutch and French referendums, as well as the extreme difficulty in getting even its watered-down version accepted, shows the extent to which the member states of the EU are not yet ready to think and act in unison. The UK representatives successfully insisted that the language of the reform treaty clearly states that major foreign policy decisions will continue to be taken at the state level."}
+{"id":"test-international-epdlhfcefp-con02b","title":"europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"Creating a common EU foreign and security policy will in fact be easier than many people suppose, because many of the 21st century\u2019s most important issues in external relations are already part of the \u2018normal\u2019 EU policy routine; climate change, development, trade, aid and the environment, for example. Most such issues are ones on which any single member state, even one as significant as Britain, France or Germany, cannot hope to make a real global impact alone. Only by coordinating policy at EU level will the interests of member states be advanced at all. Having a High Representative to coordinate and promote this work on behalf of the Union as a whole makes sense and actually gives all member states a greater international effectiveness \u2013 the true measure of sovereignty."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro02b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"More casual sex with barrier contraception is preferable to the current amount without contraception. The amount of consensual sex is not going to change no matter what the church teaches. As long as the use of barrier contraception was promoted along with this promotion of casual sex, it would be a huge net reduction in the cases of contraction of HIV. Therefore, condoning the use of barrier contraception would be the more responsible stand to take on the part of the Catholic Church."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro02a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Going back on this rule would promote casual sex  Condoning the use of barrier methods of contraception would be implicitly condoning casual sex since their primary function is within that context. This is particularly important since the Catholic Church's teachings on casual sex are not taken particularly seriously already. Any action, such as the Catholic Church allowing the use of barrier contraception, that would promote casual sex in countries with severe AIDS\/HIV problems, would be an incredibly irresponsible one. Pope Paul VI argued that when considering \"the consequences of methods and plans for artificial birth control. Let them first consider how easily this course of action could open wide the way for marital infidelity and a general lowering of moral standards.\" The Church's current stance on barrier contraception, therefore, is the most responsible one1. 1 Pope Paul VI. \"Humanae Vitae.\" 1968."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro03b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"AIDS\/HIV can be spread outside of having casual sex. The HIV epidemic is spread not just through people having casual sex. In many cases, wives contract HIV after their husband being unfaithful or having had premarital sex. There are also many cases where a woman has little choice in being sold off to a man and is forced to have sex with him. There are also a huge number of cases of rape where HIV is contracted. In all of these cases, if the Catholic Church had condoned barrier contraception, the likelihood of HIV being contracted as a result would have been dramatically reduced; whether that is through contraception being used in that particular instance of intercourse or through the man not contracting HIV in the first place."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro05a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Protects people from spending eternity in Hell.  It is important to remember that the Catholic Church believe that barrier contraception is against God and that using it will condemn people to Hell. Therefore, even if the Church's stance on condoms is harmful, which the proposition does not accept that it is, it is less harmful than people spending an eternity suffering. In this context, therefore, the most responsible thing for the Catholic Church to do is to forbid the use of condoms and, thereby, save people from Hell1. 1 Pope Paul VI. \"Humanae Vitae.\" 1968."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro01a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Radical changes risk the stability of the Catholic Church.  Whenever a Church makes a radical change to its doctrines and teachings it causes a huge amount of tension within the Church. An excellent example of this is the Church of England allowing women to become bishops; a huge number of people left the Church over the controversy. Since the Catholic Church's ban over contraception of all kinds is something that it has stood fast over for a great number of years, as well as something that sets it apart from most other denominations and faiths, the proposition believes that a change in this would result in a huge amount of tension within the Church. This tension would inevitably bring about a considerable risk of large parts of the Church collapsing altogether. This would be much the same as the tensions over gay priests in the Anglican church that have led to fears of a schism1. Therefore, in the interests of its own stability, the sensible course of action for the Catholic Church to take is to maintain its ban on contraception. 1 Brown, Andrew. \"Jeffrey John and the global Anglican schism: a potted history.\" Guardian.co.uk, 8 July 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro01b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"The Catholic Church already has huge numbers of people leaving, this could help stop that. The Catholic Church is already becoming increasingly unpopular because of its refusal to compromise on any issue and its inability to adapt and change to keep up with an ever changing world. Rather than damage the stability of the Church, allowing barrier contraception would show that the Church is capable of change when change is necessary. Importantly, when the Church of England allowed women to become bishops, it caused some tension at the time but had no long term negative impact on the stability of the Church."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro05b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"This is a wilful interpretation of a highly ambiguous passage. The Church's belief that barrier contraception is against God is based entirely on a single passage of the Bible where Onan is condemned for wilfully 'spilling his seed.'1Importantly, the fact that he spilled his seed alone was not even the main reason that he was condemned. It is well within the power of the Catholic Church to officially change their belief that using barrier contraception will send people to Hell and allow its use. Since the passage is ambiguous, the decision should be made based on what is best for society and the Church as a whole. The opposition believes that in their main case they have proved that the Church lifting their ban on barrier methods of contraception would be better for society and therefore they believe they have won the debate. 138:9-10, The Book of Genesis, The Bible."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro04b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"The commandment given is to 'go forth and multiply', not to multiply as much as possible with no thought for sustainability. Contraception can help monogamous couples control the amount of children they have and when so that they can ensure they don't have more children than they can sustainably provide for. The idea that any limitation of procreation is against God is a single interpretation of a very ambiguous passage. The Catholic Church has the freedom to choose the interpretation that is best for humanity."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro03a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"In context of other teachings, does not promote the spread of AIDS\/HIV.  The Catholic Church does not only forbid the use of barrier contraception but also of casual sex. The issue is not that the Church is being irresponsible by banning the use of barrier contraception but that people are choosing to follow some of the Church's teachings but not others. Pope Benedict XVI argues AIDS is \"a tragedy that cannot be overcome by money alone, that cannot be overcome through the distribution of condoms, which even aggravates the problems\"1. If people followed the Church's teachings on casual sex as well as their teachings on barrier contraception, the AIDS epidemic would be dramatically decreased. Given, therefore, that it also forbids any sex outside of marriage, the Catholic Church is totally justified in forbidding barrier methods of contraception2. 1 Wynne-Jones, Jonathan. \"The Pope drops Catholic ban on condoms in historic shift.\" The Telegraph, 20 November 2010, 2 Pope John Paul II. \"Evangelium Vitae.\" 1995."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro04a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"The Catholic Church believes that any limitation of procreation is against God.  Catholics consider the first commandment given to them by God to be to 'multiply'1. In light of this, anything that limits procreation, be it the use of contraception or even condoning the use of contraception, is against God. It is important to remember that the Catholic Church's primary obligation is not to its people but to God. The Church is, therefore, justified in any action where the alternative is going against what they believe to be the wishes of God, even if it is harmful to the people of the Church. 11:28, The Book of Genesis, The Bible."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con03b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"This would not protect wives. In these situations the wife would be expected to have unprotected sex, so that the couple could conceive a child, even if the Church condoned the use of contraception. If a husband contracts HIV, the Catholic Church condoning or forbidding the use of condoms makes absolutely no difference to the fact that his wife is very likely to contract it also. The only action by the Church that would affect this would be to try and highlight the fact that sex outside of marriage is also forbidden to a greater degree and allowing the use of contraception would only weaken this message."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con01b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"The Catholic Church is not a democracy. The opposition makes no mention of the huge numbers of Catholics who actually support the Church's decision to forbid barrier contraception. There is by no means a clear majority either way. Even if there was a clear majority of Catholics in favour of barrier contraception, the Church is under no obligation to change its official stances or any part of the way it works based on the opinions of members of the Church. The Church is founded on the basis that it is doing God's bidding and changing its working based on the demand of the people would undermine that."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con02a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"In contradiction to the Catholic Church's responsibility to promote life.  Many Catholic countries in Africa and South America have huge problems with AIDS and HIV with thousands of people dying as a result. In a survey carried out in 20091, it was found that in sub-Saharan Africa 22.5 million people were living with HIV\/AIDS and 1.3 million people died of AIDS. An enormous number of these people contracted HIV because they did not use a condom during intercourse, under the advice of the Catholic Church. It is clear, then, that the Catholic Church's stance on barrier contraception promotes the spread of AIDS. The opposition also believes that since the Catholic Church are in a position of power over a colossal number of people, they have a responsibility to ensure the welfare of those people. They must, therefore, reduce the likelihood that the people that they have power over will die as much as they can. Their ban over the use of barrier contraception is not in line with this responsibility. 1 UNAIDS global report."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con05a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Birth control within monogamous relationships.  Contraception is not just used in casual sex but within monogamous couples who want to control when they have children. The reason for this could be so they ensure that they don\u2019t have more children than they can afford to reasonably look after.  Contraception can help monogamous couples to give more to the children they do decide to have and to the community, since less of their time and money will be used in maintaining a family which is larger than they can reasonably afford to control. The current cost of raising a child in Britain is calculated to be over \u00a3210,000, a very substantial sum that any responsible parent must think about before having more children 1.  Since, in this case, contraception promotes a good in the community, as well as more responsible reproduction, the Catholic Church is unjustified in its blanket ban over barrier contraception.  1. Insley 2011"}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con04a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Promotes image of Catholic Church as uncaring and stubborn.  Organised religious groups, such as the Catholic Church, around the world, regardless of faith and denomination, change their official stances in an effort to keep up with a changing world. For example, the Church of England allowing women to become bishops. In doing this, these groups show that they are able to be reactive and can fit into a world that changes every day. Even the Catholic church has begun to realise that by stubbornly refusing to change its stance, the Catholic Church presents itself as unable to adapt and stuck in its ways 1. As a result, it finds that it will lose a lot of its influence and, by extension, its propensity to do good. Since its stance on contraception limits the Church's ability to do good, then it is clearly a stance that generally causes harm and, therefore, is an unjustified one.  1.Wynne-Jones 2010"}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con03a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Barrier contraception can protect women from husbands with AIDS\/HIV.  There are many cases, particularly in South America and Africa, of men contracting HIV from sexual partners outside their marriage, be it from before they were married or from an extramarital affair and passing it on to their wives. In cases such as these, the wife may follow all of the teachings of the Catholic Church and still contract HIV. If the Church did not forbid the use of barrier contraception then the frequency of occurrences such as these would be severely limited. Since, as discussed above, the Catholic Church, has a responsibility to promote life in its people, their ban of barrier contraception is unjustified."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con05b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"The Catholic Church does not forbid all methods of contraception which could be used as alternatives. The Catholic Church actually condones the use of natural contraceptive methods, which essentially amount to only having intercourse at times of the month when the woman is not fertile. It is not unreasonable of the Catholic Church to expect married couples to just withhold from sex at certain times of the month if they do not wish to conceive another child. This situation gives no reason to make an exception."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con01a","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Opposed by much of the Church  In spite of the Catholic Church's ruling, a huge number of people who identify as Catholic do not adhere to the Church's teachings on contraception. Additionally, many Catholic priests and nuns openly support non-abortive forms of contraception, including barrier contraception. In 2003 a poll found 43% of catholic priests in England and wales were against the church's stance and a further 19% were unsure1. The Church should listen to the requests and opinions of those who are part of it 2. 1 Day, Elizabeth. \"Most Catholic priests 'do not support Rome over contraception'.\" The Telegraph, 6 April 2003, 2 Short, Claire. \"HIV\/AIDS"}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con04b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"Radical changes risk stability of the Catholic Church. As outlined in the main proposition case, rather than making the Catholic Church seem as if it can move with the times, suddenly changing its stance on barrier contraception would make the Church seem weak and would lose a lot of its support. Since their stance on barrier contraception is something that the Catholic Church has stood by for a huge number of years suddenly moving on it would throw their conviction on everything into question and would have a severe negative effect on the stability of the Church."}
+{"id":"test-international-ssiarcmhb-con02b","title":"sex sexuality international africa religion church morality house believes","text":"The Catholic Church also forbids sex outside of marriage. The opposition has tried to ignore the fact that the Catholic Church actually does not allow sex outside of marriage either. It is not a case of the Church saying it is acceptable to have casual sex as long as contraception is not used but saying that neither is acceptable. If abstinence were practised, there would be no HIV epidemic. Since the Church preaches abstinence outside of marriage it cannot be held accountable for the HIV epidemic."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro02b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"It seems odd to quote the wife of an investment banker commenting about the abuse of other people\u2019s money. What is becoming increasingly clear in critiques both from the left and the right is that we can actually afford a welfare state just fine but not at the same time as allowing a bunch of Wall Street wideboys to play fast and loose with the nation\u2019s money.  In terms of twentieth century ideologies, certainly there have been changes on both sides of the political fence \u2013 the rise of moralising neo-cons and a growing far right is nothing for Conservatives to write home about \u2013 but the idea that Capitalism now reigns supreme rather than having the guts of it corpulent excesses scattered across the capitals of Europe is simply laughable.  As the high priests of Capital write themselves yet another cheque, an increasing number of people are objecting to the idea that public services should be closed so that the very rich can have their taxes reduced simply won\u2019t wash."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro02a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Socialism was a twentieth century ideology which ran its course and ran out of steam when it became clear that Capitalism worked better  The world has moved on; it is inconceivable that the protests of the seventies and eighties could be refought again. This issue was settled at the end of the eighties. It wasn\u2019t just the collapse of the Soviet Union, although that no doubt played a major role in shaping the future of socialism in Europe.  In a globalised world the traditional ideas about class and the nature of the labour market have moved on and politics moved on with it.  Socialists may have won many of the arguments over social issues, but arguments on the advantages of free trade, deregulation, the role of the state, the relationship between government and industry all line up firmly in the Capitalist column.  There were some remnants of dogmatic, \u201cclassical\u201d socialism left in continental Europe, especially amongst its union movements, which are now collapsing. As Margaret Thatcher put it, \u201cThe problem with Socialism is that you will eventually run out of other people\u2019s money.\u201d [i]  [i] Quoted in: James Turk. \u201cWill Sovereign Debt Defaults Bring The End Of Socialism?\u201d Free Gold Money Report. 19 December 2009."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro03b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Remembering that those states that dashed after the illusory prize of low taxes and deregulated banking are currently only being propped up by the ratings agencies should give politicians around the world- both radical and conventional- something to think about. However, even the most casual wander around the blogosphere makes clear that the principles of market economics are a long way from being universally agreed.  The intellectual recovery from the assault posed by Thatcherism and Reaganomics has taken time but is certainly taking place and it is increasingly the Right that appears intellectually bankrupt.  Organisations like the New Economics Foundation are approaching old problems in new ways alongside a whole range of popular movements \u2013 environmental, youth led, immigrant led and others. The fact that modern socialism has as much to do with the industrial struggles of the seventies as it does with the Spanish Civil War in the thirties should really come as no surprise."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro01a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Although there are protests as a result of the banking crisis and the resulting financial meltdown, they have no cohesive ideology  There is clearly a difference between the general malaise of those protesting the result of the financial crisis and any form of coherent ideology or manifesto for government. The only people pretending that protesters in Athens or Rome \u2013 or the Occupy movement worldwide \u2013 are in some meaningful way Socialists are aging class warriors from the seventies.  The Occupy movement may well count many social liberals [i] among its members, and these individuals are almost certainly unhappy about many aspects of modern Capitalism but that doesn\u2019t make Occupy, or the Athens street protestors Socialist.  [i] Occupy Wall Street Website. \u201cForum Post Liberalism is Not Socialism\u201d. 12 November 2011."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro01b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Socialism has frequently been defined by its opponents and as Capitalism has changed so have the political responses made to it. The fact that this iteration of socialism is different should come as no surprise to anyone who has studied the history of Socialism. That earlier generations of Socialists would not have recognised a blog or a Twitter account doesn\u2019t change the fact that they recognise the flaws of Capitalism and reject the widely accepted views of the last twenty years or so that if everything is left to the market then everything will come out just fine."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro03a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Even the leaders of the Left have given up on Socialism as a creed and have now accepted the vast majority of modern Capitalist principles  Even the leaders of those European political parties that still call themselves socialist tend to avoid the word. Broadly speaking even the leaders of the left- outside Cuba and Colombia- accept the basic principles of Market economics and recognise that high-tax, high-spend economics simply does not work.  Like it or not borders are now open and the idea that the state can control the flow of capital is a thing of the past. As a result people generally are richer and the idea that there a solid class block is simply no longer relevant to their lives."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con03b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"As has so often been the case in the history of Socialism, the moment one form is comprehensively beaten, its adherents announce, \u201cOh that wasn\u2019t really Socialism\u201d. The reality is that Socialism fell with the Berlin Wall it just took a few years for the impact of that to ripple all the way across Europe.  The last stage of that process is now taking place as the economies that continued to believe that social systems would pay for themselves realize that not only is that fantasy not the case, it never was.  It may have taken a crisis in Capitalism to demonstrate that Socialism is a luxury Europe cannot afford but the result is the same anyway."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con01b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Trying to pretend that absolutely anyone who disagrees in some way with the architects of the banking bubble can be described as a Socialist is simply taking things too far.  Many people are suffering as a result of austerity measures and it is interesting that in countries with left wing governments the protests support the right and vice versa. This has nothing to do with the emergence of Socialism for the 21st century \u2013 however desperately the Socialists of the 20th century may wish it.  The closest even the most ardent supporters of the current protests can get is that \u2018things should be different\u2019 other than that it tends to be a round of decidedly nineteenth century solutions to nineteenth century problems"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con02a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"The idea that wealth should be more fairly and evenly distributed has never had so many supporters and the failure to do so has rarely been more keenly felt  In the model of Blair and Clinton, it didn\u2019t matter if the rich got a lot richer, as long as the poor got a bit richer. That model has now been shown not to work and the rather timid new leaders of the left are starting to return to concepts of fairness and equality rather than the rather bland concepts of \u2018opportunity\u2019 and \u2018choice\u2019.  Europe is increasingly governed by unelected technocrats who seem to think that the opinions of a handful of international bankers are somehow more important than the jobs and livelihoods of millions. This may always have been the case but it tends not to show during times of plenty. Now these latent inequalities are becoming apparent and people are angry.  It is perhaps one of the great ironies of history that one of the aspirations of early nineteenth century Socialists- nationalising the banks- required Capitalists to actually achieve it."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con05a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"It is impossible to acquire the information necessary to create a coherent economy  A planned economy requires that the planners have the information necessary to allocate resources in the right way. This is a virtually impossible task.  The world contains trillions of different resources: my labour, iron ore, Hong Kong harbour, pine trees, satellites, car factories \u2013 etc. The number of different ways to use, combine and recombine these resources is unimaginably vast.  And almost all of them are useless. For example, it would be a mistake to combine Arnold Schwarzenegger with medical equipment and have him perform brain surgery.  Centralised planning cannot possibly sort through the myriad of way of arranging resources to arrive at the most efficient usage. Only a decentralised price system can achieve this via the institution of private property and associated duties and rights. [1]  [1] Boudreaux, Donald J, \u2018Information and Prices\u2019."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con04a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Globalisation has made socialism impractical to implement  Global economic forces have rendered socialism powerless. Financial speculation, and investment flows can make or break economies, and the agents who channel these monies want to see countries liberalise, privatise and de-regulate more. This is being shown by the speculative attacks on Eurozone countries where the markets are showing they can force governments to implement tough austerity or even force changes in government without an election as has happened in Greece and Italy where technocrats have taken over as Heads of Government. [1]  These more flexible markets generate higher levels of growth and prosperity, and provide higher returns on investment, encouraging more. Countries which try to resist globalisation and liberal economic markets, as in \u2018old Europe\u2019, suffer stagnant growth and higher unemployment as a result. Old socialist-style economic models of tight economic regulation and central planning are unsustainable.  [1] Frankel, Jeffrey, \u2018Let European technocrats weave their magic\u2019, The Sydney Morning Herald, 29 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con03a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Class consciousness is an important aspect of Socialism, it would be hard to find a period in recent history when the majority have been so aware that their interests are not the same as the uber-rich  It has rarely been so clear that the interests of the few are not the same as those of the vast bulk of either European societies or the world outside it. At a time of rising unemployment, a handful of people who are already fantastically rich continue to pay themselves obscene salaries and bonuses. Of course there is nothing in this that is unusual, it\u2019s just not usually done in so cavalier a fashion.  Although there is nothing mechanical in the process, most Socialist thinkers have been clear that the popular realisation that there really is a class distinction between what the Occupy protesters refer to as the 1% and the rest of us is an important first step towards establishing Socialism.  Whatever the media and political classes may pretend, Socialism is not \u2013 and never was \u2013 a single party or policy. It is a process. And that process is being seen on the streets across Europe"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con05b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"While there are a vast number of potential combinations of resources, the ones that are useless are mostly obvious and do not need a market to tell us so. Nobody would attempt to generate power by burning bicycles, for example.  An economy that is organised by prices will be organised by those with enough capital to out-bid all others, not those willing to pay the best price because they can make the most use of the resource"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con01a","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Socialism has changed historically to meet the challenges of the moment and is addressing those of the 21st century in new ways  It should perhaps come as no surprise that the days of standing outside shopping centres and train stations handing out soggy newspapers have passed into the annals of political history \u2013 although some still do it.  Equally, trades union are no longer seen as being as central to European Socialism as they once were. However, the militancy seen over the last few years suggest, if anything, that what was a diversified \u2018anti-capitalist\u2019 movement is now coalescing around a rather clearer set of goals of which the basics of the anti-capitalism movement are merely a part. In the light of the globalisation of Capitalism, the left is increasingly rediscovering its internationalist roots which were lost to a great extent in the seventies and eighties in national struggles to save industries and jobs."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con04b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"What investors want more than anything is a stable economy and skilled workforce. Ironically it is the European nations where socialist thought remains strongest (the Nordic Countries) that are consistently ranked as the most competitive economies in the world. [1] Careful state management of the economy, provision of infrastructure and investment in exceptional health and education systems through high taxation have created a dynamic and highly qualified workforce, and attracted huge investment from technologically advanced industries.  [1] World Economic Forum, \u2018The Global Competitiveness Report 2011-2012\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con02b","title":"political philosophy politics government society house believes socialism dead","text":"Setting the crises of the last few years against decades of prolonged growth under market capitalism really shows the lie of this idea. There is no doubt that certain sectors over-reached themselves in the latter part of the last decade but to suggest that this is a collapse of the Capitalist model makes about as much sense as the idea that a handful of idealists camped outside St Pauls are the emergence of a new political movement.  Both ideas are preposterous and only give credence to some of the madder parts of the Right whom would like nothing more than to be able to demonise the protesters and their demands."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro02b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"This conveniently ignores that patients in a permanent vegetative state (PVS) do recover. It also ignore that Alzheimer\u2019s patients enjoy moments of lucidity that bring pleasure to both themselves and their friends and relatives. It also discounts the possibilities offered by advances in medical science. The one point in any of the processes that is irreversible is the point of death \u2013 in the event of a misdiagnosis or the creation of a new drug, it\u2019s too late if the person is already dead."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro02a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"Medical science allows us to control death, suicide and euthanasia are sensible corollaries to that.  We now live longer than at any time in the 100,000 years or so of human evolution and longer than the other primates [i] . In many nations we have successfully increased the quantity of life without improving the quality. More to the point, too little thought has been given to the quality of our deaths.  Let us consider the example of the cancer patient who opts not to put herself through the agony and uncertainty of chemotherapy. In such a circumstance, we accept that a person may accept the certainty of death with grace and reason rather than chasing after a slim probability of living longer but in pain.  All proposition is arguing is that this approach can also apply to other conditions, which may not be terminal in the strict sense of the world but certainly lead to the death of that person in any meaningful sense. The application of medical science to extend a life, long after life is \u2018worth living\u2019 or would be possible to live without these interventions cannot be considered a moral good for its own sake. Many find that they are facing the prospect of living out the rest of their days in physical pain or are losing their memory. As a result, some may see \u2018going out at the top of their game\u2019 as the better, and more natural, option.  [i] Caleb E Finch. Evolution of Human Lifespan and the Diseases of Aging: Roles of Infection, Inflammation, and Nutrition. Proceding of the National Academy of Sciences of the united States of America. 12 October 2009."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro03b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"Society routinely accepts that the state has a role in balancing the desires of some with the threats those pose to others. For every reasoned, unpressured decision that can be presented by prop, we can offer a situation in which the decision to die was coerced, or at least was not devoid of financial of self-serving interests on the part of others. The only way to prevent those negative outcomes is to deny the palatable ones through a complete moratorium. Such actions may not become routine yet even one death through compulsion is too many. However it is equally likely that once a right to die becomes established it comes to be seen as normal that someone who is particularly ill or frail will exercise the right to die. Once this is normalised then it becomes easier and easier for the boundary to slowly slip as it is an arbitrary line, either those exercising the right slowly become less and less ill or frail. Alternatively there is a slide into coercion as it becomes normal it begins to be seen as expected that the right will be exercised. [i]  [i] Young, Robert, \"Voluntary Euthanasia\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro01a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"Suicide is a rational choice in many situations.  When confronted with chronic pain or with diseases that steadily remove our sense of self \u2013 or at least the self of whom we are aware \u2013 death has proven to be a sensible option taken by sensible people [i] . It is a simple fact that we all die, our objections to it tend to be based on the idea that it can happen at the hands of others or at a time, or in a manner, not of our choosing.  Neither of these issues arise with either assisted suicide or voluntary euthanasia. Proposition has no difficulty at all with the suggestion that both procedures should be regulated and take place in safe, medically supported, environments.  However, if an individual accepts that death is their preferred option in such a scenario, it is difficult to comprehend of reasons why they should not be allowed to proceed. Our social rejection of murder does not, ultimately relate to death itself but to the denial of choice. With murder someone is denying that person all their future potential so denying their freedom of choice, and this remains the case even if the murder was completely painless. Here, reason tells us, the virtuous act is death and the reservation of that choice.  The determining element of humanity is that we are rational beings; a blanket ban \u2013 legal and social \u2013 on choosing the time and manner of our deaths reflects our primeval fear of a death that comes, unwanted, in the dark of the night, not the mature judgement of modern, thinking (and long-lived) humans.  [i] Andy Bloxham. Husband films assisted suicide of wife to prove it was not murder. The Daily Telegraph. 10 March 2011."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro01b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"It is the mark of a civilised society that we accept the inconvenience of laws in some circumstances because we also require their protection in others. To take a trivial example we take away the choice for people to drive on the other side of the road to everyone else. Here the protection offered by a full moratorium on killing requires that we accept all of its implications. The challenge is to use medical science to make it a moot point. Proposition has therefore made a powerful argument in favour of better painkillers and more research into mentally debilitating illnesses. Many of those developments have come about as a result of the very human attributes prop is so keen to cite. Realising that they have an opportunity of future free of pain and illness, humans have found ways of delivering it. It is precisely because death can now be managed that the process of self-imposed triage prop suggests is increasingly unnecessary; a fact to be applauded, not discarded"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro03a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"The decision to die is a deeply personal one - it is no business of the state.  Ultimately, the decision to die is a personal one, it may affect others but, clearly it has the greatest impact on the person who decides to die.  Clearly those who remain behind will have to deal with the consequences of that death and the end of their relationship with that person but, one would hope, that would be the case if she had died of natural causes at a later date. Furthermore the experience of watching someone die can by as traumatic, or more so, for the carer or loved one than it is for the individual concerned.  What it clearly is not, is an issue for legislators and other strangers who have no connection to the person involved. There are deeply personal issues such as love, death, sex, and reproduction where we accept the state may have a role in the formal sense of preventing their abuse but otherwise should not have an opinion either way. With the right to die the state has maintained not only an opinion but a criminal sanction. This is a clear example of where the role of the state is to respect the individual and step back; legislation is far too cumbersome a tool with be used in circumstances as varied and complex as these.  Dealing with the loss of a loved one, particularly in a situation such as assisted suicide, is painful and traumatic enough for all concerned without adding to that the additional stress of a threat of criminal sanction."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con03b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"This risk can be mitigated by making it clear that the elderly, disabled, and others who may feel a burden are genuinely wanted as a part of society but that the right to die is there if they feel it is too much. Any right to die being allowed is not going to be as simple as going to the doctors and getting an injection. In any system there would be checks and balances put in place. There would probably be some form of application process, checks to see if there is any coercion and that it is what the individual really wants as well as probably some form of cooling off period after which the checks would probably be redone before they finally have their chance to exercise their right to die."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con01b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"The issue that Op highlights is the matter of intention, that the courts should not be interested in why someone took the decision to kill another person. However, that does not apply here as the intention is that of the person who has chosen to die. In a majority of nations suicide is already legal \u2013 the most spectacular exception to this being North Korea, a country with, otherwise, a fairly relaxed approach to the deaths of its citizens. Accepting the right to die simply extends the ability to do so to those who currently are incapable of performing the necessary procedure themselves [i] .  [i] BBC News Website. Right-to-die law appalling, says Health Minister Anna Soubry. 8 September 2012."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con02a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"Once the moral absolute is broken, there is no other credible point before the right to use becomes standardised.  It is easy to say that this social move would not lead to healthy thirty year olds walking into emergency rooms and asking to end it all because they had just broken up with their partner or been sacked. However, it\u2019s rather difficult to see why it should not. Proposition says that all this would do is extend the right to commit suicide to those currently incapable of performing the act themselves but that isn\u2019t so. It also extends the surety of success and of a medically painless procedure that is not available to the teenager with a razorblade or the bankrupt with a bottle of pills and another of vodka. For the sake of exactly the equality of approach, it seems only fair to do so. Proposition are attempting to pick the easy bits of the case but, by doing so, they leave contradictions in their case, why shouldn\u2019t the right to die be universal? They know the reason; society would reject the idea out of hand, regardless of its merits. As a result they draw an arbitrary line simply because it is difficult to argue this right as a response to poverty or grief or addiction. They could argue that all of those things \u201cmight\u201d get better. Well similarly a cure for cancer \u201cmight\u201d be invented. The only consistent argument is either a universal ban or a universal acceptance. Anything else is an argument about where to draw the line; such approaches tend to lead to a gradual, slippery descent away from the original intentions of legislators. Whatever the initial legislation, it would likely be a matter of days before the court cases started."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con04a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"The death of one individual has implications for others, which by definition, do not affect the suicide herself.  Even setting aside the religious concerns of many in this situation [i] , there are solid secular reasons for accepting the sanctity of life. First among them is the impact it has on the survivors. The relative who does not want a loved one to take their own life, or to die in the case of euthanasia. It is simply untrue that others are not affect by the death of the individual \u2013 someone needs to support that person emotionally and someone has to administer the injection. Because of the ties of love involved for relatives, they are, in effect, left with no choice but to agree regardless of their own views, the law should respect their position as well.  It further gives protection to doctors and others who would be involved in the procedure. Campaigners are keen to stress that doctors should be involved in the process whilst ignoring that, pretty much whenever they\u2019re asked doctors say they have no desire to have any part of it [ii] . Indeed it would be against the Hippocratic oath which while it is no longer always taken still sums up the duties of a doctor which includes doing no harm and includes \"And I will not give a drug that is deadly to anyone if asked, nor will I suggest the way to such a counsel.\" So ruling out euthanasia. [iii] Presumably, the very case that is so keen on the voluntary principle would also observe this compelling rejection by a group critical to the plan.  [i] Joint letter to the Telegraph. The terminally ill need care and protection \u2013 not help in committing suicide. The Most Rev Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury. The Most Rev Vincent Nichols, Archbishop of Westminster. Sir Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi.  [ii] Ella Pickover. Doctors Reject Assisted Suicide. The Independent. 28 June 2012 .  [iii] Sokol, Dr Daniel, \u2018A guide to the Hippocratic Oath\u2019, BBC News, 26 October 2008 ,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con03a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"There is a risk that even a free choice may have some coercion involved.  By far the biggest worry is that a right to die will create a silent form of coercion that cannot be detected. In the West\u2019s increasingly elderly society the role of older people in that society, their value and their continuing contribution is all too likely to be masked by the issue of the cost placed on those of working age. Even where older people do not face pressure from their families, society needs to be aware of this wider narrative. Such a narrative will slowly create a norm where the elderly feel that they are a burden and it is expected that they will exercise their right to die. The \u2018choice\u2019 will remain and they will even think it a choice free of coercion but will exercise their right not because they really want to die but because they feel it is what they ought to do, once the right to die is completely normalised those exercising it may not even consider that what they are doing is not really of their free will. Perceiving oneself as a burden is already a common cause of suicide [i] and would certainly increase if it were to no longer be considered taboo. Not having a right to die will not stop arguments about the burden placed on the working members of society by the elderly but it will stop this going any further towards the creation of a culture where individuals consider it normal that they should die when they feel they are a burden.  [i] Joiner, Thomas E. et al., \u2018The Psychology and Neurobiology of Suicidal Behaviour\u2019, Annual Review of Psychology, 10 September 2004, p.304 ."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con01a","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"It is impossible to frame a structure which respects the right to die for the individual but that cannot be abused by others.  In terms of moral absolutes, killing people is wrong sets the bar fairly low. Pretty much all societies have accepted this as a line that cannot be crossed without the explicit and specific agreement of the state which only happens in very rare circumstances such as in times of war.  There is a simple reason for a blanket ban. It allows for no caveats, no misunderstandings, no fudging of the issue, and no shades of grey. Again, the reason for this approach is equally simple; anything other than such a clear cut approach will inevitably be abused [i] . As things stand guilt in the case of murder is determined entirely on the basis that it is proven that someone took another life. Their reasons for doing so may be reflected in sentencing but the court is not required to consider whether someone was justified in killing another.  It is in the nature of a court case that it happens after the event and nobody other than the murderer and the deceased know what actually took place between them. If we take shaken baby syndrome cases as an example the parent still loves the child, they have acted in the madness of a moment out of frustration. It\u2019s still murder. Supporting a dying relative can be no less frustrating but killing them would still be murder, even where that comes after a prolonged period of coercion to fill in forms and achieve the appearance of consent. It would, however, be very hard to prove. At least with a baby we can assume consent was not given, that would not be the case here.  [i] Stephen Drake and Diane Coleman. \u2018Second Thoughts\u2019 Grow on Assisted Suicide. The Wall Street Journal. 5 August 2012."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con04b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"Obviously nobody is going to compel doctors or others in the medical profession to undertake a procedure of which they do not approve. Indeed doctors are routinely required to give independent advice - so that a patient is aware of the available options - without being required to perform a procedure themselves. The same is true with relatives or friends. There are many issues in life, where we may disagree with someone\u2019s decision but we respect their right to make that decision just as they respect ours to check that they have considered all the implications. In the case of the doctors this is simple professionalism, in the case of loved ones, respect."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elhbrd-con02b","title":"ethics life house believes right die","text":"It is not uncommon for legislation to apply in extreme circumstances and not in more routine ones \u2013 the right to use violence in defence of the home or self being just one example. If the legislation states that this relates to certain, terminal conditions and those patients shown to be of sound mind, then that\u2019s how the legislation works. Society gives the universal right to free education but not if you\u2019re 46 and decide that you should have done something different at school, the right is confined. That applies here and in most universal rights. Its aim is to solve one particular legal problem, not all of them."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro02b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Firstly, due to our larger and more sophisticated brains, one would expect the average human to have a great many more interests than any animal, for those interests to be more complex and interconnected, and for there to be a greater capacity for reflection and comprehension of the satisfaction gleaned from the realisation of such interests. Thus, we can ascribe greater value to the life of a human than an animal, and thus conclude there to be less harm in painlessly killing an animal than a human. Secondly, to the extent that research on animals is of benefit to humans, it is thus permissible to conduct experiments requiring euthanasia of the animal subjects. [1]  [1] Frey, R. G., \u201cMoral Standing: The Value of Life and Specieism\u201d, in La Follette (ed.), Ethics in Practice, (Malden, Mass; Oxford : Blackwell Pub, 2007)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro02a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animal research necessitates significant harm to the animals involved  Animal research, by its very nature necessitates harm to the animals. Even if they are not made to suffer as part of the experiment, the vast majority of animals used, must be killed at the conclusion of the experiment. With 115 million animals being used in the status quo this is no small issue. Even if we were to vastly reduce animal experimentation, releasing domesticated animals into the wild, would be a death sentence, and it hardly seems realistic to think that many behaviourally abnormal animals, often mice or rats, might be readily moveable into the pet trade. [1] It is prima fasciae obvious, that it is not in the interest of the animals involved to be killed, or harmed to such an extent that such killing might seem merciful. Even if the opposition counterargument, that animals lack the capacity to truly suffer, is believed, research should none the less be banned in order to prevent the death of millions of animals.  [1] European Commission, 1997. Euthanasia of experimental animals. Luxembourg: Office for official publications"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro03b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Most developed countries, including the United States and the member-states of the European Union, have regulations and laws which require the research methods that do not involve animal models should be used wherever they would produce equally accurate results. In other words, scientists are barred from using animals in research where non-animal methods would be just as effective.  Further, research animals are extremely expensive to breed, house and care for. Developed countries have very strict laws governing the welfare of animals used in research; obtaining the training and expert advice required to comply with these laws is costly. As a result, academic institutions and medical or pharmaceutical businesses function under constant pressure to find viable alternatives to using animals in research. Researchers have a strong motive to use alternatives to animal models wherever possible.  If we ban animal research even if research advances continue we will never know how much further and faster that research could have gone with the aid of experiments on animals. Animal research conducted today produces higher quality results than alternative research methodologies, and is thus it is likely necessary for it to remain in order for us to enjoy the rate of scientific advancement we have become used to in recent years. [1] Precisely because we never know where the next big breakthrough is going to come, we do not want to be narrowing research options. Instead, all options - computer models, tissue cultures, microdosing and animal experiments - should be explored, making it more likely that there will be a breakthrough.  [1] Ator, N. A., \u201cConducting Behavioural Research\u201d, in Akins, C. Panicker, S. & Cunningham, C. L (eds.), Laboratory animals in research and teaching: Ethics, care and methods, (Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, 2005, Ch. 3."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro05a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Would send a positive social message, increasing animal welfare rights more generally in society  Most countries have laws restricting the ways in which animals can be treated. These would ordinarily prohibit treating animals in the manner that animal research laboratories claim is necessary for their research. Thus legal exceptions such as the 1986 Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act in the UK exist to protect these organisations, from what would otherwise be a criminal offense. This creates a clear moral tension, as one group within society is able to inflect what to any other group would be illegal suffering and cruelty toward animals. If states are serious about persuading people against cock fighting, dancing bears, and the simple maltreatment of pets and farm animals, then such goals would be enhanced by a more consistent legal position about the treatment of animals by everyone in society."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro01a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animals have a right not to be harmed  The differences between us and other vertebrates are a matter of degree rather than kind. [1] Not only do they closely resemble us anatomically and physiologically, but so too do they behave in ways which seem to convey meaning. They recoil from pain, appear to express fear of a tormentor, and appear to take pleasure in activities; a point clear to anyone who has observed the behaviour of a pet dog on hearing the word \u201cwalk\u201d. Our reasons for believing that our fellow humans are capable of experiencing feelings like ourselves can surely only be that they resemble us both in appearance and behaviour (we cannot read their minds). Thus any animal sharing our anatomical, physiological, and behavioural characteristics is surely likely to have feelings like us. If we accept as true for sake of argument, that all humans have a right not to be harmed, simply by virtue of existing as a being of moral worth, then we must ask what makes animals so different. If animals can feel what we feel, and suffer as we suffer, then to discriminate merely on the arbitrary difference of belonging to a different species, is analogous to discriminating on the basis of any other morally arbitrary characteristic, such as race or sex. If sexual and racial moral discrimination is wrong, then so too is specieism. [2]  [1] Clark, S., The Nature of the Beast: are animals moral?, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1982)  [2] Singer, P., \u201cAll Animals are Equal\u201d, in La Follette (ed.), Ethics in Practice, (Malden, Mass; Oxford : Blackwell Pub, 2007)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro01b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animals do not have such a right not to be harmed; even if they are similar to humans in terms of their feelings (that opposition does not concede) this right is impossible to argue for. The right of a human not to be harmed is a part of a quid pro quo that we will also not do harm to others. Animals are unable to engage in such a contract either to us or to other animals. Animals are not about to stop hunting other animals because the animal that is hunted feel\u2019s pain when it is caught and it even if animal experimentation was to be ended it is unlikely that humanity would stop killing animals either for food, to prevent overpopulation or by accident all of which would have to be the case if animals feeling of pleasure and pain and resulting rights had to be taken into account."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro05b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"We do not have to justify cock fighting and other acts of animal cruelty as morally permissible. These are different acts to animal research in an important respect. It is not the intention of the researchers to harm the animals, but rather to produce high quality research for the betterment of human lives. Whilst it is true that in some cases harm to the animals is a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the research, this is minimised wherever possible, with pain killers, anaesthesia, and attempts to use other research means. There are many exceptions in law which maintain moral consistency due to the intention behind the act. For example, killing someone for money would be murder and illegal, whilst an exception might be made if you were killing in war, or self-defence, as the intention behind the act is held to be both different and morally just."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro04b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"We do not need to justify the moral value of severely cognitively disabled persons, although if we wanted to, we could invoke notions of kinship, and family as providing a justification for acting in an apparently specieist manner. [1] Rather, it is sufficient to highlight the point, that experimenting on humans of any cognitive function, carries with it certain negative externalities. Such persons are likely to have relatives who would be harmed by the knowledge that their loved ones are being used in medical experiments for example. Even in the case of such a person who lacks any relatives, broader society and disabled rights groups could be harmed by a policy that allows treating some disabled persons differently to the rest of our moral community.  Such externalities would make experimenting on animals, rather than such persons, both preferable and morally consistent.  [1] Fox, M. A., \u201cThe Moral Community\u201d, in La Follette (ed.), Ethics in Practice, (Malden, Mass; Oxford : Blackwell Pub, 2007)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro03a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Research can be done effectively without experimenting on living creature  As experimenting on animals is immoral we should stop using animals for experiments. But apart from it being morally wrong practically we will never know how much we will be able to advance without animal experimentation if we never stop experimenting on animals. Animal research has been the historical gold standard, and in the case of some chemical screening tests, was for many years, by many western states, required by law before a compound could be released on sale. Science and technology has moved faster than research protocols however, and so there is no longer a need for animals to be experimented on. We now know the chemical properties of most substances, and powerful computers allow us to predict the outcome of chemical interactions. Experimenting on live tissue culture also allows us to gain insight as to how living cells react when exposed to different substances, with no animals required. Even human skin leftover from operations provides an effective medium for experimentation, and being human, provides a more reliable guide to the likely impact on a human subject. The previous necessity of the use of animals is no longer a good excuse for continued use of animals for research. We would still retain all the benefits that previous animal research has brought us but should not engage in any more. Thus modern research has no excuse for using animals. [1]  [1] PETA. 2011. Alternatives: Testing Without Torture."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro04a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Some groups of people have less capacity for suffering than most animals  It is possible to conceive of human persons almost totally lacking in a capacity for suffering, or indeed a capacity to develop and possess interests. Take for example a person in a persistent vegetative state, or a person born with the most severe of cognitive impairments.  We can take three possible stances toward such persons within this debate. Firstly we could experiment on animals, but not such persons. This would be a morally inconsistent and specieist stance to adopt, and as such unsatisfactory. We could be morally consistent, and experiment on both animals and such persons. Common morality suggests that it would be abhorrent to conduct potentially painful medical research on the severely disabled, and so this stance seems equally unsatisfactory. Finally we could maintain moral consistency and avoid experimenting on the disabled, by adopting the stance of experimenting on neither group, thus prohibiting experimentation upon animals. [1]  [1] Fox, M. A., \u201cThe Moral Community\u201d, in La Follette (ed.), Ethics in Practice, (Malden, Mass; Oxford : Blackwell Pub, 2007)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con03b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"This again highlights some of the problems with animal research. In the UK example cited, animal testing had been done, and the dose given to the human volunteers was a tiny fraction of the dose shown to be safe in primates. Animal research is an unreliable indicator of how drugs will react in the human body, and as such alternatives should be sought and improved upon."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con01b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"To argue that the ends justify the means does not justify research upon animals. Firstly we do not know the extent to which animals are capable of holding interests or experiencing suffering, as they are unable to communicate with us. Our shared similarities give us cause to believe they must have at least a truncated experience of the world to us, but we cannot know the level of that truncation. Thus in order to avoid committing a significant moral harm upon a being we do not fully understand, a precautionary principle of non-experimentation would be well advised. Secondly, even if we would be achieving a net gain on the utilitarian calculator, that is insufficient justification on its own. By that same logic, experimenting on one person to save the lives of many could be justified, even if it caused them suffering, and even if they did not consent. Common morality suggests that this is an objectionable position to hold, as the moral principle would allow us to treat any being as a means to an end rather than existing as a being of independent value. [1] In short such logic would allow us to experiment not only on animals but also on non-consenting people, and we posit that to be an unreasonable position to hold in this debate.  [1] Crisp. R., Mill on Utilitarianism, (Routledge, 1997)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con02a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"People would die and suffer needlessly under such a policy  23 new drugs are introduced each year in the United Kingdom alone . [1] . While almost all of these drugs will have been brought to the market after extensive animal testing, the number of animals used to check their safety only seems to be a high cost when the benefits that each drug brings to its users are inadequately considered.  New drugs that are approved for medical use have the potential to relieve human pain and suffering not only for the first group of patients given access to them, but also for future generations of sick and suffering individuals too. Consider all the lives, all over the world, that have benefitted from penicillin since its discovery in 1928. If drugs cost more to research and develop, then that reduces potential profit margins, and some drugs that would have otherwise been discovered and released will fall below the new threshold of likely profits necessary to fund the research. Adopting this proposition will lead to more people suffering and dying in the future than would have otherwise been the case.  [1] BBC News. 2013. Falling drug breakthroughs 'a myth'."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con05a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animals involved in animal research are mostly well treated.  The vast majority of animals used in research are not subjected to suffering. Where there may be pain, they are given painkillers, and when they are euthanized it is done humanely. [1] They are looked after well, as the health of the animals is usually not only required by law and good practice, but beneficial for the experimental results. Many of these animals live better lives than they might have done had they been born into the wild. Many animals, and indeed humans, die untimely deaths that are due to reasons other than old age, animal experimentation may increase these numbers slightly but so long as the animals are treated well there should be no moral objection to animal research. If the foundation of the argument for banning animal experimentation is therefore based upon the cruel treatment and pain suffered by animals then this is a reason for regulation to make sure there is very little suffering rather than an outright ban.  [1] Herzog, H., \u201cDealing With the Animal Research Controversy\u201d, in Akins, C. Panicker, S. & Cunningham, C. L (eds.), Laboratory animals in research and teaching: Ethics, care and methods, (Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, 2005, Ch. 1."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con04a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animal research is only used where other research methods are not suitable  Developed countries, including the US and all members of the EU (since EU Directive 2010\/63\/EU) have created laws and professional regulations that prevent scientists from using animals for research if other, non-animal research methods would produce equally clear and detailed results.  The principle described above is also enshrined in the \"3Rs\" doctrine, which states that researchers and their employers have a duty to identify ways to refine experiments conducted on animals, so that yield better results and cause less suffering; replace animals used in research the non-animal alternatives where possible; and reduce the number of animals used in research. Not only does the 3Rs doctrine represent a practical way to reconcile the necessity of animal research with the universal human desire not to cause suffering, it also drives scientists to increase the overall quality of the research that they conduct. Governments and academic institutions take the 3Rs doctrine very seriously. In EU countries scientists are required to show that they have considered other methods of research before being granted a license for an animal experiment.  There are a huge number of ways of learning about our physiology and the pathologies which affect it, including to computer models, cell cultures, animal models, human microdosing and population studies. These methods are used to complement one another, for example animal models may well produce data that creates a computer model. Nonetheless, there is some research which cannot be done any other way. It is difficult to understand the interaction of specific sets of genes without being able to change only these genes \u2013 something possible through genetically modified animals.  Finally, as noted above, given the high cost of conducting animal research relative to other methods, there is a financial incentive for institutions to adopt non-animal methods where they produce as useful and accurate results."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con03a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animal research is necessary for the development of truly novel substances  Undoubtedly then, the most beneficial research to mankind is the development of truly novel drugs. Even according to the proposition this represents about a quarter of all new drugs released, which could be seen as significant given the great potential to relieve the suffering beyond our current capacity that such drugs promise.  After the effects, side effects and more complex interactions of a drug have been confirmed using animal and non-animal testing, it will usually pass to what is called a phase I clinical trial - tests on human volunteers to confirm how the drug will interact with human physiology and what dosages it should be administered in. The risk of a human volunteer involved in a phase I trial being harmed is extremely small, but only because animal tests, along with non-animal screening methods are a highly effective way of ensuring that dangerous novel drugs are not administered to humans. In the United Kingdom, over the past twenty years or more, there have been no human deaths as a result of phase I clinical trials.  Novel compounds (as opposed to so-called \"me-too\" drugs, that make slight changes to an existing treatment) are the substances that hold the most promise for improving human lives and treating previously incurable conditions. However, their novelty is also the reason why it is difficult for scientists to predict whether they may cause harm to humans.  Research into novel compounds would not be possible without either animal testing, or tremendous risk to human subjects, with inevitable suffering and death on the part of the trial volunteers on some occasions. It is difficult to believe that in such circumstances anyone would volunteer, and that even if they did, pharmaceutical companies would be willing to risk the potential legal consequences of administering a substance to them they knew relatively little about. In short, development of novel drugs requires animal experimentation, and would be impossible under the proposition's policy."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con05b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"This logic assumes that one positive moral action can cancel out a negative moral action. That an animal is well treated before being involved in animal testing and its suffering during testing is kept to a minimum does not balance the very real suffering the animal experiences during the experiments themselves. Regulation would not be helpful in addressing this contradiction as the suffering during the experiments could never be eliminated as if we knew the effects the experiment will have on the animal the experiment would not be necessary in the first place."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con01a","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Animals' rights are of less moral worth than human rights  Humans are complex beings with large well developed brains, that form sizeable social groups, have significant ability to communicate with one another, possess interconnected desires, preferences and interests about the world, have an awareness of their own existence and mortality, and as such are beings worthy of moral consideration. Animals too express some of these characteristics to some degree and thus animals too are worthy of moral consideration. However, animal lives and human lives are of unequal value. This is due to the fact that no animal possesses all of these characteristics to the same degree as the average human, or even comes particularly close. Thus any rights ascribed to animals should be truncated relative to the rights we ascribe to humans. [1] Therefore animals should not rightly possess the same rights to not be experimented upon as humans might. To the extent to which causing some harm to animals brings great benefit to humans, we are morally justified in creating some moral harm, to achieve a far greater moral good.  [1] Frey, R. G., \u201cMoral Standing: The Value of Life and Speciesism\u201d, in La Follette (ed.), Ethics in Practice, (Malden, Mass; Oxford : Blackwell Pub, 2007)"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con04b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"The opposition's conclusions can be attacked in three ways. First, countries that are less economically developed than wealthy North American and European states are not likely to support rules or laws similar to the 3Rs doctrine or Directive 2010\/63\/EU. In these countries, low animal welfare standards often mean that animal research is cheaper relative to the cost of non-animal methods such as computer models or cell cultures.  Second, across the world, researchers tend to specialise in certain fields. Animal researchers tend to involve animal work in most of their projects, meaning that they may be less aware of alternative methods that could be used. Essentially, an individual who has spent their entire career as an animal researcher is likely to see all scientific problems in their field of research as solvable through animal experiments.  Finally, toxicology work on new drugs (and sometimes other products) still legally requires animal testing in most countries of the world. The length of time it took to introduce the EU ban on animal testing for cosmetic testing shows the difficulties faced by governments in adopting new methods of regulating animal research."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-apessghwba-con02b","title":"animals philosophy ethics science science general house would ban animal","text":"Firstly the vast majority of drugs released today (around 75%) are so called \u201cme too\u201d drugs that add little, if any genuine innovation to the existing body of pharmaceuticals in production. Rather, they represent only a slight molecular tweak on an existing drug line. Such drugs rarely save lives or even relieve much suffering upon their release, as they are only very slightly better, for only some patients, than the drugs available prior to its release. [1] None the less, the development of only technically novel compounds is used as a justification for research on animals, even when the benefit from such research is marginal at best. Secondly, even if there was a small increase in future human suffering, relative to a future where such a policy was not adopted, it would be worth it due to the saving of so much animal suffering, and the moral impermissibility of inflicting that for our own gains.  All this is notwithstanding the proposition point that much of the research does not necessitate animal testing.  [1] Stanford Medical Magazine. 2005. Me-too drugs: Sometimes They\u2019re Just The Same Old, Same Old."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro02b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"To look at life simply as a tool for producing greater good reduces it to a numbers game. Humans are all vastly different and to suggest that one can accurately measure the \u2018good\u2019 they experience or produce misunderstands the complexity of what it means to be human. Unfortunately simply saying that killing one person to save five produces more good does not deal with the moral issue at hand. If we abducted one person and used their organs to save five dying people we would consider that to be wrong. The principle is that same: kill one to save five."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro02a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"More \u2018good\u2019 is produced by saving five lives than saving one  When any life is removed so too is the future good that life may produce; all of the good that person would have experienced as well as all of the good they could have brought to other people\u2019s lives will no longer occur. It is difficult to say precisely how much good a person may bring. However, it is fair to assume that saving five people brings with it a greater chance of higher levels of \u2018good\u2019. Considering the fact that one does not know anything about the people on the tracks one must assume that there will be five times more \u2018good\u2019 produced by saving their lives than if the one person is saved."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro03b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"We do not always choose the most rational course of action. If we do not know anything about who we are in the situation we still know that if the one person is killed then their life has been unfairly ended. If the five people die then we know that this is an accident. Therefore we might still choose to allow the five people to die. This is because we can still decide the right or wrong of the situation and choose not to make the decision based on self interest."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro01a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"As humans we try to save as many people as possible  There exists a basic right to life which, as humans, we try to follow. Killing others is outlawed because we generally believe that every person has the right to live their life and no one else has the right to take that life away. In the situation with the train there are two possible outcomes which both lead to life being cut short. Due to the fact that we place such value on life we have a duty to reduce the number of people who die. One ought to commit the act that results in the fewest deaths, and this is to kill the one and save the five."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro01b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"People suffer unfortunate deaths on a daily basis. The fact that people die in accidents does not necessarily mean that their right to life has been violated. Therefore, if one lets the train run its course five people will suffer an unfortunate accident. The real violation of rights in this situation is the action of changing the course of the train. The single person on the track is in no immediate danger. However, by changing the course of the train one is actively participating in the removal of that person\u2019s life. If we believe that a person has the right not to be murdered then pulling the lever is a violation of that right."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro03a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"Killing one person is the rational choice  The philosopher John Rawls came up with a thought experiment to discover the right way to organize a society. When people talk about how society should be organized they generally take their own situation and interests into account. Rawls asked us to imagine a situation in which we do not know anything at all about our own lives and then try to organize society? Without knowing anything about our wealth, intelligence, personality, race, gender, religion etc., we would create the fairest society. This is because without knowing who we are we have no idea where we will be in society once it has been organized. So, in order to make sure we have the best chance to be treated fairly we create a society in which all people are treated fairly. The same experiment can be applied to the train problem. If we do not know anything about who we are in the experiment we would chose to kill the one person. This is because there is a greater chance of us being one of the five people and so killing the one person gives us the best chance to survive."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con03b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"Our feelings are clouded by the way the situation is presented and so we cannot use feeling as a way to decide what to do. For example, most people instinctively say that they would pull the lever to save the five people. However, if the case is presented differently and to save the five people you have to push a man onto the track to stop the train then most people will say not to do it. The two situations are morally identical; the only change is the physical act that needs to be done. Therefore it is clear that our feelings can change despite the principle staying the same."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con01b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"Choosing not to act in the situation is still a choice and does not remove the responsibility in the situation. If someone stands by and watched as another person drowns, even though they could have rescued them, then they are no better than the murderer who participates in a person\u2019s death. The idea that active killing only relates to taking action to cause death is wrong. When one has the ability to prevent death then one is actively involved in the situation whether one chooses to accept it or not."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con02a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"We cannot make any judgments about whose life is valuable and whose is not  It is impossible to know what any of the people involved in the situation will do with their life. One might be a serial killer while another might be a life-saving doctor. By attempting to use some sort of calculation in the scenario we are presuming that we have more knowledge than we actually do. In reality we are totally ignorant to the right course of action and doing anything in the situation could be a terrible mistake that causes a lot of pain and suffering in the future."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con05a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"The act of killing is emotionally damaging  To actually be involved in the death of another person is an incredibly traumatic experience. Soldiers coming back from war often suffer from \u2018post-traumatic stress disorder\u2019 which suggests that being in a situation in which you have to take another persons life has a long lasting impact on your mental health. This is also true for people who are not directly involved in the act of killing. For instance, the people who worked on developing the atomic bomb described an incredible guilt for what they had created even though they were not involved in the decision to drop the bombs. The same traumatic experiences would likely affect the person responsible for pulling the lever."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con04a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"We do not want a society in which killing can be acceptable  As soon as we agree that there are situations where killing is acceptable we have reason to fear for our own safety. By accepting killing in certain situations society as a whole becomes more open to the idea. It then becomes hard to draw the line as to where killing is acceptable and where killing is unacceptable. It is much better to outlaw all instances of killing so that we have a general moral standard to follow in all situations."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con06b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"In the train example there is no one else around and it is only you that can save the five lives. With the charity example there are many other ways in which the lives can be saved; governments can save them or other people can donate money. Therefore the moral duty to act is dramatically reduced."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con06a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"Utilitarianism is demanding  If we choose to save the five people just because we have the power to do so then we also have to consider all the other lives that are in our power to save. It is in our power to donate all of our excess money to charity to save lives and so we must also do this. Actions like this are worthy of praise but no one would suggest that we have a duty to do them."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con03a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"We instinctively know killing is wrong  While sometimes our feelings as to what is right and what is wrong are not accurate they are needed when thinking about morality. If a theory is well argued and thought out but goes against our feelings as to what is right and wrong then we will dismiss it. Most people have the feeling that killing is wrong and so to partake in any action that leads to the death of another is also wrong."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con05b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"The same traumatic affect would also result from not pulling the lever. One must still cope with the fact that one could have saved the five lives. Post traumatic stress disorder can be brought on by experience with horrific death regardless of whether or not the sufferer caused the death."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con01a","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"Killing is worse than letting someone die  People die in accidents and by natural cause all of the time. However, it is much rarer for a person to be actively involved in another person\u2019s death. If one chooses to pull the lever and change the course of the train then one is actively participating in the death of the one person. The other option involves no action; it simply allows a set of events to run their course. There is, therefore, a greater responsibility involved in being actively involved in the death of another."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con04b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"The specific circumstances of every case need to be taken into account. In this case someone will definitely lose their life and one\u2019s decision is to decide how to minimize the damage done. It is wrong to suggest that this is an act of killing; instead it is an attempt to reduce the number of deaths in a tragic situation. Pulling the lever is not an act that the person would do if the five people were not tied down and so it is very different from an act of intentional murder."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-elkosmj-con02b","title":"ethics life kill one save many junior","text":"Given that we don\u2019t know anything about these individuals all we have to work with are the numbers. If you take five random people and one random person then there is a greater chance that among the five people there is a life saving doctor. The only time this is not true is if the average person has a negative effect on the world. However, if this is the case we would always have to act in a way that fewest people survived which is absurd."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro02b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"If there is even a slight injustice, then there is a problem worth addressing. It is a fact that recent anti-terrorism legislation, in nearly all western countries, has been used for a variety of uses from international banking [1] to petty thievery. This is obviously beyond the original intentions of these measures; something that should not be taken lightly.  [1] Wintour, Patrick, and Gillan, Audrey, \u2018Lost in Iceland: \u00a31billion from councils, charities and police\u2019, 10 October 2008,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro02a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The apparent loss of liberty is overstated.  Negative cases of security abuse are few and have been greatly exaggerated by an emphatic civil rights lobby that has no empathy for the victims of terrorism. Of course, with any wide-scale attempt to fight terrorism there are bound to be a few cases of abuse of security measures. For example in the UK terrorism suspects were originally detained without charge under the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act however the detention was declared unlawful by the law lords in 2005 so the government introduced new scaled back policies such as \u2018control orders\u2019. [1] Therefore government has always been willing to scale back its security legislation when the courts believe it goes too far. Nonetheless it is not a good idea to shut down all security measures under a pretext that they violate rights [2] . The majority of the measures are intended to safeguard those civil liberties instead of abusing them.  [1] Hewitt, Steve, THE BRITISH WAR ON TERROR TIMELINE, Libertas, 2007,  , accessed 9 September 2011  [2] Stratton, Allegra and Wintour, Patrick, \u2018Nick Clegg goes to war with Labour over civil liberties\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 13 April 2010,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro03b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The opposition does not except the importance of legalisation like the US Patriot Act, as such legislation is always used for aims it was not originally intended for example when it is being used to investigate media companies dedicated to free speech - Wikileaks [1] . The fact that western countries are already quite liberal should not be an argument for why that has to change. Should we not be moving forwards towards even more freedoms for citizens instead of backwards?  [1] IBTimes Staff Reporter, \u2018Wikileaks: U.S. Seeks Assange Info Through Patriot Act\u2019, 24 August 2011,  , accessed 9 September 2009"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro05a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The argument is about practicality and the balancing of risks.  It would be incredibly disingenuous of the opposition if they did not concede that the dangers are great and that something must be done. Because, deep down, everyone knows that it is simply a balancing of risks \u2013 in practice all the government is trying to do is save lives. It is of course, the government\u2019s primary duty to protect citizens but this can only be done with the loss of some civil liberties. These liberties will of course still be completely protected by the courts. When it comes to the issue of life and death, it is the proposition\u2019s hope that a few civil liberties would be only willingly given up by any prudent citizen."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro01a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"National security is something that must be protected even at the cost of  Terrorism is part of the modern world and is inextricably linked with the rise of modern communications, the internet, and a global community. This is an age in which space and time are bending to the tune of new media \u2013 information at your fingertips may sound nice, but for those who want to destroy, it only makes their object easier to attain. And so more strict national security measures must be employed in order to keep up with the enemy. Escalation is the name of the game imposed on governments around the world by terrorists for example the Mumbai terrorists used GPS systems to guide them into Mumbai, attacks were coordinated on cell and satellite phones and Blackberrys were used to monitor the international reaction [1] . In order to keep up states need new powers to stop, deter, and prevent terrorism. The government needs to secure state-security first; only then can the debate on civil liberties begin, and only then.  [1] Shachtman, Noah, \u2018How Gadgets Helped Mumbai Attackers\u2019, Wired, 1 December 2008,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro01b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"Nothing justifies some of the security measures taken by western governments. The ancient western conventions of the accused being innocent until proven guilty and his right to a fair trial have both been undermined [1] by the recent Labour administration in the UK. And all in the name of security. The trade-off has gone too far; liberty is something that must be protected at all costs \u2013 it seems that governments the world over have forgotten that the whole point of the state is too protect citizens liberty, not destroy it.  [1] BBC News, \u2018A brief history of habeas corpus\u2019, 9 March 2005,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro05b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The issue would indeed by easy to solve if what the proposition spoke of was the whole story. Unfortunately, the legal measures put in place will always be open to abuse and so, as all power corrupts \u2013 and as absolute power corrupts absolutely \u2013 the more and more power we give to the authorities the more and more abuse and corruption we will witness. We have seen what happens with big, powerful governments; this is a historical rule, without exception."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro04b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"Granted, the measures are implemented with popular support; the opposition cannot argue against this. However, to claim that democracy has some inherent value beyond providing a stable society is na\u00efve. Democracy is, in this example, simply the tyranny of the majority \u2013 populist measures like unjust anti-terrorism legislation holds no currency in reasoned debate."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro03a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"Western countries already benefit from extremely liberal laws.  The USA is at present far better than most countries in their respect and regard for civil liberties. New security measures do not greatly compromise this liberty, and the US measures are at the very least comparable with similar measures already in effect in other democratic developed countries, e.g. Spain and the UK, which have had to cope with domestic terrorism for far longer than the USA. The facts speak for themselves \u2013 the USA enjoys a healthy western-liberalism the likes of which most of the world\u2019s people cannot even conceive of. The issue of the erosion of a few minor liberties of (states like the US\u2019s) citizens should be overlooked in favour of the much greater issue of protecting the very existence of that state. [1]  [1] Zetter, Kim, \u2018The Patriot Act Is Your Friend\u2019, Wired, 24 February 2004,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro04a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"It is with the popular support of the public that security measures are taken.  Let us not forget that is with the consent of the public that these security measures are taken, CCTV for example was a populist measure that has often been considered a threat to civil liberties [1] . It is in line with democratic ideals; the majority of the country wants greater security [2] . For example in 2005 59% of Americans wanted the Patriot Act extended. [3] And because democracy embodies all those values we are fighting for \u2013 freedom and equality included- we must adhere to a democratic spirit when deciding on how to organise ourselves or else risk falling into the same mind-set as those terrorists themselves.  [1] Norris, Clive, McCahill, Mike and Wood, David, \u2018Editorial. The Growth of CCTV: a global perspective on the international diffusion of video surveillance in publically accessible space\u2019, Surveillance & Society, 2(2\/4):110-135, 2004,  (2)\/editorial.pdf, accessed 9 September 2011  [2] Law Council of Australia, \u2018Politics and Populism win out at anti-terror summit\u2019, 30 September 2005,   [3] Langer, Gary, \u2018Poll: Support Seen for Patriot Act\u2019, ABCnews, 9 June 2005,  , accessed 9"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con03b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"If the opposition\u2019s argument is correct then there is simply no way to win. The argument is illogical; they would have the terrorists pick us off slowly until we were all victims all because we simply let them. In short, governments have to do something instead of being completely irrational and holding the immature high ground \u2013 \u201cletting them win\u201d is a childish argument."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con01b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The proposition can point to the clear acts of terrorism of recent years that have proven difficult to combat and fatal to so many thousands. What the opposition is asking is to simply disregard all these facts on principle, and on principle only; this is overly idealistic and na\u00efve to the extent where people\u2019s lives would be put at risk. To question the motives of democratically accountable governments is a separate question; this is about terrorism and how to stop it; it\u2019s about life and death, and how best protect the former and stop (by all means necessary) the latter."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con02a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The loss of individual liberty is the start of a slippery slope.  The proposition puts us in a dangerous place. That situation is the thin edge of a totalitarian wedge \u2013 we must take a principled stand for liberty and stop the increasing number of anti-terrorist legislation and over powerful policing powers. Many evil events in history started with good intentions and few cases of injustice. Allowing even a few abuses as an acceptable side effect of improved security will change the tolerance level of the public and lead to a belief that rights such as the presumption of innocence and habeas corpus (which prevents the state from imprisoning someone without charging them with a crime and then trying them) are a negotiable luxury. Furthermore, abuses of the system are likely to victimise certain minority groups (e.g. Muslims, Arab-Americans) in the same way that Japanese-Americans and many other groups were persecuted in World War II, [1] something about which Americans are now rightly ashamed.  [1] Hummel, Jeffrey Rogers, \u2018Not Just Japanese Americans: The Untold Story of U.S. Repression During 'The Good War'\u2019, The Journal of Historical Review, Fall 1987 (Vol. 7, No. 3),  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con05a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"In the public\u2019s eyes, the government seems to suspect everyone.  Although the anti-terrorist measures are supposed to be trying to catch certain people, it is the whole of the public who have to suffer on a daily basis: an abundance of security cameras, security checks, and anti-privacy measures continually invade innocent people\u2019s lives and yet it is supposed to be the terrorists who are being punished. The issue of justice, and whether it is actually being done, has to be fully looked at properly. These measures are not solving the problem of terrorism as it does not address the core grievances. Instead other ways such as negotiation to address grievances is necessary, as happened in Northern Ireland [1] .  [1] Bowcott, Owen, \u2018Northern Ireland\u2019, The Guardian, 11 May 2007,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con04a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"It impedes economic progress.  Extra-security measures only impede, or halt the flow of trade [1] , make the country harder to deal with - less internationally \u2018friendly\u2019, and disrupt communities. Security states almost always have slower growth than freer states because there is extra red tape, transport networks are slowed down, for example airport check ins take much longer. The U.S. Travel Association, says on average, in the United States as a result of the airport security measures each person avoids two to three trips a year because of the hassles of airport-security screening. That amounts to an estimated $85 billion in lost business for hotels, restaurants, airlines and other travel suppliers. [2] And this is even before the losses caused by unproductive hours, and deterred investment. All these things will decrease incomes and GDP growth.  [1] Verrue, Robert, \u2018Tighter Security Must Not Slow Down World Trade\u2019, The European institute, Spring 2004,   [2] McCartney, Scott, \u2018Aiming to Balance Security and Convenience\u2019, Wall Street Journal, 1 September 2011,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con03a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"It would be letting the terrorists win  It is the aim of all terrorists to influence by violent means government policy. If we changed how our country was run we would be letting the terrorists win \u2013 they would be getting what they wanted. If we changed the way we lived [1] , greater security measures or something else, we would be shaping our society to the tune of the terrorist. So more security measures at airports limit the freedom to travel, turning the country into a surveillance society makes everyone nervous; ultimately the country is no longer the same as it was having lost the freedoms which are the best way to combat terrorism. This is something perversely wrong.  [1] Symanovich, Steve, \u2018If you don\u2019t read this, the terrorists win\u2019, Washington Business Journal, 24 December 2001,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con05b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"This is just like any other investigation. Obviously the government has to take a broad approach because any loophole could be exploited by the unscrupulous terrorist. It is a necessity, albeit one with unfortunate consequences, but a necessity all the same. As for negotiations with terrorists, it is the propositions view that this option does not exist when dealing with terrorists of a fundamentalist background, who are, by definition, not willing to compromise and therefore unable to be negotiated with."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con01a","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"The threat of terrorism and security risks are overstated.  The threat of terrorism is greatly over exaggerated. Western governments all over the world are effectively selling the threat of terrorism to their citizens in order to increase their powers of control. The threat, however, has to be exaggerated in order for the electorate to believe that the security measures are needed. The motives of governments doing this vary; some just want the new security measures to make their jobs easier; others however, see it as an opportunity to increase state control and power over the average citizen. There is not enough evidence to show that terrorism has evolved into something more threatening since than it had been for several decades. For example there was the bombing of Pan Am 103 in 1988 killing 270 people or the 1983 bombing of the US embassy in Beirut which killed 63. [1] While the scale is smaller than the 9\/11 attacks they are just as terrible and were met with a much more measured response that did not involve infringing civil liberties. Governments are likely to take advantage of anti-terrorist mania and seize the moment to strengthen their regimes. Modern government bodies fighting terrorism are sophisticated enough to counteract terrorism with little use of 'draconian' measures. It is not acceptable to curb citizen rights because of isolated events.  [1] PBS Frontline, \u2018terrorist attacks on americans, 1979-1988\u2019,  , accessed 9 September 2011"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con04b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"Admittedly, extra-security measures do halt economic growth. But then again, so do a lot of things like inertia, or lack of consumer confidence. It is, however, a matter of degree; if the trade-off is between a lessening of economic growth and lives saved, then it is not hard to decide in which direction reason is behind. When lives are saved the economy benefits as those people will remain productive workers. And having lots of security is not all negative, the security business does very well."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con02b","title":"political philosophy house believes civil liberties should be sacrificed","text":"If the opposition is citing examples from history then there are just as many examples, if not more, of western governments resisting the corrupting effects of increased power and turning not from good into evil intentions. The fact of the matter is that most of today\u2019s western nations have a relatively good track record. It seems the opposition is once again forgetting the real enemy \u2013 the terrorists. In most Western countries we have a fully independent and liberal judiciary, vigorously and vigilantly watching for human rights abuses and protecting civil liberties. For nearly all Western countries, a slippery slope simply does not exist."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro02b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"There is little or no evidence of bias in universities admissions procedures. Universities admissions departments go to great lengths to ensure fairness, not least because it is in their own self-interest to take only the best applicants, to maintain the intellectual credibility of their institution. Any overt or explicit discrimination would be illegal, and should be guarded against by using a wide range of admissions procedures and interview (where applicable) by more than one academic. Any charge of prejudice would be an argument for \u2018colour-blind\u2019 (or school-blind) admissions, in which the background of the applicant is hidden from the admissions officer, so as to prevent any possibility of discrimination, subconscious or otherwise. The presence of positive discrimination would, if anything, raise the incidence of racism and prejudice on university campuses, with lecturers and fellow students resentful of members of the university perceived to have been given a helping hand."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro02a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Overcomes prejudice  Affirmative action is required to overcome existing prejudice in universities\u2019 admissions procedures. There is clear prejudice in the job market, as shown in a study by Marianne Bertrand, an associate professor at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, and Sendhil Mullainathan of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [1] [2] Following this line of thinking, it is therefore not a far-fetched idea that admissions departments in top universities are likely to be discriminating against applicants from minority backgrounds, even if this process is not deliberate. A senior academic will look to see in applicants qualities they see in themselves, so, given the overwhelmingly white, affluent, male makeup of the academic community, minorities are at a disadvantage even if the admissions officer is not intending to discriminate against them. Prejudice towards certain types of applicants is blatantly unfair, and also undermines meritocracy (as explained above). Since we do not expect applicants from minority backgrounds to actually be worse applicants, it makes sense to require universities to take more of them, so as to protect the system from any bias that may exist.  [1] Bertrand, M. \u201cRacial Bias in Hiring\u201d. Spring 2003.   [2] BBC News Magazine. \u201cIs it wrong to note 100m winners are always black?\u201d August 27, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro03b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Positive discrimination will increase negative perceptions of university. Far from changing attitudes about campus life among disadvantaged groups, positive discrimination is likely to be seen as patronising, belittling of the achievements of ethnic minorities and the working class, and serve to reinforce negative stereotypes15. By making the statement that disadvantaged groups are so far behind the rest that they need discrimination in their favour and quotas, universities will alienate themselves from the group they are seeking to help, and will come over as elitist. Survey evidence suggests that affirmative action is usually opposed by the target group, affirming the view that people wish to achieve things for themselves, without being given a \u2018leg-up\u2019 by the state. Moreover, positive discrimination devalues the achievements of those who would have been accepted into university even without the assistance, and these people are likely to be deterred from applying."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro01a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Equality of opportunity  Affirmative action is required for equality of opportunity. Under the status quo, it is easier for students who go to better schools to get into university. This is reflected in data from the UK - Oxford and Cambridge universities (the top academic institutions) take more than 50% of their students from private schools, despite 93% of UK schoolchildren state educated. [1] In addition, there is a clear underrepresentation of ethnic minorities in these universities. [2] A similar story is evident with regards to ethnic minorities in the USA - white students are more likely to graduate from high school and go to college than black and Hispanic ones. [3] [4] These examples reflect the opportunities granted to wealthier children from particular socioeconomic and racial groups, whose superior education and less disruptive home lives give them a leg-up. It is unfair that such random aspects, which have nothing to do with talent or hard work, have such a determining influence on one\u2019s life chances. Moreover, it undermines meritocracy \u2013 by allowing the rich to be advantaged, we create a society in which wealth, rather than ability, is rewarded.  [1] Sagar, P. \u201cThe truth about Oxbridge admissions: a reply To Dave Osler\u201d. Liberal Conspiracy. May 21, 2010.   [2] Vasagar, J. \u201cTwenty-one Oxbridge colleges took no black students last year\u201d. The Guardian. December, 2010.   [3] Orfield, Gary, et al., 'Losing Our Future; How Minority Youth Are Being Left Behind by the Graduation Rate Crisis', Urban Institute, 25 February 2004,   [4] Marklein, M.B. \u201cMinority enrollment in college still lagging\u201d. USA TODAY. October, 2006."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro01b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Though affirmative action wishes to create an equality of opportunity for the poor and ethnic minorities, it also creates an unfair situation in which talented students lose their places. Ability may ultimately not be rewarded as the whole point of affirmative action is to promote a less able applicant ahead of a more able one, measured by their test scores. It undermines the fairness of the system if reasonable objective measures of a person\u2019s ability, such as exam performance and aptitude testing, are overlooked. Under a system of positive discrimination, able students from the majority group or who went to private school are required to achieve more than others to get the same reward. Furthermore, positive discrimination is bad for the talented students from the target group who would get into university even without affirmative action: the policy will undermine their achievement, making their peers (and even them) believe that they only got to where they were because of different standards. It would create a two-tiered university system, in which the achievements of one group were elevated above the achievements of another."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro04b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Quotas create stigmas and enforce negative stereotypes about ethnic minorities. It means that students from these groups are incapable of entering universities on their own. And during their time at university, the students may face the stigma of being known as a \u201cquota student\u201d. This may cause students to feel inferior and lose self-confidence, and this may ultimately affect their academic performance. In addition, quotas do not solve the root cause of the problem. The best way to help the poor and ethnic minorities is through investments in public schools and basic services so that at the end of the day, admission tests are a true reflection of academic ability and not as a result of economy and geography. [1]  [1] Stahlberg, S.G. \u201cRacial Inequality and Affirmative Action in Education in Brazil\u201d. August 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro03a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Changes negative perceptions of university life  Affirmative action is required to change negative perceptions of university life. In the status quo, many talented potential students are put off applying for top universities (or university at all) because of their negative perceptions of elite institutions. This perception exists in part because of the makeup of the student population \u2013 black high school students may see a university filled overwhelmingly with white lecturers and students as not being a welcoming environment for them, and may even perceive it as racist. [1] The only way to overcome this unfortunate stereotype of university is to change the student population, but this is impossible to do \u2018organically\u2019 while so few people from minority backgrounds apply. Therefore, it is necessary to use quotas and other forms of affirmative action, to change the student body in the short term, and encourage applications from more disadvantaged students in the long term.  [1] Ancis, J.R. \u201cStudent perceptions of campus cultural climate by race\u201d. Journal of Counselling and Development. Spring 2000."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro04a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Increase the number of Minorities  College admission processes are impersonal and favourably biased towards white, affluent students \u2013 therefore, quotas specifically for minority students need to be established. College admissions processes are as such because they heavily rely on standard tests or college admission exams. This has caused countries such as Brazil to create quotas for brown (mixed) and black students in most universities. [1] These students cannot afford the better education enjoyed by their rich, white counterparts, and therefore do not perform well in college exams and do not gain admission into university. Quotas are needed to make the admission process a little bit fairer and increase the number of minorities in university campuses.  [1] Stahlberg, S.G. \u201cRacial Inequality and Affirmative Action in Education in Brazil\u201d. August 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con03b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Affirmative action has never sort to be the cure for underlying social problems. The goal of positive discrimination is to level out the playing field for admission procedures; and create opportunities for disadvantaged groups. In a society in which sweeping societal reforms that benefit minorities are not forthcoming, affirmative action may be regarded as an immediate solution which counteracts the continual injustice faced by certain groups."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con01b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"By having more students from disadvantaged backgrounds get into university and ultimately have access to top professions, and more likely to enter politics, law, or become the heads of major corporations, affirmative action will generate more role models for the poor and ethnic minorities. As a consequence, the aspirations of disadvantaged youths will change \u2013 it will become more realistic for them to see themselves in public life, and will thus have a better incentive to work hard at school. Not only is this good for their own development, but it will also help wider society by tackling social problems such as petty crime and truancy."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con02a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Affirmative action can create social tensions  Under the policy of affirmative action, there is a real danger that social tensions become inflamed. This is because in the process of benefiting minority groups it helps to disenfranchise the majority. For example in the 2001 riots in Oldham and other cities of Northern England one of the main complaints from poor white areas was alleged discrimination in council funding. [1] There was a possibility that the more privileged from minority groups such as upper-class blacks will be favoured at the expense of the marginalised within majority groups such as lower-class whites. Therefore, rather correct racial bias, affirmative action may inevitably deepen it.  [1] Amin, A., 2002. \u2018Ethnicity and the multicultural city: living with diversity.\u2019 Environment and Planning, 34, pp.959-980, p.963"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con03a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Affirmative action will not work  The underlying issue which affirmative action tries to gloss over is the embedded social problems which put the poor and ethnic monitories in continual disadvantages generation after generation. This policy merely papers over the cracks by masking the fact that the failures of state-funded schooling and attempts at integration have led to a situation in which ethnic minorities and the poor are so vastly underrepresented in universities. The state should do more to address these underlying problems, rather than covering up its failures with a tokenistic policy. Better funding of state schools, real parental choice in education, and accountability through the publication of comparable examination data would all drive up standards and allow more underprivileged children to fulfil their potential. [1] [2]  [1] Gryphon, M. \u201cThe Affirmative Action Myth\u201d. Cato Institute Policy Analysis. No 540. April 13, 2005.   [2] Rosado, C. \u201cAffirmative Action: A Time for Change?\u201d March 3, 1997."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con01a","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Achievements should be earned not given  There is a great possibility that beneficiaries of positive discrimination may not be regarded as good role models as their achievements may be viewed as unearned. [1] A role model is someone others can look up to and admire for the things they achieved through hard work and talent \u2013 by parachuting people into university, their ability to act as a role model is undermined. It is also patronising to assume that young people from ethnic minorities can only look up to people who have the same colour skin, or went to the same type of school \u2013 in a society that admires diversity and cosmopolitanism, we should surely accept that anyone can act as a role model.  [1] The British Psychological Society. \u201cThe Hillary Clinton effect - how role models work for some people but not others\u201d."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con02b","title":"niversity philosophy political philosophy minorities house would use positive","text":"Social tension, especial in poor areas and minority groups, does not come as a result of unfair affirmative action policies, but as a result of inadequate funds available to the communities which result in individuals struggling for limited resources. Affirmative Action creates an opportunity whereby more politicians and businesspeople rise up from humble backgrounds are given the chance to change the political and economic structure of society. By \u201cgiving back\u201d to their community, they will be able to assist the less well-off, for example by expanding welfare systems and ensuring greater equality of opportunities, or through different hiring practices."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro02b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism believes in building a community Europe, but then the question is raised, what is the purpose of this new entity? There is no common outlook and getting the major powers of Europe to agree what this should be will be near impossible. Intergovernmentalists would also argue that economic determinism regarding integration is wrong. As they believe national governments have to consciously make these decisions and will not be economically driven alone, \u2018Extensive cooperation is not at all ruled out: on the contrary, such cooperation will benefit all participants as long as it corresponds to and enhances mutual interests\u2019. It will always be politics that drive integration, while the motive may be economic \u2013 to solve a crisis or even just to profit \u2013 the key decisions by all actors will be political. [1]  [1] Martell, Luke, \u2018Globalisation and Economic Determinism\u2019, Paper given at Global Studies Association conference, Challenging Globalization, September 2009, www.sussex.ac.uk\/Users\/ssfa2\/globecdet.pdf , p.4"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro02a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism proposes a purpose to EU integration.  Neo-functionalism proposed building a community Europe, through the concept of spillover the theory proposes economic determinism. Spill-over will eventually lead to a completely integrated Europe with a strong central government. This has not yet been proved true, as EU integration has become a long and difficult process. This is understandable since it is not exactly easy to integrate together all those policies, economies and people. However this would most probably be the eventual result, which is already visible: The experience of the European Union (EU) is widely perceived as not just an example, but the model for regional integration. In recent years, the EU has also been pursuing an increasing number of trade agreements which may in turn lead to spillover. [1] Furthermore the recent enlargements of the EU in Eastern Europe, as well as the ongoing negotiations with Croatia and Turkey have renewed the academic and political interest in the effects of European Economic integration. [2]  One of the theory\u2019s strengths is to predict the outcome of integration and an eventual conclusion to the process, allowing for political and economic aims to be made and realised. For example \u2018Larger companies have been acting on the assumption that the internal market will eventually be established\u2019. [3]  [1] Bilal, Sanoussi, \u2018Can the EU Be a Model of Regional Integration?\u2019, Paper to be presented at the CODESRIA - Globalisation Studies Network (GSN), 29-31 August 2005,   [2] Lafourcade, Miren, and Paluzie, Elisenda, \u2018European Integration, FDI and the Internal Geography of Trade: Evidence from Western-European Border Regions\u2019, 23 December 2004, www.cepr.org\/RESEARCH\/Networks\/TID\/Paluzie.pdf  [3] Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe, \u2018Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the Light of the New Dynamism of the EC\u2019, Millennium - Journal of International Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.1-22,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro03b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Intergovernmentalism assumes states to be the core actors, this is difficult to deny as most economic boundaries and policies are administered by the nation state. It believes that the logic of diversity will prevail in areas of high politics (e.g. security), however it does accept the logic of integration in low politics, that when interests coincide integration is possible (when there is consensus among elites, similar external situations and domestic politics situations). Intergovernmentalism does not allow for the idealist aim of transforming the regional system to a \u2018better\u2019 order as what qualifies as \u2018better\u2019? The logic of diversity denies the possibility of states agreeing on what is \u2018better\u2019."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro05a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Supranational Entrepreneurs played a crucial role in integration  The role of supranational entrepreneurs within the development of integration within Europe has been crucial. Characters such as Jean Monnet envisaged and worked continuously towards uniting Europe. As the head of France's General Planning Commission, Monnet was the real author of what has become known as the 1950 Schuman Plan to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), forerunner of the Common Market. Later a similar role was played by Jacques Delors with the creation of the Single European Act (SEA) and the all-important 1992 project that would see the single market and eventually fully Economic and Monetary Union complete. These characters act in support of integration within Europe and represent an empirical example of cultivated spill-over. Unmitigated pressure from Delors in pushing for the single market ensured that it became a reality in the time it did."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro01a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism explains the cause of integration  Spill-over is the following concept \u2013 in order to enjoy the full benefits of integration of the first sector you need to integrate the related sectors. An example of this is the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) evolving into other energy sectors and forming Euratom. There are three types of spill-over \u2013 functional spill-over, political spill-over and cultivated spill-over. Firstly, functional spill-over, which regards spill-over in an economic context. For example, this might involve integrating coal and steel, then integrating transport systems so that coal and steel are moved around more easily. Secondly, there is Political spill-over, where political actors shift their allegiance to a new centre, for example from the national parliament to Brussels. Thirdly, there is cultivated spill-over, which is the idea that institutions drive further integration by being in practice; for example the European Commission\u2019s growing autonomy. [1]  [1] Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe \"Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the Light of the New Dynamism of the EC Millennium - Journal of International Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.1-22,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro01b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The counter theory to spill-over is the logic of diversity. Neo-functionalism is flawed as it assumes that integration in low politics (economic) will lead to integration in areas of high politics. This is not possible as issues of high politics are integral to the national interest; so integration will only be possible when national interests coincide, which is possible but unlikely. Neo-functionalism believes areas of high politics can be cultivated into integration, whereas intergovernmentalism believes that the fate of the nation-state should never be subject to the decisions of others."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro05b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The role of elites acting in their national interest better explains the logic behind integration. Key players such as Charles De Gaulle and his untiring opposition to British membership and Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council of Ministers and his success in gaining what he set out to achieve through the Luxembourg compromise demonstrates that the true power actually lay with him and the state. Another example to contradicting the role Delors played was that of Margaret Thatcher. Her relentless demand for a British rebate (1979) and general demeanour in the European Council demonstrated a powerful state elite getting her way. The single market came about because Thatcher wanted it more than most and was thus willing to compromise on certain areas of the Single European Act (i.e. on QMV in the Council of Ministers). [1] It is because of this that the role of individual elites is far superior to that of supranational entrepreneurs.  [1] Dinan, Desmond, \u2018The Single European Act\u2019, European Union Centre of Excellence,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro04b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism is too simple, it does not account for external forces well, as some states have better defined their international position more towards US hegemony than towards each other. \u201cWhereas in economic issues (soft power) the EU has been able to respond to the US in trade disputes, in political and security affairs (hard power) the panorama is mostly discouraging\u201c. [1] Intergovernmentalism rejects economic determinism and therefore rejects Neo-functionalism\u2019s ability to predict. Neo-functionalism may provide a starting point for analysis but it requires much more to be able to explain other pressures of integration.  [1] Dominguez-Rivera, Roberto, \u2018Dealing with the U.S. hegemony: soft and hard power in the external relations of the EU\u2019, 8th International Conference of the European Union Studies Association, 27 March 2003,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro03a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism - liberal theory of regional integration  Neo-functionalism is an example of a liberal theory of regional integration. Its focus is on human welfare needs, not political conflict and law. Its focus is on individuals aggregated into interest groups as the main actors in integration, so the focus is on low politics and the areas which become integrated in the European Union reflect that. As such there has been much more progress on economic integration than there has on creating a common foreign and security policy. [1]  It also accepts the independent role of international organisations and that the transformation of the international regional system towards a better order is feasible so making the European Union a project worth investing effort in.  [1] Center for European studies, \u2018European Union \u2013Common Foreign and Security Policy\u2019, unc.edu,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro04a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism provides a good starting point for EU analysis.  Neo-functionalism is an accessible theory which provides a good starting point for analysis. As a theory it has the advantages of being able to predict the outcome of integration and clearly explains which actors must be studied in order to explain integration. Haas and Lindberg\u2019s \u201cmain thesis was that sectorial integration was inherently expansive - integration of some functional tasks would tend to spill over into  integration of other tasks(\u2026) In the basis of this analysis, Haas argued that an acceleration of the  integration process could be 'safely predicted' and that it might lead to a 'political community of Europe' within a decade\u201d. [1]  [1] Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe \"Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the Light of the New Dynamism of the EC Millennium - Journal of International Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.1-22,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con03b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The Empty Chair Crisis of 1965 may lead some to presume that National governments are all powerful, but it may have just been a \u2018speed-bump\u2019 on the road of spillover. Ben Rosamond (2005) [1] did a reassessment of Haas and concluded that he never abandoned Neofunctionalism; he just changed it and accepted more the view of \u2018Complex Interdependence\u2019. The revival of integration since 1985 including the Treaty of Maastricht 1991 led to co-decision procedures which are an example of Political spillover as political decisions and procedure moved to the supranational level.  [1] Rosamond, Ben, 'The Uniting of Europe and the Foundations of EU Studies: Revisiting the Neofunctionalism of Enrst B. Haas', Journal of European Public Policy, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2005, pp. 237-254,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con01b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Ernst B. Haas was the founder of Neo-functionalism in 1951, Jeppe Tranholm-Mikkelsen identified the 3 types of spill-over within the theory. However neither author placed a time limit on how long the integration process would take. The revival of European integration in 1985 shows it may be many years between instances when Neo-functionalism is an adequate theory for explaining integration. This may be equally coming true in the financial crisis as the Euro is necessitating further reforms and may well lead to much greater integration in order to have the tools prevent members being forced out. The political spill-over concept makes account for the fact that national elites 'will undergo a learning process, developing the perception that their interests will be better served by seeking supranational than national solutions'. [1]  [1] Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe, \u2018Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the Light of the New Dynamism of the EC\u2019, Millennium - Journal of International Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.1-22,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con02a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The Founder of Neo-functionalism abandoned his own Theory (Haas).  The Founder of Neo-functionalist theory Ernst B. Haas later abandoned his own theory; According to Tranholm-Mikkelsen (1991)- \u201cBy the mid-1970 s, Ernst Haas had effectively abandoned the neo-functionalist theory by assimilating it within general interdependence theories of international relations\u201d. [1] The theory proved a success in the economic realm but a fiasco in high politics; \u201c\u2026at the time of the \u2018empty chair\u2019 crisis [see next point] neo-functionalism was considered too incapable of describing the process of integration in general because of its extreme Eurocentric nature. Rosamond states that it is emerged from the process of complex web of actors pursuing their interests within a pluralist political environment.\u201d [2] Neo-functionalism remained a partial theory, good at explaining particular parts of integration but required supplanting by other theories to keep it relevant.  [1] Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe, \u2018Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the Light of the New Dynamism of the EC\u2019, Millennium - Journal of International Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.1-22,   [2] \u2018European Political Theories: Neo \u2013 functionalism\u2019, May 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con04a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The international system is characterised by anarchy and the distribution of economic and military capabilities  Stanley Hoffman used a Neo-Realist view of International relations to build the theory of intergovernmentalism. In a neo-realist understanding the international system is characterised by anarchy and the distribution of economic and military capabilities is of primary importance. States will not trust each other but can still reach agreement, but the agreement will be characterised by bargaining and negotiation (not an automatic process!) \u2018Nations prefer the certainty, or the self-controlled uncertainty, of national self-reliance, to the uncontrolled uncertainty of the untested blender\u2019. [1]  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Intergovernmentalism\u2019, en.wikipedia.org,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con03a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The Empty Chair Crisis 1965  In 1965 during the Empty Chair Crisis brought integration came to a halt and shifted the institutional balance of power away from the commission to the Council of Ministers, it shows that spillover will not always occur. [1] It was caused by President de Gaulle of France being in conflict with other member states, specifically Germany and Italy. France wanted a deal on the Common Agricultural Policy but was unwilling to agree to further integration through creating majority voting in the Council of Ministers. When France took on the Presidency the normal system of mediation was lost. Bonn and Rome were unwilling to give way. [2] De Gaulle pulled his ministers out of the Council of Ministers thus reasserting the power of national governments. This showed that states would not automatically be prepared to give up their national sovereignty and might of helped lead to the abandonment of Neo-functionalism in the 1970s.  [1] Moga, Teodor Lucian, \u2018The Contribution of the Neofunctionalist and Intergovernmentalist Theories to the Evolution of the European Integration Process\u2019, Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2009 pp.796-807,  , p.799  [2] Ludlow, N. Piers, \u2018De-commissioning the Empty Chair Crisis : the Community institutions and the crisis of 1965-6\u2019, LSE Research Online, 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con01a","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"The assumption of the automaticity of Spill-over is wrong.  The core of Neo-functionalism that spill-over being the main driving force behind continuing integration assumed the automaticity of integration. Once integration has started it will be a self-continuing force that will eventually integrate the whole of Europe - is clearly wrong. Supranational functionalism 'assumed first, that national sovereignty, already devalued by events, could be chewed up leaf by leaf like an artichoke'. [1] The functional method of spill-over is very limited, its success in the relatively painless area in which it works relatively well lifts the participants to the level of issues to which it does not apply well any more. For example no common defence or foreign policy within the community project has been successful. This failure in high politics is fundamental, without a coordinated foreign and security policy the role of the EU in the world is open to question. Opposition too much further enlargement reduces the role the EU can play outside the union unless a common foreign policy can be agreed. [2]  [1] Hoffmann, S. \u2018Obstinate or obsolete? The fate of the nation-state and the case of Western Europe.\u2019, Daedalus, Vol. 95, No. 3, 1966, pp. 862-915, p882  [2] Pabst, Adrian, \u2018The EU as a Security\/Defence Community?\u2019, Luxembourg Institute for European and International Studies, 2\/3 July 2004,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con04b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Neo-functionalism has a liberal view of the international system; whereby agreements can be easily reached.  Actually the European Union has proven the exact opposite of the statement \u2013 \u201cNations prefer the certainty, or the self-controlled uncertainty, of national self-reliance, to the uncontrolled uncertainty of the untested blender\u201d as they give more and more power to the united institutions of the European Union \u2013 the European Commission and the European Parliament. The most recent treaty, the Lisbon treaty, proves this as it gives more rights to the EU on account of national power Lisbon\u2019 gives the European Parliament a much greater say in the EU\u2019s decision-making process, it reduced national vetos, created a president and a representative for foreign affairs. [1]  [1] Europa, \u2018Treaty of Lisbon: The Treaty at a glance\u2019, Europa.eu,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-npegiepp-con02b","title":"nomic policy economy general international europe philosophy political","text":"Intergovernmentalism too has proved 'out of date'. It fails to pay enough attention to supranational institutions; its focus is too exclusively on big treaty negotiations and fails to understand to increasing importance of economic issues. Intergovernmentalism as a theory collapses in the view of actual integration taking place: the revival of integration from mid-1980s onwards. In the 1990s Intergovernmentalism was supplanted by 'Liberal Intergovernmentalism' from the scholar Andrew Moravcsik in his work 'Preferences and Power in the European Community: A liberal Intergovernmentalist Approach' (1993). [1]  [1] Moravcsik, Andrew, \u2018Preferences and Power in the European Community: A Liberal Intergovernmentalist Approach\u2019, Journal of Common Market Studies (30th Anniversary Edition) (December 1993)."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro02b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"There are procedural ways of mitigating this concern that are less severe than eliminating the jury altogether. Possible ways of dealing with jury intimidation\/tampering include 1) having retrials in cases where jury tampering occurred, 2) attempting to increase the degree of juror anonymity, for example by seating jurors where they cannot be seen, and 3) by having higher penalties for jury tampering and intimidation. The second way is probably the most effective, and American courts have found that in cases where jury tampering poses a serious threat, it does not interfere with the defendant's right to a fair trial.1 1Laura K. Donohue, \"Terrorism and Trial by Jury: The Vices and Virtues of British and American Criminal Law\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro02a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"It may be necessary to limit trial by jury in cases where there is a real danger of jury tampering or intimidation.  It is very difficult to carry out trial by jury if people involved in the case continuously attempt to tamper with the jury, or unduly influence its decision. For example, the UK home office has stated that trying to protect jurors from tampering can be extremely disruptive to the jurors themselves, who may in extreme cases need police protection 24 hours a day. Cases involving international terrorism, drug smuggling or organized crime are the most likely to present such problems 1. In the infamous trial of Italian anarchists Vanzetti and Sacco, one of the jurors had a bomb thrown at his house, despite a huge number of security measures taken by the Massachusetts government 2. Another example is the 2008 case of a large armed robbery at Heathrow. After three mistrials, which cost \u00a322m and the last of which collapsed after a serious attempt at jury tampering, it was decided that the case would be tried by a judge alone 3. If eliminating the jury is the only way to ensure that a) a trial occurs and b) jurors are safe, particularly when it is the defendants' fault that a fair trial by jury is untenable, it may be necessary to do so."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro03b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Not only is trial by jury a very important check on the justice system, but evidence also suggests that juries are fair and effective. First of all, as explained in the Opparguments, trial by jury is an extremely important check in the criminal justice system. Eliminating it would be a grave threat to justice. But second, to address the more practical concerns raised by the Proposition, studies actually suggest that juries are fair and effective. Recent UK Ministry of Justice research found that juries tend to be objective and non-biased, and that cases based on the strongest evidence are also those cases resulting in the highest conviction rates.1  1Cheryl Thomas, \"Are Juries Fair?\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro05a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"It may be necessary to limit trial by jury in cases where it is impossible to recruit an impartial jury.  Especially in cases of nationalist conflict or terrorist attacks, it may be extremely difficult to have a non-biased jury. In Northern Island, for example, jurors may sympathize with violent offenders and acquit them despite a preponderance of evidence. Similarly, it can be a struggle to appoint non-biased juries for terrorism trials post 9\/11. In 2003, the \"Lackwana Six\" were accused of aiding a foreign terrorist organization. The magistrate noted that \"Understandably, the infamous, dastardly and tragic deeds and events of September 11, 2001 have caused a maelstrom of human emotions to ... create a human reservoir of strong emotional feelings such as fear, anxiety and hatred as well as a feeling of paranoia... These are strong emotions of a negative nature which, if not appropriately checked, cause the ability of one to properly reason to ... be blinded.\" Questions about jury impartiality have been raised in multiple similar cases, even leading some defendants to claim that they pled guilty out of resignation that the jury would inevitably be biased and refuse to acquit.1 The implication is that in some trials, juries may be unable to make impartial decisions, thus making the trial unfair. The only way for justice to be done, in such cases, is to allow a judge to decide the verdict.  1Laura K. Donohue, \"Terrorism and Trial by Jury: The Vices and Virtues of British and American Criminal Law\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro01a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"It may be necessary to limit trial by jury in terrorism cases, or other cases surrounding large national security issues.  There are three reasons why this is the case. First, terrorist groups may threaten jury members (see Argument 2 for more detail). Second, terrorism may politicize the jury (see Argument 3 for more detail). Third, the state may be limited in what information it can provide if jurors are present. The government may be unable or unwilling to present classified information for fear of intelligence leaks; for example if it does not want to reveal intelligence methods and sources to the public. This reluctance may make it very difficult to prosecute terrorists. The implication is that the unique national security issues terrorism trials pose may make juries untenable if we ever want to convict terrorists of serious crimes.1 1Laura K. Donohue, \"Terrorism and Trial by Jury: The Vices and Virtues of British and American Criminal Law\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro01b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"First, eliminating trial by jury may make other countries less willing to cooperate with us, reducing the amount of information we have about international terrorism. For example, the United States\u2019 decision to eliminate juries from terrorism trials resulted in other countries being more reluctant to cooperate (e.g. Germany delayed the extradition of two suspected terrorists because of that decision). Second, eliminating trial by jury gives the democratic countries less of a moral high ground in advocating that other countries \u2013 often countries from which terrorists come \u2013 adopt liberal democratic structures (something which already established liberal democracies generally regard as being in their self interest). Third, refusing to grant trial by jury to suspected terrorists may make other countries less willing to grant our own citizens fair trials when they are abroad."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro05b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"First, there are checks in place to help prevent biased decisions and second, the less objective nature of juries is not necessarily bad. First, in most jury systems, a judge can overturn a guilty verdict if s\/he believes that the jury made a faulty decision1. Judges can also order retrials in cases of guilty verdicts, if they believe there were procedural errors. Furthermore, in most countries there is a phase of the jury selection process in which both the prosecution and defence can object to a juror; in many countries each side gets a specific number of these unconditional 'peremptory challenges.' That allows blatantly biased jurors to be excluded. Perhaps most importantly, at least with juries there are multiple people making the decision, as opposed to a sole judge: there is no reason to assume that a lone judge will be less biased, just because of his 'professional training.' But second, having a subjective body making the decision is not necessarily bad. We obviously don't want people to be swayed by unchecked prejudices, but one of the points of having a jury is that it allows all parts of the community to participate in the judicial process and provide input that disconnected and often homogenous government officials cannot. For example, the Diplock courts established in 1970s Northern Ireland eliminated juries, and along with them, jury bias. This resulted in higher conviction rates for violent offenders, but also had the negative effect of excluding the Catholic minority from the administration of justice (and judge bias remained, as evidence by the failure of the courts to eliminate the gap between Catholic and Protestant conviction rates).2  1Andrew D. Stine, P.A. \"Can a Judge Overturn a Jury Vedict?\"  2Laura K. Donohue, \"Terrorism and Trial by Jury: The Vices and Virtues of British and American Criminal Law\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro04b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Trial by jury is too important to sacrifice it for the sake of efficiency. As explained in the Opposition case, trial by jury is one of the cornerstones of just democratic courts. There are other ways to free up resources: perhaps if we put fewer people in prison we could spend more time and money ensuring that the right people got there. As Judge McQuillan wrote, \"dedication, hard work, planning and resources are the means for dealing effectively and rationally with calendar delays.\"1  1Robert P. Connolly, \"The Petty Offence Exception and Right to a Jury Trial\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro03a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Judges are better at delivering justice than juries are.  Juries are not technically trained in evaluating evidence.1 Additionally, judges are trained to recognize and suppress their own prejudices, evaluate information given to them, recognize prosecutorial strategy etc., better allowing them to make objective decisions. Furthermore, some studies suggest that juries actually work against the innocent; a 1979 study found that \"more than 5 per cent of defendants found guilty by juries were considered by professionals to have been convicted in questionable circumstances.\"2This is hardly surprising given that jurors are ordinary citizens who are forced to sit through what are often dull and protracted trials, and who may have little interest in actually listening to what is being said (Joanne Frail, a juror convicted for contempt of court stated that she 'drew more than she wrote [during the trial]').3 Perhaps we should trust in the expertise of screened and trained justices instead.  1Sir Louis Blum Cooper QC, \"A Judge Can Do the Work of 12 Amateurs, and Better  2Baldwin and McConville, \"Jury Trials\"  3BBC, \"Juror Admits Contempt of Court Over Facebook Case\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro04a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Having trial by jury for people accused of very small offences is a waste of resources.  Juries are very expensive and time consuming, and courts may not be capable of using them for all trials. Indeed, in both the UK and the United States, minor or petty offences can be tried without jury (such offenses are defined differently in different places; in the US petty offences are those carrying less than 6 months prison time or a fine of $5000)1. That is because in densely populated areas, the courts are simply not capable of handling all trials with juries 2. But even beyond the limitations already in place, there may be more small-scale trials which could function without juries, and free up resources. According to British government crime advisor Louise Casey, if all of the either-or cases (cases dealing with minor offences which can be tried in either a crown or a magistrates court) were shifted entirely to the latter, Britain would save \u00a330m in the costs of setting up juries. Such money could be used to help out victims of serious crimes, or otherwise improve the justice system 3. For example, if more time and money were freed up in the United States, the courts might not need to pressure so many defendants into plea bargaining, or pleading guilty without a trial in exchange for less harsh sentencing or the dropping of other charges (in 1996, about two thirds of American criminal case dispositions involved guilty pleas) 4. That would allow more trials to take place, and more justice to be done.  1.  )  2.Robert P. Connolly, \"The Petty Offence Exception and Right to a Jury Trial\"  3.Peter Wozniak, \"Trial by Jury Faces the Axe for Petty Crimes\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con03b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"First, juries are not necessarily fairer or more just than judges, and second, even if trial by jury is an important right, that does not make it an unlimited one. First, there are reasons to believe that juries are less suited than judges to make criminal convictions. See Prop Argument 5 for more detail. But second, even if we do not want to eliminate trial by jury, there are still particular circumstances where it makes most sense to defer to such judges' authority, as we explained in the Prop case. There are already plenty of checks to protect the innocent: for example most systems have right to appeal clauses, safeguards against double jeopardy, presumption of innocence etc. While juries may generally present an added benefit, we believe there are circumstances where having a jury presents too many concerns for it to be a viable option."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con01b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Trial by jury is not necessary to uphold principles of justice. As stated in response to Opp Argument 1, there are plenty of other checks in favour of the defence. We do not agree that removing trial by jury erodes at this principle: trial by jury may be important, but a judge can still presume innocence, treat evidence fairly etc. If juries are not necessary to uphold the principle of innocent until proven guilty, then removing them in specific circumstances should not undermine the integrity and justness of the court. Again, we often do not have trial by jury in the case of petty offences, suggesting that this right is not regarded as absolute."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con02a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Through jury nullification, juries make the law more accountable to the people.  Although juries are not technically supposed to nullify the law, or choose to acquit even if the evidence suggests that the defendant is guilty, they sometimes do. This usually happens when the jury believes the law is unjust: for example when the punishment is disproportionate to the crime1 (for example some activists encourage juries to nullify in cases of non-violent drug crimes). We believe this is good because it allows the public to check the government in a way for which rare elections and complex legislative processes do not allow. Only consider how many 'democratic' countries have upheld policies of segregation or discrimination, and it becomes clear that 'free and fair' elections can lead to outcomes that are anything but. Thus jury nullification can a) protect individuals from blatantly unjust laws, and b) provide impetus to actual legislative change. For example, some scholars believe that it was in part the frequent acquittal by juries of defendants who were probably guilty, but who would have received the death penalty if found to be so, that led to the US Supreme Court declaring mandatory capital punishment schemes unconstitutional.2 This community input is valuable in all circumstances, and there is no reason why it should be limited to certain cases.  1Doug Linder, \"What Is Jury Nullification?  2Andrew Leipold, \"Rethinking Jury Nullification"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con04a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Limiting trial by jury in some cases sets the stage for limiting it in other, unjustified, cases.  Humans are fallible, and so sometimes it is better to have absolute rules against certain actions, even if we recognize that in a perfect world, it might be better to allow such actions in very specific circumstances.1 It is for this reason, for example, that we never allow evidence obtained by illegal measures to be presented in court, even though such evidence would sometimes make it possible to convict. Similarly, even if removing trial by jury might be good in individual circumstances, it is too great a power to give to a fallible government which may misuse that authority. If there is a precedent of the right to trial by jury being removed in some circumstances, even if that removal is justified, it becomes much easier for corrupt governments to remove it for unjustified reasons, and it becomes correspondingly more difficult for us to condemn that decision as illegitimate.  1Brad Hooker, \"Rule Consequentialism\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con03a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Trial by jury is a fundamental right and should never be abridged.  Trial by jury is an essential check on abuse in the court system for three main reasons. First, it prevents governmental oppression by ensuring that non-state actors determine guilt 1. It is dangerous to allow the government\u2014the same body which makes and enforces the laws\u2014to also decide who is guilty of breaking the laws. Second, it checks against corrupt judges and prosecutors2. Judges are only human, and are susceptible to the same weaknesses, like prejudice and corruption, as the rest of us. Consequently, it is very dangerous to put the future of defendants in their hands. A representative group of jurors, approved by both sides, is far less likely to reach an unjust decision, since they are generally required to reach unanimous decisions to convict, and it is unlikely that an entire jury will be made up of biased, corrupt, or negligent people. Third, trial by jury allows for community input in the justice system (see Opp Argument 4 and response to Prop Argument 3 for more explanation). Thus trial by jury is essential to ensuring that innocent individuals are fairly treated, and is a fundamental right which ought never be denied. As Chairman of the Criminal Bar Association Paul Mendelle QC said, \"Some principles of justice are beyond price. Trial by your peers is one of them.\"3  1.Robert P. Connolly, \"The Petty Offence Exception and Right to a Jury Trial\"  2.Robert P. Connolly, \"The Petty Offence Exception and Right to a Jury Trial\"  3.Clive Coleman, \u201cDebating non-jury criminal trial\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con01a","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Protections offered in a court must be absolute in order for the court to be just.  A just adversarial court system is premised on absolutes: that the defence has certain absolute rights which check it against government corruption, and which ensure fair trials even at the expense of conviction. Indeed, it is for this reason that we say it is better to let ten guilty men go free than to punish one innocent man. The protections in place that ensure fair trials must always be upheld, or else the guarantee of fairness no longer exists. If the government can sometimes remove this right, even in clearly delineated circumstances, then the right is no longer absolute, and the presumption in favour of the defence is far weaker, undermining the justness of the entire system."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con04b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"If the situations in which trial by jury can be limited are clearly delineated, governments cannot justify limiting it in unjustified circumstances. Saying that the government can sometimes limit trial by jury is not equivalent to giving it a pass to do so whenever it chooses. Obviously there would need to be clear criteria as to when the government could use its power to remove a jury: factors such as the level of security threat posed by the trial, the magnitude of the crime, the imminence of danger etc. would all need to be considered. Perhaps there could be an extra-governmental body to approve such decisions. It is a slippery slope fallacy to argue that allowing the removal of trial by jury in some cases will lead to the erosion of that right in general. Indeed, many countries already do limit the right to serious, as opposed to petty crimes, and the Opp has not presented any evidence that doing so has had negative results."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con02b","title":"eral philosophy political philosophy house would limit right trial jury some","text":"Jury nullification is a bad thing, and just another reason why trial by jury is not always the best way to deliver justice. When juries nullify, they bypass the electoral process, invalidating laws that society has already approved by democratic elections. This is unjust, because it means that a small, random group of individuals can ignore laws which have been approved by the majority of society. Even if a juror believes a law to be unjust, it is integral that he enforce that law, because that law represents the will of a constitutionally checked majority, as well as trained and educated legislators. If a law is truly unjust, there are better avenues to change it: voting in new legislators, legally protesting, appealing the law in court etc. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that jury nullification will be used to protect rights; indeed racist juries frequently acquitted KKK members in the 1950s and 60s.1 The fact that there is no way to prevent jury nullification without forcing juries to justify their decisions (which would violate the principle that juries must be allowed to deliberate secretly) is just another reason why juries may not be the best way to deliver justice. 1Hiroshi Fukurai and Richard Krooth, \"Race in the Jury Box\""}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro02b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism, in the long term, has far less chances of success than other, peaceful means. It antagonises and angers the community that it targets. It polarises opinion and makes it more difficult for moderates on both sides to prevail and compromise. A lasting and peaceful settlement can only be won with the freely given consent of both parties to a conflict or disagreement. The examples given in this argument are of countries and areas that still counter much instability, and in countries such as Israel and Palestine a sustainable peaceful solution still seems far away. Moreover, the Oslo peace process is the result of long-term, diplomatic efforts on an international scale, and terrorism does not seem to have contributed directly to this process."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro02a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism can lead to discussion  In some cases, terrorism can result in the acknowledgement of certain groups. Therefore, terrorism is justified by its success in achieving results when peaceful means have failed. In many countries terrorists have succeeded in bringing governments to negotiate with them and make concessions to them. Where governments have not been willing to concede to rational argument and peaceful protest, terrorism can compel recognition of a cause. Nelson Mandela moved from terrorist to President. In many other countries we see this trend too \u2013 in Israel, Northern Ireland, in Sri Lanka, and in the Oslo peace process that led to the creation of the Palestinian Authority. [1]  [1] Palestine Facts. (n.d.). Details of the Oslo Accords. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from Palestine Facts:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro03b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Not all attention that follows terrorism is positive. After the 9\/11 attacks, aid workers in Afghanistan were forced to cut off food supplies in the country, even though 7 to 8 million civilians were dependent on them. [1] The kind of terrorist attacks that attract the most attention are the violent ones, and they are likely to be met with reactions of disgust and grief. This means that the international community is less likely to sympathize with their cause, which results in less support.  [1] Chomsky, N. (2001, October 18). Terrorism Works. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from Media Monitors Network:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro05a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Consequentialism  Actions can only be justified by their outcomes, and if the outcome of an act of terror is an overall increase of justice, freedom and welfare, this action is therefore legitimate. Many people around the world suffer on a daily basis from poverty, injustices and violence. Generally, these people did not choose to suffer, nor was it a result of their actions; therefore it can be seen as a logical conclusion that it is a good thing that this suffering is diminished. However, authorities might not always agree to redistribution or an acknowledgement of rights, and more drastic measures are needed to obtain the goal. If, in this case, the use of acts of terror is needed to obtain greater goods such as justice and equality, and this would mean that on balance, more people would gain more utility, the action would be justified. In this way, terrorism can be seen as an effective weapon in a revolutionary struggle that results in progression. A very current example are the terrorist attacks in several Middle Eastern countries that have led to the Arab spring, such as the attack on the Yemen president Ali Abdullah Saleh. [1]  [1] Sinjab, L. (2011, June 3). Yemen: President Saleh injured in attack on palace. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro01a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Legitimacy  In extreme cases, in which peaceful and democratic methods have been exhausted, it is legitimate and justified to resort to terror. In cases of repression and suffering, with an implacably oppressive state and no obvious possibility of international relief, it is sometimes necessary to resort to violence to defend one\u2019s people and pursue one\u2019s cause.  Every individual or (minority) group has the right to express its discontent. The state, being a representation of the people, should facilitate this possibility. Even more, the state should support the rights of minorities, in order to prevent the will of the majority suppressing the rights of people with other interests. If this does not happen, the state has failed to serve its purpose and loses its legitimacy. This, in combination with the growing inequalities and injustices amongst certain groups, justifies committing acts of terror in order to defend these rights, that were denied in the first place.  For instance, Umkhonto we Sizwe, a liberation organisation associated with the African National Congress in South Africa and led by Nelson Mandela, decided in 1961 to turn to violence in order to achieve liberation and the abolishment of Apartheid. The reason they gave was:  \u201cThe time comes in the life of any nation when there remain only two choices: submit or fight. That time has now come to South Africa. (...) Refusal to resort to force has been interpreted by the government as an invitation to use armed force against the people without any fear of reprisals. The methods of Umkhonto we Sizwe mark a break with that past.\u201d [1]  [1] African National Congress. (1961, December 16). Manifesto. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from African National Congress:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro01b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism is never justified. Peaceful and democratic means must always be used. If this cannot happen inside the state, there are international courts such as the International Criminal Court in the The Hague, which handle cases such as war crimes and oppression. Even when democratic rights are denied, non-violent protest is the only moral action. And in the most extreme cases, in which subject populations are weak and vulnerable to reprisals from the attacked state, it is especially important for groups not to resort to terror. Terrorism merely exacerbates a situation, and creates a cycle of violence and suffering."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro05b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"The end does not justify the means. Even in cases of oppression, it is better to persecute your interest through non-violent and legal means. There may be cases where only an act of terror will lead to a direct improvement of overall utility, but these cases are very rare. Often terrorist attacks are performed by extremist groups who have views that differ from the majority of the community they claim to represent. Most people prefer non-violent means, and the repercussions of violent terrorist acts, such as the invasion of Afghanistan to eradicate the Taliban, will largely worsen the position of the marginalized in society."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro04b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"States who ignore the Geneva Conventions, for example by mistreating prisoners or deliberately attacking civilian targets, are guilty of terrorism and this cannot be justified. Nor are the Conventions only applicable to warfare between sovereign states - their principles can be clearly applied in other kinds of conflict and used to distinguish between legitimate military struggle and indefensible terrorism.  Nor is it reasonable to argue that there are grey areas, and that civilians are sometimes legitimate targets - once such a claim has been made anything can eventually be \"justified\" in the name of some cause. All too often the political leaderships of protest movements have decided that limited \"physical force\" is necessary to advance their cause, only to find the violence spiralling out of control. The \"hard men\" who are prepared to use force end up in control of the movement, which increasingly attracts criminals and others who love violence for its own sake. The original base of support for the movement in the wider population and internationally is alienated. The authorities against whom the movement is struggling also respond by using increasingly repressive measures of their own, generating a spiral of violence and cruelty."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro03a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism can bring attention  Terrorism can raise the profile of a neglected cause. The hi-jackings of the 1970s and 1980s brought publicity to the Palestinian cause, helping to bring it to the attention of the world. [1] States can use their wealth and media to put across their side of the story; their opponents do not have these resources and perhaps need to resort to terrorism to publicise their cause. In this way, limited and focused use of violence can have a dramatic international impact.  [1] Tristam, P. (n.d.). The 1970 Palestinian Hijackings of Three Jets to Jordan. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from About.com:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro04a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism is relative  The definition of terrorism depends very much upon your point of view - the proposition does not need to defend every atrocity against innocent civilians to argue that terrorism is sometimes justified. A broad definition would say terrorism was the use of violence for political ends by any group which breaks the Geneva Conventions (which govern actions between armies in wartime) or ignores generally accepted concepts of human rights. Under such a broad definition, states and their armed forces could be accused of terrorism. So could many resistance groups in wartime or freedom fighters struggling against dictatorships, as well as participants in civil wars - all irregular groups outside the scope of the Geneva Conventions.  A narrower definition would say that terrorism was the use of violence against innocent civilians to achieve a political end. Such a definition would allow freedom fighters and resistance groups with a legitimate grievance to use force against dictatorship and occupation, providing they only targeted the troops and other agents of oppression. Yet even this tight definition has grey areas - what if the soldiers being targeted are reluctant conscripts? Are not civilian settlers in occupied territories legitimate targets as agents of oppression? What about their children? Doesn't it make a difference if civilians are armed or unarmed? Don't civil servants such as teachers and doctors count as agents of an occupying or oppressive state?  There will always be grey areas that might be justified, under the broader definition most armed forces in history could be accused of terrorism particularly acts such as the bombing of cities during World War II. While under the narrower definition the various resisitance groups during the same war would count. Perhaps at a half way house would be independence movements including the American Revolution."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con03b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"In extreme cases, communities already live in very poor conditions, and terrorism can bring attention to their cause and provide an escape of their situation. By bringing attention to the poor conditions people are living in, and the oppression a community is suffering, you provide an opportunity for improvement. It can be that their condition can worsen on the short term, but that is justified if this means that there is a solution to their suffering on the long term."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con01b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"In extreme cases, it is justified to harm others. It can be argued that the population of a nation is complicit in the crimes that their government commits, because they support the regime by paying tax. Osama bin Laden's 'Letter to America' justifies attacking civilians by stating that they are a complicit part in the American military actions abroad because they have chosen their government democratically, and pay taxes to fund their actions. [1]  Secondly, attacks on authorities can get rid of dictators or repressive regimes. Thirdly, commodities such as infrastructure can be used by the government for the promotion of certain groups and to marginalize others. During South African Apartheid, townships were created where black people were forced to live, and which had very little amenities, while the areas where white people lived had much better provisions. [2]  [1] Laden, O. B. (2002, November 24). Letter to America. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from Observer:   [2] SouthAfrica.info. (n.d.). Tackling Apartheid. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from SouthAfrica.info:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con02a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism creates a negative abusable portrayal  Acts of terror will not lead to a deeper mutual understanding, but to alienation from the international community. People see acts of violence as a threat, and especially in the context of international terrorists attacks, the fear of escalation prevails. Even more, acts of violence are open to multiple interpretations, which can be used in favour of the oppressing state, that has much more resources to spread its message. Not only can it say it uses violence against these terrorists groups to defend itself, but it can also paint an image of the terrorists as irrational, violent creatures. This plays easily into existing stereotypes of non-Westeners as being violent. In order to counter this scenario, it is wiser to resort to non-violent actions. This has the benefit of conveying a very clear message to the outside world that the people protesting are the victims, and not the perpetrators. For instance, the actions of Mahatma Ghandi were known for their civil disobedience and their political messages that went against the norm, but because of the peaceful nature of his protest, he was able to attract a lot of positive attention and followers. [1]  [1] BBC News. (1998, January 29). The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con04a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Corrupt states  States or institutions created in concession to terror are often corrupt, dominated by men of violence with links to organised crime. Nothing is achieved to improve the lives of the people in whose name terror has been used. Terrorist organisations have often a military and violent character. The sort of people who attracted to committing acts of terror often glorify illegitimate acts of violence and justify the possible harm done to civilians by proving their complicity or the outcome of the actions. More precisely, they have only the interest of their ideology or the minority they are supporting. When these people are put in a position of power, they are likely to follow the same lines as before, especially when they do not have a political background. They are likely to be ignorant of how political processes work, and will appoint people that have the ideology in other powerful positions. This will make the whole political system inefficient and biased towards a minority or a fringe interest. As a result, level of corruption could rise, and in extreme cases people with other opinions can be persecuted. Iran went from a Westernizing state to an Islamic one, and is now hostile to dissidents. [1]  [1] BBC News. (2012). Iran Profile, Retrieved 17 February 2012 from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con03a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Exacerbation of poor conditions  Terrorism creates a perpetual situation of poverty and anxiety within the community. Terrorism creates an unsafe situation for the local community, which has several consequences: firstly, people are less able to continue their daily actions, such as going to work or school of they are afraid of attacks. Secondly, people are less likely to save or to take risks such as setting up a business when they are uncertain about the their future. Thirdly, international companies are less likely to set up business in a location which is seen as unstable, and with the local market which has little to spend. This all lead to a continuation of poor conditions where many people live in poverty and anxiety, and see little opportunity than continuing the violence themselves. In Northern Ireland, the political violence which is present, combined with the high rates of poverty, creates a vicious circle where the unstable situation is continued. [1]  [1] Horgan, G. (2011, July 12). Equality of misery? Poverty and political violence in Northern Ireland. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from Politico:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con01a","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Harm to others is never legitimate  Even in cases of suppression and deprivation of human rights, it is not justified to harm others outside the law. Considering acts of terror, there are three possible targets: civilians, political, military or other powerful authorities and their representatives, and structures such as (government) buildings, cars etc. without any causalities. In the case of the first, it is illegitimate to kill innocent civilians because not only have these people not contributed to the terrorists' marginalization, which means that hurting them will not undo the cause of harm, but this also perpetuates the harm that was the cause for violence in the first place. In the case of the second target, the attack on authorities responsible for the marginalization might be removed in some cases (if there is one), but it more often results in backlash where supporters of the authorities act against the insurgents, resulting in more harm. This happened with the Kurdish revolt against the Turkish authorities, which led to a guerilla war with over 30.000 causalities. [1] Thirdly, attacking the infrastructure of a country means disabling the population for accessing their basic capacities such as accessing healthcare by destroying roads or hospitals. Regarding the fact that the population is innocent in the crimes of the government, this is unnecessary and harmful for the whole population.  [1] Washington Post. (1999). Who Are the Kurds? Retrieved August 3, 2011, from Washington Post:"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con04b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"States or institutions created in concession to terror can work, if the process of creation is handled with care and is done with the interests of the whole population at heart. It is true that some terrorist organisations have no political experience, but some have, and these organisations should have a say in the political process, in corporation with representatives of other groups. Modern South Africa is a state created as a result of terrorism, yet it is not a state that would be accused of conducting a violent foreign policy or excessive internal repression, especially when compared to other parts of the continent."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con02b","title":"political philosophy politics terrorism house believes terrorism can be","text":"Terrorism can bring attention to certain causes and bring discussion. Images of violence will make much more of an impact than those of peaceful protest. With the modern media, the power of oppressive states to hide or twist the truth has significantly diminished, as anyone with a cellphone can tell their story. Also, with people taking their faith in their own hands, acts of terror such as sabotage can be seen as clever and resourceful."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro02b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"States in the Global North already deal with other states with capital punishment in the Global North. Broader based changes to criminal justice system would be needed - if it is desirable for states to make those changes in the first place.  The solution for extradition is clear - diplomatic assurances before extradition that capital punishment will not be sought."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro02a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Justice co-operation  Crime does not stop at national borders. Therefore efforts to fight crime cannot, either. A country that abolishes capital punishment will be in a much better position to cooperate on justice issues internationally.  Many states, particularly ones in the Global North, have policies of not extraditing people to jeopardy of capital punishment. Not only could more people be extradited, foreign states may be more willing to provide broader based assistance and co-operation if they see that a state has made steps forward in criminal justice policy.  Some states have a policy of not extraditing to states where there is a risk of capital punishment: a particular clause on this is included in the US-Mexico extradition treaty, and it is the position of the European Court of Human Rights. [1]  [1] Soering v United Kingdom - available at"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro03b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"It should be for a state to independently determine its criminal justice policy. At any rate, there are some developed states that maintain capital punishment; they are hardly likely to impose diplomatic penalties on other states that do the same.  Capital punishment also doesn\u2019t stop states being seen positively. Despite having even worse human rights violations (if you consider capital punishment as a human rights violation) - the US and US-aligned nations in Europe have very strong and positive relations with Saudi Arabia, despite Saudi Arabia\u2019s gender segregation and lack of religious and political freedom."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro01a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Encourages a culture of respect for human rights  Capital punishment is, in general seen as a significant human rights violation by the international community - not only most liberal democracies, but much of international civil society.  Abolition will help lead to the development of a culture of human rights and the rule of law by acting as a benchmark of progress, and a symbol of a commitment to these principles. It is notable that Guinea Bissau is the only abolitionist nation in the bottom ten countries in Africa for the rule of law \u2013 according to the Ibrahim Index of African Governance\u2019s safety and rule of law category, compared to six abolitionist countries in the top ten [1] .  [1] Mo Ibrahim Foundation, \u201cIbrahim Index of African Governance\u201d, Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro01b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"If anything, abolition could be a seen as a distraction of progress. Even in retentionist criminal justice systems, only a small number of those who go through the criminal justice system are sentenced to death or executed. Behind the smokescreen of reform, things can be hidden. While Russia abolished capital punishment shortly after the end of the Soviet Union, politically motivated prosecutions continue, such as those of the members of Pussy Riot.  As for the rankings, correlation is not causation."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro03a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Diplomatic relations  European states in particular put a particular emphasis on capital punishment when determining human rights issues for foreign policy. The UK for example has a policy of promoting and lobbying for the abolition of capital punishment with foreign governments. [1]  This will help generate goodwill for the nation. This could have a whole myriad of benefits - from aid and trade, to being seen as the \u201cgood guy\u201d in any international disputes. When using capital punishment the opposite is the case; controversy has been created by the use of UN resources in drugs cases in Vietnam that could lead to executions for drug offences [2] .  [1] Foreign & Commonwealth Office, \u2018HMG Strategy for Abolition of the Death Penalty 2010-2015\u2019, gov.uk, October 2011,   [2] \u201cUN urged to freeze anti-drug aid to Vietnam over death penalty\u201d, Reuters, 12 Feb 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con03b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"A human rights violation, however many people it happens to, is a human rights violation. Capital punishment is the ultimate human rights violation."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con01b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Those well trodden arguments lead to an anti death penalty position, not a pro death penalty one. Deterrence cannot be measured, mistakes are made too often and issues of punishment (if punishment, rather than rehabilitation or incapacitation is a legitimate goal of a justice system, which it is not) are different between cultures. Evidence on cost shows it is more expensive than prison in the Global North.  With regards to crimes against humanity, the International Criminal Court - the world\u2019s leading authority on international criminal law - does not use capital punishment. Neither did the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con02a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"African values  Human rights are a concept that take on different conclusions and priorities when applied in different cultural contexts. Protecting the community as a whole, by removing dangerous offenders from circulation, and by a deterrence effect, capital punishment is a manifestation of a form of \u201cAfrican Values\u201d that place more emphasis on the community over the individual than western legal tradition. Capital Punishment has traditionally used for the most serious crimes such as murder as well as some serious religious offenses which it was feared might bring serious consequences for the entire community. [1]  [1] Balogun, Oladele Abiodun, \u2018A Philosophical Defence of Punishment in Traditional African Legal Culture: The Yoruba Example\u2019, The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol.3, No.3, September 2009,  , p.47"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con04a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Particular need in Africa  Capital punishment for particularly dangerous offenders is a practical solution for African nations with low quality prison systems, which, through either deliberate policy or basic underfunding, can have poor conditions, or poor security. In 2013, over a thousand prisoners escaped from a prison near Benghazi in Libya [1] . A similar escape with particularly dangerous offenders would be dangerous - a corpse can\u2019t escape.  [1] Zway, Suliman Ali, \u201cAmid protests, Inmates escape from Libyan prison\u201d, New York Times, 27 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con03a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Capital punishment is a comparatively small issue  Whatever the merits, capital punishment in Africa is a small issue. Capital punishment opponents should focus on China, which uses capital punishment in a secretive manner for all variety of offences and executes far more people than the rest of the world put together. [1]  If Western human rights groups genuinely want to improve human rights in Africa, there are a myriad of issues that affect many more people relating to good governance, political rights and socio-economic rights, rather than just focusing on a small number of individuals, generally convicted of particularly serious criminal offences.  [1] \u2018Death Sentences and Executions 2012\u2019, Amnesty International, April 2013,  , p.6"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con01a","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"\u201cBenefits\u201d of capital punishment apply universally  The same arguments about capital punishment apply in Africa - deterrence value, potential cost savings, and principles of justice. [1] This could be more acute, with growing issues of international crime, such as drugs, growing in Africa [2] .  Africa has had many issues of conflict and crimes against humanity \u2013 these are the kind of crimes that many who are less enthusiastic about capital punishment would still support it for.  [1] See \u201cThis House Supports the Death Penalty\u201d -   [2] See Cockayne, James, \u201cAfrica and the War on Drugs: the West African cocaine trade is not just business as usual\u201d, African Arguments, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con04b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"Practicality is not an excuse - capital punishment is still a human rights violation, whatever the circumstances.  The Libya prison escape, of course, was an unusual case - it was during a civil war."}
+{"id":"test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con02b","title":"ights punishment philosophy ethics life house believes capital punishment","text":"The idea of a unified \u201cAfrican values\u201d is as manifestly absurd as unified \u201cEuropean values\u201d, or the \u201cAsian values\u201d used as an excuse by anti-democratic leaders such as Matahir Mohamed and Lee Kuan Kew, (heads of government of Malaysia and Singapore respectively in the 1980s), to reject political freedoms.  Even so, capital punishment can be seen as opposed to the \u201cAfrican value\u201d of ubuntu - a broader concept of treating people with humanity. Religious leaders are often also against, the Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria described capital punishment as savagery and expressed its desire to join the \u201ccivilised world in ending the death penalty\u201d. [1]  [1] Uduma, Uche, \u2018Nigeria: Much Ado About the Return of Death Penalty\u2019, Leadership, 14 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro02b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"The wrongs of colonial powers are by now far in the past. The great majority of people living in former colonies, or indigenous peoples in countries like the US or Australia, have no experience of that time and have not been directly affected by the injustices of colonialism. Making sure that everyone in society has equal rights and opportunities is nothing to do with self-determination.  improve this  Self-determination offers a way to resolve otherwise intractable disputes."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro02a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Self-determination and independence is recognition of the fact that indigenous peoples were unfairly treated by colonial powers, and their proprietary rights abused.  In some contexts, separation may not be a realistic option for minority peoples. However, that does not mean that self-determination is not meaningful for such groups. For indigenous peoples, self-determination may take the form of restitution for land that was stolen from them, or compensation and reparations. Furthermore, self-determination may take the form of political autonomy, or greater rights to decide how children are educated, or parallel systems of justice such as sharia courts. Self-determination is about representation and identity and choice - not about outcomes."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro03b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"The principle of self-determination might seem a straightforward one but in practice it is rarely that simple.Firstly, in many countries, majority and minority groups live side-by-side, rather than in distinct territories. Upholding the right of such a minority to self-determination may not be possible without affecting the rights of the other inhabitants of that area. This damage might be direct \u2013 for example, if the people of Catalonia decide to secede from Spain, what will happen to the Spanish inhabitants of Catalonia? \u2013 or it may be indirect, as in the example of Palestine, whose independence has long been resisted by Israel on the grounds that it would constitute a threat to Israeli security.  Second, it is often difficult to agree, particularly in disputed areas, who falls under the definition of a \u201cnative\u201d whose right to self-determination must be respected. For example, should people in Ireland have a say over the future of Northern Ireland, given that most of them consider it an integral part of their own country? Does the right of self-determination for Israelis extend to Jews who live in other countries, given that they have the right to settle in that nation if they choose to? Does it extend to non-Jewish Israelis, and if not, why not? These questions are hard to answer neutrally; to answer them involves making difficult judgements."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro01a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Self-determination is necessary to protect minority cultures.  Many states in the modern world do not respect the rights of minorities or actively seek to dilute and subsume them into the majority culture. Others offer limited protections to minority peoples but stop short of allowing them to choose their own futures. We need to reassert their right to self-determination to ensure that these minority cultures are not lost. Failure to defend the principle of self-determination now will effectively close off the choices of future generations.  For example, Australian government policy for many decades was to ignore Aboriginal rights, denying them full citizenship1 and removing children from their homes and relocating them with white families (the so-called \"stolen generation\"2). As a result many indigenous Australians no longer have a strong link to their native cultures and languages. The same is arguably true in places like Tibet, where traditional culture is being diluted over time through the deliberate policy of the Chinese government.  1 See \"Collaborating for Indigenous Rights\", National Museum of Australia 2 \"Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families\", Australia Human Rights Commission, April 1997."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro01b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Forcible assimilation, as in the Australian case cited, is clearly wrong, but that does not mean that we should abandon the goal of integrating minorities into society without forfeiting their cultural, racial or religious differences. Placing undue importance on the right to self-determination may make such situations worse. Furthermore, in some situations, governments manipulate the idea of self-determination to suit their own ends. Many governments have pursued a policy of sending settlers from the majority race or religion into minority-dominated areas and then point at the difficulty of allowing such areas to implement political reforms or secede without massive social upheaval.  One example of this is Tibet, where the Chinese government has strongly encouraged ethnic Han Chinese settlers to relocate to that province with the aim of gradually reducing the impact and strength of Tibetan demands for self-government1.  1 Hessler, Peter. \"Tibet through Chinese eyes\", The Atlantic, February 1999."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro04b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"It is true that many modern states have somewhat artificial or arbitrary boundaries. However, this applies to some or other extent to all states everywhere in the world; indeed, the nation state as we know it is a relatively modern construct, and no nation state is completely ethnically or culturally homogenous. There are certainly places in the world where minorities are oppressed, but insisting on self-determination as a universal human right often merely encourages separatism, racial tension and conflict.  Furthermore, self-determination is often used by states as a casus belli and used to justify interference in neighbour's affairs and even invasion \u2013 as in the conflict between Russia and Georgia in 2008, ostensibly over the treatment of ethnic Russians in South Ossetia 1, or Hitler\u2019s invasion of the Sudetenland in 1938 on the pretext that ethnic Germans in that area should belong to the German Reich 2. If we place too much emphasis on the importance of self-determination in all situations it may lead to worse international relations, not better. At any rate, it has not helped us solve problems in places such as Kashmir or the Falklands, which are still disputed.  Additionally, self-determination may not help us in cases such as that of the Falklands, where almost all the inhabitants are of British descent, since Argentina argues that they are in effect illegal settlers who have no right to be there in the first place.  Finally, the broader international context may mean that other interests or legal agreements must take precedence. For example, Hong Kong was returned to China in 1997 not out of any desire of Hong Kong Chinese to self-determination but simply because Britain\u2019s 99-year lease on the bulk of the territory was due to expire.  1 Cornell, Svante: \u201cWar in Georgia, Jitters All Round\u201d, Current History, October 2008.   2 \u201cSudetenland\u201d, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro03a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Self-determination embodies the fundamental right of peoples to decide their own futures.  Modern liberal democracy is founded on the idea that people should be free to decide their own leaders and their own futures, but not all states give their minority peoples such a right. However, this is a right guaranteed under international law. The International Court of Justice has held that this right applies not just to national governments but also people1. The two important United Nations studies on the right to self-determination set out factors of a people that give rise to possession of right to self-determination: a history of independence or self-rule in an identifiable territory, a distinct culture, and a will and capability to regain self-governance2. If these criteria are in place, such peoples should have the right to determine their own constitutional and political arrangements.  1 Western Sahara Case, 1975 International Court of Justice 12, 31. 2Critescu, A. and GrosEspiell, H. \"The Right to Self-determination\", United Nations, 1980 (not online, but widely cited"}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-pro04a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Self-determination offers a way to resolve otherwise intractable disputes.  Many modern nation states are the product of historical accident or hurried decolonisation processes that did not properly take account of ethnic or religious differences between peoples in the states that resulted. Examples can be seen all over the world but especially in Asia, Africa and the former Soviet Union, where postcolonial or post-Cold War boundaries separate people from their kin against their wills. Other territories may be disputed between one or more nation.  Allowing ethnic or religious groups self-determination may help to reverse the harmful effect of artificial, poorly-drawn borders. If self-determination is universally accepted (and applied) by the international community as a key principle in such disputes, they may in future be easier to resolve.  Two examples; Kashmir, which straddles the line of partition drawn up by the British when granting independence to India and Pakistan in 19471; and the Falkland Islands, which are the object of dispute between the UK and Argentina, including a brief war in 19822. History, law geography all offer competing and incompatible views of who should rightfully own these territories. If we recognise the principle of self-determination as key, however, it is clear that it is the view of the inhabitants that should decide its future. Indeed, if this principle is ignored, such disputes will rumble on for many years to come.  1 \"Kashmir: Run-up to Partition\", Globalsecurity.org 2 \"Falklands\/Malvinas War\",Globalsecurity.org For the Falkland Islanders' view of self-determination, see Falkland Island Government website, \"Falklands call on UN Committee to uphold right to self-determination\","}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-con03b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"In many cass, it is not self-determination that causes tensions, but the lack of opportunity for minorities to choose their own future. Conflicts and civil wars generally take place not because people want self-determination but because they are not allowed it. In the Yugoslav example, if the Milosevic government had recognised the right of the country's component ethnic groups to self-determination, rather than seeking forcibly to suppress it, then there would have been no armed conflict. In contrast, by the time Montenegro sought to secede from Serbia, the now-democratic Serb government accepted their right to do so, and the split was carried out without bloodshed1.  1 \"Montenegro declares independence\", BBC News, 4 June 2006."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-con01b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Minorities are often economically disadvantaged and politically marginalised; formal guarantees of equal rights, even where they exist, do not necessarily translate into real opportunities for citizens. And respect for individual rights, as important as it is, does not address issues of concern to the entire community, such as the teaching of minority languages in school, provision of facilities for religious worship, and so on. The best way to improve the situation of these minority populations is by respecting and promoting their right to self-determination. If not, they will remain second-class citizens in their own countries."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-con02a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"The rise of universal human rights makes self-determination increasingly irrelevant.  Across the developed world, modern nation states are bound into a complex network of treaties and international organisations which together go a long way to guaranteeing citizens very similar rights wherever they live. These supra-national rules make it less and less important on what side of an international boundary you happen to live. What matters is not so much self-determination as whether or not an individual citizen is able to enjoy the same rights and privileges as those of the majority culture.  For example, EU citizens enjoy many common rights, common European citizenship, freedom of movement between member states and so on. Minorities who fifty years ago might have taken up arms to \"free\" themselves from an oppressive nation state \u2013 such as Catholics in Northern Ireland \u2013 don\u2019t need to do this now, because they have new rights against discrimination, guaranteed and enforced by international treaty."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-con03a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Self-determination can destabilise nation states, sometimes with very destructive consequences.  If we accept self-determination as such an important principle that it trumps all others, this will encourage people to self-identify along nationalistic, racial or religious lines, at a time in human development when we are moving away from racist and nationalist ideologies. Nationalism is about difference, which flies in the face of the idea of the global citizen. Taken to its extremes, it encourages increased conflict, separatist terrorism. For example, the ethnic conflicts that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s were fuelled by nationalist ideologies and the stressing of the differences between ethnic and religious groups that made up that country."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-con01a","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"What matters are individual democratic rights, not necessarily collective self-determination.  Simply being a minority in a nation should not be enough to claim the right to self-determination. As long as people have democratic rights, such as the right to protest, to lobby and to vote , they enjoy the same rights and protections as those of the majority community in that country; there should be no obligation on the state to go further in granting them self-determination. For example, during the Franco era in Spain, minority nationalities such as Basques and Catalans were for a long time discriminated against and excluded from real political power, and backed political parties that explicitly represented their community. As their position in society has improved, however, so the hold of identity-based politics has loosened, and the pull of secession has weakened1.  1 Macko, Kalyna: \"The Effect of Franco in the Basque Nation\", Salve Regina University, July 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-ilppppghb-con02b","title":"international law philosophy political philosophy politics government house believes","text":"Many minorities live in states where international human rights law is applied inconsistently or indeed not at all. It may not make a life-changing difference to a French-speaking Belgian which side of the France \u2013 Belgium border they happen to be born, but to a Palestinian in the West Bank or a Tamil in Sri Lanka, their right to self-determination is absolutely crucial, because other rights may well be denied to them through direct or indirect state discrimination.  It is relatively easy for states to explain away individual human rights breaches, since these occur in all nations from time to time. It is much harder for them to justify denying an entire people their right to determine their own futures."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro02b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"This is only an objection to particular cases of suicide; it cannot be made into a general case because some suicides really do only affect the individual \u2013 those in which there is no extended family or friendship group. And that an act is, on occasion, selfish is not sufficient grounds to prohibit it. Indeed, ostracising one\u2019s friends or walking out on one\u2019s family can upset people but we are hardly likely to deny people the liberty to make such individual, private life choices. Nobody has the right to force people to live in circumstances that cause them unhappiness. Suicide should be viewed in exactly the same way.  Moreover it should be remembered that an attempt to prosecute survivors or in some way to punish relatives of those who succeed is clearly not going to help leaving grieving relatives in a worse position. [1]  [1] Holt, \u2018When Suicide was illegal\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro02a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"Suicide is a selfish act that causes suffering to others  Suicide is an entirely selfish act that causes immense pain and suffering for those loved ones that are left behind. It is also cowardly; rather than facing your problems and being strong, you instead take the easy way out and kill yourself. It is important, therefore, to instil a strong sense of responsibility to one\u2019s family and for one\u2019s affairs and to do this by punishing those who try and fail to perpetrate this selfish and cowardly act."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro03b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"Society can perfectly well spread the message that suicide is not a valid life choice without criminalizing and punishing those that have tried and failed to perpetrate it. Moreover, we have grave doubts about the practical use of anti-suicide legislation. It is highly dubious that people who are driven to contemplate suicide will be dissuaded by the knowledge that they would be breaking the law. The spectre of punishment only awaits those who fail to commit suicide. These people have already decided that their lives are not worth living; branding them criminal and punishing them is hardly likely to make them reconsider their decision."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro01a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"Suicide is a waste of life  Suicide is a waste of life. It is an immoral act that ignores the sacrosanct nature of human life \u2013 something that is universally considered to be the case as shown by being something nearly all religions consider to be the case. [1] Failure to criminalize such a flagrant violation of the sanctity of human life condemns any society as irreligious and immoral. Nowadays we hear everyone talking about human rights; we hear precious little about human obligations. If we believe in the moral worth of human rights we do so because we think that human life is a wonderful thing and something with which we should not interfere. Whether the interference is by others or by ourselves, any action that denigrates human life is morally wrong for precisely the reason that we support human rights. We have an obligation to preserve all life, including our own.  [1] Perrett, Roy Wo., \u2018Buddhism, euthanasia and the sanctity of life\u2019, Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol. 22, No. 5, October 1996,"}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro01b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"The question whether or not human life is \"sacred\" should not intrude on the issue of suicide legislation because no clear proof is possible one way or the other. We respect human rights because we value the liberty and autonomy of individuals; we want to be able to make our own decisions and we likewise affirm the right of others to make their own decisions. The free, autonomous decision to take one\u2019s own life should be respected as a legitimate exercise of one\u2019s individual liberty. Human liberty is sacrosanct and should only be limited where clear social harm is caused; suicide affects only the individual and so it should be permitted"}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro04b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"Suicide is different from abortion or cloning or euthanasia in the important respect that it involves only one individual and his choice about the way he lives (and by extension, when he dies). So we can deny any link to these other phenomena. In addition, we can defend suicide on the same basis as one might plausibly and robustly defend all the others: on the basis of the value of individual autonomy. Human dignity is a value that is inextricably linked to the free exercise of individual autonomy; it is the absence of autonomy and the domination of another man over the slave that makes slavery a clear violation of basic human dignity."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro03a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"Prohibiting suicide sends the message that it is not an acceptable behaviour  Individual action is shaped by what norms and standards are set by society. By prohibiting suicide, society sends out a message that it is not an acceptable action. Legislation is a useful social tool, in that it proscribes the limits of individual action. And by failing to prohibit suicide, society fails to add the ultimate sanction of its laws into the balance of any decision whether or not to commit suicide. Many of those who have tried and failed to commit suicide never attempt it again. This suggests that many who kill themselves do so because of their particular short-term circumstances, perhaps while ill, suffering financial problems or under emotional stress, rather than through a considered and rational decision. More than 30% of suicides are precipitated by intimate partner problems, more than 10% by jobs problems and 10% by financial problems. [1] Given this, even a small deterrent will help to save many lives that are currently wasted needlessly.  [1] Canters for Disease Control and Prevention, \u2018Suicide: Data Sources\u2019, 26 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro04a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"Suicide undermines the sanctity of the human body  Like abortion, euthanasia, cloning and genetic engineering, suicide undermines the sanctity and inviolability of the human body. It is legitimate to legislate against such actions because the sanctity of the human body is an intrinsic constituent part of the respect for human dignity, which is the sine qua non of social life in any country."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-con03b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"The fact of suffering is what makes it impossible to consider suicide a legitimate choice. Someone under the duress of intense pain and\/or discomfort is not going to be able to make a fully voluntary and informed choice to end their life."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-con01b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"The law and is to protect the state and the people from each other and to help guide people into making the right decisions for the whole of society. The important thing is that society should make a stand for what it believes is right and against what it believes is wrong. And suicide is clearly a wrongful, misguided and wasteful act from the point of view of society and the state."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-con02a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"The right to life means a right to death  When we speak of the right to life it means more than merely the right to be alive, it encompasses the right to self-ownership, the notion that one\u2019s life is one\u2019s own and that you are not beholden to anyone else by the mere fact that you are alive. It follows from this that there can be no duty on anyone to live beyond a point of their own choosing, and there should be no attempt to interfere with suicidal behaviour whether by individuals or by the law. [1]  [1] Chobli, Michael, \u2018Suicide\u2019, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward n. Zalta (ed.), Fall 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-con03a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"We are all dying  Death is an inevitable fact of life. We will all die. Suicide is therefore not a matter of choosing between life and death per se, but of choosing the time and manner of death one wishes. We would all prefer a painless death over a slow and agonising one, and it is better to be able to prepare oneself and if possible anyone else who will be affected, so why should the difference between the two be a matter of luck and not one of choice?"}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-con01a","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"This is not the role of the criminal law  Criminal legislation is not the vehicle for society\u2019s pronouncements on questions of how one should live one\u2019s life. It instead involves the entirely practical exercise of ensuring that individuals are able to live freely and enjoy their freedom without fear of external interferences like theft, violence or murder. Criminal legislation should guarantee a safe space for autonomous individual action - like suicide."}
+{"id":"test-law-lgplhbssbco-con02b","title":"law general philosophy life house believes suicide should be criminal offence","text":"The right to life is a positive protection against the state extinguishing that right and is limited largely to that context. A person can no more choose to give up their right to life than they can choose to give up their right to freedom from slavery."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-pro02b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"It is accepted as a position of international criminal law that head of state immunity does not apply before international tribunals [1] . Any such immunity that Kenya had was waived by them joining the ICC, which they did voluntarily.  Even so, just because someone has a position of power does not mean they should have impunity from liability for very serious crimes.  [1] Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Belgium), 14 February 2002,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-pro02a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Head of state immunity  Traditionally, heads of state have had immunity in foreign courts. This is for the normal functioning of diplomacy \u2013 so heads of state can engage in business at other states and travel to summits without the risk of harassment by vexatious claims in foreign courts, or foreign governments trying to attack the decisions of other governments in their own courts.  The ICC trying sitting heads of state would set a terrible precedent of a method of regime change \u2013 not even by foreign militaries, but by the ICC prosecutor. Regimes should change according to democratic mandate not foreign courts."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-pro03b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"A previous Kenyan government, operating with a democratic mandate, ratified the Rome Statute. Therefore, there is no interference with Kenyan sovereignty: a Kenyan government legally and lawfully submitted Kenya to the jurisdiction of the ICC.  Besides, a \u201cdemocratic mandate\u201d would not stop the prosecution of a prosecution of someone for an offence committed prior to getting into office, which is what happened in Kenya. Neither is a \u201cdemocratic mandate\u201d a defence to perform crimes against humanity either in or out of office."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-pro01a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"A delay is necessary for national security  Kenya is at risk of terrorist attack. Al-Shabab, a group linked to Al Qaeda have launched a number of attacks against Kenya. In addition to the Westgate massacre, there have been grenade attacks on bus terminals [1] and suicide bombings in refugee camps [2] .  Kenya\u2019s waters are also used by Somali based pirates as a ground for attacks on international shipping, including possibly targeting ships travelling towards the port of Mombasa.  It is more important to the international community to have credible action taken in order to protect the Kenyan people from terrorism. This needs a strong Kenyan government \u2013 which means that there cannot be a change due to an international trial.  [1] Associated Press, \u201cTwo grenade blasts rattle Nairobi; 1 dead\u201d, USA Today, 25\/10\/2011   [2] Ombati, Cyrus, \u201cTerror suspects die after bombs explode on them\u201d, Standard Digital News,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-pro01b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Kenya is an advanced state with a functioning system of the rule of law \u2013 except for those in power. With modern video technology, Ruto and Kenyatta could oversee the governance of the country from The Hague, or, alternatively, participate in the trial through videolink.  Even so, Al-Shabab are unlikely to be defeatable within the terms of Kenyatta and Ruto. Such a delay would only be useful if there was government reform or fresh elections necessary, rather than anti-terrorist action."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-pro03a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Interferes with a democratic mandate  Unlike many of the other ICC defendants, Uhuru Kenyatta and William Ruto have a democratic mandate from elections that \u201crepresented the will of the voters\u201d [1] \u2013 electoral mandates given to them after their indictment by the International Criminal Court.  This must be respected by the ICC and the international community as a whole: even though they are suspected of crimes against humanity by a foreign court.  [1] European Union Election Observation Mission To Kenya, General Elections 2013 :Final Report,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con03b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Kenya does not need or want government by those who hand out illegal title deeds [1] and threaten the freedom of the press [2] as Kenyatta\u2019s government does.  In addition to that, the allegations that the president used a banned occult gang, the Mungiki, in order to perform acts of mass murder is enough to end his credibility as a leader in the country \u2013 the best interests of good governance in Kenya mean that Kenyatta should go.  [1] Chanji, Tobias, \u201cRaila Odinga says title deeds issued by President Uhuru Kenyatta illegal\u201d, Standard Digital, November 25th 2013,   [2] Shiundu, Alphonce, \u201cPresident retains punitive fines against media in new law\u201d, Standard Digital, November 27th 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con01b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Not every defendant is a head of state. While justice should aim to treat all defendants alike, there are some cases where things have to be changed in order to allow states to function."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con02a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Kenya needs the trial now  Without justice, there cannot be peace. Following the total failure of the Kenyan justice system to take action, exemplified by the Parliament\u2019s complete and utter rejection of the Waki Commission, the ICC, which Kenya voluntarily signed up to, has to step in.  Ethnic violence still goes on in Kenya [1] , and if there is impunity in this case, no message will be sent out: justice must be done and seen to be done to prevent similar abuses and prevent justice being taken outside of the courts.  [1] Wachira, Muchemi, \u201cCattle raids and tribal rivalries to blame for perennial conflict\u201d, Daily Nation, November 18 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con04a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Just hold the trial by videolink  It has already been agreed that defendants can appear at the court by videolink [1] for parts of the trial. This is not problematic, unless the defendants want to start representing themselves.  Bearing in mind that Ruto and Kenyatta have been continuing to co-operate with the trial throughout the process, there is no reason to think that they would flee the international criminal court. Either way, if they change their mind, they could simply not travel to The Hague for the trial.  [1] Corder, Mike, \u201cInternational court changes trial attendance rule\u201d, The Wichita Eagle, November 28th 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con03a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Kenya would be better off without them  Kenya does not need or want government by those who hand out illegal title deeds [1] and threaten the freedom of the press [2] as Kenyatta\u2019s government does.  In addition to that, the allegations that the president used a banned occult gang, the Mungiki, in order to perform acts of mass murder is enough to end his credibility as a leader in the country \u2013 the best interests of good governance in Kenya mean that Kenyatta should go.  [1] Chanji, Tobias, \u201cRaila Odinga says title deeds issued by President Uhuru Kenyatta illegal\u201d, Standard Digital, November 25th 2013,   [2] Shiundu, Alphonce, \u201cPresident retains punitive fines against media in new law\u201d, Standard Digital, November 27th 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con01a","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Criminal defendants don\u2019t get to pick and choose trial dates  Irrespective of who they are, Kenyatta and Ruto are nothing special \u2013 they\u2019re just another two criminal defendants.  A person who is on trial murder or any other offence, whoever they are, can\u2019t pick and choose their trial date for their own convenience or for their own business interests \u2013 why should these two particular defendants get a special privilege? Silvio Berlusconi was prosecuted by the Italian courts; the slow speed was due to the glacial pace of the Italian legal system rather than him particularly agitating for a special hold-up. The court cases were not done at his convenience."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con04b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Even though all parties agree to this, it is not appropriate for the ICC to be trying a sitting head of state anyway. The ICC is accepting this by holding the trial by videolink \u2013 no other court would do such a thing.  While it sounds tempting to allow Kenyatta and Ruto to participate in their trial by Skype, they may not continue to participate and simply refuse to leave Kenya if they are convicted."}
+{"id":"test-law-ralhrilglv-con02b","title":"rnational africa law human rights international law government leadership voting","text":"Kenya doesn\u2019t need a trial. The Kenyan parliament voted against such a thing \u2013 the Kenyan people decided in 2013 that they want to give Kenyatta and Ruto a democratic mandate.  While there is a terror threat \u2013 something that Kenyatta and Ruto can deal with in their role as head of state \u2013 Kenya did not have post election violence in 2013, and ethnic conflict is not going on at a major level. Even if there is no justice, there is peace, which is more important."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro02b","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Simply arguing that because something is a 'tradition' that it should be legalized is a nonsensical argument. Traditions need to stand on their own merits, beyond the simple fact that people have done it in the past, as anyone would recognise that a great many things done in the past were not desirable, and therefore longevity does not equal desirability. Moreover, substances have never been legalized simply because some religions place spiritual connotations upon their use. For example, many members of the Rastafarian Movement and some Muslim Sufi groups claim that using cannabis has spiritual value and is important to understanding mystic truths, but cannabis has not been legalized as a result. [1] This is because, on balance, the harms of legalization outweigh our perception of its claimed benefits, and the same is true of the coca leaf. It is also important to note that the prized position of coca in Andean culture owes much to the lucrative nature of the international cocaine market, and thus this cultural value cannot be entirely 'unbundled' from cocaine use in the West. [2]  [1] Ernest, Abel. \u201cA Comprehensive Guide to Cannabis Literature\u201d. Greenwood Press. 1979.;  [2] Transnational Institute Debate Papers. \u201cCoca yes, cocaine, no?\u201d. Transnational Institute. No. 2006\/2. No. 13. May 2006."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro02a","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Coca production can be justified on cultural grounds  Coca chewing is hugely prevalent amongst the peoples of the Andes, and their social relationship with it is akin to that of ours with coffee in Western nations. This is why so many nations in this region cannot and simply will not ever conform to any international ban that calls for phasing it out. The custom of chewing coca leaves may date back as far as 3000 BC in the region, and so hugely pre-dates cocaine consumption, and thus shouldn't be bundled with it or banned on the grounds that cocaine is banned. [1] Coca has also been a vital part of the religious traditions of the Andean peoples from the pre-Inca period through to the present, being used 'to communicate with the supernatural world and obtain its protection, especially with offerings to the Pachamama, the personification and spiritual form of the earth.' [2] All South American countries have signed several declarations by the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) that acknowledged that the chewing of coca leaves is an ancestral cultural expression that should be respected by the international community. [3] The international discouragement of the practice of chewing coca leaves and the prohibition on its use by Andeans when they travel or reside abroad can thus be seen as a violation of their indigenous religious and traditional rights, and therefore is not acceptable on a moral level.  [1] Morales, Evo. \u201cLet Me Chew My Coca Leaves\u201d. New York Times. March 13, 2009.   [2] Transnational Institute Debate Papers. \u201cCoca yes, cocaine, no?\u201d. Transnational Institute. No. 2006\/2. No. 13. May 2006.   [3] Jelsma, Martin. \u201cLifting the Ban on Coca Chewing\u201d. Transnational Institute, Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies Nr. 11. March 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro03b","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Medical uses of the coca leaf are already legal under the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. [1] . The coca plant has also never been proven to be a better ingredient in these varied domestic products than other plants, and other plants may even perform even better as ingredients. [2] There is therefore no compelling reason to believe that its global cultivation would result in any meaningful economic boost or better products on the market. Saving lives from being ruined by cocaine is more important than nay minor boost we might get from other coca products.  [1] United Nations. \u201cSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961\u201d. United Nations. 1961, amended 1972.   [2] Transnational Institute Debate Papers. \u201cCoca yes, cocaine, no?\u201d. Transnational Institute. No. 2006\/2. No. 13. May 2006."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro01a","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Coca chewing is not equivalent to the consumption of hard drugs. It is no more harmful than drinking coffee.  The coca leaf, in its natural state, is not even a narcotic, even though the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs considers the natural leaf to be so. However it only truly becomes a narcotic when the paste or the concentrate is extracted from the leaf to form cocaine. [1] The simple coca leaf, by contrast, only has very mild effects when chewed and is different from cocaine. In 1995 the World Health Organisation found that the \u201cuse of coca leaves appears to have no negative health effects and has positive therapeutic, sacred and social functions for indigenous Andean populations.\u201d [2] It may even be useful in combating obesity, and there is no evidence that coca use is addictive. At worst, it is comparable to caffeine in terms of its effect on its consumer. [3] Therefore there are no significant health reasons behind this ban on the cultivation of coca leaves for their chewed consumption in its traditional form.  [1] Morales, Evo. \u201cLet Me Chew My Coca Leaves\u201d. New York Times. March 13, 2009.   [2] Jelsma, Martin. \u201cLifting the Ban on Coca Chewing\u201d. Transnational Institute, Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies Nr. 11. March 2011.  [3] Morales, Evo. \u201cLet Me Chew My Coca Leaves\u201d. New York Times. March 13, 2009."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro01b","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Compulsive Coca chewing may compromise oral health. The wider cultivation of coca plants may make cocaine itself more readily available, and cocaine has clear health risks to its consumption. This debate must be seen in terms of the wider health risks and problems that actually occur if cultivation is legalized, not just a narrow understanding of the health risks in a theoretical vacuum."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro03a","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Legal coca cultivation would enhance economic growth in developing states  Millions of people in South America chew coca leaves, so this practice cannot simply be wished away. [1] Moreover, it currently acts as a vital income source in many impoverished areas of the Andes. Pasquale Quispe, 53, owner of a 7.4-acre Bolivian coca farm, explained to the New York Times in 2006: \u201cCoca is our daily bread, what gives us work, what gives us our livelihood.\u201d [2] Previous attempts to eradicate coca cultivation in Bolivia harmed the poorest farmers there and led to significant social unrest. [3] When it is allowed, however, coca cultivation can actually have economic benefits. Peasant cultivators in the Andes have indicated their belief that coca chewing helps increase production in agriculture, fisheries and mining. [4] The legalization of coca cultivation globally would allow for the expansion of these economic benefits. The coca leaf may have uses as a stimulant and flavouring agent in drinks (in which it is currently used to a limited extent in the West), but also in the expansion of the many domestic products currently in use in the Andes, including syrups, teas, shampoo and toothpaste. It may also have a use as a general anaesthetic. [5] Only the legalization of its cultivation globally will allow these product and economic potentials to be fully realized and allow humanity to reap the full rewards of the coca plant, rather than simply being limited by the fear and stigma surrounding its illegal use in cocaine.  [1] Morales, Evo. \u201cLet Me Chew My Coca Leaves\u201d. New York Times. March 13, 2009.   [2] Forero, Juan. \u201cBolivia's Knot: No to Cocaine, but Yes to Coca\u201d. New York Times. February 12, 2006.   [3] Forero, Juan. \u201cBolivia's Knot: No to Cocaine, but Yes to Coca\u201d. New York Times. February 12, 2006.   [4] Transnational Institute Debate Papers. \u201cCoca yes, cocaine, no?\u201d. Transnational Institute. No. 2006\/2. No. 13. May 2006.   [5] Transnational Institute Debate Papers. \u201cCoca yes, cocaine, no?\u201d. Transnational Institute. No. 2006\/2. No. 13. May 2006."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-con03b","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"The burden of evidence lies on the side trying to prove its harm, not on the side asserting that it is not harmful, and so the lack of categorical proof of its harm is in itself an argument for legalizing its cultivation and chewing. If proof of health risks arise then they can be addressed, but until then the ban is inappropriate and should be lifted."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-con01b","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"If coca cultivation were legalized, there would probably be mechanisms and policies to allow the plant and its derivatives to co-exist without this necessarily signifying an increase in harmful consumption, and to limit it being grown in the huge amounts needed for cocaine production. [1] The legalizing of coca cultivation for non-cocaine use could also undermine the supply basis of cocaine itself, as farmer would shift their production of coca from cocaine-purposed coca to open market coca production, as legal production would be much more secure from government action. Therefore legalizing coca production could actually help make cocaine less readily available.  [1] Transnational Institute Debate Papers. \u201cCoca yes, cocaine, no?\u201d. Transnational Institute. No. 2006\/2. No. 13. May 2006."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-con02a","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Legalising coca production would undemine the wider war on the drugs economy  The UN International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) said in 2011 that exceptions for Bolivia would undermine international narcotics control efforts: \u201c[Allowing coca] would undermine the integrity of the global drug control system, undoing the good work of governments over many years.\u201d [1] A US official said in January of 2011: \u201cthere is evidence to suggest that a substantial percentage\u201d of the increased coca production in Bolivia over the past several years, registered in U.N. surveys, \u201chas indeed gone into the network and the marketplace for cocaine.\u201d [2] These examples thus show that legalizing coca cultivation would undermine the wider war on drugs, because it shifts the policy away from one of eradicating crops which could be turned into narcotics and instead turns towards making them acceptable on the global market. It encourages countries to take eradication efforts less seriously, and seemingly undermines the commitment of the international community to the war on drugs, once it gives in on this narcotic. This will make not just cocaine but many other drugs more widely available, leading to even more ruined lives through drug abuse.  [1] M&C News. \u201cBolivia undermines global anti-drug efforts, UN warns\u201d. M&C News. Jul 5, 2011.   [2] Associated Press. \u201cU.S. to fight Bolivia on allowing coca-leaf chewing\u201d. The Portland Press Herald. January 19 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-con03a","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Coca chewing is harmful and should be proscribed  The original decision to ban coca chewing was based on evidence that this was indeed harmful to human health. A 1950 report elaborated by the UN Commission of Inquiry on the Coca Leaf with a mandate from ECOSOC states that: \"We believe that the daily, inveterate use of coca leaves by chewing ... is thoroughly noxious and therefore detrimental.\" [1] Therefore the risk of health harms should not be dismissed or undermined. Coca is also different to caffeine and other similar products in in its capacity to be diverted to highly potent, dangerous, and damaging use in cocaine. Therefore it has unique health considerations which make its prohibition acceptable.  [1] Jelsma, Martin. \u201cLifting the Ban on Coca Chewing\u201d. Transnational Institute, Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies Nr. 11. March 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-con01a","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"Unrestricted Coca production would increase the availability of cocaine  Cocaine can be readily extracted from the coca leaf. In 1992 the World Health Organization\u2019s Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (ECDD) undertook a \u2018prereview\u2019 of coca leaf at its 28th meeting. The 28th ECDD report concluded that, \u201cthe coca leaf is appropriately scheduled [as a narcotic] under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, since cocaine is readily extractable from the leaf.\u201d [1] The active ingredient in coca leaf is the same as in cocaine, just more concentrated. Because the raw material of coca and its more potent relative cocaine are so closely aligned, it is impossible to disassociate the two, and so any attempt to consider cocaine a narcotic and stop its spread must also forbid coca. Globally, cocaine is also most produced where coca is legal, and this is a clear correlation. In Bolivia, coca eradication efforts in the 1980s and 90s helped reduce cocaine production. However, as Evo Morales took power and legalized coca production and consumption, cocaine production has shot up, despite his efforts to fight cocaine production. [2] Thus legalizing coca makes it easier for cocaine producers to operate. Legalizing the cultivation of the coca leaf would therefore simply make cocaine more readily available, thus increasing all the harms that come with widespread cocaine use in society.  [1] Jelsma, Martin. \u201cLifting the Ban on Coca Chewing\u201d. Transnational Institute, Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies Nr. 11. March 2011.  [2] Forero, Juan. \u201cBolivia's Knot: No to Cocaine, but Yes to Coca\u201d. New York Times. February 12, 2006."}
+{"id":"test-law-thgglcplgphw-con02b","title":"th health general global law crime policing law general punishment house would","text":"With no other narcotic drug are the components parts of that drug banned in of themselves. For example, the raw component parts of crystal meth are not banned. These components are a variety of household cleaning compounds. [1] It is wrong therefore to suggest that it is impossible to have an effective anti-narcotics effort unless the component parts are banned, as this exact approach is successful taken in other areas.  [1] Associated Press. \u201cNew 'shake-and-bake' method for making crystal meth gets around drug laws but is no less dangerous\u201d. NYDaily News. Tuesday, August 25th 2009."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro02b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"The verdict of an individual trial should not be predicated on trials which have already been carried out and concluded. The evidence which is being \u2018withheld\u2019 here is in fact irrelevant to the case at hand. While these countries recognise that juries have great value as a representative of the people [1] , it is also important to recognise that people are vulnerable to bias \u2013 as shown by the huge increase in convictions when previous offences are disclosed [2] . The benefits of disclosing past convictions is outweighed by the benefits of the jury remaining impartial as far as possible, as this is the best way to reach a fair and just verdict.  [1] Tickner, Joel and Ketelsen, Lee, \u2018Democracy and the Precautionary Principle\u2019, The Networker, Vol. 6 No.3, May 2001  [2] The Economist, \u2018Tilting the balance\u2019, 2 January 2003"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro02a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Juries need to have all the information possible in order to reach a fair verdict.  It is nonsensical to withhold evidence from a jury that might be necessary for them to reach an accurate verdict. Just because their verdict might be more prone to conviction rather than acquittal does not necessarily mean that this is an unfair or even inaccurate conclusion; given that violent offenders are likely to re-offend [1] , it may illuminate the truth rather than confuse it. Jurors should be allowed to weigh the relevance of previous convictions and compare them with the accusations of the trail at hand. A criminal justice system which currently relies on the ability of the jury to make a decision [2] cannot legitimately choose to withhold evidence from them without innately biasing the trial itself. As the UK Government\u2019s White Paper states, \u2018we want less evidence to be withheld from the courts, on the principle that relevant evidence should be admissible . . . magistrates, judges and juries have the common sense to evaluate relevant evidence and should be trusted to do so\u2019 [3] . If we cannot trust juries to decide which evidence is relevant to the verdict and which is not, then the entire use of juries in the criminal justice system should be reconsidered.  [1] CBC News, \u2018Getting out of prison\u2019, March 2008.  [2] Direct Gov, \u2018Jury service \u2013 what happens in court and after the trial\u2019, 10 October 2011.  [3] CPS, \u2018Justice for all\u2019, The Stationary Office, July 2002."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro03b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"If anything, this is an argument to prevent the media from publishing and details of a case or its defendant before the trial has been carried out, or from being more proactive and disqualifying jurors who \u2018research\u2019 their case before it comes to court. We should not endorse this kind of behaviour, which jurors know is not allowed, by legitimising it within court and announcing previous convictions. The harm of bias, particularly among those who would go out of their way to read about the personal history of a defendant, could be incredibly dangerous to the principle of a fair trial."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro05a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Occasional disclosure of convictions leads to an inconsistent justice system.  At present in Britain, some previous convictions may be disclosed if they bear a striking resemblance to the case at trial, if the defendant falsely claims to be of good character, or if they attack the character of a prosecution witness [1] . However, different judges invariable interpret these criteria in different ways, which leads to a wavering standard of trail where previous convictions may or may not be revealed. It would be much more efficient and transparent to allow this motion and make court procedures more accessible.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Tilting the balance\u2019, 2 January 2003."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro01a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"The current system is unfairly weighted in favour of criminals.  It is unfair that those who repeatedly re-offend should be treated in the same manner as those who have committed one offence; a singular offence could mark a mistake or accident in the defendant\u2019s choices, but repeated criminal acts mark a habit and a lack of regret for past crimes. Failing to take past convictions into account can lead to many dangerous offenders being underestimated by the jury, and so released. This is particularly pertinent in cases of child molestation, where child molesters have a particularly high rate of re-offending \u2013 expected to be even \u2018larger than the reported 50 per cent\u2019 - but \u2018only a small proportion of sexual offences against children result in a conviction\u2019. This conviction rate, however, does rise for \u2018those with a history of prior sexual offences\u2019 [1] .  Under the current conditions, this system is unfairly weighted against the innocent victims of repeated crime. A higher conviction rate, informed by the knowledge of previous offences, helps to reach justice for these victims and their families, as well as promoting justice and the safety of the general public who find it frustrating that so many dangerous offenders are released without appropriate conviction [2] . Moreover, jurors themselves lose confidence in the justice system when they find out that they have just acquitted a defendant who has committed a similar crime before. One notable example of this was series of trials of Kirk Reid, who committed many sexual assaults against women including several instances of rape and who was \u2018wrongfully acquitted\u2019 of his first offence in 1996. Not only did his victim lose all sense of hope in the justice system \u2013 she had faced her attacked and been discredited \u2013 but one of the jurors at the trial who believed that he was guilty went on to criticise the justice system itself [3] . The current system seriously risks acquitting criminals who have already committed similar crimes; it is time to rebalance the justice system to acknowledge the needs of the victims who suffer through wrongful acquittal of their attackers.  [1] Victims of Violence, \u2018Research \u2013 Protecting Children from Sexual Abuse\u2019, 28 February 2011  [2] Hughes, David, \u2018Sex offenders to lose right to get out of jail early\u2019, The Daily Mail  [3] Lette, Kathy, \u2018For sexual assault, justice is on trial\u2019, The Guardian, 1 July 2010"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro01b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"While recidivism is obviously a problem, this motion fails to take into account any situation where an individual has previously committed a crime but is innocent of the crime going to trial. Given that conviction rates soar when previous convictions are disclosed [1] , this motion doesn\u2019t rebalance the justice system to cater for the victims, but risks seriously prejudicing those who are innocent of the crime going to trial. A wrongful conviction is just as bad as a wrongful acquittal; the prejudicial effects on the jury\u2019s ability to make a verdict [2] undermines the objectivity of the justice system, and seriously risks the possibility of a fair trial.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Tilting the balance\u2019, 2 January 2003.  [2] The Economist, \u2018Tilting the balance\u2019, 2 January 2003."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro05b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"The more obvious and efficient solution to this problem is to ensure a clearer standard of when previous convictions may or may not be disclosed, so that judges may act by the same standards. There is a simple solution to this particular complication; it would be an overreaction to suddenly change the entire court process by allowing this motion."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro04b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Revealing past convictions could actually be detrimental in providing an accurate character profile of the defendant or prosecution witness, particularly if the defendant has previously been convicted but has also had successful rehabilitation. This disclosure undermines a key principle of the justice system \u2013 rehabilitation and reintegration [1] \u2013 by undermining any possibility that they could have changed their lifestyle or altered their character. As such, while it might serve one point of court, it seriously undermines other principles of justice which should not be compromised for such a small benefit.  [1] law.jrank.org, \u2018Rehabilitation \u2013 What is Rehabilitation?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro03a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Jurors are already aware of information which might \u2018bias\u2019 their verdict.  Jurors are frequently affected by media coverage of particular cases, which makes it almost impossible for them to remain impartial in the idealistic way which opposition naively believes possible. This creates a situation where the jury may be more affected by information which they have found out elsewhere \u2013 for example on the news or in newspapers \u2013 than the information which is presented to them in court. There have been some cases where jurors search the internet to find the backgrounds to their cases, despite the fact that this is not allowed [1] . This evidently reflects that jurors feel that they have not been adequately informed and so seek facts elsewhere. Given that this need has been reflected by the jurors themselves, the court should give jurors all possible information and bring previous convictions into the open to ensure that they can base their verdict on reliable fact presented in court rather than resorting to sensationalist media.  [1] Attorney General\u2019s Office, \u2018Juror convicted for internet research\u2019, 23 January 2012."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro04a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Defendants who are innocent will be protected  This motion could allow innocent defendants to mount a stronger case. This is because, if allowed, the previous convictions of prosecution witnesses would be admitted as evidence. In this case, if a prosecution witness falsely claims good character in opposition to the defendant, any falsity could be more easily seen and weighed by the jury. This solves a problem under that status quo where \u2018the threat of introducing his [the defendant\u2019s] previous convictions will frequently inhibit him from introducing character evidence about the prosecution witness\u2019 [1] ; fear that the defendant\u2019s convictions may weigh against them where the prosecution witness remains untouchable creates a discrepancy in the justice system. However, if convictions on both sides were to be revealed anyway, then neither can falsely claim the character of the other and attempt to convince the jury of false information on this front.  [1] CPS, \u2018Justice for all\u2019, The Stationary Office, July 2002."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con03b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"It is patronising to state the jurors cannot understand the difference between a conviction and an acquittal. However, knowledge of the defendant\u2019s background might help to shed light on the case at hand and allow the jurors to view the wider picture when weighing up their verdict."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con01b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Unfortunately, empirical evidence shows that past offenders are more likely to commit further offences [1] . Revealing past convictions could be a good indicator of how likely it is that the defendant could have committed a crime, particularly if it is a similar crime to one committed in the past. Acquitting a defendant of a crime which they had previously committed could easily create public outrage and discredit the justice system; it is only fair that past convictions should be taken into account alongside the rest of the evidence.  [1] Edwards, Richard, \u2018Half of all criminals re-offend within a year\u2019, The Telegraph, 5 September 2008."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con02a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"We already recognise that we cannot place complete trust in juries.  Although we recognise that juries can provide valuable insight and represent the will of the general public in court cases [1] (and especially the communities in which the crimes occurred [2] ), there is also recognition that juries can be subject to bias [3] . Britain has even suggested plans to restrict the right to trial by jury in order to prevent undue bias from affecting court cases [4] . Elsewhere, experts are debating over whether jurors should learn about \u2018a victim\u2019s sexual history in rape cases where the defendant asserts that the accuser consented to sex, or a victim's propensity for violence in murder cases where the accused claims self-defense\u2019 [5] because of fears that it might cause juror bias. We do not grant ultimate knowledge to jurors, nor should we; it endangers the potential for an unbiased trial.  [1] Lawson Neal, and Simms, Andrew, \u2018A People\u2019s Jury of a thousand angry citizens\u2019, The Guardian, 31 July 2011.  [2] New Jersey Courts, \u2018Welcome to the New Jersey Court System\u2019, judiciary.state.nj.us, 2011.  [3] Howard Nations, \u2018Overcoming Jury Bias\u2019  [4] Davies, Patricia Wynn, \u2018Plans to restrict right to trial by jury condemned\u2019, The Independent, 28 February 1997.  [5] Silverglate, Harvey A., and Poulson, Dan, \u2018Getting Real at the SJC\u2019, Massachusetts Lawyers Weekly, 30 May 2005 ."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con04a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Allowing this motion would lead to a miscarriage of justice.  This motion removes the incentive for police to conduct vigorous investigations. Given the increasing pressure on policemen and women to gain convictions [1] , this motion will mean that their best chance of obtaining those convictions is simply to accuse those whose backgrounds could feasibly lead a jury to believe that they are not only capable of crime, but have committed the crime in question. Subsequently, the real culprits may be left to go free as suspicion is routinely pointed towards those who already have a criminal record. Given that poor police investigation [2] and poor case preparation by the prosecution [3] are currently a large source of dissatisfaction with the justice system, it is important to prevent either police or the prosecution from becoming dependent on the negative records of the defendants rather than properly fulfilling their roles.  [1] Bushywood, \u2018CPS - Crown Persecution Service\u2019.  [2] The Guardian, \u2018The cost of poor policing\u2019. 11 October 2010  [3] Human Rights Watch, \u2018Justice at Risk: War Crimes Trials in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia and Montenegro\u2019, 14 October 2004, D1607."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con03a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"The disclosure of previous convictions could falsely characterize the defendant.  This motion is incredibly dangerous in a variety of ways as not only convictions but also acquittals and other past conduct could then be raised in a court trials. This means that a jury could be informed that somebody had questionable behaviour, such as a sexual interest in children, even if they had never been tried or much less convicted of an actual offence. This would allow the prosecution to unduly blacken the character of the defendant, and easily prejudice the jury against them for no valid reason, and without the evidence which formal proceedings would require. Studies into jury verdicts have found that a jury was \u201850% more likely to convict if it was told that the defendant had a conviction for a similar previous offence than if it was given no information\u2019, particularly in regard to sexual offences [1] . This is proof that jurors are highly susceptible to prejudice when reaching a verdict.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Tilting the balance\u2019, 2 January 2003."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con01a","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"The motion completely undermines the assumption of innocence which accompanies a fair trial.  By projecting past convictions on to a new case, this disclosure greatly weakens the presumption of innocence which is the defendant\u2019s right [1] . It is the jury\u2019s duty to form a verdict based on the relevant case, and it should not be dependent on events from the defendant\u2019s past life which may be completely irrelevant to the case in hand. Many people who mistakenly committed a crime at one point in their life realise that it was a mistake and do not go on to re-offend, particularly if they have received help or treatment from the state [2] . Even if the defendant has repeatedly committed crimes in their past, it does not necessarily follow that they are guilty of the particular offence which has gone to trial.  [1] Criminal Defense Department\u2019 Every person is PRESUMED INNOCENT until Proven Guilty Beyond a Reasonable Doubt\u2019, Parkes Law Group, 6 May 2011  [2] Public Safety Canada, \u2018Treatment for sex offenders\u2019, 28 December 2007"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con04b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"This point places too much importance on the defendant\u2019s history. In any case, records of their previous convictions must be heard alongside of the facts of the primary crime; any history will always be tempered by discussion of the actual crime. Satisfaction from the justice system will be greater if the public are aware that juries are not simply allowing past offenders to walk free; and if police and prosecution forces are found to be failing at their jobs, then this should be separately addressed and regulated."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplgpshwdp-con02b","title":"crime policing law general punishment society house would disclose previous","text":"Better training for jurors could easily override this problem. If we continue to use juries as an essential part of the justice system, it is important to make sure that they are as well-informed as possible. Ensuring that they are blind to the truth is not a legitimate way to achieve a fair or unbiased verdict; rather, it innately limits the accuracy of any verdict and confines it to only a portion of the truth."}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-pro02b","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Giving evidence is a traumatic experience, TV coverage or otherwise. TV broadcasts can already have measures brought in to protect witnesses \u2013 for instance it could be agreed that they are not directly filmed. Anonymized witnesses at the ICC currently give evidence by video-link, of which the audio is distorted and the image pixelated out, save for those who are permitted to see it, such as the judges and counsel.  The ICC already enters in to arrangements with other states for the protection of witnesses in their physical safety."}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-pro02a","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Witnesses might be identified and placed in danger  Televising criminal trials may cause a number of problems with witnesses. It may make individuals less likely to give evidence, make them more likely to play to the television audience, or make the already intimidating process of giving evidence in court more so. Also, television broadcasts make it more likely that the identities of anonymized witnesses would leak out \u2013 something that has already happened at the ICC in the Ruto-Sang case [1] .  The ICC already has problems with witnesses, including allegations of bribing and intimidating prosecution witnesses in the Ruto case [2] , which has led to Walter Barasa, a Kenyan Journalist, being subject to an arrest warrant [3] . Ending the televising of trials may go some way to remedy those problems.  [1] Lattus, Asumpta, \u2018Evenson: \u2018First time arrest warrant has been issued in Kenya case\u2019, Deutsche Welle, 2 October 2013,   [2] Stewart, Catrina, \u2018ICC on trials along with Kenya\u2019s elite amid claims of bribery and intimidation\u2019, The Guardian, 1 October 2013,   [3] \u2018ICC seeks Walter Barasa arrest for Kenya \u2018witness tampering\u2019, BBC News, 2 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-pro03b","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"The Hussein trial identified the solution to problematic rants disrupting the trial - the TV feed cut to the judge and faded out Hussein\u2019s sound [1] . This is part of the reason why the ICC broadcasts are on a 30 minute delay, on web and TV access \u2013 outbursts, material that should be redacted and other things can be redacted before it reaches viewers.  These antics have been used in trials before the rolling news era, such as in the Chicago Eight case in the US, the trial of eight activists (one of whose trials was separated) for conspiracy and incitement to riot for offences regarding demonstrations at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. One of the defendants, Bobby Seale, launched in to a vicious vocal tirade against the judge, and was eventually bound and gagged in the courtroom. During the trial of the other seven, the defendants tried various antics including blowing kisses to the jury, wearing judicial robes which were removed to reveal police uniforms, not standing when the judge entered the court, and draping a North Vietnamese flag over the defence table [2] . The convictions \u2013 including those of the defence counsel for contempt of court \u2013 were overturned due to improper jury selection.  Television is not necessary for such behaviour.  [1] Engel, Richard, \u2018Saddam trial outbursts, heard but not seen\u2019, NBC News, 5 December 2005,   [2] Linder, Douglas O., \u2018The Chicago Seven Conspiracy Trial\u2019, University of Missouri Kansas City,"}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-pro01a","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Televising turns justice into entertainment  Broadcasting trials would be likely to turn the court in to entertainment. The Simpson trial showed how harmful a televised high profile trial can be degenerating into a freak show. The ICC trials are among the most high profile in the world so are likely to be susceptible to this. Much of the interest in the SCSL Charles Taylor trial came along when Naomi Campbell gave evidence so giving the trial celebrity interest that had little to do with the legalities involved [1] .  Jurisdictions where cameras are not permitted in courts still can and do have accurate, informative and timely reports of cases, however high profile, without filming them. Courtroom sketches, written transcripts and other tools allow reportage without the use of original footage in a tawdry manner.  [1] Bowcott, Owen, \u2018Charles Taylor and the \u2018dirty-looking stones\u2019 given to Naomi Campbell\u2019, theguardian.com, 26 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-pro01b","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Court proceedings themselves aren\u2019t, in general, entertaining. Live broadcasts would largely involve lawyers discussing intricate details of issues, including complex points of law. If there was a real prospect of an ICC trial becoming a matter of entertainment, it probably would have occurred with the existing trials.  Even high profile court cases will not get large viewing figures \u2013 the UK Supreme Court case in to the extradition of Julian Assange only got 14,500 viewers [1] . Existing regulations for the use of Supreme Court footage in the United Kingdom allow excerpts of the footage to be used in news and current affairs programmes, or educational uses, but bars the use of the footage in light entertainment or other programmes.  [1] Ministry of Justice, \u2018Proposals to allow the broadcasting, filming, and recording of selected court proceedings\u2019, gov.uk, May 2012,  at p10"}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-pro03a","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Unruly defendants can play up to the cameras  Televising the trial can create extra incentives for defendants to attempt to disrupt the process. During his trial, Saddam Hussein regularly made outbursts and went on political rants \u2013 based on Iraqi law, he was able to examine witnesses after his lawyer. This was not new \u2013 Slobodan Milosevic tried various antics in front of the (televised) ICTY [1] , and Ratko Mladic used those tactics post-Hussein [2] . Milosevic\u2019s approval ratings grew, and he even won a seat in the Serbian parliament while on trial.  A televised trial creates more of a risk of a political hijacking of the trial \u2013 something that has been shown to be a successful tactic by Milosevic. This both potentially damages the successor government by giving those on trial a platform and the court itself.  [1] Scharf, Michael P., Chaos in the Courtroom: Controlling disruptive defendants and contumacious counsel in war crimes trials\u2019, University of Galway  [2] Biles, Peter, \u2018Mladic\u2019s courtroom antics\u2019, BBC News, 4 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-con03b","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Transcripts and other forms of notation would also set a historical record. While the Nuremberg trials were filmed, live television broadcast was not technically possible, footage was used for newsreels at the time. The lack of continuous total film footage has not stopped the Nuremberg trial from setting a historical record \u2013 the written judgements and transcripts are enough."}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-con01b","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"While there is no jury that could be identified, or influenced, by the broadcast, there is still the other problems attached to televised trials \u2013 issues of legitimacy, lawyers and defendants acting up etc."}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-con02a","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Open justice \u2013 crimes with large numbers of victims  The principle of open justice, including the right to a public trial [1] , is enshrined in many legal systems. The best show of commitment to open justice is to allow everyone to watch it, the best method of doing so is for the trial to be televised. This is all the more the case when the victims can't all be in court, either because of the numbers or because of the distance.  Television coverage will help bring the trial closer to the victims. International criminal trials regularly take place outside the location of the offences, either in The Netherlands such as the ICTY, ICC and Charles Taylor trial, or elsewhere, such as the ICTR sitting in Arusha, Tanzania. It would be helpful in terms of providing closure to the victims, who should be witnessing proceedings.  [1] See the 6th Amendment to the US Constitution, Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights"}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-con03a","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Broadcasting provides a public record  Unlike many other criminal trials, since Nuremberg a key principle of International Criminal Law is that it aims to set a historical record. The events that it deals with are important as they are heinous crimes that change regions forever. A trial helps to get to the bottom of events that happened preventing there being multiple conflicting versions of events. This record also can help to act as a deterrent to others considering similar measures.  Broadcasting the trial will bolster this record by providing footage of the trial itself (which may reduce myths about it being unfair, for example) and providing a voice to the victims through their evidence, in their own words, being recorded for posterity and future study."}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-con01a","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"ICC does not have same problems as other legal systems  The ICC as a court does not have many of the things that a domestic criminal trial would have in terms of disadvantages of televising. Like all other international tribunals, there is no jury, only a panel of professional judges. Judges are going to be less intimidated by there being television broadcasts even if broadcasts of trials typically aim to obscure the identity of the jury. Similarly, there is a competent system of witness protection, and other safeguards."}
+{"id":"test-law-umtlilhotac-con02b","title":"ure media television law international law house opposes televising all criminal","text":"Few people would actually watch the entirety of the trial proceedings, most would probably just see clips of the footage of news reports; television news coverage of criminal trials can already take place without actual footage.  While televising trials will engage the victims and their families, televising a criminal trial may inflame tensions as well. During the trial of Saddam Hussein, Hussein made a number of calls to violence during his televised trial. Many of those who are on trial have a significant number of followers (see the widespread support for Uhuru Kenyatta) \u2013 television broadcasts would give them a means of communication"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro02b","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Opposition agrees that handguns have unique advantages over other weapons; however, banning handguns in this area would lead to worse problems which are mentioned here as well as in the first point of opposition.  The biggest issue with banning handguns, especially in a city, is that handguns will still be available to criminal classes willing to simply import the weapons from elsewhere. Due to their concealable nature it is very easy for them to smuggle handguns into an area where a handgun ban has been imposed. This is problematic because law abiding citizens in this area will now not have guns to defend themselves with. As such an asymmetry of power has been created where the people who bear guns, mainly criminals have weapons which give them significantly more power than the citizens in that area.  Under the status quo, the legality of handguns means that although they are more dangerous than other weapons, their availability works in citizens\u2019 favour. This is because the asymmetry of power mentioned above is then weighted in the other direction. If a large proportion of the population have handguns for self-defence then there will be a greater chance that criminals attempting to commit violent acts will encounter individuals carrying weapons, resulting in an equality of power between both attacking and defending parties. The asymmetry is then pushed towards the defensive parties because presumably there are more law abiding citizens than criminals. As such those who wish to use guns for defensive purposes outnumber those who want to use guns for criminal purposes, weighting power in favour of those defending themselves. This is verified by the incredibly common use of handguns in self-defence; roughly 80% of self-defence actions involve handguns.4"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro02a","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Handguns are uniquely dangerous when compared with other weapons  Handguns are specifically worse than most other weapons. They are weapons which are both concealable and portable. Shotguns and Rifles can easily be identified from a long distance making it easier to avoid those who are carrying them or conversely for the authorities check their motives for carrying arms. Handguns, being ranged weapons (as opposed to knives), prevent people from opting to run away if they are confronted by an attacker and being concealable prevent any attempt at avoiding those carrying them.  Because of these unique capabilities they make excellent weapons for gang members who wish to remain inconspicuous to avoid being searched by the police. Further, they are also uniquely useful for other criminal actors such as drug dealers who need to be able to protect themselves, but also need to appear unassuming for clients.  As such, handguns, where they are freely available, are often used by most criminals for these purposes. Given that handguns are also more likely to cause accidental injuries- as a result of incompetence or recklessness- than a knife, it seems logical that handguns cause a much larger harm to citizens in places where they are freely available.4"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro03b","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Studies have been conducted on cities where a handgun ban has been implemented. It found that cities such as New York and DC continued to exhibit high rates of crime and proved to be some of the most dangerous cities in the world, regardless of the ban on guns.6  As mentioned, this is because criminal gangs and criminogenic neighbourhoods in these cities have become entrenched. Anyone desperate enough to seek out a handgun- either for use in a crime or as a means of defending themselves in a crime-ridden neighbourhood- is likely to be able to acquire one regardless of the legal control that city councils may attempt to put in place. In the case of stop and search laws, it proves that criminals are adaptable and change their methods based on this lower burden of proof. For example, many gangs opt to keep guns in armouries and only loan them out as and when they are necessary."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro01a","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Individuals Should Not Have the Right to Bear Arms in DC  Under the status quo the state exists to protect the security of its citizens. It does so by maintaining a monopoly of violence with the consent of its citizens. US citizens have been allowed to bear small arms as a symbolic representation of their ability to rise up against state oppression should it ever occur. That is, to keep a check and balance upon the monopoly of violence that the state has.  It is important to note that the state has the monopoly of violence such that it can protect its citizens in the best possible way. In the same way, the right to bear arms exists such that citizens can protect themselves and prevent harm. This means that should the state visit harm upon the citizens of the state then its right to claim a monopoly on violence is revoked and the citizens can fight against the state.  In a similar fashion to the above, should the citizens of the state use their right to bear arms to visit harm upon one another, it seems reasonable that in the same way that the state\u2019s monopoly on violence is revoked, the citizens should have their right to bear arms revoked.  Given that this does not occur in every single part of the U.S. it also seems reasonable to isolate the ban to areas where the spirit of the right to bear arms is being significantly violated. In this case the ban is limited to DC however it could potentially extend to other areas in the U.S. which suffer similar problems.2"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro01b","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"The issue with Washington DC and certain states in the U.S. is that the police and the state are unable to protect people. The opposition believes that people who visit violence upon one another should be prosecuted to the full extent of the law. However, within certain areas of DC, the state consistently fails to protect its citizens and enforce its monopoly of violence in a just and effective fashion.  In doing so the state is failing to uphold its part of its agreement with its citizens. Further, if police in these areas are corrupt in any way, then the state is actively visiting harm upon its citizens.  If the state is failing to maintain its monopoly on violence then the citizens of that area have to take over in order to provide for their own security. The citizens of DC have a right to bear arms in order to protect themselves.  The failure is thus on the part of the state for deaths in DC. Citizens within the state should not have their rights curtailed for what is essentially a failing of the state.3"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro03a","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"A handgun ban reduces crime and deaths  Aside from the fact that handguns are uniquely dangerous weapons, when the handgun ban was in place in DC, there was a reported decrease in crime in the area. In 1977 the year immediately following the ban the U.S. Conference of Mayors reported robberies, assaults and homicides using handguns had fallen in DC sharply. Further, in 1991 the University of Maryland published a study in the New England journal of Medicine suggesting the gun ban had saved lives in the decade before 1991, claiming that the ban had prevented 47 deaths in DC per year.5  It is theorised that the handgun ban does this because it makes other police tactics, such as stop and search, significantly more effective. If criminals wish to get the tactical advantage of power that opposition mention then they have to carry hand guns in order to do it. However, it means that if they are caught with a gun they become very easily identifiable and can easily be arrested to prevent harm coming to the populace of large. Specifically, the handgun ban means that the police have a much lower burden required in order to arrest suspects and given that a lot of the time the police have a strong idea of who the criminals are, but simply can\u2019t pin them for arrest, such a tactical advantage helps them get dangerous people off the street."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con03b","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Democracy is designed to be a flexible mechanism that can change based on different circumstances and at different times. The American constitution should provide a legal basis for all citizens of the U.S.  However, the reason such a legal basis exists is such that citizens in the U.S. are fairly treated under the law and thus benefit through the stability that such fairness creates.  However, it is also feasible that at certain points, part of the constitution could work out very badly for the state in some areas. This is why a system of amendments to the constitution exists.  As such, it is feasible that the constitution should also be able to deal with transitional periods where certain areas should be allowed different rights under the constitution because each area requires different laws in order to work properly that cannot be created on a state level.  Whilst this might cause some tension, most people in DC, particularly the non-criminals would probably understand the reasons behind a ban on handguns in their area, and indeed did when handguns were initially banned there.13"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con01b","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Firstly, the deterrence effect created by guns disappears if the use of guns is considered normal behaviour among the populace. Many violent and opportunistic crimes are committed out of necessity. They are not based on a rational calculus of the sort that side opposition discusses. In a society where gun use is normalised, criminals are more likely to view death as a hazard of their occupation, similar to arrest and imprisonment. In these circumstances, the deterrent effect of widespread gun ownership will quickly abate, overridden by desperation. Further, if crimes are being committed by gangs then often, need for respect from the gangs or fear of reprisal will simply override any beliefs regarding deterrence. Finally, criminals are very careful to pick actors who aren\u2019t likely to be well armed and to do so in secluded places. As such, it is incredibly unlikely that they will be deterred from crime.  Secondly, people are likely to have guns holstered. This means that should they be mugged by a criminal they will be unable to retrieve their weapons from their holsters because any movement toward the holster will likely result in them being shot. As such, any concept of a parity of power between actors simply does not exist under the status quo"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con02a","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Handguns are Required For Symbolic Reasons As A Defence Against the State Monopoly of Power  Handguns are legal in the U.S. for symbolic reasons. In Justice Scalla\u2019s oral argument he stated \u201cisn't it perfectly plausible, indeed reasonable, to assume that since the framers knew that the way militias were destroyed by tyrants in the past was not by passing a law against militias, but by taking away the people's weapons -- that was the way militias were destroyed. The two clauses go together beautifully: Since we need a militia, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.\u201d9 Guns are necessary to prevent the disarming of the people and as a statement that the citizens of the U.S. are allowed to stand up against the state.  In the formation of the state, the citizens of the state give up their freedoms and their ability to do violence upon each other in favour a state monopoly on violence. The implication is that the state, through this monopoly on violence, then prevents citizens from doing violence against one another.  However, it is possible for the state to use its monopoly on physical force in a reckless or subversive fashion. This means that the citizens should always be able to reassert the primacy of their rights and independence over the state, should the state begin to deviate from its mandated role as protector of those rights.  The right to carry firearms is part of this ability to assert one\u2019s power over the state. However, as the state has become more powerful, ownership of small arms has become an increasingly symbolic gesture. Taking away the right to bear arms from any American is thus harmful, as it removes the symbol that the state\u2019s power is not absolute and that ultimately the state is subservient to its people.10"}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con03a","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"The DC Handgun ban is inconsistent with other legislation in the U.S.  A change in legislation in DC that is markedly different from everywhere else in the U.S. is harmful. Whilst the constitution might be amended to give a specific change for DC, the rest of the U.S. will still be able to bear arms. The point of the American constitution is that it is meant to give an even field to all citizens under the law. Minor differences between people within different states is acceptable; owing to specific needs of specific states and all state legislation must be proved to be constitutional anyway. This difference is specifically problematic because of the nature of its interactions with both the constitution and the law.  This change is harmful because the state is dependent upon consistency within the law and perception of the law as being a fair mechanism for all people. Large inconsistencies within the law should not be tolerated as such inconsistencies often bring into debate the legitimacy of the state\u2019s legal code. This is problematic as such debates and inconsistencies can lead to confusion about the reach of the law as well as doubt in the legitimacy of the law. The law is dependent upon citizens understanding and subscribing to the legal code, otherwise legal systems might suffer from problems such as people simply not reporting crime to the police owing to their doubt in the legal system and its ability to protect them, or otherwise law abiding citizens from other areas of the country inadvertently breaking the law by bringing guns into D.C."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con01a","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"Hand Guns Are Required For Self Defence.  Under the status quo handguns are legal. This means that should a criminal initially wish to consider mugging someone he has to consider the possibility that he might be shot should he choose to take this action. A visceral fear of death and injury means that a significant number of criminals will be deterred from engaging in burglaries, violent robberies or muggings if they suspect that they might face armed resistance. As such the presence of handguns within a community contributes to the general deterrence of crime within that community.7  Secondly, should someone try to attack someone else with a handgun, if the other person is armed then they are in a much better position to negotiate with their attacker and prevent harm to either party. Creating a public culture in which handguns are held and used sensibly, and in which firearms training is widely available, allows a parity of power to be created between ordinary citizens and criminals. However, this parity of power is changed in favour of the defender. This is because there are more law abiding citizens than criminals. If the mugger is caught by another citizen then it is possible that citizen will also have a handgun leading to a situation where the mugger will likely be arrested or risk death.8  Finally, the normalisation of handguns in society means that people are less likely to panic should they be attacked by a mugger who has one. Deaths from mugging can often be caused by the victim simply panicking in response to the mugger. Shots are often fired by desperate and unstable assailants who are unprepared for their victim\u2019s reaction. In a society acclimatised to handguns and aware of the risk they present, incidents of this type- fuelled by panic, uncertainty and fear- are much less likely to occur."}
+{"id":"test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con02b","title":"crime policing law general local government house would ban handguns washington dc","text":"The right for Americans to bear arms used to be important for symbolic reasons. However, now such a symbol does not serve to act in the same way that it once did. It was once realistic that American citizens would be able to counteract the monopoly of violence that the state has. However, in this age of modern warfare, such power simply does not exist in any real form any more. Weapons as symbols in this way are just symbolic of the loss of power that the citizens of the U.S. have undergone over time and further are symbolic of a fruitless endeavour in resistance of the state through violent means. The fact that the citizens of America feel the need to resort to violence as a symbol for the ability to stand up to the state harms what the state stands up for now, which is change through peaceful and democratic protest.  Further, even if the right to bear arms was still symbolic in a positive way, the good feeling such a symbol gives simply does not compare to the number of lives lost to things such as gun violence year on year.11"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro02b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"A democracy\u2019s first duty must always be to the citizens that elect it, not to foreign dissidents. Their duty therefore is to be engaging with these regimes to the benefit of their own citizens; through encouraging trade relations for example. Offering amnesty to individuals oppressive regimes consider to be criminals will serve only to alienate those regimes from the process of negotiation so actually runs counter to the interests of the electorate. Such alienation would result in even more repression, and a greater unwillingness to adopt reforms. If democracies want to promote their mode of government abroad they would be best advised not to pick fights with those they wish to influence."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro02a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Democracies have an obligation to shield these people and to encourage further dissent  The universality of human rights, of the freedom of speech and of due process is all touted as crucial by the world\u2019s democracies. Democratic countries are frequently vocal on the subject of liberty, on the superiority of their system of government that provides for the best protection of human dignity. By offering amnesty to bloggers, the people standing at the forefront of the democratic cause in oppressive regimes, Western countries take a largely low-cost action that provides for the security and safety of some the bravest people in the public arena. The West must stop kowtowing to oppression and make a stand to offer an umbrella of protection to those who need it. That protection is absolutely crucial to the development of more dissent in the blogosphere and on the ground. Only by nurturing dissent can it ever take root and overcome the vast powers of authoritarian government. The promise of protection is hugely powerful because it gives bloggers a safety net to fall back on. Those already active will feel more empowered to speak out against their oppressors, and some currently cowed by fear will have the courage to speak up. The guarantee of amnesty also removes the perceived randomness of such offerings that currently occur, as in the recent case of Cuba in which two bloggers of similar pedigree asked for asylum in the US, but only one received it. [1] Such inconsistency has bred fear in the minds of dissidents. This policy would correct for it and help bolster the cause of justice on all fronts. It is through offering amnesty that democracies can provide the catalyst for the change they avow to be the paramount aim of human civilization.  [1] Fox News Latino. \u201cCuba: Prominent Blogger-Dissidents Receive Contradictory Results on Visa Petitions\u201d. 31 January 2013."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro03b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"This policy will not be a public statement of anything other than Western attempts to interfere in the internal affairs of others. It is also a powerfully hypocritical message; many democracies have libel laws that prevent libel and misrepresentation and authoritarian states should be allowed to have the same laws which will sometimes impact on bloggers. [1]  [1] Li, Eric X, \u201cThe Life of the Party\u201d, Foreign Affairs, January\/February 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro01a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"These people are under serious threat for their pursuit of justice  The internet has become the paramount means of voicing dissent within repressive regimes. As the technology regimes have to keep control of their people increases, with access to high-tech surveillance technology adding to their already formidable arsenals of physical oppression, the internet has become the only platform to express meaningful dissent. The Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia, for example, wherein people mobilized to overthrow their dictator has even been dubbed the Twitter Revolution. [1] Bloggers have become a major voice of dissent in other repressive regimes, including Cuba and China. Yet the blog platform is far from safe. Governments have sought to crack down on bloggers\u2019 ability to dissent, using draconian methods like imprisonment to cow them into silence. In China the arrests of bloggers like Zhai Xiaobing, who was arrested and detained for simply posting a joke about Communist Party, have served to frighten many into silence. [2] So long as information is denied to the public, governments are able to maintain their repression. Only external help from democratic, or at least more liberal, states can provide the safe haven for people who have rubbed their governments the wrong way in their pursuit of reform and justice.  [1] Zuckerman, E. \u201cThe First Twitter Revolution?\u201d. Foreign Policy. 14 January 2011.   [2] Wong, G. \u201cZhai Xiaobing, Chinese Blogger, Arrested for Twitter Joke About China\u2019s Government\u201d. Huffington Post. 21 November 2012."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro01b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Offering amnesty will not serve the cause of justice, it is responding to the symptom not the cause. It is unfortunate that individual bloggers suffer at the hands of governments, but seeking to give them amnesty will only serve to anger the regimes, leading to even further oppression and stifling of dissent. This unfortunately means that an individual is saved even as their actions may result in further reductions in the liberties of those who remain. As seen in China, the process of reform is slow and gradual. Upsetting that process could well increase the repression Western peoples feel to be so reprehensible."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro03a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"This offer of amnesty serves as a powerful public statement in favour of free speech and rule of law  In offering amnesty Western governments make an exceptionally powerful public statement in the international arena, an area in which they already hold great sway as norm-setters. It is a statement that shows that they will not simply ignore the abuses of power used by repressive regimes to stifle dissent and the voices of reform. [1] Ultimately, the power of oppressors to act with impunity is the product of democracies\u2019 unwillingness to challenge them. Authoritarian regimes often claim to value freedom of the press, for example article 35 of the Constitution of the People\u2019s Republic of China guarantees it, [2] and this policy challenges them to make their practice more like what they preach. A policy of amnesty for those threatened with the lash of tyranny serves to actively protect those people while at the same time upholding the avowed principles of justice and fairness the West proclaims. This will show that the West does not play favourites or turn a blind eye to these repressions, but is an active player, willing to step in to shield those who share its dreams of a freer world. The international ridicule these policies can generate will serve to shame regimes into relaxing their policies and to embrace at least a road to reform. Nor should it be assumed that this rhetoric will have no real consequences, many authoritarian regimes encourage investment by companies from democratic countries, such investment is less likely when that company\u2019s home state is publically condemning that state by granting amnesties to dissident bloggers.  [1] Clinton, H. \u201cConference on Internet Freedom\u201d. U.S. Department of State, 8 December 2011.   [2] Fifth National People\u2019s Congress, \u201cConstitution of the People\u2019s Republic of China\u201d, 4 December 1982,"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con03b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"People in oppressive regimes are smart enough to know when they are being duped. They will listen if the bloggers have a good point and are being unjustifiably persecuted. In the case of the Japan-China territorial dispute, there is the tangible fact that the islands are being fought over for nationalists to attach to irrespective of ideology. Offering amnesty is simply an offer to rescue people facing imminent unjust punishment. While governments will no doubt seek to paint them as foreign agents, their ideas will be able to continue to battle in the public sphere, rather than be shut off forever with the closing of a prison-cell door."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con01b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"All countries, even authoritarian ones, desire to be considered legitimate and valued in the international community. The weight of condemnation that a policy of amnesty creates is one that bears down heavily on repressive regimes and can galvanize them to reform. Furthermore, it is essential that Western governments nurture dissidents and give them shelter so they can continue their mission to attain justice rather than be thrown into jail."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con02a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"The liberal democratic paradigm is not the only legitimate model of government, a fact that democracies should accept and embrace  Ultimately, states\u2019 laws have to be respected. Liberal democracy has not proven to be the end of history as Fukuyama suggested, but is rather one robust system of government among many. China has become the example of a state-led capitalist model that relies on a covenant with the people fundamentally different from that between democratic governments and their citizens. [1] Chinas ruling communist party has legitimacy as a result of its performance and its role in modernising the country. [2] China\u2019s people have accepted a trade-off; economic growth and prosperity in exchange for their liberties. When dissidents challenge this paradigm, the government becomes aggrieved and seeks to re-establish its power and authority. If the dissidents are breaking that country\u2019s laws then the state has every right to punish them. Singapore similarly has an authoritarian version of democracy that delivers an efficient, peaceful state at the expense of constraints on the ability to criticise the government. [3] This collective model of rights has no inherent value that is lesser to that of the civil liberties-centric model of liberal democracy. In the end, as the geopolitical map becomes complicated with different versions of governance, states must learn to live with one another. The problem of offering amnesty to bloggers is that democracies and the West seek to enforce their paradigm onto that of states that differ. This will engender resentment and conflict. The world economy and social system relies on cooperation, trade, and peace. The difference between systems and cultures should be celebrated rather than simply assuming that there is only one true model and all others are somehow inferior.  [1] Acemoglu, D. and Robinson, J. \u201cIs State Capitalism Winning?\u201d. Project Syndicate. 31 December 2012.   [2] Li, Eric X, \u201cThe Life of the Party\u201d, Foreign Affairs, January\/February 2013,   [3] Henderson, Drew, \u201cSingapore suppresses dissident\u201d Yale Daily News, 5 November 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con04a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Democracies should be wary of meddling in the internal affairs of other countries  Authoritarian countries tend to guard their sovereignty jealously and will not take kindly to what they would consider to be interference in their internal affairs. In many cases this is exactly what the government offering an amnesty would be doing. Should foreign countries really be deciding that the justice system of a country was wrong in this or that case so amnesty should be provided? Where there are legal proceedings against a blogger that end up with the blogger being sent to jail those outside the country may think the sentences unjust but as countries that publically support the rule of law they should accept the result. It may well be the case that sometimes the judicial system has been used to persecute a blogger but it is difficult to see why an outside power with little interest in the case should believe they have the right to provide an alternative verdict through an amnesty. Where a country disapproves of the treatment of an individual this should be done by negotiating with the government in question and providing any alternative evidence they have. Cuba for example has released dissidents before as a result of negotiations with outside actors; the release 80 dissidents for the visit by Pope John Paul II in 1998 being merely the most successful example. [1]  [1] Human Rights Watch, \u201cCuba: Release of Dissidents Still Leaves Scores in Prison\u201d, 8 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con03a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"The offer of amnesty allows home governments to discredit bloggers and paint them as foreign agents of disruption  When Western states and democracies offer amnesty to bloggers under threat from their home governments, the blogger\u2019s views and comments immediately become coloured in the eyes of the public. The government is able to point to the Western powers offering this amnesty and can easily claim that their offers are the result of collusion between bloggers and their foreign patrons to spread propaganda, so the blogger is therefore guilty of treason. As unfortunate as it may be in individual cases, the result is that offering amnesty will only weaken the cause of democracy. Being sent to prison for their beliefs will do far more to serve their cause than seeking succour in the arms of another state, one that has demonstrated antagonism toward their homeland. The ability for governments to stoke nationalist fires has been thoroughly demonstrated in recent months by China\u2019s reaction toward territorial disputes with Japan. [1] It is very easy to rile the public against a perceived external aggressor, especially given that these states often control much of the mainstream media outlets, and those who offer amnesty give themselves up on a platter as an adversary to be exploited in the public consciousness. The better plan for democracies in pursuit of their goals is to condemn acts of oppression and to seek diplomatic redress, but direct interference in the course of states\u2019 justice will doing nothing but harm relations with regimes and turn the people against the proponents of reform.  [1] The Economist. \u201cBarren Rocks, Barren Nationalism\u201d. 25 August 2012."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con01a","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"An amnesty policy will serve only to alienate regimes, shutting down the possibility of discourse or reform  It is a natural conclusion that a repressive regime, which operates largely by force and the control of its population, will react rather negatively to an action by the West that appears to be a calculated, public, and on-going subversion of their power in favour of criminal dissidents. The result of such action by Western democracies will not be any positive discourse between the targeted regime and the West, but will rather cause a breakdown in communication. They will be reticent to engage for the very reason that the states seeking to influence them are clearly not interested in dealing on an equal footing, but rather wish to undermine their way of life in favour of asserting their own superiority. The best way to actually get talks about reform started, and to empower those who wish for more democracy and press freedom, is to patiently engage with these regimes, to coax them peaceably toward reform without threatening their core aims. [1] Aggression toward them will generate aggression in return as is shown again and again by North Korea and the responses to its actions by the United States. While incremental change may feel glacial, the long game is the only way to get changes without letting blood flow through the streets. The only possible outcome of this policy would be a harsher crackdown on bloggers by these governments.  [1] Larison, D. \u201cEngagement is Not Appeasement\u201d. The American Conservative. 17 December 2012."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con04b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"An amnesty would clearly only be offered under certain circumstances. In cases where there are judicial proceedings then the offer of an amnesty could only take effect when the individual being offered it is released and able to take advantage of the offer. It is also wrong to consider that an offer of an amnesty is unwarranted interference in internal affairs; the country in question clearly objects to what the blogger is doing so this is opening an avenue where both the state and blogger get what they want."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con02b","title":"speech debate internet freedom law human rights digital freedoms freedom expression","text":"Liberal democracy is in a clash of ideologies with other competing systems, they promote their own systems through other means such as aid to regimes that are considered to be backsliding by liberal democracies with no strings attached. It is critical that the democratic paradigm not submit to the demands of other systems that would undermine the rights and values that democracy has come to view as universal. While liberal democracy may not be the only legitimate form of governance there are universal right, such as freedom of expression, which must be accepted by all states and should be protected both at home and abroad. China\u2019s vibrant dissident community is example enough that the alternative rights framework that the Communist Party offers is deficient. Rather than let those fresh shoots of democratic advocacy be smothered, the West should nurture them, and give them protection when they face vicious threats from cruel regimes."}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro02b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"First, it is unclear if this is even true. A 2010 poll showed support for dismantling settlements in exchange for Peace at an all-time high in Israel. [1]  Secondly, even if it is true that settlements complicate the internal Israeli political picture, the impact on the Peace Process is limited to the extent to which one accepts that the West Bank borders are sacrosanct. Beyond that, the difference in political cost between uprooting 180,000 and 300,000 settlers is marginal at best \u2013 both are likely impossible concessions for any Israeli government to make except under enormous international pressure in which case the numerical difference is of limited importance.  Far more important is accepting that the assumption that the West Bank boundaries are sacrosanct has done far more harm than good. It gives neither side room to compromise on the issues of vital importance to them. For Israel, providing defence in depth for Tel Aviv which is only sixteen miles from Jerusalem, for the Palestinians, ensuring that their national home is economically viable.  Far better would be to use the existent of the settlements to pressure both sides to accept that some portion of the West Bank will remain with Israel in any settlement, while in exchange, some portion of Israel proper approximately equal in size will be transferred to a future Palestinian entity. Once both sides accept this premise, the number of options for an agreement and for compensations on the issues of dispute increase astronomically.  It is perhaps for this reason that support for this exchange has moved from the fringes to the mainstream of Israel Political thinking with even Tzipi Livni of the Center-Left Kadima now open to it. [2]  [1] Richman, Alvin, \u2018Israeli Public\u2019s Support for Dismantling Most Settlements Has Risen to a Five-Year High\u2019, World Public Opinion.org, 15 April 2010,   [2] Carlstrom, Gregg, \u2018Lieberman sees common ground with Livni\u2019, Al Jazeera, 25 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro02a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The Settlements commit future Israeli governments to a harder stand in future negotiations  Whether deliberate or not, the settlements are changing the \u201cfacts on the ground\u201d by changing the political calculus for future Israeli governments.  While most Israeli politicians accept the need to abandon some smaller settlements, the vast majority are unlikely to be evacuated. It was politically divisive to the point of breaking the Likud party in two when Ariel Sharon, a man with more credit than anyone else on the Israeli right pulled out of Gaza in 2005, and there were only a little over 7000 Israeli settlers there. By contrast there are now more than 300,000 settlers in the West Bank, and this number is rising fast. [1] There were less than 200,000 in 2000. [2]  Of these settlers, many are religious and vote for the Haridam (Orthodox) parties like the National Religious Party . [3] Because the party has served in governments of both the Left and the Right in recent years, in practice they and the ultra-nationalist Israel Beitinu tend to hold the balance of power in the Israeli Knesset.  Therefore every time Israel expands settlements, they are reducing their room to manoeuvre in future Peace Negotiations, and forcing themselves to take a harder stance. This means that Peace will either become less likely (because Israel will set more extreme terms) or that Israel will face more internal divisions in order to offer it. In either case, as the settlements expand  [1] Levinson, Chaim, \u2018IDF: More than 300, 000 settlers live in West Bank\u2019, Haaretz.com, 27 July 2009,   [2] Wikipedia, \u2018Population statistics for Israeli West Bank settlements\u2019, en.wikipedia.org,  , accessed 20 January 2012  [3] Etkes, Dror, \u2018The Ultra-Orthodox Jews in the West Bank\u2019, Peace Now, October 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro03b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The settlements at the current time occupy less than 3% of the West Bank, [1] and even if one were to take into account the land needed for their security in any settlement, most have predicted that at most 9-11% of the region would be affected, much less than the area currently controlled by the settlements, [2] and this would be subject to compensation elsewhere.  The vast majority of this growth is taking place existing settlements or adjacent to them, so even large amounts of proportional growth are not shifting the percentages sharply.  Furthermore, a time factor is far from a uniform negative. A large portion of the Palestinian strategy from the mid-1990s onwards has arguably been to drag out negotiations while hoping that a better international climate would lead other countries to exert pressure on Israel for concessions. This strategy has seen their negotiating position deteriorate and undermined support for an agreement within Israel.  By adding a time element, it incentives the Palestinians to think seriously about pressing for an agreement now, rather than looking to fantasy solutions like potential UN recognition that would do nothing to alter the fundamental fact that any possible agreement will have to be made with, and therefore be acceptable to, Israel.  [1] Fleischer, Tzvi, \u2018How much land do West Bank settlements take up?\u2019, Australian\/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council,   [2] CBS News, \u2018Group: Israel Controls 42% of West Bank\u2019, 6 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro01a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The Settlements are illegal, and demonstrate the impotence of the international community  The Settlements, constructed on land that is neither recognizably Israel\u2019s nor which Israel has even claimed to annex are illegal, encroaching on the territory of a future Palestinian state.  It is absurd for the international community to demand the creation of a Palestinian state in the West Bank, and yet allow Israel to establish its population on that land in settlements that view themselves and are viewed by Israel as Israeli territory. [1]  Furthermore, their continued expansion is something that each and every Palestinian can see every day. As a result, the continued expansion both: 1. Destroys Palestinian confidence in the ability and willingness of the International community to enforce its own promises, especially after repeated American and European promises to stop their construction.  2. Convinces Palestinian opinion that the negotiating process is an Israeli game to buy time until they have changed the facts on the ground.  As a consequence of these two factors, the continued expansion of settlements has an impact in driving Palestinians towards violent resistance even beyond the direct impact of the settlement construction by undermining their faith in International Law, and by adding a sense of urgency to their grievances.  [1] MacIntyre, Donald, \u2018The Big Question: What are Israeli settlements, and why are they coming under pressure?\u2019, the Independent, 29 May 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro01b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The settlements are a sideshow that provide a convenient excuse for the Palestinians and their foreign friends to ignore the real (and difficult to solve) issues such as Jerusalem and what sort of sovereignty a Palestinian state would have.  For one thing, international law is very unclear on who owns the West Bank. Jordan gave up all claim to it in 1988, but its unclear as to whether their annexation in 1949 was legitimate in the first place. [1] Only Pakistan and Great Britain ever legally recognized Jordanian sovereignty over the West Bank. Secondly, the current border of the West Bank are arbitrary, the results of the military conflict of 1948-49 for which they represent the cease-fire line. As a consequence, even if one accepts the principle that there should be a Palestinian state in the West Bank, it does not follow that the final international border should follow the regions border exactly. It might for instance to make sense, as Israelis like Avigador Lieberman have suggested, to trade Arab villages in Israel proper for settlement areas on the West Bank. [2]  The Settlement issue mainly serves the purpose of putting Israel in the wrong, so as to distract from the need on the part of the Palestinians to define what sort of state they are willing to accept. The problem is not territory per se, but what happens to that territory and it\u2019s on that issue that previous efforts to reach peace deals have faltered.  [1] \u2018Jordan Renounced Claims to West Bank, 1988\u2019, Palestine Facts,   [2] Carlstrom, Gregg, \u2018Lieberman sees common ground with Livni\u2019, Al Jazeera, 25 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro04b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"First of all, the security precautions are not a perquisite of settlements in and of themselves, but a consequence of the violent condition of the West Bank. Similar settlements in the Negev do not require anywhere near the degree of investment in security and protection.  Such precautions will almost certainly be removed not only in a final settlement but also in any intermediate ones. Israel has already shown a preparedness of to lift travel restrictions on Palestinians in exchange for reductions in violence. [1]  [1] Hass, Amira, \u2018Israel to lift restrictions on Palestinian Jordan Valley travel\u2019, Haaretz.com, 26 April 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro03a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The Settlements are seen by Palestinians as a sign of bad faith on the part of Israel, and therefore weaken the hand of Pro-Peace elements  As important as the existence of the settlements themselves is their continued growth. The very fact that Israel has continued to ostensibly negotiate for the independence of a Palestinian state in the West Bank on one hand while rapidly expanding the population and the size of Israeli settlements can be interpreted as a sign of bad faith.  For one thing, it raises questions of the seriousness with which Israel is attempting to reach an agreement. Even if the programs of Settlement expansion are intended as a temporary policy in lieu of a settlement, the very fact that Israel\u2019s plan B is arguably as popular as peace, and being pursued with far more vigour could lead many Palestinians to conclude that Israel is attempting to run out the clock.  The consequences of this are inauspicious for the Peace Process. As Palestinian faith in the prospect of peaceful negotiations falters, groups like Hamas are likely to find an increasingly receptive audience for their view that only force will compel Israel to negotiate seriously. This in turn will make compromise all the more difficult to achieve."}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro04a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"Settlements remove Palestinians from their own land, and they produce a self-perpetuating cycle in their sear  The settlements themselves are self-perpetuating in a manner that makes them pernicious to the rights and very existence of neighbouring Palestinian communities.  For one thing, a settlement cannot function in isolation. It needs a road for its residents to safely travel to and from work in Israel. Security needs subsequently require that this road be protected from attacks by creating a large military presence along its route, and in many cases moving existing Palestinian settlements. At the very least Palestinian areas are bisected by impassable thoroughfares. [1]  In turn settlements require their fields to be protected by high walls and electric fences to protect them from attack, and the construction crews building them also require protection.  The result is that even a settlement of a few hundred families rapidly requires the takeover of an amount of land out of all proportion to the actual number of settlers involved, and any further expansion compounds the problem. [2] The security needs of settlements create a situation which makes the livelihood of Palestinians impossible. The existence of the settlements makes these security policies a necessity. As a consequence, the only clear solution is the removal of the settlements.  [1] United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs occupied Palestinian territory, \u2018The Humanitarian Impact of Israeli Settlement Policies\u2019, January 2012,   [2] CBS News, \u2018Group: Israel Controls 42% of West Bank\u2019, 6 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con03b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"It is absurd to argue that because someone is hypocritical that they lose their rights. The fact is that the Palestinians today are not guilty of the crimes of their ancestors anymore than the Israelis are.  Rather than being evaluated based on history, they should be evaluated based on what is justified now. And settlements make both sides less secure, and render peace less and less likely."}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con01b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The Palestinians themselves did not enjoy self-rule after 1948 and the blame for the expulsions should not be placed on them but on the Jordanian authorities, and they are the ones who should be obligated to provide compensation if any is due. And the Palestinians played no role in the expulsion of Jews from states like Iraq and Egypt and therefore to impose compensation at their expense is deeply unfair.  Furthermore, while many of the settlement may have been built near the sites of abandoned Jewish communities, most have expanded far beyond those locations and the need to provide security for them has led to the confiscation of historically Arab land."}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con02a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"Settlements provide economic investment in the Occupied Territories  The fundamental fact is that the West Bank, whatever its status, is not an economically viable entity on its own. It produces few goods, while Gaza produces next to none, and independence without a major influx of capital will not change this situation.  The best source for a supply of capitol in the region lies in Israel, which has an enormous demand for a low-wage work-force. Millions of Palestinians worked in Israel until after 2000, and with travel into Israel proper restricted, settlement construction and cultivation provide economic development opportunities for the region and create jobs for Palestinians. [1] This is an important prospect when the unemployment figures for the Palestinians are at nearly 30%. [2]  Furthermore the very need for such labor is likely to further incentivise Israel to loosen restrictions on Palestinian workers in the West Bank and Gaza.  [1] Hass, Amira, \u2018Israel to lift restrictions on Palestinian Jordan Valley travel\u2019, Haaretz.com, 26 April 2007,   [2] \u2018Palestinian unemployment shows gradual decline\u2019, Jmcc, 21 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con04a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"There is nothing legal or sacred about the West Bank\u2019s borders \u2013 it was an ad-hoc armistice line never recognized internationally  The West Bank is not some sort of recognized entity with legally or internationally recognized boundaries. Its borders were the 1948 cease-fire line between Israeli and Jordanian forces, and Jordan\u2019s annexation of the region, and hence the borders were only recognized by two countries \u2013 the United Kingdom and Pakistan. [1]  This is important, because the entire challenge to the legality of the settlements, i.e. Why they are unacceptable in Hebron but not in the Negev, is due to the belief that Israel is somehow annexing Palestinian territory. While some of the West Bank was intended to be part of a Palestinian state in 1948, and some will be incorporated into a new one in the future, Israel is under no responsibility to the international community or any comprehension of International law to recognize boundaries that have no legal force and do not legally exist.  [1] \u2018Jordan Renounced Claims to West Bank, 1988\u2019, Palestine Facts,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con03a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The Palestinians were full participants in the 1948 War against Israel  Before the discussion of the Palestinians as the innocent victims of Israeli oppression can be established, it should be noted that the Palestinian leadership were full participants in rejecting the 1948 partition plan and the war that followed. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem rejected any form of compromise, and urged the removal of the region\u2019s Jewish population, while massacres of Jewish settlers at Palestinian hands and the complete elimination of the Jewish presence in the areas of Palestine that the Israelis did not secure in 1948 speaks to a certain degree of popular enthusiasm. [1]  Following 1948, Israeli law provided for compensation or the return of land for any exiled Palestinians who returned to Israel proper and took an oath to the state.  This does not justify the actions of Israel in their entirety, but the tragedy of the Palestinian people is partially of their own making, and if one accepts the principles of the right of return, then the creation of Israeli settlements furthers this on the Israeli side.  Furthermore, it calls into question what, if any legal claim the Palestinians can have to any land on the basis of a UN partition plan they rejected, and on the basis of principles and practices they themselves have subverted.  [1] Dershowitz, Alan, \u2018Has Israel\u2019s Victimization of the Palestinians Been the Primary Cause of the Arab-Israeli Conflict?\u2019, The Case for Israel, Chapter 10, 2003,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con01a","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"The Settlements are justified based on the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands after 1967  Settlement construction, and in fact the whole settlement of Jews in the West Bank has to be viewed in the wider context of the Middle East conflict as a whole.  Jews lived in the West Bank for thousands of years before the creation of Israel, and it was only after the 1948 war when Jews were fully ethnically cleansed from the region. While a Diaspora took place among the Arabs of Israel it was neither as deliberate nor as thorough \u2013 a large Arab population remained. No Jews remained in the West Bank under Jordanian rule.  As such many of these settlements are not artificial constructions but built on the ruins of pre-1948 Jewish communities.  Furthermore, the same 1967 War that brought on the Israeli conquest of the West Bank was also followed by a new round of pogroms against the nearly 800,000 Jews living in Arab countries more than 95% of which were driven into exile in Israel. [1] Israel has not responded by expelling or compensating them at the expense of their own Arabs, as they would be morally justified in doing, but rather has settled them on empty land in the West Bank. Any claim that the Palestinians have an inherent right to property which they do not explicitly own must also take into account Israel\u2019s need to compensate these refugees.  [1] Aharoni, Ada, \u2018The Forced Migration of Jews From Arab Countries and Peace\u2019, August 2002, Historical Society of Jews from Egypt,"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con04b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"If de facto boundaries exist for a long enough time they gain legal force. The border between North and South Korea is a legal armistice line, rather than an official international boundary, but anyone attempting to make that argument upon crossing it would be likely to receive a cool reception.  The boundaries of the West Bank were de facto recognized, first when Israel and Jordan agreed to abide by them for twenty years after 1948, second when Jordan ceded all claim to the territories, and third implicitly by Israel itself which has made no claim to annex the territory, even in areas where settlements are located. They have not bothered with this sort of diplomatic care when it comes to the Golan Heights which they annexed. [1]  As a consequence it can be implied that at least Israel believes that its claims to the West Bank are questionable, and would like to ensure them through negotiation and this makes the claim that they don\u2019t know exactly what they are doing in the West Bank and that it\u2019s a de facto violation of International Law something less than plausible..  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Golan Heights\u2019, en.wikipedia.org,  , accessed 20 January 2012"}
+{"id":"test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con02b","title":"rnational middle east law human rights international law house believes israels west","text":"It is ironic that when the agricultural basis of the Palestinian economy is being strangled by settlement construction and the seizure of groves involved, that Palestinians should be grateful for the job opportunities provided in low-wage service positions in the Israeli settlements. [1]  Furthermore, even if one accepts the economic premises of the government\u2019s argument, one is left with the fact that Israel\u2019s policies are creating a climate of economic dependence that will ensure that any future Palestinian entity is economically and therefore politically dependent on Israel.  The Palestinian movement is as much a resistance against colonial exploitation as it is a revolt against a legal denial of independence, and it is unlikely their grievances will be settled when similar arrangements have left Israeli Arabs more alienated from the Jewish state than ever before. [2]  [1] Alwazir, Atyaf, \u2018Uprooting Olive Trees in Palestine\u2019, American.edu, November 2002,   [2] Telhami, Shibley, \u2018The 2011 Public Opinion Poll of Jewish and Arab Citizens of Israel\u2019, Brookings, 1 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro02b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"States are capable of their own enforcement, even in the difficult cases \u2013 for example, Radovan Karadzic was arrested by the Serbian authorities for his trial by the ICTY, and would not necessarily have been arrested faster by an outside force rather than the Serbian police. A large number of states have been pouring resources in to capturing the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army fugitives such as Joseph Kony \u2013 if they cannot do capture him, there is no reason to believe that an ICC Police would be able to. Recently the Ugandan Army has been willing to cross borders to chase Kony, so far with little to show for it. [1]  [1] Van Woudenberg, Anneke, \u2018How to Catch Joseph Kony\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 9 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro02a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC enforcement arm would be quicker  If international criminals are to be caught it needs to be clear that there is an organisation with the responsibility and authority to catch them. This is especially important when the criminal in question is able to slip across borders to avoid the national authorities in one state as Joseph Kony has done as the ICC would be able to cross borders itself and coordinate the response from multiple countries. The importance of an organisation that is able to catch international criminals can be highlighted by the experience of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia where despite a Memorandum of Understanding relating to the detention of war criminals in Bosnia NATO denied it had the power to make arrests so leading to patrols actively avoiding wanted men to avoid a situation in which they might have to engage in arrests. [1] A lack of clarity over whether an organisation can enforce its warrants for arrest results in arrests not being made. Ultimately the ICTY was successful because this situation was resolved with the creation of multinational police forces backed up with traditional NATO military power if necessary leading to the arrest of 126 individuals. [2]  [1] Zhou, Han-Ru, \u2018The Enforcement of Arrest Warrants by International Forces From the ICTY to the ICC\u2019, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol.4, 2006, pp.202-18,  pp214-6  [2] Ibid, p.203"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro03b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An enforcement arm would still have finite resources. There is no guarantee that an ICC in-house enforcement system would arrest more suspects than the existing system of state bilateral co-operation. This is particularly the case in relation to the most thorny problems the ICC faces \u2013 how to catch those who have the backing of their state. An independent force would not enable the ICC to snatch Omar al-Bashir out of Sudan unless the proposal was to create a special forces style force and any such action would have large diplomatic repercussions."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro01a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC enforcement is a necessity if there is to be international criminal justice  The remit of the ICC is unlike the remit of any national court. It deals exclusively in crimes so unacceptable there is an international consensus behind their illegality and the need for prosecutions. The parties that signed up to the Rome Statute\u2019s reason for the creation of the ICC was \u201cthat such grave crimes threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world\u201d the perpetrators of such crimes clearly need to be brought to book, and to do that they need to be apprehended. The same agreement said the signatories were \u201cResolved to guarantee lasting respect for and the enforcement of international justice\u201d if this is the case then there should be agreement on enabling that enforcement by creating an ICC enforcement arm. Again the Rome statute makes clear that the agreement \u201cshall not be taken as authorizing\u201d intervention by another state. This is why the enforcement needs to be done by a separate international force who could not be considered a threat to any state. [1] Quite simply there is little point in international criminal justice if there is no force to bring the criminals to the court.  [1] \u2018Preamble\u2019 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 1 July 2002,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro01b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"While the ICC is a multinational body, it is designed to have a respect for individual nations court systems. It is mainly a \u201cbackstop\u201d court, it is happy to see nations prosecute those offences \u2013 the Rome Statute mandates that they be added to the domestic criminal law. This is the principle of complementarity. As such there is no need for an international force as the enforcement of international criminal law is provided by the member state\u2019s police forces who will catch the criminals that the ICC wishes to prosecute and send them to the court."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro04b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"Just creating a force to bring suspects to trial would not necessarily be enough to make the ICC a more credible organization. That would have to come through more measures and building multilateral support in areas where situations have been referred to the council. This increase in credibility of the ICC also comes at the expense of the sovereignty of the states that call the ICC force in. Many nations would much prefer the current system where it is clearly solely within their purview to arrest criminals on their soil, creating a competitor with its own police force will be considered by many to be undermining their sovereignty so damaging not improving the chances of a state being willing to involve the ICC."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro03a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC Enforcement arm would bring in a higher proportion of defendants in to trial  Eight out of the thirty people indicted by the ICC (four in the Darfur situation, including Omar al-Bashir, three Lord\u2019s Resistance Army leaders in Uganda and one in the DR Congo investigation) are still alive and avoiding justice. An in-house enforcement arm would be more effective at capturing indictees than many of the forces of the state parties, as it is likely to be more competent than many of the under-resourced or under-trained national forces. An in house force would be solely focused on capturing the wanted war criminals so would both be focusing resources and much less likely to be sidetracked by other priorities (many of which may be influenced by politics) than national forces. One of the suggested solutions to the failure to capture Joseph Kony and leaders of the LRA is to have greater involvement of peacekeepers; an ICC force would provide the same kind of help. [1]  [1] Van Woudenberg, Anneke, \u2018How to Catch Joseph Kony\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 9 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro04a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC enforcement arm would make the ICC more credible as an organization  To its critics, the ICC is an organization that can be mocked with Stalin\u2019s dismissal of the influence of the Pope: \u201chow many divisions does he have?\u201d  An ICC capable of arresting its own fugitives would become a more credible organization, not only due to the show of competence through the arrests \u2013 it would lead to more trials, and more convictions, that would help contribute to the acceptance of the ICC as a serious court that is effective at bringing international criminals to justice. A legal institution needs to be effective to remain credible. [1] This would make countries much more likely to cooperate because the ICC would be doing more to help them by providing some of the necessary resources.  Henry Kissinger apparently said \u201cWho do I call if I want to speak to Europe?\u201d (he is not sure he said it) because there is no single European leader, and if the US wants political or military cooperation it calls the UK or France. In much the same way if countries need help apprehending and convicting someone they are much more likely to call in the ICC if it can actually help them catch the wanted person. [2]  [1] Perritt, Henry H., \u2018Policing International Peace and Security: International Police Forces\u2019, Chicago-Kent College of Law, March 1999,  p.293  [2] Sobczyk, Marcin, \u2018Kissinger Still Lacks a Number to Call Europe\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 27 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con03b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"Those arguments are similar ones to those used against the ICC. An ICC police force, comprised of officers from individual state and supervised by an independent authority appointed by a similar mechanism to the judges, would use the existing frameworks in place for the use of the ICC. If states are happy to have their nationals indicted for international crimes then it stands to reason that these nations should welcome a force that can enforce such indictments and bring these war criminals to trial."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con01b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC police would be able to provide independent assistance to these states to aid those that do not have enough resources. The ICC has a poor track record of capturing suspects. This is not due to a lack of trying by the ICC \u2013 in some cases, it is due to the lack of trying of states such as those that have played host to Omar Al-Bashir. While individual states do, and should, have a role to play in enforcement, in some cases they are unwilling or unable to arrest suspects. Just as the ICC is there if a state is unable or unwilling to try an individual, they can have a role if they are unable or unwilling to arrest them."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con02a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC enforcement arm would be unduly expensive  In a climate where the ICC\u2019s budget is determined exclusively by contentious negotiation between states (at a time where the ICC itself has threatened to close down investigations due to a lack of funds [1] ), many of whom are undergoing austerity, an enforcement arm is not the best use of scarce funds when its role can be taken by the state parties. The ICC is already expensive enough \u2013 it cost over \u20ac100M in 2009.  [1] Nzau Musau, \u201cKenya: ICC Threatens to Drop cases for Lack of Funds\u201d, The Star (Kenya), 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con04a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"ICC enforcement would create resentment  There are good reasons for why an ICC enforcement arm would be ineffective on its own. It may have all the necessary equipment and training but it would be a foreign force, that may or may not be seen as legitimate, attempting to arrest a native of that country. The result would be resentment in the community at the intrusion. This regularly occurs to national police forces when policing in minority areas. In London the Brixton race riots were seen by one inquiry as \u201cessentially an outburst of anger and resentment by young black people against the police\u201d as the police did not represent them. [1] The result with the ICC as elsewhere would likely to at the least be a lack of cooperation, and with most of the force unable to speak the native language altering perceptions would be difficult. Such a force may bring even fewer results than using local forces and would provide a scapegoat for local politicians. [2]  [1] Bowling, Ben, and Phillips, Coretta, \u2018Policing ethnic minority communities\u2019, LSE Research Online, 2003,  p.4  [2] Perritt, Henry H., \u2018Policing International Peace and Security: International Police Forces\u2019, Chicago-Kent College of Law, March 1999,  p.294"}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con03a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC enforcement arm would be highly detrimental to the relations between the ICC and state parties  Currently the ICC functions based on a relationship of trust and understanding with the state parties to the ICC \u2013 a bottom-up rather than a top-down approach. This is backed up by the court\u2019s respect for the for the principle of complementarity \u2013 it is hoped that national courts are capable of prosecuting the crimes, and the ICC only takes a role if the state is unwilling or unable to do so. Being willing to use an international force to catch criminals would make a mockery of this determination to leave power and responsibilities at the national level wherever possible.  Having ICC forces on a country\u2019s territory would be humiliating, showing that the international community does not trust that nation to catch war criminals itself. While this model did not provide for attempting to snatch government officials who have been indicted it does leave open the possibility of an international force intruding on states sovereignty without consent. This would diplomatically backfire and could even lead to an ICC force being involved in fighting with government forces protecting their national sovereignty."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con01a","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"An ICC enforcement arm is unnecessary  To create an enforcement arm for the ICC would be to accept that state parties are incapable of enforcing decisions themselves, that is not necessarily the case. State parties have supplied the ICC with many of the defendants that it desires to face trial, including Bemba and the Gbagbos. Some, such as Uhuru Kenyatta have appeared voluntarily. The current system is working in many cases. While it does not in all, there are some that will be extremely difficult to capture by anyone."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con04b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"Apart from the visibility due to the diversity of the force the ICC force may well be very similar to national forces in this regard. Often a problem with arresting wanted international criminals is their support in the community \u2013 that they have often been claiming to be fighting for. The national government\u2019s enforcement arm may be as unwelcome as the ICC. In such circumstances the ICC at least has the advantage of being a new quantity with a blank slate rather than being known for any excesses, human rights violations or bribery. The ICC force will be able to treat the local populace fairly and win their trust."}
+{"id":"test-law-cpilhbishioe-con02b","title":"crime policing international law house believes icc should have its own enforcement","text":"What price justice? The ICC has been supported by a large number of states who accept that, while it does cost money, the ICC is the only effective way to bring war criminals and those who commit crimes against humanity to trial, provide them with a fair trial and sentence them appropriately. If that is the goal, states should be willing to finance means towards it. While the ICC\u2019s existing budget of over \u20ac100M is substantial, it is dwarfed by, for example, the \u00a34bn budget of London\u2019s Metropolitan Police. In such context \u20ac100M is not a large amount to pay to bring international criminals to justice. The people the ICC pursue often engage in widespread destruction, apprehending them quickly may actually save rather than cost money by preventing such damage."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro02b","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges can result in areas of open drug use around the needle exchange. Given the level of criminality of drug users it often causes these areas to degenerate into dangerous places which the public cannot go to.  This is effect causes harm to local business, not only because of the actual potential for harm, but also because people inherently fear drug dealers and addicts.  As well as this, the area around the needle exchange will have large numbers of stray needles, often causing as much damage as they prevent in other areas.4  1. Toni Meyer. \"Making the case for opposing needle exchange\". New Jersey Family Policy Council. November 16, 2007."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro02a","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges protect the public  Needle exchanges allow drug addicts a convenient and safe place to throw away used needles. This directly protects the public from stray needles that are sometimes put in rubbish bins or left lying around. Specifically this protects children who often don\u2019t know to avoid needles but it also protects sanitation workers and other staff from being accidentally struck by a needle.  Further, the families of those who are drug addicts can also be helped. Partners and loved ones are much more likely to come into contact with the drug addict and fluid exchange is possible. Given that this is the case, the benefits of needle exchanges also extend to these people.1  1. Franciscus, Alan. \u201cNeedle Exchange - A Matter of Public Health So why is the government playing politics with this ticking time bomb?\u201d Hepatitis Mag, April 2003."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro03b","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Some studies have shown that there are relatively few referrals to drug treatment clinics from needle exchanges. This might be due to the fact that drug addicts who attain clean needles assume that they are now \u2018safe\u2019 taking drugs and as such see no need to get into rehab for their addiction.  Further, many needle exchanges are often unenthusiastic and ineffective at changing the behaviour of drug addicts. With the number of people who relapse despite the best care it can often be demoralising for staff and as such lead to lacklustre service that does not result in drug addicts getting clean.  Ultimately it can also be argued that more funding should simply be focused upon treatment if the rehabilitation of drug addicts is such an important part of this scheme.1, 2  1. Noffs, David. \u201cShould Needle Exchange Programmes Be Publically Funded?\u201d Close to Home Online,   2. \u201cReport: Needle Exchange Program Finds Mixed Success in Atlantic City.\u201d Drugfree.org January 22, 2009."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro01a","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges prevent the transmission of disease  A needle exchange as mentioned in the introduction allows drug users to trade in dirty needles for new ones. This can prevent disease simply by preventing transfer of fluids from one drug user to another. As such, if one drug addict has HIV and has not yet been diagnosed it becomes less likely that he will transmit the disease to another person. Further, many drug addicts fail to even consider the possibility of infection via dirty needles, the mere presence of a needle exchange in the nearby vicinity causes drug addicts to be more aware of the dangers associated with dirty needles.  Further, the liberalising effect that needle exchanges have on public opinion can often cause societal change that allows needles to be bought over the counter. This is especially good in targeting drug users who do not wish to reveal that they have an addiction and allows them use of clean needles.  To back this up it has been found by some researchers that, there has been a one-third reduction in HIV prevalence in New Haven, Connecticut, after its NEP had been in operation for only 4 months. Researchers found an 18.6% average annual decrease in HIV seroprevalence in cities that had introduced an NEP, compared to an 8.1% annual increase in HIV seroprevalence in cities that had never introduced NEPs. HIV prevalence among NEP attenders in a Canadian city was low, even though high-risk behaviors were common. Injecting drug users in Seattle who had formerly attended an NEP were found to be more likely than non-exchangers to reduce the frequency of injection, to stop injecting altogether, and to remain in drug treatment, while new users of the NEP were five times more likely to enter drug treatment than never-exchangers.\"1  1. Debra L. O\u2019Neill. \"Needle Exchange Programs: A Review of the Issues\". Missouri Institute of Mental Health. September 27, 2004 www.mimh200.mimh.edu\/mimhweb\/pie\/reports\/Needle%20Exchange.pdf"}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro01b","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Some studies have found that needle exchanges are not related to decreases in HIV transmission. It is theorised that the overall increase in drug use that needle exchanges cause, which is described in the first point of the opposition case, offsets the benefits the exchanges provide in terms of disease prevention.  Further, in providing needle exchanges to prevent disease, it is possible that states and people think the problems of drug use are solved and fail to do any more to prevent the problem, which explains the continued deaths of drug addicts due to causes other than infection due to dirty needles.1  1. Noffs, David. \u201cShould Needle Exchange Programmes Be Publically Funded?\u201d Close to Home Online,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro03a","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges can help social services to locate addicts who are in need of treatment  Needle exchanges allow drug addicts to see formal parts of the state that they often associate with negatively as institutions that can help them. This allows them to more positively associate with other state mechanisms such as rehabilitation clinics in the future.  This is further helped by clinic staff being able to recommend drug addicts to rehabilitation centres should they be looking for help and due to the more anonymous nature of clinic staff, drug addicts might ask for help from them as opposed to a closer person who they fear might judge them.  In addition, social services for addicts can be centred on needle exchanges. Rehabilitation clinics as well as simpler facilities such as washrooms can be centred there as well as clinics for disease diagnosis. Further, in the clinics themselves, posters and information pertaining to drug awareness can be circulated in order to help addicts.1, 2  1. Debra L. O\u2019Neill. \"Needle Exchange Programs: A Review of the Issues\". Missouri Institute of Mental Health. September 27, 2004 www.mimh200.mimh.edu\/mimhweb\/pie\/reports\/Needle%20Exchange.pdf  2. Noffs, David. \u201cShould Needle Exchange Programmes Be publicly Funded?\u201d Close to Home Online,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-con03b","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"It is possible that needle exchanges increase crime in areas. However, needle exchanges serve to allow for the rehabilitation of drug addicts. Whilst there might be greater crime owing to needle exchanges in the short term, in the long term they serve to treat one of the biggest causes of crime in a community."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-con01b","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges do not condone drug use and in fact they actively discourage it. However, it is important to note that drug addicts are not rational actors and given that they are already taking drugs in a very hostile legal environment, it seems that taking a hard line to them is unlikely to have any real affect. What is more likely to work is winning the trust of the addict and then offering them help as and when they need it.  Further, the law exists to help those who commit crimes and incarceration exists principally to allow for the rehabilitation of criminals so they may be re-released into society. As such the principal behind the law and punishment is harm reduction and needle exchanges simply exist as an extension of this principle.1  1. Franciscus, Alan. \u201cNeedle Exchange - A Matter of Public Health So why is the government playing politics with this ticking time bomb?\u201d Hepatitis Mag, April 2003."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-con02a","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges will increase the incidence of drug use  Beyond increasing drug use through condoning the practice, needle exchanges also facilitate drug use by gathering all the drug addicts in a single area. This allows drug dealers to operate more efficiently and as such gives them more time to explore new markets for their drugs. As well as this, people are encouraged to keep on taking drugs as they feel the risk to them from doing so has been significantly decreased by the exchange. Given the lower risk, those drug users that are still somewhat rational actors will be more likely to take drugs because of the lower potential harm.  Further, in the long run, needle exchanges through these mechanisms make it harder to eradicate drug use entirely in the future. By causing addicts and the public to accept drugs needle exchanges ingrain drugs in society as any removal of the facility in the future will be seen as the state coming down too harshly on drug addicts and can be opposed much more easily.1  1. Lawrence Aaron, \u201cWhy a Needle Exchange Programme is a Bad Idea.\u201d RedOrbit. August 26, 2005."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-con03a","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Needle exchanges cause crime  Needle exchanges gather a large number of drug addicts into a single area. Many drug addicts are forced into criminality because of their addiction. Given that this is true, the needle exchanges serve to concentrate a large number of potential criminals in a small area. Not only does this increase crime in the area itself significantly, what is also manages to do is cause criminals to meet other criminals who they may not have interacted with before.  This can either lead to the aforementioned criminals working together and causing more problems, or it can lead to violence between rival criminals and their gangs.  Further, the simple gathering of criminals in a single area can also serve to attract other criminals to the same area to possibly reap benefits. This often comes in the form of prostitution, which thrives in areas of high crime and weaker police presence.1  1. Toni Meyer. \"Making the case for opposing needle exchange\". New Jersey Family Policy Council. November 16, 2007."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-con01a","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Creating needle exchange may normalise drug-taking behaviour  Needle exchanges increase drug use. The state implicitly accepts that drug use is an acceptable practice when it aids drug users in practicing their habit. As such drug users feel less afraid of taking drugs. This can extend to first time users who might be encouraged by friends to take drugs using the morally grey area created by needle exchanges as an argument.  Further, it is principally wrong that the state should help those who choose to take drugs to begin with. In doing so these people are choosing to firstly harm themselves and secondly cause harm to society as well as contravene the law. The state should exist in such a way that should someone contravene the law they be punished, not rewarded with extra supplies from the taxpayer with no further strings.1  1. Toni Meyer. \"Making the case for opposing needle  exchange\". New Jersey Family Policy Council. November 16, 2007."}
+{"id":"test-law-tlcplghwfne-con02b","title":"th law crime policing law general house would fund needle exchanges","text":"Most studies indicate that needle exchanges do not increase drug use. This is corroborated by studies in Amsterdam and New Haven, Connecticut. In fact, one programme in San Francisco resulted in decreased drug use in the community owing to the links that were tied with the drug using community. Further reasons for this are also outlined within the third argument on proposition.1  1. \"Interventions To Prevent HIV Risk Behaviors\". National Institutes of Health, Consensus Development Conference Statement\". February 11-13, 1997."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-pro02b","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"This motion will have no impact on that problem. Fines must be set at a low percentage of income so that the people earning the least do not find themselves going without essentials (a fine for speeding that caused you not to be able to heat your house in winter would seem, with good reason, disproportionate!)  Consequently, whether the fine is \u00a360 or \u00a36000, there will always be some to whom paying the fine is not a problem, and who will happily pay in order to flout the law."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-pro02a","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"The rich are now also deterred  Another purpose of fines is to provide a deterrent. If fines are applied at one rate regardless of income, they must be low enough not to be un-payable for those who do not earn much money. Consequently, they are set so low that they fail to have a deterrent effect on the richest in society, who are easily able to afford to break the law.  This is especially the case when you consider the sorts of crimes that are punishable by fines, e.g. illicit parking and littering. These crimes have an indirect harm, and thus it is easy for the rich to consider that once they have paid the fine they have paid for the damage done, even though in reality this is not the case.1  1 Gneezy, U., Rustichini, A., 2000. \u2018A Fine is a Price\u2019. Journal of Legal Studies., vol. 29 pp1-17"}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-pro03b","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Whilst this may well appease some sections of society, it comes at the cost of resentment from the rich.  This resentment will be magnified by media response: some newspapers and news outlets will choose to report this as an attack on the rich.  The problem is therefore very similar to the questions posed by taxing the rich more; it may be considered fairer by the rest of society but it is pointless if the rich all simply move elsewhere as they now perceive the justice system to be unfair."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-pro01a","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Rich and poor now face equality of impact of punishment  The purpose of a fine is to ensure that the offender faces the consequences of their actions. The extent to which a financial penalty feels like a negative consequence is relative to the amount of income someone has, not to the simple amount that the fine is. That is, if someone earning \u00a3200 per week is fined \u00a3100, that will feel more severe than a \u00a3100 fine would feel to someone earning \u00a32000 per week.  Therefore, if you make fines proportional to the income someone has, all people feel the impact of the punishment equally, rather than the poor facing a punishment with a harsher impact on them than on the rich."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-pro01b","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Even if a fine is made proportional to income, you will not get the equality of impact you desire. This is because the impact is not proportional simply to income, but must take into account a number of other factors. For example, someone supporting a family will face a greater impact than someone who is not, because they have a smaller disposable income. Further, a fine based on income ignores overall wealth (i.e. how much money someone actually has: someone might have a lot of assets but not have a high income).  The proposition does not cater for these inequalities, which may well have a much greater skewing effect, and therefore the argument is being applied inconsistently."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-pro03a","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Creates the perception that the rich are not immune to the consequences of their actions  Fines that are not proportionate to income may create the perception that the rich are immune to the consequences of their actions. This is because people see those earning the least struggling to pay a fine, whilst the rich are able to pay that fine easily, without making any significant sacrifices. Canada is an example of this being the case with two thirds of respondents on surveys saying that the Canadian justice system is unfair because it provides preferential treatment to the rich compared to how harsh it is towards the poor.1  Making fines proportionate to income would change that perception. People would then see the law being applied in such a way as to punish all, not just certain sections of society. This will improve perceptions of (and consequently, relations with) the justice and law enforcement systems.  It is important that justice is seen to be done, as well as occurring (sometimes referred to as the Principle of Open Justice), for several reasons. First, we operate a system of government by consent: people\u2019s opinions of the justice system are deemed an important check and balance on the power of the law-makers. Consequently, if they are seen to \u2018abuse their power\u2019 by imposing a law seen to be unfair, they have an obligation either to adequately explain and defend the law, or change it.  Second, people\u2019s perceptions of law enforcement in one area spill over into other areas: it is the same police force enforcing all aspects of the law, and so the differences in policy origin are obscured. Consequently, if people deem law-enforcement to be unfair in one regard, they are less likely to trust it in other circumstances.  Third, it is important that the justice system is seen to be impartial, rather than favouring any particular group, because it is only under such circumstances that its designations of acts as \u2018crimes\u2019 can be seen as a true reflection of what you ought and ought not to do, rather than just what would be in the interests of a given group.  1 \u2018Justice and The Poor\u2019, National Council of Welfare, 10 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-con03b","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Given, particularly, that it is those with the most money who are most likely to deem the fine \u2018worth it\u2019, this would be mitigated by the increased deterrent: the rich will now face substantially greater penalties."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-con01b","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Whilst it is true that a crime ought to be proportionate to the severity of the crime committed, there is no reason why that must be the only factor. This motion does not remove the proportionality about which you are concerned, but merely adds an additional factor. If two people earn the same amount, but person A has committed a more serious crime, person A will still receive a larger fine.  Further, it is unclear why people would find this more unfair than a system in which all were impacted equally by the fines they receive."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-con02a","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"The rich will resent this  The rich will feel like they are receiving an unfair, \u2018greater\u2019 punishment. This resentment will be magnified by media response: some newspapers and news outlets will choose to report this as an attack on the rich just as is the case with progressive taxation which is often attacked as an assault on \u2018wealth creation\u2019.1  This may well increase the extent to which they break the law, because if you perceive the law to be applied unfairly, you are less likely to consider it to be making an accurate assessment of whether an action is right or wrong in any given situation.  That is, in situations where you are unlikely to be caught committing a crime, the deterrent is clearly not the possible punishment (which you won\u2019t face, because you won\u2019t be caught). Rather, the deterrent is the extent to which you believe the illegal action to be morally wrong. If you believe a law is applied unfairly, you are less likely to consider the prohibited action to be actually, morally wrong, and therefore more likely to commit that act.  1 Cianfrocca, Francis, \u2018Wealth Creation Under Attack\u2019, Commentary, June 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-con03a","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Creates the perception that fines are like taxes, rather than a punishment  If we detach fines from the crimes committed, people are more likely to see fines as unrelated to justice. Rather, they will see fines as another mechanism by which the government makes money, this will be especially the case if as in New Zealand the money goes into government coffers without being hypothecated.1  This is similar to the way in which some people in the UK see speed cameras as less about preventing speeding, and more about getting money from motorists with one poll showing 49% of people believe they are primarily about revenue raising.2  This is harmful because it decreases the probability of people who deem the fine \u2018worth it\u2019 nevertheless abstaining from the criminal act.  1 \u2018Frequently Asked Questions\u2019, New Zealand Police,   2 \u2018Drivers conflicted over cameras\u2019, IAM Driving Road Safety, 11 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-con01a","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"A flat rate is more just  A fine ought to be proportionate to the severity of the crime committed, not the income of the offender. It is fundamental that the justice system should treat all offenders equally; if two people commit the same crime in the same circumstances but one is richer than the other then they have caused the same amount of harm so should pay the same price for that harm. Having a richer person pay more implies that crimes by the rich are necessarily more harmful to society regardless of what the crime actually is.  Further, this system will cause anomalies, where rich people fined for small offences (e.g. littering) will have much larger fines than poorer people fined for more serious offences (e.g. speeding). This will make people question the fairness of the fines, which will negatively impact their relationship with the justice system."}
+{"id":"test-law-phwmfri-con02b","title":"punishment house would make fines relative income","text":"Only a small number of people will act like this. Some people, though rich, are nevertheless capable of seeing beyond self-interest, and will consider the fine to be fair.  This small harm is therefore easily outweighed by the improved perceptions of the justice system by those who currently believe it unfair that the rich can so easily buy their way out of trouble."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro02b","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"When battling those who would seek to replace the rule of law and democratic governance with religious decree, it is more important than ever to demonstrate that the principles of a civilised society are paramount.  In the light of that reality, for the state to use the very tools of fear and violence that they are fighting against sends out the wrong message. It means, in effect, that nations have put themselves on the same moral level as the terrorist organisations they are fighting.  Instead it is important to demonstrate that actions undertaken quite legally are an effective bulwark against terror. Moreover, it is necessary to demonstrate that these values are part of a system of rule of law; that values of justice, fairness and accountability are seen as valuable both by a states\u2019 leaders, but also by arbiters (judges) and its people."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro02a","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"Terrorist organisations such as Al Qaida do not respect the rights of individuals and the only way to fight fire is with fire  Terrorist networks use fear, pain and suffering as their stock in trade. By definition, terror organisations are not bound by legal due process or rights of appeal and review. Instead they deal out death to innocent members of society who have no power to alter the events and policies that motivate terrorists atrocities.  By contrast, the first role of governments is to protect their citizens\u2019 safety and they should use all tools possible to ensure that innocents are not threatened with random death and destruction.  In the light of these two realities, it is appropriate for governments to take extreme measure, such as torture, to protect their citizens."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro03b","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"The primary difficulty with the use of torture is not one of principle but one of practice \u2013 it doesn\u2019t work. You simply have no way of checking whether the information is accurate. By using force or the threat of force, suspects are under pressure to say something- anything- that will stop the pain they are experiencing. However, information acquired this way will not necessarily be true  In the light of this, the use of torture actually slows things down the process of investigating and preventing terrorist threats. This is particularly true of terror suspects for whom death has no fear and for whom it may, in fact be a goal. A much safer approach to rooting out terrorist who seek to martyr themselves is old fashioned, and perfectly legal, investigation."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro01a","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"In the event of an imminent attack it is only reasonable to use force to find information  If authorities have good reason to believe that there is a realistic threat of a nuclear explosion in downtown Manhattan or Tel Aviv then it is vital that as much information as possible can be gathered as quickly as possible.  If that requires pain to be inflicted on an individual to save the lives of millions then it is simply practical to do so. The harm represented by the pain caused to a single individual is outweighed by the possibility that information gathered from a forceful interrogation might save thousands of lives"}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro01b","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"What about a biological bomb in a small town killing a few thousand. Or a lunatic with an M16 in a village killing fifty? Or preventing a single murder or rape? Anyone attempting to support the resolution must give a clear explanation of the point at which torture can be justified. How many individuals must information acquired through torture be able to save before the state is permitted to use pain and coercion against criminal and terrorist suspects in its custody?  If it is right to use torture in an attempt to prevent the death of a single individual, when that individual is a member of a crowd, then why should the use of torture to protect the life of a single individual be considered unjustifiable? It makes no difference to the individual or to their family. Torture must either be treated as being unacceptable in all circumstances, or its use in all circumstances must be permitted."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro03a","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"Time is of the essence in a crisis. When confronted with extremists who see a virtue in their own death, extraordinary methods may be required.  The use of force and fear in enhanced interrogation gives quick results. In the event of a bomb hidden somewhere in Manhattan, it\u2019s vital to have information quickly. Nobody, even the most diehard proponents of enhanced interrogation, would suggest that it is pleasant or should be used on a routine basis; the point is that techniques such as waterboarding are effective and fast.  Responding to terrorist threats is something that needs to be dealt with in minutes or hours. Unfortunately, it is in the nature of due process and legal procedure that they trials and questioning take place in a framework of days or weeks."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-con03b","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"No amount of legal niceties would bring any comfort to the families of those slaughtered in terrorist atrocities around the world. When you are fighting an enemy that has no time for the European Convention on Human Rights, the US Bill of Rights, English common law or the Geneva Convention it is simply impractical to apply those standards.  The basic principle of terrorism is to cause as much fear, panic and destruction as possible. Terrorists do not have a set goal in mind, they are not functioning as rational individuals, and affording them the luxury of treating them as such ignores what they are likely to do.  The great wars of the twentieth century were fought within the confines of post-Enlightenment thought, however extreme that may have become. The wars of the 21st seem set to be Mediaeval in nature, with the promise of paradise rather than provinces as the reward for martyrdom. The defense of the values of liberty and democracy must reflect that new and chilling reality."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-con01b","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"It is perfectly possible to put legal structures in place that allow for judicial overview of the interrogation techniques used. In most Western countries \u2013 the most common targets of modern terrorism \u2013 there are already legal frameworks for judicial approval of the extension of detention periods and so forth on an emergency basis. The same form of oversight could be used here and exactly the same principle of retrospective appeal could apply to ensure that the capacity was not misused."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-con02a","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"Introducing the use of violence into the justice system means that liberties that have taken centuries to secure are lost  The principle that all people are presumed innocent and, as a result, should not be abused either physically or mentally by officers of the state is one that took centuries- not to mention a great deal of blood and sweat- to establish. In the words of British Chief Justice Phillips this respect for human rights is, in and of itself, \u201ca vital part in the fight against terror\u201d, as if terrorism is to be defeated states that ascribe to such principles must show that they remain true to them in order to win the ideological battle.  Using torture on suspected terrorist would be to tear apart that basic principle in response to crimes, which, it has been noted, are on nothing like the scale of the industrialised warfare of the twentieth century, would be a massively damaging step. Regardless of the scale of the crime the individual must have protections against false accusation and punishment, this means that a fair trial is necessary in order to determine innocence or guilt."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-con03a","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"If legal principles are abandoned then there is little point in defending the liberties that democratic governments say they are so keen to defend  If we accept that this is a war, then its focus is not so much political control of territory as the preservation of a way of life. It is ridiculous to fight to defend principles of equality and decency using the tool of abandoning them the moment they become inconvenient.  The forces of religious extremism wish to undo 1,400 years of democratic development. We should not assist them in that process by allowing the major powers of the West throw out the most basic principles of the rule of law. Such a move, ultimately, has the potential to be vastly more destructive than the actions of a few fanatics"}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-con01a","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"Allowing torture under any circumstances will allow the prospect of its routine use  The advantage of a complete ban on torture is that it leaves no room for doubt, no possibility for confusion, no need to apply personal judgement. Under the status quo, it is simply illegal to use force or the threat of force to solicit information from a suspect, regardless of the charge.  The moment that becomes something other than a complete ban then it puts an intolerable pressure on security officials to decide when it is justified and when it is not.  The experience of Abu Grahib demonstrates how the use of abusive treatment can become routine, even trivial, all too quickly. If it is acceptable to use torture to prevent mass-murder, then why not murder? If for murder than why not rape? And so on."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrpepthwuto-con02b","title":"human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorism house would use torture obtain","text":"The era of battlefield warfare has passed. The war on terror may be a new form of combat, but the results are no less serious. Were a terrorist flying a military bomber aircraft to deliver a payload of death and destruction on one of the world\u2019s major cities, nobody would think twice about shooting it down, killing the crew and preventing the bombing.  There is no meaningful way in which the example above is morally different from leaving a bomb in a station or on a subway train. Societies have the right to defend themselves by all means necessary. The combatants involved in this process consider themselves to be at war and revel in the fatalities they cause. It is only sensible for states to treat these individuals as though that war were a reality in the more traditional meaning of the word."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro02b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"A stenographer already records every word spoken during the course of the trial, which already serves to help with potential appeals [1] [2] . Furthermore, appeal court judges rarely interfere with the verdicts of lower courts because they were not present at the original trial. Using a video record to overturn the verdict of a previous court would essentially eradicated the role of a jury; which is to reach a decision based on the fact presented, guided by the judge\u2019s knowledge of the law [3] [4] . Far from making court proceedings more democratic and transparent, using cameras in courtrooms would actually be damaging because it undermines the position of normal people to reach a verdict of \u2018guilty\u2019 or \u2018not guilty\u2019. In this case, a judge\u2019s choice to hang a new verdict on video information would make the law a very exclusive practice where very few individuals can determine the fates of others, and the role of jury would become irrelevant.  [1] In the UK:  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [2] In the US:  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [3] in the UK:  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [4] In the US:  , accessed 18\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro02a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Video footage of a court case would provide valuable information for both defendant and judiciary.  If the defendant is convicted of a crime, they have a right to appeal in the UK [1] and US [2] . However, this is made difficult for another court to re-assess the conviction if they cannot know how reliable evidence was in the first trial. Without film recordings of court trials, judges who have the duty to re-examine the case are unable to see witness testimonies; though new evidence does sometimes come to light during the course of an appeal [3] , it would be easier to assess this new evidence if the judges also had knowledge of how the first trial went. If the judges could watch a video of the first trial, they could judge the demeanour, body language and general impression given by each witness in the first trial. Body language can affect a court\u2019s perception of a witness [4] , but this information could not be gained by a transcript. However, this evidence may be important for a new verdict to be reached.  [1]  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 18\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro03b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Putting this kind of pressure on the judiciary and lawyers does not have the same kinds of benefits that it might in the House of Commons. Politicians often focus on, and are expected to uphold, the general interest of the public, which is why having public access to televised debates is an incentive for them to push those interests through as far as possible. However, the rule of law does not always correlate to public opinion. Particularly in high-profile cases, the public may wish to see the accused given the harshest sentence possible; however, this might not be the legally correct sentence to give in those circumstances. Public outrage has been known to tamper with judicial verdicts in places such as India [1] , and is damaging to the principle of a fair trial.  [1]  , accessed 06\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro01a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"People should have a right of access to justice.  Given that people are already allowed to watch court proceedings from the public gallery \u2013 including the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords in the UK [1] , and the Supreme Court in the US [2] \u2013 there is little reason why this should not be extended to give better access across the nation to anybody who wants to watch. Those with full-time jobs or who live far away from the courts are currently unfairly limited in this respect, and those who do wish to attend well-publicised trials often have to arrive hours in advance to get a seat. Individuals should not have to give up so much time and money just to be able to watch a democratic proceeding, which is a cornerstone of democratic nations. Given that many closed trials such as the trial of the Guant\u00e1namo Bay terrorism suspects [3] have still led to intense media coverage, we would be better off showing the courts to be transparent and just instead of vainly trying to hide everything behind closed doors.  [1]  , accessed 05\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 05\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 19\/08\/11."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro01b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"When people take the time and effort to visit the law courts and watch a case, it is a formal, regulated atmosphere. If this were televised, it would become closer to \u2018entertainment\u2019 than to fair, legal proceedings. It becomes a human interest story rather than a legitimate court case, where the focus is on moral retribution rather than fair application of the law. Given that high-profile cases can go on for weeks, or even months, even if you were to broadcast every step of the court case it is likely that viewers would only tune in for the climax of the trial. This means that they would miss important (but perhaps comparatively boring) steps which led to that conclusion; it obscures the whole picture of the trial."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro03a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Cameras encourage efficiency and high standards.  Placing cameras into courtrooms encourages the judiciary and lawyers to increase their efficiency and have high standards of behaviour, because they are aware that it will be carried outside of the courtroom by public viewing. The introductions of cameras to the Houses of Parliament in the UK resulted in significantly improved standards of debate, greater punctuality, and greater attendance of MPs [1] . We can expect this same principle to continue in courtrooms when cameras are put in place.  [1]  , accessed 06\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con03b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"For the families of defendants, incriminating evidence of the defendant comes out anyway \u2013 the emotional problems are still there under the status quo, whether or not the trials are televised. For the victims, often a reason why cases are dropped or the victims decide not to testify is the idea that their case is not seen as important, or will not make a difference [1] . Giving a public focus to this cases, and emphasising public outrage against rape, sexual assault and other serious crimes, endorses victims\u2019 rights and makes them see that justice for this crimes is incredibly important. Perhaps this is the best step towards encouraging more people to make a difference by coming forward to testify.  [1]  , accessed 19\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con01b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"It is unlikely that people will use court cases as a form of entertainment; if the entire case is televised, then a lot of the case will be \u2018boring\u2019 discussion of applying law and legal theory [1] , rather than doling out punishment Judge Judy-style. Even if a few people do try to use it as entertainment, the potential benefit to wider society as they can literally see how their legal system works to protect them outweighs the very small number of people who might group court cases and reality television shows together. Furthermore, if somebody is convicted of a serious crime like murder, their chances of rehabilitation are already slim (and convicts often re-offend), whether it is televised or not [2] . Indeed, some would argue that they have forfeited their right to rehabilitation by committing murder in the first place [3] . However, if they were acquitted of a serious crime on television, future employers could be more likely to accept them as they could see exactly how the court progressed and arrived at that conclusion, rather than having it shrouded in mystery which could breed suspicion.  [1] Transcript of a court case:  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 19\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 19\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con02a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Invoking public reaction can damage the lives of those concerned in the court case.  Proposition may well argue that televising court cases gains a sense of \u2018sympathy\u2019 and justice for the victims of the case. However, this is double-edged. Firstly, particularly emotive and controversial court cases concerning crimes such as sexual assault could blind the public (or \u2018audience\u2019) to any untruthfulness from the \u2018victim\u2019, by virtue of being perceived as vulnerable and wronged. Secondly, any sympathy which is gained for one person often arises out of increased hatred or outrage against another \u2013 namely the defendant. This could lead to public condemnation of an individual who is never actually convicted of a crime; they will be exposed to public reaction that might be wholly unjustified if he is subsequently acquitted. One example of this is when Milly Dowler\u2019s father was questioned in court as a suspect of his daughter\u2019s death and his personal, pornographic magazines were used as evidence against him [1] . Although he was completely innocent, the prosecution\u2019s job was to explore any possibility of perversion or dangerous character. This is an infringement upon that individual\u2019s rights, as being publicly portrayed as a villain could go on to affect their future private life, such as their chances of future employment or anonymity.  [1]  , accessed 19\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con04a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Witnesses and jurors could easily become involved in the media coverage of the case and place the trial at jeopardy.  Newspaper interviews with witnesses have already caused trials to be cancelled in the past [1] because the judiciary recognises that media coverage can change people\u2019s incentives and warp their priorities. This interference may affect the reliability of the witness\u2019 evidence or the jurors\u2019 verdict. Following the televised trial of O. J. Simpson, several witnesses and jurors gave interviews to the media, or wrote their memoirs of the case [2] . If witnesses and jurors know that their public lives could be affected by how the rest of society perceives them through a court case, they might have an incentive to be more harsh or more lenient; public outrage when the criminal sentence does not match their own interpretations is likely to be laid on those who caused that sentence. This is particularly dangerous for America, where they have trial by jury [3] . Here, the jury has more control over the sentencing of criminals \u2013 which obviously becomes a problem if the jury has a vested interest in giving harsh sentences to offenders in order to gain public support. Cameras in court can only encourage witnesses and jurors to distort their true recollection or their opinions in order to profit from the media circus.  [1]  , accessed 19\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 19\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 19\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con03a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Televising court cases undermines the right to privacy for the victim and the defendant\u2019s family  Court proceedings can be extremely stressful for the families of the accused, and publicising them in this way only makes this worse. Again, a good example of this is the Milly Dowler case, when her father\u2019s pornographic magazines were used as evidence against him [1] . Not only did he then have to try and come to terms with his daughter\u2019s disappearance, but also the knowledge that the media \u2013 and his family \u2013 now knew intensely personal details about him which were not even relevant to the case, but used to try and condemn him anyway. Meanwhile, although the family members have done nothing wrong, they are forced to listen to critical evidence of another family member which is suddenly now broadcast into peoples\u2019 homes directly from the court. Their public and private lives would be irrevocably transformed by this experience. Secondly, because the defence must try to protect the defendant, these vilifying tactics can also be used against the victim \u2013 which could then lead to fewer people being prepared to testify. There is already a problem in society where not all crimes are even reported, sometimes because the victims are afraid of how people will then think of them [2] [3] . The knowledge that the defence will try to expose them as a fraud, or deny that the offence took place \u2013 in front of millions of people watching the case on television \u2013 suddenly becomes a much bigger obstacle for victims, especially if they are emotionally shaken by their experience [4] , to come forward and help a criminal to be convicted.  [1]  , accessed 19\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 19\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 19\/08\/11  [4] Support group for women who have been victims of rape; helping them to testify in court  , accessed 19\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con01a","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"This turns court cases into entertainment, rather than legitimate legal proceedings.  Several television shows, such as \u2018Judge Judy\u2019, assert the style of a legal courtroom [1] . These shows are based on entertainment value from scrutinising the accused and defendant; it would be dangerous to remove a barrier which currently separates genuine legal proceedings from entertainment by televising them. The risk that the public would see them as one and the same is increased by an incident where a man really did believe that the Judge Judy trial was a real trial [2] . The trial of Casey Anthony in Florida, where cameras are allowed, escalated into a media frenzy where legal justice became unimportant in comparison to television ratings [3] . Court cases, then, are at risk of not being taken seriously and used instead for the public to satisfy their curiosity into other peoples\u2019 lives. Televising court cases also immediately undermines some fundamental principles of the justice system, such as rehabilitation. If somebody is convicted of a crime on national television, his or her anonymity or chance of future employment is severely compromised. The rights of the victims, their families, and the defendants should be placed ahead society\u2019s assumed \u2018right\u2019 to sensationalist portrayals of the courtroom.  [1]  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 18\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 19\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con04b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Juror involvement is made less likely by the proposition line that jurors\u2019 faces will be blanked out during the broadcast. For witnesses, the potential to warp and distort the truth already exists; they could be trying to avoid a sentence, or to make sure that justice is done if they have been wronged. They are already emotionally involved. If anything, video footage of the trial could encourage them to temper their responses and make absolutely sure that they are accurate in order to avoid questioning by the media or incrimination for giving an inaccurate statement."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghwpcctcc-con02b","title":"law general house would place cameras courtrooms televise court cases","text":"Withholding video evidence of a court trial will not stop people from automatically siding with the victim and denouncing the accused; it will just stop them from being able to see the body language and other actions which can balance out the media\u2019s assertion that one party is definitively a \u2018victim\u2019 while the other is a \u2018criminal\u2019. These labels are already in place \u2013 televising court cases just helps us to understand the details and nuances of a case, and garner a more sophisticated view of the case in question."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro02b","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Arguments that invoke censorship of materials for minors are just that - arguments for the censorship of materials for minors. They do not concede the general principal that censorship is good because until the age of majority the state has a duty to respect (and to take limited measures to ensure others respect) the parental responsibility of those bringing up children."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro02a","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Protection of Minors  We need to protect minors (those under the age of majority) from exposure to obscene, offensive or potentially damaging materials. While this would be a restriction on the freedom of speech it should be something that the government is responsible for and we would all agree needs some kind of restriction or regulation."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro03b","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"The ends do not justify the means. The government may well wish to suppress publication of information that would be prejudicial to its success in the next elections or its war campaign, but it\u2019s in the public interest to know about their dirty dealings or illegal activities.  Moreover secrecy in the name of security often leads to injustice; the rendition of British residents and secret evidence given at control order hearings are but a couple of examples."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro01a","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"The character of every act depends upon the circumstances in which it is done  \"The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic.\" [1] Shouting fire in a crowded cinema when there is no fire, and you know it, is wrong because doing so creates a clear and present danger of harm to others.  Likewise, in the US (and many other countries) there is no protection for \u2018false commercial speech\u2019 (i.e. misrepresentation) and the contents of adverts can be regulated in order to ensure that they are truthful and do not deceive consumers. [2] On that basis, restrictions can be placed on how tobacco products may be advertised, and people may be prevented from promoting illegal and fraudulent tax advice.  [1] U.S. Supreme Court, Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, 1919,  [2] U.S. Supreme Court, Lorillard Tobacco Co v Reilly, AG of Massachusetts, 533 U.S. 525, 200"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro01b","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"The argument leads to a slippery slope. It is one thing to regulate speech on matters that are objectively verifiable, quite another to restrict the permissible scope of opinion and expression. Even then, the state should be extremely cautious about declaring a state of objective fact. People taking advice on matters such as tax always take the risk that that advice may turn out to be bad, the amount of risk a person is willing to take is entirely a matter of personal responsibility and not a matter that the government should intervene in."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro04b","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Society is self-regulating. The link between speech acts and physical acts is a false one - people who commit hate crimes are likely to have read hate speech, people who commit sex crimes are likely to have watched pornography but not necessarily the other way around. Viewers of pornography and readers of hate speech are therefore not incited to commit anything they otherwise would not do.  If the advocates of these views have hidden agendas, all the more reason to expose them in public. The fact that Holocaust denial leads to neo-Nazism will, for most people, be one more compelling argument against it; creationism\u2019s necessarily literalistic approach to scripture can easily be shown to be ridiculous. Again, the truth has nothing to fear, and the evil implications of falsehood should not be covered up by refusing to engage with it."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro03a","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"It may be necessary in the interests of national security  The Government must protect its citizens from foreign enemies and internal enemies - thus freedom of speech can be acceptably curtailed during times of war in order to prevent propaganda and spying which might undermine the national interest. This has happened in almost all states during times of war, during the second world war the United States even had a government department dedicated to it; The Office of Censorship. [1]  [1] Hanyok, Robert J., \u2018Secrets of Victory: The Office of Censorship and The American Press and Radio in World War II\u2019, Studies in Intelligence, Vol 46, No. 3,"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro04a","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Holocaust Denial  Speech acts lead to physical acts. Thus pornography, hate speech and political polemic are causally linked to rape, hate crimes, and insurrection.  Both scientific creationism and Holocaust denial have serious, and dangerous, hidden agendas. Deniers of the Nanjing Massacre believe that the Japanese did nothing wrong in the Second World War and continue to claim that it was a war of liberation against western colonialism - feeding Japanese militarism today. Holocaust deniers, in claiming that a Jewish conspiracy is responsible for the widespread belief that six million Jews were murdered by the Nazis, are closely allied to anti-Semitism and neo-Nazism. We should not allow such views the legitimacy which being debated gives them."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-con01b","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Society is entitled to define itself on certain issues \u2013 otherwise what does it stand for? Community is only possible among like-minded individuals. It is likewise entitled to tell those who refuse to accept the consensus on those issues to \u2018lump it or leave it\u2019.  It is also absurd to suggest that all challenges to orthodoxy are legitimate. Denial of atrocities is usually a mask for racial intolerance. Denial of established scientific truths in the public world is not usually about progress but rather about ignoring the evidence to promote theologically based worldviews. Society has a vested interest in suppressing those movements."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-con02a","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Individual Liberty outweighs any potential harms  Whatever the potential harms that may arise from unrestrained free speech; they pale in comparison to the harm that arises from banning an individual from freely expressing his own mind.  It is a matter of the upmost individual liberty that one\u2019s thoughts and feelings are one\u2019s own, and that individuals are free to express those thoughts and feelings openly. A prohibition on this liberty is a harm of incalculable value \u2013 it strikes right to the core of what it means to be in individual person."}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-con01a","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Free speech allows challenges to orthodox beliefs  Free speech is not merely a \u2018nice thing to have\u2019, it is a mechanism which brings real, tangible benefits to society by allowing people to challenge orthodoxy. States that do not allow orthodox beliefs to be challenged stagnate and decline.  Reducing restrictions on free speech to \u2018special exceptions\u2019 frustrates the whole point because it is precisely those special exceptions where established truth needs to be challenged. This is not restricted to matters of pure opinion \u2013 the modern scientific process relies upon professionals being able to vehemently disagree on matters of crucial fact. \u201cReal science depends for its progress on continual challenges to the current state of always-imperfect knowledge.\u201d [1]  [1] Sarewitz, Daniel, \u2018The voice of science: let\u2019s agree to disagree\u2019, Nature, Vol 487, No.7, 5 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-sdfclhrppph-con02b","title":"speech debate free challenge law human rights philosophy political philosophy house","text":"Liberty is an intangible right \u2013 restrictions on liberty can be equally intangible and entirely transitory based on the circumstances.  What we know though is that real harm is derived from defaming an individual\u2019s reputation, broadcasting racist abuse and shouting \u2018fire\u2019 in a crowded theatre. It is wrong to ignore real, tangible harm in favour of preventing fanciful and intangible harms."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro02b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Prohibition may not be working in the UK but that does not mean that prohibition is not working everywhere. In the US, the Drug Enforcement Agency states that \u201cOverall drug use in the United States is down by more than a third since the late 1970s. That\u2019s 9.5 million people fewer using illegal drugs. We\u2019ve reduced cocaine use by an astounding 70% during the last 15 years.\u201d [1]  [1] U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, \u2018Fact 1: We have made significant progress in fighting drug use and drug trafficking in America. Now is not the time to abandon our efforts\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro02a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Prohibition does not work; instead, it glamorizes drugs  Those who want to use drugs will take them whether they are legal or not \u2013 and more are doing so than ever before. In 1970 there was something like 1,000 problematic drug users in the UK, now there are over 250,000. [1] Legalization will also remove the glamour which surrounds an underground activity and so make drug use less attractive to impressionable teenagers. For example, statistics suggest that cannabis use in the UK declined after its classification was lowered from \u2018B\u2019 to \u2018C\u2019. [2]  [1] Home Affairs Select Committee, \u2018The Government\u2019s Drug Policy: Is It Working?\u2019, parliament.uk, 22 May 2002,   [2] Travis, Alan, \u2018Cannabis use down since legal change\u2019, The Guardian, 26th October 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro06a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"The law is hypocritical  In most countries where drugs are illegal, tobacco and alcohol, which arguably have equally devastating consequences in society, are legal. In a UK study, alcohol was shown to have the worst effects of any drug, yet the current law recognises that people should be able to choose whether they drink or not. [1] The same should be true of drugs.  [1] Professor David Nutt, \u2018Drug Harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis\u2019, The Lancet, Vol 376, Issue 9752, pp. 1558-1565, 6th November 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro07b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"If the state is to make money from taxing drugs, this undercuts the (supposed) advantages of lower-priced drugs and will just encourage a black market to continue. In the UK, there is large black market for tobacco; it is suspected that tax has not been paid on 21% of cigarettes and 58% of hand rolling tobacco consumed. [1] Furthermore, for the state to take revenue from this practise is morally wrong, whatever use the money is put to. The point of drug treatment is to help abusers off drugs, but under the proposition\u2019s system the state would have a financial interest in prolonging addiction.  [1] Tobacco Manufacturers\u2019 Association, \u2018Tobacco Smuggling and Crossborder Shopping\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro03b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Part of the reason that drugs are illegal is because of the health ramifications, which exist even if a drug is pure.  To give a brief summary of some health harms that come from unadulterated drugs:  \u201cCocaine can cause such long-term problems as tremors, seizures, psychosis, and heart or respiratory failure.  Marijuana and hashish can cause rapid heart rate and memory impairment soon after use. Long-term effects include cognitive problems, infertility, weakened immune system, and possible lung damage.  Narcotics such as heroin can bring on respiratory and circulatory depression, dizziness, impotence, constipation, and withdrawal sickness. Overdoses can lead to seizures and death.\u201d [1]  [1] Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, \u2018Effects of Alcohol and Drugs on your Health\u2019, University of North Carolina,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro05a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Drugs currently fund terrorism and regional instability  The Taliban gets most of its revenue from poppies, which provide the opium for heroin. They do this by intimidating local farmers who would otherwise sell their harvest at market. They then demand \u201cprotection money\u201d as well, or else either another local warlord or the \u2018protectors\u2019 themselves would rob the farmer. Something like 22,700 people have died in Mexico since January 2007 from gangsters who want to protect their revenue and almost the entire continent of South America, from Brazil to Colombia, has had their governments destabilised by drug lords. [1] The hugely-costly but unsuccessful war on drugs could be ended, starving terrorists of the profits of drug production. As a result peace and development could be brought to unstable drug-producing states such as Colombia and Afghanistan.  [1] Mexico under siege, The drug war on our doorstep, Los Angeles Times , 27 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro01a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"People should be free to take drugs  Individuals are sovereign over their own bodies, and should be free to make choices which affect them and not other individuals. Since the pleasure gained from drugs and the extent to which this weighs against potential risks is fundamentally subjective, it is not up to the state to legislate in this area. Rather than pouring wasted resources into attempting to suppress drug use, the state would be better off running information campaigns to educate people about the risks and consequences of taking different types of drugs."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro07a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Legal drugs would increase tax revenue  In 2009-2010, the tax revenue from tobacco in the UK was \u00a310.5 billion. [1] If the state legalizes drugs, it can tax them and use the revenue from this practise to fund treatment. At the moment such treatment is difficult to justify as it appears to be spending ordinary taxpayers\u2019 money on junkies.  [1] Tobacco Manufacturers\u2019 Association, \u2018Tax Revenue From Tobacco\u2019, accessed 16th June 2011 -"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro01b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"This point makes the assumption that drug use only affects the individual concerned; in reality, drug usage can have a significant effect on people close to the user, as well as wider society. People who can be affected include family who have to care for a user and victims of drug-related crimes. In addition, in countries with welfare states, there is an additional significant societal cost as many drug users cannot hold down jobs. [1] Studies in the USA have shown that parents often put their need for drugs above the wellbeing of their children. [2]  This being the case, it is clear that the harms of drugs far outweigh governmental duty to protect individual freedoms.  Furthermore, doing drugs may be a free choice at first, but after a certain period the drug user is no longer to choose for himself\/herself because addiction overruns their judgement.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Drugs cost society \u00a318.8bn\u2019, 12 February 2002,   [2] National Drug Intelligence Center, \u2018The Impact of Drugs on Society\u2019, National Drug Threat Assessment 2006, January 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro05b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Whether legal or illegal, drugs will still be a source of income for warlords and terrorist groups. Instead of starving them off, the dealers become more competitive and lower their prices. The only way to stop these people using drugs as a source of income is to remove poppies from Afghan fields, to destroy coca plantations."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro06b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Perhaps alcohol and tobacco should also be illegal. However, one of the reasons why alcohol ranks so badly in such studies is because of its legality; if other drugs were legal, we would see their usage go up and therefore the negative social effects they produce rise as well."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro04b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Drugs affect how people think, and they take away their ability to control their actions rationally, and so people on drugs are more likely to commit crimes. The US Drug Enforcement Administration states, \u201cCrime, violence and drug use go hand in hand. Six times as many homicides are committed by people under the influence of drugs, as by those who are looking for money to buy drugs. Most drug crimes aren\u2019t committed by people trying to pay for drugs; they\u2019re committed by people on drugs.\u201d [1]  [1] U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, \u2018Summary of the Top Ten Facts on Legalization\u2019, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro03a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Drugs are safer when legal  Currently in the UK, purity of illegal Amphetamine is normally under 5%, and some tablets sold as ecstasy contain no MDMA at all. Instead, drugs are adulterated (\u201ccut\u201d) with substances from chalk and talcum powder to completely different drugs. [1]  At least when drugs are legalised the state can regulate their sale to make sure that they are clean and not cut with other dangerous substances. This will minimise the risk to users.  [1] Drugscope, \u2018How Pure Are Street Drugs?\u2019, updated January 2005,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-pro04a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Legalisation reduces crime  The illegality of drugs fuels a huge amount of crime that could be eliminated if drugs were legalised. Price controls would mean that addicts would no longer have to steal to fund their habits, and a state-provided drug services would put dealers out of business, starving criminal gangs of their main source of funding. For example, an Italian Mafia family were making around $44bn a year from cocaine smuggling. [1] This represents something like 3% of Italy\u2019s entire GDP \u2013 and that from only one crime syndicate.  [1] Kington, Tom, \u2018Italian police raids reveal how an 80-year-old gangster held sway over the feared Calabrian mafia\u2019, The Observer, 18 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-con03b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"In a capitalist system reliant on supply and demand, the cost of a particular drug will always correspond to what people are willing to pay for them. So, there is no reason why a black market should spring up under a legalised system of drug sale."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-con01b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Many things that can be dangerous are legal, from drugs such as alcohol, to activities such as skydiving, or even rugby. However, millions of people are able to drink or play sports without harming themselves or society. It would seem draconian and extremely paternalistic for the government to ban everything that has the potential to be dangerous; instead, they should educate people about the dangers, but trust them to make decisions about their own lives.  The State has no authority to force its own morality on the general populace unless these drugs can be proven to harm others. The State is the facilitator of the voters\u2019 desires in a democracy. So, a State enforced, morality goes against the obligations of the State to its people."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-con02a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"More people will take drugs if they are legal  Considering that drug use has so many negative consequences, it would be disastrous to have it increase. However, the free availability of drugs once they are legal will make it far easier for individuals to buy and use them. In most cases, under 1% of the population of OECD countries regularly use illegal drugs; many more drink alcohol or smoke tobacco. [1] This must at least partly to do with the illegality. Indeed, in an Australian survey, 29% of those who had never used cannabis cited the illegality of the substance as their reason for never using the drug, while 19% of those who had ceased use of cannabis cited its illegality as their reason. [2]  [1] UN Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2009,   [2] NSW Bureau of Crime and Statistics, \u2018Does Prohibition Deter Cannabis use?\u2019, 23 August 2001,  $file\/mr_cjb58.pdf"}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-con03a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Drugs will either be too cheap or too expensive  Low prices for drugs will hugely increase consumption of drugs, amongst all groups - addicts, previously casual users, and those who were not previously users. If drug provision is strictly regulated, an illegal black market may remain."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-con01a","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"Drugs are dangerous, and the governement should discourage its use  The government has a responsibility to protect its citizens; if a substance will do people and society significant harm, then that substance should be banned. There is no such thing as a safe form of a drug. Legalization can only make drugs purer, and therefore perhaps more deadly and addictive. Many illegal drugs are closely related to potentially dangerous medicines, whose prescription is tightly restricted to trained professionals, but the proposition would effectively be allowing anyone to take anything they wished regardless of the known medical dangers.  However entrenched in modern culture drugs may be, legalising them will only make them appear more acceptable. The state has a duty to send out the right message, and its health campaigns will be fundamentally undermined by the suggestion that drugs are harmless, which is what will be understood from their legalisation \u2013 just like when cannabis was downgraded in the UK."}
+{"id":"test-law-tahglcphsld-con02b","title":"th addiction health general law crime policing house supports legalisation drugs","text":"When drugs are illegal, this does not stop people from using them. A Canadian report on the matter concluded, \"The licit or illicit status of substances has little impact on their use.\" [1] In addition, even though drugs are illegal, it is not hard to access them. In a Spanish survey, 92.9% of Spanish students said that it was very easy to access illegal drugs \u2013 even though only 11.6% used cannabis, which was the most used. [2] Even using the survey quoted by opposition, it is clear that the majority of people surveyed did not view the illegality of cannabis as a reason not to use it.  [1] Parliament of Canada House of Commons, Special Committee on Non-Medical Use of Drugs, report issued November, 2002,   [2] Eurocare, \u201892.9 % of Spanish students say that access to drugs is very easy\u2019, 26 March 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro02b","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Crime is not pathology, it is not the product of circumstance, and it is certainly not the product of coincidence. As the case of Husng Guangyu shows, despite being Chinas richest man he still committed crimes involving illegal business dealing, insider trading and bribery and was then sentenced to 14 years. This was rightly given in order as a just punishment for the cost of the crimes he had committed and to deter others from such practices. [1] Crime is the result of choices made by the individual, and therefore the justice system must condemn those choices when they violate society\u2019s rules. To say otherwise (i.e. to say that criminals are merely the product of their unfortunate circumstances) would be an insult to human autonomy - the liberalist idea that our judicial system is based on, in saying that individuals are given the power to make their own decisions freely and this should be interfered with in as little as possible. It would be to deny the possibility of human actors making good decisions in the face of hardship.  Retributivism alone best recognises the offender\u2019s status as a moral agent, by asking that he take responsibility for what he has done, rather than to make excuses for it. It appeals to an inherent sense of right and wrong, and in this way is the most respectful to humanity because it recognises that persons are indeed fundamentally capable of moral deliberation, no matter what their personal circumstances are.  [1] Jingqiong, Wang and Zhu Zhe, \u2018Former richest man gets 14 years in prison\u2019, China Daily, 19 May 2010."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro02a","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Rehabilitation Has Greater Regard For the Offender  Rehabilitation has another important value \u2013 it recognises the reality of social inequity. To say that some offenders need help to be rehabilitated is to accept the idea that circumstances can constrain, if not compel, and lead to criminality; it admits that we can help unfortunate persons who have been overcome by their circumstance. It rejects the idea that individuals, regardless of their position in the social order, exercise equal freedom in deciding whether to commit a crime, and should be punished equally according to their offence, irrespective of their social backgrounds. Prisons are little more than schools of crime if there aren't any rehabilitation programs. Prisons isolate offenders from their families and friends so that when they are released their social networks tend to be made up largely of those whom they met in prison. As well as sharing ideas, prisoners may validate each others\u2019 criminal activity. Employers are less willing to employ those who have been to prison. Such circumstances may reduce the options available to past offenders and make future criminal behaviour more likely. Rehabilitation becomes more difficult. In addition, rates of self-harm and abuse are alarmingly high within both men\u2019s and women\u2019s prisons. In 2006 alone, there were 11,503 attempts by women to self-harm in British prisons. [1] This suggests that imprisoning offenders unnecessarily is harmful both for the offenders themselves and for society as a whole.  [1] Women in Prison. Statistics. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from Women in Prison ."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro01a","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Rehabilitation Is A Better General Justifying Aim for Punishment  Rehabilitation is the most valuable ideological justification for imprisonment, for it alone promotes the humanising belief in the notion that offenders can be saved and not simply punished. Desert (retributive) theory, on the other hand, sees punishment as an end in itself, in other words, punishment for punishment\u2019s sake. This has no place in any enlightened society.  An example can be taken from the aftermath of the London rioters, where 170 riot offenders under 18 are now in custody without firstly understanding the causes of the riots nor the reasons of why these people offended. [1]  The rehabilitative ideal does not ignore society and the victim. In fact it is because retribution places such great value on the prisoner\u2019s rights that it tries so hard to change the offender and prevent his reoffending. By seeking to reduce reoffending and to reduce crime, it seeks constructively to promote the safety of the public, and to protect individuals from the victimisation of crime. The public agrees; a 2008 poll of British citizens found 82% \u2018thought rehabilitation was as important, or more important than punishment as a criterion when sentencing criminals\u2019. [2] Such a model of punishment is therefore a more enlightened approach in a modern day criminal justice system. Our current system which focuses more on retribution does not have the possibility of seeking to prevent reoffending by curing the offender of their desire to reoffend.  [1] Malik, Shiv, \u2018UK riots cause 8% rise in jailed children\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 8 September 2011.  [2] Directgov. Rehabilitation versus punishment - judge for yourself. 1 July 2008 ."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro01b","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"A sanction should not merely be helpful \u2013 it should treat the offending conduct as wrong. The purpose of punishment is to show disapproval for the offender\u2019s wrongdoing, and to clearly condemn his criminal actions. This is what was and is being done with the offenders of the August riots, the most common example is of an the two men who attempted to organise riots using Facebook, both were sentenced to four years and shows societies disgust in the events of the riots and acts as a message for future. [1]  A prison sentence is as much a punishment for the offender as a symbol of the reaction of society. Society creates law as an expression of the type of society we are aiming to create. This is why we punish; we punish to censure (retribution), we do not punish merely to help a person change for the better (rehabilitation). We still have to punish a robber or a murderer, even if he is truly sorry and even if he would really, really never offend again and even if we could somehow tell that for certain. This is because justice, and not rehabilitation, makes sense as the justification for punishment.  Why is justice and censure (\u2018retribution\u2019) so important? Because unless the criminal justice system responds to persons who have violated society\u2019s rules by communicating, through punishment, the censure of that offending conduct, the system will fail to show society that it takes its own rules (and the breach of them) seriously. There are other important reasons as well: such as to convey to victims the acknowledgement that they have been wronged. Punishment, in other words, may be justified by the aim of achieving \u2018justice\u2019 and \u2018desert\u2019, and not by the aim of rehabilitation.  [1] Bowcott, Owen, Haroon Siddique and Andrew Sparrow, \u2018Facebook cases trigger criticism of \u2018disproportionate\u2019 riot sentences\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 17 August 2011 ."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con03b","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"The expense of re-offenders re-entering the system is also an expense that our prison system cannot afford. A system such as counselling for released prisoners would prove to be inexpensive when weighed against the benefits of decreased crime, and all the costs involved in that (public damage, judicial costs and prison costs). Given that many organisations work in rehabilitation programs in prisons for very little, if any, payment such a system could easily be established for counselling.  A complete system of rehabilitation and post-release counselling, to access these programs, should be paired with increased awareness programs in schools and welfare support. However, this system of combating crime is not complete without a comprehensive system of rehabilitation. If we truly want to protect society and reform criminals then we must invest more time, effort and funding into a system that can achieve this. Incarceration on its own is not working and it is time for change. An addition to the rehabilitation programme was aired on the UK television in November 2011, a new scheme where the offender meets their victim(s) in order to understand their actions have consequences. This type of programme can show visible changes or responses of the offenders as they agree to talk about their feelings and show remorse."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con01b","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"The needs of society are not being met by those who reoffend due to lack of rehabilitation. The fact that two thirds of offenders subsequently re-offend with two years [1] suggests that the prison system does little to encourage people to stay on the right side of the law. Clearly, the threat of prison is not enough alone and needs to be supplemented by other schemes.  Prisons can provide an opportunity to develop important skills: it is especially clear in the case of non-violent offenders that criminal behaviour often stems from a perceived lack of alternatives. Offenders often lack educational qualifications and skills. Prisons can provide an opportunity to develop necessary skills for future employment through the provision of courses and education. The UK offers courses in bricklaying, hairdressing, gardening and teaching sport and fitness. [2]  These people can then contribute back into society rather than a purely retributive model which just takes from a system. [3]  [1] Souper, M., \u2018Principles of sentencing \u2013 reoffending rates\u2019, Sixth Form Law .  [2] Directgov, \u2018Education, training and working in prison\u2019 .  [3] Jonathan Aitken wrote an opinion column for \u2018The Independent\u2019 website in which he criticised the current legal setup for criminal prosecution and suggested that reforming the system of rehabilitation in the UK would help to reduce rates of re-offending. This if of the greatest importance not only to the individual but for the safety of society."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con02a","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Rehabilitation Doesn\u2019t Actually Work  While some rehabilitative programmes work with some offenders (those who would probably change by themselves anyway), most do not. Many programs cannot overcome, or even appreciably reduce, the powerful tendency for offenders to continue in criminal behaviour. In Britain, where rehabilitation has long been purported to stop re-offending, 58 per cent of those over-21 find themselves in trouble with the law within two years of release. [1] The rehabilitation programs simply do not work. \u2018Rehabilitation\u2019 is therefore a false promise \u2013 and the danger with such an illusory and impossible goal is that it is used as a front to justify keeping offenders locked up for longer than they deserve and sometimes even indefinitely (\u2018if we keep him here longer maybe he might change\u2019). We cannot justify passing any heavier or more onerous a sentence on a person in the name of \u201crehabilitation\u201d if \u201crehabilitation\u201d does not work.  [1] Stanford, P., \u2018The road to redemption: Does the rehabilitation of prisoners work?\u2019, The Independent, 23 August 2007."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con04a","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Rehabilitation Constitutes an Unjustifiable Further Expense  The evidence from all over the world suggests that recidivism rates are difficult to reduce and that some offenders just can\u2019t be rehabilitated. It therefore makes economic sense to cut all rehabilitation programs and concentrate on ensuring that prisoners serve the time they deserve for their crimes and are kept off the streets where they are bound to re-offend. As it can be seen that some deserving of a longer sentence only receive short sentences due to lack of time and space and some who have committed shorter sentences are given long sentences aimed at making a point or sending a message.  Currently, the government will continue to be gambling tax payers\u2019 money on programs that will not give anything back into the society that it took from. Britain spends \u00a345,000 a year on each of its prisoners and yet 50% will go on to re-offend, \u2018which translates into a dead investment of \u00a32 billion annually. [1] Rehabilitation programs should be scrapped and taxpayers asked only to pay the bare minimum to keep offenders off the streets. They can\u2019t harm society if they are behind bars.  [1] Bois, N. D., \u2018Retribution and Rehabilitation: A Modern Conservative Justice Policy\u2019. Dale & Co. 20 July 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con03a","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"How Would One Know a System of Rehabilitation Is Really Working  The question \u201cdoes it work\u201d must be joined by the second question: \u201ceven if it does work, how can you tell, with each individual offender, when it has worked?\u201d How would we check if this system is really working? Tagging prisoners? Free counselling for the prisoner for the rest of their life? These measures would require huge administration costs and then the question follows would it even be feasible to enforce such a system?  The root of criminality exists before exposure to the prison system; otherwise criminals would have no reason to be there in the first place. What may be more sensible is to analyse the root causes of what makes criminals offend in the first instance and introduce reform to counteract it, for example the economic crisis. [1]  Some have cited the education system as failing to instil a sense of morality in people. Others suggest that a lack of welfare leads individuals to lose faith in society and therefore be unwilling to follow the law. Assuming that the right time to change people\u2019s outlook on society is after they have offended is na\u00efve \u2013 criminal urges are better \u2018nipped in the bud\u2019.  It could be argued that criminal mentalities are inherent within certain individuals, either due to their inborn psyche or their upbringing. If one accepts this, then basic rehabilitation into society is going to do little to stop re-offending, whereas incarceration will keep them in a position where they cannot offend. Allowing them easy passage back into the world, with minimal supervision, could provide a gateway for them to commit more serious crimes.  [1] Dodd, Vikram, \u2018Police face years of public disorder, former Met chief warns\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 6 December 2011."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con01a","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Rehabilitation Does Not Serve The Needs of Society  The primary goal of our criminal justice system is to remove offenders from general society and protect law abiding citizens. Many criminals are repeat offenders and rehabilitation can be a long and expensive process. In Jamaica, police claim repeat offenders are responsible for over 80% of local crime despite rehabilitation programmes in prisons. [1] Ideally therefore, retribution and rehabilitation should work hand in hand to protect citizens in the short and long term. There are some successful examples of this happening, where prisons encourage inmates to take part in group activities such as football. Some prisons have started cooking programmes where inmates learn to cook in a professional environment and leave with a qualification. However the first priority is the removal of the convicted criminal from society in order to protect the innocent. Rehabilitation should be a secondary concern. The primary concern of the criminal justice system should be the protection of the non-guilty parties. The needs of society are therefore met by the immediate removal of the offender.  In addition a more retributive approach serves society through the message it conveys. Most modern defences of retribution would emphasize its role in reinforcing the moral values of society and expressing the public's outrage at certain crimes. Rehabilitation therefore weakens the strong message of disgust as to the offender\u2019s actions that a traditional prison sentence symbolises and the deterrent that it thus provides.  [1] Chang, K. O. \u2018Lock up repeat offenders for life\u2019. Jamaica Gleaner, 17 September 2006 ."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con04b","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"Philosopher Peter Landry believes that it takes a whole group of specialists to determine what kind of punishment to mete out to criminals. [1] There is no hard and fast rule. Money spent on rehabilitation may cost a lot, but is well worth it, when you consider cuts to the rate of reoffending, leading to reduced expense related to those who reoffend and less crowded prisons. In Britain, it costs \u00a3140,000 a year to jail a young criminal, imagine if that money was spent on his or her rehabilitation instead? [2] Furthermore, in America, where measures like the \u2018three-strike policy\u2019 were introduced and rehabilitation discouraged, \u2018more than four out of ten adult American offenders still return to prison within three years of their release\u2019. [3] Retribution simply does not work, and it is certainly not saving the government any money.  [1] Landry, P. \u2018On The Theory of Punishment\u2019. Blupete, 2011 .  [2] Doyle, J., \u2018\u00a3140,000: the annual cost of jailing a young criminal\u2019. The Guardian, 1 March 2010.  [3] Pew Center on the States. State of Recidivism. The Pew Charitable Trusts. 2011, Washington, D.C., P.2."}
+{"id":"test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con02b","title":"crime policing punishment society house believes criminal justice should focus more","text":"If we had the opportunity to stop some offenders re-offending why do we not seize this opportunity? Rehabilitative programs provide such an opportunity. Such programs include cognitive-behavioural programs (say, trying to get a violent offender to think and reach differently to potential \u2018trigger\u2019 situations), pro-social modelling programmes, and some sex-offender treatment programs. Of course, certain styles will suit some better than others, but this is someone that will have to determined case by case. As some methods with work better than others depending on attitudes, values etc.  The most credible research (done by a technique called meta-analysis) demonstrates that the net effect of treatment is, on average, a positive reduction of overall recidivism (reoffending) rates of between 10% and 12%, which would promote a reduction in crime that is, by criminal standards, massive.  Rehabilitation is a concept. It is not a definite technique whose effectiveness can be precisely measured. So yes some forms of rehabilitation may not work, others however might. What the opposition to this argues is what we've deemed rehabilitation is what we will utiize going forward. However, this is illogical; as we speak, new methods of rehabilitation could be concocted. Such an indefinite ideal cannot be proven as ineffective. For example, if somebody proves that high-speel monorail transportation is ineffective, this does not mean that transportation is absolutely and fundamentally flawed. One simply cannot disprove an infinite set of hypotheses."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro02b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"If it were the case that legal advice were not privileged people would not tell their attorneys the full truth and therefore such evidence would not exist anyway. The removal of Attorney-Client Privilege would only remove such evidence from the forum. This would lead to a further distorted system whereby Attorneys are arguing upon the false representations made to them by their clients. This provides even less evidence of truth than a system which includes Attorney-Client Privilege."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro02a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It blocks a significant amount of evidence  A system of just law is not based on opinions or ideologies. It is about finding evidence and using that evidence to prove or disprove either to 'beyond reasonable doubt' for criminal cases or 'on the balance of probabilities' for civil and commercial matters. The burden is on the importance of the evidence. It does not make sense for a legal system to on one hand place so much emphasis on evidence and lock away documents which will contain a vast array of empirical evidence with the other. Instead, attorney-client privilege should be abolished and all evidence should be in justices domain in order to ensure that the law achieves a just result."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro03b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"The privilege that subsists between solicitors and their clients is well documented. Therefore, when people go about becoming solicitors they go into it knowing the potential moral pitfalls. Having entered the career they accept the moral burden and should seek to comply with the Solicitors Code of Conduct. In addition, the moral burden is mitigated by those such rules. It is stated that in exceptional circumstances, situations involving children or the potential serious bodily harm on any individual the duty of confidentiality can be departed from."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro05a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"Attorney client privilege need not be sacrosanct in all situations  Most obviously it seems unnecessary for there to be attorney client privilege when the defendant\u2019s interests cannot be adversely affected. For example when the confidential information just does not incriminate the client himself but it might clear somebody else, or when the client is dead. Few people will be discouraged from being candid with their lawyers if there is merely the possibility that the communications may be disclosed after their death.  In addition there are situations where the client\u2019s interest may indeed be hurt but where this should be outweighed by some other very important public interest. In other words perhaps there should be \u2018necessity\u2019 or \u2018public interest\u2019 or \u2018in the interests of justice\u2019 balancing exceptions to the privilege. This would be the case when public safety is at risk, for example if the client holds some very vital information but is not willing to disclose it to anyone other than his lawyer. In such cases the courts should weigh up and balance the client\u2019s interests against society\u2019s and make the decision accordingly rather than rigidly sticking to attorney-client privilege."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro01a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It makes it more likely that attorneys will lie for their clients  If communications between an attorney and their client are confidential, then it allows for lies to be put forward to the court in order to defend someone who is guilty. In the case of a criminal matter, it could mean that even though a defendant has stated they are guilty to their attorney, they will not be found to be guilty. Every attorney wants to win their case, and if they are likely to conceal the confession of their client if it means their client will be released. As the communication is confidential, such confession will not be informed to the court and the attorney would not be exposed for their lies. The confidential nature of the communications between attorney and client open the possibility for a system of justice based upon lies. This is not just and so the Attorney-Client Privilege should be abolished."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro01b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It is a breach of a fundamental rule of an attorney's professional conduct rules to lie to the courts. In England and Wales the risk of Attorney's lying has been catered for by the Rule 11.01 of the Solicitors' Code of Conduct. This rule makes it a serious breach of the conduct rules to lie to or knowingly deceive the courts; as witness statements and police interviews are presented in courts as evidence these are also included. [1] This means that a solicitor is not allowed to put forward or allow to be put forward any information to be adduced to the court which is incorrect. The consequences for a solicitor are high \u2013 they are liable to have their professional license revoked. Given the high consequences, a solicitor would not be willing to risk it and will therefore not be willing to lie for their client to the court.  [1] Rule 11: Litigation and advocacy, Solicitors\u2019 Code of Conduct 2007,  accessed 18\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro05b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It is very unusual to have a case where it would be certain that disclosure would in no way affect the client. Clients want confidentiality for a wide variety of reasons, not only for reasons connected to personal criminal liability. Even if these confidences are not any sort of admission of criminal wrongdoing, they may nonetheless be matters that the client, for one reason or another, would not wish divulged. Abolishing the privilege not only violates a person\u2019s right to privacy, but a person who knows that his communications may be later revealed (even after his death, or even with \u2018use immunity\u2019) may well decide that it is better not to go to a lawyer in the first place \u2013 in other words, leading to an access to justice problem. This becomes even more of a problem if the privilege may be overridden when it is in the public interest as the client is not going to know when this may be considered to be the case. Better to keep the information to him\/herself rather than opening the possibility that it may be used \u2018in the public interest\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro04b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"This does not mean that client-attorney privilege should be done away with altogether. When it comes to European law and their investigations under the Treaty of Lisbon for uncompetitive practices, they do not count in house lawyer communications as privileged [1]  [1] Akzo Nobel Chemicals Limited C-550\/07  accessed 18\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro03a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It places excessive moral burden on solicitors  With the attorney-client privilege in place, there is an excessive burden on the solicitor to cope with any information their client may give to them on a confidential basis. This means they have to deal with the information alone. This is an excessive moral burden for any individual to have and should not be justified on the basis that a solicitor is there to advance the interests of their client. It should not be the solicitors role to deal with moral conflicts alone."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-pro04a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"The principle behind attorney-client privilege is declining in relevance  One of the principles behind allowing communications between a solicitor and their client to be privileged is that a solicitor is independent of their client and so will not breach laws themselves in order to attain their clients objectives. However, after the recession of 2008 and the Legal Services Act 2007 the position of in house lawyer is more prevalent [1] . In house lawyers are not financially independent. They are in fact employees of their 'client'. This eradicates the principle behind client-attorney privilege and therefore the privilege itself is now irrelevant and should be eradicated.  [1] In-house counsel on the rise, New Law Journal, 28 April 2010,  accessed 18\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-con03b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"The circumstances under which Note 9 allows such a break in the rule of client-attorney privilege is for the HM Revenue and other bodies that act for the benefit of the Government. It is rather archaic that a principle such as that of attorney-client privilege is loosened only for bodies that act for the benefit of the Government. This does not show that attorney-Client privilege is necessary but that it is not. If the Government is willing to do away with it for their monetary benefit, why can we not do away with it in the interest of justice for society? There should be a system that encourages the adversarial system, and attorney\/client privilege but yet allows a variety of circumstances to override this principle, such as public interest and public security. These principles are often used to justify potential Human Rights breaches, so we should also be able to use them to justify the breach of attorney\/client privilege."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-con01b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"Surely the best way to ensure justice is to let the truth be known. By allowing the communication between an attorney and their client to be privileged, the system is catering for a system of arbitrary loopholes and cleverly worded arguments. These are the tools that a solicitor\/ attorney would have in order to protect the interests of their client in the face of information they may not wish to divulge to the opponent. This only caters for an adversarial system whereby two parties oppose each other and they each have lawyers to assist them. Surely a better system would be one that encouraged open communication of the truth in order for the court to establish the most just outcome."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-con02a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It better enables Attorneys to advance their client's case  An attorney's main duty is owed to their client. Under Rule 1.04 of the Solicitors' Code of Conduct a solicitor \u201cmust act in the best interests of each client\u201d. [1] It is part of the adversarial system that we have that two opposing parties in litigation argue for their best interests. The whole working of the adversarial system of justice is that each party knows the facts but argues the facts that most support their case. To take away client-attorney privilege is to undermine this way of achieving justice.  [1] Rule 1: Core duties, Solicitors\u2019 Code of Conduct 2007,  accessed 18\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-con03a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"Client-Attorney Privilege is already qualified appropriately  In exceptional circumstances, solicitors are told that they may depart from the rule of confidentiality contained in Rule 4 of the Solicitors' Code of conduct. Note 9 states that there are some regulatory bodies that are entitled to be informed of apparently confidential client communications. [1] In cases of suspected money laundering, solicitors have a duty under the Money Laundering Regulations 2007 [2] to inform relevant bodies of any suspected money laundering or any handling of the proceeds of crime. This means that there is flexibility in the rule of client confidentiality and client-attorney privilege which allows for justice to take its course in serious circumstances.  [1] Rule 4: Confidentiality and disclosure, Solicitors\u2019 Code of Conduct 2007,  accessed 18\/05\/11  [2] The Money Laundering Regulations 2007, legislation.gov.uk, No2157, 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-con01a","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"It supports the principle that everyone is entitled to a defence  In criminal, civil or commercial matters, it is important that everyone has equal access to the law. This ensures a fair and just system. In order to facilitate this principle, even those in the wrong need to know that what they say to their legal representative will not be used against them at a later date. It is this principle that provides equality in the court room and therefore the principle of client attorney privilege needs to be maintained."}
+{"id":"test-law-lghbacpsba-con02b","title":"law general house believes attorney client privilege should be abolished","text":"All this shows is that our 'adversarial system' is flawed. Rather than each party trying to pull the wool over the courts eyes and only see their version of the facts surely the system of justice would operate better if each attorney had the duty to the court in finding the truth. Perhaps it is for this reason that mediation is often seen as the better way to solve disputes. In mediation, the parties are each trying to reach an out of court settlement that balances both of their needs. Justice would be achieved more easily in this mediation setting if the client-attorney privilege did not apply. Solicitors then would truly be looking to advance justice, not the clients best interests. Justice is supposed to be unbiased in this regard."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro02b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC does not offer lasting peace to victims, but can instead re-open old wounds. 'It is by no means clear that 'justice' as defined by the Court and Prosecutor is always consistent with the attainable political resolution of serious political and military disputes' argues John Bolton. The ICC deals with individual criminals and specific crimes in a vacuum, it is unable to appreciate the, albeit paradoxical, notion that it may be in the best interests of the resolution of conflict for the perpetrators to go unpunished and victims to forego reparations. 'Circumstances differ, and circumstances matter'1 the ICC in offering lasting peace to victims of war crimes is unable to weigh the circumstances in the manner of an ad hoc tribunal tailored to the specific conflict.  1 Bolton, J. (2002, November 12). The United States and the International Criminal Court. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from"}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro02a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC offers justice to victims of war crimes.  The ICC offers a multilateral means by which international law can be brought to bear on the perpetrators of war crimes. As Amnesty International argues, 'the ICC ensures that those who commit serious human rights violations are held accountable. Justice helps promote lasting peace, enables victims to rebuild their lives and sends a strong message that perpetrators of serious international crimes will not go unpunished'. Furthermore, and for the first time, the ICC has the power to order a criminal to pay reparations to a victim who has suffered as a result of their crimes. Such reparations may include restitution, indemnification and rehabilitation. Judges are able to order such reparations whether the victims have been able to apply for them or not. Though reparations will often not be sufficient on their own for lasting peace, they are a step in the right direction and only made possible by the establishment of the ICC."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro03b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The US holds a unique position in the fabric of the protection of international peace and security. Whilst it might be appropriate for other States to consent to the jurisdiction of the ICC, these States do not bear the responsibilities and attendant risks beholden to the 200,000 US troops in continuous forward deployment. The armed forces of the US that have responded to three hundred per cent more contingency situations during the previous decade than during the whole of the Cold War. It is clear that the world more than ever looks to the US for its safety. Furthermore, the military dominance of the US increases the likelihood of prosecution. When rogue regimes are incapable of defeating the US by any military means, they are likely to resort to 'asymmetric challenges' to their forces. Challenging the authority of the US in the ICC will be more damaging to US interests and willingness to intervene than any conventional military opposition. The indispensable nation must therefore be permitted to dispense with the ICC."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro01a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC allows for the prosecution of war criminals.  Law-abiding states like the United States that have yet to ratify the ICC should have nothing to fear if they behave lawfully. The Prosecutor of the ICC is only concerned with the most grave offences and it defies belief that the US would approve a strategy of genocide or systematic mass violations of human rights that could attract the jurisdiction of the ICC. Further, the discretion of the Prosecutor is not unchecked. The Statute requires that the approval of three judges sitting in a pre-trial chamber be obtained before an arrest warrant can be issued or proceedings initiated. Moreover, there is no harm to the interests of the US in being subjected to a mere preliminary investigation. In fact, it is preferable that spurious accusations are briefly examined and shown to be baseless, than that these accusations be allowed to raise doubts about the credibility of a State's actions and the impartiality of the Tribunal in question. The US acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Prosecutor of the ICTY is evident ; the US troops forming part of the KFOR peacekeeping force in Kosovo could equally be subject to investigation and prosecution by the ICTY. The US is prepared for its forces to operate under the scrutiny of the ICTY since it reasonably does not expect its members to commit the very crimes they are deployed to prevent."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro01b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC's ability to prosecute war criminals is both overstated and simplistic. It has no force of its own, and must rely on its member states to hand over criminals wanted for prosecution. This leads to cases like that of Serbia, where wanted war criminals like Ratko Mladic are believed to have been hidden with the complicity of the regime until finally handed over in 2011. The absence of a force or any coercive means to bring suspects to trial also leads to situations like that in Libya, whereby Colonel Gaddafi is wanted by the ICC but the prosecution's case is germane if he manages his grip on power. Furthermore, it relies on external funding to operate, and can only sustain cases so long as financial support exists to see them through."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro03a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The deterrent effect of the Court ensures wide-spread and equal adherence to international law.  Upon signing the Rome Statute in 1996, U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan stated that 'the establishment of the Court is still a gift of hope to future generations, and a giant step forward in the march towards universal human rights and the rule of law'1. Such statements demonstrate the impact the Court could potentially have, as a body that simultaneously cherishes sovereignty and protects national courts whilst offering a means by which criminals in states unable or unwilling to prosecute will still be brought to justice. As the natural and permanent heir to the process started at Nuremberg in the wake of World War II2, the ICC ensures that the reach of law is now universal; war criminals, either in national or international courts, will be forced to trial as a result of the principle of universal jurisdiction1. The deterrent effect of such a court is obvious and a warning to those who felt they were operating in anarchic legal environments.  1 Amnesty International. (2007, September). Fact Sheet: International Criminal Court. Retrieved May 11, 2011  2 Crossland, D. (2005, November 23). Nuremberg Trials a Tough Act to Follow. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from Spiegel International"}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con03b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC does not have too much authority, merely the necessary authority to be useful as an institution. It is the very pre-eminence of the US that demands it adhere to the international rule of law, the ICC's existence will not alter that nor lead to charges for legitimate actions. It is perfectly possible to conduct a campaign for bona fide reasons of saving lives and protecting human rights that involves the commission of war crimes. The ICC can reasonably demand that the US, or any other State, pursue their lawful ends by lawful means. Moreover, it matters not to the victim of a gross human rights violation whether the perpetrator was the regime of a rogue state or the service member of a State seeking to protect the population. Further, other States with significant military commitments overseas, such as the UK and France, have ratified the Rome Statute without equivocation. These States accept that intervening in other States to uphold international human rights demands respect for these same norms."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con01b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The budget of the ICC is not particularly excessive and can be maintained without US finance. The withholding of US funds from the UN budget is a familiar tactic for expressing disapproval. In 1998, the total US arrears on assessed contributions that had been approved by the Security Council amounted to over $1.3 billion1. Whilst the operation of UN institutions and operations, in particular peacekeeping, might have suffered, the UN was still able to function. Likewise, there is no reason to suggest that the refusal of the US, or even Japan, to ratify the Rome Statute, would preclude the operation of the ICC. The Statute allows the donation of additional funds and resources from other State Parties. With regard to the ICTY, the EU has consistently contributed personnel, in addition to the payment of the assessed contribution of each of the 15 States. $100 million might seem a significant expense. However, it is both trite and true that no price should be put on justice. Not least justice for thousands of victims of some of the most heinous crimes imaginable.  1 Lautze, S. (2000, October). US Arrears to the UN. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from Humanitarian Exchange Magazine:"}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con02a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"It may be in the best interests of victims and their state for war criminals not to be brought to trial.  The ICC may well lead to the political prosecution of war criminals, but that is not necessarily the most effective means to peace, or lasting peace for victims. As U.S. policy papers have pointed out, despots like Pol Pot and Saddam Hussein did not consult lawyers over potential legal ramifications before they committed their respective human rights violations1. Furthermore, the impact on an oppressed population of a long, protracted trial of their fallen dictator is not always therapeutic for it can dredge up events of particularly melancholic qualities and grants the dictator a platform to continue his psychological control over his population.  1 Elsea, J. K. (2006). U.S. Policy Regarding the International Criminal Court. Congressional Research Service, p. 22."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con05a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC fails to prevent atrocities.  The ICC will not deter the commission of war crimes or genocide. The Third Reich augmented the crimes of the Holocaust when it became clear that the Allies would defeat them in Europe. The only expectation of the Nazi leadership was immediate execution, rather than trial in a judicial forum. Similarly, Slobodan Milosevic and the Bosnian Serb army conducted a campaign of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo whilst the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was sitting in the Hague. The calculation of whether to commit gross human rights violations is not that of the reasonable and rational individual. The existence of a court, however well intentioned, will have no effect on the commission of these crimes."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con04a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The novel crime of aggression leads to the prosecution of those seeking to protect human rights.  The likelihood of political prosecution is only augmented by the creation of the novel crime of 'aggression' under the Rome Statute. Any intervention in a State for the protection of human rights of some or all of its people might constitute a crime. The US or any NATO State could be prosecuted, at the request of the genocidaires, for successfully preventing genocide. Moreover, by a quirk of the drafting of the Statute, States that refuse to accept the jurisdiction of the ICC can nevertheless request the prosecution of individuals of other States for crimes alleged committed on its territory. Thus Milosevic could have demanded the investigation of NATO forces for the events of Operation Allied Force, but have precluded any investigation of the actions of the Bosnian Serb army on the same territory."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con03a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC has too much authority.  The ICC will lead to political prosecution. American service members and senior military and political strategists will be subject to charges for legitimate military action. Any State has the power to refer an issue for investigation to the Prosecutor and the Prosecutor also has the power to commence an investigation ex proprio motu. There is no UN Security Council veto over the discretion of the Prosecutor. Moreover, the phantom of political prosecution has already materialised in the preliminary investigation mounted by the Office of the Prosecutor of the ICTY into the NATO bombing of Kosovo and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the course of 'Operation Allied Force'. The Prosecutor chose to investigate a campaign that had been undertaken with clinical precision, that had received the ex post facto support of the Security Council, and that had been directed against a military infrastructure effecting a brutal policy of ethnic cleansing. This grim precedent suggests that a Prosecutor will not hesitate to investigate any other good faith and successful military actions across the globe."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con05b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"It is ludicrous to claim that the ICC will fail to deter atrocities when such an international institution has never before existed. Moreover, the ICC is not designed to be a prophylactic ; for the victims of these terrible crimes it is crucial that these offenders are apprehended, tried and punished. Retribution and protection of society are objectives not only for the domestic criminal justice system but also for the new international version. Therefore, even if the ICC failed to prevent the atrocities in the first place, a mechanism is now in place to punish those responsible. Justice is not sufficient where war crimes are concerned, but it is a start."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con01a","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The ICC generates crippling expenses.  Cautious estimates suggest an operating budget of $100 million per year1. The costs of the ICTY and ICTR have already spiralled out of control, and the latter tribunal has a legacy of maladministration and internal corruption. The US contributes 25% of the budget for both the tribunals, which amounted to $58 million in the fiscal year 20002. It is dubious whether the ICC could survive without US financial support. The UN as a whole is obligated only to fund investigations and prosecutions initiated at the request of the Security Council. Every other investigation must be funded by assessed contributions from the States that have ratified the Rome Statute. Although the UN could authorise the transfer of additional funds, the procedure would require a UN Security Council resolution that would of course be subject to the US veto. Alternatively, it is accepted that State Parties to the Statute could directly contribute funds or personnel to the ICC. However, the possibility of partiality or even corruption is manifest where States with their individual political interests are deploying and directing their own staff within the Office of the Prosecutor of the ICC.  1 Irwin, R. (2010, January 8). ICC Trials Hit by Budget Cuts. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from Institute for War & Peace Reporting:  2 Scharf, M. P. (2000, October). The Special Court for Sierra Leone. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from American Society of International Law:"}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con04b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"The crime of aggression is not remarkably novel. Intervening in the domestic affairs of a sovereign State is contrary to norms of conventional and customary law. The UN Charter prohibits both the unauthorised use of force against another State and any intervention in its domestic jurisdiction. Moreover, the fact that the crime of aggression has not yet been defined means that this objection to the ICC is purely hypothetical. The US should in fact be encouraged to ratify the Rome Statute in order to allow its negotiators to play an active role in the Assembly of State Parties. The Assembly is currently responsible for drafting the definition of this crime."}
+{"id":"test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con02b","title":"human rights international law politics government warpeace house would recognise","text":"It is always in the best interest of victims for war criminals to be brought to justice, even if in the intermediate period there is a great deal of stress and suppressed grief. The ICC has the power not only to punish war criminals with incarceration, but order reparations to be paid to victims. Though financial reward cannot cover the loss of life or injury, it is a start and could not directly come from the criminal themselves without the influence and power of the ICC. Furthermore, it establishes a precedent that demonstrates to the wider public that victims will, however long it takes and however hard the ICC must work, get justice for their suffering."}
+{"id":"test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-pro02b","title":"university free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"A bargaining chip, by definition needs to be part of a bargain. Using it to demand a change in the structure of the state as a whole is hardly reaching a bargain \u2013 it\u2019s dictating a fiat. An invitation from a country to a university is a big step in expressing an interest in how that institution works and the values it promotes. Using that as an opening to demonstrate the strength of those ideas is an opportunity that should not be dismissed."}
+{"id":"test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-pro03b","title":"university free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Employers measure degrees by the academic results they indicate. The level of political engagement of the individuals is not critical \u2013 or even relevant \u2013 to that measure. In a global market of tens of millions of students graduating every year [i] an increase of a few thousand in those graduating from top universities will do little to dilute their iconic brands while taking advantage of communications technologies to justify their global reputation. University Senates determine whether degrees can be awarded in their name and it is scarcely in their interest to damage their own reputation. [ii]  [i] There are approximately 150 million students in the world and for the purposes of this debate, that number has simply been divided by three. Source material can be found here .  [ii] Jones et al., \u2018The Academic Senate and University Governance in Canada\u2019, The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, Vol.XXXIV, No.2, 2004, pp.35-68, p.50, 57"}
+{"id":"test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-pro01b","title":"university free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Universities also survived the inquisition, the French revolutionary terror and the tyrannies of twentieth century Europe. The issue being discussed here is not in the same league as any of those. There is, as a result, clearly nothing innate that requires an appreciation of free speech for universities to operate. Furthermore universities do not locate or relocate en masse depending on the direction of the political wind."}
+{"id":"test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-con01b","title":"university free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"There is gradualism and then there is inertia. Refusing to cooperate with governments where individuals can be banned from addressing a group of students would seem to be setting the bar relatively low. In this particular instance, the bar doesn\u2019t appear to have been set anywhere. The example given by opposition is of one between states, this is between state actors and organisations who rely on the free expression of ideas as part of their raison d\u2019etre."}
+{"id":"test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-con02b","title":"university free speech debate free know house believes western universities","text":"Singapore in this particular instance is securing far more than a \u2018service provider\u2019 from a university whose foundation precedes that of the state by over a century. Yale is an internationally identifiable brand, as would any other major university be, and Singapore and NUS benefit from that association. Yale is in a strong position here to argue for things that stretch well beyond the lecture theatre."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro02b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"MOOCs primarily reach already educated and thus privileged people. Roughly 80% of people who took Coursera courses already have a Bachelor' degree [12]. This statistic shows that the less-advantaged do not prefer online courses over the traditional university nor do they find them more convenient to take. At the least it shows MOOCs are just reaching the same people as universities. Even if universities drop tuition fees, which does not seem likely, the argument is entirely based on the idea that poorer people would find it easier to do courses from home. However, many of the poor do not even have access to internet at home, including an estimated 100 million poor Americans [13], not to mention much larger numbers of poorer people from less developed countries."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro02a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses broadens access to education  Online courses can expand access to university education. University education is based on the idea of merit - that the brightest people should be enabled to learn - however in real life many different circumstances play a role in one's ability to attend university. The result is that lots of stellar people from less-affluent backgrounds do not even apply to the best universities due to costs and anxiety involved in leaving home. In the United States the bottom 50 percent of the income distribution comprise just 14 percent of the undergraduates at top universities [10]. Online courses allow more bright people to go to a university by definitely removing accommodation and travel costs, and, as some predict, even by lowering or dropping tuition fees [11]. This argument is made even stronger by inherent flexibility of online courses, which means that people can combine studies with work and family obligations better. This improves access to education for the poor within the country and in particularly for those in less developed countries, which then improves meritocracy of the university system."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro03b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses enables universities to accept virtually unlimited numbers of students regardless of presence of tuition fees. If universities keep tuition fees, it makes sense to admit more students because they are no longer limited by availability of physical space; if they drop tuition fees, they still should accept more students because their revenues would depend on how popular they are. What this means is that instead of picking just the brightest of the applying lot, universities can now accept pretty much everyone who meets the basic standard criteria. Not only this decreases the quality of professionals and academia, it decreases the value of a university degree."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro05a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses encourage sharing of academic information  One of the technical features of MOOCs is that content of courses can easily be shared between universities and learners (as content is freely downloadable). This is useful in two ways. First, people who are not earning credit from the course can have full access to educational materials, which expands knowledge of those not enrolled in the university. Second, less prestigious universities can benefit by learning how to design courses better, so they can offer better services. MOOCs even offer opportunities for universities to cooperate together to offer shared courses that would decrease duplication and increase quality of education [16], which would be of even greater benefit to financially stressed institutions. Shared educational resources would expand access to education even further and drive educational standards higher through university cooperation."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro01a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses are more convenient for students than traditional university  The vast popularity of MOOCs can be explained by the fact that people are finding it easier to learn this way. The best feature of online learning that it can be done in the privacy of one's home, which is more convenient than having to move cities or even countries for a university degree. Moreover, online courses are inherently more flexible. Lectures can be watched and tests taken at any time a person desires (within the deadlines), unlike with scheduled lectures and tests at the traditional university. Not only this means a more personal approach to studying, it also provides people with more flexibility to manage their other commitments, such as work and childcare. Such personal and flexible approach to learning will overtake the rigidity of the traditional university."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro01b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses are popular not because they are flexible, but because they provide an opportunity to expand one's knowledge on a variety of subjects. For example, the most common reason for people taking Coursera courses are professional development and lifelong learning, the latter being essentially pleasure learning [9]. While there is nothing wrong with people taking courses to expand their knowledge or add to what they already know, it nevertheless indicates that MOOCs are not really used for furthering one's academic knowledge. This objective is and will remain the field of traditional universities."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro05b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Though it is good for personal development opportunities to access educational material don\u2019t mean anything in the labour market that requires verification of understanding through grading. As regards to universities cooperating; that might actually result in the same course being offered by many smaller universities, which decreases the room for free thinking and interpretation, which is an integral part of academic development [17]. Moreover, if with MOOCs prestigious universities can accept more students, this might mean an end to many less prestigious universities altogether as they would not be able to compete. This could actually diminish access to university education for many people who cannot make the cut for the prestigious universities."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro04b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"It is questionable whether universities would be able to substantially cut administrative costs and facilities. They will have to spend substantially more on IT support for running courses, as well as adapting courses for the online format. Then it is likely that universities would have to spend substantially more on hiring teaching and research assistants to manage increased numbers of students enrolled. While student accommodation support is going away, the normal academic student support for questions about studies is not, and its workloads actually increase due to higher student numbers. At the end of the day, administrative expenses just have to be spent on different administrative tasks."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro03a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses are a way to higher academic excellence  Relocating to the best universities is a budgetary concern, but also family and social relations concern for many people, which prevents all the best people from even applying to universities that would suit them the best. Online courses can recruit students from anywhere in the world much easier than traditional universities can because students don't need to travel far away for the best education. This then ensures that universities have better access to the brightest people. For instance, Stanford University's online course on Artificial Intelligence enabled people from 190 countries to join, and none of students receiving a score of 100 percent where from Stanford [14]. Improving the pool of students would automatically result in better academics, professionals and science, which would benefit the society better."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-pro04a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses would allow universities to use more resources on teaching and research  Traditional Universities are forced to spend a lot on administration and facilities, such as renting and maintaining buildings and parking lots, providing student support for accommodation, renting student halls, subsiding transports costs and meals, supervising university areas and so on. Across 72 US public universities the average administrative cost was about 8% of spending with the highest, at the University of Connecticut at 17% [15]. All these costs can be cut or abandoned all together if universities move to online teaching. There would be no need for lecture halls and student accommodation as students would just work from home, and even professors could mostly work from home. Even if some of administrative costs remain, that would still substantially increase the amount of resources to be spent entirely on teaching and research. This allows universities to improve their academic credentials and their academic output, which benefits the students and the society."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con03b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"It is not true that online communications cannot be as good as real life communications. MOOCs platforms already are addressing student and professor involvement via such means as discussions in internet forums, Google hang-outs etc. This communication can be expanded to other means that the internet provides, such as Skype chats, conference calls, instant messaging, and even broadcasting live podcasts where people can ask questions online. Plus, it is not true that students would not be able to communicate among themselves given the possibilities of social media. Sure, they probably won't meet other students in real life, but that does not mean they cannot try to get to know each other online, especially since this is the only option. The internet has the capability to promote inclusive dialogue between students and professors, this capability just is not used to the fullest at the moment."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con01b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"It is false to assume that MOOCs platforms would be the only or even the main way to provide university courses. The Open University uses its own resources for online and distance learning. This proves that, given advantages of online learning, universities can switch to digital learning themselves without any intermediaries. This also means that there is no reason for states to cut funding for universities as university learning would simply go digital, everything else staying the same. Even though some universities at the moment offer online courses for credit that are very cheap, these are not degrees, and it is unlikely to imagine that universities would offer cheap online degrees that would threaten their own existence."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con02a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses make it impossible to ensure academic honesty  With online courses, unlike with actual tests and lectures, there is no way to ensure the person is not cheating on the other side of the screen. There is no way to ensure that essays and papers are written by people who will be getting degrees, and especially that tests and examinations are taken by the people who will be getting the degrees. But even if they are the same people, there is no way to prevent cheating during tests and examinations, as people can just have the cheat sheets in front of them and there are no supervisors to stop them from doing so. The crucial point about university degrees is that they ensure that the person is the professional. With online courses, that is not possible, which undermines the whole idea of the university degree."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con05a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Traditional universities are a rite of passage to independent life  For many students leaving for a university is a passage to an independent life, as they often move out out of their parents\u2019 home and even their countries. This means they have to start learning or practically using lots of skills of independent adults, such as financial management, cooking, being crime-aware, networking, and solving communication problems on their own. With online courses students do not leave homes, and essentially do not start using these skills. This takes away an important practice in being an independent adult before the real life, which might leave students less equipped for the real life."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con04a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses undermine society life of the university  University is not just a place for learning. A big part of student life is participating in societies and other activities, such as sports, debating, political, philosophical or other interest groups. These provide them with opportunity to explore their talents, do the things they like and also build connections that could be useful after the university. But you cannot do most of these things online as they, unlike studying, are not based on studying materials you can upload. This is why students with online courses would be deprived of these opportunities to develop themselves, build useful connections and get ideas for their further life. This is important for society too as students historically have often been an important political and social actor (e.g. see 1968 France, Athens Polytechnic uprising etc.)."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con03a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Online courses undermine live communication with professors and other students  Online courses impair live communication between students and professors and among students. For instance, Coursera professors ask students not to email them because due to high numbers of students taking the course meaning they cannot reply [22]. Moreover, due to pre-recorded lectures, there is no option of asking professors questions. There are no live class discussions. Sure students could email each other, but it is more difficult to freely communicate with people you do not know and never met. It is also difficult to imagine that, given their numbers, students could get personal feedback on their progress from professors themselves, and not, say, teaching assistants (as Coursera does) or even from computers. Lack of personal feedback and engagement with professors and other students in discussions of the material decreases the quality of education."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con05b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"This is exactly as saying that people who did not go to universities are not independent enough. We know this to be wrong in practice and this is so because independence is not obtained in a fixed set of circumstances. There are different ways to foster independence (e.g. part-time work, personal relationships parents don\u2019t necessarily know about, etc.) that are also very much dependent on the persons' character rather than their circumstances. Besides, rites of passages are a subjective and culturally defined \u2013 if people no longer leave for universities, a new type of passage into independence is likely be constructed."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con01a","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"Financial model of online courses is unsustainable  At the moment some MOOC platforms are non-profit, while even for-profit ones do not pay universities, nor do universities pay MOOC platforms, they might only divide revenue if a revenue stream appears [18]. This essentially means that MOOCs have to rely on traditional financial models of universities to survive \u2013 they need the universities to provide materials and the academics and traditional models that are based on the fact that lots of students do not take online courses. However, MOOCs might undermine traditional university funding. For instance, Princeton professor Mitchell Duneier withdrew from Coursera claiming that states use MOOCs as a justification to withdraw state funding from universities [19]. Moreover, some MOOCs consider providing chargeable courses for credit but for a substantially lower price (around 100 dollars for a course), which might draw students away from traditional universities further undermining their existence [20]. This means a depletion of universities financial sources that MOOCs themselves rely on. At the moment there is no way for MOOCs to replace traditional university learning."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con04b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"While there would no longer be a traditional university campus to carry out these activities, it does not mean these activities would disappear. Given the popularity of societies with students, it is expected that other platforms would spring up to fill in the gap. For instance, student clubs can be established in cities or regions, provided either by for-profit entrepreneurs (as in MOOCs platforms) or self-managed by students themselves. The only difference would be that these new platforms might no longer be affiliated to a university but rather be geographically based. This, however, is not a bad development as students would still have an opportunity to join societies. Students can easily be recruited into them via social media and the internet. Maybe not every student will have an option of the society they'd like to join, but that is also the case in lots of traditional universities."}
+{"id":"test-education-egtuscpih-con02b","title":"education general teaching university science computers phones internet house","text":"It is highly unlikely to believe that people can easily find other people to go through the degree for them on the massive scale, no matter how dedicated of a friend that person is. And even if that friend or a relative is a professional in the degree area, it does not mean they could successfully pass the degree as universities update their examinations and degree materials yearly. Besides, there are ways to prevent such fraud. For instance, Coursera charges fees for certificates that verify a person's identity by using a webcam while the person is taking the course [21]. In terms of having essays and papers written by someone else, this problem is no different from the traditional universities, as they cannot easily verify that the person themselves wrote those either."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro02b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Countries need educated people, including a certain amount of university graduates, but the idea proposed, that everyone having a degree would benefit society economically, is unfounded. There is no economic benefit when people with degrees are doing jobs that do not require university education, and represents a substantial misallocation of resources on the part of the state.4 As to developing future leaders, those who are gifted or particularly driven can still rise to the top, even if university is not free, as scholarships tend to be mostly aimed at such individuals."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro02a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"The state benefits from the skills of a university educated populace  A university educated society is of great value to any state, and provides three main benefits. Firstly, it provides extensive economic benefits. There is a profound advantage to countries that actively promote a culture of \u201csmart economy\u201d3, with a highly educated and technically able workforce. They are more likely to be innovative and highly productive. Secondly, higher education leads to an increase in cultural awareness via subjects like the arts, history, and the classics. The third benefit is the development of leaders in society. The barrier created by university fees will prevent some potentially high\u00ad worth individuals from ever reaching their potential."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro03b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"There is no fundamental right to a university education; it is a service, and people should pay for it, not freeload on the taxpayer. Rights exist to provide people with the necessities of life. Some people may never have the \u201copportunity\u201d, ie. wealth, to visit Hawai\u2019i, yet that is not unfair and the state should not be expected to fund every citizen\u2019s tropical vacation. Yet even in the presence of fees, access to scholarships and loans make it possible for people from disadvantaged economic backgrounds to find their way into university. In this way the state can provide equality of opportunity while the wealthier pay."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro01a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Individuals have a right to the experience of higher education  University offers personal, intellectual, and often spiritual, exploration. In secondary school and in professional life, no such opportunities exist as they are about instruction and following orders, not about questioning norms and conventions in the same way university so often is. [1] A life without the critical thinking skills provided by university will be less useful to society, as citizens will be unable to engage with political debate effectively \u2013 citizens need to be critical of what politicians tell them. The state has a responsibility to provide citizens with the skillset to take partake in the democratic process. [2] Free universities benefit both the citizen, as an exploration for his\/her own development, and to society, for an educated and active populace.  [1] Key Degree. 2010. \u201cHow to Reap the Benefits of College\u201d. Keydegree.com. Available:  \u00adof\u00adcollege.html  [2] Swift, Adam. 2001. Political Philosophy: A Beginner\u2019s Guide for Students and Politicians. Cambridge: Polity."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro01b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"There is no right to the university experience. University life is not used as the previous argument would suggest. University life is often about alcohol first, education second. Self\u00adknowledge and genuine wisdom come from study and reflection. This can be done anywhere, not just in a university. There is no fundamental right of individuals to be allowed to take four years free of charge to learn new skills that will benefit them or teach them how to be better citizens. The state\u2019s duty is to provide a baseline of care, which in the case of education secondary school more than provides. If individuals want more they should pay for it themselves."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro04b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Every action has an opportunity cost. If people are willing to take loans it shows they consider the education worth the cost. It can actually be quite beneficial to society at large that university graduates seek swift employment due to debt, since it forces them to become productive members of society more rapidly than they might have done. For example, in Ireland where higher education is free graduates often take a year or two to travel and \u201cfind themselves\u201d while giving little or nothing back to the state that has financed their degrees. It is good that people begin contributing to the economic life of society after graduating from university, rather than frittering away their youths in unproductive pursuits."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro03a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Individuals have a right to equal opportunities that free university provides.  The employment prospects created by a university degree are substantial, and many lines of work are only available to university graduates. True merit should define the ability to attend university, not the accident of birth. With the institution of fees, access becomes more difficult, and will certainly lead to lower attendance by poorer groups. This serves to lock people into the economic situation when they are born, as getting out is much more difficult when denied access to most high\u00adincome jobs.5  5 Tribune Opinion. 2005. \u201cEducation Paves Way Out of Poverty\u201d. Greeley Tribune\u200b . Available:"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-pro04a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"The burden of fees and loans are too great to expect young people to shoulder  University fees are usually quite high. When fees are put in place in countries, many people find it extremely difficult to find the funds to pay for it, leading many people to seek school loans. In the United States, obtaining loans for university is the norm. These loans can put pressure on students to perform well. [1] But can lead to students dropping out. Debt encourages individuals to take jobs for which they are not necessarily best suited in order to get started on debt repayment immediately after leaving higher education. Furthermore, repayment of loans can take many years, leaving individuals with debt worries for much of their working lives. [2] With free university education everyone can go to college without crushing debt burden allowing them to study what they wish.  [1] Kane, Thomas. 1999. The Price of Admission: Rethinking How Americans Pay for College. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.  [2] Hill, Christine. 2007. \u201cStill Paying Off that Student Loan\u201d. National Public Radio. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con03b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"State funding of higher education is actually beneficial to universities. It allows universities to get on with their research and teaching without worrying about competing and spending money on getting students to attend. The money wasted in pursuit of high numbers of students is thus saved, as the state can tend to the needs of universities.1 The idea that the state will simply neglect its universities is silly, because society and therefore the state, relies on having capable professionals whose qualifications have value.  [1] Greatrix, Paul. 2011. \u201cUniversity Isn\u2019t Just a Business\u2014and the Student Isn\u2019t Always Right\u201d. The Guardian. Available:  \u00adeducation\u00adnetwork\/higher\u00adeducation\u00adnetwork\u00adblog\/2011\/mar\/14\/students\u00adasconsumers \u200b"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con01b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"It is far from impossible to pay for free university education. States waste money in many activities, and if they were to cut back on other discretionary (optional) spending then the cost of free higher education would be entirely possible. Cuts to defense spending in countries with overinflated militaries, or ending farm subsidies in many European states, are just some of things states can do."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con02a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Maintaining a system of free university education leads to an inefficient allocation of state resources.  First, tax money is wasted on paying civil servants to deal with university bureaucracy. Second, when the state funds all university education for free, funding will be allocated to unprofitable courses. Thirdly a moral hazard problem emerges among such students attending for free. They are allowed to reap all the benefits of education, while needing to incur none of the costs so won\u2019t feel they need to work at their degree. The fourth problem of free university education is saturation of degree\u00adholders in the market. [1] When everyone has a degree, the value of such a qualification plummets. Thus, a system of fees is superior to free education as it allows for more efficient allocation of resources to universities determined by which universities produce the best educated students and research.  [1] Chapman, Bruce. 2001. \u201cThe Higher Education Finance Debate: Current Issues and Suggestions for Reform\u201d. Australian Review of Public Affairs. Available:  \u200b"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con05a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"State control of acceptance\/curriculum criteria has negative effects  When the state has control of the purse strings, it wields a great deal of power over universities. In the case of Ireland, for example, the government has so much influence over higher education that it altered the governing structures of the major universities in 2000 through legislation and has representation on the Boards of each university. This degree of control is negative to the academic independence of universities.1 Universities operate best when they are independent of outside control and agendas. For the sake of free scholarship, free university education should not be instituted.  1 Government of Ireland. 1997. \u201cUniversities Act, 1997\u201d. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con04a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Free university education unjustly benefits one subset of society at the expense of everyone  The state funds essential services, but higher education is not such a service. The specific subset free university education tends to benefit not the disadvantaged, but rather the middle and upper classes who would have paid fees, but are now relieved of this burden. This pattern has been seen in Ireland where poorer communities still view higher education as something for the rich even though it is free. These groups continue to enter the workforce in similar numbers as they had before the ending of fees, and they still tend to prefer trade schools to universities if they do seek qualifications beyond the secondary level. [1]  [1] Brady, Hugh. 2008. \u201cWe Must Invest Now in Our Universities or Pay Later\u201d. University College Dublin News. Available:  \u200b 14 Government of Ireland. 1997. \u201cUniversities Act, 1997\u201d. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con03a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"The quality of education suffers when university education is free  Without university fees, universities become dependent on the state for funding. This leads to larger class\u00adsizes and less spending per student. [1] Yet with fees, the quality of universities increases for three reasons. First, funding improves, as university may charge in accordance with need. Second, quality of teaching is improved. Because a university wants people to attend and to pay fees, the programs and degrees they offer have to be good signals of quality requiring hiring the best lecturers. Third, the average quality of students attending university will improve. This is because students feel they need to get the most from their investment in education. An example of higher quality education from fee\u00adpaying is that of the United States, which has eighteen of the top fifty ranked universities in the world. [2] Quality is clearly improved when university is not free.  [1] Brady, Hugh. 2008. \u201cWe Must Invest Now in Our Universities or Pay Later\u201d. University College Dublin News Available:  ents.html\u200b  [2] QS World University Rankings 2015\/16, QS,"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con05b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Publicly funded universities in practice do not become parrots of the state\u2019s agenda; far from it, in fact. Often it is public institutions that are the most outspoken against government activities. The University of California, Berkeley, for example, is one of the most politically active campuses in the United States and is a public institution. States tend to let universities govern themselves, accepting that they are generally better through self-governance. Similarly, the state controls both primary and secondary education, so would the privatisation of these too further benefit independent thinking?"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con01a","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"The cost to the state is far too great to sustain universal free university education  The system of paying for universal healthcare, education, pensions, etc. threatens to bankrupt countries. The cost of paying for free university education is ruinously high. [1] In the OECD 1.9% of GDP, a third of education expenditure, is spent on tertiary education. [2] For countries to survive, they must rethink what they can afford to provide freely to citizens. It seems fair that all states should offer access to their citizens to primary and secondary education opportunities. University, on the other hand, is not essential to life in the same way. People can be functional and responsible citizens without it. For this reason, the state must consider university in the same way it does any non\u00adessential service; people may pay for it if they wish to partake, but it is not an entitlement owed by the state.  [1] Ullman, Ben. 2007. \u201cShould Higher Education Really Be Free For All?\u201d. The New Statesman. Available:  \u00adradicals\/2007\/01\/higher\u00adeducation\u00adfree\u00adstudents  [2] \u2018What proportion of national wealth is spent on education\u2019, Education at a glance, OECD, 2011, p.225,"}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con04b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"Many state services are furnished that benefit a few and are not used by others. That is often just the way such services operate. So long as everyone has access to the service, then it is just to provide it out of tax revenues. Every individual, when higher education is free, can attend university without cost. That is a right every taxpayer can enjoy. If some choose not to do so, that is fine, but it does not delegitimize the government outlay."}
+{"id":"test-education-ughbuesbf-con02b","title":"university government house believes university education should be free","text":"While there will of course be people who do not try to get the most out of their university educations, what matters is that everyone has access to it. It is a fair trade between inefficiencies created by inattentive students and diligent students who would have lacked the facility to attend without it being free. More degree\u00adholders thus do not automatically diminish the value of having degrees; they make the grades gained and degree subject more important."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-pro02b","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Affirmative action is not the best way to deal with these issues. If it is true that there are cycles of poverty caused by past discrimination, the most precise way of righting this wrong is to offer assistance to all people in poverty to get themselves out of its cyclical grasp as opposed to blanket policies based on race or gender that may or may not necessarily help those who have been adversely affected by past discrimination."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-pro02a","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Affirmative action removes the cyclical disadvantages of discrimination  Affirmative action evens the playing field for those who have suffered past discrimination.  Discrimination in the past not only leaves a feeling of rejection by one\u2019s community, but also a legacy of disadvantage and perpetual poverty. Discrimination is not only psychologically damaging, but tangibly. The denial of opportunities for education and employment in the past has left families in situations where they are stuck in a poverty trap and cannot afford to achieve the basic opportunities that others can as they are stuck in a cycle of poverty [1] .  A good example of this can be seen in the example of Brazil, where poverty is much more wide-spread in African communities who were previously used as slaves [2] .  There is no equality of opportunity in cases of past discrimination. Affirmative action helps level the playing field for selection by assisting those who are held back from a continual historical denial of opportunity and providing them the equality of opportunity everyone deserves.  [1] Aka, Philip. \"Affirmative Action and the Black Experience in America.\" American Bar Association. 36.4 (2009): Print.  [2] Telles, Edward. \"Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil.\" PBS Wide Angle. N.p., 01 Jun 2009. Web. 23 Aug 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-pro03b","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Affirmative action does not reduce societal prejudice, but actually increases it. By creating a situation where individuals receive state help in gaining the jobs and success they have, this simply confirms the prejudice in peoples\u2019 minds that individuals of this group cannot gain anything on their own merit, but rather require external assistance. (Refer to opposition arguments two and three)"}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-pro01a","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"There is a moral obligation to provide affirmative action programs  Society has a moral obligation to right its wrongs and compensate those they have treated unjustly.  Discrimination, whether overt or convert, is an unacceptable practice that arbitrarily disadvantages certain people on grounds that they have no control over. Discrimination not only is theoretically a bad thing to do to people, but also has tangible negative impacts. Discrimination against groups such as the African American community in the USA has left them without the education or employment opportunities to even have a chance at achieving the success and happiness they deserve [1] . Discrimination is unacceptable practice for any society to engage in and victims of discrimination deserve compensation for the physical and psychological harms they suffered from being rejected by their very own community [2] .  Past discrimination has left communities without the physical goods and psychological feelings of acceptance and safety all individuals deserve from their country and thus there is a moral obligation of society to take steps to offer the physical and symbolic advantages they have been denied through affirmative action.  [1] Aka, Philip. \"Affirmative Action and the Black Experience in America.\" American Bar Association. 36.4 (2009): Print.  [2] Aka, Philip. \"Affirmative Action and the Black Experience in America.\" American Bar Association. 36.4 (2009): Print."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-pro01b","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Society may owe an obligation to the victims of past discrimination, but offering advantages to descendants of people who suffered discrimination does not do this. If discrimination occurred several generations ago, the individuals who simply happen to be of the same gender\/race as those who were previously discriminated against generations ago are not entitled to preferential treatment as they are not the victims of discrimination.  By not targeting those who actually suffered from discrimination due to the generational gap, you are simply giving unfair preferential treatment to people of a particular gender\/race and therefore committing an injustice by discriminating against everyone else who was not given the same treatment."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-pro03a","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Affirmative action reduces social prejudice  Past discrimination lingers on in society through subtle prejudice that must be righted.  Past discrimination against particular groups lingers today through the perception of those groups and how they perceive themselves. By using affirmative action, a demonstration effect is created where individuals are previously discriminated groups prove to society and other members of their racial or gender group that they are capable of gaining power and functioning in the same positions of power, responsibility and success as those of other groups in society.  This challenges society\u2019s perception of these groups as the poor people in society and proves to them that the individuals of this race\/gender are equally capable and deserving members of society and can and should function in the same positions of society as them."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-con03b","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"This resentment already exists in society, and as explained in counterargument two, in many specific environments, affirmative action is its own cure.  On a wider societal level, this prejudice will not be created by affirmative action, but already exists. Simply because people may not particularly like the idea of affirmative action and get a bit resentful about it is not a good enough reason to let these minorities be denied the opportunities and lives they deserve."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-con01b","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"This issue is not whether or not meritocracy is good, but rather if society is meritocratic without intervention by the public or private sector. The system is not meritocratic without affirmative action; with the endemic psychological and tangible disadvantages as discussed in proposition points two and three, people of previously discriminated groups do not get judged on their own merit. They do not receive the same basic opportunities and they are given no inspiration to strive to achieve the things that would indicate their merit because they believe it to be impossible for someone of their group.  Meritocracy only works when everyone is entering a fight from the same playing field, which does not currently happen. Affirmative action adjusts this to a meritocratic system by adjusting for the fact that individuals of previously discriminated groups will not have the same indicators of merit such as academic achievements due to a lack of opportunity as opposed to lack of merit. Moreover, it will afford these individuals these missed opportunities to level the playing field in the long-run, allowing true meritocracy to exist [1] .  [1] Aka, Philip. \"Affirmative Action and the Black Experience in America.\" American Bar Association. 36.4 (2009): Print."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-con02a","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Affirmative action creates bad workplaces for all minorities  Affirmative action creates a negative workplaces for all minorities whose group receives affirmative action support.  The existence of affirmative action creates a de-facto assumption that anyone of that particular minority must have gotten where they are not on their own merit, but simply because they are that particular minority. This causes people to resent the minority group for getting for \u201cfree\u201d what people feel they had to work hard for. This furthers the perception of the minority as being inferior, and removes their capacity to be treated as an equal in the workplace and prove themselves.  This assumption is not only harmful to those minorities who did receive assistance from affirmative action, but also anyone of that minority group regardless of if they were hired using affirmative action because there is simply an assumption that they are less qualified and there because of the policy because the policy exists.  Therefore, affirmative action creates an assumption that minorities in the workplace are less qualified and inherently inferior to the other workers due to the affirmative action policy causing resentment and deepening inequality, not helping eradicate it."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-con03a","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Affirmative action perpetuates prejudice  Affirmative action causes prejudice against minorities in society.  The existence of affirmative action creates a de-facto assumption that anyone of that particular minority must have gotten where they are not on their own merit, but simply because they are that particular minority. This causes people to resent the minority group for getting for \u201cfree\u201d what people feel they had to work hard for. People feel as though that minority is getting a \u201cfree-ride\u201d and are inherently less worthy of what they achieve.  This is damaging on a societal level because minorities who receive affirmative action are assumed to be less qualified and less valuable than others in society simply because many of them are aided by affirmative action policies. This not only creates damaging stereotypes, but also causes resentment and backlash from others in society who view affirmative action as simply unfair.  This is best demonstrated by the backlash in America in the mid-1990s over the existence of affirmative action policies [1] .  [1] Aka, Philip. \"Affirmative Action and the Black Experience in America.\" American Bar Association. 36.4 (2009): Print."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-con01a","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"Meritocracy is the only fair system by which society should be ordered  Any system that does not reward individuals on the basis of their merit is one that is unjust to those not in the group that is \u201cpreferred\u201d and therefore benefitted by it.  Meritocracy is the only fair system to run a society on. Any system that does not reward individuals on the basis of their skill and effort is one that is unjust. The use of any criteria other than merit to select or benefit an individual is the definition of discrimination itself. Simply putting the word \u201cpositive\u201d in front of it does not make it a beneficial or just system. For every act of \u201cpositive\u201d discrimination enacted, an act of \u201cnegative\u201d discrimination occurs against the individual that was denied a position or achievement they earned on their own merit for the person that received the \u201cpositive\u201d end of the discrimination.  Affirmative action is simply reversing the discrimination in society so injustice is enacted in the opposite direction. This is not a just system of distribution; it\u2019s simply unjust against a different group. The only truly fair system to use is one that has no criteria other than merit to determine who receives what."}
+{"id":"test-education-usuprmhbu-con02b","title":"ucation secondary university philosophy religion minorities house believes use","text":"The prejudice that individuals in the workplace hold for these minorities already exist through their current perception of these people as being less qualified as them due to their conspicuous absence from the workplace as it is. The best way to deal with such resentment and prejudice is to use affirmative action and bring more of these minorities into the workplace where they work side-by-side as co-workers and prove themselves as equally competent and qualified as every other person in the workplace.  Although affirmative action may initially cause this assumption to occur, it is its own cure as affirmative action allows these minorities to prove themselves in the workplace and dispel such a baseless assumption."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro02b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"The main problem with the proposition argument is the belief that a graduate will be earning \u00a340,000 immediately after leaving university, this is clearly not the case, particularly in the current economic climate, the average starting wage for a graduate was in 2009 \u00a323,500 with only one in ten exceeding \u00a336,000. (Milkround, 2009) The argument does in part accept this weakness however what it does not point out is that many careers which require a university degree may never pay greater than \u00a340,000. What a graduate tax focuses on is getting a job after university, this is not always the reason that people wish to go to university, take for example a mature student who just wants to self-better themselves, could they still get access to education when the system would be built upon getting young people into work? University should not be commoditized, it should be considered sacred in its own right; introducing a graduate tax turns university into a means to get a career rather than being a place of pure education."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro02a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"A graduate tax would make university funding more sustainable  A graduate tax would potentially give universities more than they get from traditional funding, as a contribution would depend directly on a person\u2019s salary rather than just being a flat rate fare for services rendered over a short time. For example a person earning \u00a340,000 would pay about \u00a3125 per month. (Shepard, J. 2009) That over 20 years could amount to \u00a330,000, more than enough to cover the costs of a university education in a way which is manageable. Admittedly that sum is based on a person rising like a rocket but it still hints at the possibilities of the tax and how it could bring in more money than simply universities rising their fees. Secondly, it would change as a person\u2019s salary rises or falls over a twenty year period, being more sustainable and increasing the chance of the costs being recovered. Thirdly, rather than giving a person a required fee to pay it would be giving a person a chance to pay over a set time period, reducing the financial impact of the bill."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro03b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"As higher earners, graduates already pay a lot more on average in taxes over their lifetime, while consuming less in welfare payments, thus more than repaying their \u201cdebt to society\u201d. In addition, the whole of society gains from higher education through increased economic growth and prosperity, and from the social mobility and integration that open access to university promotes. If the cost of higher education is an investment in the country\u2019s future, it is appropriate for the government to fund it out of general taxation. In any case, the argument that an individual doesn\u2019t use a particular government service, so why should they pay for it, could apply elsewhere and undermine most aspects of government activity and the taxation that pays for it."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro01a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"Delivering funding via a graduate tax is the best way to encourage more students to enter higher education  A graduate tax is the best way to increase access to higher education without massively burdening the government with an open-ended financial commitment. It is not a deterrent to the poorer students in the way fees and loans-based schemes are and which simply appear to block access, yet it still delivers sufficient extra capital to fund the increase of students entering university. Australia\u2019s introduction of a graduate tax has been successful enough to allow university places to grow rapidly following its introduction with participation from both high and low income groups increasing by approximately one third. (Chapman, B. 1997). Therefore, a graduate tax removes the expensive barriers to entry that had previously kept out low-income groups, whilst not discouraging the high-income groups from tertiary education."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro01b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"The prospect of life-long higher-tax status will in fact act as a deterrent to many weaker students who doubt their abilities to make a success of a university degree, or those from poorer backgrounds with no family tradition of higher education. Introducing a graduate tax will simply come across as penalizing those who want to go into higher education rather than encouraging it. The real key to improved access to higher education lies in both better secondary education, as at present many potentially able students are failed by poor schools and are unable to achieve the qualifications needed to go on to university and by providing more bursaries for those from disadvantaged backgrounds."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro03a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"A graduate tax would make access to higher education fairer and more equitable  A graduate tax would be fairer for everyone in society. Graduates earn considerably more than non-graduates, on average over \u00a3100,000 more in a lifetime (Channel 4 News, 2010.), experience lower rates of unemployment and greater job security, they therefore benefit hugely from higher education. They should therefore be expected to pay for the privilege of having an education which has put them in that position rather than having the rest of society fund there degrees, going to university should be an honor and not a privilege. While having a degree is useful it is not necessary for getting on with life, if someone wants to go to university they should have that opportunity regardless of their background but they should be expected to contribute to that education which is why the graduate tax works as students of all social classes can join university, not be loaded with debt and can contribute fiscally when viable."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con03b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"A graduate tax put into an independent trust fund could in fact conversely help universities gain more academic freedom than they have now. They would be more free from market constraints which may restrict them, for example universities could be able to offer courses which may only be taken all be a very small fringe and would not usually be financially viable to run but which are culturally beneficially to have experts in if not useful economically. The argument that the state could interfere with the running of universities under a graduate tax system is erroneous, universities would still retain current levels of freedom from the government as the trust fund would be independent from government decision making and would be controlled by the stakeholders including universities meaning that they could worry a bit less about funding and exercise more independence on academic issues leading to better universities which are concentrating on their students\u2019 needs and not just their own."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con01b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"In the long term a graduate tax would save the state money by shifting the burden of costs to the main beneficiaries of higher education. It would also help to make the costs of expanding access to higher education more predictable and controllable, improving long-term planning. This means the early costs of setting up the system could be spread into the future by a bond issue, for example. The money saved can be spent better elsewhere in the education system, perhaps by improving secondary schooling so that more school leavers have the academic qualifications needed to attend university. Using the argument that change is not needed simply does not with students which a being saddled with debts before they even have work."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con02a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"Alternative- and more efficient- methods of funding universities are available  There are a number of viable alternatives to a graduate tax as a means of paying for Higher Education: Full state funding operates in many EU countries as part of an extensive and popular welfare state paid for out of general taxation; the value the state clearly places upon Higher Education has made it a common aspiration across all social classes. Other countries make individual students pay for all or most of the cost of their university education, which is widely seen as an investment in increased future earning potential. In the USA this has produced very high levels of enrollment and broad access to higher education as motivated students readily work to pay their way through college. Most also take out commercial loans, which are later paid off once the student is in employment; unlike a graduate tax these repayments are not open-ended and will one day be completed. The cost of educating a student to degree level varies widely both between and within countries, showing clear room for efficiency savings to be made in many institutions, perhaps through some focusing solely upon teaching rather than research, or by academic specialization."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con04a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"Graduates may move abroad to avoid tax payments  As taxes are collected nationally there is no reason why a UK graduate could not simply upon graduating leave the country and avoid paying the education tax. If enough people exploited this obvious loophole in the system the Government could end up severe deficit in the education budget which ultimately could lead to lower investment which would have a detrimental effect on the quality of education on offer. The proposed system then is simply not a practical one seeing as this massive and clear to see loophole exists with it."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con03a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"A graduate tax would reduce teh autonomy of universities  If a graduate tax were introduced the money would go to the national treasury which would result in universities competing for the same money as colleges. At the moment the money generated from tuition fees goes straight to where it should go, straight to the universities bank accounts who provide the education. Under graduate tax proposals from the UK\u2019s National Union of Students, raised revenue from the tax would go into a centralized higher education fund which could be distributed by the government through various means which could result in some universities getting unfair levels of funding relative to both their standing and student bodies. (Barr, N. 2009) This is impractical for universities to plan investments as they will never be entirely sure what funding they will have and furthermore and for many arguably most importantly universities will ultimately lose their independence from the state."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con01a","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"Setting up a graduate tax system would be damagingly expensive  A graduate tax would be a very expensive scheme to put into effect, as it would require high levels of government spending on student grants before the first graduates began to repay anything through taxation. If all the 2011 English applications for university we\u2019re accepted at the new top price of \u00a39,000 it would cost the Government in the first year just over \u00a33 million, and this figure does not take into account all the other grants universities receive and as time goes on and more years enter the system the figure will grow greatly. (Guardian, 2011.) It is likely then to be two decades of investment or more before the system begins properly to pay for itself. Furthermore a costly increase in government bureaucracy would be necessitated by the need to keep track of so many graduates and by the complications the system introduces to the general taxation system. With many Governments taking up austerity measures it is simply impractical to setup a new funding system which is not needed."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con04b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"As taxes are collected nationally there is no reason why a UK graduate could not simply upon graduating leave the country and avoid paying the education tax. If enough people exploited this obvious loophole in the system the Government could end up severe deficit in the education budget which ultimately could lead to lower investment which would have a detrimental effect on the quality of education on offer. The proposed system then is simply not a practical one seeing as this massive and clear to see loophole exists with it."}
+{"id":"test-education-pteuhwfphe-con02b","title":"ployment tax education university house would fund provision higher education","text":"The alternatives to a graduate tax are worse: Full state funding encourages many without clear motivation or ability to enter university, leading to high dropout rates, while removing incentives to complete courses in a timely manner. The USA has a philanthropic culture absent in many other countries, meaning private colleges have large endowment funds offering a very large number of bursaries and scholarships to poorer students. Nonetheless, the individual states do fund universities and few students pay the full cost of their higher education. Elsewhere in the world the absence of state funding tends to limit access to university to the children of a prosperous elite. Even in the USA students from some ethnic minorities are much more reluctant to take on high levels of personal debt, and are therefore very underrepresented in higher education. The USA\u2019s high level of personal bankruptcy is linked to the high levels of debt built up while at university. A graduate tax then can be seen as a happy medium between the two extremes of Full state funding and No funding whereby the student pays for the benefit of having a higher education only when they are fit to do so."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro02b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Of course scientific opinion changes over time. It does so because the process of scientific enquiry requires the search for new data. Theories are not rigidly adhered to, but are rather accepted when there is evidence for them. When evidence mounts against a theory it is rejected. The examples cited show this very well. The idea that the world was flat was proposed as a theory without proof but by the end of the classical world Pliny was able to say \"Every one agrees that it has the most perfect figure. We always speak of the ball of the earth, and we admit it to be a globe bounded by the poles.\" [1] as scholars had provided evidence of the earth being spherical. This process of change can harm some scientists' careers, but it can also make others. There is no monolithic scientific establishment setting policy, denying younger researchers from exploring new hypotheses and avenues of inquiry. It is clear from this that Creationism is not a science, because it does not change in light of new evidence, but rather dogmatically adheres to its claims in spite of evidence. Science adapts to new information. Creationism is stagnant and intellectual barren.  [1] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, John Bostock ed., Taylor and Francis 1855."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro02a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Scientific opinion often changes; evolution may be accepted in the scientific community now, but it could well be rejected in future.  The opinion of the scientific community with regard to facts and theories has a great propensity to change with time. Once scientists adamantly maintained that the Earth was flat. For centuries it also maintained that there were two kinds of blood flowing through the human body. Science is not infallible and the prevailing theory is no more than the opinion currently in vogue among scholars. In light of new evidence, theories can change over time, giving way to better explanations [1] . For this reason, the evolutionists' dogmatic adherence to their position in spite of contrary evidence provided by Creationists is hard to understand. However, it becomes clear why the scientific establishment takes such a confrontational position toward Creationism when one considers that many eminent scientists and researchers have built their careers within the paradigm of evolution, and their research often depends wholly on its acceptance. These scientists would lose their exalted position in the light of a paradigm-shift in scientific understanding away from evolution. It is for this reason that scientists who adhere to established norms so often fight things like Creationism, even though they provide explanations where evolution cannot. For science to progress, these conservative impulses must be fought against, which is why it is essential that when science is taught, so are all the prevailing theories concerning branches of the sciences, including Creationism.  [1] Understanding Science. 2011. \u201cScience Aims to Explain and Understand\u201d. University of California Berkeley."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro03b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"There is no design in biology. People tend to anthropomorphize their environment, trying to assign human-like qualities to animals and nature. All of the complexity of life on Earth can be attributed to natural processes; life, diversity, and complexity are all the product of physical and chemical interactions and biological processes. There is no mystery in the basic process. Also, complexity is not at all indicative of design. In fact, evolution has been observed to occur from simple single-celled organisms into multi-cellular organisms under laboratory conditions. That degree of evolution completely refutes any claims about complexity requiring design. Furthermore, there are no irreducibly complex organisms. Every example offered by theists of irreducible complexity has been found inaccurate. The bacterial flagellum, for example, when several key components are removed loses its functionality as a motor, but becomes a form of secretory system that has a separate function. [1] Clearly, complexity is not indicative of a creator.  [1] Miller, Kenneth. 2004. \u201cThe Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of \u2018Irreducible Complexity\u2019\u201d in Ruse, Michael and William Dembski (ed.). Debating Design: From Darwin to DNA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro05a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Communities should have a say in what is taught in schools, and many communities want to teach creationism.  Society is made up of communities with their own views on politics, religion, education, etc. School boards should be able to set curriculum based on the desires of the public, not just on what the scientific elites command to be taught. Children deserve to hear that their beliefs and those of their community are respected in the classroom. This is why Creationism, a belief held to varying extents in many countries, should be taught in the classroom. This is particularly true in the United States, where in several states the majority of people does not accept evolution, but have instead adopted Creationism, considering the evidence for the latter to be more convincing. [1] In a poll in 2009 a majority (57%) said that creationism should be taught in schools either without evolution or alongside it. [2] The teaching of Creationism should not be taught exclusively, but should share time with other prevailing theories, particularly those of evolution and abiogenesis. Furthermore, evolution taught exclusively threatens religious belief, telling children they are no more than animals and lack the spark of grace given by God. It is important for social stability that schools are allowed to teach what communities believe to be true.  [1] Goodstein, Laurie. 2005. \u201cTeaching of Creationism is Endorsed in New Survey\u201d. New York Times.  [2] HarrisInteractive. 2009. \u201cNo Consensus, and Much Confusion, on Evolution and the Origin of Species.\u201d BBC World News America\/The Harris Poll, 18th February, 2009."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro01a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"There is a very real controversy regarding the origin and development of life, and children deserve to hear both sides.  Many scientists do not accept the conclusions of the evolutionists. People like Dr. Michael Behe have dedicated themselves to exposing the flaws in evolution and showing that there is very real disagreement within the scientific community. This controversy is highlighted in the many court cases, books, and televised debates occurring in countries all over the world [1] . Children deserve to hear about the controversy, and not to simply be fed one story set for them by the prevailing majority in the scientific community, even if that community cannot claim anything near consensus. Until consensus is reached and indisputable proof of one theory or the other given, both sides should be taught in schools.  [1] Linder, Doug, 2011. \u201cThe Evolution Controversy\u201d. University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro01b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"There is no controversy. It is not even a matter of most scientists agreeing with evolution, but virtually all of them. This is demonstrated very clearly in the scientific literature, as thousands of papers are submitted for peer review every year on the topic of evolution, all bolstering and upholding the theory. On the other hand, on average zero are submitted supporting Creationism, because such papers would not meet the necessary criteria of being scientific research at all. [1] Some papers at best question evolution, but attacks on one theory are not supports of another. Furthermore, the reason there are public debates and court cases is that Creationists seek to capitalize on the relative scientific illiteracy of the general public, knowing they can only win by spreading disinformation, rather than facing off against real scientists in the academic realm.  [1] Kuhn, Thomas. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro05b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Schools should teach what is true. Evolution is one of the most robust theories in contemporary science; it is not the place of communities to propagate lies, even if they are more in keeping with their religious beliefs. Indoctrinating children and denying them access to real science, which happens even if Creationism and evolution are given \"equal time\", is to fundamentally compromise the value of education [1] . It is an inculcation of false belief to suit a communal goal of maintaining a set of beliefs that may not stand up to scientific scrutiny. The Creationists cannot win in the scientific arena because they are not scientists so they have decided to try to subvert the political system. Their goal is to undermine science and reason, and they must be stopped.  [1] Rooney, Brian and Melia Patria. 2008. \u201cBecause the Bible Tells Me So?\u201d. ABC News."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro04b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Creationism is not science. It makes no predictions that can be tested in the laboratory or field. Adherents of Creationism do not accept it because of evidence, but rather they shape disparate facts to fit their beliefs. That is the opposite of scientific enquiry; Creationism begins with a conclusion and works backward. Furthermore, all evidence does indeed point to a natural origin of life and its diversity. Experiments are getting consistently closer to creating new life, and there are no evident bounds to evolution. The arguments of Creationism are based on gaps in knowledge; rather than trying to find real answers through scientific enquiry, they fill them with \"the designer did it\". Such answers are the refuge of the ignorant."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro03a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Much of the complexity of life cannot be explained by evolution, but is perfectly explained by Creationism.  Nature is marked by clear design. The complexity of the human body, of ecosystems, and even of bacteria, attests to the existence of creative agency. It is impossible that such things as, for example, interdependent species could come to exist without the guidance of a designer. Likewise, certain organisms can be shown to be irreducibly complex, meaning that if one were to remove any part of it, it would lose all functionality. This refutes the gradualist argument of evolution, since there is no selective pressure on the organism to change when it is functionless. For example, the bacterial flagellum, the \"motor\" that powers bacterial cells, loses all functionality if a single component is removed. [1] Besides design, the only explanation of its development is blind chance, which is nonsensical. Creationism serves to explain the various mysteries of biology currently absent from the evolutionary biologists' picture of the world. The existence of complexity of the order found in the natural world is too great to envisage an origin other than complex design.  [1] Behe, Michael. 1996. Darwin\u2019s Black Box. Glencoe: Free Press."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro04a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Creationism is as valid a scientific theory as those of evolution and abiogenesis, and should therefore be given equal time in the classroom.  Creationism can be drawn as an entirely reasonable scientific hypothesis, and it forms a coherent theory of the origin and development of life that opposes the naturalist theories of abiogenesis and evolution. Abiogenesis describes the development of life from nonliving materials and evolution seeks to explain the development and diversity of life through a gradual process of mutation and natural selection, yet no one has ever demonstrated either process sufficiently in the laboratory. In the case of abiogenesis, all experiments to create an environment similar to the supposed prebiotic soup whence life first sprang have resulted in no new life forming. In the case of evolution, evolutionists consistently fail to show the development of new kinds of organisms [1] . While there is no doubt that some change occurs within species, such as the breeding of wolves into dogs, it appears to happen only within certain limited bounds. Certainly no experiment or study has shown evolution to be capable of explaining such huge diversity in the world of living things. Creationism, on the other hand, offers the explanation that abiogenesis and evolution cannot. The diversity of life and its origin are rationally explicable as the product of intelligent agency. This is not a statement of religious belief, but of scientific observation. Describing the nature of the designer, however, is another question all together, one that need not be answered in order to accept that there is such a designer.  [1] Wells, Jonathan. 2009. \u201cWhy Darwinism is False\u201d. Discovery Institute."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con03b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Evolutionists point to all kinds of evidence \"proving\" their case, yet they still fail to offer a practical demonstration of their theory that would prove that all life could have evolved from a common ancestor. That still requires a great deal of faith on the part of the scientists. As to positive proof for Creationism, there are many co-dependent species relationships, as well as irreducibly complex biological structures which evolutionists have consistently been at a loss to explain. Creationism offers the explanation evolution cannot."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con01b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"The scientific community was once convinced the world was flat. It was also once sure that women's brains were smaller than those of men. The scientific community \"knows\" lots of things only to be proved wrong. The scientific elitist establishment is built on the theory of evolution; many prominent academics' careers were made affirming it. Many people have a lot to lose if science changes and evolution is overturned as the prevailing paradigm in biology. That is why there is such resistance to the evidence piling up that contradicts evolution and affirms Creationism. The unwillingness of the scientific community to hear Creationists out in the scientific forums, where the old guard predominate and have all the power, is what has led them to pursue their objectives in the courts and through politics. The only reason Creationism is not accepted in the mainstream is because scientists fear the loss to themselves. Education is most effective when our children are exposed to the entirety of issues, not just parts. To contextualize and offer completeness to their scientific education, they should hear both sides."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con02a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Education should be about truth and facts, not dogma and faith.  Scientific enquiry is, at its core, a search for truth [1] . It is about shining light in dark places. Dogmatic adherence to beliefs in spite of evidence, and even trying to cover up facts that contradict those beliefs is academically dishonest and intellectually facile. Evolution is proven fact, a theory so sound that it is the cornerstone of all biology. Nothing in biology makes any sense unless considered in the context of evolution. Schools should teach this fact, not the pseudoscience of religious demagogues. It is a fundamental attack on children's rights to subject them to false information for the sake of upholding outdated and disproved beliefs. It is a right of all people to have a valuable education, because good education is required to be able to take part in the democratic process, to be able to make informed decisions. That right is compromised when the educational system gives them a worthless education in untruths, like Creationism, because informed decisions must be based on fact, and must be objective the way science is, rather than loaded with religious undertones, that skew ones view of the facts. The value of education is only as good as its applicability, either directly or through its fostering of critical thinking. So, when the political process is used to circumvent the curriculum set by teachers and experts, who actually know the subjects they are talking about, and replacing them with the curriculum set by a scientifically illiterate political body, the children suffer as the quality of their education decreases.  [1] Pauling, Linus. 1983. No More War! New York: Dodd Mead."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con04a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Creationism is a religious, not a scientific, explanation of reality.  Creationism is, by definition, not science. It is not based in any empirical evidence. Rather, Creationists start with a presupposed answer and work back from it. They assume there is a designer, so they look for holes in evolutionary theory and claim only a designer can explain the gaps. When new evidence arises that gives a natural explanation of the phenomenon in question, the Creationists backpedal and start looking for new holes. No amount of evidence could convince a Creationist because his belief is not based on evidence, but rather on a usually religion-driven opposition to evolution on a political and belief level. A science proves itself through experimentation and submitting research for peer review. Creationism fears scrutiny by real scientists. Instead supporters of creationism attempt to further its agenda through politics and courts, where science is not the main goal, but popularity and where expertise is not in science but in law (Dawkins, 2006). Creationism couches itself in the language of science and does its best to look respectable in the eyes of the public. For example, in rebranding as Intelligent Design, Creationists sought to appear less overtly religious. These attempts show the illegitimacy of Creationism. The pseudoscience of Creationism must, for the sake of education, be kept out of the classroom."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con03a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"There is no empirical evidence supporting Creationism, whereas all evidence supports abiogenesis and evolution.  Creationists have never once offered a positive evidence for their claims. When challenged, they respond with vitriolic, and often deliberately false, criticisms of evolution and abiogenesis. They behave as if delegitimizing an alternative theory necessarily gives credence to their own. Unfortunately for Creationism, that is not how science works. Positive claims require positive evidence. Even if the Creationists were able to provide evidence that actually refutes evolution it would do nothing to support a theory that intelligent agency is behind the existence and development of life. For Creationism to be true, there would need to be demonstration of living organisms that are unambiguously designed, and not the product of evolution by means of mutation and natural selection. Proponents of Creationism have consistently failed to do so. When they point to things they claim to be irreducibly complex they are invariably forced to back off as soon as scientists appear on the scene to test their claims. [1] The truth is there are no examples of organisms that could not have evolved. Abiogensis and evolution, on the other hand are thoroughly proven by observation and data. [2] In the case of abiogenesis, self-assembling molecules have been observed that are akin to the first proto-life, and hopes have never been higher that they will be able to observe the development under laboratory conditions of fully-formed new life. Evolution likewise is extensively demonstrated. Speciation, phylogenetic mapping, a more and more complete fossil record, structural atavisms, junk DNA, and embryology provide just some of the proofs of evolution. [3] All of these disciples are in agreement with evolution. In fact, only in light of evolution does anything in biology make any sense at all. Clearly, Creationism has no basis in science and thus no place in the classroom.  [1] Miller, Kenneth. 2004. \u201cThe Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of \u2018Irreducible Complexity\u2019\u201d in Ruse, Michael and William Dembski (ed.). Debating Design: From Darwin to DNA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  [2] Lenski, Richard. 2011. \u201cEvolution: Fact and Theory\u201d. Action Bioscience.  [3] Colby, Chris. 1997. \u201cEvidence for Evolution: An Eclectic Survey\u201d. TalkOrigins Archive."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con01a","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"The scientific community as a whole overwhelmingly rejects Creationism.  95% of all scientists accept evolution, and only a fraction of those that do not accept Creationism. [1] The numbers are even smaller among biologists, the people most qualified to discuss the relative merits of Creationism and evolution, as the study of life and biological processes are their specialty. There is, in fact, greater consensus in biology than in virtually any other discipline. Evolution is often called one of the most thoroughly proven theories, more so even than such things as the observable laws of physics, which break down at the subatomic level. Evolution is a constant, which is why it has survived as a theory for 150 years. [2] The scientific community always fights any effort to institute Creationism in schools through the political process. [3] This is why, when court cases are brought on the issue of teaching Creationism, the panel of scientists is always on the side of evolution. Only a few discredited cranks support Creationism, and they invariably break down under cross-examination when they can offer no positive evidence for their claims. Furthermore, many scientists have religious faith and accept evolution. They simply see no reason to reject observable reality just to serve faith [4] . Creationists try to portray evolution as contrary to religion, which forms one of the main planks of their political campaigns against it, but such claims are fallacious. Science and faith can be compatible, so long as people are willing to accept observable reality as well as belief. The scientific community rejects creationism because it is not true and is not science.  [1] Robinson, B. 1995. \u201cPublic Beliefs About Education and Creation\u201d.  [2] Lenski, Richard. 2011. \u201cEvolution: Fact and Theory\u201d. Action Bioscience.  [3] Irons, Peter. 2007. \u201cDisaster in Dover: The Trials (and Tribulations) of Intelligent Design\u201d. University of Montana Law Review 68(1).  [4] Gould, Stephen. 2002. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life. New York: Ballantine Books."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con04b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Creationism is a legitimate scientific endeavor. Researchers struck by the apparent design in organisms look for evidence of that design. There is nothing pseudoscientific in that. There are many issues that evolution cannot explain, but which Creationism can (Behe 1996). Evolutionists can say the gaps in their theory will be filled over time, but that is not a scientific proposition either."}
+{"id":"test-education-pstrgsehwt-con02b","title":"primary secondary teaching religion god science evolution house would teach","text":"Truth is a complex thing. Scientists claim to know what is true and that schools should only teach their truth. But their truth changes with time. Communities can hold, and desire to hold, beliefs with more constancy. States everywhere recognize the value of communities and often give them special rights and exemptions for the sake of those beliefs. The Amish in America, for example do not need to attend education past the primary level, because the communities do not desire it. Communities give structure and lend stability to broader society, so they should be allowed to behave with a degree of leeway in terms of issues like education. Creationism is a truth for those who adhere to it and see that evidence fits that paradigm more than does evolution. Until irrefutable proof of evolution is given, as the scientific community has yet to do, both paradigms are equally valid and should be available to students in the classroom."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro02b","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Incentives like this can be (and in the UK, are) created by central government through the use of targets. Failing schools can receive extra funding and guidance, and threatened with closure if they do not improve. The voucher scheme\u2019s harsh free market system of incentivisation takes away extra funding and support \u2013 indeed, failing schools without full classrooms will face diminished levels of funding \u2013 and so makes it even harder to run schools in tough areas."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro02a","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Improving the quality of state managed education  State schools will, like the private schools, have to offer a high quality service in order that parents do not take their children elsewhere. This incentivises in particular high level management, who, if the school fails, will be out of a job with a blot on their record."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro03b","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Variety within the education system is not always a good thing. National curricula exist to facilitate transfer between schools and comparisons of different pupils and schools, as well as enforcing basic standards.  Thus, not only might variety lead to some sub-standard schools, but it might trap children in a particular school that fails to match the child\u2019s ambitions as it grows up, and ceases simply to reflect its parents\u2019 desires, because the child lacks qualifications or even just knowledge required by a more appropriate school in the area."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro01a","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Equality of opportunity between richer and poorer children  State education in some areas of the UK is continuing to fail, despite increased investment. This will allow those pupils who are currently locked into sub-standard state education access to the private schools enjoyed by their more privileged peers (because you can spend the vouchers anywhere). Even if private school fees can only be subsidised by the voucher scheme, most private schools are charitable organisations that do not run a profit, and so in the vast majority of circumstances the voucher will make private schools accessible to poorer families."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro01b","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"The best schools will continue to differentiate themselves (there is competition amongst the top schools in an area to attract the brightest pupils), and as the voucher scheme will subsidise those currently paying for private education the market will be able to support higher fees. The result of this is that the voucher scheme will subsidise better facilities for the best schools, whilst poorer children will remain trapped in the schools with lower standards."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro03a","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Increasing parents' freedom of choice  Different parents have different values and priorities, and it is entirely legitimate for them to wish to pass these on to their children. The state does not know any better than them with which values the ideal life can be lived.  Further, children are individuals who respond in very different ways to different styles of teaching. Parents know their children better than central government possibly could, and so are the best placed to decide what sort of school their child should go to. Currently, there is very little state provision for non-mainstream styles of learning, whereas in the private sector there is a big incentive for educational innovation."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-con03b","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Most government goals that are pushed forwards in schools are also valued by the parents: consequently, even under a free market they would be taught in schools. Further, if the majority of parents do not want such things taught in schools, then they should not be: to do so would be to use schools as a tool for state propaganda."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-con01b","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"It is currently the case that some children, with unfortunate home circumstances, don\u2019t get optimal educational provision as a result of their parents\u2019 failure. However, there are many parents who are able to make good decisions on behalf of their children, and who are currently blocked from doing so only by the unaffordable prices of some schools. These parents should not to discriminated against on the basis of the incompetent minority."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-con02a","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Only well-off families will benefit from increased freedom of choice  Under the current system, many schools that are \u201cfailing\u201d are struggling as a result of factors such as deprivation in their area, or high levels of children for whom English is not their native tongue.  There will be no incentive for companies to set up schools in such areas: the voucher scheme dictates that each child gets the same amount of funding, and thus in schools where a lot of extra facilities (like extra teachers, specialist language tutors etc.) are needed the potential profit to be made will be lower. On the other hand, children in well-to-do middle class areas will be highly profitable (it is not difficult to make children with a wealth of parental support do well in their exams). Thus rich children will have a range of subsidised schools from which to choose, whilst the poorest in society are still failed."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-con03a","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"The state retain control of schools - freedom, in this context, is illusory  The state funds education using taxes taken from everyone in society, not just those who have children. Therefore the state has a duty to benefit the whole of society, not just parents and children, when funding education. It is therefore entirely legitimate for the state to use schools to fulfil other societal purposes. A good example of this is the question of teaching citizenship in schools: it does not necessarily help children to pass exams, and so schools do not have a strong incentive to insure that children are taught it. However, it fulfils government goals of helping to ensure that people become functioning members of our democracy.  When schools are privatised it becomes increasingly difficult for the government to ensure that such agendas are followed in schools."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-con01a","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"The most vulnerable children would be left behind by the scheme  Even if a voucher scheme is used, parents still need to have considerable input in order that their children are able to access the best educational opportunities. Thus, those children who are most vulnerable, i.e. those with inadequate home support structures, will find that they are unable to access the best schools as their parents may lack the desire or knowledge to find out which schools are the best in their area.  Further, this problem will be exacerbated by the subsequent dearth of funding at the worst schools."}
+{"id":"test-education-xeegshwfeu-con02b","title":"x education education general secondary house would fund education using","text":"Admittedly, it may take extra measures to help children in the very poorest areas. This is required under the status quo and could still be provided under a voucher scheme (e.g. extra funding for children in deprived areas). However, there are many children in between the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich who are currently excluded from the opportunities afforded by some of the best schools. These children, as you accept, will see an increase in the choice of schools. The fact that this motion does not solve all of the problems in education does not prove that it does not solve any."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro02b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Public funding does not mean that everything should be free and open to use by the public. We do not expect to be allowed to use buildings that are built as government offices as if they were our own. The government builds large amounts of infrastructure such as airports and railways but we don\u2019t expect to be able to use them for free."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro02a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Most universities are publically funded so should have to be open with their materials.  The United States University system is famously expensive and as a result it is probably the system in a developed country that has least public funding yet $346.8billion was spent, mostly by the states, on higher education in 2008-9. [1] In Europe almost 85% of universities funding came from government sources. [2] Considering the huge amounts of money spent on universities by taxpayers they should be able to demand access to the academic work those institutions produce.  Even in countries where there are tuition fees that make up some of the funding for the university it is right that the public should have access to these materials as the tuition fees are being paid for the personal teaching time provided by the lecturers not for the academics\u2019 publications. Moreover those who have paid for a university course would benefit by the materials still being available to access after they have finished university  [1] Caplan, Bruan, \u201cCorrection: Total Government Spending on Higher Education\u201d, Library of Economics and Liberty, 16 November 2012,   [2] Vught, F., et al., \u201cFunding Higher Education: A View Across Europe\u201d, Ben Jongbloed Center for Higher Education Policy Studies University of Twente, 2010."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro03b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Open access makes little difference to research. If an academic needs to use an article they don\u2019t have access to they can pay for it and gain access quickly and efficiently.  The benefits to the economy may also be overstated; we don\u2019t know how much benefit it will create. But we do know it would be badly damaging to the academic publishing industry. We also know there are risks with putting everything out in the open as economies that are currently research leaders will be handing out their advances for free. There is an immense amount of stealing of intellectual property, up to $400 billion a year, so research is obviously considered to be economically worth something. [1] With open access the proposal is instead to make everything available for free for others to take as and when they wish.  [1] Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, \u201cBackgrounder on the Rogers-Ruppersberger Cybersecurity Bill\u201d, U.S. House of Representatives,"}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro01a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Opens up education  Higher education, as with other levels of education, should be open to all. Universities are universally respected as the highest form of educational institution available and it is a matter of principle that everyone should have access to this higher level of education. Unfortunately not everyone in the world has this access usually because they cannot afford it, but it may also be because they are not academically inclined. This does not however mean that it is right to simply cut them off from higher educational opportunities. Should those who do not attend university not have access to the same resources as those who do?  This can have an even greater impact globally than within an individual country. 90% of the world\u2019s population currently have no access to higher education. Providing access to all academic work gives them the opportunities that those in developed countries already have. [1]  [1] Daniel, Sir John, and Killion, David, \u201cAre open educational resources the key to global economic growth?\u201d, Guardian Professional, 4 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro01b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Making these academic materials available to the general public does not mean they are useful to anyone. Many of the materials universities produce are not useful unless the reader has attended the relevant lectures. Rather than simply putting those lectures that are recorded and course handbooks online what is needed to open up education is systematically designed online courses that are available to all. Unfortunately what this provides will be a profusion of often overlapping and contradictory materials with little guidance for how to navigate through them for those who are not involved in the course in question."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro04b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Most students most of the time stick to the core areas of their course and thus are not likely to encounter difficulties with finding the relevant information. For those who do require resources that the university library does not have access to they can use interlibrary loan for a small fee to cover the cost of sending the book or article between universities. [1] The universities in most countries can therefore effectively split the cost of access by specialising in certain subjects which limits the number of journals they need to buy while making the resources available to their students if they really need them.  [1] Anon., \u201cInter-library loans\u201d Birkbeck University of London.  Within the UK Cambridge charges \u00a33 to \u00a36,  in Europe the University of Vienna charges \u20ac2  while the United States is higher with Yale charging between $20-30"}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro03a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Openness benefits research and the economy  Open access can be immensely beneficial for research. It increases the speed of access to publications and opens research up to a wider audience. [1] Some of the most important research has been made much more accessible due to open access. The Human Genome Project would have been an immense success either way but it is doubtful that its economic impact of $796billion would have been realised without open access.  The rest of the economy benefits too. It has been estimated that switching to open access would generate \u00a3100million of economic activity in the United Kingdom as a result of reduced research costs for business and shorter development as a result of being able to access a much broader range of research. [2]  [1] Anon., \u201cOpen access research advantages\u201d, University of Leicester,   [2] Carr, Dave, and Kiley, Robert, \u201cOpen access to science helps us all\u201d, New Statesman, 13 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-pro04a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Students would be able to benefit from being able to use resources at other universities  Having paid for access to universities and the materials they provide for research students have a right to expect that they will have all the necessary materials available. Unfortunately this is not always the case. University libraries are unable to afford all the university journals they wish to have access to or need for their courses. Therefore any student who wants to go into areas not anticipated by the course they are enrolled with will find that they do not have access to the materials they require. They then face the cost of getting individual access to an online journal article which can be up to $42, despite there being almost zero marginal cost to the publisher. [1] This even affects the biggest and best resourced university libraries. Robert Darnton the director of Harvard University\u2019s library which pays $3.5million per year for journal articles says \u201cThe system is absurd\u201d and \u201cacademically restrictive\u201d instead \u201cthe answer will be open-access journal publishing\u201d. [2]  [1] Sciverse, \u201cPay-per-view\u201d, Elsevier,   [2] Sample, Ian, \u201cHarvard University says it can\u2019t afford journal publishers\u2019 prices\u201d, The Guardian, 24 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con03b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"The vast majority of people who go to University are not doing so simply because they are interested in a subject and want to find out more. Instead they are after the qualification and improved job prospects university provides. Even those few who are in large part studying out of curiosity and interest will likely be doing so at university because they like the student life and want the experience.  However having courses and materials out in the open can even help universities with recruitment. Providing open access boosts a university\u2019s reputation abroad which helps it in the international student market. Open access to academic work also helps give potential students a much better idea with what they will be studying which is very useful for students who are unsure where to choose. The benefits are obvious as shown by 35% of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology\u2019s students choose the university after looking at its OpenCourseWare. [1]  [1] Daniel, Sir John, and Killion, David, \u201cAre open educational resources the key to global economic growth?\u201d, Guardian Professional, 4 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con01b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Academic work is not about profit. For most researchers the aim is to satisfy curiosity or to increase the sum of knowledge. Others are motivated by a desire to do good, or possibly for recognition. None of these things require there to be profit for the university.  Moreover we should remember that the profit is not going to the individual who did the research, there is therefore no moral justification that the person has put effort in and so deserves to profit from it. The university does not even take the risk, which is born by the taxpayer who pays the majority of the research budget. Much of the profit from publishing this knowledge does not even go to the university. Instead academic publishers make huge profits through rentier capitalism. They have profit margins of 36% despite not doing the research, or taking any risk that goes into funding the research. [1]  [1] Monbiot, George, \u201cAcademic publishers make Murdoch look like a socialist\u201d, The Guardian, 29 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con02a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Making everything free to access will damage universities ability to tap private funding  For most universities even if the government is generous with funding it will still need for some projects require private funding. When providing money for research projects the government often requires cost sharing so the university needs to find other sources of funding. [1] Third parties however are unlikely to be willing to help provide funding for research if they know that all the results of that research will be made open to anyone and everyone. These businesses are funding specific research to solve a particular problem with the intention of profiting from the result. Even if universities themselves don\u2019t want to profit from their research they cannot ignore the private funding as it is rapidly growing, up 250% in the U.S. from 1985-2005, while the government support is shrinking. [2]  [1] Anon. (November 2010), \u201cResearch & Sponsored Projects\u201d, University of Michigan.   [2] Schindler, Adam, \u201cFollow the Money Corporate funding of university research\u201d, Berkley Science Review, Issue 13."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con04a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Who will write and edit the work?  You can\u2019t take the end result out of the system and assume all the rest of it will continue as usual. Journal articles don\u2019t write themselves; there will still be costs for editors, typesetters, reviewing etc., as well as the time and cost of the writer. The average cost of publishing an article is about \u00a34000. [1]  There have been two suggested forms of open access \u2018Gold\u2019 in which authors pay publishers article publication charges and \u2018Green\u2019 under which the author self-archives their papers in open access repositories. The gold option that the UK intends to implement could mean universities having to find an extra \u00a360million a year. [2] In either case the cost is being put on the author.  This is exactly the same when asking academics to put their lectures, lecture notes, bibliographies etc online. They are being asked to put in more hours grappling with technology without being paid for it.  [1] Moghaddam, Golnessa Galyani, \u201cWhy Are Scholarly Journals Costly even with Electronic Publishing?\u201d  p.9  [2] Ayris, Paul, \u201cWhy panning for gold may be detrimental to open access research\u201d, Guardian Professional, 23 July 2012."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con03a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Less incentive to study at university  If everything that University provides is open to all then there is less incentive to study at university. Anyone who is studying in order to learn about a subject rather than achieve a particular qualification will no longer need to attend the university in order to fulfil their aim. The actual benefit of university education is less in learning content per se than engaging with new ideas critically, something that is frequently more difficult in an online environment.  Moreover if only some countries or institutions were to implement such open access then it makes more sense for any students who are intending to study internationally to go elsewhere as they will still be able to use the resources made available by that university. Open access if not implemented universally is therefore damaging to universities attempts to attract lucrative international students who often pay high tuition fees."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con01a","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"Universities deserve to profit from their work  Universities are providing a service just like almost any other business. They provide a service in terms of educating students who are enrolled with them and secondly they conduct research on a wide range of subjects. In both of these cases the university deserves to make a profit out of their work.  When acting as an educator universities are in an educational free market, this is the case even when the cost is provided by the state. All universities are aiming to attract as many students as possible and earn as much as possible from fees. If the university is successful it will be able to charge more as it will attract students from further afield.  While Universities may make a profit on research or even teaching this profit is for the benefit of society as a whole as the profits are usually simply reinvested in the University\u2019s education and infrastructure. [1]  [1] Anon. \u201cWhat does the money get spent on?\u201d The University of Sheffield, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con04b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"This is trying to pull the wool over the eyes of those who fund the research in the first place; the taxpayer. The taxpayer (or in some cases private funder) pays for the research to be done and so is paying for the paper to be written. It then does not make sense that the taxpayer should pay again in order to access the research that they paid to have done in the first place. Yes there are small costs associated with checking and editing the articles but these could easily be added into research budgets especially as it would mean cutting out an extra cost that occurs due to the profit margins of the academic publishers. As Neelie Kroes, European Commission Vice-President for the Digital Agenda, says \u201cTaxpayers should not have to pay twice for scientific research\u201d. [1]  [1] Kroes, Neelie, \u201cScientific data: open access to research results will boost Europe's innovation capacity\u201d, Europa.eu, 17 July 2012."}
+{"id":"test-education-udfakusma-con02b","title":"university digital freedoms access knowledge universities should make all","text":"If business wants certain research to use for profit then it is free to do so. However it should entirely fund that research rather than relying on academic institutions to do the research and the government to come up with part of the funding. This would then allow the government to focus its funding on basic research, the kind of research that pushes forward the boundaries of knowledge which may have many applications but is not specifically designed with these in mind. This kind of curiosity driven research can be very important for example research into retroviruses gave the grounding that meant that antiretrovirals to control AIDS were available within a decade of the disease appearing. [1]  [1] Chakradhar, Shraddha, \u201cThe Case for Curiosity\u201d, Harvard Medical School, 10 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro02b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Every other indicator is also skewed in favour of high-income students. They tend to have parents who are better educated and are interested and much more involved in their children\u2019s education, as well as greater access relevant materials such as books and computers. Tutoring academically, while it may not involve having tutors test for a student, is probably much more impactful in the long-run, they may not be able to do extra-curricular activities but can help with homework (as can engaged parents), so would be just as likely to have an impact on coursework or another method of assessment as it does on the SATs."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro02a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Standardized Tests are skewed in favour of the wealthy  Standardized tests are inherently skewed in favour of high-income students. Tutoring is and industry unto itself and the resulting rise in scores among high income students skews the scale against students whose families cannot afford it. By contrast, even if the money is available, the impact that tutoring can have on a student\u2019s academic performance is limited. A tutor cannot write papers or take tests for them, and nor can they answer questions in class, or participate in sports or other extracurricular activities. As a consequence, eliminating easily tutored standardized tests helps even the playing field between richer and poorer students."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro03b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Language will be as much of an issue in understanding in college as it will be for the tests and is likely to be as much of a difficulty in any other method of determining college admissions.  Otherwise these are objections to individual questions on the test, and not to the system itself. The very fact they have made have ensured that the same problems have not re-occurred. Indeed the analogies were dropped in 2005 and scores for the poorest students increased as a result showing that SATs can simply be changed when problems are found with the testing. [1] The problems with a purely grade based system are however intrinsic, and much harder for individuals to improve.  [1] Cloud, \u2018What\u2019s Good about the New SAT Test\u2019, 2006"}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro05a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Standardized tests result in teachers \u201cteaching the test\u201d  The importance attached to such tests leads to teachers actively \u201cteaching the test.\u201d The result is that many teachers, rather than instilling useful skills or providing a balanced curriculum, end up trying to focus on things that occur on given tests. While this is not a huge problem with the SAT itself, it is a serious problem with subject tests like the SAT 2s, AP Exams, and the British A-Levels. This undermines the provision of education in the country."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro01a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Standardized tests are arbitrary  Standardized tests are inherently arbitrary. They reduce an applicant\u2019s entire academic career to a single one-day session. The result is an inherently unrepresentative test which fails to paint an accurate picture. What if a student has a bad day? What if they do poorly on the specific test questions? In the SAT\u2019s there is an error of measurement of about 30 points either way out of 800, this is the potential difference between where the student really is and what his or her score on the day was. [1] By contrast, looking at their entire academic record ensures that admissions officers will get a far more comprehensive picture of their actual ability. The law of averages means that bad days and tests will be balanced out with good ones, with the result that their academic record, the result of years of work, will reflect their true performance.  [1] Cloud, John, \u2018What\u2019s Good about the New SAT Test\u2019, Time, 1 September 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro01b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"A student\u2019s academic record tends to measure very different things from what a standardized test does. GPA tends to be based on repetitive assignments such as homework, and in many cases students receive at least some academic credit for simply attending class. By contrast, standardized tests reward ability, by seeing whether or not at the end of the process students actually learned the material in question. Performance under pressure is an important skill to measure, especially for top institutions, while sifting through the differing standards for what goes into the grades in different school districts is simply not possible."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro05b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"There is a degree of hypocrisy in arguing that the tests are classist and racist and then complaining that schools take too long in preparing students for them. Ideally the tests should be on relevant subjects that will be useful to the student and is needed as part of a well-rounded education that prepares the student for life, and if they are not they are flawed.  Many of the skills required for a successful performance on A-Levels or on the AP Essays are remarkably similar to those needed for University level written work. As a consequence it is wrong to argue they are of no relevance."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro04b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"All measurements are to one degree or another arbitrary. If necessary the scale can be increased, or there can be movement towards a more essay-based exam like the British A-Levels rather than the current multiple-choice format. These changes in fact have already been made with the transformation of the SAT in 2006 which increased the maximum score from 1600 to 2400 and added an essay. [1]  [1] Cloud, \u2018What\u2019s Good about the New SAT Test\u2019, 2006"}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro03a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Standardized tests discriminate against minorities  Minority students perform less well on tests like the SAT, even when correction is made for income. The test with its reading comprehension test and being done in English is obviously biased against students from households where English is not the dominant language as they are much less likely to understand the questions.  Even when English language skills are not a problem the question choice can contain a cultural bias. One analogy question on the 2003 SAT used the word \u201cregatta\u201d which minority students were unlikely to be familiar with. Having this kind of bias is obviously unfair and can never be fully accounted for in a diverse country such as the United States of America where those who set the wording of the questions will never know all possible perspectives."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-pro04a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Standardized tests exaggerate small differences in performance  Most tests were designed in an earlier era when far fewer students took them. The large number of students who now take tests like the SATs results in a situation in which the scoring scale magnifies small differences in performance into large differences in scores. Two questions wrong out of 80 on the math section of the SAT may well produce a score of 760 while three questions wrong will result in a 720. 40 points can mean difference between admission and rejection for many candidates, while telling us nothing about the different abilities of the students involved. Indeed on average for 88% of applicants their SAT score will predict their final college grade rank no more accurately than a pair of dice. [1]  [1] Elert, Glenn, \u2018The SAT Aptitude of Demographics?\u2019, 5 May 1992,"}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-con01b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Applicants are not the same. They come from different backgrounds, attend different schools, and have different opportunities. It is \u201cfalse meritocracy\u201d to compare them with students from an entirely different background. Students should be examined individually, and their performance compared with other students with a similar background. The best way to do this is to allow individual schools to grade their student body, and to then have Universities compare how those students did vis-\u00e0-vis their peers within that school."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-con02a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"Alternative factors that can be considered in the admissions process  SATs are mathematical and it is therefore possible to objectively evaluate them. This is why they are so popular, they provide a benchmark of comparison across the whole education system in a way that any non-standardized assessment never could. This does not only benefit universities in providing an objective measure to compare admissions candidates but it also gives the government statistics with which to measure the progress of schools.  Any other form of assessment would mean switching to much more subjective factors. Traditionally such factors, such as extracurricular activities, volunteer work, and even access to references are all more easily available to high income students. Opportunities may not even be offered in poorer school districts. Complaining that poorer and minority students do less well on the SAT ignores the fact that the test provides one of their best opportunities to impress admissions officials."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-con01a","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"It is the only single standard that everyone ends up taking  All measures applied during University admissions processes are arbitrary to one extent or another. Grades depend on the whims on individual instructors, curriculum choices, and school quality. Every single one of the flaws the proposition applies to the SATs or other standardized tests may well be true, but the fact is that they are true for everyone who takes them. The SATs are the only part of the application to a university that every single applicant will likely have been taken, and therefore the only one where all applicants can be objectively compared."}
+{"id":"test-education-tuhwastua-con02b","title":"teaching university house would abolish standardized tests university admission","text":"The objectivity of SATs does not matter to individual students, many of whom are discriminated against by the tests. Subjective factors can be comparative if students\u2019 backgrounds are taken into account. By contrast, the SAT, by its very use and existence, legitimizes its results as an \u201cobjective\u201d measure of ability and capacity, which in turn legitimizes schools in discriminating against the vast majority of poor students who do worse on the exam, even if it helps a few out on an individual level. It would be much better to offer preferences in admission to poorer students than to legitimize discrimination.  Subjective criteria can also be successful in determining how successful someone will be in university. In a 1972 study by psychologist Jonathan R. Warre it was found that \u201cMotivation was the quality most frequently cited by over 3400 college teachers\u201d when asked what it takes to succeed in college. [1] Motivation cannot be objectively measured.  [1] Elert, \u2018The SAT Aptitude of Demographics?\u2019, 1992"}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-pro02b","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"None of these benefits apply if the peer pressure simply switches to harder drugs which are harder to test for or less likely to be tested for.  Moreover, peer pressure can exist outside of schools, and amongst older teenagers who have the choice to vary their attendance of sixth forms, FE colleges or senior high schools. Random drug testing could lead to older children being pressured to cut classes for prolonged periods of time, in order to take drugs, in order to be thought of as cool.  Teenagers are also notorious for believing that \u201cnothing bad can happen to me\u201d, even if that bad thing becomes more likely (such as being caught with a random drugs test). This is demonstrated by the fact that many teenagers already engage in illegal drug use despite the reasonably high chances that an adult will see them using drugs, smell smoke or notice the drug's effects on them in the status quo. [1]  [1] Grim, Ryan. \u201cBlowing Smoke: Why random drug testing doesn't reduce student drug use\u201d. Slate. March 21, 2006."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-pro02a","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"School's duty of care  Peer pressure drives most drug use among children and teenagers. [1] The fact that the state requires all children to be engaged in education means that most of them will be gathered into large groups in schools for most of the day, five days a week, essentially creating the necessary conditions for peer pressure to take place and be powerful. This occurs as some children face ostracism or exclusion from their peers in the social environment that the state compels them to be in if they refuse to take illegal drugs, if drug use is deemed necessary to be 'cool' or 'popular'.  It is, generally, the state that operates a western liberal democracy\u2019s education system. Under circumstances in which children are placed into the care of the state, and are made vulnerable to peer pressure the state has a duty to ensure that children are not coerced into using drugs. This means that concerns of 'privacy' are secondary to protecting the choice not to take drugs, as ensuring the 'privacy' of all students by not having random drug tests empowers some students to socially coerce other students into using drugs when they otherwise would not.  Random drug tests help prevent cultures or norms of drug-taking (by which it can become the 'cool' thing to do) by ensuring that most drug users will be caught and helped to quit, thus protecting the choice of others not to be pressured into drug use.  [1] Rosenbaum, Marsha. \u201cSafety First: A Reality-Based Approach to Teens and Drugs\u201d. Drug Policy Alliance. January 1, 2007"}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-pro03b","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Students who do not use illegal drugs do have something to fear - the violation of privacy and loss of dignity caused by random drug tests. They may well feel that they are being treated as under suspicion with no evidence or cause, and resent this imposition upon their privacy. Indeed, the indignity of drugs testing may compel children who are already in a position of vulnerability as a result of social marginalisation or personal or family problems to drop out of school entirely."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-pro01a","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Prevent drug use  There is a clear and present problem with drug use among children and teenagers in many countries. According to the UK Department of Health, in 2002-2003 38% of 15 year olds had used illegal drugs, as had 8% of 11 year olds [1] . The fact that all of these children would have been in schools at the age of 15 shows that current policies of targeting the supply train of drugs (for example by arresting drug dealers and intercepting drug shipments) is failing to protect children. Therefore a more direct approach that intervenes at the point of consumption is needed, most crucially for children and teenagers, as their years in education are crucial for both their personal development and their realization of their future education and employment potential.  Drug use at a young age may lead to lifelong use and addiction. Random drug testing in schools will allow for vulnerable children's drug problems to be discovered, and assist the state in getting them the help they need to get off drugs. Random testing is especially valuable in this scenario because many infant and teenage drug users will try to disguise their drug use from parents and teachers and so avoid detection through avoiding suspicion, a tactic which will prove of no use against random drug tests which will likely affect all students at one point or another. It should also deter many students from starting taking drugs in the first place as the prospect of them being caught becomes far more likely, as they know disguising their drug use will be of no use.  [1] Department of Health. \u201cStatistics on young people and drug misuse: England, 2003\u201d."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-pro01b","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Drug users' decisions are influenced by an irrational desire to fulfil the chemical need they feel (to get their 'high'). As a consequence many drug users in schools will simply look for ways to evade drug testing regimes that are put in place. This is a problem as drug testing is most likely to catch cannabis users (the most widely-used drug among teenagers) [1] , as cannabis endures longer in the body than other more dangerous drugs such as heroin and cocaine. This can potentially lead would-be cannabis users to switch to these harder drugs, most of which generally have significantly shorter detection times and\/or are less likely to be tested for. [2] This harm clearly outweighs the benefits of catching or deterring a few more cannabis users.  [1] Department of Health. \u201cStatistics on young people and drug misuse: England, 2003\u201d.   [2] Rosenbaum, Marsha. \u201cSafety First: A Reality-Based Approach to Teens and Drugs\u201d. Drug Policy Alliance. January 1, 2007"}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-pro03a","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"No harm to non-drug users  Random drug tests will pose no harm to students who do not use illegal drugs, as they have nothing to fear from this fact being certified. If anything it serves as a vindication of their law-abidance and good character.  Random drug tests will only catch those who are actively taking drugs, as tests can be used which are unlikely to make a 'positive' reading from secondary exposure (for example, being near someone else smoking cannabis).  Those actively taking drugs need help in getting off drugs far more urgently than they need their right to 'privacy', as addiction at a young age could have a significant negative impact upon the remainder of their time in education. Therefore, non-drug users have nothing to fear from testing. As a result random checks are in the best interests of drug users."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-con03b","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Random drug tests may actually help remove mistrust between teachers and students. Individual suspicion will no longer be the cause of drug tests for students, but rather these tests will be something al students will face at one time or another. This means students may actually feel freer to approach their teachers, and they may feel the need to more keenly, as they know they may be tested at any time."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-con01b","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"The students in question may not realize the long-term harms of drug use or fully understand the risks of addiction, and as they are not yet fully adult and responsible for themselves, the state has the right to ensure that they do not exercise their 'right to privacy' in a way that could be harmful to them."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-con02a","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Keeping teenagers in education  Studies in Michigan in the USA have found that random drug tests in schools do not deter drug use, as schools with and without random tests have similar levels of drug use among their pupils. [1]  It seems unlikely that random drug tests will, in fact, deter students from taking drugs. What such tests will result in, however, is a greater number of exclusions and disciplinary actions resulting from catching student drug users, which as the studies have shown has no guarantee of lowering drug use overall.  Faced with a situation of continuing to be caught and reprimanded for drug use in school due to random drug tests, many older teenagers who reach the age whereby they may choose to leave school may choose to do so in greater numbers. This may well be compounded by an adolescent desire to rebel and reject authority when it tries to prevent them doing what they want, and so a greater number of teenage students may drop out of school so as to allow themselves to continue doing what they want more easily \u2013 that is, taking drugs. Leaving school at such an age for no other reason than to pursue a drug-using lifestyle is almost certainly more harmful than the worst-case alternative, whereby they at least remain in education even if they continue to use illegal drugs, comparatively improving their future career and education choices. Simply driving teenagers out of education with random drug tests benefits no-one.  [1] Grim, Ryan. \u201cBlowing Smoke: Why random drug testing doesn't reduce student drug use\u201d. Slate. March 21, 2006."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-con03a","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Safeguarding the teacher-student relationship  Random drug tests change the student-teacher relationship from one of trust into one of suspicion, whereby the teachers and the school establishment become a body which many students will perceive as being out to catch them, and suspicious of all. The destruction of this trust makes it far harder for teachers to impart useful information on illegal drugs and the consequences of their use to students, and students may be less willing to seek teachers out on this information. This would lead to students relying increasingly on their peers and the internet for information on illegal drugs, and this information is far more likely to be of questionable policy or influenced by notions of drug use as 'cool' or glamorous. Thus schools' anti-drugs message may be harmed by random drug tests."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-con01a","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Right to privacy  Even if a right to privacy (which would prevent random drug testing with no reason for suspicion) does not exist in law in every country, many students being affected by drugs tests will perceive that the notional right to privacy which they believe they possess is being violated. Because they would perceive this violation as a harm, it should not be imposed without good reason. This problematizes the nature of 'random' testing, which by definition means forcing drug tests on individuals on whom there is no reasonable suspicion of drug use.  Firstly, the majority of those being tested will most likely test negative (as the previously cited statistics suggest) and so a majority will be harmed for no fault of their own, but rather as a consequence of the crimes of others. This may be seen as the equivalent of searching all homes in a neighbourhood for an illegal weapon on the suspicion that one of them was hiding it -an action which would be illegal in almost every western liberal democracy.  Further, however, even if students do engage in illegal drug use, random drug tests will additionally catch only those on whom there was previously no suspicion against (as students who show signs of drug use are already usually tested). In order to not already be under suspicion, these drug-using students would have to be engaging in their education, not disrupting the education of others, and not displaying erratic or harmful behaviour. As they are not actively harming others, these students should be subject only to the same standards as individuals in other areas of society: to only have their privacy violated by drugs tests if their behaviour actively brings them under suspicion."}
+{"id":"test-education-egscphsrdt-con02b","title":"education general secondary crime policing house supports random drug testing","text":"Using random drug tests would mean that a greater number of teenage drug users would be caught and put into drug rehabilitation programs, which would surely help at least some of them. The school's duty of care means that they must at least be given this chance to give up drugs, even if they refuse it, as opposed to simply allowing them to keep using, which will most likely disrupt their education severely anyway."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro02b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Schools already have enough pressures just to educate their students, they do not need additional pressure from having to ensure their nutrition as well. In the UK kitchen improvements cost \u00a3200 million and many local councils found they needed to take money from other budgets such as school maintainance budgets showing the increase in pressure on schools. [1]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Q&A; Free school meals for infants\u2019, 2 September 2014,"}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro02a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Schools are best places to ensure good nutrition  Education is universal from 5 or 6 to 16 years old in most countries, 58% of children worldwide attend secondary school, [1] with even poor countries providing education for all from 5 to 12 years old. As a result giving breakfast at school will mean that all children between these ages receive it.  [1] Unicef, \u201858: The percentage of children of secondary school age worldwide who attend secondary school is 58\u2019, Unicef global databases, 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro03b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Exactly, the role of the school is to teach children, not to be providing food and using periods of time for this that could be used for lessons."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro01a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"A school breakfast gives all students an equal start to the day  All children should have equal opportunities, a breakfast for all helps provide this. With schools providing breakfast for everyone the start to the day will be the same for all. No one will starting school hungry or thirsty. Everyone will have had a chance to wake up before their lessons start allowing them to get as good a start to the day as possible."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro01b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"This will not be true equality. Some people naturally wake up earlier, yet many will still be feeling sleepy at 10:00. A school breakfast may have forced these students to be up even longer before their natural wake up time than would otherwise be the case."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro04b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"There is no need for education about a healthy diet to be combined with free breakfasts for all. The teaching can be done separately just as effectively. Teaching at the same time as, or immediately before or after will simply mean students are concentrating on the food they have, not upon the lesson. Meal times are lively and social, not a good time for teaching."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro03a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"A healthy breakfast improves students concentration  Children are in school to learn. To do this they need to concentrate. To be able to concentrate they need to have a balanced meal \u2013 one without too much sugar \u2013 that will ensure they are not hungry until lunchtime. A child who is hungry is not going to be concentrating on their studies. A study by the Indian National Institute of Nutrition has shown a regular breakfast to result in a 2% increase in test scores in addition to other health benefits. [1]  [1] Gajre, N.S., Fernandez, S., Balakrishna, N., and Vazir, S., \u2018Breakfast Eating Habit and its Influence on Attention-concentration, Immediate Memory and School Achievement\u2019, National Institute of Nutrition, 31 March 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro04a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Breakfast teaches about health  Children need to learn about how good nutrition keeps them healthy. Providing a school breakfast means that the meal can be an educational experience and have teaching alongside. This education will ensure that when these children grow up they continue to eat healthily with future benefits for the nation\u2019s health."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con03b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"The upfront cost will be paid back. In the future there will be less health care costs. And there will be a more highly educated and skilled population which will mean more economic growth and tax for the government."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con01b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"The split in responsibility under this proposal is clear; school provides breakfast, parents other meals. This split ensures that even if the parent is shirking their responsibility the child will receive some nutrition."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con02a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Government should focus on the most needy  A primary responsibility of the government is for reducing inequality and ensuring that everyone has a basic living standard. A basic living standard includes food. As a result providing breakfasts should be for those who are most in need of a helping hand from government. Those who are wealthier and can afford their own breakfast do not need this help so any such breakfast policy should be means tested to only apply to those who need it. This is the case with the United States School Breakfast Program."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con04a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Can we be sure a school meal will be healthy?  Even if the schools provide breakfast can we be sure that it will be healthy, and even if it is will the students eat it? Without individual supervision that having breakfast with parents provides it is difficult to ensure that the children are eating what they should be rather than throwing away the bits they like. In the UK there has been a campaign against the poor quality of school meals. [1] In the US there has been concern at the amounts of fresh fruit and vegtables being thrown away from school means. One study by the University of Vermont found food waste increased 56%. [2]  [1] Evening Standard, \u2018Unhealthy school meals are on the menu for over a million children\u2019, 12 January 2013,   [2] Welch, Ashley, \u2018School lunch fruits and veggies often tossed in trash study finds\u2019, CBSnews, 25 August 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con03a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"A school breakfast for all is a greater cost on schools  Everything costs. Providing free school to all breakfasts will cost the government money for ingredients, cafeteria staff, administration, even possibly new facilities. In the USA the Breakfast Program costs $3.3 billion to provide free or reduced price breakfasts to 10.1 million students. [1] There is a limited total amount of money so the cost will mean there is something else the government will not be able to do. This proposal may mean, for example, that the government cannot afford to hire more teachers to reduce class sizes.  [1] Food and Nutrition Service, \u2018The School Breakfast Program\u2019, September 2013"}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con01a","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Nutrition is the parents responsibility  Parents are responsible for their children, and this includes responsibility for their meals. The parent has had to provide meals up until the start of school. They know their own child\u2019s preferences there is little reason for this to change. Splitting responsibility between parents and schools means the burden of responsibility will no longer be clearly don't placed."}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con04b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"If the school is providing unhealthy meals then guidelines can be tightened to ensure they improve. If the students are throwing away food then there can be greater supervision by teachers. A study by Harvard University has also shown that food waste, and the amount of healthy food eaten can be increased by having more time allocated to eating. [1]  [1] Wanjek, Christopher, \u2018Are Healthy School Lunch Programs a Waste?\u2019, Livescience, 7 October 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-education-pshhghwpba0-con02b","title":"primary secondary health health general house would provide breakfast all 0","text":"Focusing on need requires that the need be defined and those in need identified. It runs the risk that some people will be missed. A child having a wealthy parent does not mean that they are getting a good healthy breakfast at the start of the day. That parent may never be home in the morning, may consider breakfast unimportant, or simply be neglecting their child."}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro02b","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"The international legal system already has many grey areas and often things that should be banned are not because of objections by certain countries despite their similarities to other items that are banned. A change regarding cluster bombs is not realistically going to make more people accept the international legal system.  Further, according to the exact wording of the 1997 ban on land mines, the ban exists for those items that exist to \u201cPrimarily\u201d act as land mines. Cluster bombs act as landmines as a secondary effect and are not intended to do so. As such, it would be more inconsistent under the law to accept cluster bombs as landmines than it would be to ban them.5"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro02a","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Cluster Bombs Are Inconsistent With International Law  The international legal system is dependent on being robust and transparent in order for it to be respected by countries and states that accept it. The refusal by the U.S. to ban cluster bombs prevents the international community from doing the same within international law as the U.S. has enough political power that should it choose to ignore the law, the law itself is considered to be irrelevant.  In failing to ban cluster bombs the U.S. maintains an inconsistency within international law. Since dud cluster bombs effectively act as land mines for all intents and purposes, they are well hidden and cause indiscriminate damage, the fact that they aren\u2019t banned is inconsistent with existing bans on land mines already. This inconsistency within international law makes the international legal system seem less credible, owing to contradictions as well as illustrating its weakness to the influence of the U.S. This makes it more difficult for countries to enforce the rules of the international legal system, such as preventing human rights violations because fewer countries will accept international law as being legitimate and will not agree to subject themselves to those rules.5"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro03b","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"The U.S. is currently developing cluster bomb technology that will prevent cluster bombs from remaining armed over a long period of time. Given that the U.S. is a pioneer in this area, it knows more about the development of the technology than other countries that might have signed up to the treaty. If the efforts of the U.S. prove to be fruitful then their decision to avoid the ban will prove them as being the more politically shrewd of other liberal democracies.  Further, political status with other countries is unlikely to be entirely determined by treaties regarding cluster bombs. In fact these treaties are relatively minor and have almost no political affect by comparison to more pressing issues such as economics or other parts of international policy.7"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro01a","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Cluster Bombs Cause Unacceptable Harm to Civilians  In a modern warfare scenario, the vast majority of combat takes place in civilian areas, such as cities. Whilst cluster bombs are obviously not used for peacekeeping purposes they are used in initial assaults on these areas, particularly against larger formations of enemy troops. This means that due to the indiscriminate nature of cluster bombs, in the same way as with land mines, often both military and civilian targets are encompassed in the blast radius. This is what happened in Zagreb as Martic was targeting Croat forces but the attack due to the use of cluster weapons also killed civilians.  Further, cluster bombs often have a few bomblets which are duds and do not go on initial impact. The issue with bomblets is that they are often brightly coloured and when used in cities or populous areas they can often attract the attention of children who are very unlikely to know to be careful around them. This can result in significant harm to civilian populations well after the attack has been carried out.  Further, due to the sheer volume of duds that cluster bombs put out, attempts to demine cluster bomb bomblets is an incredibly dangerous process that in of itself costs lives.1,2,3"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro01b","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Cluster bombs, when used sensibly are used in uninhabited areas to take down military personnel. They are only intended for military targets and collateral damage when attacking military targets is something that is accepted as a regrettable problem in war.  Further, cluster bombs are simply a very effective weapon in battles between standing armies in most war. Given that cluster bombs help sides achieve victory quicker and with less resistance, they justify their use in the prevention of strife in the future by causing wars to end quickly as well as enabling assaults on well-defended sites to be performed more smoothly.  Due to their niche, cluster bombs will simply be replaced by the military with substitutes that are just as harmful.4"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro03a","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Rejecting the Ban on Cluster Bombs Hurts the international image of the U.S.  The U.S. is one of the only remaining Western Liberal democracies to allow the U.S. of cluster bombs. The continued refusal of the U.S. to tow the same line as fellow liberal democracies makes it look bad internationally; especially considering that one of the main instigators behind the cluster bomb ban is the U.K. traditionally a great ally of the U.S. politically.  The U.S. is often seen as the greatest representative of Western liberal democracy as it is the most economically powerful. Part of this political clout however, comes from the continued cooperation of other Western Liberal democracies with the U.S. in failing to the sign the cluster bomb treaty despite pressure from other countries, the U.S. fails in this capacity and loses the support of the countries that it relies on to maintain its political status.  Moreover, given that the U.S. currently does not help with demining work, this further worsens relationships with other countries.6"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con03b","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"The improvement of cluster bombs in the way that opposition describes has not happened yet and these bombs have not been deployed. It would be fairly easy to class these new cluster bombs differently to older models should they come into effect.  However, the potential for new types of cluster bombs does not mean that the older types are any less inhumane. A ban on cluster bombs could easily exist to simply encompass older models whilst leaving newer ones alone.11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con01b","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Cluster bombs are an ineffective weapon that often deal more damage to the side deploying the weapons than their opponents. Given modern warfare scenarios, the need for cluster bombs is not great given that in asymmetric warfare the conflict will be over relatively quickly, owing to the massive level of firepower that the West and its allies can bring against the targets that they attack, often dictators only in control of militarily weak countries. Dud cluster bombs harm any occupation following invasion and warm by harming troops that happen to stumble across them as well as harming demining personnel. This prevents effective occupation in the long run and costs lives through preventing the armed forces from achieving stability in the region as quickly.9"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con02a","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"The Ban is Unfeasible  The problem with the ban on cluster bombs is that it is unfeasible in the prevention of the use of cluster bombs on the battlefield. Many countries aside from the U.S. will continue to use the weapons and will likely do so less responsibly. There is no way to persuade these countries to abandon the weapons. Countries such as China and the US are unconcerned by threats that their use can be a crime against humanity and might result in international criminal prosecutions as they are not signed up to the ICC and as Security Council members can prevent investigations of themselves or their clients.  The U.S. and Western powers continuing to manufacture cluster bombs allows them to engage with the other users of cluster bombs on the battlefield. Many countries import weapons from Western powers and as such, continuing the manufacture of cluster bombs allows Western powers to keep a check on their use by other countries.  Further, the ability for Western powers to use cluster bombs allows Western powers to discourage their use on the battlefield through the threat of retaliation with the same weaponry. As such, banning the weapons could cost the lives of soldiers on the battlefield.8"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con03a","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"This House Believes That the U.S. Should Ban The Use of Cluster Bombs  Currently the U.S. is working on improving the reliability of cluster bombs. The weakness of cluster bombs, being that the bomblets often do not explode is something that U.S. military has understood for a long time. It is inefficient for the military to allow this problem to continue. As such a large amount of military funding goes into improving cluster bombs.  The U.S. is hoping to improve cluster bombs in two ways, the first is ensuring that when the cluster bombs are deployed that all bomblets explode on impact or explode very quickly after the initial barrage. However, the U.S. is also working on technology that would allow bomblets to disarm themselves after a short period of time, hence preventing accidental discharges in the future.  If these improvements work, then cluster bombs cease to cause civilian damage and will likely be an incredibly effective tool in warfare. Hence a ban on them when this technology is being deployed is premature.10"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con01a","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Cluster Bombs Have Significant Strategic Value  As mentioned earlier in the opposition counter arguments, cluster bombs are incredibly effective at dealing with large formations of troops and armoured vehicles and can cause a significant amount of damage to an opposing force in a relatively small amount of time. This niche is not filled as cheaply or as easily by other weapons that can be released from a bombing aircraft. As such cluster bombs have a significant level of military and strategic value when used in conflict.  In the case where cluster bombs were banned, it would simply fall to the military to find an effective replacement weapon for these scenarios and it is likely that these would be as problematic if not more so.8"}
+{"id":"test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con02b","title":"national law politics defence warpeace house believes us should ban use cluster","text":"Whilst the ban prevents engagement with countries that use cluster bombs, it also limits the supply of cluster bombs to these countries significantly. The West ceasing the manufacture of cluster bombs means that many countries will cease being able to get their through second or third hand sources. Whilst the Chinese might be able to fill the gap, their cluster bomb technology is not on the same level as that of the West and as such the lack of reliability with the Chinese weaponry will cause fewer countries to employ the use of cluster bombs on the battlefield.  Further, the ban on cluster bombs by Western countries sends out a strong moral message that many other smaller countries are likely to obey and follow. With the US accepting the ban international prosecution, or potentially even sanctions is considerably more likely. The U.S. holding out however, shows the West to be divided on the topic and as such prevents other countries that might be better off from banning them owing to their fear of indecision in the West.6"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro02b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Putin\u2019s initial support was based mainly on strong promises, a series of arrests of corrupt businessmen and tough action towards Chechnya that at first seemed to give positive results. His support base, however, has been significantly damaged following his increasing tendencies to control the media and to replace elected governors with presidential appointees, and by scandals surrounding the disappearance and murder of several important journalists. He has lost the support of the NGO community and most of the intelligentsia and also the originally strong backing of the USA and President Bush."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro02a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"A strong leader has more benefits than harms  Putin is the strong leader that Russia has been waiting for. His electoral success and consistently high approval rates show that the people of Russia are ready for someone who can rid their society of increasing corruption and restore a sense of calm and equality. His ability to maintain a high level of support despite what some have called authoritarian tendencies shows that people are ready to sacrifice a certain degree of freedom for the promise of stability. Enthusiasm for Putin among the young also shows that he does not only appeal to those looking back to past certainties."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro03b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Putting your hopes and trust in a single person can be fairly dangerous, particularly in a transition period. Putin is not the state and his ability to control and represent the state and the population at large is questionable. Putin is also not a saint and an example to be followed. His authoritarian tendencies do not have insignificant effects: at this point most Russian media is controlled by the state, decisions continue to be made behind closed doors without consultation, Russia has once again become the pariah of the international community, the Chechen conflict has spilled into new attacks against civilians resulting in the death of thousands of people including children (one only has to mention the horrible attacks in Beslan and the Moscow theatre), etc, etc. Putin\u2019s stubborn refusal to accept international help in the case of the stuck submarine Kursk also resulted in the unnecessary death of tens of people."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro01a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Stability is more important than reform  Since the fall of communism, Russia has plunged into a deep economic recession. The introduction of market reforms and privatization has led to a swift increase in inequalities coupled with an increase in corruption. The chaos of economic and political reform, along with the chaos of the break-up of former USSR, has left the majority of the population both disillusioned and distrustful of their government. In a period of such chaos, stability seems to be much more important than reform. A strong leader is the only solution to providing such stability, setting a clear direction and pulling a country at risk of falling apart together again. This is also proven from various polls among the Russian population \u2013 \u201c\u2026The most eye-catching statistic is the overwhelming majority of respondents who say that order is more important for Russia than democracy \u2013 72 per cent, with 16 per cent responding conversely.\u201d (1)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro01b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"All periods of transition have been chaotic by definition and reforms are by their nature disruptive. At the same time, it is only through these reforms that a future of freedom and prosperity is possible. While a long transition process can certainly cloud minds and turn people into distrustful and disillusioned individuals, one must keep in mind that it is precisely at these moments that the risk of authoritarian tendencies re-emerging is highest. The people of Russia agree in polls over and over again that democracy is and should be their future. We must not let the immediate chaos of reform scare us into a fake stability. Even if still Russians prefer stronger leadership the number of these people is decreasing and the tendency shows that more and more are starting to evaluate the true value of democracy - \u201c\u2026But that number is actually down from the last time VTsIOM conducted a similar survey in 2000, when 75 per cent of Russians said they favored order, and 13 per cent \u2013 democracy. \u201c (1)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro04b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"History is not destiny and a highly-selective view of Russia's past should not lead us to prefer authoritarian rule today. The Tsars and their communist successors killed millions of people through brutal rule and failed policies - made possible by the same lack of consultation and accountability that we see in Russia today. Only a vigorous multi-party democracy, fully independent legal system and free media can ensure that the disasters of the past are not repeated. Nor is there any reason why such a system could not take root in Russia - it is no more diverse than many other countries and modern communications mean that mere distance is not a problem. And there is nothing in the culture or temperament that makes Russians uniquely unsuited to democracy."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro03a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"A strong leader is working in the state\u2019s best interest  Putin\u2019s authoritarian style is not a threat to democracy but rather a requirement for a successful and quicker transition. Having Putin control the media is probably healthier than having it be controlled by a corrupt few that promote their personal interests rather than the interest of the state and thus those of the population at large. Democracy is a goal and while certain countries believe themselves to have achieved it, they are constantly struggling to maintain it. As a young democracy, Russia is still working towards defining its own version of democracy and finding what works best in its case."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro04a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Russia as a state and Russians as a nation need strong leadership  Historically, Russia has always needed strong centralised leadership for it to make progress. This was true both in imperial times under tsars such as Peter the Great (who made Russia a European power and built St Petersburg) and Alexander II (who freed the serfs), and since 1917 under Lenin and Stalin. Russia is too big, too diverse and too thinly-populated for western systems of representative democracy to be applied. Culturally its people are temperamentally suited to following the decisive lead of a strong ruler who can unite them in the face of great challenges. Without such a ruler Russia is likely to fragment with local strongmen grabbing power in the regions, religious fundamentalism dominating much of the Caucasus and Central Asia, and economic stagnation."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con03b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"All of these speculations are rather unreasonable and tend to create a public opinion which does not cooperate entirely with the truth. Such drastic conclusions can be made just about any other country. It is true that Vladimir Putin is a strong leader and a powerful figure in the Russian political life, but this does not mean that he is a puppet master, who decides the entire faith of Russia and the Russian population. The political life cannot go without political games, intrigues and deals, but this is just how the policy works and this is how it has been working for a long time. Political interests mix up with business interests and it is actually important to have a strong leader in the face of Putin, who, unlike a lot of politicians will not be influenced by big corporate players or at least will not be influenced as much. Putin\u2019s political career has been successful and his rating among the population are the simplest proof - According to public opinion surveys conducted by Levada Center, Putin's approval rating was 81% in June 2007, and the highest of any leader in the world. His popularity rose from 31% in August 1999 to 80% in November 1999 and since then it has never fallen below 65%. Observers see Putin's high approval ratings as a consequence of the significant improvements in living standards and Russia's reassertion of itself on the world scene that occurred during his tenure as President."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con01b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"The best possible way to tackle the corruption issue, which lets face it is one of the major problems in Russia nowadays, is through a strong leader. Eastern European democratic countries are the pure example that corruption spreads when there is no strong leadership. The corruption in these countries is an obstacle to their economic development. As a matter of fact present president Dmitry Medvedev has launched policies and new projects in order to fight back corruption \u2013 \u201c Fighting corruption has been a top agenda of President Dmitry Medvedev. An Anti-Corruption Council was established by Medvedev in 2008 to oversee the Russia's anti-corruption campaign. The central document guiding the effort is the National Anti-Corruption Strategy, introduced by Medvedev in 2010.\u201d (2) In fact, increasing corruption might prove to be more dangerous than terrorist attacks since it would create powerful drug, oil and weapons cartels as well as human trafficking problems. Therefore a strong leader is necessary to cope with this critical matter."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con02a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Russia does not have true democracy  The status quo in Russia is highly controversial. On the one hand it is considered a democracy \u2013 it has all the structures and norms of a democracy. On the other hand there are many attacks and proof that the Russian governance is far from democratic: The joint observer team for the Council of Europe and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe criticised the Russian elections as \"not fair and failed to meet many OSCE and Council of Europe commitments and standards for democratic elections,\" with \"abuse of administrative resources, media coverage strongly in favour of the ruling party\". The polls \"took place in an atmosphere which seriously limited political competition\" meaning \"there was not a level political playing field\". The 2007 parliamentary election resulted in United Russia gaining 64.1% of the vote. (3)  Furthermore not only there isn\u2019t election freedom, there is not academic freedom either \u2013 \u201cThe European University at St Petersburg has been forced to suspend teaching after officials claimed its historic buildings were a fire risk. This forced all academic work to cease. The University had been running a program that advised Russian political parties, including how to ensure elections are not being rigged. The project they are involved in called Interregional Electoral Chains of Support was to develop and raise the effectiveness of electoral monitoring in Russia's regions. The university has also been attacked for having close ties to the west, particularly US and UK universities\u201d (4)  There are cases of murdered journalists, who were \u201cinconvenient\u201d to the authorities. This also raises the question whether a strong leadership is better for the people.  Basic freedoms are denied to the Russian population. In the 21st century this is simply unjust. Therefore strong leadership creates more wrong than it does good."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con04a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Corruption, an essential issue in Russia, is due to the strong leadership  There is a link between the high levels of corruption and the strong leadership of Russian president and prime minister of Russia. \u2013 \u201cSome of Russia's most prominent opposition figures have produced a report accusing Prime Minister Vladimir Putin of presiding over a boom in corruption and enriching his inner circle over the past decade\u2026 Putin and President Dmitry Medvedev themselves have 26 \"palaces\" and five yachts, which in turn require costly state upkeep, according to the report.\u201d (8)  Many argue that if it weren\u2019t for the power of the prime minister and ex-president Putin, also his strong authority and management, corruption would have been minimized long ago."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con03a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"The status quo reveals that several powerful and influential people are in charge of the whole state  What is occurring in Russia now is closer to dictatorship rather than to strong leadership. Many commentators of the Russian political stage share the opinion that Medvedev is just a pawn in the hands of the former president and current prime minister \u2013 Putin. \u201cThe leading role still clearly belongs to Putin. This reflects the unspoken agreement that was reached between Putin and Medvedev,\u201d said Yevgeny Volk, an independent political analyst in Moscow. (6) Russia\u2019s both external and internal policy have not changed after the elections in 2008 and are following the same path, which is another argument that Putin continues to pull the strings.  In fact, the more important question is not whether or not Medvedev is a pawn, but who is actually in charge \u2013 \u201cKremlin-watchers say this system of interlocking and competing clans that is managed by Putin comprises the core of Russia's ruling elite. The key players, the people with decision making power, number about thirty. The inner circle, most agree, comprises about twelve people\u2026 There are something like a dozen of the most influential guys in the first circle and perhaps two dozen who are less influential in the second circle. These are not only managers but also shareholders who are not that visible or public...Not only do they manage Russia...but they also enrich themselves pretty actively.\u201d (7) This poses the debate is such a status quo in the best interest of Russia and its people or is the exact opposite."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con01a","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Proper democratic checks and balance are the only way to real problem-solving  There is a fine line between enough authority to fight corruption and enough authority to oppress a population. Many corrupt, authoritarian leaders have risen to power through the promise of social reform and of wiping out drug cartels and gangsters. A society living in fear and believing that all their problems will be solved by a powerful leader will never be able to overcome its problems. Empowering individuals and accepting risk is ultimately the only true solution to such problems. Even if Putin were completely pure himself, centralising power so completely gives great influence to those advisers and ministers around him and makes corruption in government inevitable. Only by building in proper democratic checks and balances, including criticism from a free media and legal system, can accountability be created and corruption or incompetence tackled."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con04b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"The current president Dmitry Medvedev is working on and introducing policies toward corruption. Actually this is his main strategy. It is a well-known fact that Medvedev keeps close relations with the former president Putin and discusses Russian relations and policy with him. If the abolishment of the corruption was standing in the way of Putin, such a strategy would not have been undertaken by Medvedev. \u2013 \u201cSpeaking to a group of Russian experts and journalists, he said that corrupt officials ran Russia. \"They have the power. Corruption has a systemic nature, deep historic roots. We should squeeze it out. The battle isn't easy but it has to be fought. I don't think we can achieve tangible results in one year or two. If I am a realist we could get good results in 15.\" \u201c(9)  Exactly strong leadership can deal with the difficult issue of corruption in the Russian state. And the new policies of the current president clearly present that."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con02b","title":"onal europe politics government house believes russia needs strong leadership","text":"Russia has the attributes of a democracy. It is a federal state with a constitution. It has a two chamber legislature; the lower house is the Duma with 450 members elected from nationwide party lists based upon proportional representation. The Upper house; the Federation Council has two representatives from each of Russia\u2019s 89 regions and republics that are chosen by the regional governors and legislatures. Elections for the President are every four years who then appoints the prime minister who in turn appoints the government. Russia therefore appears to have the necessary structure to be a democracy as each of the branches or government are independent.  What Russia is doing is combining the modern democratic governance with better control and management.  Shortly after one of the reporters\u2019 death (which death is thought to be a political order) the head of the human rights organisation issued a strongly worded statement alleging the involvement of state authorities and the area's premier Ramzan Kadyrov in this particular death. This statement was not suppressed in Russia and means that there is freedom of speech. There maybe a strong amount of state control of the press similar to Italy which is a problem but the right still remains. (5)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro02b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"In the areas of policy where rapid responses are necessary even within the EU the UK retains its freedom of action. The areas where there is joint policy are issues such as trade and environment negotiations which are always slow anyway. Defence and security are areas where power remains with the member states. The only areas of foreign policy where the slow speed of the EU comes up against slow decision making are areas where joint policy is a benefit as in response to the migration crisis; no one nation could have responded alone, even Germany, who take in most migrants needed there to be a path to the country."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro02a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"Britain will have greater ability to respond quickly  Whatever the EU is we can all agree it is not the fastest and most responsive of institutions. As a result of needing the input of 28 countries EU external policy is slow and faltering. Leaving will enable the UK greater freedom to create its own policies and to reframe them in response to changing circumstances and challenges. The UK will no longer need to take into consideration any other country\u2019s views."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro03b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"As a smaller and less attractive market the UK will inevitably get a less good deal than it could have with the whole of the EU at its back. Moreover if the UK still wants free access to the EU market, which accounts for 45% of UK exports and 53%, [1] it will still not have a completely free hand economically. Norway for example may retain close economic links and freely trade with Europe but does not have any ability to make decisions on EU rules and must accept their regulations \u2013 clearly a worse position than the UK now. [2]  [1] Webb, Dominic, and Keep, Matthew, \u2018In brief: UK-EU economic relations\u2019, House of Commons Library, Briefing Paper, No. 06091, 19 January 2016, p.3, www.parliament.uk\/briefing-papers\/SN06091.pdf  [2] Eide, Espen Barth, \u2018We pay, but have no say: that\u2019s the reality of Norway\u2019s relationship with the EU\u2019, The Guardian, 27 October 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro01a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"The UK would have a completely independent foreign policy  Britain\u2019s is not completely sovereign within the European Union with the EU having a common foreign and security policy and all economic negotiations taking place under the auspices of the EU trade commissioner, it is what the EU refers to as an \u2018exclusive power\u2019, rather than the Foreign Office. [1] Exiting would give these powers back to the UK. Regardless of how these powers are used this will mean the UK has more influence and freedom to manoeuvre as it will have more options with which it can negotiate with other powers.  [1] \u2018Policy making: What is trade policy\u2019, European Commission,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro01b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"It is a misconception that any nation has complete sovereignty in the realm of international affairs, the restraints and restrictions as a result of being in or out are simply different. Every foreign policy has to operate within the context of the international system, and the capabilities with which the state has. Leaving the EU will give back certain areas with which the UK can negotiate but at the same time will ensure the UK is a lone voice rather than part of a combined negotiating position. The common foreign policy is just that; 28 countries making the same point, much more difficult for even the biggest nations to ignore. The decision making is done by all the heads of state\/government so cannot be said to represent a loss of sovereignty. [1]  [1] \u2018Foreign & security policy at EU level\u2019, EUR-lex, updated 8 December 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro04b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"Ukraine may not be a high priority itself for British foreign policy but Russia is still a major, possibly the most major, threat. The UK has had very poor relations with Russia for years with various spy incidents such as the murder of Alexander Litvinenko [1] and with Russian bombers regularly being intercepted near the UK, six times in 2015, [2] even before we get onto Russian aggression in Georgia and Ukraine and British and Russian interests in the Middle East often being at loggerheads. The migration crisis may not directly affect the UK but it's cause, Syria and Middle Eastern instability, is a major concern for the UK as a result of UK nationals joining Daesh.  [1] Owen, Robert, \u2018Report into the death of Alexander Litvinenko\u2019, The Litvinenko Inquiry, January 2016,   [2] \u2018RAF jets intercept Russian bombers heading to UK\u2019, BBC news, 17 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro03a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"EU economic preference will no longer bind Britain  As a customs union the EU has a common external tariff set at the EU level meaning that the UK cannot tailor its external trade policy to its own needs. Instead the UK will be free to negotiate its own free trade agreements with any power it wishes. This may be individually or joining larger trade groupings such as the currently being negotiated Trans Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership deal between the USA, Canada, and the EU. it also means the UK is free to reject such joint agreements, as many campaigning groups would like with the Trans Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership deal. [1] Countries which are not in regional blocks have not suffered as a result, South Korea has 24 free trade agreements [2] and despite an economy that is just over half the size of the UK\u2019s has trade in goods worth similar amounts;$1,098bln $1,190bln [3] but importantly gets to negotiate each one itself and to its own terms and conditions.  [1] See #noTTIP,   [2] \u2018Free Trade Agreements\u2019, Asia Regional Integration Centre, 2015,   [3] Adding exports and imports of merchandise, \u2018Korea, Republic of and United Kingdom\u2019, World Trade Organisation,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro04a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"UK will be disentangled from EU affairs  Leaving the EU would mean that Britain is no longer entangled in foreign policy issues that are of little interest to it and instead could devote itself to other more productive issues. The two main foreign policy crises for the EU at the moment are Ukraine and migration, neither of which concern the UK when not a member of the EU. Migration would be stopped at the channel while Ukraine is at the opposite end of the EU. The EU would essentially become a buffer for the UK."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con03b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"It is undeniable that in some areas the EU is a force multiplier. But many of the issues it uses this leverage on are not areas of concern to a UK that has left the EU; migrants arriving in Greece are of little national interest to the UK. Britain would instead focus its weight on areas that are of direct concern such as terrorism. In other areas the multiplier simply saves the UK a little money; could the UK have an embassy in Djibouti? Certainly if it wished, but it is not an area of primary concern to the UK."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con01b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"The UK has more influence as a power in the second tier being sought after rather than having its voice swamped in the EU where it is but one of 27 voices. The UK will retain its UN Security Council seat and nuclear weapons, it will remain a powerful country that is relevant across all sorts of areas, it will simply be less constrained."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con02a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"Power is shifting to the East  Geography has a great influence on the position of nations and their foreign policies. For example it is the UK\u2019s Island nation status that is a major reason why it is not fully committed to the European project. Attention internationally is now shifting to East Asia where the main rising powers are; China and India. This means that the UK\u2019s position is less geographically important so to compensate the UK needs Europe; China\u2019s leader Xi Jinping on his state visit to Britain stated China wants \u201ca united EU, and hopes Britain\u2026 can play an even more positive and constructive role in promoting the deepening development of China-EU ties.\u201d [1] The United States, Britain\u2019s main ally since World War II, is much less interested in Europe.  [1] \u2018China wants Britain in a united European Union, Xi Jinping tells David Cameron\u2019, South China Morning Post, 23 October 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con04a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"Leaving the EU will mean the UK will have less regional influence  Like it or not the UK is a part of Europe geographically and as such the countries that are most important to UK foreign policy are also in Europe. Leaving the EU will damage relations with those powers that are currently a part of the EU, and potentially also those who are used to dealing with the UK as part of the EU. The United States has noted it \u201cbenefits from a strong UK being part of the European Union\u201d [1] in much the same way as the UK does. If this is the UK's strongest ally's view what would be the view of the powers from whom out would mean divorce? The UK will be outside the group trying to influence it rather than on the inside. The EU states will no longer need to listen to the UK on a wide range of issues where it has previously been a key voice.  [1] Earnest, Josh, \u2018Press Briefing by the Press Secretary Josh Earnest\u2019, White House, 14 March 2016,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con03a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"The EU is a force multiplier  The UK gets more bang for the buck as a result of being a member of the EU. It has representation in more countries as a result of the European External Action Service (equivalent of the Foreign Office) thus extending UK influence to countries where it would not otherwise have representation. For example the EU have representation in Djibouti [1] whereas the UK individually is represented there from neighbouring Ethiopia. [2]  The UK, along with France, and to a lesser extent Germany, leads the EU on foreign policy matters, as illustrated by the first The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy being a Briton, Catherine Ashton. [3] This means the UK essentially gains from the backing of the other 26 member states giving the UK a much more influential voice globally. For example the EU has a role in the Middle East \u2018quartet\u2019 of the EU, USA, Russia and United Nations [4] giving the UK a place at the table on the key issue of Israel Palestine where otherwise it would have none.  [1] \u2018D\u00e9l\u00e9gation en R\u00e9publique de Djibouti\u2019, D\u00e9l\u00e9gation de l\u2019Union europ\u00e9enne,   [2] \u2018British Embassy Addis Ababa\u2019, Gov.uk,   [3] \u2018The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy\u2019, Europea Union External Action,   [4] \u2018The Quartet\u2019, Office of the Quartet,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con01a","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"The UK needs to be part of a block to remain relevant  History is moving towards bigger and bigger blocks being relevant. The US and USSR dwarfed the previous global power the UK [1] and China and India look set too be bigger again. In a world where the great powers are regions of the globe in themselves to be influential requires being part of a bigger group. The EU negotiates on equal terms with China, India and the USA. The UK on its own would be very much a second order power.  [1] See Paul Kennedy\u2019s The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, Random House, 1987"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con04b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"The UK will still be part of Europe just not in the EU. It will still be a member of a plethora of other organisations; NATO, OSCE, Council of Europe, European free trade area. Countries like France and Germany are not going to stop listening to the UK because it is no longer a member."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con02b","title":"onal europe politics leadership house believes uk would have more influence","text":"There are also advantages to this power shift; the UK is less threatened so better able to act. The UK is therefore free to align itself with whichever powers it wishes rather than having alignments dictated by geography and who is threatening the UK. In the past the threat from Germany, and then the USSR, forced the UK into an alliance with France and the USA. When it comes to deciding between the USA, China, and India the UK has a free hand. As a result the UK has a once in a lifetime opportunity to strike new \u201ctrade deals with the growth economies around the world\u201d. [1]  [1] Boris Johnson quoted in Erixon, Fredrik, \u2018Boris and the Breziteers are talking nonsense about Britain\u2019s trade policies\u2019, The Spectator, 1 April 2016,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-pro01a","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"The present system of earmarking in Congress is wide open to abuse. The party leaderships in each house can use the offer of pork, or the threat to withhold it to enforce party discipline. \u201cLogrolling\u201d occurs whereby an earmark is obtained in return for support on an unrelated piece of legislation. All this leads to legislators who put party above country and vote for bad legislation in pursuit of their own vested interest. They basically \u201care federal dollars that members of Congress dole out to favor seekers \u2014 often campaign donors. In the process, lawmakers advocate for the companies, helping them bypass the normal system of evaluation and competition.\u201d1Forcing pork out in the open by making Congress vote to defend it after a Presidential line-item veto is the best way to remedy matters. Overall the President is more accountable to the people as a whole than individual representatives, and with their national mandate, more able to stand up to powerful interest groups.  1 David Heath and Hal Bernton, $4.5 million for a boat that nobody wanted, The Seattle Times, 15\/10\/07 , accessed 5\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-pro01b","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"There are other means by which cutting earmarks could be achieved, without the drastic step of mutilating the work of the Founding Fathers. For a start, Congress could just ban the use of earmarks, unfortunately an attempt in 2010 was defeated 39-56 in the Senate.1 Existing rescission powers could be toughened by requiring Congress to hold a prompt vote on Presidential requests for appropriations cuts, rather than ignoring them as invariably happens now. The Impoundment power removed in 1974 could be restored. The convention that spending items in committee reports should be binding on the executive could be challenged. And the practice of legislating massive omnibus spending bills could be ended; more, smaller and more focused bills would make pork more obvious and make it more viable for a President to veto a whole bill without causing the federal government to collapse for want of funding.  1 Rushing , J. Taylor, 'Senate votes down ban on earmarks 39-56', The Hill, 30\/11\/10,accessed 5\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-con03b","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"The use of the line-item veto power by President Clinton in 1997 demonstrates the advantages of such authority. Although the power was declared unconstitutional in 1998 by the Supreme Court, while he held it Clinton demonstrated what could be achieved. He acted cautiously, only cancelling 82 appropriations, but these totalled nearly $2 billion1\u2013 a useful contribution in itself to reducing the federal deficit, and one that suggested that much bigger savings could be achieved by a more determined President. The Congressional Budget Office agreed according to the Congressional Budget Office \"The 1997 cancellations had a relatively small impact on the budget's bottom line, but that outcome may have resulted in part from temporary factors, such as last year's balanced budget agreement.\"2 This period also demonstrated that Congress would still retain the power of the purse, as it was able to overrule one of Clinton\u2019s deletions, on the Military Construction bill worth $287billion, by majority vote in both houses.3  1 It is time for congress to kill the pig, Center for individual freedom, 11\/11\/04, accessed 6\/5\/11  2 The line item veto act after one year\u2019, Congressional Budget Office, April 1998, accessed 6\/5\/11  3 Marc Lacey, \u2018Senate Votes 1st Override of Clinton Line-Item Vetos, Los Angeles Times, 26\/2\/1998, accessed 6\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-con01b","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"This amendment would only give the President a limited power for a limited but worthwhile purpose. The media and interest group scrutiny that accompanies the Presidency will ensure that the White House will have to justify every line-item decision made. It does not affect the Congress's power regarding policy-making, entitlement programmes or taxation. Indeed, it is little different to the existing convention of executive \"Signing Statements\" whereby the President can sign legislation while making it clear his intention not to fully implement aspects of it. It would create a budgetary separation of powers between the president and congress so introducing checks and balances against the abuse of power.1  1 Ferro, Lucas and De Magalhaes, Leandro M. 'Budgetary Separation of Powers in the American States and the Tax Level: A Regression Discontinuity Design', Bristol University, Oct 2009,accessed 5\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-con02a","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"The constitution should not be amended  We should always be cautious of altering the United States\u2019 Constitution. Once an amendment is passed, it is extremely hard to overturn, even if its consequences are clearly negative (as the experience of constitutionally-mandated prohibition of alcohol should make clear). It would be both difficult and unnecessary. There are problems of wording and interpretation. The 1996 Act covered 22 pages and went into great detail to define the extent and limits of Presidential authority under the legislation, including the exact meanings of \u201csingle item of appropriation\u201d, ''direct spending'' and ''limited tax benefit'', as well as the means by which Congress could override his decisions.1 It is hard to believe that a one-paragraph amendment to the Constitution could achieve such precision, opening the budgetary process up to confusion, shifting interpretation and constant legal challenge. It is also unnecessary. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia argues \"The short of the matter is this: Had the Line Item Veto Act authorized the president to 'decline to spend' any item of spending ... there is not the slightest doubt that authorization would have been constitutional\u2026 What the Line Item Veto Act does instead -- authorizing the president to 'cancel' an item of spending -- is technically different.\"2 Thus the act could simply have been worded differently in order to make it constitutional. This would not change the substance of the ability of the \u2018veto\u2019 to cut spending.  1 One hundred fourth Congress of the United States of America at the second session, \u201cLine Item Veto Act\u201d, 3\/1\/1996, The Library of Congress, accessed 6\/5\/11  2 Supreme Court Justice Scalia quoted in Michael Kirkland, \u2018Under the U.S. Supreme Court: Like the South, will line item veto rise again?\u2019, upi.com, 17\/4\/11 accessed 6\/5\/11  improve this  COUNTERPOINT  \"I do not take these matters lightly in amending the Constitution. However, I am convinced in this case it is the only way to provide the President with the same authority that 44 Governors already have to influence spending.\"1It would in general be preferable to make such a change through normal legislation, but that was attempted in 1996 and found unconstitutional. Supreme Court Justice Stevens in his majority opinion for the Supreme Court argued that it was necessary for there to be an amendment to make it constitutional, \"If there is to be a new procedure in which the president will play a different role in determining the text of what may \"become a law\", such change must come not by legislation but through the amendment procedures set forth in Article V of the Constitution.\"2  1 Item veto constitutional amendment hearing before the subcommittee on the constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 23\/3\/00, accessed 5\/5\/11  2 Clinton, President of the United States, et al. v. City of New York et al. No.97-1374, United States Supreme Court, 1998,accessed 5\/5\/11  improve this  APPENDIX"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-con03a","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"Has made little difference in the past  The precedent of the Line Item Veto Act under President Clinton should warn against a constitutional amendment. The sums saved were laughably small, $355 million, in the context of the entire federal budget, $1.7 trillion, (0.02% of spending)1 but nonetheless provoked considerable friction between elected representatives and the White House. There was unhappiness that the large majority of his cuts were of earmarks requested by Republican members, and an allegation that the Administration had threatened a Congressman with the veto of an item dear to them unless they supported an unrelated piece of legislation.  1Virginia A. McMurty, 'Enhancing the President's Authority to Eliminate Wasteful Spending and Reduce the Deficit', Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information, Federal Services and International Security Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Committee Hearing 15\/3\/2011, p.9"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-con01a","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"A President would be able to abuse the power given to them in a line-item veto authority, leveraging it into undue influence over other elements of the legislative process. By threatening to veto items dear to particular Congressmen, they could obtain assent to bills, treaties and appointments that otherwise would not be forthcoming. Such intimidation would be subtle and hard to prove, but it would erode checks on the executive and fundamentally alter the balance of power within the constitution. This means that budgets are politicised even more than is currently the case. When the line item veto was previously used by Clinton republicans such as Rick Santorum argued that every decision \"has political overtones, but that's fine, it comes with the territory,\" Senator Ted Stevens went further \"We're dealing with a raw abuse of political power by a president who doesn't have to run again\".1  1 Hugliotta, Guy and Pianin, Eric, 'Line-Item Veto Tips Traditional Balance of Power', Washington Post, 24\/10\/97,accessed 5\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapghwliva-con02b","title":"onal americas politics government house wants line item veto amendment","text":"We should always be cautious of altering the United States\u2019 Constitution. Once an amendment is passed, it is extremely hard to overturn, even if its consequences are clearly negative (as the experience of constitutionally-mandated prohibition of alcohol should make clear). It would be both difficult and unnecessary. There are problems of wording and interpretation. The 1996 Act covered 22 pages and went into great detail to define the extent and limits of Presidential authority under the legislation, including the exact meanings of \u201csingle item of appropriation\u201d, ''direct spending'' and ''limited tax benefit'', as well as the means by which Congress could override his decisions.1 It is hard to believe that a one-paragraph amendment to the Constitution could achieve such precision, opening the budgetary process up to confusion, shifting interpretation and constant legal challenge. It is also unnecessary. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia argues \"The short of the matter is this: Had the Line Item Veto Act authorized the president to 'decline to spend' any item of spending ... there is not the slightest doubt that authorization would have been constitutional\u2026 What the Line Item Veto Act does instead -- authorizing the president to 'cancel' an item of spending -- is technically different.\"2 Thus the act could simply have been worded differently in order to make it constitutional. This would not change the substance of the ability of the \u2018veto\u2019 to cut spending.  1 One hundred fourth Congress of the United States of America at the second session, \u201cLine Item Veto Act\u201d, 3\/1\/1996, The Library of Congress, accessed 6\/5\/11  2 Supreme Court Justice Scalia quoted in Michael Kirkland, \u2018Under the U.S. Supreme Court: Like the South, will line item veto rise again?\u2019, upi.com, 17\/4\/11 accessed 6\/5\/11  improve this  COUNTERPOINT  \"I do not take these matters lightly in amending the Constitution. However, I am convinced in this case it is the only way to provide the President with the same authority that 44 Governors already have to influence spending.\"1It would in general be preferable to make such a change through normal legislation, but that was attempted in 1996 and found unconstitutional. Supreme Court Justice Stevens in his majority opinion for the Supreme Court argued that it was necessary for there to be an amendment to make it constitutional, \"If there is to be a new procedure in which the president will play a different role in determining the text of what may \"become a law\", such change must come not by legislation but through the amendment procedures set forth in Article V of the Constitution.\"2  1 Item veto constitutional amendment hearing before the subcommittee on the constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 23\/3\/00, accessed 5\/5\/11  2 Clinton, President of the United States, et al. v. City of New York et al. No.97-1374, United States Supreme Court, 1998,accessed 5\/5\/11  improve this  APPENDIX"}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro02b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Possessing nuclear weapons will do little to help small and poor nations set the agendas on the international stage. In the present age, economic power is far more significant in international and diplomatic discourse than is military power, particularly nuclear weapon power. States will not be able to have their grievances more rapidly addressed in the United Nations or elsewhere, since they will be unable to use nuclear weapons in an aggressive context as that would seriously threaten their own survival. Possessing nuclear weapons may at best provide some security against neighbouring states, but it creates the greater threat of accidental or unintended use or of nuclear weapons falling into the hands of terrorists and rogue states."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro02a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Nuclear weapons give states valuable agenda-setting power on the international stage  The issues discussed in international forums are largely set by nuclear powers. The permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council, for example, is composed only of nuclear powers, the same states that had nuclear weapons at the end of World War II. If all countries possess nuclear weapons, they redress the imbalance with regard to international clout, at least to the extent to which military capacity shapes states\u2019 interactions with each other. [1] Furthermore, the current world order is grossly unfair, based on the historical anachronism of the post-World War II era. The nuclear powers, wanting to retain their position of dominance in the wake of the post-war chaos, sought to entrench their position, convincing smaller nations to sign up to non-proliferation agreements and trying to keep the nuclear club exclusive. It is only right, in terms of fairness that states not allow themselves the ability to possess certain arms while denying that right to others. Likewise, it is unfair in that it denies states, particularly those incapable of building large conventional militaries, the ability to defend themselves, relegating them to an inferior status on the world stage. [2] To finally level the international playing field and allow equal treatment to all members of the congress of nations, states must have the right to develop nuclear weapons.  [1] Fearon, James D. 1994. \u201cSignaling Versus the Balance of Power and Interests: An Empirical Test of a Crisis Bargaining Model\u201d. Journal of Conflict Resolution 38(2).  [2] Betts, Richard K. 1987. Nuclear blackmail and nuclear balance. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro03b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Possessing nuclear weapons will do little to help small and poor nations set the agendas on the international stage. In the present age, economic power is far more significant in international and diplomatic discourse than is military power, particularly nuclear weapon power. States will not be able to have their grievances more rapidly addressed in the United Nations or elsewhere, since they will be unable to use nuclear weapons in an aggressive context as that would seriously threaten their own survival. Possessing nuclear weapons may at best provide some security against neighbouring states, but it creates the greater threat of accidental or unintended use or of nuclear weapons falling into the hands of terrorists and rogue states."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro05a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Public acknowledgement of the right to nuclear deterrence will benefit the public regulation of nuclear weapons generally  When nuclear deterrence is an acknowledged right of states, they will necessarily be less concealing of their capability, as the deterrent effect works only because it is visible and widely known. Knowledge of states\u2019 nuclear capability allows greater regulation and cooperation in development of nuclear programs from developed countries with more advanced nuclear programs. [1] Developed countries can help construct and maintain the nuclear weapons of other countries, helping to guarantee the safety protocols of countries\u2019 programs are suitably robust. This will cause a diminution in clandestine nuclear weapons programs, and will reduce the chances of weapons-grade material falling into the hands of terrorists. Thus, greater openness and freedom in the development of nuclear weapons will increase the security of nuclear stockpiles.  [1] Sagan, Scott D. 1993. The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons. Princeton: Princeton University Press."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro01a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"All countries have a right to defend themselves with nuclear weapons, even when they lack the capacity in conventional weapons  The nation-state is the fundamental building block of the international system, and is recognized as such in all international treaties and organizations. States are recognized as having the right to defend themselves, and this right must extend to the possession of nuclear deterrence. Often states lack the capacity to defend themselves with conventional weapons. This is particularly true of poor and small states. Even wealthy, small states are susceptible to foreign attack, since their wealth cannot make up for their lack of manpower. With a nuclear deterrent, all states become equal in terms of ability to do harm to one another. [1] If a large state attempts to intimidate, or even invade a smaller neighbour, it will be unable to effectively cow it, since the small state will have the power to grievously wound, or even destroy, the would-be invader with a few well-placed nuclear missiles. [2] For example, the Russian invasion of Georgia in 2008 would likely never have occurred, as Russia would have thought twice when considering the potential loss of several of its cities it would need to exchange for a small piece of Georgian territory. Clearly, nuclear weapons serve in many ways to equalize states irrespective of size, allowing them to more effectively defend themselves. Furthermore, countries will only use nuclear weapons in the vent of existential threat. This is why, for example, North Korea has not used nuclear weapons; for it, like all other states, survival is the order of the day, and using nuclear weapons aggressively would spell its certain destruction. Countries will behave rationally with regard to the use of nuclear weapons, as they have done since their invention and initial proliferation. Weapons in the hands of more people will thus not result in the greater risk of their use.  [1] Jervis, Robert. 2001. \u201cWeapons Without Purpose? Nuclear Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era\u201d. Foreign Affairs.  [2] Mearsheimer, John. 1993. \u201cThe Case for a Ukrainian Nuclear Deterrent\u201d. Foreign Affairs."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro01b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"While states do of course have the right to defend themselves, this does not extend to the possession and use of nuclear weapons. The destructive power of nuclear weapons cannot be contained in either space or time. They have the potential to destroy all civilization and the entire ecosystem of the planet. International humanitarian law prohibits the use of weapons that are incapable of distinguishing between civilian objects and military targets. [1] Indeed, the use of nuclear weapons could well constitute a war crime or a crime against humanity. [2] Just as biological and chemical weapons are banned by international treaty, so too the international community generally acknowledges the dangers of nuclear proliferation, which is why so many treaties are dedicated to non-proliferation. [3] It is unfortunate that nuclear weapons exist, even more so that a few countries are still seeking to develop them. It is better to fight this movement and to prevent their use or acquisition by terrorists and the like. It is also essential for States to fulfil their obligation under Article VI of the NPT \u2018to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all aspects under strict and effective international control\u2019. [4] Nuclear weapons cannot lawfully be employed or deployed and there is a legal obligation to negotiate in good faith for, and ensure, their elimination. [5]  [1] International Court of Justice. 1996. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1996, p 226.  [2] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 1998.  [3] Shah, Anup. 2009. \u201cNuclear Weapons\u201d. Global Issues.  [4] International Court of Justice. 1996. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1996, p 226.  [5] Grief, Nicholas. 2011. \u201cNuclear Weapons: the Legal Status of Use, Threat and Possession\u201d. Nuclear Abolition Forum, Issue No 1."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro05b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"It is very unlikely that many states will invite their neighbours to help them in the development of their weapons and in securing them, as doing so would open the risk to sabotage and would disclose potential weakness in their defences. Furthermore, terrorists will not be substantially deterred by greater openness in weapons development, as there will be more potential suppliers of weapons."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro04b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"The nuclear peace theory only holds when all nuclear-armed states behave rationally. This cannot be guaranteed, as rogue states exist whose leaders may not be so rational, and whose governments may not be capable of checking the power of individual, erratic tyrants. Also, international conflicts might well be exacerbated in the event that terrorists or other dissidents acquire nuclear weapons or dirty bombs, leading to greater fear that nuclear weapons will be used. A better situation is one in which nuclear weapons are reduced and ultimately eliminated, rather than increased in number. Furthermore, MAD can break down in some cases, when weapon delivery systems are improved. For example, Pakistan\u2019s military has developed miniaturized nuclear warheads for use against tanks and other hard targets on the Indian border, that will leave little nuclear fallout and thus be more likely to be employed in the event of a border skirmish. This development could well cause escalation in future conflict. [1] In addition to the risk of such smaller weapons is the risk of pre-emptive nuclear strikes, as some countries with nuclear weapons might lack second-strike capability. Clearly, possession of nuclear weapons will not guarantee peace, and if war does occur, it will be far more ghastly than any conventional war.  [1] The Economist. 2011. \u201cThe World\u2019s Most Dangerous Border\u201d. The Economist."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro04a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Nuclear weapons serve to defuse international conflicts and force compromise  Nuclear weapons create stability, described in the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Countries with nuclear weapons have no incentive to engage in open military conflict with one another; all recognize that they will suffer destruction if they choose the path of war. [1] If countries have nuclear weapons, fighting simply becomes too costly. This serves to defuse conflicts, and reduce the likelihood of the outbreak of war. For example, the conflict between India and Pakistan was defused by the acquisition of nuclear weapons by both sides. Before they obtained nuclear weapons, they fought three wars that claimed millions of lives. Relations between the two states, while still far from cordial, have never descended into open war. The defusing of the immediate tension of war, has given the chance for potential dialogue. [2] A similar dynamic has been played out a number of times in the past, and as of yet there has never been a war between two nuclear powers. When states have nuclear weapons they cannot fight, making the world a more peaceful place.  [1] Waltz, Kenneth. 1981. \u201cThe Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better\u201d. Adelphi Papers 171. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies.  [2] Nizamani, Haider K. 2000. The Roots of Rhetoric: Politics of Nuclear weapons in India and Pakistan. Westport: Praeger."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con03b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Powerful states often couch their imperial ambitions and desires to further their own aims on the world stage in the language of humanitarian intervention. [1] Such interventions are rarely due solely to the abuses, real and imagined, committed by leaders upon their people, but are driven by geopolitical considerations. This is why interventions have been staged in the Middle East, as in Iraq where there were substantial oil reserves, while not in Sudan where civil war has been rife, but which possesses little in the way of strategic or economic significance. Recognizing the right of all states to possess nuclear weapons serves to diminish the number of political power plays of strong states against weaker ones, and entrenches the concept of national self-determination as an ideal that should not be infringed by strong nations against the weak.  [1] Walsh, John. 2011. \u201cLibya and the Hypocrisy of Humanitarian Intervention\u201d. Daily Paul."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con01b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"All parties recognize the risk of their total destruction as a result of starting a nuclear conflict. This is exactly why no full scale war has broken out between nuclear powers. Supposing that states will be unable to handle the responsibility of nuclear weapons does not change the fact that many states have them, and also that many other states are incapable of defending themselves from aggressive neighbours without a nuclear deterrent."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con02a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"The threat of nuclear weapons falling into the hands of rogue states and terrorists increases as more countries possess them  There are many dangerous dictators and tyrants, many of who covet the possession of nuclear weapons not just for the purpose of defence, but also for that of intimidating their neighbours. [1] Such leaders should not possess nuclear weapons, nor should they ever be facilitated in their acquisition. For example, Iran has endeavoured for years on a clandestine nuclear weapons program that, were it recognized as a legitimate pursuit, could be increased in scale and completed with greater speed. The result of such an achievement could well destabilize the Middle East and would represent a major threat to the existence of a number of states within the region, particularly Israel. Furthermore, the risk of nuclear weapons, or at least weapons-grade material, falling into the hands of dissidents and terrorists increases substantially when there are more of them and larger numbers of countries possess them. Additionally, many countries in the developing world lack the capacity to safely secure weapons if they owned them, due to lack of technology, national instability, and government corruption. [2] Recognizing the rights of these countries to hold nuclear weapons vastly increases the risk of their loss or misuse.  [1] Slantchev, Branislav. 2005. \u201cMilitary Coercion in Interstate Crises\u201d. American Political Science Review 99(4).  [2] Sagan, Scott D. 1993. The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons. Princeton: Princeton University Press."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con05a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"The threat of a state developing nuclear weapons could instigate pre-emptive strikes from its neighbours and rivals to prevent the acquisition of such weapons  The threat represented by potential nuclear powers will instigate pre-emptive strikes by countries fearing the future behaviour of the budding nuclear powers. Until a state develops a nuclear capacity that its rivals believe they cannot destroy in a first strike, nuclear weapons increase the risk of war. For example, Israel will have a very real incentive to attack Iran before it can complete its development of nuclear weapons, lest it become an existential threat to Israel\u2019s survival. The United States military even considered attempting to destroy the USSR\u2019s capability before they had second strike capability General Orvil Anderson publicly declared: \u201cGive me the order to do it and I can break up Russia\u2019s five A-bomb nests in a week\u2026And when I went up to Christ\u2014I think I could explain to Him that I had saved civilization.\u201d [1] The development of nuclear weapons can thus destabilize regions before they are ever operational, as it is in no country\u2019s interest that its rivals become capable of using nuclear force against it. Clearly, it is best that such states do not develop nuclear weapons in the first place so as to prevent such instability and conflict.  [1] Stevens, Austin \u201cGeneral Removed over War Speech,\u201d New York Times, September 2, 1950, p. 8  improve this  COUNTERPOINT  If a country is surrounded by hostile neighbours that are likely to attempt a pre-emptive strike upon it, then nuclear weapons are all the more desirable. With nuclear weapons a country cannot be pushed around by regional bullies. It seems perfectly fair that Iran would covet the ability to resist Israeli might in the Middle East and defend itself from aggression by it or the United States."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con04a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Possessing nuclear weapons will be counter to the peaceful interests of states  Most states will not benefit at all from possessing nuclear weapons. Developing a nuclear deterrent is seen in the international community as a sign of belligerence and a warlike character. Such an image does not suit the vast majority of states who would be better suited focusing on diplomacy, trade, and economic interdependence. [1] The loss of such diplomatic and economic relations in favour of force can seriously harm the citizens of would-be nuclear powers, as has occurred to the North Koreans, who have been isolated in international relations by their government\u2019s decision to develop nuclear weapons. If the right to nuclear weapons were recognized for all states, only those states that currently want them for strategic reasons will develop them, and they will do so more brazenly and with greater speed. These countries might try to develop them even if proliferation is outlawed, but giving them license increases the likelihood that they will succeed. Furthermore, when countries develop nuclear weapons, their neighbours may feel more vulnerable and thus be compelled by necessity to develop their own weapons. This will lead to arms races in some cases, and generally harm diplomacy.  [1] Sartori, Anne. 2005. Deterrence By Diplomacy. Princeton: Princeton University Press."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con03a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Humanitarian intervention becomes impossible in states that possess nuclear weapons  It has often proven to be necessary for the UN, the United States, and various international coalitions to stage humanitarian interventions into states fighting civil wars, committing genocide, or otherwise abusing the human rights of their citizens. [1] An example of such an intervention is the recent contributions by many states to the rebels in Libya. Were all countries permitted to possess nuclear weapons, such interventions would become next to impossible. Were, for example, countries to try and contribute to the Libyan rebels, they would find themselves the targets of Libyan nuclear warheads. The cost of intervention thus becomes too high for virtually any country to tolerate, in terms of both human and political costs. The world would be a worse place if tyrants were allowed to perpetrate whatever crimes they saw fit upon their people, while the international community could do nothing for fear of nuclear retaliation.  [1] Slantchev, Branislav. 2005. \u201cMilitary Coercion in Interstate Crises\u201d. American Political Science Review 99(4)."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con05b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"The threat represented by potential nuclear powers will instigate pre-emptive strikes by countries fearing the future behaviour of the budding nuclear powers. Until a state develops a nuclear capacity that its rivals believe they cannot destroy in a first strike, nuclear weapons increase the risk of war. For example, Israel will have a very real incentive to attack Iran before it can complete its development of nuclear weapons, lest it become an existential threat to Israel\u2019s survival. The United States military even considered attempting to destroy the USSR\u2019s capability before they had second strike capability General Orvil Anderson publicly declared: \u201cGive me the order to do it and I can break up Russia\u2019s five A-bomb nests in a week\u2026And when I went up to Christ\u2014I think I could explain to Him that I had saved civilization.\u201d [1] The development of nuclear weapons can thus destabilize regions before they are ever operational, as it is in no country\u2019s interest that its rivals become capable of using nuclear force against it. Clearly, it is best that such states do not develop nuclear weapons in the first place so as to prevent such instability and conflict.  [1] Stevens, Austin \u201cGeneral Removed over War Speech,\u201d New York Times, September 2, 1950, p. 8  improve this  If a country is surrounded by hostile neighbours that are likely to attempt a pre-emptive strike upon it, then nuclear weapons are all the more desirable. With nuclear weapons a country cannot be pushed around by regional bullies. It seems perfectly fair that Iran would covet the ability to resist Israeli might in the Middle East and defend itself from aggression by it or the United States."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con01a","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"The right of self-defence must be exercised in accordance with international law.  There can be no right to such terribly destructive weapons; their invention is one of the great tragedies of history, giving humanity the power to destroy itself. Even during the Cold War, most people viewed nuclear weapons at best as a necessary defence during that great ideological struggle, and at worst the scourge that would end all life on Earth. Nuclear war has never taken place, though it very nearly has on several occasions, such as during the Cuban Missile Crisis. And in 1983 a NATO war game, the Able Archer exercise simulating the full release of NATO nuclear forces, was interpreted by the Soviet Union as a prelude to a massive nuclear first-strike. Oleg Gordievsky, the KGB colonel who defected to the West, has stated that during Able Archer, without realising it, the world came \u2018frighteningly close\u2019 to the edge of the nuclear abyss, \u2018certainly closer than at any time since the Cuban missile crisis of 1962\u2019. [1] Soviet forces were put on immediate alert and an escalation was only avoided when NATO staff realised what was happening and scaled down the exercise. [2] Cooler heads might not prevail in future conflicts between nuclear powers; when there are more nuclear-armed states, the risk of someone doing something foolish increases. After all, it would take only one such incident to result in the loss of millions of lives. [3] Furthermore, in recent years positive steps have finally begun between the two states with the largest nuclear arsenals, the United States and Russia, in the strategic reduction of nuclear stockpiles. These countries, until recently the greatest perpetrators of nuclear proliferation, have now made commitments toward gradual reduction of weapon numbers until a tiny fraction of the warheads currently active will be usable. [4] All countries, both with and without nuclear weapons, should adopt this lesson. They should contribute toward non-proliferation, thus making the world safer from the threat of nuclear conflict and destruction. Clearly, the focus should be on the reduction of nuclear weapons, not their increase.  [1] Andrew, Christopher and Gordievsky, Oleg. 1991. \u201cKGB: The Inside story of its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev\u201d. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.  [2] Rogers, Paul. 2007. \u201cFrom Evil Empire to Axis of Evil\u201d. Oxford Research Group.  [3] Jervis, Robert. 1989. The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution: Statecraft and the Prospect of Armageddon, Cornell Studies in Security Affairs. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.  [4] Baker, Peter. 2010. \u201cTwists and Turns on Way to Arms Pact With Russia\u201d. The New York Times."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con04b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"It is true that most states will not develop nuclear weapons, whether they are recognized as a rightful possession of states or not. The important thing is that those states that do want nuclear weapons can have them, which will likely be only a handful. As to arms races, it is unlikely that they will occur, as the defence pacts between many states, such as NATO defend non-nuclear states without requiring them to possess such weapons themselves. [1] Furthermore, if a state feels vulnerable due to the nuclear armament of its neighbours, it should absolutely have the right to defend itself.  [1] Sagan, Scott D. 1993. The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons. Princeton: Princeton University Press."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con02b","title":"defence house believes all nations have right nuclear weapons","text":"Government legitimacy is defined in its most limited form as the ability to provide security and stability within its jurisdiction. It seems fair to say that international institutions and states with a stake in international order, as most do, will have an interest in keeping nuclear weapons out of the hands of failing and failed states, which do not retain the same legitimacy of states that can provide the baseline of security to their people. Furthermore, the openness created by the public recognition of the right to nuclear weapons will allow advanced countries to offer assistance in security and protection of nuclear stockpiles, making it less likely that nuclear weapons will fall into the hands of terrorists."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro02b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"The media always want a good story; they are interested in the health of celebrities when there is no clear reason why they should have any right to this private information. The health of the leader is not something that the press or public needs to know about unless it is an illness that is likely to affect the president\u2019s capacity to make decisions. A government\u2019s decision should not be based upon the possibility that information on the leader\u2019s health will leak and should take a consistent line that it is a private matter or provide a bare minimum of information."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro03b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Administrative capabilities should not be compared to health. Unhealthy leaders may perform better than the healthy ones, people could be misled to choose inappropriate leaders while taking health as a black spot while the leader could actually have a better potential than the rest. If the electorate had just elected on the basis of health, or had been fully informed about presidents health then it is plausible that neither FD Roosevelt of JF Kennedy would have been elected. Neither completely hid their illnesses but they were not discussed and did not become election issues as they would have in a modern election. 1  1 Berish, Amy, \u2018FDR and Polio\u2019, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro01b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"If a candidate has a condition during an election campaign then there is a clear right to know when the electorate is making the decision. But does such a right to know apply at other times when it will make no difference to the people? There can only be a right to know if it is going to affect the people, something that many illnesses won\u2019t do."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro04b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"All of these procedures could be put in place even if there is secrecy. Doctors are already committed to patient-doctor confidentiality so are unlikely to tell the press if they are told beforehand to be ready to receive the President."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con03b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Deputy leaders are appointed and they are well versed with how the leader is managing issues and are capable of taking up the role immediately after the leader resigns or dies. Being open and transparent about a leader being ill simply creates the lack of stability. If he lives it is best if the illness is not revealed as everything will carry on as before. If the leader dies then it is best nothing is known until his successor is announced so reducing the period of uncertainty."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con01b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"When leaders choose to serve the country they should be ready to sacrifice their privacy for the country. There is clearly a different standard for those who are in government and should be publicly accountable to those who are not. Even more minor illnesses can damage the running of the country through either affecting the judgment of the leader or limiting the amount of time he can work. The people have the right to demand their leader has his full attention of the issues affecting the nation. If he can't do that then he should resign."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con04b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"If the leader in-charge is in illness, to avoid any repudiation, the representative from the other side could meet the leader in order to confirm or even have a video conference with the leader in charge. The leader only needs to set the overall policy, not negotiate the fine details. When Nixon went to China the Americans knew Mao was ill but realised that he still set the overall direction of policy."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con02b","title":"ch debate free speech and privacy health general international africa politics","text":"Transparency is still better than secrecy. There are several reasons why the opportunity of instability is as present when keeping the leader's health a secret. The first is that it is likely that at least some of the leader's rivals are in government so are likely to be in the loop on any illness. In this case secrecy simply gives these individuals more opportunity to do as they wish. Secondly a lack of transparency creates uncertainty which can be filled by a rival wanting to seize power; if the leader is just ill and there is a void of information it is simply for rivals to seize the narrative and claim he is dead enabling their takeover."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro02b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"It is true that the Founding Fathers did design the complexion of the Federal Government in such a way that prevents power from being concentrated in one place. This made sense in the eighteenth century when the states had most of the power. However the power and responsibilities of the federal government has expanded dramatically. The United States is no longer best off with a slow government that creates compromise. In a period where the poles of the parties are increasingly powerful government is not just slow but glacial as is shown by the crisis in 2011 over negotiations to raise the debt ceiling. [1] Single party government would be able to get its legislation passed and could actually govern rather than merely engaging in political manoeuvring to fend off the other party.  [1] MacAskill, Ewen, and Rushe, Dominic, \u2018US debt crisis talks reach an impasse\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 26 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro02a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Constitutional imperative  The Constitution of the United States is designed to prevent power from being concentrated in one place, with each of the three branches (executive, legislative and judicial) placing checks and balances upon each other. As James Madison wrote \u201cIt is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part.\u201d [1]  This principle ensures that power is divided, facilitating greater dialogue between the branches and between the two houses of Congress which seeks to compromise with each other to provide the best possible expression of Congress\u2019 will.  Such a need for compromise between the branches lends itself to having control of the two elected branches being spilt between two parties necessitating compromise as opposed to single party control of both houses, where compromise can be pre-arranged to fit the aims of the executive. Therefore, Divided Government is an extra requirement to government, ensuring that powers are not concentrated to the detriment of Americans.  [1] Madison, James, \u2018The Federalist No.51 The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments\u2019, Independent Journal, 6 February 1788,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro03b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Congress maybe a bicameral body, but it still needs to be able to work effectively and having control split between the parties is not conducive to this. Reconciliation only truly works when there is a clear and coherent ideological programme to work around when making straightening differences between laws. In an ever more polarised politics, divided government would be more likely to result in gridlock as is the case in 2011 the reconciliation.  Voters may also choose an ideological swing, rendering such a point moot. There was a clear mandate for Republican policies from 2003 to 2007 and Democratic policies from 2009. Every democracy has its losers. Voters recognise this and vote for a clear program at elections, not a watered down version of it."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro01a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Checks and balances  By having both parties in charge of different parts of the Government, there can be a greater degree of scrutiny over policy as the opposition party will force the president to justify his policies.  Under single-party rule, there is a risk of a President being able to push through his\/her agenda with little oversight from a legislative branch that is largely in agreement with the policy. One need only look to authoritarian governments the world over to see that governments with too much power are likely to abuse that power.  Divided Government provides a check on the executive, preventing agendas to be pushed through, allowing for compromise to be made between the two major parties, ensuring that the best possible policy for Americans is enacted. As Benjamin Franklin wrote \u201cIt is not enough that your Legislature should be numerous; it should also be divided.\u201d [1]  [1] Franklin, Benjamin, Writings, \u2018III. On the Legislative Branch.\u2019 10:55 \u2013 60, 1789,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro01b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Proposition makes the assumption that Single-Party Government prevents Checks and Balances to be enacted within the United States Government. This is simply not true as there are still institutional breaks on the executive such as the Supreme Court.  In particular the most powerful check of all is still in place, no matter how powerful a party is it will still have to face presidential elections in at most four years\u2019 time and elections in the house within two years. A single partly government will therefore not have long to take advantage of their weak opposition.  Even in congress supermajorities - the high threshold required for a filibuster proof majority \u2013 are rare; 60 out of 100 senators which before 2009 had not happened since 1979 and previously 1937 means that congress will still be a check. [1] This along with the ideologically fractured nature of the two major parties forces the executive to compromise with Congress and the opposition to provide a policy which is the best for the electorate.  [1] Tumulty, Karen, \u2018A Filibuster=Proof Majority\u2019, Time, 28 April 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro04b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Divided Government may in theory provide an impetus for co-operation but rather has been an opportunity for the divisiveness of the campaign to continue once the votes have been counted. Instead of co-operation, what is commonly seen is partisan tactics from both sides of the aisle to discredit the other side, preventing compromise and leading to gridlock. In some extreme cases a complete shutdown of the federal government has been forced due to the impasse, such as in 1995 when Clinton was unable to work with an obstinate Republican Congress. [1]  While Reagan was able to use his co-operation with House Democrats to great effect in pushing through policy and gaining re-election. [2] Clinton was re-elected by showing himself as the only one prepared to compromise compared to the dogmatic Republicans, merely continuing the Partisan mode of campaigning the Proposition hopes would end through divided government. [3]  [1] \u20181995-96 Government Shutdown\u2019, Slaying the Dragon of Debt,   [2] Faler, Brian, \u2018Reagan\u2019s Tax Increases Have Democrats Recalling Republican Hero\u2019, Bloomberg, 22 July 2011,   [3] Kessler, Glenn, \u2018Lessons from the great government shutdown of 1995-96\u2019, The Washington Post, 25 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro03a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"How Congress Works  Congress is a bicameral body, with its constituent parts, the House of Representatives and Senate, working largely independent of each other to create bills. However necessary for both the house and Senate to pass laws in identical form in order for it to become law. [1] A period of \u2018Reconciliation\u2019 is usually required to find a compromise between two different versions of the same bill in order to maintain and improve what is best about proposed reforms and eliminate flaws before it becomes law. [2]  This independence between the two chambers, with Reconciliation being one of the few areas where the two meet can allow for division in Congress between the two major parties. Indeed this can be seen as beneficial, as the broadest ideological range will be considered when making a policy work by reconciling two bills, making sure that centrist policy is enacted, preventing an ideological swing against the wishes of the people.  [1] Goldman et al., The Challenge of Democracy, Brief ed., Fourth ed., New York 2001, p.196  [2] United States Senate, \u2018reconciliation process\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro04a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Effect on the structure of the main political parties  Divided Government creates an imperative for compromise, encouraging the parties to work together for the best outcomes. This can help to undermine the more visceral aspects of debate, with the contest for election being left behind in order to focus on governing for the good of all Americans. As a result the greatest American achievements have come when there has been broad bipartisan consensus. [1]  There is also a Partisan consideration to seeking divided Government. The more successful two-term Presidents of recent times, Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton, governed with Congress partly or completely controlled by the opposition party. [2] They were able to work with the opposition to pursue the best policy, aiding their re-election hopes by pitching themselves as seeking to compromise, in line with the aspirations of voters, who on the whole prefer divided government in order to promote mature co-operation between the parties.  [1] McCarty, Nolan, \u2018The Policy Consequences of Partisan Polarization in the United States\u2019, bcep.haas.berkeley.edu\/papers\/McCarty.doc  [2] \u2018Divided Government\u2019 Wikipedia,  accessed 30\/1\/12"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con03b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"The reason why a febrile atmosphere has emerged in recent years is because both red and blue single-party governments have made unpopular decisions without the necessary checks being place upon it. This has made people disenchanted with the political system and made them think that it is only looks out for ideological elites, causing a backlash in the form of the Tea Party and Occupy movements. [1]  Divided Government combats this by helping to re-establish consensus between the parties over what is best for America, ensuring that policies have the consent of a majority of people, thus preventing the overtly ideological backlashes seen recently.  [1] Miles, Chris, \u2018What the Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street Have in Common\u2019, policymic,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con01b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"It is Single-Party Government that fails to represent the interest of Americans. By subscribing to just one view of what makes good policy, government risks simply taking into account little over half the electorate (and under half the population, giving how low voter turnout usually is in American Elections [1] ) when taking actions that effect all. By taking into account the wants and aims of both parties, the best policy that can carry the support of the broad cross-section of society will be implemented, preventing disillusionment with unrepresentative, overtly ideological government.  [1] Infoplease, \u2018National Voter Turnout in Federal Elections: 1960\u20132010\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con02a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Existing checks and balances  Proposition have made out so far that single-party Government has few checks upon it, allowing for overbearing ideological government. This however is not true as there a many external checks upon a single-party government that can prevent this.  Firstly, the checks and balances put in place by the Constitution means that the executive is unable to do much without the consent of Congress, meaning that the President would need the support of his\/her party in the legislature to do what (s)he wants in government.  Within Congress, the governing party would still face oversight from Departmental Committees that scrutinises its work and unless the governing party can get a filibuster-proof majority of 60 Senators in the Upper House, then a degree of negotiation would be required.  Finally, the nominally non-partisan Supreme Court can strike down laws seen to violate the terms of the Constitution. Together these bodies are able to constrain single-party government to prevent it from abusing its power."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con04a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Parties as coalitions  The two political parties are ideologically broad churches, with many different factions that stand up for varying positions on the ideological spectrum. The republicans for example contain within them several different republican movements; from social conservatives or \u2018the religious right\u2019, through libertarian conservatism like much of the tea party, to fiscal conservatives who are mostly more moderate. Interweaving these three is national security conservatism and issues conservatism. [1]  Policies formed by each party are specifically designed to take into account of the different strands within the party, creating a platform that all candidates can stand on.  The policy is in effect a compromise between different wings of the party, with Primaries adding credence to a particular view.  In effect, Policies enacted under Single-Party Government have had the oversight from party members in order to be representative of the different interests within the party, thus delivering clear, coherent policies to the people that are constantly self-corrected due to the different ideological streams.  [1] Westen, Drew, \u2018The Five Strands of Conservatism: Why the GOP is Unraveling\u2019, HuffPost, 23 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con03a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Growing partisanship  The current political climate makes divided government difficult anyway. The terms of debate in American politics is based on a perceived \u2018culture war\u2019 between liberals and conservatives over what it means to be American, something that has been exacerbated by 24-hour news and a proliferation of partisan blogging.  This makes agreements on core issues difficult to achieve and this has become apparent in recent years, with opposition to Barack Obama\u2019s $1 trillion stimulus package helping to spawn the Tea Party movement [1] that has helped move the Republican Party to the right, making the compromise required for effective divided government unachievable. [2]  While it has been most noticeable recently the US political climate has been becoming more polarized for the last twenty-five years. This polarization helps to create gridlock and less public policy. [3] The stasis in Congress created by the dogmatic Republicans winning the House in the 2010 mid-terms shows how America\u2019s political climate is now much more suited to Single-Party Government, allowing for much more effective decision making than divided government.  [1] Ferrara, Peter, \u2018The tea Party Revolution\u2019, The American Spectator, 15 April 2009,   [2] Rawls, Caroline, \u2018Moderate Republicans Lament GOP Shift Further Right\u2019, newsmax, 27 July 2011,   [3] McCarty, Nolan, \u2018The Policy Consequences of Partisan Polarization in the United States\u2019, bcep.haas.berkeley.edu\/papers\/McCarty.doc"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con01a","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"Effect on democratic participation  Divided Government undermines the democratic will of the people as it prevents a clear policy choice from being enacted by those elected to represent them.  The compromise necessary will result in policy platforms enthusiastically chosen by voters being watered down in order for it to be even partly enacted. It is notable that the majority of legislation originates from Congress when government is divided rather than from the President. This is despite the president being the one with the nationwide mandate. [1]  Single Party Government counters this by ensuring that policies clearly presented to and chosen by the electorate are enacted without having to countenance the opinions of an opposition whose policies have just been discredited by the electorate, Thus ensuring that government is responsive to the aims and wishes of the people.  [1] Jones, Charles O., The Presidency in a Separated System, The Brookings Institution, 1994, p.222"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con04b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"The parties may be broad churches with many mechanisms in place to form the \u2018best policy\u2019 but that can still lead to flaws under a single-party government. It is easy for one wing to dominate a party, as has been seen recently with the dominance of the Tea Party within the Republican Party.  Primaries are a symptom of this, with the views of grass roots being expressed in results that do not conform to the views of a majority of voters.  This can lead to parties standing and governing on a platform that is unrepresentative of the aims of many Americans. Under Single-Party Government, there is little scope for moderating highly ideological government, thus underlining the need for divided government."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con02b","title":"government house believes governance united states should be split between two","text":"As noted earlier, compromises in Congress can be pre-arranged in order to satisfy the aims of the Executive if both are controlled by the same party, reducing the amount of check and balance from Congress. The party in control of Congress also form majorities on Departmental Committees making effective scrutiny conditional upon whether or not government is divided.  The last time a supermajority in the Senate was achieved along party lines was during the 95th Congress of 1977-79 when the Democrats had 61 seats. Since then no party has achieved this yet the majority party has still have been able to use the influence they have to work in conjunction with their President\u2019s agenda. Only by having split control can there be a real check and balance.  The Supreme Court can be quite partisan with Justices reading the law in order to fit their own ideological biases. [1] A seen a number of times during the Presidency of George W. Bush, the largely Republican appointed Court made controversial decisions in favour of the President and Republicans on Abortion and Affirmative Action, undermining the idea of the Court as a check on government power.  [1] Sunstein, Cass R., \u2018Judicial Partisanship Awards\u2019, The Washington independent, 31 July 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro02b","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"Negotiations to defuse the cause of the immediate tension, and sanctions to encourage North Korea to the negotiating table are sensible, proportionate responses to North Korean actions. It is difficult to see how sanctions can be seen as encouraging even if those sanctions are then eased when North Korea climbs down."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro02a","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"Providing attention simply encourages the regime  North Korea has an attention seeking cycle on the go that was used by Kim Jong Il and now seems to be used by his son Kim Jong Un. Essentially North Korea takes a provocative action (as big or small as it thinks necessary \u2013 this may be a missile launch, right up to some kind of military attack) in order to grab the world\u2019s attention. There is then a period where there are condemnations and threats to increase sanctions that usually don\u2019t get anywhere as they are blocked by China. The North Korean regime will then proclaim a willingness to do business and negotiate giving minor concessions on the issue of the provocation in return for aid or whatever the regime happens to want at the time. Of course whatever concession it gives is easily reversible so setting up another round. [1] This is a good deal for North Korea as it essentially gets aid in return for bad behaviour, it is therefore not surprising that the North is willing to continue engaging in bad behaviour.  [1] Hong, Adrian, \u2018How to Free North Korea\u2019, Foreign Policy, 19 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro03b","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"The United States has its own interests in the North Korean question, not only does it have troops in South Korea and security guarantees to maintain with its ally but it is also concerned by nuclear proliferation. If there is a chance to get rid of North Korean nuclear weapons through negotiations, or even a peace treaty should the USA not take that when it is in the US national interest? [1]  [1] DiFilippo, Anthony, \u2018Time for North Korea Peace Treaty\u2019, The Diplomat, 11 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro01a","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"South Korea can handle the situation itself  The two Koreas should be able to solve the situation themselves without recourse to all the neighbouring powers \u2013 whose interest does not seem to have spurred a solution to the frozen conflict anyway. With the Cold War over South Korea is more than capable of handling its own security. South Korea is economically far ahead of the North with its economy thirty seven times bigger. [1] Its military is also more capable than the North\u2019s as the International Institute for Strategic Studies argues \u201cAs measured by static equipment indices, South Korea\u2019s conventional forces would appear superior to North Korea\u2019s. When morale, training, equipment maintenance, logistics, and reconnaissance and communications capabilities are factored in, this qualitative advantage increases.\u201d [2] So should be able to deter aggression on its own and pull its own weight in negotiations without the need of a multilateral process. Moreover no one would argue that an invasion should be ignored however the South should be the one who responds to North Korean actions on its own.  [1] Oh Young-Jin, \u2018South Korean economy 37 times bigger than NK\u2019s\u2019, The Korea Times, 5 January 2011,   [2] \u2018The Conventional Military Balance on the Korean Peninsula\u2019, The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro01b","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"Pressure from other states acts as a force multiplier helping to show that the North has crossed a line with its actions. A lack of reaction from the Unites States, Japan, and other states around the world would show that these nations are no longer supporting the South as strongly as they were. The United States in particular has to be willing to engage with North Korea in order to present a united front with its South Korean ally."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro03a","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"Rounds of sanctions and engagement does not bring a solution any closer  The responses to North Korean provocations do not bring a solution any closer. North Korea has yet to sign a peace treaty with the South and the United States. It is however particularly interested in signing a treaty with the United States rather than the South. In 2010 the North Korean foreign ministry proposed that \"If confidence is to be built between [North Korea] and the US, it is essential to conclude a peace treaty for terminating the state of war, a root cause of the hostile relations, to begin with\". [1] The North wants a peace treaty with the US so as to drive a wedge between the USA and South Korea to prevent US support for the South in the event of war. [2] Ignoring such efforts at negotiating with the USA without South Korea in the room, and indeed all advances and provocations would force the North to accept that it has to negotiate with the south or with no one. Ignoring North Korean actions and reducing the number of allies negotiating while maintaining security guarantees prevents any chance of the North dividing the USA and South Korea.  [1] Walker, Peter, \u2018North Korea calls for peace treaty with US\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 11 January 2010,   [2] Cheon, Seongwhun, \u2018Negotiating with South Korea and the I.S.: North Korea\u2019s Strategy and Objectives\u2019, International Journal for Korean Studies, Vol XVI No 1, Spring 2012,  p.153"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con03b","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"So far engagement has done little to resolve the situation in North Korea either; the regime is practically immune to pressure from those states that are willing to pressurise it. There are occasional hopes that China will put more pressure on North Korea but so far these have proven to be false hopes, and indeed China is investing heavily in North Korea, for example creating a port at Rason to serve Manchuria. [1] When the Korean question is resolved it will be through the collapse of the regime, something that is as likely to come about through ignoring it as engaging with it.  [1] Bloomberg News, \u2018North Korea Investment Zone Promoted to Chinese as Next Shenzhen\u2019, Bloomberg, 13 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con01b","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"North Korea is not an irrational regime, and is certainly not going to use its missiles to hit one of its neighbouring great powers. North Korea has shown time and time again that its number one objective is regime survival [1] and its provocations are one method it uses to try and ensure such survival through getting concessions and building deterrence against any possible pre-emptive attack either by the South or the United States. [2] North Korea will therefore never invite such retaliation from the surrounding great powers. All provocations it takes are just to the extent that it thinks it can get away with them. It is notable that since South Korea altered its stance from \u2018controlled response\u2019 to \u2018manifold retaliation\u2019 in the wake of the shelling of Yeonpyeong Island [3] the provocations from North Korea have been much less provocative i.e. missile testing rather than military actions.  [1] Lankov, Andrei, \u2018Weep Not for Kim Jong Il\u2019, Foreign Policy, 23 December 2011,   [2] \u2018The Conventional Military Balance on the Korean Peninsula\u2019, The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2012,   [3] Mc Devitt, Michael, \u2018Deterring North Korean Provocations\u2019, Brookings, February 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con02a","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"North Korea is an unresolved conflict it can\u2019t simply be ignored  Even if the provocations are sometimes relatively small and ineffective, such as the failed missile launch in April 2012, as a conflict zone they cant simply be ignored by anyone even if they themselves are unlikely to be drawn into any potential conflict. After Rwanda the United Nations promised never again would it allow genocide; [1] how much worse would it be to ignore something that could be a spark to a conflict that could cost millions of lives when we already know there is the potential. The United Nations was created \u201cTo maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace\u2026 to bring about \u2026 settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace\u201d [2] therefore all nations should be attempting to resolve this frozen conflict that could so easily become a shooting war. Wars in Korea have in the past drawn in all the surrounding powers; the Imjin war involved China and Japan, China and Japan again fought over Korea in 1894-5, and the Korean War 1950-53 brought in both the USA and China while Russia and Japan were both involved as supply bases. Clearly the possibility of conflict is not something any power with a stake in Northeast Asia can simply ignore.  It is essential that there is a reaction to every incident just in case that is the incident that spins out of control.  [1] Power, Samantha, \u2018Remember the Blood Frenzy of Rwanda\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 4 April 2004,   [2] \u2018Article 1 The Purposes of the United Nations are:\u2019, United Nations, 26 June 1945,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con03a","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"Ignoring North Korea wont resolve the situation  While the great powers can try to keep on with business as usual how will this be helpful? The situation is unstable and needs to be resolved which is something that ignoring the North will not do. Commentators thought that the North would collapse as a result of the withdrawal of support that was given by the USSR in the early 1990s but it did not happen. The regime will likely be able to hang on in the status quo situation pretty much indefinitely.  There is also no reason to believe that the provocations may not become bigger should smaller provocations be ignored. While North Korea can attract the world\u2019s attention with a missile test launch it is likely to keep doing such small and relatively harmless actions. Should such actions fail the regime may resort to bigger incidents such as the sinking of the South Korean corvette Cheonan in 2010 which resulted in 46 deaths which may have been an attempt at coercive diplomacy against a regime that was unwilling to engage in negotiations. [1]  [1] Cha, Victor, \u2018The Sinking of the Cheonan\u2019, Center for Strategic & International Studies, 22 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con01a","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"North Korea is an irrational regime that is a strategic threat to numerous great powers  North Korea is an irrational and irresponsible regime that can\u2019t simply be ignored. As the United States National Security Council spokesman Tonny Vietor said in response to the 12th December 2012 missile test \u201cThis action is yet another example of North Korea's pattern of irresponsible behavior.\u201d As a power that is willing to defy international sanctions and resolutions such as \u201cResolution 1874, which demands the DPRK not to conduct \"any launch using ballistic missile technology\" and urges it to \"suspend all activities related to its ballistic missile programme\"\u201d [1] it is essential that there is engagement to prevent the regime breaking more international norms.  It is impossible simply to ignore a regime with such a propensity to engage in provocative actions when it borders you, as is the case with China and Russia, or when it has tested missiles that can potentially hit targets 6000km away, so most of Asia, including numerous US bases. [2]  [1] \u2018North Korea rocket: International reaction\u2019, BBC News, 12 December 2012,   [2] \u2018North Korea\u2019s missile programme\u2019, BBC News, 12 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con02b","title":"onal asia politics defence house would ignore north korean provocations","text":"While the United Nations is about creating peace that does not mean that it needs to keep trying the same failed formula. It is clear that multilateral discussions and sanctions have not succeeded in creating positive change in relation to North Korea. Trying new tactics does not mean giving up on the goal of international peace and security."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro02b","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"This \u2018injustice\u2019 needs to be weighed against the effects of the policy. If you prohibit celebrities from participating in party-political campaigns, commit an injustice against the celebrities.  You violate the right to self-expression of the celebrity. Everyone in a free society has the right to express their political views; indeed, this is something we hold to be a hallmark of such freedom. Celebrities should be no different, and should hold those same rights. Further, they cannot be said to have consented into such a loss of rights (given that not all chose the level of fame and power they find themselves with).  Further, it is a bit melodramatic to suggest that people with influence \u2018effectively have more votes\u2019. By this metric, we would have to also prohibit the persuasive from participating in political campaigns. People have differences in their abilities to persuade others to follow their lead, and this is something that we simply have to take measures to ensure does not disproportionately impact upon any given party."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro02a","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"This is an unjust use of unelected power  Politicians want endorsements because they know it will bring votes; it is estimated that Oprah\u2019s endorsement of Obama in the Democratic Primary of 2008 brought an additional 1 million votes to Obama. [1] It is unjust for celebs to use their influence in this way. Celebrities have an ability to influence the political sphere that bears no necessary relationship with their knowledge of the subjects concerned, or qualifications otherwise to do so.  Consequently, they represent an unelected, unaccountable pressure on the democratic system: they have been given power and influence, with no mechanism of checking that power, or way to prevent them from misleading the public (unlike, for example, political journalists, news channels and other sources of political information).  This is principally unjust: the optimum democratic system is the one that holds the closest to the principle of \u201cone person, one vote\u201d, and attempts to ensure that those votes are as informed as possible. Celebrity involvement in politics is a hindrance to that, effectively handing the famous more votes than is their due.  [1] Garthwaite, Craig, and Moore, Timothy J., \u2018Can Celebrity Endorsements Affect Political Outcomes? Evidence from the 2008 US Democratic Presidential Primary\u2019, Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro03b","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"This is not necessarily the case: there remains a diverse assortment of news sources, and with the explosion in size and quality of the blogosphere, people are increasingly accessing information from a wide range of sources. Thus it is decreasingly the case that space in the news can be conceived of as limited in this way.  Further, providers of political analysis might find it easier to sell papers\/shows to a wider audience when they can use a celebrity image or quote as well, resulting in a more, not less, informed population."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro01a","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"Personality politics is harmful to the democratic process  Celebrity involvement in the political process may increase the extent to which politicians need to court media attention in order to promote their policies.  Many people get their political information from \u2018soft-news\u2019 outlets [1] , i.e. entertainment channels and magazines that often focus on \u2018celebrity gossip\u2019. Shows such as Oprah Winfrey get millions of viewers many of whom don\u2019t get news through other mediums and although soft news is the preferred format for a minority (10.2%) for a great many more it is in their top three. [2] The involvement of celebrities in the political sphere increases the power of \u201csoft-news\u201d over the political process: due to the wide reach of \u201csoft-news\u201d it is not possible to counter its effects using narrow-reach opinion pieces and policy analysis. Rather, politicians are forced either to package their ideas in a way acceptable to these magazines and talk shows (i.e. reduce the analysis; \u2018dumb down\u2019), for example Obama in 2009 became the first sitting president to appear on a late night comedy show; Tonight Show with Jay Leno, [3] or to counter attack by seeking celebrity endorsement of their own.  This makes political debate increasingly shallow, and voters\u2019 decisions correspondingly less well-informed. The harmful impacts upon our democratic process are two-fold: first, voters being less informed means they are less likely to truly be voting in a way that is aligned with their best interests or political beliefs; second, the debate is skewed towards ideas that can be conveyed in short \u2018sound-bites\u2019 and away from ideas that require more complicated discussion.  [1] Drezner, Daniel W., \u2018Foreign Policy Goes Glam\u2019, The National Interest, Nov.\/Dec. 2007,   [2] Prior, Markus, \u2018Any Good News in Soft News? The Impact of Soft News Preferences on Political Knowledge\u2019, Political Communication, Vol. 20, 2003, pp.149-171, p.151   [3] Baum, Matthew A., and Jamison, Angela, \u2018Soft News and the four Oprah effects\u2019, November 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro01b","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"The accusation of \u2018dumbing down\u2019 is misguided: politicians will increasingly be able to reach a wider voter base if they are willing to repackage their ideas and policies, but this does not require \u2018dumbing down\u2019, simply a change in focus of the explanation. So not only is dumbing down not necessary, but politicians\u2019 ideas are reaching more voters!  For example, the \u2018war on women,\u2019 has gained considerable attention in the media, and this has given a platform for female celebrities like Eva Longoria, to participate in events like the Democratic National Convention [1] . Eva Longoria and politicians who feel that women are being unfair attacked in regards to their body are now having these issues highlighted. Having celebrities involved in political campaigns like Eva Longoria does not mean the campaign was \u2018dumbed down\u2019 it means that it was accessible to a larger audience because they understood what she was talking about. Surely, that cannot be a bad thing.  It should be remembered that those who consume this soft news will be much better informed and be consistent in voting than those who consume no news at all. [2] As a result they will be more likely to vote and soft news will give them some awareness of why they are voting even if a celebrity endorsement has some baring on that vote.  [1] \u2018Eva Longoria Speech Draws Cheers At Democratic National Convention\u2019, Huffington Post, 6 September 2012,   [2] Baum, Matthew A., and Jamison, Angela, \u2018 The Oprah Effect: How soft news helps inattentive citizens to vote consistently\u2019, The Journal of Politics, Vol.68, No.4, November 2006, pp.946-959, p.955,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro03a","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"People will have less information about politicians\u2019 manifestos and ideas.  Celebrity endorsement distracts those who normally provide information to voters. Newspapers, blogs and other online media all have limited space, and, because celebrities sell, will use that space showing who is supporting whom, rather than covering debate about a politician\u2019s policies and ideas.  Though the presence of celebrities may actually give the masses more avenue to relate to electoral processes, the fact still stands that in status quo people are more interested in the activities of their favorite celebrities which will thus blot out the candidates themselves. When voters see celebrity endorsements they are no longer thinking about how these future politicians can make an impact on their lives. In some cases the celebrity may help show the platform of policies the candidate is standing on but most of the time they are simply taking airtime from more in depth analysis. What is worse when wooing celebrities becomes important for politicians the politicians themselves have less time to formulate and articulate their policies.  This is detrimental to the democratic process. People having less information than they would otherwise impairs their ability to make an informed choice about how they would like to vote. A prohibition on celebrity interference in political debate would remove this obscuring effect.  All of the above adds to the depoliticisation of politics. If the celebrity endorsement continues to thrive, younger generations will disengage with the important political issues at hand. Instead of learning about the fundamental issues surrounding their country, they will be exposed to party tactics that are of no use to their political development."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con03b","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"This may well be a side-benefit of celebrity involvement in politics, however, the effect celebrities have on the promotion of minority interests is not decreased by their prohibition from party-politics. They can still engage in general advocacy and campaigning on specific issues important to them without endorsing parties or candidates.  The policy-vote relationship that celebrities have with voters works in the opposite direction than for politicians: where politicians must choose the policies they believe will attract voters, celebrities first attract voters and then advocate for particular policies. This adds to the danger of celebrity participation; a celebrity may be endorsing a particular candidate because of that candidate\u2019s support on that issue. Fans of the celebrity who may be influenced by the endorsement may have no interest or even be opposed to the issue for which the celebrity is endorsing the candidate. This would make celebrity endorsements as a result of minority issues positively counterproductive."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con01b","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"There is no particular reason why someone who is interested in a particular politician-endorsing celebrity would choose to do political research. Given, in particular, the segregation of news, where magazines and blogs tend to specialise (on, say, politics or celebrity life) it is hard to see why crossover would occur.  The internet, whilst it makes information more accessible, accentuates this problem: where you can skip from news item to news item so easily, you are less likely to read an in-depth piece of political analysis by your favourite celebrity if you are not, in the first place, interested in politics.  Further, it is worth considering a balance of harms here: on the one hand you have a smaller, but better informed voter base (those interested in politics without celebrities), and on the other hand a larger but less well-informed voter base (assuming not all the people who see a celebrity endorsement and go on to vote do any research first). That former scenario, without the uninformed voters, is the most likely to lead to the best political outcome."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con02a","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"Celebrity involvement counters financial power to the benefit of the disenfranchised  Parties advocating policies that benefit the most financially powerful (big business etc.) are able to make large revenues from donations from wealthy business personalities involved in those industries.  Film and music stars tend towards the \u2018liberal\u2019 or \u2018left\u2019 wing of politics [1] . Consequently, in being prevented from exerting non-financial power (through endorsement) the different political parties are not equally affected: rather, you disproportionately punish the liberal parties. This is significant, given the necessity of a counter-balance to the power of big business (through donations \u2013 for example in the USA 90% of donations from mining and the automotive industry goes to the republicans [2] ) over our political system (which is not being similarly banned).  [1] Meyer, D., Gamson, J. \u2018The Challenge of Cultural Elites: Celebrities and Social Movements\u2019, Sociological Inquiry. Vol.65 No.2, 1995, pp.181-206  [2] Duffy, Robert J., \u2018Business, Elections, and the Environment\u2019, in Michael E. Kraft and Sheldon Kamieniecki, Business and Environmental Policy, 2007, pp.61-90, p.74,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con03a","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"Celebrity involvement can highlight minority interests  There exists a problem with regards to advocacy for minority issues within mainstream political movements. This motion would exacerbate that problem.  Voters tend to base their decisions on key issues (things like education, the state of the economy, healthcare policy etc.). Whilst they may care about more marginal issues (e.g. gay rights, religious freedoms, environmental issues), they are often unwilling to sacrifice something they think has a greater impact on them for something that has a lesser impact.  Minority issues suffer particularly here: by their very nature, there are fewer people who feel directly affected than there are people who feel indirectly affected or indifferent. Consequently, there are never a great enough proportion of votes that could be gained by a political party concentrating on these particular issues in a way which might be detrimental. See, for example, the public reaction in the UK to Cameron\u2019s position on gay marriage: whilst most people feel that gay marriage should be allowed [1] , Cameron has not received a political boost as a result of this decision, but rather, has faced hostility from those who believe it is a \u201cdistraction\u201d [2] , where they would rather he focused on issues like the economic crisis.  [1] \u2018Same-sex marriage in the United Kingdom\u2019, Wikipedia, accessed 10 September 2012,   [2] Telegraph editor, \u2018Gay marriage: A pointless distraction\u2019, The Telegraph, 26 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con01a","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"Celebrity involvement can act as a \u2018gateway\u2019 to get more people engaged in politics  Celebrity endorsement of a candidate does more than make people vote, drone-like, for the candidate endorsed by their favourite celebrity. Rather, it encourages people who might not otherwise have thought politics was interesting to pay attention to it. Especially in an age of easily accessible information, people can easily access sufficient information about political personalities and policies to cast a meaningful vote.  As a consequence, you have more potential voters, from a wider cross-section of society, note the key role played by personalities like will.i.am in engaging young people during the Obama campaign. Rock the Vote with a large amount of celebrity support registered 2.6million voters in 2008 and it and other celebrity campaigns had been prominent in 2004 as well which was probably a key factor in 2million more 18-29 year olds voting in 2008 compared to 2004 or 6.5million over 2000. [1]  Some of the people thus enthused may go on further with their interest in the political system, some may simply start listening to news shows or reading blogs that they would otherwise have shunned. Either way, celebrity involvement has a beneficial impact on our political system that it would be foolish to discard: the larger and more diverse the voter base, the more politicians are held to account and the more likely we are to reach the best political outcomes.  [1] Brubaker, Jennifer, \u2018It doesn\u2019t affect my vote: Third-person effects of Celebrity Endorsements on College Voters in the 2004 and 2008 Presidential Elections\u2019, American Communication Journal, Vol.13 Issue 2, Summer 2011, p.8."}
+{"id":"test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con02b","title":"edia politics voting house believes film stars music stars and other popular","text":"If the celebrity involvement can be proven to be otherwise harmful or unjust then it is immaterial that it impacts one side more than another: if it really does advance the cause of some more than others, if we can prove this is an unfair and therefore illegitimate advantage, it should be stopped.  Similarly, we place limits on the relationship between big businesses and politicians, with laws that attempt to prevent corruption and undue influence."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro02b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"This has simply not been the case; since the launch of the Euro in 2002, London has consolidated her position as the financial centre of Europe. There is no need for Britain to join the Euro, she can profit from the financial influence London exercises while her mainland European counterparts use the single currency. As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?, \u201cat the launch of the Euro\u2026that what were effectively regional financial centres \u2013such as Paris- lost any reason for their existence and saw all European business drain away to Europe\u2019s real financial centre, London.\u201d1 Moreover, Britain is not wholly reliant on her European counterparts for business; \u201cMore people work in financial services in London than live in Frankfurt, its only likely rival. We have the English language and a time zone that means we can deal with New York and Tokyo in the working day.\u201d1 If the British economy does not even need mainland Europe for business, even less it needs the single currency.  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\". page 93"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro02a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"Britain may not like losing the Queen's head on banknotes but London will be at a huge economic disadvantage if Britain stays out.  London will further lose its position as Europe\u2019s financial centre, and the financial influence this brings with it. Britain\u2019s staying out of the Euro has already depleted London\u2019s status as the European financial centre. As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?, \u201cThe European Central Bank \u2013 the second most powerful in the world \u2013 had a natural home in London, but ended up in Frankfurt because of our indecision over the Euro.\u201d1 Germany used this to her advantage, for it \u201creinvigorated Germany\u2019s bid to ensure that Frankfurt becomes Europe\u2019s financial centre, with a massive office-building programme to rival London\u2019s Docklands.\u201d1Germany seizing London\u2019s sphere of influence will only increase if Britain stays out of the Euro. Moreover, if Britain\u2019s indecision over the Euro continues, \u201cit would lead to a serious rethink by foreign owners of many of the City\u2019s financial institutions about where their core activities should be located.\u201d1 If Britain does not join the Euro, her economic activity both at home and between fellow Member States will be badly affected.  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\", page 92"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro03b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"No; cheaper goods come at a high monetary price and a high price of a chaotic turnaround. Even before the Euro has taken effect, it is going to be costly; \"Converting to the Euro will also cost businesses, and shops in particular, billions of pounds, and that is bound to be passed on to their customers.\"1 Once it fully takes effect, \"The Euro will also lead to higher inflation and more red tape, encumbering businesses and their customers with even higher costs\". 1 And so the initial monetary costs and inconvenience are not going to be short lived, but will in fact spread. Any silver lining of cheaper goods prices eventually is not going to be worth the upheaval of complications and inflation its creation entails. 1 The Euro: Should Britain join?, Anthony Browne, p. 102"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro01a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"Britain will lose economically if she stays out of the Euro over the long term.  Joining the European single currency (the Euro) may appear unfavourable to Britain, but the negative effect of not joining would be more unfavourable. As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?, \"Euroland businesses are now\u2026able to raise money for investment across the entire single currency zone, making it easier and cheaper. British companies, on the other hand, are still largely constrained to drumming up money from within Britain if they want to expand.\u201d1Eurozone businesses find it easy to raise money, for they are spared currency conversion charges. The carmaker Nissan has previously told the British government that eliminating exchange rate risk by siting production in the same currency zone as its sales market will be its preferred option\u20192.  1Browne, A., \"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\", Page 89  2Morgan, O. \"Nissan tells Blair 'join Euro'\", 27 May 2011, The Guardian"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro01b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"Britain does not have to become a part of the Euro to benefit from the EU economically. Britain has already struck the right balance between EU involvement and managing her own economy. \"We are already part of the single market, and getting rid of the barriers put up by having separate currencies will make little difference. It was the removal of all the other barriers\u2013 such as tariffs \u2013 that mattered far more. The economies of scale are already here \u2013 from the EU\u2019s almost 300 million consumers \u2013 having an effect.\u201d1.Accepting the Euro could very well upset this balance with very negative effects; \u201cStaying out, we have the advantage of a more flexible economy, more adaptable labour market, and lower taxes.\u201d Therefore, it is more advantageous for Britain to keep the pound whilst maintaining EU membership.  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\", Page 91"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro04b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"This theory does not transfer to practice successfully. Questions of lifestyle (such as holidays) under the Euro cannot be treated in isolation. Converting to the Euro will have a series of knock \u2013on effects which are all interconnected, affecting and effected by one another. One of these is the inevitability of higher inflation. With increased inflation, there will be increased unemployment; There will be even more British jobless who cannot afford to go on holiday. Moreover, as explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?, \u201cThese savings are a mere fraction of the total cost of going on holiday.\u201d1  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\", page 103"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro03a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"Amid all the Euroscepticism (sic) and xenophobic scaremongering so typical of the British tabloids, Britain forgets the advantage of cheaper goods would come with her entry into the European single currency.  There will be initial conversion costs and inflation, but this will be short lived. If Britain accepts the Euro, \u201cThere will be far more powerful forces \u2013 price transparency and economies of scale in a massive single market \u2013 that will continuously push the price of British goods down to European levels [resulting in] massive savings.\u201d1. The end of cheaper goods justifies the means of attaining them.  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\", Page 91"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro04a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"Joining the Euro would reduce the cost of travel in Europe.  Before the arrival of the single currency, holiday makers would spend much money on preparing for the trip, before they had even bought a single souvenir or postcard; \u201ctravellers touring this fragmented continent could spend large amounts of their money simply changing it from one currency to another.\u201d1 The loss incurred by currency conversion would be eliminated and accommodation abroad will also be cheaper and easier to book; \u201cJoining the Euro will also make it cheaper to send money around Europe. Sending money to book a holiday cottage in another country with another currency can cost \u00a340. Within Euroland, it would cost less than one Euro - much less than one pound.\u201d2  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\". page 102  2Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\". page 103"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-con03b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"The Queen's head on British money will not be entirely lost. This nostalgia is simply ridiculous; the head of Queen Elizabeth II has only appeared on English banknotes \"since 1960, having been made impossible by the nationalisation of the Bank of England in 1946.\"1 (Moreover, Scotland and Northern Ireland have never had the reigning monarch's head on their banknotes; and so no change will incur. The Queen's head will be lost from banknotes but \"By contrast, we have had the monarch's head on our coins since the Middle Ages, and that will continue. Countries in Euroland can put a symbol- such as their monarch- on one side of each coin.\"1 The attitude expressed alongside is irrational fear of change. 1 Anthony Browne, The Euro: Should Britain join? Page 83."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-con01b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"No; Unemployment will rise if Britain stays out of the single currency. Britain's indecision over joining the single currency has already discouraged foreign investors from doing business with her, and this will only worsen if she stays out, thus reducing the number of jobs there. Britain has to be in the single currency to retain a presence in the European business scene if she is to prosper and make any profit at all. As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?; \"Without access to the single currency zone, foreign investors who are here will move out, closing factories and businesses; new ones will set up in Euroland in preference to the UK.\" London's position as the European financial centre has already been depleted by Frankfurt and this situation will only deteriorate if Britain stays out of the Euro. The pound is no longer a source of hope for Britain. 1 Anthony Browne, The Euro: Should Britain join? Page 52"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-con02a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"In joining the single currency, Britain would have to surrender her sovereignty and allow Brussels (where the EU is based) to dictate her financial affairs.  If she accepted the Euro as her currency, Britain would have to hand the control she has over her economy over to Brussels. EU Committees would dictate how she may spend and tax. It is too dangerous for any country to have her economic affairs dictated by another country. This is an issue even Europhiles (those who support the EU) are sceptical about. \"Joining the euro would involve a major surrendering of our sovereignty, severely hindering our ability to run the economy as we see fit. We would lose control over interest rates, and the ability to manage the economy through taxing and spending. Instead, it would be run by European committees\u2026 Even British politician Kenneth Clarke, nicknamed \u201cEurope\u2019s biggest friend\u201d and one of the leading campaigners for the euro, admits that Britain\u2019s ability to tax is central to its democracy.\u201d1  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\", page 70"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-con03a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"Losing the Queen's head on banknotes is NOT a minor issue, it symbolises Britain losing her identity and control over her own economy.  This must not be dismissed as petty nostalgia, desire for outdated British tradition and fear of change. The fact that Britain does not want to lose the national symbol of her Queen on the banknotes is surely a sign that the British want to hold on to their own identity and keep control of their own economy. As explained by Alan Clark, \"The European Commission Press Office chose that moment to release facsimiles of the new euro banknotes in their various denominations. The unfamiliar, but so obviously foreign, appearance made many people uneasy. Polls showed that the electorate, for most of the time indifferent to European squabbling, whose technicalities they could not be bothered to master, disliked the removal of their Sovereign's head from the currency of the realm. The sceptics took fresh heart and the likelihood of the dispute fading \u2026became still more remote.\u201d1 This highlights the depth and strength of anti-Euro sentiment in the British psyche. It is surely unfair for both Britain and those fellow EU Member states that ARE under the Euro to enter the single currency while not entirely convinced by it.  1Alan Clarke, The Tories: Conservatives and the Nation State 1922-1997, page 435-6."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-con01a","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"For Britain to join the single currency is simply unthinkable; jobs will be lost  The EU creates economic conditions that threaten jobs. As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?, \"Joining the Euro would damage the British economy with 'one size fits all' interest rates, and so destroy jobs.\"1 This is not merely a product of anti-EU propaganda created by the British tabloid press; The evidence speaks for itself; \"In 2000, (Euro was launched 1st January, 1999) unemployment in Euroland averaged about 10 per cent, compared to under 6 per cent in the UK\" Britain must also learn from the mistakes of history; \"Past experience has already shown us that locking ourselves into inappropriate interest rates destroys jobs. After we joined the Exchange Rate Mechanism, 100,000 businesses went bankrupt and unemployment doubled before we were finally forced out in 1992.\" Repetition of this is to be avoided at all costs and by Britain staying out of the Euro.  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\""}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpegiepgh-con02b","title":"conomic policy economy general international europe politics government house","text":"These restraints exist to ensure that all countries contribute to the European Community. Surprisingly, Britain's sovereignty will actually increase by joining the Euro. As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britain join?, \"When it comes to interest rates, we would in some ways get more sovereignty. Being represented in the ECB (European Central Bank) would give us more influence over the business cycle, because we would be there as part of the decision-making process, not just having to accept decisions made by others that would have a profound effect on us.\"1 Joining the single currency and by attachment the ECB would help Britain to better oversee and predetermine her economic activity, thereby improving the handle she has on her finances.  1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\""}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-pro02b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The proposition vastly understates the negative impact a default has on the local economy. It is unrealistic to compare Greece with Argentina. As a member of the Eurozone, the developments within the Greek debt crisis have a huge impact on nations suffering from similar problems, as well as the Eurozone as a whole. Moreover, devaluing the Drachma would be nowhere near as beneficial as the proposition suggests. Greece is not rich in natural resources or industry and so boosting exports will not make a huge difference.  Yes, a default would resolve the uncertainty about whether Greece will default and exit the Euro. However this new predictability would not be good; it would simply show investors that they cannot invest in Greece because they will lose their money. Ratings agencies are unlikely to consider Greece a safe investment for a long time so there will not be international investment.[1]  [1] Pappa, Eppi: \u201cQ&A: What happens if Greece leaves the euro?\u201d, 14 May 2012, Al Jazeera,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-pro03b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Greece\u2019s default will not decrease uncertainty. If anything, the perceived risk of investing in other Eurozone members suffering from their own debt problems like Italy, Spain, Portugal and Ireland would rocket sky-high. The Eurozone project as a whole may struggle on with Germany trying to keep it together, but claiming that a Greek exit from the Eurozone would restore stability is short-sighted. Many of Greece\u2019s creditors are European banks and financial organisations. Greece\u2019s default would, therefore, be a heavy blow for many of their creditor companies who would be unlikely to be willing to invest in other nations suffering similar problems to Greece."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-pro01b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The proposition\u2019s claims that the austerity measures have totally failed are unfounded. Although it is true that the total debt % GDP ratio has not gone down, this is not as serious as the prop make out. The budget deficit is the main problem that needs to come down because a consistently high budget deficit is what will make the situation spiral out of control and make Greece default on its debts. There is nothing per se problematic with having a large total debt (look at the USA\u2019s total debt of $10 trillion, or Japan\u2019s much higher debt to GDP ratio of 230% which unlike in Greece has not resulted in high interest rates,[1] for example). The fact that Greece\u2019s budget deficit has gone down from 16% to 9% is an encouraging sign of improvement.  In addition, the proposition are not contentious in their claims about the negative effects of austerity. What they have failed to demonstrate, however, is why defaulting is the only solution to the suffering Greek people and the inability of the austerity measures to have their desired effect. The austerity measures have failed thus far because they have been targeted at the wrong areas of the economy and because the Greek Government has not been implementing them properly. Hitting the private sector with high taxation has done nothing to fix the faulty public sector which is the real cause of the debt crisis. The Greek Government remains hugely reluctant to carry out redundancies and wage cuts within the public sectors, as well as privitisations. [2] Greece, therefore, must be made to see that they must fulfill their promises and actually tackle the public sector, while alleviating taxation from the private sector.  [1] Free Exchange, \u2018Defying gravity\u2019, 14 August 2012, The Economist,   [2] Babbington, Deepa: \u201cGreek PM sings in tune, now must hit the hard notes\u201d, Septembe 5 2012, e-kathimerini,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-con03b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"The situation in Ireland, Italy, Spain and Portugal is not as extreme as that faced by Greece. It is therefore highly unlikely that a Greek default would have as severe a domino effect as the opposition suggests. Greece is the main source of political and economic uncertainty in the Eurozone, and their departure would ease the situation, facilitate investors and allow for the Eurozone to rally strongly. [1]  [1] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats: \u201cBetter off Out? The short-term options for Greece inside and outside of the euro\u201d, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-con01b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"It is not necessarily true that the whole banking sector in Greece would collapse. Given that the default would be orderly and take place within the context of the European Union, the ECB and European Commission would still provide substantial liquidity aid for Greek banks. Moreover it is not true that a devaluation of domestic currency necessarily leads to high inflation \u2013 this was not the case, for example, when Britain exited the European Exchange-rate Mechanism in 1992 and pursued a devaluation policy of the British Pound. [1] Lastly, evidence of recent governments that have defaulted suggests that even though some of the harms the opposition refer to may actualise, recovery generally follows fairly quickly, as was the case with Argentina, South Korea and Indonesia. [2]  [1] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats: \u201cBetter off Out? The short-term options for Greece inside and outside of the euro\u201d, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012   [2] Becker, Garry: \u201cShould Greece Exit the Euro Zone?\u201d, The Becker-Posner Blog, 20.5.2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-con04b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"Even in the long-term, continued Eurozone membership for Greece is not sustainable. The size of their total debt % GDP ratio is such that even if Greece were to recover (eventually) with the current austerity measures, Greece would always be susceptible to yet another debt crisis in the event of a future global or European recession. Eurozone membership denies Greece fiscal and monetary policy freedom required to face economic shocks to prevent this from happening. We thus see that in the long-term growth is more sustainable for Greece without the Euro."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cpecfiepg-con02b","title":"conomic policy eurozone crisis finance international europe politics government","text":"In receiving financial support from the ECB and European Commission to prevent the escalation of a major banking collapse in Greece, the Greek Government would be expected to continue with reforms of the public sector. What\u2019s more, defaulting would grant the Greek Government more time to implement such reforms, making them more likely to succeed and less painful on the Greek populous. The oppositions fears are, therefore, unfounded."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro02b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"This idea is nonsense. Political parties do try and capture the \u2018disadvantaged groups\u2019 vote, specifically in order to convince them that voting is in their best interest. As opposed to compulsory voting, a voluntary system in fact encourages political parties to target policies at the disadvantaged in order to convince them to get out and vote , rather than accept that the disadvantaged will simply vote for the opposition. The Labour Party shifted to the right in the UK specifically because no-one was voting for it; the majority of the population, from across the social spectrum, no longer believed in its socialist agenda and it altered its policies to be more in line with the majority of the population. Low turnout is best cured by more education, for example, civics classes could be introduced at school. In addition, the inclusion of these \u2018less-interested\u2019 voters will increase the influence of spin as presentation becomes more important. It will further trivialise politics and bury the issues under a pile of hype. Another alternative could be reforming the voting system of the individual countries to better accommodate its population."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro02a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Compulsory voting broadens representation of disadvantaged groups  Voter apathy is highest among the poorest and most excluded sectors of society. As the Institute for Public Policy Research highlight, \u201cthe higher the income a citizen enjoys, and the higher the educational qualifications attained, the more likely it is that he or she will turn out to vote\u201d. Since they do not vote, the political parties do not create policies for their needs, which leads to a vicious circle of increasing isolation. By making the most disenfranchised vote the major political parties are forced to take notice of them and this would reduce political polarisation 1. An example of this is in the UK where the Labour party abandoned its core supporters to pursue \u2018middle England\u2019. Political parties are drawn towards those groups to whom favourable policies will be rewarded in the form of vote. Compulsory voting ensures that all stakeholders in society are proportionally considered in governmental policy.  1 William Galston, 'Mandatory Voting Would Loosen Partisan Gridlock' US News and World Report, July 8th 2010"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro03b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Forcing the population to vote will not stop people expressing their wish not to vote. Tucker notes that in Australia 5% of eligible voters did not caste a valid vote. Most countries that use compulsory voting give voters a legal opportunity to abstain. For example, in Australia valid explanations might include being overseas, trying to vote but failing for some reason, or belonging to a religious order which prohibits voting ( Electoral Commission ). Moreover people who vehemently refuse to vote find a way to do so such as paying the fine straight away (for those who can afford to) or attending the polling station but submitting a blank ballot. McAllister et al (1992)1 conclude that compulsory voting has led to a higher level of non-votes because the only legal method of political protest is to spoil the ballot paper or leave it blank deliberately 2. However, in non-compulsory jurisdictions voters so motivated would boycott the ballot.  Furthermore, forcing people to vote will lead to more meaningless votes. People who are forced to vote against their will won\u2019t make a proper considered decision. At best they will vote randomly which disrupts the proper course of voting. Compared to countries that have no compulsory voting laws, in countries where such laws exist there is an increase in donkey votes (where voters simply chose the candidate at the top of the ballot), random votes, \"just for the fun of it\" votes, protest votes and abstentions. This does not contribute to improved legitimacy of the government. It merely allows the government to say 'because there is a 100% turnout, this government is 100% legitimate', which is clearly not the case. There is a reason why some people are less politically active. They neither know nor care about politics. How can their forced inputadd legitimacy to the mix?  And this is before issues such as controversy about the aged in nursing homes being 'asissted' with their votes.  1. Mackerrassa and McAllister. \"Compulsory voting, party stability and electoral advantage in Australia.\"  2. Laverdea 1991"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro05a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"It will reduce the power of special interest groups  A benefit of compulsory voting is that it makes it more difficult for special interest groups to vote themselves into power. Under a non-compulsory voting system, if fewer people vote then it is easier for smaller sectional interests and lobby groups to control the outcome of the political process. A notable example would be the disproportionate influence of agriculture in policy making as seen in both European politics and well as American with enormous amounts of subsidies for farmers who represent a minute percentage of the population. 1 2  The outcome of the election therefore reflects less the will of the people (Who do I want to lead the country?) but instead reflects who was logistically more organized and more able to convince people to take time out of their day to cast a vote (Do I even want to vote today?).  1 Ira M. Sheskin and Arnold Dashefsky, \"Jewish Population of the United States, 2006,\" in the American Jewish Year Book 2006, Volume 106, David Singer and Lawrence Grossman, Editors. NY: American Jewish Committee, 2006. 2: Mark Weber, Feb. 2009, 'A Straight Look at the Jewish Lobby', Institute for Historical Review (Accessed 10\/06\/2011)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro01a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Voting is a civic duty  Other civic duties also exist \u201cwhich are recognised as necessary in order to live in a better, more cohesive, stable society\u201d 1 like paying taxes, attending school, obeying road rules and, in some countries, military conscription and jury duty. All of these obligatory activities require far more time and effort than voting does, thus compulsory voting can be seen as constituting a much smaller intrusion of freedom than any of these other activities.  The right to vote in a democracy has been fought for throughout modern history . In the last century alone the soldiers of numerous wars and the suffragettes of many countries fought and died for enfranchisement. It is our duty to respect their sacrifice by voting.  1. Liberal Democrat Voice , 2006"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro01b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"A democracy is based on the principle of respecting basic human rights, such as free choice. This principle is directly violated by compulsory voting. With many civil rights there is a choice to choose to engage in the activity or not. Voting has carries that option, citizens of a democracy have the choice to either vote or not, despite being encouraged to vote. It does not matter why a person chooses to vote or not, it is the fact of principle that they have the right to choose. Compulsory voting goes against such ideas of the freedom of choice, and on that grounds should not be compulsory.  The proposition speaks of those who died for the right to vote, and respecting their sacrifice by voting. Unfortunately the proposition misconstrued the point of their sacrifice- to give us the freedom of choice. That right of choice must be upheld, as it is the cornerstone of a democratic society. Compulsory voting would be infringing upon that."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro05b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"The power of lobbying groups is a benefit to politics at large. Their ability to publicize issues that are important to specific interest groups are invaluable to the political process. Similarly, they are able to propel and sustain wider interest in the political agenda, ensuring oversight over public policy and recommending necessary changes. To reduce their power in favour of \u2018less-interested\u2019 voters will increase the influence of spin as presentation, not substance, becomes more important. It will further trivialise politics and bury the issues under a pile of hype. Furthermore, by removing incentives for political parties to mobilise their support, compulsory voting favours established parties over minor parties and independents, whose supporters tend to be more inherently motivated."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro04b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"That it has been implemented successfully in Australia does not mean that compulsory voting will work everywhere. Australia has a small population so the system does not have to be as bureaucratic as it would be in a much bigger nation. Moreover Australia has a law abiding culture and fast and efficient courts so most people will vote even if they object to it being compulsory. In a country with either a slower court system or a population that is less inclined to follow the law the number of cases of failing to vote facing the court could be overwhelming."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro03a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"It will cause more people to become interested in politics  Compulsory voting increases the number of people who cast their vote 1. People who know they will have to vote will take politics more seriously and start to take a more active role. Compulsory voting will potentially encourage voters to research the candidates' political positions more thoroughly. This may force candidates to be more open and transparent about their positions on many complex and controversial issues. Citizens will be willing to inform themselves even about unpopular policies and burning issues that need to be tackled. Better-informed voters will, therefore, oppose a plan that is unrealistic or would present an unnecessary budget-drain. This means that such a system could produce better political decisions that are not contradicting each other, quite upon the contrary.  1 Peter Tucker, The median Australian voter and the values that influence their vote choice presented by the author at the 3rd European Consortium for Political Research Conference in Budapest, September 10, 2005."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro04a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Compulsory voting has been implemented successfully.  Australia is one of the most notable examples of compulsory voting and shows how it can be implemented. In Australia Compulsory voting was introduced at federal elections in 1924 1. Every Australian citizen who is over eighteen has to vote unless they have a \u2018valid and sufficient reason for failing to vote\u2019 which is decided by the electoral commission whether a reason is sufficient 2. If the elector who fails to vote does not provide such a reason they pay a penalty and if (s)he does not pay then the matter is dealt with in court 3. There is little reason to believe that this would be more difficult to implement in any other country. 1 Evans, Tim, 'Compulsory voting in Australia', Australian Electoral Commission, (January 2006), (accessed 4\/8\/11) 2 Harrison, Brianna, and Lynch, Philip. Votes for the Homeless, (March 2003), (accessed 4\/8\/11) 3 Voter Turnout for Referendums and Elections 1901 , Australian Electoral Commission, 2010"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con03b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"The benefits obtained from compulsory voting cannot be gained from any of the strategies mentioned by the opposition. Compulsory voting can enhance a sense of community, as everyone is in it together. This can be especially helpful in bringing new people in to community life. It also forces the silent majority to think about elections which safeguards from extremism."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con01b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"As noted elsewhere, forced attendance would lead to increased political awareness, and an abstention option would offer a 'none of the above'\/'I don't mind or care' choice instead of people spoiling the ballot.  Because the number of voters would increase, politicians would have to be active in engaging with the public and therefore become \"more deserving of the public's trust\".  Citizenship classes don't negate the need for compulsory voting but should be used in conjunction to compulsory voting.  If people are genuinely not interested in voting or politics, educating them in school would not change that fact. The education is likely to vary from school to school and is only likely to have an impact if the student likes the subject. Compulsory voting would force those parts of the population who are usually disinterested to voice some form of opinion- created a more balanced democracy.  Besides, who pays for the education? Taxpayers. Who often don't want to vote."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con02a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Policing and financing the system is unmanageable  If a large proportion of the population decided not to vote it would be impossible to make every non-voter pay the fine. For example, if just 10% of the UK voters failed to do so the government would have to chase up about \u00a34 million in fines. Even if they sent demand letters to all these people, they could not take all those who refused to pay to court. Ironically, this measure hurts most those who the proposition are trying to enfranchise because they are least able to pay.  The cost of policing this system will impact upon tax payers. The Government will need to expand and more civil servants positions will be needed to create, administer and enforce the processes. It is especially prudent that we look closely at the impact it would have financially on individual countries. For example, the US has more than ten times the voting population of Australia \u201cthe financial cost for the two nations is vastly different. Since it costs the Australian government roughly five dollars for every ballot they evaluate, the greater number of voters in America would exponentially increase bureaucratic costs\".1  1 Iowaprodigal"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con03a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"There are alternatives that tackle the real causes of voter disengagement  Compulsory voting hides the problem which is causing people to be disengaged from politics; it allows politicians to ignore measures that can tackle the true causes of political disengagement.  States instead should seek on strategies that will eliminate barriers to voting along with reducing the costs of turnout for its citizens, weekend voting, making election days a holiday, simple registration procedures, reforms such as to the party finance rules to widen the playing field, and the creation of a centralized, professional bureaucracy concerned with all aspects of election administration. In the UK, for example, adopting a more proportional system will allow for a political spectrum rather than the three major parties that currently dominate."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con01a","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Persuasion is more effective than coercion  Forcing people into voting when they are disengaged from the politic process will exacerbate this problem; no one likes doing something simply because they have to. The election results from compulsory voting may not be a representative view of society, than the current systems. Just because people are required to vote does not mean they become more politically engaged than they were before.  Rather than forcing people to vote, more should be done to engage the public in political life. Government transparency should be further encouraged as well as evaluating to what extent the current voting system causes low voter turnout.  Low turnout is best cured by more education. Instead of trying to engage people by force, how about introducing political education in schools and encouraging political conversation. How about educating the public on how politics affects them?  Citizenship classes should be taught to students who are approaching voting age, as it would teach the importance of the electoral process, and the history of the suffragette movement, the reform bills of the 19th century and the responsibilities of living in a democracy.  The government should be trying to engage people by other means, not compulsory voting. Compulsory voting may improve low turnout but will not affect the root problem- what people actually think about politics. In essence it is just relieving the side effects without curing the disease."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con02b","title":"y political philosophy politics government voting house would make voting","text":"Because mandatory voting means that no large campaign funds are needed to goad voters to the polls, the role of money in politics will decrease. Compulsory voting will reduce spending such as campaign spending on voter turnout. It can also lead to a reduction in the incentive for negative advertising \u201cas there is little to be gained from tactics aimed purely at persuading opposition voters to stay at home\u201d 1.  States that sanction fines usually sanction a very low fine, which even the poorest members can afford. Besides, government like the British seem to manage speeding fines just fine, there is no reason to think they wouldn\u2019t be able to manage non-voting fines. However, other measures such as disenfranchisement (Belgium) and denial of public services (Peru, Greece) can be used, which don\u2019t incur a cost for the individual.  1 Electoral Reform Society"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro02b","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Providing money to developing countries to provide for the migrants they take in does not ensure that the money will be spent on those who it is meant to be spent on. In some developing countries aid is badly spent or is badly affected by corruption; in 2012 the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon stated \u201cLast year, corruption prevented 30 per cent of all development assistance from reaching its final destination.\u201d [1]  Moreover even if the aid is spent on those it is earmarked for there are problems. Many developing countries are affected by poverty, poor housing, and few government services. Aid being provided to pay for such services for migrants is likely to cause resentment among a population that does not have the same access as the newcomers.  [1] Ki-moon, Ban, \u2018Secretary-General's closing remarks at High-Level Panel on Accountability, Transparency and Sustainable Development\u2019, un.org, 9 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro02a","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Aid can ensure better treatment of migrants  Migrants in developed countries are often not very well treated, for example the Traiskirchen migrant camp in Austria, one of the richest countries in the EU was condemned for its inhumane conditions by Amnesty in August 2015. [1] The aid provided can be earmarked to ensure that migrants being well treated and provided for through safe transportation and access to essential government services such as healthcare and welfare.  The advantage of this provision in developing rather than developed countries is cost. The same amount of money goes a lot further in a developing country. This provision therefore makes sense in a time were many developed countries are both struggling with greater numbers of migrants and with austerity. Greece, which has had 124,000 migrants arrive in the first seven months of 2015, a 750% rise over the same period in 2014, is a notable case. [2]  [1] \u2018'No respect' for human rights at Traiskirchen camp\u2019, The Local at, 14 August 2015,   [2] Spindler, William, \u2018Number of refugees and migrants arriving in Greece soars 750 per cent over 2014\u2019, UNHCR, 7 August 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro03b","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Migrants also benefit developed countries albeit in a slightly different way. Migrants, often even those who are highly educated, provide a cheap workforce doing the jobs that native workers don't want to do. This is particularly the case in agriculture in developed countries where anything that is labour intensive relies upon cheap migrant, often illegal, labour. In the US somewhere between a quarter and a half of the farm workers are illegal immigrants. [1] This results in goods and services being cheaper in the developed country than they otherwise would be benefiting the whole country.  [1] Baragona, Steve, \u2018US Farmers Depend on Illegal Immigrants\u2019, Voice of America, 11 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro01a","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"It is just to redistribute migrants  It is an accident of geography, or history, simple bad luck that has resulted in some countries getting large numbers of immigrants while many others get none. The first developed country on migrant routes get large numbers as those wishing to seek asylum have to apply in the first safe country. Similarly those countries next to conflict zones, or places affected by natural disasters, get very large influxes of migrants who hope to return home as soon as possible; there are more than 1.1 million refugees from Syria in Lebanon [1] a country of less than 6million. It is right that there should be a mechanism to help even out the burden of migrants and that rich developed countries should be those who pay that cost.  [1] \u2018Syria Regional Refugee Response\u2019, data.unhcr.org,  , accessed 19th August 2015"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro01b","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"While the burden of migrants should be shared the burden is not just monetary. Developed countries should not be able to dodge their responsibility to take in large numbers of migrants simply because they can pay poorer countries to take migrants in their place. Being burdened due to geography may be unfair but so is being burdened because you are poor and can be bribed. A truly just system would redistribute migrants within the developed world rather than shifting the burden to those who are still developing."}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro03a","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Migrants can benefit developing countries  Migrants can bring the benefit of their industriousness to developing countries. When there are crises it is the middle professional classes who are most likely to migrate as they have the resources and knowledge with which to do so. When it comes to economic migrants it is often the educated youth who are looking for better work opportunities; skilled workers make up 33% of migrants from developing countries despite being only 6% of the population. [1] Developed countries already have a highly educated and skilled population, and will take in those migrants with skills they need. Developing countries on the other hand have a much less well educated population so derive more benefit from the influx of skilled workers to help them develop thus counteracting the \u2018brain drain\u2019.  [1] Docquier, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric, Lohest, Olivier, and Marfouk, Abdeslam. \u2018Brain Drain in Developing Countries\u2019, The World Bank Economic Review. Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 193\u2013218, p.198"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con03b","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Part of the payment of aid would be to ensure that migrants can't simply set off in an attempt to get back into a developed country. The aid would fund sufficiently good living conditions to encourage the migrants that staying where they are is a better option than attempting another harsh and dangerous journey. Moreover a part of the aid would be to ensure monitoring of migrants who have just arrived in the developing country to ensure they remain."}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con01b","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"An argument based upon \u2018historical responsibility\u2019 and capacity to absorb migrants runs into several problems. First not all developed nations bear historical responsibility for colonialism; should Switzerland and Denmark bear the same historical responsibility as the UK and France? What about countries that were themselves essentially colonies; Finland and Czech Republic? Identifying what counts towards this responsibility is tricky and very open to argument, and even more so working out how many migrants a certain responsibility should result in taking in.  Capacity to absorb migrants is also difficult to judge. A country may have a lot of migrants already showing tolerance but it could also mean that country is already at the point where it can take no more with racism and discrimination rising as a result."}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con02a","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Large influxes of migrants will create conflict in unprepared countries  It is regrettable that difference is a major source of conflict among humans with differences in religion and ethnicity having regularly been the source of conflicts household human history. While many countries have traditions of accepting migrants others don't and even those that are tolerant may not be prepared for a large influx of migrants.  This policy would bring about such an influx in those countries that take up the offer of aid for taking in migrants. A new community is likely to be labelled the \u2018other\u2019 by the natives of that country and be blamed for taking jobs and putting pressure on services. This happens because the newcomers are easy to blame and have few influential voices in the country to speak out in their defence.  Places with existing large migrant communities are less likely to experience anti immigrant hostility. Thus in India Delhi with 38.4% of the population immigrants (not just international) has less conflict thant Mumbai with 26.5%, and in the US New Mexico with a 45% Hispanic population has less anti-Hispanic sentiment than Florida with 21%. [1]  [1] \u2018Causes of Conflict\u2019, University of North Carolina, accessed 20 August 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con03a","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Migrants will simply return to the countries they have been sent from  Moving migrants to developing countries in return for quantities of aid is simply not a sustainable policy. Migrants fleeing conflict looking for safety may accept any safe country but the migrant problems affecting rich countries are in large part economic migration. These people are looking to get to a developed country to earn more and have better prospects than they could at home so are unlikely to accept a country at a similar (or potentially lower) level of development as a good alternative. They are therefore likely to simply tray again to make their way to a developed country when they can. There have been examples of migrants such as Rachid from Algeria who has tried to get into Europe three times already and is waiting for a ship to try again, [1] it is unclear how this proposal would alter this problem.  [1] Ash, Lucy, \u2018Risking death at sea to escape boredom\u2019, BBC News, 20 August 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con01a","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Developed countries have a greater responsibility to take in migrants  Developed countries have a responsibility to take in large numbers of migrants. There are several reasons for this. First they have a historical responsibility resulting from a legacy of colonialism, imperialism, and industrialisation that benefited the developed world at the expense of the developing world. This helped create the inequalities in the world that drive migration so developed countries should accept that a greater responsibility for migrants is the price.  Second developed countries have a much greater capacity to absorb migrants than developing countries. Developed countries have more jobs, and the ability to create more through using the state\u2019s financial resources to increase investment. They already have the legal framework for large numbers of migrants; laws that ensure equality and fair treatment regardless of religion or ethnicity. And in many cases they already have sizeable migrant communities (with some exceptions such as Japan) that help create a culture of tolerance that embraces the diversity migrants bring."}
+{"id":"test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con02b","title":"politics general society immigration minorities house would offer increased aid","text":"Whether a country is developed or not is not necessarily a good indicator of if a country is prepared for a large number of migrants. Nor is whether a country has large numbers of immigrants already; Israel is a country made by immigration yet has still seen anti immigrant riots. [1] In order to prevent social conflict it would be far better to have migrants in countries with a similar culture to their own thus migrants from an Arabic nation would be repatriated to an Arabic country that is participating in the aid scheme. Of course no two countries culture is the same but it should be possible to find cultures with more similarity than the developed country.  [1] Greenwood, Phoebe, \u2018Israeli anti-immigration riots hit African neighbourhood of Tel Aviv\u2019, The Telegraph, 24 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro02b","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"The public sector being paid extra is something that is acceptable and necessary within society. Workers within the public sector often fulfill roles in jobs that are public goods. Such jobs provide a positive externality for the rest of society, but would be underprovided by the free market. For example, education would likely be underprovided, particularly for the poorest, by the free market but provides a significant benefit to the public because of the long term benefits an educated populace provides.In healthcare the example of the United States shows that private providers will never provide to those who are unable to afford it with nearly 50million people without health insurance.1  Although the average pay received by government employees tends to be higher, the peak earnings potential of a government position is significantly lower than that of other professions. Workers who chose to build long term careers within the public sector forgo a significant amount of money, and assume a heavier workload, in order to serve the needs of society and play a part in furthering its aspirations. As such, and owing to the fact that the people who do these jobs often provide economic benefit beyond what their pay would encompass in the private sector, it makes sense that they be paid more in the public sector. This is because their work benefits the people of the state and as such the state as a whole benefits significantly more from their work.2  1. Christie, Les, \u201cNumber of people without health insurance climbs\u201d, CNNmoney, 13 September 2011,   2. \u201cAS Market Failure.\u201d Tutor2u."}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro02a","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining leades to pay crises in the public sector  The public sector is often significantly overpaid. The workers within the public sectors of Western liberal democracies often get paid more than people of equal education and experience who are employed in the private sector. In the United States there is a salary premium of 10-20 percent in the public sector. This means that there is likely a waste of resources as these people are being paid more than they should be by the government.1  The reason this happens is that collective bargaining means that workers can often, through the simple idea that they can communicate with the government and have a hand in the decision making process, make their demands much more easily.  Further, governments in particular are vulnerable during negotiations with unions, due their need to maintain both their political credibility and the cost effectiveness of the services they provide. This is significantly different to private enterprise where public opinion of the company is often significantly less relevant. As such, public sector workers can earn significantly more than their equally skilled counterparts in the private sector. This is problematic because it leads to a drain of workers and ideas from the private sector to the public. This is, in and of itself, problematic because the public sector, due to being shackled to the needs of public opinion often take fewer risks than the private sector and as such results in fewer innovations than work in the private sector.  Biggs, Andrew G. \u201cWhy Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker Is Right About Collective Bargaining.\u201d US News. 25\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro03b","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining might hurt the democratic process due to its political nature, but the alternative is worse. Without collective bargaining it is incredibly difficult for public sector workers to get across their ideas of what their pay should be to their employers. This leads to worse consequences because public sector workers who feel underpaid or overworked will often move to the private sector for better job opportunities in the future as well as a better collective bargaining position. Further, those public sector workers that do stay will be unhappy in their positions and will likely do a worse job at work.  Given that this is true and the fact that public sector workers often choose to do their jobs out of a sense of duty or love for the profession, it is fair that the taxpayers should be placed in a position where they are required to trust the public sector and the politicians to work out deals that end up being in favour of the entire state, not just a small minority.1  Bloomberg, Michael. \u201cLimit Pay, Not Unions.\u201d New York Times. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro01a","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining is not a right  Whilst the freedom of association exists under the state and it is true that people should be allowed to communicate with one another and form groups to forward their personal and political interests, it is not true that the freedom of association automatically grants access to the decision making process.  Unions in this instance are problematic because whilst other groups do not have access to special privileges, unions are able to exert a significant and disproportionate amount of influence over the political process through the use of collective bargaining mechanisms. This argument applies to private unions as well, although to a lesser extent, and the banning of collective bargaining for private unions would be principally sound. In the case of unions in the private sector they can cause large amounts of disruption which has a large knock on impact on the economy giving leverage over politicians for whom the economy and jobs are always important issues. For example unions in transport in the private sector are just as disruptive as in the public sector. Even more minor businesses can be significant due to being in supply or logistics chains that are vital for important parts of the economy.1 The access to the decision making process that unions are granted goes above and beyond the rights that we award to all other groups and as such this right, if it can be called one at all, can easily be taken away as it is the removal of an inequality within our system.  Further, even if collective bargaining were to be considered a \u201cright,\u201d the government can curtail the rights of individuals and groups of people should it feel the harm to all of society is great enough. We see this with the limits that we put on free speech such that we may prevent the incitement of racial hatred.2  Shepardson, David, \u201cGM, Ford warn rail strike could cripple auto industry\u201d, The Detroit News, 30 November 2011,   Denholm, David \u201cGuess What: There is no \u2018right\u2019 to collective bargaining.\u201d LabourUnionReport.com 21\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro01b","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining is considered a right because of the great benefit that it provides. Specifically, whilst freedom of association might not allow people to be privy to the negotiation process, when a large enough group of people form together and make a statement regarding their opinion, it is profitable for those in power to listen to them.  Collective bargaining in this situation is a logical extension of that. Given that public sector workers are intrinsic to the continued success of the state, it thus makes sense that the state gives them a platform to make their views in a clear and ordered fashion, such that the state can take them into account easily.1  Further, the knowledge that such a right exists causes unions to act in a way which is more predictable. Specifically, a right to unionise with reduce the likelihood that state employees will engage in strike action. Under existing union law, groups of employees are able to compel a state employer to hear their demands, and to engage in negotiations. Indeed, they may be obliged to do so before they commence strike action. If the resolution were to pass, associations of state employees would be compelled to use strikes as a method of initiating negotiation. Under the status quo, strikes are used as a tactic of last resort against an intractable opponent or as a demonstration of the support that a union official\u2019s bargaining position commands amongst the Union\u2019s rank-and-file members.  1. Bloomberg, Michael. \u201cLimit Pay, Not Unions.\u201d New York Times. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro03a","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining undermines the democractic process  The bargain between normal unions and private enterprise involves all parties being brought to the table and talking about the issues that they might have. However, the public sector represents the benefits of taxpayers, the politicians and the unions. The power that unions exercises means that negotiations can happen without the consent or involvement of the public sector\u2019s stakeholders, the public.  Even though power in a democracy is usually devolved to the politicians for this purpose, given the highly politicised nature of union negotiations, government office-holders who supervise union negotiations may act inconsistently with the mandate that the electorate have given them. This is because public unions often command a very large block of voters and can threaten politicians with this block of voters readily. This is not the same as a private business where officials aren\u2019t elected by their workers. As such, collective bargaining rights for public union undermine the ability of taxpayers to dictate where their money is being spent significantly.1  \u201cUnion Bargaining Just A Dream For Many Gov Workers.\u201d Oregan Herald. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con03b","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"As discussed in the first proposition side argument, we can curtail the rights of individuals if we see that those rights lead to a large negative consequence for the state. In this situation proposition is happy to let some public sector workers feel slightly disenfranchised if it leads to fewer strikes and a situation where public sector workers are not paid too much, then the net benefit to society is such that the slight loss in terms of consistency of rights is worth taking instead.1  Davey, Monica, \u201cWisconsin Senate Limits Bargaining by Public Workers\u201d, The New York Times, 9 March 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con01b","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Even if collective bargaining leads to a workforce that is better able to communicate their ideas, it also leads to a situation as mentioned within the proposition arguments that results in unions having significantly more power over their wages and the government than in other situations. This is problematic because it leads to consequences where other unions feel that they should have the same powers as public unions and can hence lead to volatility in the private sector as a result.  Further, given that often the negotiators that work for public unions are often aware of the political power of the public workers, negotiations with public unions often lead to strike action due to the fact that it is likely that the public will be sympathetic to the public workers. As such, allowing public workers to bargain collectively leads to situations that are often much worse for the public.  Further, a lot of opposition\u2019s problems with a lack of collective bargaining can simply be dealt with through implementing a more sensitive and understanding feedback process among workers. If a worker for example raises an issue which might affect a large number of workers, it should be fairly simple for public companies to take polls of workers to understand the gravity of the problem.1  Rabin, Jack, and Dodd, Don, \u201cState and Local Government Administration\u201d, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc 1985, p390"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con02a","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining is a counter to the creation of natural monopolies  Many public industries exist as public industries because they are natural monopolies. For example, rail travel, which is often public in Western Liberal democracies, is a sector in which it makes no sense to build multiple railway lines across the country, each for a different company, when one would simply be more efficient. A similar case can be made for things such as public utilities. As such, these sectors often only have a single, often public company working in that sector.  In the case where there is a monopolist, the workers in the sector often have no other employers that they can reasonably find that require their skills, so for example, teachers are very well qualified to teach, however, are possibly not as qualified to deal with other areas and as such will find difficulty moving to another profession. As such, the monopolist in this area has the power to set wages without losing a significant number of employees. Further, in many of these industries strike action will not be used, for example because teachers have a vocational, almost fiduciary relationship with their students and don\u2019t wish to see them lose out due to a strike.1  \u201cMonopoly Power.\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con03a","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining has been recognised as an enforcable right  Collective bargaining is a right. If the state allows freedom of association, individuals will gather together and exchange their ideas and views as a natural consequence of this freedom. Further, free association and free expression allows groups to then select a representative to express their ideas in a way that the individuals in the group might not be able to. In preventing people from using this part of their right to assembly, we weaken the entire concept of the right to assembly. The point of the right to assembly is to allow the best possible representation for individuals. When a group of individuals are prevented from enjoying this right then it leads to those individuals feeling isolated from the rest of society who are able to enjoy this right.  This is particularly problematic in the case of public sector workers as the state that is isolating them also happens to be their employer. This hurts the way that people in the public sector view the state that ideally is meant to represent them above all as they actively contribute to the well being of the state.1  Bloomberg, Michael. \u201cLimit Pay, Not Unions.\u201d New York Times. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con01a","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"Collective bargaining is a necessary aspect of democracy  Collective bargaining is needed by people in any job. Within any firm there exist feedback structures that enable workers to communicate with managers and executive decision makers. However, there are some issues which affect workers significantly, but run against the principles of profit, or in this case the overall public good that the state seeks to serve.  In this situation, a collection of workers are required. This is primarily because if suggested changes go against public interest then a single worker requesting such a change is likely to be rejected. However, it is the indirect benefit to public interest through a workforce that is treated better that must also be considered. But indirect benefit can only truly occur if there are a large number of workers where said indirect benefit can accrue.  Specifically, indirect benefit includes the happiness of the workforce and thus the creation of a harder working workforce, as well as the prevention of brain drain of the workforce to other professions. When a single person is unhappy for example, the effect is minimal, however if this effect can be proved for a large number of people then an adjustment must be made.  In order for these ideas to be expressed, workers can either engage in a collective bargaining process with their employer, or take more drastic action such as strikes or protests to raise awareness of the problem. Given that the alternate option is vastly more disruptive, it seems prudent to allow people to do collectively bargain.1  \u201cImportance of Collective Bargaining.\u201d Industrial relations."}
+{"id":"test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con02b","title":"mployment tax politics government house would abolish all collective bargaining","text":"The opposition argument here is simply a case against natural monopolies. In many Western Liberal democracies, advances in technology have enabled natural monopolies on telecoms and public transport to be broken down. A wide range of necessary public services- such as telecoms and power generation- now function as part of a competitive market. As such, it is feasible that the state could simply deal with this problem by breaking down other natural monopolies in the same way.  Even if the state acts as a monopolist in some industries, public sector workers often have transferrable skills which mean they can move to other industries without that much trouble. For example, a public prosecutor will have acquired professional skills that enable a relatively quick transition into private or commercial civil practice.1  \u201cIdentifying the Transferable skills of a Teacher.\u201d North Central College."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-pro02b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Reducing nuclear arms through New START will not compel others to stop pursuing nukes. The logic behind New START asserts that for every neg\u00adative development in the area of nuclear proliferation the US needs to take a substantive step in the direction of nuclear disarmament. Ultimately, this approach effectively assumes that the possession of nuclear arms by the US (and Russia) is the incentive driving other nations to pursue nuclear weapons programs so as to be able to deter the United States. Not only is the assumption misplaced, but the policy will undermine deterrence and increase the likelihood of the use of nuclear weapons. It is foolish for the U.S. to take substantive steps toward nuclear disarmament at the same time the nuclear proliferation problem is growing worse. [1] The US should also not seek to improve relations by bribing them with New START at the cost of damaging US defence capabilities.  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-pro03b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"New START will cause American missile and nuclear capabilities to atrophy, not to be maintained. This is because it locks the US in to agreements of defensive reductions which are tied into Russian offensive reductions. This could eventually leave the US badly under-defended by its missile systems when compared against the offensive capabilities of other nuclear states. Moreover, New START leaves in place the pre-existing Russian tactical nuclear advantage harming US capabilities by comparison. [1] Overall New START hams US missile and nuclear capabilities, and further advantages Russia and other nuclear powers, and so should not be supported. As Mitt Romney argued in 2010: \"Does New START limit America\u2019s options for missile defense? Yes. For the first time, we would agree to an interrelationship between strategic offensive weapons and missile defense. Moreover, Russia already asserts that the document would constitute a binding limit on our missile defense program. But the WikiLeaks revelation last weekend that North Korea has supplied Iran with long-range Russian missiles confirms that robust missile defense is urgent and indispensable.\" [2]  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [2] Romney, Mitt. \"Stop START.\" Boston.com. 3 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-pro01b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"New START is about national politics, not about the interests of the world or peace. As George Will argued in 2010: \"The (Obama) administration's ardor for ratification is understandable, as is Russia's. The president needs a success somewhere; Russia needs psychotherapy. It longs to be treated as what it no longer is, a superpower, and it likes the treaty's asymmetries.\" [1] New START is about serving these domestic political interests, not securing peace, which it will not achieve as the inspections it puts in place are highly flawed, and there remains a high probability that Russia will cheat on the treaty and augment its nuclear capabilities regardless. All this treaty does is weaken the US, and a situation where one power weakens and the other grows stronger is not good for world peace.  [1] Will, George. \"Obama's time-warp focus on the New START treaty\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con03b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Agreements between the biggest nuclear powers are a good starting point towards disarmament. We cannot expect countries with a very small number of nuclear weapons to be disarming if the countries that have the vast majority of the world\u2019s arsenal have not already begun the process of getting rid of their own. Even the reductions in New START will not bring either Russia or the United States anywhere near the level of any other nuclear power whose nuclear weapons number in the hundreds not thousands. Both countries would need to reduce a very long way before they lose deterrence against China, let alone North Korea. As former secretaries of state argue America has \u201clong led the crucial fight to protect the United States against nuclear dangers\u2026 The world is safer today because of the decades-long effort to reduce its supply of nuclear weapons. As a result, President Obama should remain similarly courageous with New START.\u201d [1]  If linkage between the New START and Russian action on Iran exists then this would not always be a bad thing. Linkage has been used successfully in the past, and to the advantage of the U.S., for example Kissinger credited the peace agreement with North Vietnam in Paris in 1973 as being down to linkage which resulted in pressure on North Vietnam from the People\u2019s Republic of China and the USSR. If linkage could be successful in bringing Russia onside in pressurizing Iran on the issue of nuclear weapons it could be to the benefit of the United States.  [1] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con01b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"Many of the worries about the impact of the treaty are much more of a political problem than problems with the treaty itself. U.S. missile modernization in particular is still up to the President and Congress to sort out the funding between them \u2013 the restrictions are minor. [1] Worries about the impact on missile defense are also a red herring. Missile defense is not aimed at Russia and the United States simply needs to make sure that its defenses are obviously aimed at who it says they are aimed at: rogue states such as Iran and North Korea. Regarding other defence capabilities, the New START Treaty preserves America\u2019s ability to deploy effective missile defenses, and simply prevents it from being effective enough to undermine deterrence, something which Russia would be right in worrying about if the United States had any intention of building such a comprehensive missile defence. The prohibition on converting existing launchers will have little impact on the United States as the military believes that such conversion would be more expensive and less effective than building new purpose built defensive missiles. [2] Finally if Russia did exercise its right to withdraw then both parties would be in no worse a position than they would have been without the new treaty and could simply restart negotiations.  [1] Spring, Baker. \"Twelve Flaws of New START That Will Be Difficult to Fix\". Heritage Foundation, The Foundry. 16 September 2010.   [2] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con04b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The verification requirements of New START have satisfied not only the Obama Administration but also a large number of foreign policy experts. A panel including Henry Kissinger argues that New START \u201cemphasizes verification, providing a valuable window into Russia's nuclear arsenal.\" [1] Howard Baker argues that: \"President Reagan was famous for his adage about dealing with the old Soviet Union: \u201cTrust but verify.\u201d Since the last START treaty expired in December 2009, we\u2019ve had no right to conduct inspections of Russian nuclear bases, and thus no way to verify what the Russians are doing with their nuclear weapon systems. For us veterans of the Cold War, that\u2019s an alarming fact and a compelling reason to ratify this New START treaty without further delay.\" [2]  When the allegations are gone through individually they do not stand up to scrutiny. On the telemetry issue the treaty does not limit throw-weight so the data is not needed; the number of warheads per missile can be verified by other means. There are less facilities being inspected, but more inspections and the decline in Russia\u2019s nuclear forces means that not so many facilities need to be inspected. [3] There is no reason to be worried about the numbers of missiles as there will be a database detailing all the weapons both sides have and inspections to confirm this, [4] this will also mean that there are unique identifier tags on each missile, launcher and bombers so helping inspectors in their counting. [5] Mobile launchers are much less of a problem than they were as we already know the base number the Russia has whereas when START was originally negotiated the US did not know. Technology to track such mobile launchers has also become much more powerful. Finally if worried about the verification of the elimination of delivery vehicles both sides will have the right to inspect the debris and to demand demonstration of the procedures. [6] Neither side will be able to get around the new START\u2019s verification regime.  [1] Kissinger, Henry A. ; Shultz, George P. ; Baker III, James A\u2019 ; Eagleburger , Lawrence S. ; and Powell, Colin L. \"The Republican case for ratifying New START\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010.   [2] Baker, Howard. \"Dangerous if we reject New START.\" USA Today.   [3] Blook, Oliver, \u2018Nothing to Fear with New START Verification\u2019, Center For Strategic & International Studies, 8 July 2010,   [4] Woolf, Amy F., \u2018The New START Treaty: Central Limits and Key Provisions\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 24 October 2011, p.3,   [5] \u2018Verification of New START\u2019, Union of Concerned Scientists, 13 July 2010,   [6] Blook, Oliver, \u2018Nothing to Fear with New START Verification\u2019, Center For Strategic & International Studies, 8 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con02b","title":"onal global law international law politics defence warpeace house supports new","text":"The New START treaty does not help Russia more than it does the United States. Former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates argued at the time the Russians are currently \u201cabove the treaty limits. So they will have to take down warheads.\u201d [1] If there really is undercounting of missiles on bombers then it affects both sides equally \u2013 as Romney says \u201cWhile we currently have more bombers than the Russians\u201d, so this too should not be a worry. Russia does not currently deploy rail-mobile ICBMs and neither does the United States, explain why the definitions are not there. However the State Department argues that \u201cIf a Party develops and deploys rail-mobile ICBMs, such missiles, their warheads, and their launchers would be subject to the Treaty.\u201d As the definitions of ICBM launchers would include them. [2] Finally we should recognize that we do not know that Russia would have reduced its bomber and missile forces without a new treaty, while Russia has more difficulty maintaining its nuclear forces than the United States so has more incentive to reduce them, but without a treaty it might even increase its forces due to a desire to keep parity with the United States while the US has a big lead in conventional weapons. [3]  Furthermore, any agreement made between Russia and the US needs to be one that benefits both parties, it does not matter if someone is getting more than the other. Getting an agreement that meets the needs of both countries is far more important, because it will be upheld more so than one that simple gives both countries the same. Fair and efficent does not mean spilting a pie in half, if one only wanted the crust, and the other only wanted the filling.  [1] Isaacs, John, \u2018Rebuttals to Additional Arguments Against \u201cNew START\u201d\u2019, The Center For Arms Control And Non-Proliferation,   [2] Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation, \u2018Rail-Mobile Launchers of ICBMs and their Missiles\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 2 August 2010,   [3] Isaacs, John, \u2018Rebuttals to Additional Arguments Against \u201cNew START\u201d\u2019, The Center For Arms Control And Non-Proliferation,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro02b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Intolerant schools cause more problems for not allowing freedom of religious expression. In a multicultural society, students should be aware of the different religious practices and cultural traditions of their classmates, and be taught to understand and respect these. Without such respect, religious groups with distinctive symbols, such as Orthodox Jews, Sikhs and Christians, will be driven out of mainstream education and forced to educate their children separately.1 As for the worry about safety issues, particularly concerning hair length, most classroom accidents occur when loose, long hair gets caught in machinery or in a flame which would not be a problem when hair is held in place under a headscarf.  1 'Religious Rights and Wrongs', The Economist, 4th September 2008, accessed 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro02a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Religious symbols cause problems in schools.  As well as division in society in general, religious symbols are also a source of division within school environments. The Hijab causes schools many problems. It is potentially divisive in the classroom, marking some children out as different from the others and above the rules that the school enforces for everyone else. This may lead to alienation and bullying. Full headscarves may also be impractical or dangerous in some lessons, for example PE, swimming, or in technology and science lessons where machinery is being operated. In the same way, there have been discussions as to whether to ban the display of Crucifixes in public classrooms. Authorities in Italy have followed through with the ban saying that such a Christian symbol segregates those who are not Christian.1  1 'Decision due in Crucifix ban case', Times of Malta, March 17th 2011 , accessed on 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro03b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Muslim women are not the only ones to feel a cultural division over their mode of dress. Most people are affected by the societal norms surrounding them. Fashion trends could be seen in exactly the same light as religious traditions. Banning head coverings is only likely to provoke a more extreme reaction among highly religious communities1. Framing laws to ban only Islamic forms of dress could be considered an attack on one religion. Feeling under attack could cause the Islamic community to close off into itself. They could set up religious schools where their children can dress as they want them to and not mix with children from other faiths. These effects could never be good for the integration of society and would further the influence of extremists. Internationally, the perceived attack on Islamic values would inflame wider Muslim opinion, feed conspiracy theories and add to the dangerous feeling that there is a clash of civilisations.  1 'France Bans Burqas: A Look At Islamic Veil Laws In Europe', Huffpost World, 4th April 2011 , accessed on 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro05a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Western societies are secularly focused  Many societies are founded on secular values that do not permit the sponsorship of any religion by the state. British society aspires to this and has consciously acted to separate religion from state authority with many organisations such as the National Secular Society encouraging the suppression of any religious expression in public places.1 In this climate it is important that all citizens of the state are seen as equal. If some dress differently to others, deliberately identifying themselves as members of one religion, this can harm the unity and ethos of the state. This holds particularly true for institutions of the state like schools and government offices. In this way, it is possible to deduce that religious symbols are detrimental to the secular and equality focused identity of Western society.  1 'UK: One Law for all and the National Secular Society Back Bill that Aims to Curb Sharia Courts', 11th June 2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro01a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Many symbols are seen as a symbol of oppression on women.  Religious symbols are seen to, in some cases, increase the equality divide between genders. As an example, the Muslim Hijab is considered by some as a very powerful symbol for the oppression of women, particularly in countries such as Saudi Arabia or Afghanistan where it is compulsory. Therefore, when it is worn in Western countries that encourage democracy and equality, the wearing of the Hijab is seen as almost counter-productive to the goals of democratic society. For this reason Belgium has recently banned the wearing of the full Muslim veil, much like France in 2010.1 Often Muslim dress rules for women are seen as more severe than those for men. Inequality between men and women is a form of discrimination and liberal societies should fight all forms of discrimination.  1 ' Belgian ban on full veils comes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July 2011, accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro01b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Religious symbols are not seen as oppressive by those who choose to wear them. Many Muslim women view the veil as a means to protect their modesty and privacy. Just as we would not force any women to be seen in public in her underwear if she did not feel comfortable doing so, why should a woman be forced to show her hair if she does not want to? Modesty is a personal judgement call; some are comfortable in the smallest bikini while others prefer a lot more clothing. No one but the woman herself should make that decision. In fact, concerning the ban of the veil in Belgium, Muslim women have immediately challenged it and regard the ban as discriminatory.1  1 'Belgian ban on full veils comes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July 2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro05b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Even though the wearing of religious symbols could be a part of that specific religions' culture and practice, it must be remembered that Western society and culture brands itself as secular and, therefore, should take precedence over clashes with minority cultural practices. In Britain there has been controversy over movements to include Sharia Law in the British legal system, which ties in with this same argument of culture clashes concerning religious methods.1 Essentially, the question arises as to how far is tolerance for different cultural practices detrimental for the maintenance of a secular British culture and state.  1 Abul Taher, 'Revealed: UK's first official sharia courts', The Sunday Times, 14th September 2008 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro04b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Deciding what people can and can\u2019t wear should not be the responsibility of schools. Enforcement may be potentially simple but only at the cost of creating a conflict between schools and their Muslim pupils and staff."}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro03a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Religious symbols cause division within Western society.  Religious symbols can be seen as possible tools for fuelling division within society. When some women wear the Hijab it creates pressure on other Muslim women to also cover their heads. Pressure comes both socially from wanting to look like other women in their community and religiously from imams and family leaders pressing for observance. As such, Muslims themselves are divided and religious oppression against women is internalized.1 Approving of Muslim head coverings in society cements the Hijab as an essential tenet of Islam, in the minds of non-Muslims as well as believers. However, many different schools of Islam exist and as on other issues, they often disagree how to interpret the Koran's dress prescriptions. Moderate interpretations accept modest forms of modern dress while severe interpretations require full covering with the Burka or similar veil. Banning the veil furthers the cause of moderate interpretations and prevents the entrenchment of severe interpretations.  1 Rumy Hassan, 'Banning the hijab', Workers Power 283 February 2004, accessed on 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro04a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"A ban would be simple to enforce.  A ban would be simple to create and enforce. Religious symbols are for the most part meant to be shown therefore it is simple for police or authorities to check that someone is not wearing them. There are many societies that have had bans on a religious symbol in public buildings, for example in France where there is a ban on religious symbols in schools has been in force since 2004. In France the ban is made even easier to enforce by restricting it to 'conspicuous' religious apparel.1 Moreover when the ban is only when entering public buildings it can be enforced by the teacher, or the building's security guards rather than being an issue for the police to deal with.  1 BBC News, 'French scarf ban comes into force', 2 September 2004 , accessed 28\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con03b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"It would not be necessary to ban all religious symbols if one was banned. Banning religious symbols that are regarded as dangerous, such as the Kirpan, would be very different from banning crucifixes as the justification would be different.1 And if people start asking for other things to be banned, their cases should be listened to. Some of them may have a point for banning them. However if a symbol poses a risk then it should be banned in order to prevent that risk.  1 'Kirpan incident raises questions about court ruling', The Montreal Gazette, 16th September 2008 , accessed on 25th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con01b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"A ban on religious symbols would not be targeting the whole religious group. It would highlight the problems of symbols, such as the veil or Kirpan, within the boundaries of society. At the end of the day, full Muslim veils can be used as a disguise and, therefore, could pose a s a potential problem to the general population of people.1 If hundreds were people were killed by someone wearing a veil, would people be defending it then? In this way, it is the same for people wearing hoodies nowadays. A few tearaways and everyone socially brands them as criminals, or \"chavs.\" This scares people, especially the elderly and as such poses a risk not just to their health, but also to their safety. As a result, the religious symbols such as full veils should be banned due to safety concerns.  1 'Belgian committee votes for full Islamic veil ban', BBC News, 31st March 2010 , accessed 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con02a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Religious symbols are personal, therefore, they should not matter to others.  At the end of the day, the wearing of religious symbols is the choice of the individual. Many have considered intervention in the practice of religion and symbolism as an intrusion into privacy and individuality. The recent bans on the full Muslim veil, particularly in Belgium, have been criticised for causing those who feel they have an obligation to wear it to be ostracised and forced to be confined within their own home.1  1 'Belgian ban on full veils comes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July 2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con04a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"It is their culture and religion.  Religions themselves tend to encompass their own distinctive culture and, to many of their members, this culture and its methods comes before anything secular. For this reason, Muslims should be allowed to wear personal items as it states in the ruling of their religious book to do so. Had a particular garment been required in the Christian religious book - The Bible - then no doubt those stout Christians would follow this particular ruling. The question is, would it be wrong to take away something close and meaningful to these religions? Surely, a religious symbol or method is purely personal, and, therefore, banning such symbols would be an intrusion into their individuality.1  1 Jessica Shepherd, 'Uniform Dissent', The Guardian, 9th October 2007 , accessed on 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con03a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"If you ban one thing, you have to ban lots of things.  Every religious symbol should be treated equally so as not to cause discrimination. It's just not viable to ban one symbol. If you ban something, for example, as sacred and religious as the Muslim veil, people will then start rallying cries for other things to be banned. At the end of the day, if the Government feels that it is in the best interests of society not to ban the veil, then we have to believe them. Really if one thing is banned then the uproar that would happen would have significantly worse consequences than before the ban. There have been worries about the banning of the Sikh Kirpan because outsiders regard it as a possible weapon and a danger to people in public places.1 However, in the Sikh perspective, the Kirpan is a sacred symbol very similar to other religions' symbols.  1 'Timeline: The Quebec kirpan case', CBC News Online, 2nd March 2006, accessed on 25th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con01a","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Banning religious symbols is just a way of unfairly targeting people.  Banning religious symbols could be viewed as just a way of targeting a group of people. In a nutshell, religious symbols would be used as a scapegoat in order to both highlight and blame for problems that are much bigger. Removing the hijab, the Crucifix or the Jewish skullcap would take away someone's culture, religion and heritage, and, therefore, banning them would cause more problems.1 It could potentially increase hatred within religious groups, and lead to more racism and more criticism, ultimately making the country a worse place to live.  1 at 'Belgian ban on full veils comes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July 2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con04b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"That the state is secular does not diminish the right to freedom of religion is enshrined in the UN charter, that all states have signed up to, and considered by many to be a basic human right.1 Some religions require special diets, others prayer at specific times. Why shouldn't a religious mode of dress receive as much protection as these other aspects of religious freedom? Surely equality in society is most accurately presented through allowing each individual, including their religious beliefs and modes of expression, to practice their religious traditions without hindrance.  1 'Declaration On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Intolerance And Of Discrimination Based On Religion Or Belief', 1981 Resolution of the UN Charter , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con02b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Some argue that religious symbols, particularly those that are clearly seen, are not just for personal benefit. They affect the safety of the society around them. For example, there have been worries about how the Muslim full-veil may be used as a disguise for terrorists and how veils make it harder to ascertain someone's identity. Therefore, some symbols at least involve others, maybe even unintentionally, through the uneasiness and suspicion they cause.  1 'The Islamic Veil Across Europe', BBC News, 15th June 2010 , accessed on 25th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro02b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"There is no guarantee of the quality of contracted soldiers often resulting in less being done per soldier. The competitive-business nature of private contractors includes cost reduction as well as profit maximisation, which leads to the recruitment of cheaper, less experienced and ill-prepared staff as well as the use of cheaper and poorer equipment. As no standardised training is in place, the quality of the hired men is never known and may be incompatible with the training of traditional forces and therefore unsustainable. The result of this is in the long run to push up the cost as work that PMCs should have done has not been done to the right standard."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro02a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs give value for money  Mercenaries are a cost efficient way of fighting. Although expensive to hire, the government does not have to cover the cost of training, housing, pensions or healthcare. Mercenaries, unlike regular troops, are only paid for the days on which they are used. Outsourcing when necessary will reduce the cost of the force. For example, the US army is around a third smaller than it was in the 1991 Gulf War (PBS News Hour, 2004). This saves taxpayers\u2019 money and avoids the build up of conventional troops, which, in the past, has contributed to the development of arms races which can be cripplingly expensive as shown by the collapse of the Soviet Union."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro06a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs can be made much more legitimate by regulation  Currently mercenary work as a profession is not regulated by law, which allows the corruption and lack of guaranteed quality, as well as the problems of accountability to remain problematic. Regulating PMCs encourage a safer, professionalised security sector which can be standardised and controlled. Governments would then legislate, regulate and moderate the use of such forces rather than provide them outright. PMCs today are legitimate businesses, much of their work has nothing to do with fighting and killing MPRI for example \"shipped more than $900,000,000 worth of donated food and medical supplies to the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union over a five year period\u201d. These companies are already placing greater emphasis on having a good reputation and are increasingly transparent so many companies would welcome regulation.(Vaknin, 2011)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro03b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"This image of responsible professionals may not be entirely justified. Some employees of PMCs may have no military experience, those who do may have been dishonourably discharged from duty and some may be implicated in criminal activity or atrocities, such as Eeben Barlow (former officer in South African 32nd Battalion- Assassination squad during Apartheid, now a chief of PMC Executive Outcomes which predominantly employs ex-secret policemen). These people may know how to do the job but they may also not be the kind of people we want working with the military."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro05a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs provide a service that may be otherwise unavailable.  Many nation states have achieved sufficient unity to rely on their own armies but for those which cant, mercenary forces provide an invaluable and possibly only mode of protection and security. British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw believes that in an era of \u201csmall wars and weak states\u201d mercenaries have a \u201clegitimate role\u201d (The Economist, 2002). Mercenaries may be the only way of providing short term security guarantees to allow a government to establish itself without relying on warlords or one side of an ethnic conflict. This could be the only way out of a pattern of coup and counter-coup. Recruiting local mercenaries also has the benefits of reducing transportation costs, instant readiness as well as any knowledge of the local politics, geography and customs which may be highly valuable to a security force. These local recruits may be less inclined to share this information with a government force."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro01a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs are a valuable resource  PMCs are a flexible and efficient tool with which to fight 21st Century wars making them a necessity. Private contractors can be hired at short notice and used only when necessary. They can be used to carry out specific missions, to reinforce traditional troops where greater numbers are required or to protect other contractors whilst traditional troops carry out more lucrative missions. Additionally, most PMCs are non-combative but rather defensive, providing security for officials, supply trains etc. As a result they are viewed less as invaders or \u201cthe enemy\u201d and more as peace-keepers."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro01b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs are ineffective as they do not fit in with a disciplined army. PMCs are not bound by the same rules and standards of conduct and accountability as conventional troops. When problems arise it is often unclear whether army representatives or PMCs should be held responsible. Moreover, the lack of regulation means that there is no means to ensure mercenaries breaking laws are disciplined. Currently most mercenaries can operate outside martial law with relative freedom. Some of the worst offences at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq were committed by \u201cprivatised interrogators\u201d (Hersh, 2004) who are yet to be punished."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro05b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"The use of mercenaries is counterproductive for unstable states. By relying on hired mercenaries weak states encourage private competition rather than reinforcing their own nascent armies. The emergence of powerful local, as well as international, mercenary organisations frustrates the ultimate goal of securing a state monopoly over the use of force. There are many cases where mercenaries have remained in a region long after their official contract ended in an attempt to exploit regional instability in order to further a particular ideological cause or reap financial reward. Colonel Bob Denard fought vaguely \u201cagainst Communism\u201d in Africa and attempted to overthrow the government of the Comoros Islands off Madagascar on four separate occasions. Similarly, Colonel \u201cMad\u201d Mike Hoare tried to topple the government of the Seychelles in 1981, arriving with 43 mercenaries disguised as rugby playing members of a beer-tasting club named The Ancient Order of Froth Blowers. Furthermore, PMCs may be helpful in resolving conflicts in the short-term, they are not viable solutions because they do nothing to actually solve the problem in the long-term."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro04b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"The amount of attention and suspicion depends on what the PMCs are doing not that they are PMCs. Whilst mercenaries appear to be less disliked than American troops in Iraq, in parts of Africa their activities have increased tension. The reputation of a national government is often stained by the activities of hired mercenary groups. The involvement in national military operations of white supremacist adventurers and discredited individuals like Simon Mann is used by men such as Mugabe to challenge the legitimacy of British policy in Africa. These kind of actions by some groups mean that all PMCs are considered with suspicion."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro03a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs have an equally strong incentive to perform.  PMCs must perform carefully and effectively to secure future contracts. It is therefore in their interests to ensure their employees are well- trained and well-equipped and perform to the highest standard. Most PMCs recruit ex-service personnel as a way to ensure the quality of their force. In 2004 more SAS soldiers worked privately in Iraq than served in the army. Additionally, governments increasingly recognise the quality of mercenaries. PMCs and regular militaries cross over on occasion: An American PMC -Military Professional Resources Inc - trains the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) on behalf of the US Government (Lock, 2011). The British Ministry of Defence now allows soldiers yearlong sabbaticals to work as mercenaries in the hope they will return having earned more in the private sector. This official recognition suggests that mercenaries have shed their \u201cdogs of war\u201d image. They are no longer disreputable maverick figures operating in failed states but highly trained professionals endorsed by national governments"}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-pro04a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs attract less attention and suspicion and can carry out their role more effectively.  Mercenaries often arouse less hostility amongst civilians than soldiers fighting for national armies. In ethnic conflict they are perceived as less partisan. The fact that civilians to some extent do not connect mercenaries with a particular ideological cause, invasion or civil war makes them ideal for protecting safe areas and policing reconstruction projects. For example, PMC Global Risk Strategies successfully guarded the Green Zone in Baghdad, the sealed off section inhabited by coalition staff. As they are mercenaries they can be fighting for the national or local government of where their mission even if they have a different paymaster."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con03b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"A good reputation is vital to any company, including PMCs, so human rights abuses or any other activity which is deemed questionable would be avoided. Mercenaries are not protected by legal immunity would have to face justice for any crime like any other criminal."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con01b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs do not really have an interest in conflicts never ending. Like any other organisation in a conflict zone they lose men and material while carrying out their missions. They may wish there to be an environment where they can still be useful but this does not mean stoking a conflict. Even if PMCs were helping to increase conflict to increase their own business it would still only be a very small factor in any conflict."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con02a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs are untrustworthy  The possibility of mercenaries pulling out will always remain a risk. PMCs are not fighting for their own country so they can never be threatened with a charge of desertion. PMCs are motivated by money and do not have the interests of their employer at heart. Loyalty is given to the highest bidder and is therefore delicately balanced. \u201cThe fact is, they have no other attraction or reason for keeping the field than a trifle of stipend, which is not sufficient to make them willing to die for you. They are ready enough to be your soldiers whilst you do not make war, but if war comes they take themselves off or run from the foe.\u201d(Machiavelli, 1515) Machiavelli considered that it was mercenaries that ruined Italy much as they are now doing in Iraq and Afghanistan."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con04a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"The role of PMCs has had a negative effect on traditional militaries and their operations.  Soldiers trained at high expense by the state may leave for the greater income of private employment, reducing the power of the state\u2019s military and bolstering the attraction of PMCs. PMCs also have a much more relaxed, business-like attitude to conflict. Being unregulated gives them a freedom to work outside of the law to an extent, using illicit practices such as torture and bribery which goes unnoticed. However, these practices strengthen the morale and line the purses of \u201cthe enemy\u201d, such as warlords or the Taliban in Afghanistan, putting the militaries they are fighting alongside in danger."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con03a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs violate human rights and International agreements in pursuit of profit or power.  Some PMCs may abuse the power they wield. Simon Mann, founder of PMCs EO and Sandline International, in a recent plot to oust President Obiang in Equatorial Guinea (BBC News, 2008) shows that even mercenary organisations considered legitimate by the British Government remain staffed by corrupt opportunists. It is highly morally questionable whether organisations with such a profound disrespect for the sovereignty of other nation states should be involved with the training of our armed forces, let alone fighting alongside them."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con01a","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"PMCs have an interest in conflict.  ncreased reliance on mercenaries is destabilising in the long term. It allows invaders and local governments to feel that they can get away with not providing sufficiently trained or numerous security forces because there are men on the ground. It also means that the most influential actors, large multi-national companies, no longer have to pressure governments so hard to provide security guarantees for everyone because they can buy their own. That leaves those without influence or money high and dry. This then leads to a proliferation of armed forces in the country, some working for the central government, others for local governments and some for private individuals and firms. These PMCs are hired provide security and to help create stability yet that is not where their interests lie. If the country returns to stability they are out of a job so it is in their interest to keep an unstable situation unstable to result in more work. (Wennmann, 2008)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con04b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"This does not necessarily mean that there is anything inherently wrong with using PMCs. While it might be true that the United States has sometimes misjudged which private forces to hire, this does not mean that we cannot use PMCs altogether. In fact, there can be solutions to ensure the quality of PMCs, such as legal regulation. The risk of inadvertently funding the enemy temporarily is perhaps worth taking, considering the alternative may be to have them constantly preventing anything being done to help. Short-term compromise could be the best option to long-term victory."}
+{"id":"test-politics-dhwem-con02b","title":"defence house would employ mercenaries","text":"It is in the interest of PMCs to fulfil their contractual obligations to ensure future contracts and avoid the reputation of being treacherous. While PMCs are often considered to be untrustworthy there are very few examples, if any, of them actually running away or switching sides since the end of the cold war."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro02b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Guns don\u2019t kill people \u2013 people kill people. Restricting gun ownership will do nothing to make society safer as it is the intent of the criminal we should fear, and that will remain the same whatever the gun laws. In the vast majority of crimes involving firearms, the gun used is not legally held or registered. Many of illegal weapons are imported secretly from abroad, or converted from replica firearms rather than being stolen from registered owners."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro02a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"The legal ownership of guns by ordinary citizens inevitably leads to many accidental deaths  The legal ownership of guns by law-abiding citizens inevitably leads to many unnecessary and tragic deaths. Legally held guns are stolen and end up in the hands of criminals, who would have greater difficulty in obtaining such weapons if firearms were less prevalent in society. Guns also end up in the hands of children, leading to tragic accidents and terrible disasters such as the Columbine High School massacre in the U.S.A. Sometimes even normal-seeming registered gun owners appear to go mad and kill, as tragically happened at Hungerford and Dunblaine in the U.K."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro03b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Shooting is a major sport enjoyed by many law-abiding people, both in gun clubs with purpose-built ranges and as a field sport. These people have the right to continue with their chosen leisure pursuit, on which they have spent large amounts of money \u2013 an investment the government would effectively be confiscating if their guns were confiscated. In addition, field sports bring money into poor rural economies and provide a motivation for landowners to value environmental protection. While compensation could be given the cost would be huge; in the UK shootings value to the economy was \u00a31.6billion in 2004. [1]  [1] \u2018\u00a31,600,000,000 \u2013 the value of shooting\u2019, Shooting Times, 27 September 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro01a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"The only function of a gun is to kill  The only function of a gun is to kill. The more instruments of death and injury can be removed from our society, the safer it will be. In the U.S.A. death by gunshot has become the leading cause of death among some social groups; in particular for African-American males aged from 12 to 19 years old. [1] Quite simply, guns are lethal and the fewer people have them the better.  [1 \u2018Study: Homicide leading cause of death among young black males, Jacksonville.com, 5 May 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro01b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Prohibition is not the answer, especially not in countries such as the USA where gun ownership is such an entrenched aspect of society. Banning guns would not make them disappear or make them any less dangerous. It is a legitimate right of citizens to own weapons with which they can protect themselves, their family, and their property (see point 4). Many people also need guns for other reasons. For example, farmers need guns in order to protect their stock and crops from pests, e.g. rabbits, birds, deer, foxes, stray dogs attacking sheep, etc."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro04b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"There are substantial exceptions to that correlation, for example Japan has the world\u2019s 5th highest suicide rate but very low gun ownership. [1]  As the proposition concedes, the availability of firearms is not a direct cause of suicide and thus the restriction of availability of firearms can only have a marginal effect on the suicide rate.  [1]"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro03a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Sports shooting desensitizes people to the lethal nature of firearms  Shooting as a sport desensitises people to the lethal nature of all firearms, creating a gun culture that glamorises and legitimises unnecessary gun ownership. It remains the interest of a minority, who should not be allowed to block the interests of society as a whole in gun control. Compensation can be given to individual gun owners, gun clubs and the retail firearms trade, in recognition of their economic loss if a ban is implemented."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro04a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Gun ownership increases the risk of suicide  There is a correlation between the laxity of a country\u2019s gun laws and its suicide rate \u2013 not because gun owners are more depressive, but because the means of quick and effective suicide is easily to hand. As many unsuccessful suicides are later glad that they failed in their attempt, the state should discourage and restrict the ownership of something that wastes so many human lives."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con03b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Shooting as a sport has the potential to desensitize people to the lethal nature of all firearms, creating a gun culture that glamorizes and legitimizes unnecessary gun ownership."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con01b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Burglary should not be punished by vigilante killings of the offender. No amount of property is worth a human life. Perversely, the danger of attack by homeowners may make it more likely that criminals will carry their own weapons. If a right to self-defence is granted in this way, many accidental deaths are bound to result.  Moreover the value of guns for self-defence is overrated. A firearm kept in the home for self-defence is six times more likely to be used in a deliberate or accidental homicide than against an unlawful intruder. [1]  [1] Drinan, Robert F. \u2018Gun Control: The Good Outweighs the Evil\u2019. The Civil Liberties Review. August\/September 1976"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con02a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Gun ownership increases national security within democratic states  \u201cA well-regulated Militia, being necessary top the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.\u201d \u2013 2nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. [1] Any country is much more able to defend itself from aggression if many of its citizens are able to use guns, keeping them for leisure and sporting use. Some countries actively require adult citizens to maintain weapons in their house, and periodically to train in their use. The high levels of firearm availability in Iraq and Afghanistan have been significant contributory factors in allowing for a viable insurrection to form which has the potential to generate the political pressure necessary to cause the withdrawal of foreign occupiers.  Of course, such widespread ownership of weapons is also a safeguard against domestic tyranny.  [1] See also DIstricxt of Columbia v Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con04a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Effective gun control is not achievable in democratic states with a tradition of civilian gun ownership  Much like the failure of the prohibition era to stop alcohol consumption, trying to restrict the use of guns that are already widely owned and prevalent in a society is an impossible task. [1]  The people who intend to use guns for illegitimate purposes are obviously unconcerned with the fact that it is illegal to acquire the guns in the first place in countries where this is already the case such as in the UK . [2] [3]  [1] Kates, Don B. \u2018Why a Civil Libertarian Opposes Gun Control\u2019. The Civil Liberties Review. June\/July 1976   [2] The Independent. \u2018Up to 4m guns in UK and police are losing the battle\u2019. 4th September 2005.   [3] The Guardian. \u2018Firearms: cheap, easy to get and on a street near you\u2019 30th August 2008."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con03a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Sports shooting is a safe activity  Shooting is sport enjoyed by many law-abiding people, both in gun clubs with purpose-built ranges and as a field sport. These people have the right to continue with their chosen leisure pursuit, on which they have spent large amounts of money \u2013 an investment the government would effectively be confiscating if their guns were confiscated."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con01a","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Gun ownership is an integral aspect of the right to self defence  Law-abiding citizens deserve the right to protect their families in their own homes, especially if the police are judged incapable of dealing with the threat of attack. Would-be rapists and armed burglars will think twice before attempting to break into any house where the owners may keep firearms for self-defence. (This can also be applied to the right to carry concealed weapons, deterring potential rapists, muggers, etc.)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con04b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"Limited restrictions on ownership and use are different in nature to absolute prohibition and are more easily enforced.  Statistical analysis shows that that gun control laws do have a deterrent effect on firearm deaths and that the magnitude of the effect is dependent on how well the rules are enforced. [1] The ineffectiveness of badly drafted or enforced gun control regulations is not an indicator of the ineffectiveness of well drafted and enforced regulations.  [1] Kwon et al. \u2018The effectiveness of gun control laws: multivariate statistical analysis\u2019, The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. Jan"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwlrba-con02b","title":"eneral politics politics general house would limit right bear arms","text":"The 2nd Amendment of the U.S. Constitution was written in the age of horse and musket, where a private citizen could gain access to the same (or even better) weaponry that the state did.  Unless the opposition want to remove all barriers on gun ownership completely, no armed citizenry can seriously compete with a modern military armed with tanks, drones and precision weaponry. Popular resistance movements rely upon creating an unaffordable political cost to maintaining the occupation (e.g. The US was eventually forced from Vietnam, despite winning virtually every major battle of the war), but this assumes that the occupying power is vulnerable to that kind of pressure. An undemocratic invader or a domestic tyranny will happily slaughter dissidents with impunity (see the pre-intervention stages of the Libyan civil-war and the 2011 Syrian uprising)."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro02b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"No one doubts that politicians have to make morally difficult decisions, where sometimes every option is unpleasant. However, no one wants politicians to have an unrestricted ability to make ethical questionable decisions. That is exactly what immunity would deliver them. A politician who knows that they cannot be touched is incentivized and licensed to be much more brazen in their behavior when in office, and we want a bulwark against unrestricted rule-breaking. A state of affairs wherein politicians can sometimes be prosecuted creates the ideal amount of disincentive for politicians to break rules; they will do so only when there is a pressing need, and only to a moderate degree. Because of the plausible justifications for such acts, politicians need not fear prosecution in the overwhelming majority of cases. For instance, no official from either the UK or USA has been actually indicted with regard to highly-legally-dubious programs to torture detainees [1] [2] . Moreover, politicians are seldom prosecuted anyway, especially because they tend to belong to socioeconomic strata that punished less or not all compared to the rest of society. There is no legitimate need to give them more protection.  [1] Ambinder, Marc, \u2018CIA Officers Granted Immunity from Torture Prosecution\u2019, The Atlantic, 16 April 2009,  [Accessed September 9, 2011]  [2] Human Rights Education Association, \u2018Torture, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment\u2019, hrea.org,  [Accessed September 9, 2011]"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro02a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Politicians should be able to make difficult decisions without fear that selecting one option will lead to their incarceration.  By the most popular definition, a state is the entity with the monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a defined territory. Politicians, as the government of that state, necessarily wield the institutions of that state force. This results in the tremendous responsibility of deciding when the overwhelming power of the state is exercised. This pertains to a variety of areas, such as police action against civil unrest, the interrogation of both alleged and convicted terrorists, and economic policies that subsidize industries with state resources. While it is certainly possible to brazenly abuse this power, in many cases politicians are presented with options which are, if at all illegal, marginally so, and made with the good faith interest of the nation at heart. There are even conceivable situations in which a politician may exercise options that are clearly illegal but serve an overwhelming state interest; consider an illegal raid on a private building in order to prevent a nuclear bomb from going off. While documented instances of policy-makers choosing not to act for a particular reason are rare, several senior CIA officials stated that they had become risk averse merely because the idea of prosecuting officials who made security policy had entered the public discourse. [1] We ought to place politicians in a situation where the only factor in their decision-making process is what serves the public interest, rather than having to weigh what they consider to be the right action against the chance it will lead to their incarceration. Attempting to avoid this through a limited system which allowed for the prosecution of apolitical crimes but immunity for political decisions would fail to accomplish the goals of prosecution of politicians, which is primarily to protect against political abuses of state power which threaten the rights of the citizenry.  [1] Crawford, Robert, \u2018Torture and the Ideology of National Security\u2019 Global Dialogue, Vol.12 No.1, Winter\/Spring 2010, (\u201cA Risk-Averse CIA\u201d subsection)  [Accessed 22 September 2011]"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro03b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"These mechanisms are not immediate enough to put an immediate stop to an aberrant behavior. Impeachment proceedings take months at least; elections may be years away; and reputational damage is even more long-term. Moreover, these punishments are nowhere near a sufficient deterrent. If loss of one\u2019s job, and damage to one\u2019s public image were sufficient deterrents, we would not prosecute business leaders for insider trading, nor celebrities for drunk driving. The fact is that a criminal justice system which punishes everyone equally is not just fair; it\u2019s also a practical method of achieving meaningful deterrence. Finally, even if we are willing to settle for one of these lesser punishments, the threat of a great punishment gives prosecutors leverage to strike deals with the politicians, such as offering not to prosecute in exchange for coming forward with the details of misdeeds."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro05a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Prosecutions of politicians are often motivated by partisan concerns.  As noted above, the political life is steeped in difficult decisions, and some of these are bound to result in choices that are at least potentially illegal. The ability to prosecute politicians incentivizes political opponents to search out past actions by said politicians so as to immobilize them politically. Such prosecutions are therefore not motivated by concern for justice, nor are they conducive to a well-functioning, multipartisan political system wherein representatives seek to work together to achieve their political ends. In the most extreme cases, powerful politicians use prosecutions to immobilize their political opponents."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro01a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Giving politicians\u2019 immunity from prosecution allows them to focus on performing their duties  The premier reason that most states, even those that allow for the prosecution of politicians, abstain from prosecuting them while they hold office is that being a politician is a job that requires one\u2019s undivided attention. Especially for the holders of prominent national-level offices, writing legislation, responding to crises under one\u2019s purview, consulting one\u2019s constituents, and engaging in campaign work often lead to politicians working an upwards of 12 hour day, every day. To expect politicians cope with all of these concerns will simultaneously constructing a defense against pending charges would be to abandon all hope of them serving their constituents effectively. We are rightly aggravated when politicians take extensive vacations or other extracurricular forays. [1] Being under indictment not only consumes even more of a politician\u2019s time; the stress it causes will inevitably seep into what remaining time they do allocating to fulfilling their duties, further hindering their performance. The impeachment proceedings for Bill Clinton on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice were so intensive that they took tremendous resources away from not only the president himself, but all branches of the federal government for several months [2] , amidst serious domestic and foreign policy concerns such as the ongoing war in Kosovo.  [1] Condon, George E. Jr., \u2018The Long History of Criticizing Presidential Vacations\u2019 The Atlantic, 18 August 2011,  [Accessed September 9, 2011]  [2] Linder, Douglas O., \u2018The Impeachment Trial of President William Clinton\u2019, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI-KANSAS CITY (UMKC) SCHOOL OF LAW, 2005,  [Accessed September 19, 2011]"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro01b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Politicians have to divide their focus anyway. As the examples above concede, being a politician means being pulled in several different directions. Elections are particularly distracting, and in jurisdictions with fixed election cycles like the United States can make periods of up to a year prior to the election a write-off for getting real work done. Thus, personal liability is nothing special among the many concerns a politician has. In fact, accountability, of this direct type, and for serious offences, is probably more important than most of the things a politician is forced to consider, and at the very least deserves inclusion among them."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro05b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Motivation does not matter. Almost every time someone presses criminal charges, it is for their own personal concerns (such as wanting retribution), rather than concern for the public good; that does not change the fact that if charges are laid, it is because the prosecuting authority has decided that, regardless of why the crime has come to their attention, the interest of society at large requires that the individual be prosecuted. If political motivations are what is needed for politicians to be held accountable, so be it. Even if this is a problem, it can be mitigated with sufficient oversight from an independent prosecuting authority."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro04b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"If we don\u2019t want politicians hurting the dignity of the office, there is only one thing we can do: not elect politicians likely to commit crimes! Of course, this is often impossible to tell in advance, but the dilemma remains: a crime has been committed, and that hurts the dignity of the office no matter what action we take. One thing that\u2019s worse than having an office\u2019s holder raked over the coals is for them to get away with a behavior that otherwise warrants punishment. See discussion below under \u201churts the image of the office.\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro03a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"In the event of major abuses of power it should be the public that holds politicians to account.  The obvious benefit to prosecuting politicians is that it punishes \u2013 and thereby deters \u2013 corruption by politicians. However, this benefit can be achieved through other means. Firstly, many western liberal democracies have one form or another of removing a politician from office in the midst of their term, such as impeachment in the American system or a vote of no confidence against the government in the Westminster system. While defenders of immunity oppose impeachment as contrary to the principles outlined above (because of the effect that it may have on political duties), this is an option that remains in cases of gross misconduct. If the political will cannot be mobilized to remove a sitting politician, they are held accountable by the electorate to whom they must answer in the next election, and who will likely punish blatant misuse of political power. Even if the individual politician has reached a limit on their term of office, or does not seek reelection, they are still held in check by the damage that will be done to their party in the event of major misconduct on their part. Finally, most politicians are significantly concerned about their legacy, which is tarnished significantly by corruption even if they are never held legally accountable for it. While Nixon received a full pardon from his success, [1] his name has become synonymous with criminality and scandal: a fate most politicians wish to avoid.  [1] Ford, Gerald R., Proclamation 4311, 8 September 1974,  [Accessed September 9, 2011]"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro04a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Seeing a politician put on trial hurts the integrity of their office.  It does tremendous damage to the public perception of a given political position to see the holder of that position on trial for criminal acts. Politicians are important role models for the populace at large, and shining light on everyone one of their misdeeds is not conducive to them playing such a role. This hurts the ability of their successors who, though completely innocent, are stepping into an institution now tainted with the image of corruption or scandal. Finally, the very process of prosecution can be damaging to the country, as citizens on opposing sides of the political spectrum disagree over the legitimacy of charges. These effects all deal real damage to the political institutions necessary for the functioning of the state."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con03b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"The concept of retribution is a narrow and dubious foundation for justice. A modern, civilized legal system should not be geared around delivering payback on behalf of victims, but rather around advancing the best consequences for the future. For exactly this reason legal systems give several ways in which defendants can avoid punishment, even though they are technically guilty, if punishing them would have bad consequences; these include jury nullification and suspended sentences."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con01b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"See argument above regarding other accountability mechanism. Jeopardizing future electoral success, harming one\u2019s political party, and damage to one\u2019s personal legacy are all meaningful checks on the behavior of politicians. To suggest that, in the absence of prosecutions, an under-used tool anyway, politicians will be able to abuse their station with impunity, is simply untrue."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con02a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Politicians who commit crimes are likely unfit to serve.  The sort of person who commits an offense has demonstrated irresponsibility and so is unworthy of the public trust. Would any reasonable citizen wanted to be represented by a domestic abuser, or have a fraudster manage the public treasury? While almost all people are capable of atonement and redemption, someone who commits crimes worthy of prosecution while in office ought to be immediately removed for the betterment of the state."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con05a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Immunity creates a perverse incentive to hang on to their office as long as possible.  Prosecutorial immunity brings about a massive side-benefit to being in office. It is easy to get used to a life where minor indiscretions go regularly unpunished, as has happened with dignitaries holding diplomatic immunity. [1] Immunity from prosecution may spur a politician to seek reelection into their old age when they are significantly less effective at performing their duties. This is one reason why in the vast majority of democracies elected representatives, while far from poor, are not paid massive salaries; we don\u2019t want people getting into politics for the wrong reasons.  [1] Uhlig, Mark A., \u2018Court Won\u2019t Bar Return of Boy in Abuse Case to Zimbabwe\u2019, The New York Times, 1 January 1988,  [Accessed September 9, 2011]"}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con04a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Immunity for politicians hurts the image of their office  Far from the worst PR for an office being that a holder of it is on trial, the worst possible public perception of a political institution is that it is wracked with corruption, with it not even theoretically possible to hold its members to account. Prosecuting politicians makes it clear that their office is not a den of impunity, and in the wake of a scandal, restoring public confidence in politicians to come. The public wants their politicians to be accountable and granting immunity harms accountability by denying an option."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con03a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"Immunity for politicians is an unjust double standard  Every victim deserves to have the perpetrator of their suffering answer for their misdeeds. It is unjust that certain offenders would avoid retribution, and certain victims would be denied their day in court, simply because of a factor external to the commission of the crime. Even if the crime is not external to the criminal\u2019s political role, the foundation of a free and fair justice system is that all individuals are treated alike, regardless of perceived importance. Hence, a wealthy philanthropist will not be spared from prosecution simply because they are a pillar of the community. Politicians should receive no greater reprieve."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con05b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"With regard to this issue, elections are unquestionably an effective alternative mechanism. The act of a politician in a liberal democracy holding on to office for another term, by definition, requires public assent. The citizenry has an out: don\u2019t continue electing politicians who aren\u2019t serving the public interest. Regardless, politicians already have a plethora of motives, both legitimate and self-serving, to hold on to public office; this doesn\u2019t move the barometer on incentives to run. Most elections are at least modestly well contested precisely because many qualified candidates really want the position."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con01a","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"The ability to prosecute politicians is the ultimate protection against the abuse of power.  It is impossible to overstate the power that the threat of prosecution has to stay the hand of anyone, including a politician, from transgressing the laws of the state. In fact, we need more aggressive prosecution of politicians. Not a single person has been prosecuted for approval illegal torture or wiretapping. These are illegal actions actually happening which the populace, with only the blunt instrument of voting for or against a politician on the sum total of their policies, is unable to effectively influence. There is no greater deterrent that could be used against politicians."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con04b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"The difference between the harm to the office of a politician getting away with a crime and the harm from them being tried for that crime is that the trial is inherently public. Short of widespread corruption \u2013 the sort that would probably preclude prosecuting politicians anyway \u2013 it is unlikely that unpunished wrongdoing in an office will ever become public. A trial, by contrast, creates a media flashpoint that captures the public consciousness. Thus, even if the damage to the integrity of the office is greater per person in cases of unpunished crimes, the act of punishing the crime informs enough people to outweigh the fact that it may not do as much damage per capita."}
+{"id":"test-politics-eppghwgpi-con02b","title":"eneral punishment politics government house would grant politicians immunity","text":"This is not necessarily true. A politician could be a brilliant diplomat who happens to commit a minor offence such as drink driving; very few indictable offences correlate directly with one\u2019s ability to discharge the mandate of a political office. Historically, politicians have often had their secret vices, including the rumored drug habits of many 19th century politicians, that have not impeded the performance of their duties."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro02b","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Although there have been flaws in the way that Canada has dealt with Quebec in the past, it simply isn\u2019t true that it is currently denied its right to self-determination. First of all, it is not the will of the people to become an independent nation, shown by the results of the most recent referendum on the issue and recent polling figures [1] . Therefore, it is the will of the Quebecers to be governed as part of Canada and becoming independent would in fact violate this right to self-determination. Second, there have been large steps taken to rectify these past issues of exclusion of the Quebec voice such as in 2006 where Prime Minister Harper\u2019s recognition of Quebec as a distinct nation within Canada [2] .  [1] Chung, Andrew. \"Sovereignty \"outmoded,\" Quebec poll indicates.\" Star 19 May 2010, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [2] \"Harper: Quebec a nation... within Canada.\" Canada.com 22 Nov 2006, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro02a","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Quebec has the right to self-determination.  All people have the right to determine their own form of government and representation and Quebec has been systematically denied this right.  Quebec has historically been denied the right to determine its own form of governance systematically and therefore the Canadian government has no right to claim legitimacy over Quebec and cannot stop it from leaving the federation.  The Canadian Constitution was patriated in 1982 in a backroom deal known as the Meech Lake Accord [1] where Quebec was explicitly excluded from the negotiations and their issues were ignored. Specifically, Quebec was attempting to entrench recognition of their special status and needs as a distant society within Canada [2] and this was denied. To this day, Quebec has refused to sign the Canadian constitution as it feels it doesn\u2019t adequately represent its interests and needs [3] .  Therefore, Quebec has the right to independence as its sovereignty was illegitimately taken from it and it is systematically denied adequate representation in Canadian politics.  [1] \"The Meech Lake Accord.\" Peace and Conflict. Historica, n. d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [2] \"The Meech Lake Accord.\" Peace and Conflict. Historica, n. d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [3] \"The Meech Lake Accord.\" Peace and Conflict. Historica, n. d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro03b","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"The right to self-determination does not necessitate independence, but rather determination of their own governance. This principle is widely seen as not being about sovereignty, but rather the right to control local governance for their peoples, a right already extended to the Quebecois. The International Court of Justice, the most important court of international law, has recognized the right of self-determination as being adequately fulfilled by devolved governance. [1]  Moreover, as explained in counterargument one, there is no basis for the Quebecois to claim that they are systematically denied adequate representation, making the international legal precedent on self-determination irrelevant.  [1] Van der Vyver, Johan D., \u201eSelf-Determination of the Peoples of Quebec under International law\u201c, Journal of Transnational Law and Policy, Vol. 10, No. 1, <  >, p.11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro01a","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Quebec needs to be independent to retain its distinct language and culture.  The only way to ensure that Quebecers get to retain their distinct culture is to gain independence as a country and remove themselves from the Canadian federation.  A very big issue for certain Quebecers is the threat that an overwhelmingly English-speaking country has on their pocket of distinct French-Quebecois culture [1] . The unrestricted immigration of English-speaking Canadians to Quebec has diluted the culture of the Quebecois and has set off the process of cultural-loss and the highly feared loss of their language [2] . Moreover, whenever Quebec has tried to put in place provisions to protect their culture and language, such as with Bill 101 [3] , Quebec is called racist and Canadian Federal Courts try to strike down their laws to stop their \u201cdiscrimination\u201d against English-speaking Canadians in their province [4] .  The only way that Quebec can protect its language and culture is to be able to stop the unrestricted flow of English-speaking immigration into its territory and gain complete control over its own law and cultural policy. The only way to do this is to gain independence from Canada.  [1] \"Only Quebec independence can protect French language: PQ strategist.\" CBS News Canada 26 Nov 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [2] \"Only Quebec independence can protect French language: PQ strategist.\" CBS News Canada 26 Nov 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [3] \"Bill 101.\" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Web. 1 Dec 2011. <  .  [4] \"Bill 101.\" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Web. 1 Dec 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro01b","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Although it may be true that traditional Quebecois culture is under threat, this is not necessarily a bad thing. Cultures change and evolve to reflect the rich history of a territory and its peoples and the interaction with Anglophonic Canadians is a very important part of that history that should be reflected in Quebecois culture.  Moreover, Quebec is more than able to institute language laws and cultural policy, as they were able to continue the vast majority of the provisions in Bill 101 [1] after it was struck down once they stripped out the parts that explicitly discriminated against English-speaking Canadians and once they enacted the Constitutional not-withstanding clause that the Canadian constitution has in place to help accommodate Provincial diversity such as this. Further to this, Canada is officially a bilingual country, and thus the linguistic and cultural rights of the French are constitutionally protected by the Federal government not only within Quebec but in wider Canadian society. It is simply fallacious to claim that the Canadian government does not recognize or protect the distinct culture and language of French Canadians.  [1] \"Bill 101.\" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Web. 1 Dec 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro03a","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"International Law Mandates Quebec be allowed Independence  International law recognizes Quebec\u2019s right to self-determination and denying them self-determination is therefore a violation of international law.  International law recognizes the right of all peoples to self-determination. The international community has decided that it is oppressive to individuals to live under a government that is systematically incapable or unwilling to protect them and their interests. [1]  The Quebecois have been systematically denied adequate representation in the federal government of Canada. Quebecois legislation protection their basic rights to retain their language and culture have been met with contempt [2] and legal action by the federal Canadian government and courts. [3] This is but one example of the very clear denial of basic representation and self-governance that afflicts the Quebecois in Canada.  Therefore, Quebec has the legal right to self-determination and independence in international law.  [1] \u201eReference re Secession of Quebec\u201c, Supreme Court of Canada, 1998, 2 S.C.R. 217, <  >  [2] \u201cMaxime Bernier on Quebec law: \u2018We don\u2019t need Bill 101\u2019\u201d, The Canadian Press, 4 February 2011, <  >  [3] Hudon, R., \u201eBill 101\u201c, The Canadian Encyclopedia, <  >"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con01b","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Many countries in the world have bad economies; this is not a reason to not be an independent country. Economic circumstances can change and be improved through different economic initiatives; this simply isn\u2019t a good enough reason to not secede from Canada. Furthermore, there is significant economic evidence that suggests that smaller states, such as that of Quebec, have a higher chance of thriving economically than larger states such as Canada. [1] Therefore, this argument not only does not justify the opposition case, but also is entirely speculative and likely incorrect. Quebec\u2019s economy could very well benefit significantly from detaching its economy from Canada.  [1] Price, Adam, \u201eSmall Is Cute, Sexy, and Successful: Why Independence for Wales and Other Countries Makes Economic Sense\u201c, Harvard Kennedy School Review, 2011, <  >"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con02a","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"This is not the will of the people of Quebec.  Secession from Canada would not be a fair or adequate representation of the will of the people of Quebec.  The most recent referendum and all current polling data suggest that an overwhelming majority of Quebecers are opposed to Quebec seeking independence from Canada [1] . The government of Quebec pursuing such a policy is only representative of a very small minority of people in Quebec, and therefore is undemocratic in nature. Moreover, this policy explicitly denies consideration or enfranchisement for the very large populations of Anglophone Quebecers who also deserve representation, and whose interests are being wholly discounted to pursue this one policy on behalf of the Francophones in their province.  Therefore, pursuing secession is both wholly undemocratic, but also specifically disenfranchises a very large portion of the population entirely in a trade-off for one specific policy that doesn\u2019t appeal strongly to anyone beyond a very small minority of citizens.  [1] Chung, Andrew. \"Sovereignty \"outmoded,\" Quebec poll indicates.\" Star 19 May 2010, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con01a","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Quebec would not be able to be economically viable on its own.  Quebec independence simply will not work because Quebec would not be financially viable as an independent economy.  Quebec has been financially dependent on the rest of Canada for years [1] specifically being dependent on \u201chave\u201d provinces such as Alberta to prop-up its economy as a \u201chave-not\u201d provinces through equalization payments [2] . Moreover, all financial indicators point to the situation staying as it is or worsening, with no signs of improvement in the economy visible [3] .  If Quebec were to gain independence, it simply would not be able to sustain itself as an independent country. Quality of life would necessarily have to drop for all those living in Quebec and the economy would only crash further as confidence in it would dwindle once you remove the credibility the support of the Canadian government and economy that currently gives it.  Therefore, Quebec should not secede from Canada as it would only serve to harm their economy and the livelihoods of the people they supposedly are there to protect.  [1] Van Praet, Nicolas. \"No progress in Quebec prosperity: report.\" Financial Post 30 Aug 2011, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [2] Van Praet, Nicolas. \"No progress in Quebec prosperity: report.\" Financial Post 30 Aug 2011, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  .  [3] Van Praet, Nicolas. \"No progress in Quebec prosperity: report.\" Financial Post 30 Aug 2011, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con02b","title":"government local government voting house believes quebec should secede canada","text":"Quebec is in a unique position as the homeland for French-speaking Canadians and therefore has a very different mandate than a normal state or province. Quebec has an obligation to the rights of French Canadians as a group due to its unique position, and just because Anglo-Canadians have migrated to Quebec does not mean that the primacy of this special obligation has disappeared because the mandate\u2019s representation within its territory has been diluted."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro02b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"While elections can create a focal point for protest and violence this may actually make things more predictable not less. Countries without elections are not without opposition groups and protests, all this means is that the spark for the protests is going to be different; police beating someone up, a particularly extravagant piece of corruption, an attempted cover up, the disappearance of an opposition activist. Not having elections simply prevents the divisions in society from being highly visible; it does not get rid of the divisions, indeed it gets rid of one of the safety valves."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro02a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Avoids the costs and uncertainty of elections  It is hard to see what the benefit of an election that can change nothing is, but there are certainly all the costs associated with a normal election. Elections can be costly in financial terms, the United States elections cost several billion dollars but even much smaller and less extravagant elections need financing. Zimbabwe\u2019s elections in 2013 forced the government to ask its neighbours for $85 million to carry out the polls, for a nation that is essentially bankrupt this is a lot of money. [1]  Another cost is uncertainty. In fully democratic elections the uncertainty is with what the policies will be when the government changes. With sham elections the uncertainty is whether the elections will be a focus for violence. Sometimes this is during campaigning itself as with Zimbabwe in 2008 where up to 200 people were killed. [2] Otherwise violence occurs when there is a perception that an election has been stolen so the Green Movement in Iran took to the streets and was met with a violent crackdown in 2009. [3]  [1] VOA News, \u2018Zimbabwe Seeks Help to Cover Election Costs\u2019, Voice of America, 10 July 2013,   [2] \u2018Zimbabwe: No Justice for Rampant Killings, Torture\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 8 March 2011,   [3] AFP, \u2018Iran opposition says 72 killed in vote protests\u2019, Google, 3 September 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro03b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"There is little evidence that countries without elections are more willing to take difficult decisions, or able to take wise decisions, than those that face some form of election. Many petro states have failed to diversify their economies despite having the money to do so \u2013 often investing in wild ideas such as Saudi Arabia investing $84 billion in agriculture in the desert from 1985-2000. [1]  [1] Alterman, Jon B., \u2018Water and National Strength in Saudi Arabia\u2019, Center for Strategic & International Studies, March 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro01a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Having no elections is honest  Holding sham elections is fundamentally dishonest as it is asking the people to choose a government and then ignoring their choice. Not holding elections is at least honestly telling the people that they get no say in who is in power. Holding a sham election inevitably means having to lie to the people somewhere along the line; whether it is in preventing people registering, or voting, or in manipulating the results. The people usually know the result is a sham or at least are suspicious \u2013 in the latest Zimbabwean election the headlines in the newspapers included \u201cZANU-PF gloats over victory\u201d. [1]  Without a sham election the government can at least be honest with their people so enabling a level of trust or even a kind of contract between the two \u2013 the government and the people each lets the other get on with it. Thus for example in China trust in government in 2012 was 76% against the world average of 51%. [2]  [1] Chinaka, Cris, \u2018Africa and West at odds over disputed Zimbabwe election\u2019, Reuters, 4 August 2013,   [2] Sedghi, Ami, and Rogers, Simon, \u2018Do we trust our government? See how your country compares\u2019, TheGuardian.com, 24 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro01b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Being honest about depriving the people of their right to choose the government is not beneficial. An unwillingness to hold elections does not build any trust even when the government has proved itself capable at governing because an unwillingness to hold elections fundamentally shows distrust by government of the people. If the government trusted the people in return it would trust them to elect a competent government and representatives."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro04b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"The problem with good governance and economic success as the basis of legitimacy is that a crisis of legitimacy is created whenever growth falters or corruption comes to light. Legitimacy based upon performance also has the problem that if a certain performance becomes normal then the benchmarks must be higher and higher over time to continue to provide legitimacy. [1] Having legitimacy at least in part based on periodic elections, even if these are somehow rigged, is more sustainable as the legitimacy is renewed whenever there is a new election or change in government. This has the added benefit that as fairer elections are seen as more legitimate there is a greater chance that sham elections will become real elections to ensure the regime has more legitimacy even at the risk of it being voted out - as shown recently by Burma being willing to take the democratic route.  [1] Lam, Jon-Jon, \u2018Performance Legitimacy: an Unstable Model for Sustaining Power\u2019, The Politic, 10 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro03a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Allows the ruler to make necessary but unpopular decisions  Democracy and elections are about popularity but popular decisions are not always the right ones. Even mature democracies have sometimes seen their government\u2019s make use of the levers of government to boost their electoral chances; for example Margaret Thatcher\u2019s government stoked the economy in the Lawson boom in 1987 which just happened to be an election year. [1] Governments without elections can engage in long term planning and make unpopular decisions without fear of the consequences. Thus for example Saudi Arabia is willing to pump less oil (and so get less money in the short term at least) in order to create stability in the oil market by having enough excess capacity to prevent price spikes.  [1] Congdon, Tim, Keynes, the Keynesians and Monetarism, 2007, p.73"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro04a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Forces the ruler to find another way to placate the people  Not having any elections \u2013 or only elections for a powerless advisory parliament \u2013 may actually have a benefit in putting responsibility squarely on the shoulders of the rulers. Only a country that is comparatively well governed, or successful, can manage without a democratic safety valve. It is notable that the remaining absolute monarchies or those where the King rules as well as reigns are mostly very wealthy petro states. Several of the remaining communist regimes, China and Vietnam, rely on rapid economic growth to cement their legitimacy combined with meritocracy in their selection of leaders. In both cases there is an incentive for good governance by those in power as they are in for the long term. The leaders know they are not going to be elected out of office so have the motivation to reduce corruption and create long term growth through investment in infrastructure because this will benefit them in the future. [1]  [1] Feldman, Noah, \u2018Feldman examines corruption and political legitimacy in China\u2019, Harvard Law School, 11 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con03b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"If the government were genuinely interested in what the people want then there would be far more reliable ways than through an election. Polling could be done on each individual policy providing a much finer granularity of response to tell policymakers what they really want. All that a government will be able to tell from a sham election is that the people don\u2019t like the government."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con01b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"States can have elections that have almost no chance of changing the government for decades. These elections can actually set back the cause for genuine democracy. There are several reasons for this. First having elections, or marginally expanding the number of parties or franchise, so providing liberal political reform can be used to keep the opposition on side through constantly dangling the prospect of further reform. Thus Sadat in 1977 allowed elections in response to discontent over peace overtures to Israel and in 1984 following his assassination Mubarak made these elections multiparty. [1]  Secondly having elections can be used to disrupt the opposition as coalitions of disparate elements are difficult to create so it will likely lead to internal squabbling and victory for the ruling party. Encouraging such squabbling will then prevent there being a single recognised opposition party or figure than can be seen as able to take over. When there is no clear path after a revolution the people are going to be much more likely to stick with the dictator they know.  [1] Lust, Ellen, \u2018The Multiple Meanings of Elections In Non-Democratic Regimes: Breakdown, Response and Outcome in the Arab Uprisings\u2019, Yale University, p.5."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con02a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Elections of any sort force rulers to meet their people  Elections almost anywhere in the world mean politicians getting out and campaigning. Regardless of the legitimacy of the final election the leadership of the country will be going out and meeting voters. In many of these events individuals won\u2019t be able to express their views but there are also likely to be protests and meetings where individuals can get their views across. This provides an opportunity for the leader to stay in touch with the people \u2013 often a problem with dictators who have been in power too long.  Dictators will want to, and often believe that they are likely to win even without resort to fraud, as Marcos did in 1985. [1] They are then are much more likely to consider the views of the electorate to still be relevant if there are elections than if there are not. Thus for example Mugabe in the most recent elections made a bid for, and won, the youth vote by promising a direct stake in the economy, [2] so responding to their desire for jobs. [3]  [1] Kline, William E., \u2018The Fall of Marcos: A Problem in U.S. Foreign Policymaking\u2019, Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1992,  p. 10  [2] Agyemang, Roy, \u2018Why a Robert Mugabe victory would be good for Zimbabwe\u2019, theguardian.com, 2 August 2013,   [3] AFP, \u2018Youth, rural voters may hold key to Zimbabwe election\u2019, Fox News, 27 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con04a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Sham elections do not mean the elections have no influence or impact.  For an autocracy the election for the top job needs to be predetermined, but the other elections do not. This means that elections for the legislature can still be competitive. The seats do have some influence, provide patronage, and have status attached so there are plenty of people who want to contest them. In the Arab world before the Arab spring there was a less than 25% incumbency rate for legislatures. [1] Having elections that determine control in local areas or allow opposition some control in parliament is far preferable to the alternative where the government appoints everyone. Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy in Burma have for example gained entry into Parliament and have despite being a minority had an impact. This has particularly been the case internationally. They have helped liberalise the new Foreign Investment Law and have encouraged more liberalised freedom of the press and association. [2]  [1] Lust, Ellen, \u2018The Multiple Meanings of Elections In Non-Democratic Regimes: Breakdown, Response and Outcome in the Arab Uprisings\u2019, Yale University, p.7.   [2] Turnell, Sean, \u2018Myanmar has made a good start to economic reform\u2019, East Asia Forum, 27 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con03a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Even a sham election demonstrates what the people want  In an election the people show what their policy preferences will be. Even if the government is engaging in vote rigging or voter intimidation they will still know how the people voted or wanted to vote (if they stuffed the ballot they will know how many extra votes they added) so will have some guidance as to the policies that the people wish implemented. If there are multiple different parties competing in the elections then it will be possible to tell which party platforms are the most popular and so which to take ideas from.  If there are elections then there are opposition parties and independent MPs who are given much more space than they would be without elections. Being MPs gives the opposition some status and gives them a controlled setting in which to criticise the government. This provides the opposition with the chance to channel the voice of the people and encourage change from the governing party."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con01a","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"Some kind of election is more likely to lead to real democracy than no election  The acceptance by most autocrats that there need to be elections shows the idea that legitimacy derives from the people is generally accepted. Meaning that these states are already part way to having a genuine democracy. Having regular elections, even if the outcome is preordained, means that the electorate becomes used to voting and the idea of voting to make their voice heard. In such circumstances eventually they are going to want their vote to really count. If there is a creeping process of reform eventually this will result in free and fair elections.  Having any kind of elections means that there are people who are recognised as an opposition. This means that there is a viable alternative to the ruling party which can be turned to in a crisis, or can take on the leadership role when the regime is finally toppled. For example in Philippines the opposition was able to create a united opposition party in 1984 and coalesce around Corazon Aquino in the snap elections of 1985. [1] This meant that Aquino was in a position to swiftly set up a government following the people power revolution and flight of Marcos. [2]  [1] Kline, William E., \u2018The Fall of Marcos: A Problem in U.S. Foreign Policymaking\u2019, Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1992,  Pp.4, 10  [2] Reaves, Joseph A., \u2018Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules\u2019, Chicago Tribune, 26 February 1986,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con04b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"This is simply co-opting the opposition in an attempt to allow the regime to survive longer than it would otherwise done. As Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change in Zimbabwe has found out even being in a coalition government with a dictator does not give you the power to change the outcome over the long term. He has called his election defeat \u201ccoup by ballot\u201d reflecting the vote rigging that he believes occurred to keep President Mugabe in power. [1] The Movement may have had a significant impact during its time in government economically but it totally failed to prise the real power out of the hands of Zanu PF.  [1] Smith, David, \u2018Morgan Tsvangirai loses hope following election defeat\u2019, The Guardian, 4 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con02b","title":"government voting house would have no elections rather sham elections","text":"There is little difference between a stage managed election and stage managed events without elections. In either case the chances of the autocrat meeting real people who present opinions that are not on the party message are slim."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro02b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"An elected mayor would give the appearance of accountability, but at the risk of stifling democratic debate. At present policies are debated by council committees, and then by the full council, which represents a wide spectrum of views and interests; the public and media can usually attend these meetings, so overall proposals have to survive detailed examination. Focusing power in the hands of one person risks policy mistakes, ignores the interests of minorities, and allows for the possibility of corruption, especially if they are in office for four years and cannot be removed by vote of the council. Ken Livingstone, who was Mayor of London for eight years, argues \u201cIt\u2019s easy to avoid serious scrutiny \u2013 Boris has had six press conferences in four years. When you come to see how the assembly gets to question him once a month that\u2019s not the same as a detailed scrutiny by a council committee.\u201d [1] Greater accountability could instead be achieved by use of citizens\u2019 juries to consider particular local issues, and local referenda on issues such as the level of council tax.  [1] Waterson, James, \u2018Ken: Mayor has too much power for one person\u2019, City A.M., 18 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro02a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Mayors would be more accountable than a council  Electing mayors would improve accountability in local government. A Mayor would have a bigger mandate, which could be up to 500,000 votes compared to 5,000 for individual councillors making them more directly accountable to the city\u2019s electorate. [1] They are also more visible; 57% of people could name their mayor when they had one compared to only 8% being able to name their council leader and so they are more likely to be held to account for their individual policies. [2] By comparison where there are not mayors an elaborate and confusing series of committees make decisions in most areas, making it easy for individual councillors or parties to dodge responsibility for unpopular decisions or failed policies. Bristol is a good example of this with wobbly coalitions resulting from backroom deals and constantly shifting politics; the council changed hands seven times in the ten years to 2012. [3] Placing this power in the hands of an elected mayor would streamline decision-making and increase accountability. A mayor who failed to improve local services or in other ways implement their campaign promises would have little chance of re-election.  [1] Sims, Sam, \u2018Electing mayors for more English cities would increase local democratic accountability and widen political participation. But the government must grant them real power and freedom\u2019, blogs.lse.ac.uk, 7 October 2011.  [2] Gash, Tom, \u2018A turning point for England\u2019s big cities\u2019, Institute for Government, 29 March 2012.  [3] The Economist, \u2018Why elected mayors matter\u2019, 19 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro03b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Talented individuals with a proven track record are unlikely to seek mayoral office unless local government is given much greater autonomy by central government. With the powers for each city not yet clear many may not be willing to take the risk. The reason for the lack of talent in councils is therefore not because they work as a body rather than one prominent individual but that councils themselves have too little power. Regardless of the system of election, if real power is offered, real leaders will be attracted by the prospect of wielding it and will rise to prominence."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro01a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Electing a Mayor will revitalise local democracy  An elected mayor would revitalise local democracy. At present many people have no idea who their local councillors are, or who leads their council, perhaps because collective decision-making is generally unexciting. It is not surprising then that turnout is only around 30% and in some urban areas in Britain fewer than 1 in 4 adults bother to vote in local elections \u2013 the worst turnout in the EU. [1] An elected mayor would act as a focus for local people, both symbolically and as someone with real power to improve their lives. Local elections would gain more coverage and more people\u2019s attention as they are voting for one recognisable figure rather than a number of councillors. This in turn would turn attention to local democracy and increase turnout in elections.  [1] Shakespeare, Tom, \u2018For Good Measure Devolving Accountability for Performance and Assessment to Local Areas\u2019, Localis, 2010, p.17"}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro01b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Directly elected mayors would do little to renew local democracy. In the past, councils in the UK used to have a great deal of power, controlling schools, housing and local utilities, and setting budgets and raising revenues more or less as they wished. Since 1979 these powers have been greatly reduced with power increasingly centralised in Whitehall, which also greatly limits councils\u2019 financial freedom so that local taxes bear little relation to local expenditure. [1] Not surprisingly, as the real decision-making power of local councils has diminished, so has the proportion of citizens who think it is worth voting for them. There is no reason to think that people will flock in greater numbers to vote for a mayor who may well end up with similar restrictions placed upon them.  [1] Parry, Keith, \u2018Local government: timeline from 1979\u2019, House of Commons Library, 10 January 2008."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro04b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Electing a maverick candidate could do the image of a town or city a great deal of harm rather than good. Cities such as Birmingham have already been highly successful at attracting inward investment under the present system of local government. In any case, the major bureaucratic constraints on investment relate to issues of subsidy and tax-breaks, which are outlawed by the EU, and to national taxation and planning policies, set in Whitehall, none of which will be affected by an elected mayor."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro03a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Elected Mayors would attract the best candidates to run for office.  Elected mayors would allow talented individuals to make a difference, regardless of their party affiliation. The present system rewards long-serving and loyal party hacks rather than innovative managers, thinkers and leaders; polls show that the public think councillors put party politics above the needs of their community. Those who are most talented who are elected are simply using the council as a stepping stone for running for national office. If mayors were directly elected, local parties would have to find dynamic candidates with a proven ability to solve problems and manage big organisations, or risk such candidates running and winning as independents. This has already been shown to be the case in London where Ken Livingstone (who initially became Mayor as an independent) and Boris Johnson, both established and well known politicians, ran for Mayor, and in Birmingham where Lam Byrne, formally no.2 at the treasury, has expressed an interest in running. [1]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Labour\u2019s Liam Byrne wants to run for Birmingham mayor\u2019, 30 March 2012."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-pro04a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Mayors would raise the profile of the city they represent  Elected mayors would speak on behalf of their communities, raising the profile of their town or city nationally and internationally. This could be particularly valuable when negotiating with businesses, helping to draw valuable investment into their area and overcoming bureaucratic hurdles that typically hinder development. Chambers of commerce in cities that are holding referendums believe a figurehead will provide a focal point for business relations and a single point of contact that champions the city\u2019s interests. [1] In addition, mayors would give local government in general a higher profile after years of increasing centralisation by national government. Acting collectively, and through the change in attitudes their higher media profile would generate, mayors would be able to draw power away from the centre once again and bring it closer to the people.  [1] Carter, Andrew, \u2018Mayors and Economic Growth\u2019, in Tom Gash and Sam Sims eds., What can elected mayors do for our cities? Institute for Government, 2012, pp.37-42, p.41"}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con03b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"While there may be some extra costs to having a mayor this is likely to be marginal and overall costs may well fall, as Prime Minister Cameron argues \u201cif you end up with a mayor, you\u2019ll actually save money, because mayors can bang heads together, get rid of bureaucracy, and right now, any mayor worth their salt will be trying to get bills down.\u201d [1] There are many layers of funding which create needless overlaps and administration; in Leicester it is estimated for economic development it costs \u00a3135 million in overheads to spend \u00a3176 million on projects, [2] an inefficiency the new mayor would be in a good position to get to grips with.  [1] ITV News, \u2018Bristol mayor will save money, says Prime Minister\u2019, A Mayor for Bristol, 24, April 2012.  [2] Carter, Andrew, \u2018Mayors and Economic Growth\u2019, in Tom Gash and Sam Sims eds., What can elected mayors do for our cities? Institute for Government, 2012, pp.37-42, p.42"}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con01b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Electing a mayor would not concentrate power too much in the hands of one individual. Although models of local government vary, mayors usually have to pick a cabinet from among the elected councillors and to seek approval for their policies and budget from the whole elected council. A mayor would thus have to persuade and build a consensus in order to govern effectively. This is a more transparent approach to local decision making than the present one, and should therefore be free from the accusations of corruption and nepotism that have been levied at the old system."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con02a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Directly elected mayors provide opportunities for populists.  The position of elected mayor is likely to attract populist and maverick candidates, who will seek to capitalise on the unpopularity of party politics with \u201csingle issue sloganising, glib promises and headline grabbing\u201d (Ken Walker, Labour leader of Middlesbrough council). [1] A good example is Paul Massey, who has had 25 convictions in the past and yet is running to be Mayor of Salford and could even have a chance of winning. [2] In office such candidates are likely to alienate elected councillors and other crucial local partners, to disappoint voters as their promises run up against the actual limitations of their power, and to neglect many aspects of local government in favour of their own pet issue. This danger is even greater if a far-right candidate were to exploit local concerns about immigration and asylum-seekers to inflame racial tensions. Again Lutfur Rahman of Tower Hamlets is a good example of how this could happen, he has links to a Muslim extremist group, and only needed a mere 23,000 votes, 13% of the electorate because there was such low turnout. [3]  [1] Hetherington, Peter, \u2018Vote for US-style mayors exposes deep Labour rifts\u2019, The Guardian, 20 October 2001.  [2] Gilligan, Andrew, ;The town hall dictator taking over near you\u2019, The Telegraph, 22 April 2012.  [3] ibid"}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con04a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Mayors could split economic regions  The value of a mayor is dependent upon that mayor having a distinct area of control. However often this area is set too small. Cities are the hubs for neighbouring towns and countryside as well as the inner city. This could then end up splitting up economic regions. Birmingham and Coventry are very close to each other but at some point in the future could potentially have different city mayors. There would then be confusion; who runs regional transport policy or the West Midlands police that affects both cities? [1]  [1] McCabe, Steve, \u2018An executive mayor \u2013 can we afford it?, Birmingham Mail, 17 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con03a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Mayors will come at a cost  Having Mayors is costly. First of all there is the referendum and the election of the Mayor himself which Bristol council has said could cost up to \u00a3400,000. [1] This is then followed by the extra administrative cost created by having a Mayor who will of course have to have deputies, staff, offices, cars and a publicity budget, which could mean up to \u00a33 million a year. [2] This is money that at a time where councils are facing budget cuts could be better spent on shoring up the services councils provide.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Why elected mayors matter\u2019, 19 April 2012.  [2] McCabe, Steve, \u2018An executive mayor \u2013 can we afford it?, Birmingham Mail, 17 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con01a","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Mayors would result in too much centralisation of power.  An elected mayor would have too much power, making the prospect of its misuse alarming. If the mayor has the power to choose their own cabinet of councillors, this could be as small as three members, all of whom could be sacked at will for opposing the wishes of the mayor. If the mayor has the right to delegate powers to his cabinet members, they equally have the authority to reserve all the real powers to themselves. And those councillors outside the cabinet would have little to do other than to monitor broken streetlights and the standard of refuse collection in their ward. Why would talented and ambitious people stand for council in these circumstances, and what would the absence of such people do for the council\u2019s oversight of the mayor?"}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con04b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"Coordinating between a few mayors in a region is considerably easier than between hundreds of councillors. The whole point of devolving power is to let local people have more influence and decide for themselves. Neighbouring areas could eventually have referendums to become part of the area controlled by the mayor if it is seen as being necessary just as they would to get a mayor of their own."}
+{"id":"test-politics-lghwdecm-con02b","title":"local government house would directly elect city mayors","text":"If the position of Mayor is given powers then it will attract a wide range of candidates, which may include extremists. However these candidates are no more likely to win than they would be in any other election. As with any other election voters are likely to vote for centrist candidates that have strong manifestos and good ideas about how to solve the city\u2019s problems."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro02b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"First, it is not clear whether such a position is topical. Second, it is better to support protesters in this case, rather than taking the lead.  To begin with, it is not clear that assisting individuals in the fight for democracy is a valid interpretation of the phrase \"imposing democracy\": if the majority of people want it, perhaps it is not really an imposition. But second and more importantly, if internal movements exist, foreign nations should seek to strengthen and support those movements rather than impose a government. Democratic governments gain legitimacy through popular support: both in origin and in survival. A government chosen and filled by the citizenry is far more legitimate, and thus more likely to command respect and maintain order, than one enforced by a foreign regime."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro02a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Imposing democracy can be a way to support individuals unable to fight for democracy themselves.  If the people within a nation want democracy, it is not wrong -- indeed it may even be morally required -- for us to assist them by imposing democracy against the will of the governing class. Often internal movements lack resources, weapons, or organization, making the fight for democracy very difficult. When individuals seek to defend their rights against an oppressive regime, other nations do them a disservice by allowing evil to win out. Thus NATO's intervention in Libya was in support of rebels often seen as part of the 'Arab spring' wave of democratization but the internal movement even if it had large amounts of support was being suppressed and would have been destroyed without outside intervention1.  1 Traub, James. \"Stepping In\", Foreign Policy"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro03b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"First, democracies are not necessarily more peaceful than other governments. Second, imposition of democracy is likely to fuel terrorism. First, it is not entirely clear that democracies have not gone to war: for example the Central Powers in WWI, although not classified as democracies per se, did have elected parliaments just like the Allies. Further, just because democracies have not gone to war in the past does not mean they will not in the future: a culture of negotiation within the democracy does not necessarily translate into a lack of aggression externally. Second, even if democracies are more peaceful, the imposition of democracy can threaten to world peace by fuelling terrorist movements. Invasions, particularly by Western nations, increase East-West tensions, galvanize terrorist groups by validating their claims that Western nations pose a threat. Indeed, in Osama bin Laden's public \"letter to the American people,\" he cited interventions in Somalia, Palestine, India, Chechnya, Lebanon and Iraq as reasons for the 9\/11 attacks1\/2.  1 \"Do Democracies Fight Each Other?\" BBC.  2 bin Laden, Osama. \"Full Text: bin Laden's 'Letter to America.' The Guardian."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro01a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Interventions can be successful given the right conditions.  Certain factors may increase the chance of success: for example imposing democracy on a nation with which there were once colonial relationships increases the expected lifespan of the democracy. Democratic transitions in general also tend to be more successful if economic conditions are better. Obviously we are not advocating imposing democracy on every country which does not have it, but if there are strong enough institutions and conditions, imposition can work and there have been past successes like Germany and Japan post WWII that show the worth of imposing democracy1\/2.  1 Enterline, Andrew J. and Greig, J. Michael.\"Against All Odds? Historical Trends in Imposed Democracy & the Future of Iraq & Afghanistan.\"  2 Przeworski et al \"What Makes Democracies Endure?\" Journal of Democracy."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro01b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Interventions are far more likely to fail than to succeed. As explained further in Opposition Argument 2, empirically and logically imposed democracy is likely to fail. Governments can try and minimize the risk of failure, but it is inherent to the nature of imposition that a government is being instated against the country's will. It is consequently very unlikely to generate support and remain stable."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro04b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"There are two problems: democracy is not necessarily the best form of government, and even if it is that does not mean it is our obligation to impose it.  First, just because we believe that political self-determination is an important value, it does not mean that it is logically more important than other values. If, for example, a society places great value on stability, it may not want a government that changes every few years. If a society is very religious, its people may prefer to be ruled by a government claiming divine authority. Second, even if democracy is objectively better than other governments, that does not mean we must or should intervene in other countries to impose it. Perhaps we should intervene in the case of serious rights abuses-- such as genocide-- but the lack of complete political freedom is not a life-threatening issue."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro03a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Promoting democracy promotes peace.  By most accounts, there has not been a war between two democracies in the past 200 years. Immanuel Kant argued in Perpetual Peace (1795) that a) democratic governments are more constrained by their people's opposition to war and b) that a democratic culture of negotiation, as well as the checks and balances inherent in such a system, make war less likely. Thus by promoting democracy through imposing it, we increase the chance of a peaceful world. Furthermore, terrorism may be less likely to arise in democratic countries, where people are allowed to air their views and human rights norms prevent feelings of marginalization. This is good for human rights worldwide, including the rights and safety of individuals in our own country.1  1 \"Do Democracies Fight Each Other?\" BBC."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro04a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Because democracy is the best form of government, it is not wrong-- and indeed may even be our obligation-- to bring it to those who do not have it.  Democratic regimes are the best form of government, and it is our obligation to try and provide that to others. Democracy is the only form of government which upholds the value of political self-determination: that each individual has a right to form his\/her government, and to vote out governments s\/he does not like. To deny this right is to deny the inherent worth and freedom of the individual. Political autonomy also has instrumental value insofar as it allows individuals to check abusive governments which may seek to violate other human rights. Thus it is certainly not wrong -- and may even be our humanitarian obligation -- to bring democracy to those who do not have it, just as we would intervene in other situations in which serious rights were being abused1.  1 Fish, Stanley. \"Why Democracy?\" The New York Times."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con03b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Even if individuals within a nation do not overtly support democracy, that does not mean that democracy does not serve their interests, and that they will not support it once it exists.  There are two reasons this might be true. First, individuals may be too scared to show support for democracy, for fear of repercussion. Second, individuals may not realize that they want democracy, but come to understand and appreciate it once it is there. Power analysis theory helps us understand how individuals are manipulated into supporting systems that work against their interests: for example anti-feminists during the early and mid 20th century, who accepted male dominance as a necessary and desirable fact of life. Thus, it may take some foreign intervention to create support for democracy. And, despite the fact that imposed democracy often does fail, there have been success stories (as well as Germany and Japan, less oft-cited examples, like Sri Lanka), suggesting that democracy can be imposed with the right strategy and under the right conditions."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con01b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Imposed democracy is better than no democracy. Ideally, every democratic government would be created by the people. However, given that this is often not possible -- corrupt governments are too powerful, populations lack the unity to organize, the lack of democratic tradition precludes effective transition without external guidance-- it is surely better to have imposed democracy than no democracy. Even if theoretically a democratic government is formed by the people, practically speaking that may not be a possibility, and we should not let abstract philosophical ideas prevent us from effecting real positive change."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con02a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Unilateral action is burdensome, and dangerous.  POINT  The motion suggests that a particular government is imposing democracy, but in fact it is far better to try and encourage democracy multilaterally. Multilateral assistance, like the UN Democracy Fund which seeks to \"strengthen the voice of civil society, promote human rights, and encourages the participation of all groups in the democratic process\"1, is better, because it makes the support seem less political and colonial, and more honest. By using the international community to encourage democracy in a given country, we increase the chances of the people in that country respecting and supporting our attempts, rather than viewing them with suspicion2.  1 United Nations Democracy Fund, 'About UNDEF', 2010,  2 Doyle , Michael. \"Promoting Democracy is Not Imposing Democracy.\" The Huffington Post."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con05a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Attempting to impose democracy may escalate conflict.  Intervening in a country, and attempting to impose a different government, is likely to a) result in backlash and b) destabilize the country by destroying infrastructure and disrupting services. Both these things make it far more likely that violent conflict will emerge, either between the country and the imposers, or within the country, as rival factions are forced to compete for scarce resources and rights protection. Iraq is a prime example of intervention causing a civil war. The previous gulf war combined with sanctions and weeks of bombing destroyed Iraq's infrastructure resulting in what General Odierno called 'societal devastation'1 and the disbanding of the army and debaathification forced the experienced administrators who ran the country out of their jobs.(Kane, 'Don't repeat the mistakes of Iraq in Libya', 2011) The result was the attempt to impose democracy was bloody and only partially successful.  1 Parrish, Karen, \"Odierno, Crocker: Iraq's Future Still Hinges on U.S. Support\", American Forces Press Service, November 15, 2010,  2 Kane, Sean., 'Don't repeat the mistakes of Iraq in Libya', ForeignPolicy.com, April 27, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con04a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"The imposition of democracy violates national sovereignty  Countries have a right to choose the form of government they want, and we do not have the right to violate this right by imposing the form of government we think is best. Nations may want to be ruled by, for example, religious or tribal law, or a Communist system which aims to remove government altogether. We can encourage nations to adopt democracy if we think it is better, but ultimately nations are self-directing entities which can only be interfered with in extreme situations. The United Nations has states as equals no matter their government and only authorises force in the case of an act of aggression towards another state1.  1 United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 1945,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con03a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"The desire for, and fight for, democracy must come from within or else democratic government will not be sustainable.  Unless the people within a country want democracy, they will not respect it. Unlike military dictatorships, democratic governments do not rely solely -- or even mainly-- on force to enforce the law. Rather, most people obey the law at least in part because they believe those laws are legitimate, as the result of free and fair elections. If citizens do not want such an electoral system, then there is no reason for them to obey the law, pay taxes etc. and the government will be unable to maintain order. Indeed, foreign-imposed democracies often slide back into authoritarian regimes because they find that they cannot uphold the law (at least without foreign support). Enterline and Greig found in a 2007 empirical study that half of imposed democracies fail within 30 years, and that this failure reduces the likelihood of democracy being successfully established in the future1\/2.  1 Enterline, Andrew J. and Greig, J. Michael. \"Against All Odds? Historical Trends in Imposed Democracy & the Future of Iraq &Afghanistan.\"  2 Doyle, Michael. \"Promoting Democracy is Not Imposing Democracy.\" The Huffington Post."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con05b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Governments can take actions to help reduce conflict. Most people agree that the strategy behind the Iraq War was extremely weak. Furthermore, it was clear that the American government had ulterior motives and that establishing democracy was not the only -- or even the most important -- goal, thus reducing the American government's legitimacy in the eyes of Iraqis and the international community. Alternately, in nations where backlash against dictatorships causes violent conflict -- like in Syria or Libya -- imposing democracy could bring a chance of stability and a government that people actually trusted."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con01a","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"Democracy by its very nature cannot be imposed.  Democratic government is not only government for the people, but also government by and of the people. A foreign-imposed government is not a government established by the people which it rules, meaning that it lacks the legitimacy necessary to claim democratic status. It is wrong to force a government upon people, and imposers of 'democracy' do just that. This is exacerbated by the fact that foreign-imposed democracies often have a great deal of trouble governing themselves independently (like the Iraqi and Afghani governments, which are still very much reliant on the United States), thus de- legitimizing the government even further1.  1 Doyle, Michael. \"Promoting Democracy is Not Imposing Democracy.\" The Huffington Post."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con04b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"It is wrong to suggest that the rule of law, or protection of civil rights, is less important in different regions. The fact is that democracy is the only form of government which respects every individual's right to political self determination (as explained in Proposition Argument 1). States may have the right to self-direct, but they do not have the right to deny their citizens basic political freedoms."}
+{"id":"test-politics-ypppdghwid-con02b","title":"y political philosophy politics defence government house would impose democracy","text":"To rely on multilateral action is utopian. First, the motion does not exclude multilateral cooperation; this house may impose democracy with the support of others. But second, the UN doctrine of non-intervention in the domestic affairs of independent nations means that unilateral or bi-lateral actions are often the only realistic possibilities. This is especially important given that China has a veto on the Security Council and other Security Council regular members are not themselves democracies. If other countries are not willing to help us impose or fight for democracy, why should we not try ourselves?"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro02b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The accusation that the House of Lords is inherently conservative is an unjust accusation, as proven by their siding with the people on unpopular government policies such as student tuition fees and the 42 days detention. Today no party has a majority in the Chamber, with independent peers holding the balance of power in any vote."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro02a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The House of Lords has an inbuilt conservative majority.  The traditional provenance of the House of Lords translates to an in-built Conservative majority. Even so called Liberal and Labour peers are usually conservative in their opinions. They represent a social and economic elite and seem to flaunt diversity monitoring in a house with only 181 female peers and a staggeringly low 31 peers from ethnic minorities. [1] This unfair skew in the favour of the conservative has the power to slow down and revise legislation and is a gross misrepresentation of the British population. The House of Lords should be reformed in order to better reflect the British people so that their actions and decisions benefit the whole of society and not just their own.  [1] Smith, Ben, \u2018Ethnic Minorities in Politics, Government and Public Life\u2019, House of Commons Library (18 November 2008) and see  viewed 1 June 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro03b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"House of Lords reform defeats the point; firstly the election process would deter many industry experts and attract political opportunists instead, thus eliminating the current worth of the House of Lords. It likely that if elected the House of Lords would simply become a mirror for the House of Commons. By being non-elected the House of Lords is free from political sways and can work in the long-term interests of the country."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro01a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The House of Lords is out of touch with the electorate.  The 19th century US President Abraham Lincoln stated that democracy should be \u2018Government of the people, by the people, for the people\u2019 [1] Therefore peers who sit in the house based on noble birth right or their membership of the Church of England, that is itself largely ignored by the people, do not represent the people of Britain.  [1] A' Short Definition of Democracy\u2019, Democracy-building.info, 2005, viewed on 1 June 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro01b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The House of Lords may not be representative of the British population but instead they represent an array of educated experts who can give informed advice on Government policy."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro04b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"Although the House of Lords may not be a true expression of \u2018democracy\u2019, it has a positive function in the governing of the country and is based in a tradition and heritage that the people of Britain should not try and abandon. One could argue in return that those very decisions and wars that Britain is in involved in to defend \u2018democracy\u2019 do not reflect the will of the people and that modern states are not true democracies at all. In practice the British people have a limited say in how the country is run and it would be na\u00efve to champion the idea of Britain being a \u2018democracy\u2019 by ignoring the existence of such an overpowering state machine."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro03a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"Reform would strengthen the House of Lords  Reform of the House of Lords would strengthen the legitimacy of the house and therefore improve its functions. By electing the second chamber they would gain the legitimacy to not simply stall bills but reject them all together or drafts bills of their own, thus facilitating a more dynamic government, able to change. Using a different electoral technique, for example Proportional Representation with members sitting for longer periods would allow them to still be of a different composition to the House of Commons and not sway to short-term political popularity. Electing different portions at different times would also guard against a freak landslide result affecting the house\u2019s balance. By creating a worthy opposition to the House of Commons all issues would be debated and decided upon more fairly and government would be more closely monitored."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro04a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The current House of Lords is undemocratic  The House of Lords is undemocratic. Currently the members of the House of Lords consist of hereditary peers, senior members of the Church of England and those appointed by political parties. Whether or not there is an abuse of power or the outcome of the House of Lords is beside the point \u2013 its very existence in its current state is undemocratic and as such it should be reformed. It seems nonsensical that a country that lectures to the rest of the world the importance of democracy, to the point of war, should overlook such a grievance in their own society."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con03b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The fear of controversy or of an \u2018unworkable\u2019 government is not reason to stall reform. If we adopt the stance that a government knows best or if we excuse a government to override the will of its people in the name of the greater good, then we pave the way for the misuse of power. Democracy should be held in the highest regard, only free societies can be secure and developed as shown in numerous historic example. Only fundamentally free societies can be fundamentally secure and developed, which is backed up by many examples from history. [1] Democracy has proved itself as better than the alternatives, where autocracies, oligarchies and theocracies have failed, democracy has prevailed.  [1] Grizold, Professor Anton, Peacebuilding and the impact of post-conflict areas on European security (Department of Political Science, University of Ljublana)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con01b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"Although a small number of members of the House of Lords are industry experts the fact remains that there is still a proportion of hereditary peers, which guarantees no expertise whatsoever. Furthermore political parties can elect peers which is simply absurd, parties should not be able to appoint their own watch dogs: David Cameron has already appointed 117 peers in less than a year. [1]  [1] Barrett, Matthew, \u2018Full House: Cameron warned against appointing more peers\u2019, (20 April 2011) viewed 1 June 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con02a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"Reform would make the House of Lords simply a mirror of the House of Commons  An elected House, even one elected every ten years, would still think about policies that are popular in the short term rather than the long-term welfare of the country, making it closer to the House of Commons in its interest and reducing its role as a balance. By subjecting the second chamber to election there would be two outcomes: if elected at the same time the House of Lords would simply become a mirror-image of the House of Commons rendering it pointless, if elected mid-term the composition of the House of Lords would reflect the tendency for a government to be unpopular mid-term, thus creating gridlock and making the system unworkable. Reform of the House of Lords is impractical and undesirable."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con04a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The public is apathetic to reform.  Whether or not reform of the House of Lords should be a top priority in the current economic climate is debateable, let alone whether or not a coalition government would be able to initiate and drive through such measures. Attempts to reform the House of Lords have been delayed time and time again, demonstrating the House of Commons\u2019 reservations on change. [1] A feeling that is no doubt echoed in popular British opinion \u2013 as demonstrated by the recent outcome of the Alternative Vote \u2013 the public are either adverse to the idea of change or apathetic to it. [2]  [1] Summers, Deborah, \u2018Labour's attempts to reform the House of Lords\u2019, The Guardian (27 January, 2009), viewed on 1 June 2011   [2] BBC News, \u2018Vote 2011: UK rejects alternative vote, 7 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con03a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"Democracy should not be the end-point aspiration of government.  One should not assume that the lack of democracy is wholly negative; do the majority of people know what is best for the country? Or do industry experts? Could the public reach a consensus on important governing decisions? Government can see the bigger picture and balance the needs of different interest groups to produce the best outcome for all: \u2018true\u2019 democracy is simply unworkable and can too easily lead to the \u2018tyranny of the majority\u2019 as described by Fareed Zakaria. [1] Perhaps the best way to illustrate this point is to look at the two champions of democracy: France and America. France overturned its monarchy and government in the name of liberty, yet quickly descended into mob-rule and violence; \u2018democracy\u2019 had a bloody birth. [2] Similarly one only has to look at the appalling levels of inequality within the United States of America to question the nature and worth of \u2018democracy\u2019. [3] So if the nature of government is not simply to fulfil notions of \u2018democracy\u2019 but to ensure good governance then the House of Lords is still an important institution.  [1] Zakaria, Fareed, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy Home and Abroad (New York, 2003)  [2] Doyle, William, The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2001)  [3] American Political Science Association Task Force, \u2018American Democracy in an Age of Rising Inequality\u2019, Perspectives on Politics, 2 (2004)"}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con01a","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The House of Lords allows a number of experts to influence government policy.  While the members of the House of Lords may represent a small section of society, they also include expert peers including lawyers, scientists, businesspeople, academics, doctors and civil servants that can balance out the sometimes short term, political opportunism present in the House of Commons. Election does not guarantee these expertise and knowledge, so having a second chamber that is appointed rather than elected improves the quality of the governance of the country."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con04b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The AV campaign cannot be compared to reform to the House of Lords, furthermore one should not mistake a misinformed public due to political spin, with apathy. Often voters express that they are apathetic because they feel that they can\u2019t change anything, that there vote won\u2019t count: reform that ensures the people running the country are directly elected by the people would help to counter these feelings."}
+{"id":"test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con02b","title":"government voting house believes house lords should be reformed","text":"The House of Lords could be elected on a longer term basis than the House of Commons \u2013 ten years for example. Furthermore elections could be staggered during this period so the House of Lords would never simply be a \u2018mirror\u2019. Furthermore the House of Lords should be democratically elected and it should reflect the will of the people, whether or not this is a \u2018mirror\u2019 of the other house is not relevant as it reflects the results in a fair vote. Similarly if elected mid-term and the House of Lords reflected mid-term unpopularity of the ruling party, then this too would be the will of the people \u2013 any clashes would be part of the democratic process."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro02b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Being a citizen does not come with a right to know everything that the state does. In much the same way being a shareholder does not mean you get to know absolutely everything every person in a business does. Instead you get the headlines and a summary, most of the time the how the business goes about getting the results is left to the management. Ultimately the state\u2019s purpose is to protect its citizens and this comes before letting them know everything about how that is done."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro02a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Citizens have a right to know what is done in their name  The nation exits for its citizens; it depends on their consent to maintain order and to raise finances. The main purpose of the state is law and order, and national defence, both of which are covered by security. As an area that is so central to the role of the government it is vital that the stakeholders in that government, its citizens, know what it is the state is doing in their name for their security.  The Obama administration for example refuses to acknowledge that it is carrying out a campaign using drones while at the same time saying it is \u201cthe only game in town in terms of confronting and trying to disrupt the al-Qaeda leadership.\u201d [1] If the US government is bombing another country then the US people have a right to know with much less ambiguity what exactly is being done, who is being hit, when and where. They also need to be informed of any possible consequences.  [1] Kaufman, Brett, \u2018In Court Today: Fighting the CIA\u2019s Secrecy Claims on Drones\u2019, ACLU, 20 September 2012"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro03b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency in situations of international tension is tricky; with complete transparency how do you engage in bluffing? The state that is completely transparent is tying one hand behind its back in international negotiations.  It is also wrong to assume that transparency will always reduce tensions. Sometimes two countries just have completely incompatible interests. In such instances complete transparency is simply going to set them on a collision course. It is then much better for there to be a bit less transparency so that both sides can fudge the issue and sign up to an agreement while interpreting it in different ways."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro05a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency prevents public relations disasters  Transparency is necessary to avoid public relations disasters; particularly in countries where the media has some freedom to investigate for themselves. It is clearly the best policy for the military to make sure all the information is released along with the reasons behind actions rather than having the media finding individual pieces of a whole and speculating to fill the gaps.  A good example would be a collision on 16th January 1966 between a B-52 bomber and a KC-135 tanker while attempting to refuel that destroyed both planes. Accidents happen, and this one cost 11 lives, but could have been much worse as the B-52 had four nuclear bombs on board were not armed and did not detonate. In this case an initial lack of information rapidly turned into a public relations disaster that was stemmed by much more openness by the military and the US Ambassador in Spain. The release of the information reduces the room for the press to fill in the gaps with harmful speculation. [1] In this case there was never much chance of national security implications or a break with Spain as the country was ruled by the dictator Franco, someone who would hardly pay attention to public opinion. But in a democracy a slow and closed response could seriously damage relations.  [1] Stiles, David, \u2018A Fusion Bomb over Andalucia: U.S. Information Policy and the 1966 Palomares Incident\u2019, Journal of War Studies, Vol.8, No.1, Winter 2006, pp.49-67, p.65"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro01a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency is a good in and of itself  The most essential commodity within a state is trust. Trust is essential in all sorts of aspect of our lives; we trust that the paper money we have is actually worth more than a scrap of paper, that doctors performing surgery know what they are doing, that we won't be attacked in the street, and that the government is looking after our interests. In order to create that trust there needs to be transparency so that we know that our institutions are trustworthy. It is the ability to check the facts and the accountability that comes with transparency that creates trust. And this in turn is what makes them legitimate. [1]  The need for trust applies just as much to security as any other walk of life. Citizens need to trust that the security services really are keeping them safe, are spending taxpayers\u2019 money wisely, and are acting in a fashion that is a credit to the country. Unfortunately if there is not transparency there is no way of knowing if this is the case and so often the intelligence services have turned out to be an embarrassment. As has been the case with the CIA and it\u2019s the use of torture following 9\/11, for which there are still calls for transparency on past actions. [2]  [1] Ankersmit, Laurens, \u2018The Irony of the international relations exception in the transparency regulation\u2019, European Law Blog, 20 March 2013  [2] Traub, James, \u2018Out With It\u2019, Foreign Policy, 10 May 2013"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro01b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Trust goes two ways; the people have to trust that on some issues, such as security, the government is doing the right thing to protect them even when it cannot release all relevant information. But even if the military and security services do claim to be completely transparent then how is everyone to know that it really is being as transparent as they say? Unfortunately there are information asymmetry\u2019s between members of the public and the government; the member of the public is unlikely to have the capability to find out if the government if hiding something from them. [1] Other countries too are likely to be suspicious of \u2018complete transparency\u2019 and simply believe that this is cover for doing something more nefarious. Trust then cannot only about being transparent in everything.  [1] Stiglitz, Joseph, \u2018Transparency in Government\u2019, in Roumeen Islam, The right to tell: the roll of the mass media in economic development, World Bank Publications, 2002, p.28"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro05b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"This is clearly not always the case. Often transparency means that the public becomes aware when there is little need for them to know. There had been previous nuclear accidents that had caused no damage, and had not been noticed, such as in Goldsboro, N.C. in 1961. [1] If there had been a media frenzy fuelled by released information there would clearly have been much more of a public relations disaster than there was with no one noticing. Since there\u2019re was no harm done there is little reason why such a media circus should have been encouraged. And even without media attention the incident lead to increase safeguards.  [1] Stiles, David, \u2018A Fusion Bomb over Andalucia: U.S. Information Policy and the 1966 Palomares Incident\u2019, Journal of War Studies, Vol.8, No.1, Winter 2006, pp.49-67, p.51"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro04b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency may mean that mistakes or problems are found faster, but it does not mean they are going to be corrected faster. Waste in the defense budget has been known about for years yet it still keeps coming up. Transparency shines a light on the problem but that is not helpful if it does not result in action to solve the problem."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro03a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency helps reduce international tension  Transparency is necessary in international relations. States need to know what each other are doing to assess their actions. Without any transparency the hole is filled by suspicion and threat inflation that can easily lead to miscalculation and even war.  The Cuban missile crisis is a clear example where a lack of transparency on either side about what they were willing to accept and what they were doing almost lead to nuclear war. [1] It is notable that one of the responses to prevent a similar crisis was to install a hotline between the White House and Kremlin. A very small, but vital, step in terms of openness.  Today this is still a problem; China currently worries about the US \u2018pivot\u2019 towards Asia complaining it \u201chas aroused a great deal of suspicion in China.\u201d \u201cA huge deficit of strategic trust lies at the bottom of all problems between China and the United States.\u201d The result would be an inevitable arms race and possible conflict. [2]  [1] Frohwein, Ashley, \u2018Embassy Moscow: A Diplomatic Perspective of the Cuban Missile Crisis\u2019, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, 7 May 2013  [2] Yafei, He, \u2018The Trust Deficit\u2019, Foreign Policy, 13 May 2013"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro04a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency prevents, or corrects, mistakes  Transparency is fundamental in making sure that mistakes don\u2019t happen, or when they do that they are found and corrected quickly with appropriate accountability. This applies as much, if not more, to the security apparatus than other walks of life. In security mistakes are much more likely to be a matter of life and death than in most other walks of life. They are also likely to be costly; something the military and national security apparatus is particularly known for. [1] An audit of the Pentagon in 2011 found that the US Department of Defense wasted $70 billion over two years. [2] This kind of waste can only be corrected if it is found out about, and for that transparency is necessary.  [1] Schneier, Bruce, \u2018Transparency and Accountability Don\u2019t Hurt Security \u2013 They\u2019re Crucial to It\u2019, The Atlantic, 8 May 2012  [2] Schweizer, Peter, \u2018Crony Capitalism Creeps Into the Defense Budget\u2019, The Daily Beast, 22 May 2012"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con03b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"The public is rational and can make its own assessment of risk. The best course in such cases is transparency and education. If all relevant information is released, along with analysis as to the risk presented by the threat, then the public can be best informed about what kind of threats they need to be prepared for. Terrorism has been blown out of proportion because they are single deadly incidents that are simple to report and have a good narrative to provide 24\/7 coverage that the public will lap up. [1] As a result there has been much more media coverage than other threats. It can then be no surprise that the public overestimate the threat posed by terrorism as the public are told what risks are relevant by the amount of media coverage. [2]  [1] Engelhardt, Tom, \u2018Casualties from Terrorism Are Minor Compared to Other Threats\u2019, Gale Opposing Viewpoints, 2011  [2] Singer, Eleanor, and Endreny, Phyllis Mildred, Reporting on Risk: How the Mass Media Portray Accidents, Diseases, Disasters and Other Hazards, Russell Sage Foundation, 1993"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con01b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Drones are an unusual example (though not unique) because they are a new form of warfare over which there are few clear rules and norms. This means that making it transparent will create new norms. However in the vast majority of covert operations if made public they would clearly be illegal and would have to be ended. Drones are also unusual in that the public sees few downsides to the killing, this means there would be less public pressure than in most such operations."}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con02a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Provides information to competitors  Where there is international competition transparency can be a problem if there is not transparency on both sides as one side is essentially giving its opponent an advantage. This is ultimately why countries keep national security secrets; they are in competition with other nations and the best way to ensure an advantage over those states is to keep capabilities secret. One side having information while the other does not allows the actor that has the information to act differently in response to that knowledge. Keeping things secret can therefore provide an advantage when making a decision, as the one with most information is most likely to react best. [1] Currently there is information asymmetry between the United States and China to the point where some analysts consider that the United States provides more authoritative information on China\u2019s military than China itself does. [2]  [1] National Security Forum, No More Secrets, American Bar Association, March 2011, p.7  [2] Erickson, Andrew S., \u2018Pentagon Report Reveals Chinese Military Developments\u2019, The Diplomat, 8 May 2013"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con05a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"In security too much transparency endangers lives  Transparency is all very well when it comes to how much is being spent on a new tank, aircraft, or generals houses, but it is very different when it comes to operations. Transparency in operations can endanger lives. With intelligence services transparency would risk the lives of informants; it is similar with the case of interpreters for US forces in Iraq who were targeted after they were told they could not wear masks because they are considered to be traitors. [1]  In military operations being open about almost anything could be a benefit to the opposition. Most obviously things like the timing and numbers involved in operations need to be kept under wraps but all sorts of information could be damaging in one way or another. Simply because a state is not involved in a full scale war does not mean it can open up on these operations. This is why the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Admiral Mike Mullen in response to WikiLeaks said \u201cMr. Assange can say whatever he likes about the greater good he thinks he and his source are doing\u2026 But the truth is they might already have on their hands the blood of some young soldier or that of an Afghan family.\u201d [2]  [1] Londo\u00f1o, Ernesto, \u2018U.S. Ban on Masks Upsets Iraqui Interpreters\u2019, Washington Post, 17 November 2008  [2] Jaffe, Greg, and Partlow, Joshua, \u2018Joint Chiefs Chairman Mullen: WikiLeaks release endangers troops, Afghans\u2019, Washington Post, 30 July 2010"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con04a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency can lead to conflict  The idea that transparency is good assumes that the people watching the government be transparent are likely to provide a moderating influence on policy. This is not always the case. Instead transparency can lead to more conflict.  First a nationalist population may force the government into taking more action than it wants. One obvious way to quiet such sentiment is to show that the country is not ready for war; something that may not be possible if being transparent. Instead if it is transparent that the military could win then there is nothing to stop a march to war. It then becomes possible for multiple interest groups to form into coalitions each with differing reasons for conflict trading off with each other resulting in overstretch and conflict. [1]  Secondly when there is a rapidly changing balance of power then transparency for the rising power may not be a good thing. Instead as Deng Xiaoping advised they should \u201cHide your strength, bide your time\u201d. [2] Showing in the open how your military is expanding may simply force action from the current dominant power. Transparency, combined with domestic media worrying about the other\u2019s build up can make the other side seem more and more of a threat that must be dealt with before it can get any more powerful. It is quite a common international relations theory that one way or another relative power and the quest for hegemony is the cause for war, [3] transparency simply encourages this. William C. Wohlforth points out when studying the cause of the First World War that it is perception of relative power that matters. Germany\u2019s leaders believed it had to strike before it out of time as a result of Russia rapidly industrialising. [4] Transparency unfortunately reduces the ability of the government to manage perception.  [1] Snyder, Jack, Myths of Empire, Cornell University Press, 1991, p.17  [2] Allison, Graham, and Blackwill, Robert D., \u2018Will China Ever Be No.1?\u2019, YakeGlobal, 20 February 2013  [3] Kaplan, Robert D., \u2018Why John J. Mearsheimer Is Right (About Some Things)\u2019, The Atlantic, 20 December 2011  [4] Wohlforth, William C., \u2018The Perception of Power: Russia in the Pre-1914 Balance\u2019, World Politics, Vol.39, No.3, (April 1987), pp.353-381, p.362"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con03a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Don\u2019t panic!  The role of the security services is in part to deal with some very dangerous ideas and events. But the point is to deal with them in such a way that does not cause public disorder or even panic. We clearly don\u2019t want every report detailing specific threats to be made public, especially if it is reporting something that could be devastating but there is a low risk of it actually occurring. If such information is taken the wrong way it can potentially cause panic, either over nothing, or else in such a way that it damages any possible response to the crisis. Unfortunately the media and the public often misunderstand risk. For example preventing terrorism has been regularly cited in polls as being the Americans top foreign policy goal with more than 80% thinking it very important in Gallup polls for over a decade [1] even when the chance of being killed by terrorism in Western countries is very low. If the public misunderstands the risk the response is unlikely to be proportionate and can be akin to yelling fire in a packed theatre.  While it is not (usually) a security, but rather a public health issue, pandemics make a good example. The question of how much information to release is only slightly different than in security; officials want to release enough information that everyone is informed, but not so much that there is panic whenever there is an unusual death. [2] In 2009 the WHO declared swine flu to be a pandemic despite it being a relatively mild virus that did not cause many deaths, so causing an unnecessary scare and stockpiling of drugs. [3]  [1] Jones, Jeffrey M., \u2018Americans Say Preventing Terrorism Top Foreign Policy Goal\u2019, Gallup Politics, 20 February 2013  [2] Honigsbaum, Mark, \u2018The coronavirus conundrum: when to press the panic button\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 14 February 2013  [3] Cheng, Maria, \u2018WHO\u2019s response to swine flu pandemic flawed\u2019, Phys.org, 10 May 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con05b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Clearly transparency in real time might cause some problems allowing the disruption of ongoing operations. However most of the time information could be released very shortly afterwards rather than being considered secret for 25-30 years. [1] A much shorter timeframe is needed if the transparency is to have any meaning or impact upon policy. In the case of WikiLeaks most of the information was already a couple of years old and WikiLeaks said it made sure that there was no information that could endanger lives released.  We should also remember that a lack of transparency can also endanger lives; this might be the case if it leads to purchases of equipment of shoddy equipment without the proper oversight to ensure everything works as it should. For example many countries purchased bomb detectors that are made out of novelty golf ball finders, just plastic, that do not work from a Briton looking to make a fast buck. It has for example been used to attempt to find car bombs in Iraq. A little transparency in testing and procurement could have gone a long way in protecting those who have to use the equipment. [2]  [1] National Security Forum, No More Secrets, American Bar Association, March 2011, p.8  [2] AFP, \u2018Iraq still using phony bomb detectors at checkpoints\u2019, globalpost, 3 May 2013"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con01a","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency can result in normalisation  While something is secret it is clearly not a normal every day part of government, it is deniable and the assumption is that when it comes to light it has probably been wound up long ago. However making something transparent without winding it up can be a bad thing as it makes it normal which ultimately makes a bad policy much harder to end.  The use of drones by the CIA may turn out to be an example of this. At the moment we are told almost nothing about drones, not even how many strikes there are or how many are killed. There have however been recent suggestions that the drone program could be transferred to the Department of Defence. This would then make the targeted killing that is carried out seem a normal part of military conflict, somehting it clearly is not. [1] And the public reacts differently to covert and military action; already more Americans support military drones doing targeted killing (75%) than CIA ones (65%). [2]  [1] Waxman, Matthew, \u2018Going Clear\u2019, Foreign Policy, 20 March 2013  [2] Zenko, Micah, \u2018U.S. Public Opinion on Drone Strikes\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 18 March 2013"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con04b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Coalitions can form behind expansionist policies regardless of whether there is transparency. If there is no transparency then it is simply an invitation for these groups to overestimate the strength of their own state compared to their opponents. Where there is transparency the figures will at least be available to counter their arguments. It should not be surprising that interest groups do not have as much influence in creating expansionist policy in democracies. [1]  Transparency showing when a state is to be eclipsed is a greater concern but a lack of transparency in such a case is just as bad. No transparency will simply encourage the fears of the state that is to be eclipsed that the rising state is hostile and not to be trusted.  [1] Snyder, Jack, Myths of Empire, Cornell University Press, 1991, p.18"}
+{"id":"test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con02b","title":"ch debate media and good government politics defence government digital freedoms","text":"Transparency clearly does not have to extend to things like technical specifications of weapons. Such information would be a clear benefit to a competitor allowing them to build their own while being of little help in terms of transparency as most people could not understand it. On the other hand knowing what a weapons system does simply prevents misunderstanding and misjudgement."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro02b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"Consultation, collaboration and the attempted creation of a common set of values has not worked and is not likely to work. This language is not much different from what we have heard with every attempt the EU has made to push for further political integration. The role of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), as agreed upon back in 1993 during the Maastricht Treaty, was in fact presented very much along similar lines. Fifteen years later however, that united front has not been created. If anything, the EU\u2019s political union, and certain any attempts towards a common foreign policy, have completely disintegrated when faced with the War in Iraq and the larger war on terror and more recently the Euro debt crisis on another front."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro03b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The creation of a combined post of High Representative for foreign and security policy and Vice President of the Commission for External Relations marks a needless complication of decision making. It adds an expensive and largely pointless layer of European bureaucracy to a substantively weak and poorly coordinated foreign policy. This failure is made worse by the member states\u2019 refusal to appoint a senior European politician with international credentials to the post. This suggests that the European Union is simply not ready to pursue a serious and substantive foreign policy. 1  1 Charlemagne, 'The test for Ashton and Europe', The Economist, 1st February 2011,accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro01b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The very creation of a common military framework has been fraught with disagreement. The UK and France have only been willing to cooperate bilaterally and outside the EU framework, within a set of nationally-framed security interests. Both states are also very traditional military powers. While some states pretend to support the creation of a credible EU military capacity, they are unwilling to contribute seriously to its construction and when faced with a crisis almost always turn to the United States for military solutions. While the EU does like to see itself as the diplomat of the world and flaunt its achievements with the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), it still ponders the possibility of a middle-of-the-road strategy of militarization and securitization. In the meanwhile, it continues to reside comfortably within the US sphere of military protection while acting as an enfant terrible who rebels against and yet continues to accept US protection. It is a contradiction to argue that the EU is both attempting to build up its military force as well as providing an alternative sense of security that does not rely on military power."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro04b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The position of High Representative will be, and has been, largely powerless, because the member states have such divergent interests that agreement will be rare, and that attempts to devise a common foreign policy for the EU are doomed. Because control of foreign policy is such a key aspect of sovereignty, it would be wrong for national governments to give this power away to the EU, which is less democratically accountable. If the EU and its High Representative do try to pressure states into common positions this may well backfire, creating strong anti-EU feeling in both national governments and public opinion. Pushing too hard for a common foreign policy and giving too much power to an unelected High Representative may instead begin to tear Europe apart. 1  1. Traynor, Ian, 'EU foreign ministers round on Lady Ashton', guardian.co.uk, 23rd May 2011, accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-con03b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"The EU is indeed under NATO\u2019s and US\u2019s military umbrella, and while terrorist attacks on EU\u2019s territory have certainly heightened levels of anxiety, its \u2018foreign policy\u2019 is still based on an inclusive approach: bring threatening nations under your economic and political umbrella and provide them with incentives to collaborate. Academics such as Allen David and Michael Smith have argued that the EU\u2019s \u2018foreign policy\u2019 seeks to go beyond the nation state and thus treats what lies outside its borders not necessarily as \u2018foreign\u2019 and \u2018threatening\u2019 but rather as a different system.1 The EU provides a subsystem of international relations within a larger global system, in which threats and fears subside as a result of economic and military integration. The most pressing challenge is to learn how to extend this system beyond the current borders of the EU, keeping in mind that the accession process is a mechanism not to be abused.  1. Allen, David, and Smith, Michael, 'External Policy Developments', Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol 43. (2005) pp.109-26 accessed 1\/8\/11"}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-con01b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"One should not forget that a uniting Europe in itself has been a very bold undertaking that has taken several centuries to develop, and is certainly far from being a finished product. It would be unfair to argue that the EU has made no progress in its collaboration on foreign policy since the initial establishment of the CFSP, or that the past fifteen years have seen more decay than progress on further political integration. The mixed EU reaction to the war in Iraq has long been a point of contention and criticism, yet it represents only a small and exceptional failure, in a much larger common EU foreign policy. The Enlargement Process has been by far one of the most successful elements of EU foreign and security policy, along with many other success stories with aid to third parties and management of international conflicts, for example the EU\u2019s role in Kosovo."}
+{"id":"test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-con02b","title":"onal europe politics defence leadership house favours common eu foreign policy","text":"Creating a common EU foreign and security policy will in fact be easier than many people suppose, because many of the 21st century\u2019s most important issues in external relations are already part of the \u2018normal\u2019 EU policy routine; climate change, development, trade, aid and the environment, for example. Most such issues are ones on which any single member state, even one as significant as Britain, France or Germany, cannot hope to make a real global impact alone. Only by coordinating policy at EU level will the interests of member states be advanced at all. Having a High Representative to coordinate and promote this work on behalf of the Union as a whole makes sense and actually gives all member states a greater international effectiveness \u2013 the true measure of sovereignty."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-pro02b","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"It may well be the case that the model of politics at Westminster needs to be reviewed but that does not speak to the issue of independence. Furthermore, it is interesting how many of the parties\u2019 \u2018big beasts\u2019 (influential) chose to stay at Westminster \u2013 including Alex Salmond for a term.  Equally, in the light of the credit crunch, it is questionable as to whether constantly giving away populist freebies such as free eye-tests [i] when the parliament is not responsible for raising the taxes to pay for it hardly represents good politics.  Furthermore, in its brief life, there has been no shortage of political scandal at Holyrood, including the resignation of one First Minister in disgrace over an expenses scandal.  [i] BBC News, \u2018Scotland brings in free eye tests\u2019, 31 March 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-pro02a","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Devolution has demonstrated the ability of Scots to govern themselves not only as well as Westminster but with more civility  Not only has the policy agenda been different in Scotland but so has the model of politics. It has seen the emergence of new political parties and a better representation of the diversity within existing ones.  The nature of political discourse, although vigorous and not as consensual as initially hoped, has proved to be more consensual \u2013 both during the time of the SNP minority administration and the preceding coalitions than politics south of the border. [i]  The contrast between the coalition governments at Holyrood, the Scottish parliament, where Scottish Labour and the Scottish Liberal Democrats were allied between 1999 and 2007, and the internecine warfare going on between Conservative and Liberal members of the current Westminster coalition could not be more stark.  [i] Cairney, Paul, \u2018Coalition and Minority Government in Scotland\u2019, Political Studies Associations Conference, 1 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-pro03b","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Firstly, if these industries are already emerging under the devolved powers then there seems to be little reason for expanding those powers. Nationalism has always relied on the fantasy that magically everything about the country will change the day after independence. [i]  The reality is not quite so rosy; with a disproportionately high level of employment in the public sector [ii] as well as consistently high levels of multi-generational unemployment, pretending that these problems would be swept away following autonomy is just fantasy. These constitutional wrangles are a distraction from the real issues of addressing employment and chronic ill-health are much higher concerns.  [i] Chakrabortty, Aditya, \u2018Can Scotland pay its own way?\u2019, The Guardian, 20 May 2011,   [ii] Simon Rogers. \u201cThe public sector employment map of the UK: the full data.\u201d The Guardian. 21 November 2011."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-pro01a","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Scotland has a proud history and has demonstrated since devolution different political interests  The Union has now passed its 300th birthday and throughout that time Scotland has maintained as distinct role and identity. This is grounded in a tradition and history that is quite different from that south of the Border and includes legal and education systems that have always been separate.  That has manifested itself in a distinct policy agenda since devolution and areas such as free care for the elderly and the abolition of student tuition fees.  Despite the opinions of doomsayers before devolution it has been proved as a remarkable success and massive approval throughout the UK with 70% saying it has been a success. [i]  [i] The Scotsman. \u201c70% of Britons support devolution for Scotland, poll suggests\u201d 8 May 2009."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-pro01b","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"There are many differences between devolution and independence. Surviving events such as the banking crisis and the European sovereign debt crisis are much easier within the confines of a larger, richer state such as the UK.  Nobody denies that devolution has, broadly speaking, been a success. However, it\u2019s been achieved in quite a different context than that facing a nation state.  It has left difficult decisions to Westminster. It allows the Scottish Executive the luxury of being oppositionist on issues such as nuclear power, fantasists on renewables while leaving the problem of how to keep the lights on to politicians at Westminster."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-pro03a","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"An independent Scotland has enormous economic potential to join other small European nations, especially as a leader in technology and renewable energy  Many of Scotland\u2019s problems are grounded in the fact that its potential has consistently been held back. Because the focus for economic development from a Westminster perspective has focused for generations on North Sea oil and the coal fields of Lanarkshire, huge opportunities were missed and the best and the brightest tended be dragged down south for jobs worthy of their skills.  Even with the limited powers allowed by devolution a burgeoning life-sciences sector, a growing IT sector in silicon glen are adding to the traditional industries. Since 2003 Scotland has generally had faster economic growth than the UK with 13% during the period from 2003-2007 compared to the UK\u2019s 11.4%. [i] Independence would stretch people still further.  [i] CPPR Centre for Public Policy for Regions, \u2018The changing pattern of Scotland\u2019s economic growth since Devolution\u2019, CPPR Briefing Note, June 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-con03b","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"The Scottish budget runs at a surplus of about 1%, unlike the UK\u2019s, and so the Scots are actually subsidizing their neighbours. [i] It is also important to take into account the vast amount of wealth that has fled south in the shape of North Sea oil revenue and the talent that has been sucked up by London in terms of not only work but also with the number of Scots soldiers sent to fight English wars.  Perhaps the best example of this historically is Glasgow which literally built the British Empire \u2013 mostly to English benefit \u2013 only to be discarded to some of the worst poverty in the developed world when it was no longer useful  [i] Chakrabortty, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-con01b","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Scotland already has a distinct global profile including world-class national brands such as whiskey and salmon. Arguing that Scotland would have \u2018less influence\u2019 as an independent state is frankly absurd as, at the moment, it has none. Westminster leads in international negotiations and rarely considers Scottish interests.  Additionally, considering the damage that the UK government has managed to do to its international reputation with the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan putting some clear, tartan water between Edinburgh and London would seem to be quite a strong diplomatic move."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-con02a","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"The union has worked for over three hundred years and most people feel comfortable with the joint Scots\/British identity  For over three centuries the two nations have cooperated much to their mutual advantage. The majority of Scots are happy with their British-ness.  In terms of culture and art the two nations have maintained distinctive traditions but ones which have been enhanced by their interaction. There are many people who have relatives from Scotland and another of the Home Nations for whom British is the more obvious identity. [i]  After centuries of fighting with each other the Union brought peace and mutual benefit.  [i] Mitchell, David, \u2018If Scotland does secede, I won\u2019t be alone in mourning for my country\u2019, The Observer, 15 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-con03a","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Scotland needs English economic muscle as through the Barnett formula England, especially the Southeast effectively subsidizes the rest of the UK in general and Scotland in particular  The Barnett established the model by which money is divided up within the regions and nations of the UK. The formula works greatly to Scotland\u2019s advantage with a net flow of funding heading north.  The English taxpayer subsidizes Scots to the tune of \u00a319bn a year (2009-10). [i] Without that subsidy The Scottish government would not have been able to give away the many benefits that have been handed out by the devolved authorities.  Scotland needs English support financially just as she does in terms of diplomatic representation or political muscle.  [i] McLaren, John et al., \u2018Financial Implications of Different Fiscal Arrangements For Scotland\u2019, CPPR Centre for Public Policy for Regions, June 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-con01a","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Deliberately turning away from the international clout the UK brings to play on the global scene is simply odd  The UK acts as a big player on the international scene sitting at the top table of most international institutions. It is questionable as to whether the remaining part of the UK would continue to sit on the UN Security Council; one thing that is certain is that Scotland would not. Equally they would have little clout on European bodies, damaging their influence on key Scottish interests such as fisheries policy.  It would also lose the advantage that many companies see Edinburgh as a convenient base within the UK but would be unlikely to see much benefit to it as a base in an independent Scotland [i] .  [i] David Sinclair. \u201cIssues surrounding Scottish independence.\u201d September 1999. Published by the Constitution Unit, Tavistock House."}
+{"id":"test-politics-glghssi-con02b","title":"government local government house supports scottish independence","text":"Ignoring the fact that Opp is putting forward a version of history that is decades rather than centuries old there are other flaws. Scottish cultural traditions were actively destroyed by English dominance and continue to receive very limited support.  Linguistic traditions such as Scots and Gaelic were completely ignored and frequently suppressed.  In addition it has not been 300 years of mutual benefit as Scotland has been largely overwhelmed by its more populous neighbour. Scotland\u2019s resources, including its intellectual ones, have been \u2013 and continued to be \u2013 effectively stolen by England."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-pro02b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Banning skin whitening on such a basis also requires the acceptance of the racial overtones. Some form of tan is popular in many societies of people of European ethnic origins \u2013 that is not a racial matter, it is more based on economic social perceptions (that of holidays to warmer climates). Ascribing a racial element to everything to do with skin tone is at best a lazy analysis.  Irrespective of issues of race and perceptions of ethnic origins, and its intersection with beauty standards, some people will be given advantages in life due to their appearance. Banning a certain form of cosmetic, even if it can have some racial and ethnic undertones, won\u2019t change that."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-pro02a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"They fuel colourism in society  Allowing the use of racial overtones \u2013 the perception that a product will bring a person towards a \u201cwhite ideal\u201d is harmful for several reasons. It could cause communities to generate a form of inferiority complex, and it reinforces the structural difference rather than aiming to minimize it. While it may sound absurd, in the US darker-skinned African Americans (and darker skinned latinos) are less well educated and have lower incomes [1] . Elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere, such as in Brazil, race is seen as an issue of colour and socio-economic background, not ancestry highlighting a much more obvious link between whitening creams and racism [2] .  Is it not the role of the state to reduce that discrimination, not to fuel it? Banning such creams would help prevent such harmful effects by discouraging the notion that people should aim to make themselves lighter skinned.  [1] Hunter, Margaret L., \u201cIf you\u2019re light you\u2019re alright: light skin color as social capital for women of color\u201d, Gender and Society, 2002,  , p.35  [2] Telles, Edward, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Colour in Brazil, 2004, online sample chapter,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-pro03b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"If there is a demand for it, people want it. Not only do indigenous skin-whitening products exist, they are so widespread and popular it cannot be ascribed to a \u201ccringe\u201d on a small area of society.  It is wrong to consider skin whitening to just be a colonial import as if being white is all about looking like a westerner. Many cultures, particularly in Asia but also some in Africa such as Egypt, valued lighter skin tones before colonisation; such tones showed that you were a woman of leisure who did not need to toil under the hot tropical sun. [1]  Maintaining a desire to look lighter may therefore neither be an effect of a neo-colonial mind-set nor create neo-colonial business ties.  [1] Goon, Patricia, and Craven, Allison, \u2018Whose Debt?: Globalisation and Whitefacing in Asia\u2019, Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context, issue 9, August 2003,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-pro01a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"These products are dangerous  Skin whitening creams often contain a wide variety of harmful ingredients \u2013 in some cases, mercury. These can cause various health problems; mercury in particular causes renal (kidney) damage, major skin problems as well as mental health issues [1] .  States, throughout the world, ban consumer products because they are harmful regardless of whether this is for consumption or for cosmetics. This is just another case where that is appropriate in order to prevent the harm to health that may occur.  [1] World Health Organization, \u201cMercury in skin lightening products\u201d, WHO.int, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-pro01b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Skin whitening creams often contain a wide variety of harmful ingredients \u2013 in some cases, mercury. These can cause various health problems; mercury in particular causes renal (kidney) damage, major skin problems as well as mental health issues [1] .  States, throughout the world, ban consumer products because they are harmful regardless of whether this is for consumption or for cosmetics. This is just another case where that is appropriate in order to prevent the harm to health that may occur.  [1] World Health Organization, \u201cMercury in skin lightening products\u201d, WHO.int, 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-pro03a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Monetizing colonialism  Skin whitening can be seen as an attempt to fit in with a form of a neo-colonialist mind-set; a form of cultural imperialism driven by capitalism.  These products, often sold by big international FMCG (fast moving consumer goods) companies feed off a neo-colonialist mind-set \u2013 one of a cultural inferiority complex. These products form part of the process of tying African people into a globalised consumer world where non-westerners feel compelled to buy western products that they don\u2019t need. They are therefore kept in a colonial situation where they are dependent on the west both mentally and in terms of the products they buy. That is reason enough for nations that have been victims of colonialism by the Global North to take action against them."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con03b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"No-one is pretending that a ban on whitening products is a solution to every social ill. What is being suggested is that these products are harmful, and that the culture they create is also potentially harmful.  A race-colour-class nexus exists \u2013 that is why the proposition is concerned about the normalization of skin bleaching."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con01b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"States can and do ban products that are physically or socially harmful \u2013 that\u2019s not illiberalism, it is common sense. It clearly does not suggest that non-white women do not have the capacity; white countries such as the USA engage in similar bans for health reasons.  Anyway, In a society with mass media and celebrity-lead marketing campaigns, do people really make entirely autonomous decisions? Consumers almost never have complete information about what they are buying. When they don\u2019t the government has to prevent them from making mistakes that may be harmful to themselves."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con02a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Prohibition is counterproductive  As tempting as it is to feel that banning is the solution to problems, it doesn\u2019t work. Almost all states prohibits certain drugs, but that does not stop them being used. [1] Despite being banned in Ghana, skin whitening creams are still openly advertised on billboards [2] .  Counterfeit cosmetics of all types exist worldwide [3] , they are illegal for a variety of reasons, not least intellectual property abuse: banning skin lighting creams would simply give more space to the counterfeits. A ban could lead users towards either a homemade substance, or pills and injections which would almost certainly be more damaging as a result of a lack of regulation.  [1] See the Debatabase debate \u2018 This House supports the legalisation of drugs\u2019  [2] Al Jazeera English, \u201cThe Stream: Fair Beauty\u201d, YouTube, 22 August 2013,  , roughly 18 minutes in  [3] RIA Novosti, \u201cCounterfeit cosmetics: Turning beauties in to beasts\u201d, RT, 08 November 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con04a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Run education campaigns instead  Education is an alternative. Campaigns such as #darkisbeautiful (dark is beautiful) in India are the model for advancing equality and marginalizing colourism in India. The campaign has had some success attracting stars, including some such as Vishaka Sing who have modelled for fairness creams, to campaign against the prejudice against darker skin tones. [1]  The heavy hand of legislation is not the correct tool \u2013 other methods from social media campaigns to changing practices in the fashion, beauty and media industries (such as has occurred in Dakar Fashion Week [2] ) will reduce the cultural demand.  [1] Krupa, Lakshmi, \u2018Dark is beautiful\u2019, The Hindu, 8 September 2013,   [2] Reuters, \u201cDakar fashion week bans models who use skin lightning cream\u201d, South China Morning Post, 01 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con03a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Banning these is papering over the issue  It would be all too tempting for governments to consider that a ban on these products would sort out issues of skin tone discrimination as they would be hidden away from public view.  Class and race are both divisive issues, and are often inextricably linked. Those with lighter skin will still have advantages over those with darker skin hues. The banning of whiteners will simply reduce the ability of individuals to change how others perceive them. We can all agree that there needs to be less colourism but that has to be achieved by reducing prejudices. Only broader education on the issue of skin colour discrimination can achieve such a change."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con01a","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Personal autonomy  Like many other debates, this simply boils down to personal autonomy. Individuals should be free to take actions, even ones harmful to them as long as they do not harm others, at least not without good reason. Thus things that are almost entirely harmful such as smoking are allowed.  It is a matter of personal choice \u2013 to suggest otherwise non-white women do not have the capacity to make that choice."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con04b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Educational campaigns can and do work on many issues. However, they can only do so much in terms of making genuine progress. If you want to change attitudes \u2013 generally subconscious \u2013 more concrete action is needed. Legislation affects everyone while a campaign will only ever reach comparatively small numbers."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmciahbans-con02b","title":"media modern culture international africa house believes african nations should","text":"Obviously, not every policy is 100% effective. However, a ban on products that is well created and adequately enforced could at least reject a material from the mainstream, and signals disapproval. Not everyone will follow a ban but many will see that the ban is there for a good reason and will not seek alternatives.  Counterfeit cosmetics are a different issue \u2013 one is the attempt to capitalize off of a brand, the other is to provide a product to achieve people\u2019s goals."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro02b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"People are unhappy because they can't have everything, not because they are given too much choice and find it stressful. In fact, advertisements play a crucial role in ensuring that what money people have, they spend on the most appropriate product for themselves. If advertisements were not permitted, people would waste money on an initial product when, given the choice, they clearly would go for another.  A meta-analysis incorporating research from 50 independent studies found no meaningful connection between choice and anxiety, but speculated that the variance in the studies left open the possibility that choice overload could be tied to certain highly specific and as yet poorly understood pre-conditions1.  1 ^ Scheibehenne, Benjamin; Greifeneder, R. & Todd, P. M. (2010). \"Can There Ever be Too Many Options? A Meta-Analytic Review of Choice Overload\" . Journal of Consumer Research 37: 409-425."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro02a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"People are given too much choice, which makes them less happy.  Advertising leads to many people being overwhelmed by the endless need to decide between competing demands on their attention \u2013 this is known as the tyranny of choice or choice overload. Recent research suggests that people are on average less happy than they were 30 years ago - despite being better off and having much more choice of things to spend their money on1. The claims of adverts crowd in on people, raising expectations about a product and leading to inevitable disappointment after it is bought. A recent advertisement for make-up was banned in Britain due to the company presenting its product as being more effective than it actually was2. Shoppers feel that a poor purchase is their fault for not choosing more wisely, and regret not choosing something else instead. Some people are so overwhelmed that they cannot choose at all.  1Schwartz, The Tyranny of Choice, 2004.  2 Kekeh , Too Beautiful? British MP Draws Line in Sand for Cosmetic Ads , 2011."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro03b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Adverts which use very sly methods like subliminal images (images which are shown so quickly the viewer doesn't consciously realise they saw them) are already banned. The other forms of advertising are just companies being creative. There is no difference from supermarkets being painted bright colours to make their food seem more appetising or even people wearing make-up to improve their image. People make unconscious judgements all the time, and we frequently try to influence these choices by the way we present ourselves. This isn't brainwashing, so neither is advertising."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro05a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertisements tell children that they should have everything they want.  Advertising gives the impression, especially to children, that they can and should have everything they want. This makes people too interested in material things. People are becoming more selfish and obsessed with their possessions, and losing their values of patience, hard work, moderation and the importance of non-material things like family and friends. This harms their relationships and their personal development, which has serious effects for society as a whole."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro01a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"There are too many advertisements in everyday life.  The sheer volume of advertising in our society is incredible. You cannot watch television, ride on a bus or even walk down the street without someone trying to sell you something or inform you of something. Recent research suggests people living in a city today sees up to 5,000 advertisements a day1. 50% of those surveyed said they thought 'advertising today was out of control'1. People shouldn't have to go about their lives having their minds saturated with such a vast quantity of, in most cases, redudant and profiteering information. They should be able to go about their daily lives in peace without being forced to watch, listen or view an advertisement.  1 Anywhere the Eye Can See, It's Likely to See an Ad. New York Times."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro01b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Though there are a great many advertisements in everyday life, there are not so many that they can't simply be ignored. Advertisements attempt to get you to buy a product, if you're not interested, then don't buy the product. For every person who finds all the advertisements stressful, another person finds them enjoyable and something to read or watch while they make their daily journey to work or school. Out of control could mean simply that customers think businesses are spending too much on advertising. Without proof that the number of advertisements is having a negative effect, the point is worthless."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro05b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Our society is built around the idea that companies produce things that people want, and this is what makes us prosperous. If consumers suddenly stopped wanting to buy so many products then what happens to the people whose job it is to make them? The economy will suffer terribly. Of course some people take materialism too far, but most people buy just what they need and then a little extra when they treat themselves. This is a much better situation than one in which people can only afford to buy the things they need - that would be a step backwards."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro04b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"The media and celebrity magazines do much more harm, by mocking unattractive or overweight people, and glorifying models who are often dangerously thin. Adverts never criticise people - that would be terrible for the companies behind them. Their aim is to understand and provide what people want, and so their adverts only ever reflect what people think. If people's perceptions are wrong, then it not the advertisers' job to put them right, but politicians, the media and schools."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro03a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertisements are an attempt to brainwash customers.  People cannot just choose to ignore advertising, because advertisers use many underhand methods to get their message across. Posters have attention grabbing words, or provocative pictures. Some adverts today are even being hidden in what seem like pieces or art or public information so people don't realise they are being marketed to. The introduction of digital screens allows businesses to alter their advertising to respond to specific events, making advertisements not only everywhere, but seemingly all-knowing1. By targeting people's unconscious thoughts adverts are a form of brainwashing that take away people's freedoms to make choices.  1 Anywhere the Eye Can See, It's Likely To See an Ad. The New York Times."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-pro04a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertisements try to make people feel bad about not having the product  Many adverts do more than just advertising products. Some try to make people feel inferior if they don't have the product, or if they have something which the product would change. Perceptions of beauty and fashion in particular have been terribly distorted. Many young people have low self-esteem, and lead unhealthy lifestyles because they feel they should be thinner and more attractive like the models they see in adverts. This leads to serious problems like eating-disorders and self-harm. Research that proved this effect also concluded that 'the media can boost self-esteem (happiness with one's self) where it is providing examples of a variety of body shapes. However, it often tends to portray a limited (small) number of body shapes'1.  1 Skinny models 'send unhealthy message'. The Guardian."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con03b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertisers don't have the good of society in mind when they do their work - they only care about making profit. This means that they regularly advertise unhealthy or harmful things. Fast food adverts are a large part of the reason so many children are obese. Researchers have found that children aged 6-13 who were shown commercials for junk food were more likely to pick meals that were bad for them1. The adverts just try to make children eat as much bad food as possible without any concern for the health costs.  1 Junk Food Harmful for Kids. Hindustan Times"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con01b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertising in fact gives an unfair advantage to big businesses. Small companies might have much better products, but they cannot afford to advertise them as well and so people don't find out about them. In the film industry, the big film studios spend more than $75 million on advertising alone1. Small films cannot compete. This restricts the quality of products for consumers, and places a huge roadblock to the success of small businesses.  1 When Is Too Much Advertising Too Much? Spinoff Online."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con02a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertising helps us choose between different goods.  Advertising has a positive role to play in modern society, helping us choose between competing goods. Many adverts are drawing our attention to products with new features, for example more powerful computers, telephones which are also cameras and music players, or foods with added vitamins. Other adverts try to compete on price, helping us seek out the cheapest or best value products. In most cases advertising does not make us go shopping \u2013 we would be planning to buy food, clothes, gifts and entertainment anyway. What advertising does is to help us make better decisions about how to spend our money, by giving us more information about the choices available."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con04a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertising is only as annoying as you want it to be.  No-one is forced to put advertising on their property - for many companies it is an important part of their income. Football teams would have much less money if they were not sponsored. Manchester United's shirt sponsorship deal with Aon is worth \u00a380 million. For the small annoyance of having to have a logo on the shirt, the football club can afford to buy new players and hopefully win more games. And no-one is forced to look at advertising - you can turn the TV off between shows, or just flick past adverts in newspapers. If you don't want to see the adverts, then just ignore them."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con03a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertisements promote healthy products and lifestyles.  Advertising is used to promote healthy activities, products and lifestyles and is further regulated to ensure that unhealthy products are not promoted. The School Food Trust in Britain, for example, used celebrities in advertisements to promote healthy eating in 20071. Furthermore, adverts which promote seriously unhealthy things are becoming very rare. Cigarette advertising is all but extinct, and alcohol adverts are being more restricted. With adverts such as fast food we see as well that companies are changing their message to promote healthier options. This is because it is bad for businesses to be viewed as harming children. Public pressure and successful regulation will always bring any advertising problems back under control.  1 Schools Food Trust uses celebs to promote healthy eating. Campaign Live."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con01a","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Small businesses need advertisements to make their products known.  If there wasn't advertising then small businesses would have no chance at all to make their product well known. Adverts can actually level the playing field - if you have a good new product, and market it in a clever way then it doesn't matter how small your company is, you can still make consumers interested. The more you restrict the freedom of information, the more this helps the large companies who everyone already knows about."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con04b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"It is hard to ignore advertising when it is everywhere in modern life. Advertising may be welcomed by companies which profit from their sponsorship, but fans do not like it nor necessarily want it. Barcelona in Spain went without commercial advertising on their shirts for a long time, proving sponsorship is not necessary to win trophies and buy players."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mthbah-con02b","title":"media television house believes advertising harmful","text":"Advertising does not help us choose, it merely confuses customer who are not sure who is offering what. This is particularly true with advertisements that compare products with other businesses. In Britain, advertising for broadband (internet) services confuse nine out of ten people1. With different costs and add-ons, it's hard to for a customer to know what they are actually paying for and whether it is better than going somewhere else. As a result, many customers end up stressed and confused.  1 Misleading broadband advertising confuses customers. Virgin."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro02b","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Whilst it is the case in individual instances that, if one piece of art is censored, another on a different topic may be produced, when looked at in a wider context this is not the case. If we restrict artists in all cases where someone is disgusted, an enormous quantity of subjects will be off limits. This will have, not only a negative impact on that artist, but a deleterious effect on whole branches of art.  Further, restricting any art that could cause social disgust is an unreasonable restriction to place upon society (or gallery curators, or grant allocation committees). It is difficult to know at what point a piece will cross the line from simply \u2018provocative\u2019 to \u2018disgusting\u2019. Consequently, people will be forced to err on the side of caution, leading to an excessive caution and restriction: overcensorship.  When weighed against these harms, it is far from clear that individual disgust can be elevated to this extent!"}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro02a","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"We have a duty to protect individuals from the worst reactions to art  Those who see the artwork, or hear of it, must be considered. Often, social disgust stems from the violation of those values that are most central to an individual.  An individual\u2019s right not to have their most central values abused or ridiculed is surely of more importance than the desire of an artist to be entirely unrestricted in their work: the harm caused to individuals by the continuing acceptance by society, (and consequent exposure) of art they find disgusting, can be great, and the reasonable modern society recognises such harms and does not impose them unnecessarily.  For example, the case of the Chapman brothers\u2019 repeated use of Hitler and Nazi imagery: for the Chapmans the horror of WW2 might be distant and historical, and therefore for them the time may have come for Hitler to simply be mocked; however, for others that horror is altogether more current. Other people may feel a greater connection, for example, because of the impact on their close family, which cannot simply be ignored. In a situation like this, clearly the impact is infinitely more negative for that individual whose trauma is, in effect, being highlighted as now acceptable for comic material, than the positive gain is for the Chapmans: if restricted, they are simply caused to move on to other subjects."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro03b","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"We are no less able to consent to art than we are to every other manifestation of individuality in society. We are similarly unable to consent to, but strongly impacted by, all sorts of things, from music videos and adverts to people dressed strangely on the street.  However, as a society we accept that people\u2019s core values ought to be robust enough to survive challenges in the public sphere: we allow debate, art and music on many topics that have enormous personal ramifications, from euthanasia to deportation.  As a consequence, it is only legitimate to restrict the worst excesses, whose impact can be measured objectively, before display: we set rules in this regard restricting the worst instances of, for example, exploitation and pornography.  Further, those who are worst affected can self-limit their exposure: it is rare that people are entirely unaware of the existence of a controversial piece of art, and as such people can choose not to view it, or to view it only briefly. They should not have the right to prevent everyone else from seeing such a piece."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro01a","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Just shock-tactics, at the cost of better art  Sometimes artists go too far in a bid to get their message across. Simply grabbing the headlines with shock tactics does not constitute art of the sort that should be receiving either public support or attention. It is important to recognise that public displays and funding of art are limited commodities, so every time one piece is chosen for an exhibition, or an artist is given money, this comes at the cost of other possible pieces of art. It is surely better to support those artists who have chosen to express their ideas and messages in a way that does not rely on simple attention-grabbing horror: it is surely more artistically meritorious to create a work that conveys its message in a way that rewards close attention and careful study, with layers of meaning and technique."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro01b","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Who determines whether something is too disgusting? It is also hard to separate a piece of work\u2019s artistic merit from its impact. It is perfectly possible for a work of art to display great technical competence, and yet fail to have an emotional impact on its audience, and so as a consequence it seems most sensible to allow, display and fund as wide a display of art as possible.  Limiting the forms of art that we display or give funding to those considered \u2018artistically meritorious\u2019 will result in the loss of innovation in the art world: if we only encourage those pieces that are \u2018good\u2019 under present-day metrics, we lose those pieces of art that, though considered controversial, or \u2018not art\u2019 now, may in the future be considered masterpieces (e.g. Picasso\u2019s Guernica)."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro03a","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"The power of the visual  Art differs from other forms of media with regard to the expression of ideas. Unlike other methods of conveying ideas, art has a visceral impact that is instant and has a lasting effect.  In a discussion, for example, there are often clues that ideas that might make people feel uncomfortable are about to arise. Thus, people are in a better position to consent to the sorts of challenges controversy within a conversation may pose (similarly, we tend to look more positively on taboo subjects raised within a conversational context than we do when they are, for example, shouted about in the street).  In the case of art, particularly that which is displayed in public spaces (like squares, parks and museums) people are unable to consent in this way, but rather, may be confronted suddenly by something that they find disgusting, because it has forced them to confront something they find horrific or traumatic, in a manner which has a great impact, and that, because of the power of the visual, they find difficult to forget."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con03b","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Social change does not come from pieces of art. It comes from real, concrete political action and struggles, over time. It is unclear, therefore, why it should not be the case that we ought first to campaign for changes to society, and then display (newly) acceptable art reflecting upon the changes we have made. To do otherwise is to suggest that artists should be allowed special dispensation to run \u2018ahead\u2019 of the norms the rest of us feel bound by: note that it is not always the case that disgusting art later becomes acceptable. Not all transgressions are for the sake of future changes to society; some simply remain transgressions."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con01b","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"First, it seems implausible that there are ideas that can only be conveyed by instant, emotional responses. It must surely be possible to convey these ideas in other ways.  Second, it is unclear why it is so important that these reactions are provoked: surely if something is incredibly shocking it is that way for a reason? Something cannot provoke social disgust without taking a clear stride over the line of what we consider to be acceptable in society.  The taboos that exist in society are not meaningless: rather, they express inviolable values that are present throughout time, and in many different societies."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con02a","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Freedom of speech  Artists ought to be allowed to express themselves, and display the world they see, as they see it.  Freedom of speech is considered integral to the modern democracy, and with good reason! Free speech makes a vital contribution to a plurality of ideas. It is only when a great number of ideas are expressed and challenged, such that people\u2019s beliefs remain fluid, and can be formed and reformed, that we are able to arrive at such a point where we are likely to progress. This \u2018marketplace of ideas\u2019 prevents us from stagnating; from continuing harmful practices and modes of thought simply because they are traditional.  The more free speech is limited, the less able we are to access this plurality of ideas, and thus the less able we are to truly challenge harmful habits."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con03a","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Restriction based on social disgust prevents socially liberal ideas from flourishing  Great, socially liberal movements have always been controversial, and always been supported, encouraged and propagated by art. Art is a realm wherein an artist\u2019s expression is less limited by social structures (like the necessity of pleasing your box; of being \u2018commercially viable\u2019). Subsequently it has easily, and often, been utilised as a means of changing public opinion.  Some of these movements, for example, the breaking down of stereotypes and norms surrounding sexuality (in particular female sexuality) and gender that Sarah Lucas, Tracey Emin and others contributed to in the liberalising 80s and 90s, attract social disgust. In any situation where a taboo is being attacked, this will happen. The converse however, is not the case: it is almost impossible to provoke social disgust by maintaining the status quo.  As a result, restriction of art that provokes social disgust will disproportionately attack the socially liberal, and thus help to maintain the status quo, regardless of whether it is worthy of such protection."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con01a","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Social disgust can be central to artwork  Some forms of art rely strongly on the provocation of disgust or other strong reactions. For example, conceptual artists often rely heavily upon the provocation of strong emotions in the viewer as a way of drawing attention to important, taboo areas (e.g. death, religion and sexuality). If they are banned from doing this, then we lose an entire branch of art: we are left instead with forms of art that choose not to engage with these areas at all.  Particularly in cases where people want to draw attention to what they see as unnecessary taboos, shock is integral. For example, the work of Sarah Lucas explored taboos surrounding sexuality and gender: her work drew attention to stereotyping and taboo in a way that (necessarily) many people found disgusting. Further, it is possible to critically engage with that disgust. It is wrong to assume that the end point of a provocative piece of art is \u201coh, I\u2019ve been provoked\u201d. Rather, this emotional first response is only the beginning when it comes to the contemplation of that work. Thinking about the reasons for your disgust, and its context, allows us a greater insight into the work, which if you believe ideas are central to pieces of art (which conceptual artists do) is vital."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con02b","title":"arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimate grounds restriction artistic","text":"Freedom of speech is evidently not an absolute right: it is not something that we consider to be inviolable and able to \u2018trump\u2019 all other rights. Note, for instance, that many countries have restrictions on freedom of speech preventing hate speech and other transgressions.  We can, therefore, limit freedom of speech in instances where the benefits outweigh the harm: the benefit in this instance being the prevention of harm to individuals as a result of the art."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro02b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"There are many ways to correct for the dearth of some works on the market such as orphan works. By simplifying copyright law, reducing lengths of copyright and more robust searches for legal provenance can all help correct for the shortfalls without eroding an important part of law and material rights. Or indeed the law might be revised simply to free works that have unclear ownership from copyright by default. Creators should retain, no matter how annoying it may be to would-be enjoyers of their work, control over their artistic output. Artists\u2019 creations are fundamentally their own, not the property of the state or society."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro02a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"The default of total copyright is harmful to the spreading of information and experience  Current copyright law assigns too many rights, automatically, to the creator. Law gives the generator of a work full copyright protection that is extremely restrictive of that works reuse, except when strictly agreed in contracts and agreements. Making Creative Commons licenses the standard for publicly-funded works generates a powerful normalizing force toward a general alteration of people\u2019s defaults on what copyright and creator protections should actually be like. The creative commons guarantees attribution to the creator and they retain the power to set up other for-profit deals with distributors. [1] At base the default setting of somehow having absolute control means creators of work often do not even consider the reuse by others in the commons. The result is creation and then stagnation, as others do not expend the time and energy to seek special permissions from the creator. Mandating that art in all its forms be released under a creative commons licensing scheme means greater access to more works, for the enrichment of all. This is particular true in the case of \u201corphan works\u201d, works of unknown ownership. Fears over copyright infringement has led these works, which by some estimates account for 40% of all books, have led to huge amounts of knowledge and creative output languishing beyond anyone\u2019s reach. A mix of confusion over copyright ownership and unwillingness of owners to release their works, often because it would not be commercially viable to do so, means that only 2% of all works currently protected by copyright are commercially available. [2] Releasing these works under creative commons licenses will spawn a deluge of enriching knowledge and creative output spilling onto the market of ideas. It would mark a critical advancement in the democratization and globalization of knowledge akin to the invention of the printing press.  [1] Creative Commons. \u201cAbout the Licenses\u201d. 2010.   [2] Keegan, V. \u201cShorter Copyright Would Free Creativity\u201d. The Guardian. 7 October 2009."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro03b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Choosing to release one\u2019s work into the viral market may be a shrewd business and artistic move, or it might not. All of this depends on the individual artist and the individual work. Nine Inch Nails both has the money that they can afford to take the risk and the name recognition that means they can be sure some fans will purchase the music, this is not the case with most artists. Thus the decision can really only be made effectively and fairly by the artists themselves. Trying to usurp that choice through a state mandate only serves to undermine the artist\u2019s creative vision of how he or she wishes to portray and distribute their work to the world."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro01a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Intellectual property is a legal fiction created for convenience in some instances, but copyright should cease to be protected under this doctrine  An individual\u2019s idea only truly belongs solely to them so long as it rests in their mind alone. When they disseminate their ideas to the world they put them in the public domain, and should become the purview of everyone to use. Artists and creators more generally, should not expect some sort of ownership to inhere in an idea they happen to have, since no such ownership right exists in reality. [1] No one can own an idea. Thus recognizing something like a property right over intangible assets is contrary to reason, since doing so gives monopoly power to individuals who may not make efficient or equitable use of their inventions or products. Physical property is a tangible asset, and thus can be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideas do not share the same order of protection even now because they exist in a different order to physical reality. However, some intellectual property is useful in encouraging investment and invention, allowing people to engage their profit motives to the betterment of society as a whole. To an extent one can also sympathize with the notion that creators deserve to accrue some additional profit for the labour of the creative process, but this can be catered for through Creative Commons non-commercial licenses which reserve commercial rights. [2] These protections should not extend to non-commercial use of the various forms of arts. This is because art is a social good of a unique order, with its purpose not purely functional, but creative. It only has value in being experienced, and thus releasing these works through creative commons licenses allows the process of artistic experience and sharing proceeds unhindered by outmoded notions of copyright. The right to reap some financial gain still remains for the artists, as their rights still hold over all commercial use of their work. This seems like a fair compromise of the artist\u2019s right to profit from their work and society right to experience and grow from those works.  [1] Fitzgerald, Brian and Anne Fitzgerald. Intellectual Property: In Principle. Melbourne: Lawbook Company. 2004.  [2] Walsh, K., \u201cCommercial Rights Reserved proposal outcome: no change\u201d, Creative Commons, 14 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro01b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Although ideas are not tangible intellectual property generally, and copyright in particular, is far from a fiction. Rather it is a realization of the hard work and demiurgic force that sparks the generation and fulfilment of artistic endeavour. The property right assigned over these things to their creators is a very real one that recognizes their fundamental right over these works as owners, and the right to profit from them. The artist must have the right to prevent even non-commercial use of the idea if it is to maintain its value and so retain for the creator the ability to commercialise it. These protections are critical to the moral understanding of all property and must be rigorously protected, not eroded for the benefit of some nebulous notion of social good."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro04b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"It may be costly and sometimes ineffective to police copyright, but that does not make them any less of a right worth protecting. If artists or firms feel that they might benefit from fighting infringers of their rights, they should have the right to do so, not simply be expected to roll over and give in to the pirates and law breakers. The state likewise, has an obligation to protect the rights, physical and intangible, of its citizens and cannot give up on them simply because they prove difficult and costly to enforce. Furthermore, the ensuring health of the economy is a primary duty of the state and this means aiding its domestic businesses and one of the ways it does that is by acting to enforce copyright both internally and if possible externally."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro03a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"The creative commons is a more effective means for artists to build and expand their reach and markets than traditional copyright licensing arrangements  The nature of the internet and mass media on the 21st century is such that many artists can benefit from the freedom and flexibility that creative commons licenses furnish to them. Wider use by other artists and laymen alike helps artistic works \u201cgo viral\u201d and to gain major impact that allow the artist to generate a name for his or herself and to attain the levels of earnings conventional copyrights are meant to help artists generate but that ultimately hamstring them. A major example of this is the band Nine Inch Nails, which opted in 2008 to begin releasing its albums through the creative commons. [1] Creative commons licenses are so remarkable because they can be deployed by artists to expand their markets, and to profit even more from their greater recognition. After all, the artists still retain control of the commercial uses of their work and are guaranteed under creative commons licensing regulations to be credited by users of their content. [2] Giving undue artistic and distribution control to the artists through constricting and outmoded copyright may mean less significant reach and impact of the work. The state should thus facilitate the sharing by mandating the distribution of art of all kinds under creative commons licenses.  [1] Anderson, N., \u201cFree Nine Inch Nails albums top 2008 Amazon MP3 sales charts\u201d, arstechnica, 7 January 2009,   [2] Creative Commons. \u201cAbout the Licenses\u201d. 2010."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro04a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"The costs of monitoring copyright by states, artists, and lawyers far outweigh the benefits, and is often simply ineffective  The state incurs huge costs in monitoring for copyright infringement, in arresting suspected perpetrators, in imprisonment of those found guilty, even though in reality nothing was stolen but an idea that, once released to it, belonged to the public domain more or less. [1] Furthermore, the deterrent effect to copyright piracy generated by all the efforts of the state and firms has proven generally minimal. In fact, the level of internet piracy of books, music, and films has increased dramatically year on year for several years, increasing by 30% in 2011 alone. [2] This is because in many cases copyright laws are next to unenforceable, as the music and movie industries have learned to their annoyance in recent years, for example ninety percent of DVDs sold in China are bootlegs while even western consumers are increasingly bypassing copyright by using peer to peer networks. [3] Only a tiny fraction of perpetrators are ever caught, and though they are often punished severely in an attempt to deter future crime, it has done little to stop their incidence. Copyright, in many cases, does not work in practice plain and simple. Releasing works under a creative commons licensing scheme does a great deal to cope with these pressures. In the first instance it is a less draconian regime, so individuals are more willing to buy into it as a legitimate claim by artists rather than an onerous stranglehold on work. This increases compliance with the relaxed law. Secondly, the compliance means that artists are given the vocal crediting under the license rules that gives them more public exposure than clandestine copying could not. Ultimately this adaptation of current copyright law would benefit the artist and the consumer mutually.  [1] World Intellectual Property Organization. \u201cEmerging Issues in Intellectual Property\u201d. 2011   [2] Hartopo, A. \u201cThe Past, Present and Future of Internet Piracy\u201d. Jakarta Globe. 26 July 2011.   [3] Quirk, M., \u201cThe Movie Pirates\u201d, The Atlantic, 19 November 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con03b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Few artists ever see much profit from their work anyway, many choosing the life of bohemian squalor in order to keep producing art rather than taking up more profitable pursuits. Vincent van Gogh sold almost nothing, but his drive to create never abated. No doubt the true artists will continue to feel the urge to create under this policy, and the loss of a few marginal cases must be weighed against the massive losses to art in general, such as the huge curtailment of exploration of and response to existing works, which are often artistically meritorious in their own right, and also the rendering unavailable of much of the artistic output of the world."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con01b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"People deserve recompense for their work, but the stifling force of current copyright prevents the proper sharing and expansion of the artistic canon, to the intellectual and spiritual impoverishment of all. Creative commons licenses strike an important balance, by leaving artists with the power over commercial uses of their work, including selling it themselves, while permitting it to permeate the public sphere through non-commercial channels. This is the best way to weigh these competing needs in a complex society. It is not preventing the creator from profiting from his work. It is not a total abrogation of people\u2019s rights, but a giving over of some rights for the benefit of all."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con02a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Artists should retain the right to control their work\u2019s interaction with the public space even if their work is publicly funded  Art is the expression of its creator\u2019s sense of understanding of the world, and thus that expression will always have special meaning to him or her that no amount of reinterpretation or external appreciation can override. How a work is used once released into the public sphere, whether expanded, revised, responded to, or simply shown without their direct consent, thus remains an active issue for the artist, because those alternative experiences are all using a piece of the artist in its efforts. Artists deserve to have that piece of them treated in a way they see as reasonable. It is a simple matter of justice that artists be permitted to maintain the level of control they desire, and it is a justice that is best furnished through the conventional copyright mechanism that provides for the maximum protection of works for their creators, and allows them to contract away uses and rights to those works on their own terms. Many artists care about their legacies and the future of their artistic works, and should thus have this protection furnished by the state through the protection of copyright, not cast aside by the unwashed users of the creative commons. Samuel Beckett is a great example of this need. Beckett had exacting standards about the fashion in which in his plays could be performed. [1] For him the meaning of the art demanded an appreciation for the strict performance without the adulteration of reinterpretation. He would lack that power under this policy, meaning either the world would have been impoverished for want of his plays, or he would have been impoverished for want of his rights to his work. These rights are best balanced through the aegis of copyright as it is, not under the free-for-all of the creative commons license.  [1] Catron, L. \u201cCopyright Laws for Theatre People\u201d. 2003."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con04a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Artists often rely on copyright protection to financially support themselves and their families  Artists as they are often not paid for anything else may rely on their creative output to support themselves. This is certainly no crime, and existing copyright laws recognize this fact. Artists often rely wholly on their ability to sell and profit from their work. This policy serves to drain them of that potential revenue, as their work is shunted into creative commons, and available to all. Artists often also have families to support, and putting the added financial burden on them of stripping them of their copyright only serves to further those problems as they exist. A robust system of copyright is a much better protection to struggling and successful artists alike who like all talented individuals seek to assuage their material wants. Artists cannot live on appreciation alone. With much less secure copyright many would have to find other work."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con03a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"The lack of control over, and profit from, art will serve as a serious disincentive to artistic output  Profit is as much a factor in artists\u2019 decision to produce work, if not more so, than the primordial urge to create. Without the guarantee of ownership over one\u2019s artistic work, the incentive to invest in its creation is certainly diminished. Within a strong copyright system, individuals feel free to invest time in their pursuits because they have full knowledge that the final product of their labours will be theirs to enjoy. [1] Without copyright protections the marginal cases, like people afraid to put time into actually building an installation art piece rather than doing more hours at their job, will not opt to create. If their work were to immediately leave their control, they would most certainly be less inclined to do so. Furthermore, the inability of others to simply duplicate existing works as their own means they too will be galvanized to break ground on new ideas, rather than simply re-tread over current ideas and to adapt existing works to markets. Art thrives by being new and original. Copyright protections shield against artistic laziness and drive the creative urges of the artistically inclined to ever more interesting fields.  [1] Greenberg, M. \u201cReason or Madness: A Defense of Copyright\u2019s Growing Pains\u201d. John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. 2007."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con01a","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Artists have a fundamental property right over their creative output  Whatever the end product, be it music, film, sculpture, or painting, artistic works are the creations of individuals and a property right inheres within them belonging to their creators. An idea is just an idea so long as it remains locked in someone\u2019s mind or is left as an unfinished sketch, etc. But when the art is allowed to bloom in full, it is due to the artist and the artist only. The obsession, the time, the raw talent needed to truly create art is an incredible business, requiring huge investment in energy, time, and effort. It is a matter of the most basic, and one would have hoped self-evident, principle that the person who sacrificed so much to bring forth a piece of art should retain all the rights to it and in particular have the right to profit from it. [1] To argue otherwise would be to condone outright theft. The ethereal work of the artist is every bit as real as the hard work of a machine. Mandating that all forms of art be released under a creative commons license is an absolute slap in the face to artists and to the artistic endeavour as a whole. It implies that somehow the work is not entirely the artist\u2019s own, that because it is art it is somehow so different as to be worthy of being shunted into the public sphere without the real consent of the artist. This is a gross robbing of the artist\u2019s right over his or her own work. If property rights are to have any meaning, they must have a universal protection. This policy represents a fundamental erosion of the right to property, and attacks one sector of productive life that is essential for the giving of colour to the human experience. This policy serves only to devalue that contribution.  [1] Greenberg, M. \u201cReason or Madness: A Defense of Copyright\u2019s Growing Pains\u201d. John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. 2007."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con04b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Artists rarely make all that much money in the first place, and a great many only work as an artist part time. More importantly, they can still profit from their art, since they retain exclusive commercial rights to their work. Oftentimes they will actually benefit from operation under a creative commons license because it provides wider dispersal of their work, which builds a broader name and market for their work."}
+{"id":"test-culture-ascidfakhba-con02b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Upon entering the public arena works of art take on characters of their own, often far different than their original creators did, or could have, imagined. The art is consumed, absorbed, and reimagined and takes on its own identity that the artist cannot claim full ownership over. It is important that art as a whole be able to thrive in society, but this is only possible when artists are able to make use of, and actively reinterpret and utilize existing works. That art does, due to its origination belong more to the people, who should have access, even if the artist, like Beckett has bizarrely rigorous feelings about the work."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro02b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Bans on sexist advertising will not necessarily solve the harms presented and could instead cause harm to businesses through restricting their ability to compete for audiences and consumers. Gender differences and beliefs about sex existed before advertising. There is no certainty changing the content of ads would bring about change within individual societies and cultures which have their own independent attitudes. Cultures have a right to their own ideals and own values."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro02a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Women have a right to be free of stereotyping.  Women's rights to be free from stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination and objectification should be a matter of deep concern as they infringe on human rights related to gender. Advertising messages influence younger generations as well as send stereotypical images of men. As a result the objectification and violence against women will continue. Gender inequality and sexual harassment in the work place is not likely to diminish.1 This means that women will continue to suffer from discrimination based upon their gender. 1 Newswise.com, \"Study Find Rise in Sexualized Images of Women.\" 2010"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro03b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"All types of messages are prevalent and advertisements do not possess any more influence than news or entertainment programming. Advertising is simply integral to pubic space messages and represents the increase of all messages through the advancement of technologies. Advertising is also necessary to support all of types of other mediated messages like news, politics, and entertainment. Additionally, due to the overload of messages of all kinds, consumers learn to screen out and limit their reception of information. Through technology, a viewer can eliminate advertisements from program content."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro01a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Sexist advertising is harmful to society, especially women.  Sexist advertising harms women through objectification and diminishing of self-image. The United Nations Convention to Eliminate Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) links stereotypes about women to prejudice based on gender.1 Through visual and verbal messages women are portrayed as subservient to men. Women are seen increasingly as sex objects and these ads legitimize violence against women.2 Sexist advertising also harms women's self-image by portraying an ideal stylized body.3 The implied message is that consumers should seek to acquire these images even if they are contrary to the reality of body types and features. Eating disorders and obsessive beauty products consumption results in order to attain ideal beauty images presented in the media.4 Sexist ads also harm men through stereotyped images of masculinity.5 1 Object.Org. \"Women not Sex Objects.\" 2011\/ August 24 2 Newswise.com. \"Study Find Rise in Sexualized Images of Women.\" 2011\/08\/10 3 Kilbourne, Jean. \"Beauty... and the Beast of Advertising \""}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro01b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Sexist advertising reflects current social attitudes. Attitudes and perceptions are based on culturally specific values and beliefs. It is difficult to determine a universal definition of harm and sexist advertising to determine if harm occurs. Some studies have been questioned regarding their rigor in examining the direct link from advertising to violence against women.1Violence to women is not debatable but the cause of that violence is. In addition, studies related to body image and beauty are often restricted to those sharing certain genetic characteristics yet biological differences exist between women. What is an idealized body image exactly? Some current advertising has broadened images of women to include a variety of body types, cultures, and ages to define beauty outside traditional stereotypes. Advertising also portrays women in roles of power and success and not always as sex objects as claimed. 1 Young,Toby. \"The Home Office report on child sexualisation is a 100-page Cosmopolitan article.\" Telegraph.com. 2010\/February 26"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro04b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Policies which ban will interfere with business practices, restrict free expression, and be are difficult to standardize. If ads do not sell, they will be rejected and when ads are effective they are likely to continue in pursuit of gaining consumers. Business has the right to set business practices which work for them. Restricting the content of advertising restricts free expression. In fact, Sweden rejected a ban on sexist advertising because it was believed to restrict free expression.1 1 Holmes, Stefanie. \"Scandinavian split on sexist ads\" BBCNews"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro03a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Since advertising is pervasive in mediated messages, it has the power to influence social attitudes.  Adverts occupy more public space than ever before in history. Due to technology, public space is global and ads can been seen around the world, in 2009 the UK became the first major economy where advertisers spend more on internet advertising than on television advertising1. Through such dominance, ads contribute to attitudes and values. Due to their power to influence attitudes within a society, serious attention should be paid to the content of advertising. 1 Sweney, Mark, 'Internet overtakes television to become biggest advertising sector in the UK', The Guardian, 30 September 2009"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro04a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Policies should be established which ban the promotion of sexist attitudes in advertising.  Norway and Denmark have already developed policies to restrict sexist advertising1. In 2008, the UN Committee to Eliminate Discrimination Against Women calls upon states to taken action and in particular the United Kingdom government to address this issue.2 In May of 2011 Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe 's Committee on Equal Opportunity for Women made a case for sexist advertising as a barrier to gender equality. In that report standards were presented and methods to cope with sexist advertising were suggested.3In Australia a government advisory board has developed a list of principles to guide both advertising and the fashion industry.4 1 Holmes, Stefanie. \"Scandinavian split on sexist ads.\" BBC news. 2008\/April 25 accessed 2011\/08\/25 2 Object.com. \"Women are not Sex Objects.\" 3 Parliamentary Assembly of 26 May 2011, The Council of Europe. 4 Kennedy, Jean. \"Fashion Industry asked to adopt body image code.\" ABCNews. 2010\/June 27"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con03b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Even though some businesses have responded to public opinion, there are sufficient international commitments which address gender inequality in all societies. The Universal Declaration of Human rights and subsequent conventions have acknowledged the overwhelming need to set policies and practices into motion which deal with the rights of women and children. Waiting upon the private sector to respond to needed changes in social attitudes which demean certain groups of citizens, is to slow, too inefficient, and until actions are taken does not solve the inherent problems we have discussed. Eating disorders, diminished self images, and the promotion of women as sexual objects has immediate harms for women and influences the socialization of children. Men as well suffer from stereotypes about attractiveness, body images, and sexuality. Therefore problems created from sexist advertising need to be addressed now rather than around the hope that business fuelled by its concern for profit will take appropriate action to create and design ads that avoid sexist advertising. Advertising campaigns need to be planned with standards in mind not simply wait for public response when ads have be found offensive. The California Mild board example you provide illustrates this after-the-fact approach."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con01b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Although business has a compelling self interest to make a profit and advertising is integral to that endeavour, business does not necessarily sacrifice its profit when curbing sexist advertising. If messages are harmonizing with social attitudes, then advertising which appeals to the greater good of gender equality does not necessarily harm but could enhance business credibility. The Benneton ads have often embraced a social consciousness to promote the public good while making a profit. The affirmative has acknowledged that for advertising to be effective they have to connect to values held within the community. As more awareness develops about the negative influence of sexist advertising, business is likely to benefit from the banning of sexist ads."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con02a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Sexist advertising is subjective so would be too difficult to codify.  Effective advertising appeals to the social, cultural, and personal values of consumers. Through the connection of values to products, services and ideas, advertising is able to accomplish its goal of adoption. Failure to make meaningful appeals to audience members seriously diminishes the outcomes of marketing. Since differing beliefs about beauty, body types, sexuality, and gender roles exist across societies and cultures, universal definitions of sexist advertising are too difficult to determine. As an example, biological differences exist between women and what may be considered excessively thin in one society may not be so in another. Any type of censoring calls into questions such as who will censor and how will such censorship be applied. The development of standards could favour cultural imperialism. Therefore, sexist advertising is too difficult to codify."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con04a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Individuals have a choice and right to respond to ads and their meaning.  Consumers have a choice to expose themselves to advertising through their own personal behaviour. Advertisements can be ignored by the consumer and deleted at will. Interpretation of the ad depends on the attitudes of the receiver. The purchase and consumption of beauty products is the personal choice of a buyer. How ads attract and influence is determined by individual beliefs and values of the audience member. Some feminists believe that institutional power structures set up a \"victim\" mentality in women and fail to empower them by placing dependence upon power structures to make choices for women.1 If consumers wish to embrace the ideals or values represented in ads, this should be their choice. Therefore the right to self determine one's consumer behaviour should be left to the individual. 1 Thomas, Christine. \"The New Sexism.\" Socialism Today, Issue #77. 2003\/September"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con03a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Any changes in advertising should come from businesses themselves rather than through banning.  Banning requires a legal framework and enforcement mechanism. External organizations interfere with the ability of business to conduct business. Should the social cultural environment change, businesses are likely to respond to the attitudes of their consumers. A recent change in the California Milk Board's website occurred due to public pressure.1 Social corporate responsibility is another possibility which business could embrace if changing social attitudes develop.2Banning is a repressive method which interferes with competition. Self determined methods should be allowed to competitors in the economic marketplace. Therefore, any changes in advertising should come from the business community rather than through banning. 1 Kumar, Sheila. \"Milk Board Alters Sexist PMS-Themed Ad Campaign.\" The Huffington Post. 2011\/July 22. 2 Skibola, Nicole. \"Gender and Ethics in Advertising: The New CSR.\" Forbes.com. 2011\/August 4"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con01a","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Sexist advertising is profitable  Business has a compelling self interest to make a profit and advertising is integral to that endeavour. The profit from business allows for economic growth without which individual states and the world's economy could not survive. Competition drives the marketplace of products and ideas. And, advertising is the primary method through which those products, services and ideas are made known to the public. When banning is placed upon advertising, the ability to compete and survive in the economic marketplace is threatened. Therefore, the compelling need to make a profit is legitimizes the need for advertising."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con04b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"It is true that individuals do have the right to consume media and have some power over how they perceive and respond to media. However, since the nature of advertising is always planned for public consumption, then ads contribute to existing attitudes inside a person. When slaves in the U.S. were marketed and sold according to the content of advertising, a social system was being perpetrated. When the injustices of slavery were acknowledged both the business and the marketing of slaves ceased to exist. When the greater social good of justice is held over individual choice, social good should prevail. Advertising which demeans the value of certain groups of citizens is not appropriate for the public marketplace. Although Individual choice and freedom of choice are to be valued, public messages by the nature of their public audience, must serve the greater society. Pornography in the public airways is often regulated and banned because it is seen as potentially harmful to women and children of a society. Due to the public nature of advertising then, the greater society has a more important right than that of individuals."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con02b","title":"media modern culture television gender house would ban sexist advertising","text":"Although there is a claim that sexist advertising is to difficult to codify, such codes have and are being developed to guide the advertising industry. These standards speak to advertising which demeans the status of women, objectifies them, and plays upon stereotypes about women which harm women and society in general. Earlier the Council of Europe was mentioned, Denmark, Norway and Australia as specific examples of codes or standards for evaluating sexist advertising which have been developed."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro02b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Opposition agree that the culture and law of a nation has a prodigious impact on the conscience of its civilians. However, according to Alcinda Honwana, an anthropologist and authority on the topic of child soldiers, the problem does not \"have its roots in African traditional culture.\" [i] Although culture has an impact on society, the issue of child soldiers is not affiliated with it.  Side proposition implied that conscripting children should be excusable if it is permitted by an authoritative body of local law. However, are laws based on value-sets that do not aspire to an accessible law making process more valid than the abiding law of that nation? No. Side opposition believe that the \"rule of law is a legal maxim according to which no one is immune to the law.\u201d The fundamental purpose of government is the maintenance and promotion of basic security and public order. Without it the nation will deteriorate.  The proposition mentioned the Democratic Republic of Congo as an example. The DRC signed the \u201cConvention on the Rights of the Child\u201d on 21 September 1990. During this time era, Congo was not a declared democracy. However they have hitherto developed a more democratic and stable government. Additionally, DRC has not withdrawn from the Convention on the Rights of the Child, thus accentuating the fact that they are strongly against conscription of children.  Being oblivious of the fact that conscripting child soldiers is illegal is no defence. As side opposition\u2019s substantive material will show, both national and international systems of law are expected to take account of the fact that cultural, environmental and social plurality will lead to variable rates of compliance with particular laws. While it may be difficult to make community leaders liable for the creation of child soldiers, the ICC frequently seeks to make officials linked to state actors liable for failing to protect children from military recruitment [ii] .  Moreover, cultural relativism originally assumed some degree of parity and open exchange between communities with diverging cultural values. There is no parity between the value-sets of stable liberal democratic states and the adaptations that vulnerable cultures undergo in order to survive amongst prolonged military conflict.  Finally, it would damage the reputation and reduce the efficiency of the ICC if states were permitted to argue that regions in which child soldiers were active had an established tradition of military activity among the young.  [i] \u201cChildren\u2019s Involvement in War: Historical and Social Contexts\u201d, Alcinda Honwana, The Journal of the history of Childhood and Youth, Vol 1 2007  [ii] The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dylio, The International Criminal Court,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro02a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The failure of rule of law  As the anthropologist and lawyer Sally Falk-Moore observed \u201claw is only ever a piecemeal intervention by the state in the life of society.\u201d [i]  Laws are, ultimately, social norms that are taught, enforced and arbitrated on by the state. The value of these norms is such that they are deemed to be a vital part of a society\u2019s identity and the state is entrusted with their protection. However, this ideal can be difficult to achieve. Debate as to which norms the state should be custodian of is constant. Where there is a disconnect between a law and the daily lives, aspirations and struggles of a society, it becomes unlikely that that law will be complied with. Generally, a state will not be able to give a pronouncement the force of law if it does not reflect the values held by a majority of a society.  Compliance with the law can be even harder to obtain in highly plural societies. Even in plural societies ruled peacefully by an effective central government (such as India), communities\u2019 conceptions of children\u2019s rights may be radically different from those set down in law. The Indian child marriage restraint act has been in force since 1929, but the practice remains endemic in southern India to this day [ii] . Governments can attempt to enforce compliance with a law, through education, incentives or deterrence.  What if the state that is intended to mount the \u201cpiecemeal intervention\u201d of banning the use of child soldiers is weak, corrupt or non-existent? What if a state cannot carry out structured interventions of the type described above? Norms that state that the conscription of children is acceptable- due to tradition or need- will be dominant.  Situations of this type will be the rule rather than the exception in underdeveloped states and states where conflict is so rife that children have become participants in warfare. The ICC has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals with command over military units who use children as combatants [iii] , but how should the concept of a \u201ccommander\u201d be defined in these circumstances?  In order for the juristic principles underlying the authority of the ICC to function properly, it is necessary for there to be a degree of certainty and accessibility underlying laws promulgated by a state. While ignorance of the law is not a defence before the ICC, it impossible to call a system of law fair or just that is not overseen by a stable or accepted government. This is not possible if a state is so corrupt that it does not command the trust of its people; if a state is so poor that it cannot afford to operate an open, reliable and transparent court and advocacy system; if territory with a state\u2019s borders is occupied by an armed aggressor. Western notions of rule-of-law are almost impossible to enforce under such conditions. All of these are scenarios encountered frequently in Africa, and central and southern Asia.  Some regions within developing nations are so isolated from the influence of the state, or so heavily contested in internecine conflicts, that communities living within them cannot be expected to know that the state nominally responsible for them has signed the Convention of the Rights of The Child or the Rome Statute. Nor can the state attempt to inform them of this fact. Laws still exist and are enforced within such communities, but these are not state-made forms of law.  For an individual living within a community of the type described above- an individual living in the DRC, in pre-secession South Sudan [iv] or an ethnic minority enclave on the border of Myanmar [v] - the question is a simple one. Does the most immediate source of authority and protection within his world- his community- condone the role that children play in armed conflict? He should not be made liable for abiding by laws and norms that have sprung up to fill a void created by a weak or corrupt central state. There is little hope that he will ever be able to access the counter-point that state sponsored education and engagement could provide.  Child soldiers and their commanders are simply obeying the strongest, the most effective and the most stable source of law in their immediate environment.  [i] \u201cComparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa\u201d, Werner Menski, Cambridge University Press, 2006  [ii] \u201cState of the World\u2019s Children 2009\u201d, UNICEF, United Nations, 2008  [iii] \u201cElements of Crimes\u201d, International Criminal Court,   [iv] \u201cChild Soldiers: Global Report 2008\u201d, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2007, p315,   [v] \u201cChild Soldiers: Global Report 2008\u201d, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2007, p240,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro03b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The proposition understates the extent to which the needs of child soldiers are catered to by international justice bodies. The Paris Principles [i] , which are used to guide the formation and functions of national human rights organisations, state that  \u201c3.6 Children who are accused of crimes under international law allegedly committed while they were associated with armed forces or armed groups should be considered primarily as victims of offences against international law; not only as perpetrators...  3.7 Wherever possible, alternatives to judicial proceedings must be sought, in line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child and other international standards for juvenile justice.\u201d  Although not strictly binding, an onus is placed on bodies such as the ICC to seek alternatives to the trial process when dealing with children. (The Principles define a child as anyone less than 18 years of age).  Even where children are placed in the role of officers or recruiters, they are unlikely to be tried in the same fashion as an adult.  This leaves only the issue of social exclusion following the process of demobilisation and treatment. Many of the problems of reintegration highlighted by the proposition do not seem to be uniquely linked to ICC prosecutions. Columbian child soldiers are as likely to be perceived as threatening whether or not they have come to the attention of the ICC. The ICC does not create negative stereotypes of former child soldiers.  As noted above, it seems perverse to give military commanders an opportunity to use cultural relativism to excuse their culpability for what would otherwise be a war crime. Ranking officers are much more likely than Yemeni tribesmen or orphaned Sudanese boys to understand the intricacies of such a defence, and much more likely to abuse it. Realistically, the commanders of child solders, and the politicians who sanctioned their use are the only class of individuals pursued by the ICC.  Where the boundaries between community leader, military officer and political leader become blurred, the court will always be able to fall back on its discretion. Practically, however, this mixing of roles is only likely to be observed in marginal communities a few major conflict zones. This does not favour stepping away from established judicial practice in order to create an entirely new form of defence.  [i] \u201cPrinciples and Guidelines On Children Associated With Armed Forces or Armed Groups\u201d, International Workshop on National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro01a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Cultural relativism and adapting to conflict  The issues underlying all debates on child soldiers go to the very heart of intercultural justice, politics and governance. International and supranational legislation notwithstanding, the notion that children should be protected from all forms of violence at any cost is expressly western.  The facts stated in the introduction are not sufficient to support the creation of a defence of cultural relativism to charges of recruiting and using child soldiers. \u201cCultures\u201d are not simply sets of practices defined by history and tradition. They are also methods of living, of survival and of ordering societies that change and develop in response to societies\u2019 environments. Within many communities, children are inducted (or induct themselves) into military organisations as a result of necessity. The traditional providers of physical safety within a society may have been killed or displaced by war. Communities left vulnerable by long running and vaguely defined conflicts may have no other option but to begin arming their children, in order to help them avoid violent exploitation. A great many child soldiers in South Sudan actively sought out units of the rebel army known to accept child recruits [i] . Following the death of parents and the dispersal of extended families, children gravitated towards known sources of safety and strength \u2013 organisations capable of providing protection and independence within nations utterly distorted and ruined by conflict.  Western notions of inviolate childhood, free of worry and violence, are merely a cultural construct. This construct cannot be duplicated in societies beset by forms of privation and conflict that have been alien to western liberal democracies for the last seventy years. Attempting to enforce this construct as law- and as a form of law that can trump domestic legislation- endangers vulnerable communities, inhibits the creation of democratic norms and can even criminalise the children it claims to protect.  [i] \u201cRaised by war: Child Soldiers of the Southern Sudanese Second Civil War\u201d, Christine Emily Ryan, PhD Thesis, University of London, 2009"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro01b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Side proposition are attempting to make an argument in favour of reforming the ICC\u2019s prosecution guidelines, but are doing so in terms of the culturally relative definition of adulthood. In other words, side proposition are trying to discuss war, realpolitik and international justice using the language of social anthropology. This approach is flawed.  Arguments about the appropriate age to allow a child to hunt, to leave school or to marry pale beside the life-and-death significance of participation in warfare. A child does not become an adult by acting like a soldier, and those who recruit children into military organisations do not necessarily view them as adults. Indeed, children are seen as easy targets for recruitment, due to their emotional immaturity, their gullibility and deference to those who wield authority.  Children may join armed groups out of necessity, and in the interests of survival, but this does not mean that those armed groups should accept child volunteers, or should escape criminal liability when they do so. Although the west is now a safe and prosperous place to live, the categories of war crime that the ICC prosecutes were created in response to the depravity and ruthlessness of conflicts that liberal-democracies experienced directly.  The developed, liberal democratic world is not blind to the sense of necessity that drives children to take up arms. However, it understands only too well that child soldiers are unnecessary. Children do not autonomously organise into armed militias \u2013 they are recruited by states and groups with defined political and military objectives. Such groups should be aware that there is no value or necessity underlying the use of children in combat, and should be made legally accountable when they flaunt this norm."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro04b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The ICC is not likely to target children or the leaders of marginalised communities when prosecuting the use of child soldiers. Officials of states parties who play a role in commanding and deploying military units can be held liable for failing to prevent the use of child soldiers at a local level.  If the agony of their circumstances forces a community to recruit ever younger boys into its militia, then officers, ministers or heads of state, along with the commanders of non-state actors, can be brought to trial for allowing children to be used as soldiers. This will be the case whether these individuals do so negligently or by omission. A guilty party need not engage in a positive act.  ICC prosecutors and judges exercise their discretion in order to avoid the types of injustice that the proposition describes. The lack of prosecutions relating to the ad-hoc use of child soldiers by pro-independence groups in South Sudan underlies this fact [i] .  Moreover, the ICC is bound by the principle of complementarity, an obligation to work alongside the domestic courts and legislators of the states that refer potential war crimes to the international community. If a state\u2019s corpus of law allows for a margin of appreciation in judging the actions of isolated and endangered communities, these principles must also be reflect in the investigation and inquiries conduct by the ICC.  Complementarity enables the ICC to function with the flexibility and insight that proposition assume it lacks.  [i] \u201cRaised by war: Child Soldiers of the Southern Sudanese Second Civil War\u201d, Christine Emily Ryan, PhD Thesis, University of London, 2009"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro03a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Removing barriers to demobilisation, disarmament and rehabilitation  It can easily be conceded, without weakening the resolution, that war and combat are horrific, damaging experiences. Over the last seventy years, the international community has attempted to limit the suffering that follows the end of a conflict by giving soldiers and civilians access to medical and psychological care. This is now an accepted part of the practice of post-conflict reconstruction, referred to as Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) [i] .  The effects of chronic war and chronic engagement with war are best addressed by a slow and continuous process of habituation to normal life. Former child soldiers are sent to treatment centres specialising in this type of care in states such as Sierra Leone [ii] .  What is harmful to this process of recovery is the branding of child soldiers as war criminals. The stigma attached to such a conviction would condemn hundreds of former child soldiers to suffering extended beyond the end of armed conflicts.  Sentencing guidelines binding on the ICC state that anyone convicted of war crimes who is younger than eighteen should not be subject to a sentence of life imprisonment. Their treatment, once incarcerated, is required to be oriented toward rehabilitation.  Many child soldiers become officers within the organisations that they join. Alternately, they might find themselves ordered to seek more recruits from their villages and communities. For these children participation in the conflict becomes participation in the crime itself. What began as a choice of necessity during war-time could, under the status quo, damage and stigmatise a child during peace-time [iii] . Even if their sentence emphasises reform and education, a former child soldier is likely to become an uninjured casualty of the war, marked out as complicit in acts of aggression. When labelled as such children will become vulnerable to reprisal attacks and entrenched social exclusion.  Discussing attempts to foster former Colombian child combatants, the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers state that, \u201cThe stigmatization of child soldiers, frequently perceived as violent and threatening, meant that families were reluctant to receive former child soldiers. Those leaving the specialized care centres moved either to youth homes or youth protection facilities for those with special protection problems. While efforts continued to strengthen fostering and family-based care, approximately 60 per cent of those entering the DDR program were in institutional care in 2007.\u201d [iv]  Crucially, fear of being targeted by the ICC may lead former child soldiers to avoid disclosing their status to officials running demobilisation programs. They may be deterred from participating in the DDR process [v] .  Moreover, the authority of the ICC is often subject to criticism on the international stage by politicians and jurists linked to both democratic states [vi] and the non-liberal or authoritarian regimes most likely to become involved in conflicts that breach humanitarian law. It cannot assist the claims of the ICC to be a body that represents universal concepts of compassion and justice if it is seen to target children- often barely in their teens- in the course of prosecuting war crimes.  As the Child Soliders 2008 Global Report notes, \u201cProsecutions should not, by focusing solely on the recruitment and use of child soldiers, exclude other crimes committed against children. Such an approach risks stigmatizing child soldiers and ignores the wider abuses experienced by children in conflict situations. It is on these grounds that some have questioned the exclusive child-soldier focus of the ICC\u2019s charges against Thomas Lubanga. After all, the Union of Congolese Patriots (UPC\/L), the armed group he led, is widely acknowledged to have committed numerous other serious crimes against children, as well as adults.\u201d [vii]  [i] \u201cCase Studies in War to Peace Transition\u201d, Coletta, N., Kostner, M., Widerhofer, I. The World Bank, 1996  [ii] \u201cReturn of Sierra Leone\u2019s Lost Generation\u201d, The Guardian, 02 March 2000,   [iii] \u201cAgony Without End for Liberia\u2019s Child Soldiers\u201d, The Guardian, 12 July 2009,   [iv] \u201cChild Soldiers: Global Report 2008\u201d, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2007, p103,   [v] \u201cChild Soldiers: Global Report 2008\u201d, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2007, p16,   [vi] \u201cAmerica Attacked for ICC Tactics\u201d, The Guardian, 27 August 2002,   [vii] \u201cChild Soldiers: Global Report 2008\u201d, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2007, pp32-33,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro04a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The cultural construction of armed conflict  The jurisdiction of the ICC is primarily exercised according to culturally constructed assumptions about the way war works \u2013 that there will be a clear division between aggressors and defenders, that armies will be organised according to chains of command, the civilians will not be targeted and will be evacuated from conflict zones. But countless conflicts in Africa and central Asia have proven these assumptions to be flawed.  It should not be forgotten that almost all formulations of this motion define cultural relativism only as a defence to the use of child soldiers. It will still be open for ICC prosecutors to prove that the use of child soldiers has been systematic, pernicious and deliberate, rather than the product of uncertainty, necessity and unstable legal norms. Moreover, not all defences are \u201ccomplete\u201d defences; they do not all result in acquittal, and are often used by judges to mitigate the harshness of certain sentences.  It can be argued that it was never intended for the ICC to enforce laws relating to child soldiers against other children or leaders of vulnerable communities who acted under the duress of circumstances. At the very least, those responsible for arming children in these circumstances should face a more lenient sentence than a better-resourced state body that used child soldiers as a matter of policy.  Due to the nature of conflicts in developing nations, where the geographic influence of \u201crecognised\u201d governments is limited, and multiple local law-making bodies may contribute to an armed struggle, it is difficult for the international community to directly oversee combat itself. United Nations troops are often underfunded, unmotivated and poorly trained, being sourced primarily from the same continent as the belligerent parties in a conflict. When peacekeepers are deployed from western nations, their rules of engagement have previously prevented robust protection of civilian populations. Ironically, this is partly the result of concerns that western states might be accused of indulging in neo-colonialism. It is outrageous for the international community to dictate standards of war-time conduct to communities and states unable to enforce them, while withholding the assistance and expertise that might allow them to do so.  Therefore, the ICC, as a specialist legal and investigative body, should be encouraged to use the expertise it has accumulated to distinguish between child military participation driven by a desire to terrorise populations or quickly reinforce armies, and child military participation that has arisen as a survival strategy."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con03b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"As noted above, the definition of adulthood accepted within western liberal democracies is not a cultural absolute. It can be argued that the legal cut-off point- be it sixteen, eighteen or twenty-one years of age- is largely arbitrary. Children who care for disabled parents take on adult responsibilities inconceivable to many undergraduate students. Many developing world cultures would regard the under-emphasis of practical skills and physical training that exists in the education systems of knowledge-based western economies to be tantamount to neglect.  In both war-torn Afghanistan and peaceful Botswana, a boy of fourteen is considered old enough and able enough to hunt; to protect his younger siblings; to marry or to be responsible for a harvest. Why should an Afghani child or his parents be condemned for allowing him to participate in the defence of his community? A family in a similar position in Botswana may never have been confronted with that choice. Although they might find the idea appalling in peace-time, the pressing necessity of war can cause opinions and beliefs to become highly flexible.  This restatement of cultural relativism goes hand in hand with side proposition\u2019s concluding objection. Although a culture can quickly assimilate and normalise necessary practices- such as arming children- it need not think that they are objectively good and valuable. It may be keen to abandon the practice.  A community that responds to an urgent need to arm children may not want to arm children.  Side opposition regard the use of child soldiers as symptomatic of cultural depravity, of a callous attitude to suffering. This approach patronises communities subject to privations and abuses now unknown in the west. It assumes that traditions cannot be overturned and that societies in the developing world will hasten to use their children as cannon-fodder for without devoting any thought or debate to the risks involved."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con01b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The purpose of the resolution is not to eliminate conflict in the developing world. Side proposition are merely seeking to remove the harmful side effects of the way in which the use of child soldiers is currently prosecuted \u2013 the risk of criminalising children and teenagers, the stigma attached to being a child soldier, and the condemnation of communities that rely on child soldiers for protection.  Children are already the victims of atrocities perpetrated against civilians. They already volunteer to engage in military service. Armed groups that target civilian populations have already broken international law and have proven willing to do so repeatedly. Children will always be a target, whether or not they have sought out the means with which to defend themselves.  With the international community unwilling to provide wide-ranging policing and supervision of international legal norms, it is not just to condemn individuals and communities who unwillingly take up arms to try to survive attacks by groups who flagrantly disregard international law.  Peaceful communities forced to adopt abnormal survival strategies in the face of lawless aggression should be given the opportunity to compel the ICC to make situation specific judgments."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con02a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Punishing objectively harmful conduct  Of the tens of thousands of children exposed to armed conflict throughout the world, most are recruited into armed political groups. Quite contrary to the image of child soldiers constructed by the proposition, these youngsters are not de-facto adults, nor are they seeking to defend communities who will be in some way grateful for their contributions and sacrifices. Child soldiers join groups with defined political and military objectives.  Children may volunteer for military units after encountering propaganda. Many children join up to escape social disintegration within their communities. Several female child soldiers have revealed that they joined because to escape domestic violence or forced marriage. Many children who do not volunteer can be forcibly abducted by military organisations. One former child soldier from Congo reported that \u201cthey gave me a uniform and told me that now I was in the army. They said that they would come back and kill my parents if I didn\u2019t do as they said.\u201d [i]  Once inducted into the army, children are vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. They are usually viewed as expendable, employed as minesweepers or spies. The inexperience and gullibility of children is used to convince them that they are immune to bullets, or will be financially rewarded for committing atrocities. Many children are controlled through the use of drugs, to which they inevitably become addicted [ii] .  For every account the proposition can provide of a child who took up arms to defend his family, there are many more children who were coerced or threatened into becoming soldiers. Whatever standard of relativist morality side proposition may choose to employ, actions and abuses of the type described above are object4ively harmful to children.  Moreover, the process of turning a child into a soldier is irreversible and often more brutal and dehumanising than combat itself. Proposition concedes that child soldiers will be in need of care and treatment after demobilising, but they underestimate the difficulty of healing damage this horrific.  The use of child soldiers is an unpardonable crime, which creates suffering of a type universally understood to be unnecessary and destructive. It should not be diluted or justified by relativist arguments.  It would undermine the ICC\u2019s role in promoting universal values if officers and politicians complicit in the abuses described above were allowed to publicly argue cultural relativism as their defence. Moreover, it would give an unacceptable air of legitimacy to warlords and brigands seeking to operate under the pretence of leading legitimate resistance movements  [i] Child Soldiers International,   [ii] \u201cChild Soldiers: Global Report 2008\u201d, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2007, p299,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con03a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Universal rights and collective compromises  Cultural relativism is the philosophical belief that all cultures and cultural beliefs are of equal value and that right and wrong are relative and dependant on cultural contexts. Accordingly, relativists hold that universal human rights cannot exist, as there are no truly universal human values. If rights are relative, the laws that protect them must also be relative.  If we accept proposition\u2019s contention that culturally relative values can evolve in response to conflicts and crises, then any perverse or destructive behaviour given the force of ritual and regularity by a group\u2019s conduct can be taken to be relative. If the group believes that a practice is right, if it ties into that group\u2019s conception of what is just and good or beneficial to their survival, then there can be no counter argument against it \u2013 whether that practice has been continuous for a hundred years or a hundred days.  Systems of law, however, reflect the opinions, practices and values of everyone within a state\u2019s territory, no matter how plural its population may be. Similarly, objections to specific aspects of the universal human rights doctrine are fragmentary, not collective. While a handful of communities in Yemen may object to a ban on the use of child soldiers, many more throughout the world would find this a sensible and morally valuable principle. It is necessary for both the international community and individual nation states to adjust their laws to reconcile the competing demands of plural value systems. Occasionally, a value common among a majority of cultures must overrule the objections of the minority.  It is perverse to give charismatic leaders who convince impoverished communities to send their sons and daughters into combat an opportunity to use cultural relativism to excuse their culpability for what would otherwise be a war crime. Officers, politicians or dissident commanders are much more likely than Yemeni tribesmen or orphaned Sudanese boys to understand the intricacies of such a defence, and much more likely to abuse it. The commanders of child soldiers are the only class of individuals who should fear the ICC."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con01a","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Making children military targets  The purpose of the ban on the use of child soldiers is to prevent the normalisation of such tactics in conflict zones. It is not an inflexible implementation of a lofty European ideal. The ban, and the role of the ICC in enforcing it, is designed to reduce the likelihood that civilians will be deliberately targeted in developing world war zones. Why is this necessary?  If the defence set out in the motion is used to reduce the number of war crimes convictions attendant on the use of child soldiers, not only will numbers of child soldiers rise, but children themselves will become military targets. Communities ravaged and depleted by war, under the status quo, may be seen as minimally threatening. Armies are not likely to target them as strategic objectives if it is thought that they will offer no resistance. However, if there is no condemnation and investigation of the use of child soldiers, they will become a much more common feature of the battlefield. The increasing militarisation of children will make those children who do not wish to participate in armed conflict- children pursuing some alternate survival strategy- automatic targets. All children will be treated as potential soldiers. The communities that children live in will become military targets.  The resolution, although seeking to enable children to protect themselves, will simply make them targets of the massacres, organised displacement and surprise attacks that characterise warfare in Africa and central Asia."}
+{"id":"test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con02b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"It is not sufficient to observe that there exist groups that use brutality to recruit and control child soldiers. As accounts of conflicts in South Sudan and Myanmar show, politically motivated recruitment of children is less common than children volunteering through necessity.  Side opposition should not overlook the fact that there are few constructive alternatives available to children in such situations. Educational institutions are often the first forms of state support to be withdrawn when war breaks out. Many children are orphaned as a result of the indiscriminate targeting of civilians. Taking flight as a refugee may postpone a child\u2019s exposure to conflict, but is rarely useful in escaping it.  Proposition have already established that child soldiers do not originate exclusively within state-based bodies or organised opposition groups seeking control of a state. They are just as likely to be the products of necessity or non-western conceptions of adulthood. The status quo is blind to this distinction, failing to recognise that military involvement is entirely consistent with other norms of adulthood in certain non-western cultures. Further, taking up arms as part of an organised, coherent force is often preferable to remaining a vulnerable, untrained civilian.  Finally, it should be noted that very few opposition-side speakers are likely to argue that individuals, including children, do not have a right to defend themselves against aggression. However, a right to self-defence can be rendered meaningless if weak individuals are not permitted to combine their strength and resources to defend themselves. For ICC prosecutors this would likely be seen as the first step to forming a militia. For a physically weak fourteen year old, it is simply a survival strategy."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro02b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"With the number of child performers on the increase, [1] parents are becoming more aware of what to expect from their child\u2019s agent, and thus less likely to unwittingly allow exploitation. Additionally, laws exist to prevent parents from spending their child\u2019s wages; for example, the \u201cCoogan Law\u201d dictates that parents in California must open a trust account for their child in which 15% of that child\u2019s earnings must be put aside. [2]  [1] Sand, \u2018Child performers working in the entertainment industry around the world\u2019.  [2] Screen Actors Guild, \u2018Coogan Law\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro02a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"performers are at risk of exploitation  Children are generally considered to be too young to make important decisions for themselves, and so decision-making falls to parents, teachers, etc. For child performers, there are additional decision-makers: their agents. Since agents benefit financially from the child\u2019s getting a role or doing well in a sporting event, there is a definite risk of exploitation. Exploitation can also come from parents, as in the famous case of American television child stars Jackie Coogan and Gary Coleman, who both sued their parents for spending the money they had earned as children [1] [2] or of Macaulay Culkin, who blocked his parents from having access to his earnings.  [1] AP, \u2018The Kid\u2019 To Get $126,000 For His Share\u2019  [2] The Deseret News, \u2018Former Child Star Wins $1.3 Million Judgment\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro06a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Just as the state creates laws to protect child performers it could ban child performers  Child performers are currently protected by laws about all sorts of things from the minimum amount of education they may get to their pay and how many hours they can work. Many of these laws would be much more difficult to enforce than a blanket ban. It would be simple to enforce as child performers would in most cases be easy to spot \u2013 as they are performing for the public. The government could then bring charges against those who are employing the child and fine them."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro03b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Children will always feel pressure in certain areas of their lives, whether with exams or school plays. It may be true that pressure is greater for child performers, but children who perform at a professional level are generally more skilled, and so they are often better at dealing with this pressure. At the very least, they gain enough experience at a young age, that they learn the skills needed to succeed, even in high-pressure situations. Given the pressures all children face, [1] surely it is ethical to allow children into a world where they can learn how to deal with these stresses and protect themselves against possible future problems.  [1] Etchingham, \u2018Are we putting our kids under too much pressure?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro05a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Allowing children to perform pushes them to grow up too soon  Child performers are exposed to a much higher level of responsibility than their peers, without the maturity to deal with it. They may be exposed to sex, drugs, or alcohol, in a context too far removed from a normal life that they don\u2019t learn adequate coping mechanisms. It is no surprise that many child performers \u201cburn out\u201d by the time they reach adulthood, often experiencing problems long before, as in the case of actress Drew Barrymore, who entered rehab at the age of 13. [1] Children should not be encouraged to enter into these adult worlds of acting, modeling, dancing, etc. Michael Jackson attributed his obsession with children and childhood as a consequence of having missed out on a childhood himself.  [1] Barrymore, Little Girl Lost"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro01a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Being a performer limits a child\u2019s formal education  Spending so much time either performing or training limits the amount of formal education the child can receive. For example, in the UK and other countries, child performers are only required to be educated for three hours each day. [1]  Additionally, the focus on the specialised skill of the child (e.g., acting, dancing, etc.) may detract from their family\u2019s or their own interest in formal education.  [1] The Children\u2019s Legal Centre, \u2018What are the hours that a child performer may work?\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro01b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"It is entirely possible for child performers to achieve high grades. For example, Jodie Foster graduated magna cum laude from Yale University, despite having been a child star. [1] Child performers who spend a lot of hours on-set will also have access to a certified teacher who acts as their personal tutor during that time. [2]  In addition, as long as the child performer obtains a sufficient understanding of the core academic curriculum, it doesn\u2019t matter if they are more interested in their chosen career area than in formal education, especially if they plan on continuing on that career path into adulthood.  [1] Yale Office of Public Affairs & Communications, \u2018Yale Alumni Go to the Oscars\u2019  [2] On Location Education, \u2018Teacher Requirements\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro05b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Cases like Drew Barrymore\u2019s are rare, and many young performers have happy and successful careers. All young people are likely to be exposed to adult experiences at some point in their childhood, and it should be left to parents and teachers to educate children of the dangers of alcohol, drugs, etc., no matter what activities the child takes part in outside of school or the home. For many of the areas that involve child performers, there are also laws in place to ensure children are not exposed to age-inappropriate situations. For example, in North America and other countries laws exist to ensure children in the entertainment industry are not \u201cput at risk physically (no dangerous stunts),\u201d \u201cexposed to morally compromising situations,\u201d or ever allowed to \u201cbe nude or partially nude,\u201d or \u201cbe engaged in overt sexual acts\u201d. [1]  [1] Moore, \u2018Protecting Child Stars: Laws and Regulations\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro06b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Banning child performers could be successful for professional child performers in regulated industries but it would be much more difficult to prevent child performers on a small scale. It will also be very difficult to get a balance between allowing children to develop in their chosen profession or sport while preventing them from actually engaging in any performance that displays that talent."}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro04b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"The added risk for most child athletes and performers is very low, and there is professional help in place for them to manage it.  Children who compete professionally in sporting events are only exposed to real risk in very rare, extreme situations. Some elements of risk exist in all aspects of life: children who are allowed to play on rollerblades are slightly more at risk of injury than those who are not; children who live in cities are at more risk of traffic accidents than those who live in the countryside, who are at more risk of falling out of trees, etc. Adults and children alike make decisions in which they take risks in the name of the greater benefits. For children who play a sport professionally, the physical training they receive can build strength and muscle and increase fitness levels, which provide the child with improved health and protection from injury in future. If child performers were banned, there would be no way of making sure that any children who still ended up in the business (i.e., illegally) had access to the support staff (e.g., physiotherapists, nutritionists) currently available. [1]  When it comes to the possibility of eating disorders in child performers, professionals also exist for the prevention thereof. For example, in New York the Child Performer Advisory Board to Prevent Eating Disorders (Labor Law Section 154) exists to educate and provide information for child performers and their guardians. [2]  [1] Canadian Athletic Therapists Association, \u2018Athletic Therapy\u2019  [2] New York Department of Labor, \u2018Child Performer Advisory Board\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro03a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"It is unethical to expose children to the pressures of performing  Even experienced adults can find it difficult to deal with stage fright or performance anxiety. Children, more emotionally vulnerable than adults by nature, should not be exposed to this sort of pressure. This is especially true in situations where the child is being paid for their performance, since the added necessity to perform well can lead to even more pressure. Although suicide among children is rare, it is believed often to occur as a result of the child feeling like she is under too much pressure, or failing to meet the expectations of others. [1]  There are also consequences that continue long past the child has stopped performing; former child actors often have the problem as young adults as feeling as having already \u2018peaked\u2019 and find themselves without a sense of drive or ambition or a coherent adult identity, consequentially they often suffer from substance abuse and addiction  [1] Lipsett, \u2018Stress driving pupils to suicide, says union\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro04a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Being a performer can make the child physically vulnerable  Children involved at a professional level in sports are at a higher risk than their peers of physical problems like breaking bones. In some cases, these physical problems can be fatal; e.g., Julissa Gomez, who died from complications of a vaulting injury contracted when she was 15 in warm-ups for a gymnastics competition. [1]  Even in careers like acting and dancing there are risks for child performers. Actors and dancers are usually encouraged to stay thin, often to an unhealthy degree. Because children are particularly vulnerable, they are more susceptible to the perils of over-exercising for athletes and eating disorders for performers. It has been found, for example, that girls who dance in their childhood are more likely than their peers to develop anorexia nervosa in later life. [2] Lena Zavaroni, the childhood winner of \u2018opportunity knocks\u2019 in the 1970\u2019s, struggled with eating disorders for all of her life and died aged 34.  With the damage eating disorders can do to a person\u2019s body, it should be illegal to expose children to such risks.  [1] Hoffman, \u2018Obituaries\u2019  [2] BBC News, \u2018Anorexia linked to child dancers\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con03b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Children might feel as if their rights are being taken away, but there is a reason why children are not given free reign over the way they live their lives. Governments have already stepped in to prevent children from endangering their health by consuming too much junk food, [1] [2] and indeed from working in non-performance fields. So too must they take charge in this issue and act so as to prevent children from becoming susceptible to the emotional and physical risks involved in being a child performer.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Junk food banned in school meals\u2019  [2] Harris, \u2018A Federal Effort to Push Junk Food Out of Schools\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con01b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"In a lot of films, television shows, and stage productions, it is possible to have young adult actors playing child roles. For example, in the popular American television show The O.C., the main characters were played by young adults ranging from 18 to 29 years of age but all portraying teenagers. [1] Sports needn\u2019t suffer either: the minimum age of competition for gymnastics has already been raised, [2] [3] and others can surely follow their example without suffering from it. If professional leagues are not allowed to roster athletes below the age of 18, for example, children will compete in amateur and educational leagues where the pressure and commitment is lower, but where they can still train for the professional arena.  [1] IMDB, \u2018The O.C.\u2019  [2] Hanley, \u2018Gymnastics \u2013 Minimum age will soon rise to 16.\u2019  [3] The Telegraph, London 2012 Olympics: artistic gymnastics guide"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con02a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"If child performers were banned, many children would find a way to perform illegally, now without legal protection.  While being a child performer is legal, these children\u2019s working circumstances are under the protection of the law and monitored by government departments such as the Inland Revenue, Health and Safety, etc. Were child performers to be banned, it is certain that some children would still perform, but would not be thus protected. This has already happened in certain professional sports where athletes can benefit by lying about their age. For example, it is easier for Latin American baseball players to sign with U.S. Major League teams if the teams think they are young. As a result, countless players have lied about their age, including a number of high-profile cases, such as Miguel Tejada who was named Most Valuable Player in 2002. [1] Many of these young players, however, have been less successful. There are too many unfortunate examples of players who came to the United States at a young age and, under the increased pressure, fell victim to serious drug problems, often resulting in overdose and death. [2] [3] A ban would not prevent children from performing; it would actually further expose them to whatever risks may be involved.  [1] Schmidt and Schwartz. \u201cBaseball\u2019s Use of DNA Raises Questions.\u201d  [2] Zirin, \u201cCan\u2019t Knock the Hassle: Chavez Challenges Baseball.\u201d  [3] Helfgott, \u201cThe international game.\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con03a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"The government has no right to prevent children from doing what they enjoy and are good at  Many child performers would undoubtedly protest if their right to perform were taken away from them, and justly so. This can be seen in quotes from the likes of Roddy McDowall, who said in an interview in 1963 that he \u201chad a particularly wonderful time\u201d as a child actor, [1] and would presumably have been quite upset had a ban been enforced in his lifetime. It is beyond the rights of the government to make illegal an opportunity that allows those talented on the stage, in front of a camera, on the pitch, etc. (who might well not be so strong in other, e.g., academic, areas) to make a living from doing what they do best.  Some child performers have also proved to be extremely business savvy \u2013 the \u2018Olsen Twins\u2019 have built a massive industry off of their Disney stardom.  [1] BBC News. \u2018Actor McDowall dies aged 7 0"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con01a","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"Child performers are necessary for roles in some films, television shows, etc., and for the survival of some sports  In some films or television shows, child actors are absolutely necessary in order to realistically portray society and the roles children play. The incredibly popular Harry Potter films, for example, would not have been half as convincing without the large cast of actors under the age of 18 playing the schoolchildren. Child actors are also necessary in the advertising industry, in order to make products appealing to a younger audience. Some sports, too, would be endangered if children were not allowed to compete. Ice skaters and dancers, for example, benefit greatly from training starting at an early age. [1]  [1] Sagolla, \u2018Dance Training for Children and Teens\u2019"}
+{"id":"test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con02b","title":"media modern culture television youth sport house would ban child performers","text":"If child performers were banned, it would be the duty of the government to ensure children were not illegally performing, just as it is currently their duty to protect current child performers. In the United States, for example, Major League Baseball has begun to institute DNA testing for international players, in order to ensure that they are being truthful about their age when they come to America. [1] Banning child performers is possible, and it is the only way to truly protect children\u2019s rights and to prevent them from the inherent physical and emotional risks.  [1] Schmidt and Schwartz. \u201cBaseball\u2019s Use of DNA Raises Questions.\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro02b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"Bilingual education is exactly that \u2013 bilingual. Students do not simply abandon the English language \u2013 they intensively study it. The only bilingual classes are provided in other fields such as math and science - subjects critical for future employment to ensure they do not fall top far behind.  On the contrary, while immersion may teach English better, there is a lot of evidence that it tends to increase drop-out rates substantially, [1] indicating that for a number of students it is in fact less effective since it is hard to learn anything in school if you don\u2019t attend.  Even those who don\u2019t drop out tend to fall substantially behind, hurting their educational efforts, and undermining their position in the workplace. A mathematician or scientist does not need perfect English \u2013 they do need good grades in other courses.  [1] Vaznis, James, \u2018Boston students struggle with English-only rule\u2019, boston.com, 7 April 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro02a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"Bilingual Education is expensive and encourages balkanization  One of the goals of the government in providing education is to prepare students for success in the work place, and therefore the government has an obligation to spend its money in the most efficient way possible to accomplish this.  This is relevant because Bilingual education is expensive, requiring the hiring of bilingual teachers, the organization of bilingual classes, and the acquisition of bilingual curriculum materials. [1]  These costs might be justified if they actually helped students. But the reality is that they do not. For one thing, they allow students to get by without learning English. One of the great obstacles to learning a new language is the fact that parents of students may well speak another language at home. If students suddenly use that language at school as well, they will spend the vast majority of their day speaking a language other than English, with the consequence that they may not pick it up at all, and find themselves at a large disadvantage when they attempt to join the workforce.  As a consequence, it seems likely that the money could be better used subsidizing tutoring for students learning English than running an entirely separate and parallel educational system.  [1] Rossell, Christine, \u2018Does Bilingual Education Work? The Case of Texas\u2019, Texas Public Policy Foundation, September 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro03b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"English-only policies are not about encouraging acceptance of diversity, and to the extent they are about bringing people together it is by forcing immigrants to abandon their culture.  From the very beginning of the English-only movement during the First World War, when anti-German sentiment led to attacks on German-speaking immigrants, the idea of English as a an official language has been brought up to stigmatize immigrants . [1] The very debate over the implementation of the policy would do more to stigmatize immigrants than could be made up for by any benefits it could provide.  It may well be that forcing Immigrants to speak English and work in it would help them to assimilate but so would deporting them across the country where they would be forced to sink or swim. We don\u2019t do that because it would be wrong.  Secondly, all of the government\u2019s benefits are based on the assumption that individuals can learn English quickly if they are forced to do so. But learning languages is a long process, and the government\u2019s policies would leave large numbers of people worse off before they managed to pick up the language, assuming they ever did.  [1] Opposing views, \u2018English-Only Laws Are Offensive to Our Nation\u2019s Cherished Diversity\u2019, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro01a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"The Identity and History of the United States are intrinsically linked to the English Language  From its very founding, English was the common language of the United States, and full participation in the national life was dependent on the ability to speak it. Theodore Roosevelt himself once noted that \"We have one language here, and that is the English language, and we intend to see that the [assimilation] crucible turns our people out as Americans \u201d [1]  Declaring English as the official language will give legal force to this history, and help provide unity to Americans at a time when many come from different backgrounds and hold different political views.  Furthermore, it will help immigrants with the process of assimilation. Rather than simply learning English for pragmatic reasons, the act of learning English will tie immigrants into a political and historical tradition going back to Thomas Jefferson.  [1] Opposing Views, \u2018Linguistic Unity Is Critical in an Increasingly Diverse Society\u2019, 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro01b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"English is the de facto official language of the United States already and that is not under threat at this time. There is no prospect of it being replaced with Swahili and of children three generations in the future being unable to read the declaration of independence.  As a consequence the major impacts of this move will be symbolic. First of all, it will enshrine and endorse the idea that the true Americans were the first Americans, that the English colonists who arrived on the continent speaking the language already were the only real Americans, and that everyone who arrived later is an American by integration.  Not only is this untrue \u2013 the Dutch settled New York [1] \u2013 but it also places a stigma on that integration. By tying American identity to the British colony the United States was rather than the ideals the nation was founded on, the government would adopting an exclusive definition that in some ways goes against those ideals, including for instance, the inclusion in the US constitution that anyone born within the territory of the United States would automatically be a citizen.  [1] New Netherlands Project, \u2018New Amsterdam\u2019,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro04b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"The segregation of students in this case is not a function of their language skills, but of their lack thereof. Simply placing non-English speakers in a normal school will not suddenly make them friends with everyone, especially if they cannot communicate. If there are other speakers of their language, they will likely form a separate social group with those students, speaking their home language among themselves, which will undermine efforts to teach them English. At the same time they will likely do poorly in school as they will struggle to comprehend the content of their classes. [1]  If other ESL students don\u2019t exist, they will likely become socially isolated, with all the negative results this can potentially lead to such as depression or even in extreme cases suicide.  [1] Vaznis, James, \u2018Boston students struggle with English-only rule\u2019, boston.com, 7 April 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro03a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"Avoids self-segregation  In a time when the US has begun to overcome racial segregation, and legal discrimination in other fields, one of the great challenges it faces is self-segregation.  Linguistic diversity worsens these problems because it inevitably leads to self-segregation. All things being equal, and even if they are not, people like to be around people they can communicate with.  This was not a huge problem in years past when most immigrant groups were small enough to be easily swallowed, and too small to maintain their linguistic unity, but the Hispanic population in the United States has grown at such a rate, that it is possible to get by with Spanish in many major US cities. Restaurants, businesses and services all exist which cater to it, and there is an entire industry of Spanish language television available.  This in turn makes the risk of social balkanization much stronger. While a small minority of people may learn new languages because they want to, the vast majority learn them when they have to \u2013 and if individuals can get by without doing so, it\u2019s likely that they will not. Rather than assimilation, you will have a divergence between the linguistic minority and the majority."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro04a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"Bilingual education hurts students  Bilingual education segregates students in its system from those outside it. This limits the opportunities for interaction.  This is harmful in a number of ways. For one thing, it limits their interaction with peers who will speak English. While it\u2019s possible they may practice English with their friends in a bilingual school, it seems unlikely, as it would be easier to talk in the existing language.  Furthermore, it also limits the exposure of English-speaking students to immigrants who don\u2019t speak English, allowing negative stereotypes to arise out of ignorance that then can influence governmental policy through the ballot box.  Finally, this segregation may extend to within bilingual schools themselves, since not everyone seeking bilingual education has the same non-English language. The result might well be that students would group socially into groups based on country of origin, and due to simple demographics this would place the Spanish-speaking students at a significant advantage as there are nearly 30 million of them in the country. This polarization in turn could lead to splits between minority language groups that could reduce their overall social capital."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con03b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"All of those accents are varieties of English. The meaning of English as a unifying force is that across Americans\u2019 differences of religion, politics, history, and yes dialect, at the end of the day they are all brought together by a common language and a common ability to communicate within it."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con01b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"It may well be that some people backing the push to make English the official language have questionable motives, but the movement should be evaluated based on its results.  Right now Hispanics are already stigmatized, whether on one hand as temporary labourers unable to speak English and therefore destined for the worst jobs, or as an invading horde planning to conquer the United States.  For better or worse, the self-segregation of the community reinforces many of these beliefs, while it also prevents their kids from learning English. If this policy helps to break this self-segregation up, and the children of Hispanic Immigrants become as American as the children of German immigrants became in the early 20th century then their opportunities will be greatly increased."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con02a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"It specifically denies a rich cultural heritage which is uniquely American of groups that spoke English but not as a first language  Almost no one in the United States knows English, but then chooses not to use it to make some sort of political statement. The language is far too omnipresent in the economy, culture, and everyday life to make such a choice attractive or even sane.  Nor do people generally choose not to learn English. The advantages and opportunities it opens up, and the stigmas and discrimination facing non-English speakers mean that learning English is one of the first things any immigrant is going to try and do.  In reality therefore we are going to be talking about people who can\u2019t speak English, either because they have not learned it yet, or because they can\u2019t learn it. Perhaps they don\u2019t have the time between working two jobs, or perhaps they find it difficult.  In any case, if this policy is simply symbolic it will stigmatize these people. If it goes further, it will actively make their lives worse, and perhaps make it even harder for them to learn English."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con04a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"The US has a long tradition of multiple languages  There is a long historical tradition in the United States to which different languages contributed. Most Americans do not have ancestors who arrived from England prior to 1776, and even among the colonists before independence there were Frenchman, Dutch, Swedes, Scots and Irish. [1] The languages of these early immigrants remain, for example Cajun, an offshoot of French remains a de facto official language in Louisiana. [2]  The historical importance of Native American languages or of the immigrants who came in and contributed so much is also ignored. All of these groups are stigmatized and their contributions ignored.  The descendants of most of the groups listed above speak English today, so the issue is not an ease of access one. It is however one of historical justice and giving full recognition to the full-range of contributors to American history.  [1] \u2018Ethnic Composition of the Thirteen Colonies, 1750\u2019, teacher\u2019s Brunch,   [2] Melancon, Megan, \u2018Cajun English\u2019, PBS,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con03a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"Even within the United States people speak English differently  Even within the United States people speak many different dialects. From Boston to New York to the rural South, accents and diversity within the English language express the exact same types of historical, cultural, and even political traditions that those pushing English find so horrifying if made in another language.  It would be hard to set a standard for what is English, and ignore the fact that Americans have long used linguistic differences as a sign of identity. It therefore makes no sense to try to paper over these linguistic differences by imposing English as an official language; rather the diversity of languages and dialects should be celebrated."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con01a","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"In the current environment, moves to make English the official language are specifically targeted at Hispanic immigrants  Historically, efforts to declare English the official language tend to come up when certain elements in the American body politic become threatened. It became an issue in the First World War, when resentment rose against German immigrants, and the present movement, though nominally not signalling anyone out, is clearly aimed at Hispanics.  This can be inferred from the fact that they are by far the largest non-English linguistic group in the country, and on occasion such views have been let slip, as the leader of one of the largest lobbying groups for a National Language did.[1]  Even if such legislation is not aimed specifically at Hispanics, everyone will assume that it is, and many Hispanics will nevertheless believe that they are the intended targets.  The practical result of this will be the alienation of the Hispanic population as many Hispanics see themselves under attack, which will cause many Hispanics to concentrate together, undermining many of the arguments for assimilation the government has made.  Furthermore, to the extent it stigmatizes Spanish speakers as the \u2018other\u2019, it may well encourage bullying against Hispanic students, and discrimination against those who can\u2019t speak English, who are a far larger group than those who chose not to speak it.  [1] \u2018English Only Movement FAQ File\u2019, Mass. English Plus,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con04b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"England today owes much to Roman settlers, and for nearly four centuries it was governed by a French speaking nobility \u2013 yet this is not a reason for Britain to have either French or Latin as official languages.  The fact is that we can recognize that all Americans today speak English, while also recognizing that their parents, grandparents, and great-grand-parents may not have. In fact that is exactly what making English the official language will recognize, the role English has played in bringing people together and creating a national identity by making these people Americans."}
+{"id":"test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con02b","title":"culture general education education general house would make english official","text":"This policy does not stigmatize people who cannot speak English. It rather affirms the hard work of those who have. There are numerous stories of how proud immigrants have been to take their citizenship test, and by strengthening the idea of identity it makes it more meaningful.  Secondly, if money is redirected from bilingual education to providing individual tutoring, it may well help individuals who have trouble learning English in a class environment. It has never been suggested that the government has no role to play in helping people learn English."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro02b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"If it is something like a name that can already be considered intellectual property then this broadening is unnecessary, compensation will be made through the courts anyway.  Culture as a whole is something that evolves overtime, it is not something that can be comparable to intellectual property. Culture is not as clear cut and rigid as the cases of intellectual property as it consists of things such as shared values and common knowledge which often has overlaps between different cultures and no true owner. Therefore, cultural appropriation cannot be parallel to stolen intellectual property and they should be handled in different ways.  Reparations for something as arbitrary and subjective as culture is a system very open to exploitation. It may encourage exploitative behaviour with minorities encourages to pursue cases through the courts to gain reparations even when the case is slim. In some instances, designs or ideas may really have been made independently but be pursued due to similarity with a cultural idea."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro02a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Cultural appropriation is parallel to stolen intellectual property and should be treated in the same way.  There are high standards of global intellectual property laws such as copyright and patenting for things such as medicines, and creative designs. However, these laws only apply to a few areas so this proposal would effectively widen its remit by taking intellectual property as a template for what might be considered \u2018cultural property\u2019. Many minority communities, including the Native American Navajo tribe have had their names, designs, and culture stolen or misused and have not received compensation. This highlights the embedded systematic inequalities where justice may not be brought to those of minority cultures. Reparations, monetary or otherwise, should be paid in these cases as other case studies [1].  The closest this has actually come to happening is with the Native American Navajo community. They had their name printed and used on products such as underwear, dresses and hipflasks at the popular retail store Urban Outfitters [2]. There was outrage in the community and a 'cease and desist' notice was filed in court for the products to be recalled. In addition to this the Navajo tribe called for monetary reparations to compensate for the damage done in the name of their community however, this was not granted. As the Navajo name was copyrighted this case was made much simpler before the law \u2013 as we propose cultural property theft should be.  It is important to point out that many other communities which have been exploited previously have not copyrighted their name and so do not have this same opportunity [3]. This is important as with many cases, the outcome may have not resulted in anything further.  The practise of reparations should be used universally as it is disrespectful to misuse the names, symbols and property of other cultures without consent.  In a democracy where everybody is equal before the law, communities and individuals should be able to sue those for not giving recognition, or misusing cultural practises that have historic meaning and importance. Culture is embedded in communities with long standing traditions, theories and practises. This is evident as we do not (yet) have a single global culture, even though one might argue there is one slowly emerging.  [1] Schutte, Shane, \u20186 famous copyright cases\u2019, realbusiness, 11th August 2014,   [2] Siek, Stephanie, \u2018Navajo Nation sues Urban Outfitters for alleged trademark infringement\u2019, CNN, 2nd March 2012,   [3] Johnson, Maisha J., \u2018What is wrong with cultural appropriation; These 9 Answers Reveal Its Harm\u2019, everydayfeminism, 14th June 2015,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro03b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Firstly, communities can be given credit for designs and things of other cultural significance without the use of reparations which are arbitrary and pointless.  Secondly, reparations are also ineffective, it throws a one-off lump sum to the formerly oppressed. They do not benefit the most deprived in society (economically). They are not effective in combatting racism."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro01a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Compensation rights a wrong  Compensation is a basic principle of justice in any legal system. By definition it can be given to those who have had harm to reputation or dignity, emotional distress and loss of opportunities, including potential earnings. It is important to give compensation as it provides something for those who have suffered from disadvantages as a result of someone else\u2019s actions, and it therefore helps to level out the playing field. Cultural appropriation causes clear harms \u2013 lost business, less awareness of that culture, and a feeling of inferiority. Theoretically, compensation is also beneficial as Rawls believes that it achieves 'some of the intent' of the principle of redress. This is in line with an egalitarian point of view [1]. While individual cases of cultural appropriation may not intend to harm they have an externality of harm by damaging the culture and identity as a while. This is in much the same way that those polluting often don\u2019t intend harm, just to make a profit.  [1] Gaus, Gerald F., \u2018Does Compensation Restore Equality\u2019, Compensatory Justice, Vol.33, 1991, pp.45-81,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro01b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Compensation may be fundamental, but only when it is possible to quantify the harm, and decide who the harm was done to. With cultural appropriation both are often muddy. Taking a part of culture may not have a monetary benefit for the one taking that cultural item or a proportional loss for the original culture. If this is the case how is a figure put on compensation? Then who does the compensation go to; split between everyone in that culture? But who and how is it defined who is a part of that group?"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro04b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"The notion of compensation in the case of cultural appropriation is limited. Firstly, culture is subjective and essentially defined to individual interpretation and perception, there are limited definitive lines. As a result of this, compensation would be extremely difficult to both claim and give out every time a cultural appropriation is claimed by an individual or group."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro03a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Compensation is important to give the communities credit they deserve.  Compensation can be used to level out the playing field of inequality to those who have been oppressed. They help to give communities the recognition they deserve and help to reverse intuitionally reinforced negative stereotypes. The reparations can be used to benefit the community; for example, within the community and externally in order to educate people appropriately about the struggles of a repressed community. It would help fund efforts based on the model of the US Governments of Education and State Boards of Education to develop a 'robust curriculum' involving greater accuracy in black history as well as the involvement of African American figures in history on local, national and global scales [1].  This inequality is why the reform has to be state led; it is up to the state to protect minorities. Professor Matthew Rimmer from the Queensland University of Technology believes that ''At an international level, more should be done to implement the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in respect of Indigenous intellectual property''. This was said after Chanel made a A$2,000 boomerang [2] which would seem to be in opposition to the declaration which Australia has endorsed.  [1] Humphries, Arielle, and Stahly-Butts, Marbre, \u2018A Vision for Black Lives\u2019, Centre for Popular Democracy, July 2016,   [2] \u2018Chanel\u2019s $2,000 boomerang sparks complaints and confusion from Indigenous Australians\u2019, ABC News, 17th May 2017,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro04a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Compensation has the potential to reverse damaged caused by Cultural Appropriation.  Compensation is necessary in the case of cultural appropriation as it helps to provide victims with the resources they need or deserve as compensation for exploitative behaviour. Often it can be easily quantified as would be the case with the Navajo Urban Outfitters case. With stronger legislation and rulings on the provision for compensation for cultural appropriation, minority communities would be significantly better off. This would be a major step towards reversing the damage of said appropriation as it would allow the community to develop and gain recognition for traditional designs and ideas.  Compensation can bring back some justice to small, minority communities as they can gain the appropriate recognition they deserve as well as the benefits that come along with it. It was estimated in 2005 that nearly half of the US $1billion market from native American Arts and Crafts come from the sale of counterfeit goods [1]. Compensation would help protect sales from native American businesses as well as their culture.  [1] Padilla, Helen B., \u2018Padilla: Combating fake Indian Arts and Crafts: a proposal for action\u2019, Indian Country Today, 14 October 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con03b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Who gets compensated would have to be clearly defined and yes there would be losers and some perverse outcomes. But what matters is that the system as a whole would be beneficial. While culture is complex any case would only be looking at one isolated aspect of culture; one custom. Defining this one aspect and who it belongs to would not be difficult. Compensation would not usually go to all individuals of a community but to help that community; to their community centres, NGOs etc., or to those individuals who have directly lost income as it would be with intellectual property."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con01b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Whilst globalisation is occurring and creating multibillion dollar industries all over the world, cultures are not fully immersed in each other. Nor should we want them to be as we don\u2019t want a global monoculture. Far from sparking divisions compensation can create harmony as it forces cultures to understand and tolerate each other by learning what is acceptable and what is not. Preventing stealing of culture will encourage greater attribution of where ideas come from preventing smaller cultures from becoming marginalised in a globalised world."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con02a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"Reparations and the use of the term 'cultural appropriation' is a mask for more deep-rooted issues of racism in society.  The use of compensation as a means of redress for cultural appropriation doesn\u2019t tackle the root problems that are expressed. The problems given as examples of cultural appropriation, like a Caucasian person wearing their hair in dreadlocks- a style that has meaning and historic prejudice to the afro-Caribbean community is redirecting attention and division. The individuals wearing their hair in this fashion however are not the problem. Demanding compensation from them 'does not challenge racism in any meaningful way' [1]. Instead targeting and punishing those who actively discriminate against those with the dreadlock style of hair is more effective and encourages equality.  [1] Malik, Kenan, \u2018The Bane of Cultural Appropriation\u2019, AlJazeera, 14th April 2016,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con03a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"No feasible system of which grounds of compensation can occur because of the fluidity of culture and cultural identity  How a person identifies themselves aligns with the culture they are a part of. Szewczak and Snodgrass argue this is as the values of an individual \u201care influenced and modified by membership of other professional, organisational, ethnic, religious, and various other social groups, each of which has its own specialized culture and value set. Thus, individuals vary greatly in the degree in which they espouse, if at all, values by a single cultural group, such as their national culture\u201d [1]. As a result, people can identify with several different cultures often at one time. This creates difficulties in allowing one person to seek compensation from another purely on the basis of identity politics \u2013 individuals at least partially define their own culture and it may only be one among multiple cultures they identify with.  Culture itself has a complex nature; it adapts, borrows and evolves. It also influences lives in different ways and to different extents. No culture is fully homogenous. Because of this, any model for the extent of compensation would almost be impossible. Somebody with a long distant relative of which they haven't met, could potentially gain compensation for something that doesn\u2019t directly affect them. They may even identify with the majority culture that is doing the compensating. Conversely some who identify with the culture being compensated may not be eligible for compensation even if they are directly affected.  [1] Snodgrass, Coral R., & Szweczak, Edward J. \"The Substitutability of Strategic Control Choices: An Empirical Study\". The Journal of Management Studies. Vol. 25. 1990."}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con01a","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"globalisation and multiculturalism.  Cultural appropriation prevents assimilation between members of society and creates further divisions based on arbitrary features of one\u2019s ancestry or appearance. If reparations (through the use of compensation) were to occur in addition to this, it would create a more polarised and divided society as an 'us and them' culture is created.  A consequence of globalisation is the movement of people and the diffusion of knowledge [1]. This happens on a mass scale where it is possible for a person from India to travel across the globe to the United Kingdom (UK) and get there within 24 hours of booking their flight. With this, the spread of technology and knowledge it is inevitable that culture and identity does not remain fixed either. It also means that an increasing amount of people have more than one culture. A direct consequence of increased migration is that migrants are likely to bring with them their cultural customs. An example of this can be seen in the UK. As the UK faced more migrants from the Sub-continent of India, the popularity of different curries increased, and not just among those of Indian decent. In such circumstances cultures begin to merge as the traditional 'Chicken Tikka' recipe was adapted into a localised version called 'Chicken Tikka Masala' and was, in 2001, declared the UK's national dish.  Without globalisation, Britain's \u00a33.6bn Indian restaurant industry would not exist and it would fail to employ approximately 100,000 people [2]. Any reparations would be paltry compared to the jobs that this industry has created over decades.  This is a positive thing; it brings cultures together, encourages understanding, innovation and cooperation. Forcing people to compensate for the appropriation of a culture may mean that there is less social harmony as divisions are forced between cultures. For the following generations of migrants will be forced to choose a culture as cultural appropriation encourages division between the two.  [1] Stief, Colin, \u2018Globalization\u2019, ThoughtCo., 3rd March 2017,   [2] Wintor, Patrick, \u2018Chicken tikka Britain is new Cook recipe\u2019, The Guardian, 19 April 2001,"}
+{"id":"test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con02b","title":"traditions house believes compensation should be paid those who have had their","text":"The use of compensation is effective in combating more 'deep-rooted' issues of racism in society. This is because compensation gives the minority communities the recognition, credit and any financial benefit that comes with this, of which they deserve. Highlighting other cultures and their achievements by preventing cultural appropriation will change attitudes so encouraging equality of treatment."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro02b","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"It is simply not true that people are bothered by their personal information getting out, or at least they are unwilling to do anything about it. In a recent survey 85% of respondents said they were aware that they were being profiled by advertisers as they browse the Internet. [1] They know that this data is what companies use to enable sophisticated advertising directed at them and to determine what the market wants. While some people feel it a bit disconcerting that their computer seems to know what might interest them, as in the case with targeted advertising based on personal search data, many others have found that the targeted advertising has made the seeking out of desired goods and services far easier. Also, a policy of disclosure such as that mandated in the EU might be employed in which services inform users that their data will be collated and give them the option to leave the site before this occurs so as to ensure that individuals really are aware.  [1] Ives, D., \u201cAnonymizer, Inc. Survey Finds Most Consumers Confused About Online Safety Measures\u201d, Anonymizer, 19 October 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro02a","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"Consumers tend to feel alienated by spreading of their personal information for profit  People experiencing the use of their personal details by companies have largely been found to see the process as extremely invasive and unsettling. Many have felt violated by the exploitation of their personal lives to market them products, often from people to whom they never consented to hand over information. This feeling has been demonstrated through significant public outcry and backlash, as well as empirical results showing these attitudes becoming more and more widespread, particularly in the case of online targeted advertising, which is the most well-known use of personal information. The best example of such backlash is the result of Amazon.com\u2019s \u201cdynamic pricing\u201d system, in which the company varied its offerings and pricings to customers based on information gathered about them from prior uses. The result was a severe backlash that cost Amazon business until it ended the policy. [1] This has led to a blunting of the desired outcome of such marketers who experience declines in uptake rather than increased and more efficient reach of marketing. Furthermore, the targeted marketing that arises from these forms of information storage and sale can tend toward stereotypes, using programmes that favour broad brushstrokes in their marketing, resulting in stereotyped services on the basis of apparent race and gender. When this happens it is all the more alienating.  [1] Taylor, C., \u201cPrivate Demands and Demands For Privacy: Dynamic Pricing and the Market for Customer Information\u201d, Duke University, September 2002,  p.1"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro03b","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"Companies have been making great strides in the realm of data protection and will no doubt continue to do so as it is in their interest to keep any information they have to themselves. They have far more resources and much more sophisticated equipment than the hackers, and while there are resourceful individuals out there, the power of the corporate structure allows them to fend off attacks with greater and greater effectiveness. As these security technologies become more advanced people should feel more and more comfortable with companies holding their data."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro01a","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"Collecting and selling personal information is a major violation of privacy  The gathering of personal data that companies undertake is done in a fashion that is fundamentally invasive of individuals\u2019 privacy.  When individuals go online they act as private parties, often enjoying anonymity in their personal activities. Companies, particular online services, collate information and seek to use it to market products and services that are specifically tailored to those individuals. In the context of the internet, this means that individuals\u2019 activities online are in fact susceptible to someone else\u2019s interference and oversight, stealing from them the privacy and security the internet has striven to provide since its inception. At the most basic level, the invasion of privacy that collating and using private data gleaned from customers is unacceptable. [1] There is a very real risk of the information being misused, as the data can be held, and even resold to third parties that the customers never consented to giving their data and might well not want to come into possession of their personal details. This can lead to serious abuses of individuals\u2019 private information by corporations, or indeed other agents that might have less savoury uses for the information, most obviously the more places your personal information is the more likely it is to be lost in a data breach with 267million records exposed in 2012. [2] Even when the information is not exposed it may be used in ways that have a real impact on the individual such as determining credit scores. [3] People as a matter of principle should have control over who gets access to their private information. Giving companies that are driven by profit motive to sell on their customers\u2019 data to anyone that might offer a suitable price stands as an absolute theft of personal information and privacy.  [1] The Canadian Press. \u201cAcademics Want Watchdog to Probe Online Profiling\u201d. CTV News. 28 July 2008.   [2] Risk Based Security, \u201c2012 Sets New Record for Reported Data Breaches\u201d, PR Newswire, 14 February 2013,   [3] Morris, J., and Lacandera, E., \u201cWhy big companies buy, sell your data\u201d, CNN, 23 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro01b","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"Much of the \u201cpersonal\u201d data that is kept, collated, and sold is freely available online already and can be protected in many ways. The programmes that are used to collect information online, where most of this collation takes place, often do not ever gain real access to individuals\u2019 identities, but rather only have access to search details. It is highly unlikely that any of this information could be used to identify actual individuals, and where it can it is safeguarded by laws regarding privacy. Furthermore, the information in question is put into the public sphere by individuals availing of services and may well not be guaranteed any form of special protection. They exist and are revealed in the public sphere, and belong there."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro03a","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"Data breaches can result in huge amounts of personal data falling into unscrupulous hands  The data collected and sold by companies is not safe. Servers with even the most sophisticated security systems are susceptible to hackers and other miscreants seeking to exploit the personal data of unsuspecting customers. Identity theft is a ubiquitous threat in the Information Age, one that increases every year as the arms race between data protection designers and invaders rages on. Data breaches have been rapidly increasing [1] and although the total number declined from 412 million exposed records in 2011 to 267 million in 2012 this has increasingly been due to hacking rather than simple negligence. [2] The result of these breaches is huge costs to individuals who have their identities and also to firms that appear to be unsafe. As individuals see companies as being uncaring of their information they tend to punish them in the market. [3] There is no opt-in because the individual has no means of seeing to whom the data is sold, and how secure their servers might be, putting them doubly at risk. Firms are better off not playing with fire and keeping data that could have huge potential costs to them if it is lost, and individuals are better off not having their information disseminated across cyberspace without any guarantee of its safety.  [1] Federal Trade Commission. \u201cPrivacy online: Fair information practices in the electronic marketplace: A report to Congress. Technical report, Federal Trade Commission\u201d. May 2000.   [2] Risk Based Security, \u201cHistorically, Over 1.2 Billion Records Exposed According to Risk Based Security, Inc.\u201d Risk Based Security, 22 February 2012,   Risk Based Security, \u201c2012 Sets New Record for Reported Data Breaches\u201d, PR Newswire, 14 February 2013,   [3] Acquisti, A. \u201cThe Economics of Personal Data and the Economics of Privacy\u201d. OECD. 2010,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con03b","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"It is not particularly reassuring that it is large organisations and in particular big business that keeps these immense datasets. They have their own agendas for how they use this information and if this is simply for pushing products then many people would want no part of it. Analysis are wary about how big businesses will use big data as there is the concern that it will be manipulated, misread or even just plain wrong. [1] While the information may benefit small businesses it is not these companies that have control of the data; they are reliant on it being shared with them by the already dominant much bigger firms who are likely to choose to do business with other big businesses.  [1] PewInternet, \u201cThe Future of Big Data\u201d, Pew Research Center, 20 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con01b","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"It is difficult to see how this advertising is better for business overall. The consumer still has the same amount of money so will overall still spend the same amount. They may spend it on different things as a result of more targeted advertising, assuming that the consumer is not alienated by the personalised advertising, but is that a benefit? Moreover even if companies are successful in advertising their wares more effectively to their customers, it does not change the fundamental violation of privacy upon which such advertising relies. The norm of selling personal data is hugely dangerous to engender in society, as it produces more and more a sense of entitlement to others\u2019 personal lives."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con02a","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"The sort of information being kept and sold is legitimate for firms to utilize in this fashion  Personal information given to companies is dispersed into the public sphere in a limited fashion. Once placed into the hands of a firm it ceases to be any sort of absolutely protected private right (if it ever was), and is instead now within the sphere of the company with which the individual has opted to interact. It is the natural evolution of how people\u2019s information informs the economic sphere. [1] With regard to selling that information on, it is clearly information the individual is willing to disclose in the realm of commerce so it should make little difference what commercial entity is in possession of the data, especially considering that the information is then only utilized to make their experience online more efficient and valuable. It is also important to consider the exact kinds of information conventionally revealed through the personal data mining efforts of firms. They rarely even access the true identity of the user, but rather make use of second-hand information gathered from search histories, cookies, etc. to generate a consumer profile the firm hopes reflects the preference map of the user. The individual's identity is not revealed in these most frequent cases and the information is usable through the impermeable intermediary of security settings, etc. Thus firms get information about users without ever being able to ascertain the actual identity of those individuals, protecting their individual privacy, if such is a concern. [2] For this reason it cannot be said that there is any true violation of privacy. All of these data-gathering efforts of companies reflect the continuation of firms\u2019 age-old effort to better understand their clients in order to best cater to their desires.  [1] Acquisti, A. \u201cThe Economics of Personal Data and the Economics of Privacy\u201d. OECD. 2010,   [2] Story, L. \u201cAOL Brings Out the Penguins to Explain Ad Targeting\u201d. New York Times. 3 September 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con03a","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"The storing and sale of personal data aids companies by making marketing more efficient and allows niche markets to thrive  Businesses have been able to use consumers\u2019 personal information to produce far better, more efficient, and more targeted advertising. Traditionally advertisement has been used to reach mass markets and has thus been used mostly as a blunt instrument, targeting the largest and wealthiest demographics in order to get the most efficient use of scarce advertising budgets. The focus on large markets has often left smaller, more niche, markets by the wayside. [1] Yet with the advent of the internet, targeted marketing, and data collection services, firms have been able to create whole new markets that cater to less homogenous needs and wants. The result has been a Renaissance of specialty manufacturers and service providers that could never arise if it were not for the collection of personal consumer data. By targeting their advertising, firms have been able to scale back on the broader advertising, making the whole endeavour less costly and more efficient. On the broader level, companies are able to utilize the vast amounts of individual data compiled to allow them to determine broader changes in society\u2019s consumer desires, to establish aggregate trends. [2] E-commerce accounts for more than $300 billion in the US. This information gathering makes all businesses more responsive to consumer demands and to cause them to change their offered services and products far more swiftly, to the benefit of all consumers. Businesses have thus been able to flourish that might once have languished without access to a means of accessing their market or been unable to change with changing tastes. Because of the proliferation of personal information aggregation we can enjoy a far more efficient business world, with lots of producers that can compete with the larger mainstream on a more even footing, and a mainstream that is more able to meet the ever-changing demand structure of consumers.  [1] Columbus Metropolitan Library. \u201cUsing Demographics to Target Your Market\u201d. 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con01a","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"The sale of personal data makes for better advertising that benefits consumers  By targeting demographics and personal profiles by way of acquiring and utilizing personal data, businesses are able to put forward their services in a more targeted fashion in order to reach their target markets and to more effectively understand the broader market more generally. The limited budgets that constrain all companies has traditionally forced producers in the mass market to advertise to broad demographics and majority markets, resulting in a relative dearth of niche markets and breadth of services available in the mass market. Utilizing personal data effectively allows firms to enrich the lives of all consumers by expanding the range of marketable products and the furnishing of services to more eclectic tastes. [1] The vast numbers of websites and services proliferating online makes it much harder for people to find what they are looking for, but more importantly what they are not looking for but would want if they knew it existed. Data-mining allows for the channels of information to flow more effectively to consumers (Columbus, 2012). On the individual level companies are able to create individual profiles from information, so they can target them directly with things that might interest them. This strategy is used on Facebook, for example, users are shown ads that most fit their profiles giving them access to services they might not have ever found without the service.  [1] Deighton, J. and J. Quelch, \u201cEconomic Value of the Advertising-Supported Internet Ecosystem\u201d. IAB Report. 2009,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con02b","title":"privacy house would not allow companies collectsell personal data their","text":"Firms\u2019 data collection serves as a very real threat to individuals\u2019 privacy and identity on the internet. Anonymity is certainly not wholly guaranteed through these tactics, and the information is not entirely safe. When individuals use the internet they often do not pay close attention to what is happening with their personal data. When they do not even know what information they are giving out they cannot meaningfully keep track of their privacy. Many hackers have made use of companies\u2019 data collection efforts to gain access to peoples\u2019 personal information, thus revealing information that individuals clearly never consented to. There must be some boundaries in the physical and digital world that marketers should not cross. Keeping and selling potentially sensitive information of clients certainly falls in this category."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro02b","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"The first firm to shift to the open source approach was Netscape with its Navigator web browser, because it was being outperformed by the closed source Microsoft Internet Explorer; Netscape made the shift out of desperation. This is exactly the same reason why Sun and Real have made their programs open source - Solaris was being squeezed by Windows based server software and RealPlayer by iTunes and Spotify. Similarly, the patents which IBM is sharing and the narrow range of source code that Microsoft is now opening up relate to sectors and product markets where neither firm is dominant and where they hope they can leverage the programming community to boost the quality of the software they are offering. Since Microsoft launched the Open Source Initiative, it has not expanded it in response to other governments threatening to shift to open source software. Therefore, we should not view this initiative as the beginning of a trend."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro02a","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Government contracts can change the software industry for the better.  Even when governments do not ultimately select an open source program, by simply including them in the competitive bidding process, they have been able to radically change the approach that Microsoft and other closed source companies take to producing IT solutions.  Under threat from Linux, Microsoft has launched the Open Source Initiative through which it shares elements of some of its programs\u2019 source code with key partners to enable the development of software for platforms like Windows Mobile [i] . More dramatically, in 2002, Real Networks opened up the source code for its world renowned RealPlayer media and music software package and, in 2005, IBM offered 500 key patents (out of 40,000) to the open source community. Sun Microsystems released its Solaris server operating system to the open source community under the Common Development and Distribution licence in 2005. If you accept that the open source software industry is a positive force, then simply by considering open source software, governments are doing well.  [i] Ed Hansberry. \u201cOpen Source WebOS: A Win For Windows Phone?\u201d Information Week. 12 December 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro03b","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"The network effect is more complex than the argument that, if a government uses a product, then its population will too. Firstly, 90% of desktop PCs use Microsoft products; the cost for companies and citizens to transition from Microsoft to an open source alternative makes it prohibitive in the short term. Secondly, open source software works on the basis of a constant flow of updates and minor changes; this may be suitable for servers (where it has already made most impact) managed by IT professionals, but the average citizen or government worker would require continual training and re-training before they could be trusted to implement and use such updates correctly. Open source software is being jumped on by some governments as a tool to attack Microsoft\u2019s monopoly but, in the end, it will cost them time and money."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro01a","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Open source software is more adaptable to government needs.  Open source software starts from a completely different viewpoint of how products should be created. Rather than resembling a traditional hierarchical organisation (such as an early twentieth century business, an army or a monastic order) where everyone has their own clearly defined role and are told how to proceed by a top-down central authority, open-source software development is more like an open market where everyone is engaged in the same activity but come at it from different directions. [i]  Out of this cacophonous market, a more fluid product emerges. The basic advantage of open source software is that, as users can read, redistribute, and modify the source code for a piece of software, it evolves. This means that users and programmers can improve, adapt and fix the software at a much faster pace than Microsoft or another closed source developer can match. The highly collegiate culture in which contemporary approaches to coding evolved continues to create programmers who are naturally curious about the functions and features of new software. Open source software harnesses the wide range of ideas and methodologies that different coders use to writer software to refine and improve existing programmes. Open source software solicits a wide variety of solutions to particular coding problems; the more solutions that coders generate, the more likely it is that an optimal solution will be discovered.  Not only does the approach described above result in the creation of higher quality programmes, it also allows businesses and individual coders to easily adapt existing programmes to their needs. Monopolistic producers like Microsoft have an incentive to slow the pace of change, whereas the open source community will simply choose the best solution. In this way, open source software is more robust and more responsive to governments\u2019 changing needs than closed source alternatives.  [i] Raymond, Eric. \u201cThe Cathedral and the Bazaar.\u201d Cunningham & Cunningham. 18 February 2010."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro01b","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Open source software is not bug-proof and requires far more updates than the closed source alternatives. In fact, the most successful open source software after the operating system Linux is Apache, an open-source web-server which holds around 65% of the global market, and MySQL, an open-source database [i] . Both pieces of software are far from innovative; they are essentially just stripped-down versions of closed source programs. Real innovation is driven by the profit motive and comes from the knowledge that a firm can capitalize on a discovery, as Google has done with its search algorithm. For this reason, the open source software movement is doomed to producing mediocrity. As governments choose IT systems for five to ten years, they should look to a reliable closed source solution which provides quality rather than buying into a nebulous idea of \u2018moral software\u2019.  [i] \u201cMicrosoft\u2019s IIS web server market share is falling.\u201d Webserver. 3 October 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro03a","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Governments can re-define industry standards by choosing open source software.  Economists use the term \u2018network effect\u2019 to describe the phenomenon whereby, as several people use the same communication platform (be it a specific device, such as a telephone, or a complicated service, such as Facebook), it becomes more valuable for others to use because they can share and collaborate on work with a wider range of individuals.  Network effects explain why Microsoft\u2019s monopoly of around 90% of the desktop market with its Windows and Office software has been so hard to challenge [i] .  Governments are one of the few organisations which can define industry standards because citizens and businesses increasingly have to interact with governments electronically. Brazil\u2019s Digital Inclusion Program, for example, has selected open source software for 58 government units rather than Windows or Microsoft Office [ii] . The result is that businesses and Brazilian citizens can use the same open source software at home, knowing they will be able to interact with their government. As open source software is often either free or cheaper than closed source alternatives, this approach enables local authorities, private businesses and individual citizens to interact more easily with the state, removing many of the obstacles and objections to the wider adoption of information technology.  [i] Lie, Hakon Wium. \u201cMicrosoft\u2019s forgotten monopoly.\u201d CNET News. 19 June 2006.  [ii] Fried, Ina. \u201cBrazil: Digital inclusion, but how?\u201d CNET News. 27 August 2008."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con03b","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"As the demands of government IT departments become more and more complex, software developers are forced to become increasingly specialized. Yet big firms like Microsoft often lack specialist depth and an understanding of niche markets (such as the market for specialist brail screen readers, which blind individuals use to interact with computers). In many instances, governments\u2019 needs will be better met by the open source market, where innovation and flexibility are built in.  One area where is the open source community\u2019s ability to innovate is particularly relevant to governments is language; Microsoft only supports 33 languages in Windows XP and around 20 in Office XP, as they do not have the economic incentive to provide versions for other languages and dialects. Yet governments often need to provide access to information in dozens of languages and dialects (particularly in countries like Spain with regional languages like Catalan and Basque, or India with its 18 official languages and 1000 dialects). Open source software can easily be adapted to those languages. For instance, OpenOffice has been adapted into 75 languages including Slovenian, Icelandic, Lao, Latvian, Welsh, Yiddish, Basque and Galician, and Indian languages such as Gujarati, Devanagari, Kannada and Malayalam. By using the open-source model of sharing the workload between many users, the Hungarian Foundation for Free Software was able to translate OpenOffice in three days with the help of just over a hundred programmers.  By providing software specialized for the local market, government can encourage greater IT usage by citizens, thereby increasing the skill level of the workforce and multiplying the cost savings made by shifting government services online."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con01b","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"While open source software is not always free, it tends to be significantly cheaper than closed source alternatives. For instance, the Brazilian government\u2019s decision to adopt open source software for its housing department in 2005 has generated savings of $120m a year. [i]  Given that, the United States government alone spends $80 billion a year on information technology, the potential for total cost savings is enormous. [ii] The money saved could be used to fund more important government expenditure such as healthcare or education \u2013 the very activities that, it was claimed, could be delivered more efficiently and cheaply following widespread adoption of IT systems. Furthermore, simply by discussing adopting open source software, Microsoft has been forced to reduce its prices; it cut its prices by $35m to match Linux\u2019s offering to the city of Munich and, when Brazil began discussing its future software plans, Microsoft was forced to offer to release a cheaper version of its new operating system, Windows Vista. [iii] Ultimately, this not only helps governments, but also helps Microsoft, as many developing nations currently rely on pirated copies of Microsoft software which undermines attempts to stop copyright fraud.  [i] Kingstone, Steve, \u2018Brazil adopts open-source software\u2019, BBC News, 2\/05\/2005.  [ii] \u2018Using Technology to Drive Productivity Gains\u2019, Performance.gov, accessed 25\/07\/2013  [iii] Bailey, Dave. \u201cMicrosoft faces value challenge.\u201d Computing. 18\/06\/2003."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con02a","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Open source software undermines national security.  Even if closed source software firms are ultimately answerable to their shareholders, their shareholders want them to produce software which meets the needs of their customers so that they can sell their products. That is why Microsoft has offered a cheap version of Windows Vista to developing nations, and has been willing to cut the price of its software in negotiations with governments around the world.  More worrying than the burden that closed source software places on a government\u2019s coffers is the threat that open source software presents to a state\u2019s security.  By definition, the code for open source software is freely available. However, the continual attempts to hack into government computer systems demonstrate that many of the same hackers are now moving beyond mere targets of opportunity. Hackers could well take advantage of the increasing ubiquity of open source code to attack national computer systems.  The additional security that open source software claims to benefit from is an illusion. Rather, it is the lack of ubiquitous open source platforms that has kept OSs such as Linux and BSD safe from attack. The possibility that an might yield some form of a reward is reduced when a hacker is presented with fewer viable targets.  Although open source code may give ethical and honest coders more opportunities to spot the flaws in programmes, it also incentivises hackers to invest their efforts in spotting such flaws first."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con03a","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Closed source software is better at meeting consumer needs.  Closed source software companies are more than capable of segmenting their products to reach each part of the market, as Microsoft has shown by producing its new Windows 7 operating system in a record six different versions.  Microsoft\u2019s monopoly of desktop computers ensures that if a programmer produces a niche software package or software translation for a specialized purpose, that programmer knows that potential clients will almost certainly be able to run the program if it is designed for Windows. If this monopoly is broken up and governments start to push Linux or other open source alternatives, the programmer will either have to develop for two or more platforms, thereby increasing the cost of the final product, or they will have to gamble on a single platform; both options would reduce the likelihood of the niche solution reaching the clients that need it.  While open source software does allow anyone to spot a potential market and customize software to sell to that market, that access is also its great undoing. The type of accessibility that many open source products pride themselves on providing leaves projects open to abuse, either by well-meaning amateurs or intentional wreckers. Constant self-policing by the open source community is required, in order to guarantee the stability of the software it creates. An analogy can be drawn with Wikipedia, where the freedom of the mob led to defamatory statements being written about the former editor of USA Today [i] . Governments should be wary of relying on an anarchic, self-organising community to serve their IT needs, no matter how smart and well intentioned the members of that community may be.  [i] Seigenthaler, John. .\u201dA false Wikipedia \u201cbiography\u201d.\u201d USA Today. 29 November 2005"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con01a","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"Open source software is more expensive for governments in the long run.  Open source software is often confused with free software; in fact, it is usually provided at some cost to the user. More importantly, if a Microsoft product fails, a government IT department knows that it can rely on a patch or technical support. Whereas, with open source software, they are left waiting on a community to get round to tackling the problem. This has meant that governments which choose open source software have had to pay for expensive support packages, which makes the total cost of the IT solution similar to that of the closed source software. This has been to the advantage of major consultancy firms, which are often chosen to put together IT solutions and who can make more money from pushing expensive support contracts than on upfront costs for software.  In the rush to find the software with the cheapest sticker price, there is a risk that governments will end up paying more overall for open software that lacks the accessibility and features of the closed source alternatives."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con02b","title":"digital freedoms intellectual property house believes governments should","text":"This is a matter of national security and sovereignty, as well as one of cost effectiveness. Governments around the world are increasingly shifting their operations online, which has created a vast number of digital tax returns, criminal records, DNA databases and so on. At present, access to, and use of, this information is dependent on private companies which design software to benefit their shareholders.  Open source software hands control of the software needed to access that data to the government and the nation itself, and gives it the ability to shape the data and software based on its own interests.  Hackers have often attacked Microsoft products because of the ubiquity of its closed source software. Hack and malware attacks are ultimately speculative ventures. They target systems that have not received essential security software updates; systems that are operated by naive and inexperienced users; or delicate specialist systems that can be disrupted by a high volume of legitimate, non-aggressive commands and interactions. Such opportunistic attacks are more likely to succeed if hackers are able to direct their efforts toward uncovering the flaws in a single operating system \u2013 such as Windows.  In the past, attacks have focussed on consumers and small businesses. By moving away from closed source products, governments can decrease the likelihood that crucial government data will be compromised by a hacker or a virus attack."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro02b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"There is little evidence that cutting off the internet or mobile phone networks would be effective. Riots occurred before mobile phones and the internet were invented and spread just as worryingly. Cutting off access would be an inconvenience but little more than that. Blaming the technology is not helpful to finding the real solutions to preventing rioting which is engaging with the underlying problems. [1]  [1] Metcalf, J., and Taylor, M., \u201cTechnology has always been blamed in times of unrest\u201d, guardian.co.uk, 7 December 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro02a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Non violent methods of disrupting riots must be tried before using force  When riots are on-going then the police needs to act but the safety of everyone involved should be considered to be paramount. If a riot will not disperse peacefully then the police often find they need to use batons, water cannon, or even in extremis tear gas or rubber bullets. It is the police\u2019s duty to bring back public order by stopping riots through these methods. However this should not be at the expense of a much more preventative approach that shutting down social media networks would allow. If during instances of rioting the police are able to prevent those rioters from encouraging their friends to join them so expanding the riots then this is the right course of action to take. Rioters used social media like activists, to outmanoeuvre the police targeting areas where there was little police presence. Cutting off their means of communication would make this much harder and less effective. [1] This has been used effectively in the past; the San Francisco BART, shut down mobile phones on its network to prevent protests which it feared could lead to clashes with commuters, it may well have been the reason why there were no such protests, but it did spark outrage over violations of freedom of speech. [2]  [1] O\u2019Rourke, Simon, \u201cEmpowering protest through social media\u201d, Edith Cowan University Research Online, 2011,  P.51  [2] Cabanatuan, M., \u201cBART admits halting cell service to stop protests\u201d, SFGate,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro03b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Preventing word from getting out through social media and stopping those who inevitably try to take advantage of the rioting to ferment violence elsewhere is not something the police should be doing. In a free country anyone should be allowed to report on what they are doing and on riots that are occurring. Moreover a shutdown would be ineffective at preventing the news getting out as the traditional media would still be broadcasting. In 270 interviews done by researchers into the riots more than 100 people said they heard about the riots through TV news, more than through social media. [1]  [1] Adegoke, Y., and Ball, J., \u201cTwitter? Facebook? Rioters saw it on TV\u201d, guardian.co.uk, 7 December 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro01a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Free speech is not useful in this context, as riot is never legitimate in a free society  Riots should not be tolerated in a free society as there are already legal and peaceful methods of dissenting such as through demonstrations, petitions, and contacting your representative in Parliament. It demonstrates a fundamental unwillingness to engage with not only the apparatus of the state, but society more generally. Rioters have no regard for the public, and the violence and damage they cause harms everyone. Riots tend to do little to actually challenge the state, but rather they tend to harm the most disadvantaged, those who happen to be in the vicinity of the mobs. The freedom of speech social media provides to its users is being fundamentally misused in the context of riots. [1] When speech is used to organize violence, it must be curtailed for the sake of society as individuals security and safety is more important that freedom of speech that is briefly curtailed. Violence damages long after the event whereas those who have their freedom of speech curtailed for a few hours can swiftly voice their opinions once the riot has ended and the block lifted.  [1] Thomson, A. and Hutton, R., \u201cUK May Block Twitter, Blackberry Messaging Services in Future Riots\u201d. Bloomberg. 11 August 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro01b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Of course we do not want freedom of speech to be misused to incite and organise rioting and violence but that does not mean that it is always illegitimate. Riots may sometimes be the natural outgrowth of bad policy and a government that has been unwilling to listen to peaceful forms of protest. Disenfranchised groups may be forced in extremity to turn to these sorts of activities and the state should take heed when they occur instead of seeking to wield its power over the internet and mobile phones to crush dissent. This is what happened in the revolutions in the Arab world. When a riot does have a substantive cause then it is essential that social media is accessible as it is the way for the rioters to get their side of the story across."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro04b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Rioters will always find tools by which to organize. The internet is a remarkably fecund environment, one in which solutions to problems are quickly found. If the government were to block Twitter, enterprising demonstrators would quickly find an alternative. The violence will still escalate, and blocking out a website will fail to accomplish anything other than alienate Twitter users from the state and anger at its impositions."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro03a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Would stop riots from spreading  The police must try to stop riots from spreading and stop copycat rioting elsewhere. Knowledge of rioting happening elsewhere is often the Oxygen of riots; the riots in Manchester and elsewhere outside of London in 2011 were mostly as a result of media exposure. According to Greater Manchester Police chief Peter Fahy \"A certain group of people saw what was happening in London and decided they seemed to be getting away with it. We knew what was absolutely critical was that there needed to be control of London. Because that was just creating more and more copycat violence up here.\" [1] Cutting off social media would have helped prevent the riots from spreading so ensuring that they remain small and a localised problem.  [1] Pilkington, D., \u201cRioting in London sparked 'copycat' behaviour\u201d, The Independent, 14 November 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro04a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Social networks serve as a powerful signalling device for the expansion of violent behaviour  By using Twitter to signal the start of riots it attracts people to join the mob. People in riots generally look to those around them in order to see what is considered acceptable behaviour. As boundaries are crossed, such as the change from indiscriminate vandalism to looting, and reported on Twitter, the same behaviour echoes elsewhere. The lens through which rioters determine acceptable behaviour is expanded, so the chance of behaviours like looting rippling across the various mob groups within a locale increases. One escalation of violence becomes multiple escalations. Twitter is thus a serious danger to society during periods of social unrest and rioting, because it acts as a catalyst for further mayhem. By blocking Twitter governments are able to manage flashpoints and prevent them from expanding violence to other locations. This makes riot situations both less likely to escalate, and easier to break up."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con03b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Private companies have no right to do business when that business is facilitating violence even if that facilitating is unintentional. Sometimes brief impositions are necessary to secure public order. In the course of a riot Twitter can be blocked temporarily to have a meaningful effect on its coordination, extent, and level of violence. This however need not cause problems with those uninvolved not receiving prior warnings as the police could do this before shutting down the network in the local area. And of course when the riot is over the service can return as normal. Ultimately the disruption is very brief, and not likely to ruffle too many feathers overmuch."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con01b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Internet users rely on high visibility for their comments to be significant. When Twitter is shut down, or its replacement, the new sites that pop up must start again in building numbers. [1] Without sufficient numbers on the network they will be able to build up momentum for riots online. The result is a significant blunting of the network\u2019s ability to develop or act in a riot scenario; a site is not useful for directing riots if most of those who would riot or are rioting are not on that network.  [1] Berger, J.M., \u201c#unfollow\u201d, Foreign policy, 20 February 2013."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con02a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Blocking social networks denies people the ability to mobilize on genuine social issues  The state may not be the best placed to gauge the legitimacy of riots. Oftentimes riots are the result of massive social pressures, like poverty or limited integration of immigrant communities. When these issues are not properly addressed, or outright ignored by the ruling elites, they boil over. Positive things can come from riots. They can put the issues on the table and bring them screaming into the public consciousness. This is the difference between the Arab Spring that was considered legitimate and the London riots that were not, apart from the initial peaceful protests the riots did not have an agenda to create change. [1] The government suppressing legitimate demonstrations, whether they do it with physical force or internet repression, ultimately serves only to push away the problem, to continue to ignore it. [2] Blocking social networks therefore only seeks to muzzle the expression of outrage that is sometimes entirely justified. The media attention and organizing power of social networks serves to get people engaged, motivated, and visible. The government should not seek to stop that. They should seek to prevent protest and demonstration from spilling into violence. Blocking access to social networks will not aid in that endeavour.  [1] Stylianou, A., \u201cCyber Regulation and the Riots\u201d, Legal matters, Autumn 2011.   [2] Dugan, L. \u201cBlocking Twitter During Riots a Bad Idea, Study Proves\u201d. Media Bistro. 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con05a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"It is better to monitor riots through the social media rioters are using  It is wrong to suggest that social networks only provide advantages to the rioters in a riot. Many of the networks that can be used are open to the public and even where they are not as with blackberry messenger the police and intelligence services can likely gain access. This means that the police can also benefit from rioters use of social networks. Allowing the rioters to communicate can help the police to track what the rioters are doing and potentially to intercept any plans before they can be put into action. The same logic is used with websites that promote extremist ideologies; it is often better to monitor them for the intelligence they provide. The police already monitor protest groups in this way during demonstrations and even use it to help police impromptu raves so will surely apply it to riots. [1] Yet the social media is useful in other ways, particularly after the rioting it can be used to work out who was involved and to provide evidence against them so making the police much more efficient at catching and charging rioters.  [1] Rawlinson, K., \u201cActivists warned to watch what they say as social media monitoring becomes 'next big thing in law enforcement\u201d, The Independent, 1 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con04a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"The state can use blocking Twitter and its ilk as precedent to censor the internet in the \u201cpublic interest\u201d  The state always likes to expand its powers over speech, particularly when that speech is damaging to the government\u2019s credibility. The freedom of speech is a critical right in all free societies precisely because it is the ultimate check ordinary citizens have to challenge the powers that be, to express dissent, and to organize with like-minded people dissatisfied with the way government is running. The internet has been the most powerful and valuable tool in the expansion of individuals\u2019 power of their governments. [1] The state quakes at the raw people power services like Twitter provides. It is the last frontier largely free of the state\u2019s power, and the state has sought to expand its influence. By blocking Twitter the government would be able to get its first foothold in blocking free speech online. [2] The power of that beachhead would serve to give it further credibility in censoring other services online in the public interest. It is much better that the government be kept entirely out of these services, than let them begin the slow creep of intervention that would be a serious threat to the freedom of individuals on the internet.  [1] Anti-Defamation League. \u201cCombating Extremism in Cyberspace\u201d. 2000.   [2] Temperton, J. \u201cBlocking Facebook and Twitter During Riots Threatens Freedom\u201d. Computer Active. 15 August 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con03a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Police should not block the communications and freedom of expression of law-abiding citizens  The blocking of social networks, of the internet, or of mobile phone networks in times of riot would be an illegitimate curtailment of a private company\u2019s right to do business and serve its customers. Social networks are business and have many users. Even more important is the impact on everyone who is not associated with the rioting. When these actions are taken it harms everyone, perhaps even millions of people at a given time. [1] The action taken by the state to seek to prevent the spreading of the riots is not only ineffective it is also a massive imposition on the rights of the citizens of the polity. Their freedom of speech is curtailed, business is harmed, and the riots continue. Studies of the use of Twitter during the riots in London showed that during rioting it was mostly used to react to the riots to send warnings to avoid trouble rather than incite violence. [2] Blocking access or cutting off communications would therefore mean putting at risk those people who otherwise would have been warned not to go near areas with rioting.  [1] Temperton, J. \u201cBlocking Facebook and Twitter During Riots Threatens Freedom\u201d. Computer Active. 15 August 2011.   [2] Ball, J., and Lewis, P., \u201cRiots database of 2.5m tweets reveals complex picture of interaction\u201d, The Guardian, 24 August 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con05b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Monitoring a riot does not prevent the damage, destruction, and potentially loss of human riot that the riot causes. Rather than taking a reactive passive approach the police have a duty to try and save lives by making use of every tool they have to limit the size and extent of the rioting."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con01a","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Blocking social networks will not work  How are the police to block social networks when riots are ongoing? The idea that blocking an individual network like Twitter would stop online networking and reporting during riots is laughable and misunderstands the rapidity with which the internet community adapts to changed circumstances and attempts at censorship. Blocking Twitter might work once, but never again. This is why there have been suggestions that the police would go further and either cut off the internet or phone networks as they would effectively need to impose a communications blackout in order for it to be successful, much as the Chinese does in Tibet when there is unrest. [1] Even then the action may not work, rioters will likely simply post pictures and encouragement for the next night\u2019s rioting once the internet and mobile connections are restored as governments would have to do if they did not want to affect the law abiding majority during the day.  [1] Branigan, T., \u201cChina cut off internet in area of Tibetan unrest\u201d, The Guardian, 3 February 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con04b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"The state curtails all kinds of speech when it is genuinely in the public interest. Blocking Twitter and other social networks during times of riot is a very particular case of intervention, one with specific manifest benefits for society. The internet is indeed a fantastic tool for social organization and dissent, but it cannot be abused at the expense of the public."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con02b","title":"access information house would block access social messaging networks","text":"Even if their message is worth being spread, rioting and violence is not the way to do it. Using the tactic of riot to further an aim only serves to alienate the public which is brutalized by the violence in the streets. In effect when a protest turns into a riot it delegitimises itself and tarnishes its message. Blocking social networks will not occur when those protests are seeking to spread their message relatively peacefully but will only happen when they have already turned to violence when it becomes a useful tool in the arsenal of the state to forestall the worst violence by denying its ability to be spread rapidly through the internet."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro02b","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"As in the offline world, free speech isn\u2019t unlimited  Even in free societies, free speech isn\u2019t always free. Free speech can be demeaning and hurtful to certain people or can even incite hatred and violence. [1] The first reason is why, under internet libel law, Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are asked to remove defamatory material and blogs take to moderating their comments more, [2] and the second is why Germany and France have outlawed Holocaust denial and Nazism.  As in the previous arguments, accountable governments are attempting to strike a balance between free speech and where this can harm others. [3] A carefully struck balance between rights in the offline world shouldn\u2019t have to be abolished, just because we\u2019re now in the online world. [4]  [1] Waldron, \u2018The harm of hate Speech\u2019, 2012  [2] Alibhai-Brown, \u2018Freedom of speech can\u2019t be unlimited\u2019, 2009.  [3] Minister: The UK \u201cemphatically\u201d supports free speech online but there are limits, 2012  [4] Schellekens, \u201cWhat holds off-line, also holds on-line?\u201d, 2006"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro02a","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Internet regjulation is a euphemism for censorship  Governments are trying to control what citizens can and can\u2019t say online and what they can and can\u2019t access. This can vary from France and Germany requiring Google to suppress Nazism in search results [1] to the Great Firewall of China, where the Chinese government almost fully controls what\u2019s said and seen on the internet and has an army of censors. [2]  This type of internet censorship is bad because citizens should have freedom of speech and uninhibited access to information, [3] a right so fundamental that we have enshrined it in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [4] and reaffirmed by the participants of the World Summit on the Information Society in 2003. [5]  [1] Zittrain and Edelman, Localized Google search result exclusions, 2005  [2] Internet censorship in China, 2010  [3] Free Speech Debate, 2012  [4] article 19, Universal Declaration of Human Rights  [5] Declaration of Principles, article 4, 2003"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro03b","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"With the government as final decision-maker, at least the citizens and consumers have some say  Regulatory capture does sometimes happen and when it does, it\u2019s bad. But the risk of regulatory capture isn\u2019t a sufficient argument to keep the government away from regulating the internet, because governments can also protect citizens and consumers from big companies.  An example is the net neutrality debate. Content providers could have started paying Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to have their websites load faster than any other website (paid prioritization). Entertainment companies that also provide internet are currently being investigated for not allowing their competitors in the entertainment segment access to their network as internet provider. [1] This threatens the freedom of choice of the consumer, which is why governments have stepped in to ensure that companies aren\u2019t allowed favour some websites. [2] If the government wouldn\u2019t have been involved in regulating the internet, it couldn\u2019t have stood up for consumers\u2019 and citizens\u2019 rights like this.  [1] DOJ Realizes That Comcast & Time Warner Are Trying To Prop Up Cable By Holding Back Hulu & Netflix, 2012  [2] Voskamp, \u2018GOP Attempt to Overturn FCC\u2019s Net Neutrality Rules Fails in Senate\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro01a","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Regulating the Internet is a means for governments to spy on their citizens  Governments around the world are tracking their citizens\u2019 activities online. [1] They can use all sorts of techniques, like automated data-mining (i.e. via trawling your Facebook and Twitter accounts) and deep packet inspection of each electronic message sent (i.e. intercepting and reading your email). All these methods are violations of important principles.  The automated data-mining violates the principle that people shouldn\u2019t be investigated by their governments unless there is warrant for it (so there is reasonable suspicion that they have been involved in a crime). Also, data mining creates many false positives, leading to citizens being thoroughly investigated without probable cause. [2] Deep packet inspection violates people\u2019s fundamental right to secrecy of correspondence, which is a violation of privacy.  The problem with these government policies is that they\u2019re hard to control \u2013 even in democracies: much of the spying is done by intelligence agencies, which are often able to evade democratic control on account of the need for secrecy rather than transparency. [3]  [1] Reporters Without Borders, Enemies of the internet, 2012 and Kingsley, Britain won\u2019t be the only country snooping on people\u2019s internet use, 2012  [2] US Researchers Decide Spying On Citizens Is Bad, 2008  [3] Electronic Frontier Foundation, \u2018NSA Spying\u2019."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro01b","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"\u2018Spying on the internet\u2019 is nothing different from a normal police investigation  Obviously, governments also use the internet and social media to investigate suspects. But when they\u2019re doing this, they\u2019re only using information that\u2019s publicly available online. The technical term for this is \u2018OSINT\u2019, which stands for \u2018Open Source Intelligence\u2019, which means that it\u2019s the kind of information that anyone with access to Google and a lot of spare time could have found. [1]  When police investigations turn up more severe suspicions, then more extreme methods can be used to obtain evidence if needed, sometimes even actively asking hackers for help. [2]  But methods like these are not necessarily bad: their disadvantages in use have to be weighed against their significant benefits. And governments are doing this, as is for example shown in Canada\u2019s \u2018Technical Assistance for Law Enforcement in the 21st Century Act\u2019: governments try to extend the principles of due process and probable cause to the internet, but at the same time they need to be able to defend their citizens from harm. [3]  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Open source intelligence\u2019, 2012.  [2] \u2018NSA chief seeks help from hackers\u2019, 2012  [3] \u2018Technical Assistance for Law Enforcement in the 21st Century Act\u2019, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro03a","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Internet regulation is an attempt by big interest groups to regulate the internet in their favour  Large companies have an active interest in shaping the structure of the internet. One example of this is the Stop Online Piracy-Act (SOPA), [1] wherein U.S.-based music and movie companies proposed that they themselves would be able to police copyright infringements against websites that are hosted outside of the United States. [2]  The phenomenon whereby companies succeed in shaping government policies according to their own wishes is called \u2018regulatory capture\u2019. Another example from the telecommunications industry is the lobby effort by several large corporations, who have succeeded in eroding consumer protection in their favour. [3] If the government wouldn\u2019t have been involved in regulating the internet in the first place, big companies wouldn\u2019t have had any incentive to attempt regulatory capture.  [1] 112th Congress, \u2018H.R.3261 \u2013 Stop Online Piracy Act\u2019  [2] Post, \u2018SOPA and the Future of Internet Governance\u2019, 2012  [3] Kushnick, \u2018ALEC, Tech and the Telecom Wars: Killing America's Telecom Utilities\u2019, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con03b","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Government shouldn\u2019t interfere with the internet economy  It almost never ends well when governments interfere with the internet economy. The graduated response policy against the unauthorized downloading of copyrighted content is one example: it violates the same principles as a filter against child sex abuse material, but it also doesn\u2019t succeed in its\u2019 goal of helping content businesses innovate their business models, which is why France is considering discontinuing it. [1] Also, other businesses are slowly replacing the old fashioned music-industry, showing that companies on the internet are fully able to survive and thrive by offering copyrighted content online. [2]  When governments do become active in the internet economy, they\u2019re likely to run very high risks. IT projects are very likely to fail, run over budget and time, [3] especially when it concerns governments. [4] This means that governments shouldn\u2019t be \u2018going digital\u2019 anytime soon, as the data governments handle is too sensitive. The case of digital signatures is a good example: when the provider of digital signatures for tax and business purposes, DigiNotar, was hacked, it not only comprised the security of Dutch-Iranian citizens, [5] but also hampered government communications. [6]  [1] \u2018French anti-p2p agency Hadopi likely to get shut down\u2019. 2012.  [2] Knopper, \u2018The New Economics of the Music Industry\u2019. 2011.  [3] Budzier and Flyvbjerg, \u2018Why your IT project may be riskier than you think\u2019. 2011.  [4] \u2018Government IT Projects: How often is succes even an option?\u2019. 2011.  [5] \u2018Fake DigiNotar web certificate risk to Iranians\u2019, 2011.  [6] \u2018Dutch government unprepared for SSL hack, report says\u2019, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con01b","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Internet regulation isn\u2019t an effective and legitimate means to create a safe internet  Setting up CERTs aren\u2019t an effective means to create a safer internet, because most of the threats are a result of \u2018social engineering\u2019, which means that hackers use social cues to con people into believing frauds. People usually fall for this because of their own gullibility and na\u00efvet\u00e9, like in Nigerian email scams. [1] The most effective means of combating these threats is to educate citizens directly, the FBI already does this with Nigerian email scams. [2] People and corporations are primarily responsible for their own actions, which includes taking care of their own internet security by obtaining anti-virus software, and which also includes corporations making sure their websites are safe to use or else face liability charges if they turn out not to be.  Moreover, CERTs are illegitimate. They are illegitimate because they facilitate the sharing of information on specific persons across private and public organizations and because they are hard to control democratically. For example: the US-CERT is an agency residing under the department of Homeland Security. Through the sharing of information with private parties, these private parties, unwittingly, run the risk of becoming one of the government\u2019s watch dogs. Moreover, this sharing of information is hard to control democratically: much of the information could be classified as secret, which means that citizens have no way of verifying whether public and private organizations are complying with data sharing regulations.  [1] Plumer, \u2018Why Nigerian email scams are so crude and obvious\u2019. 2012.  [2] FBI, \u2018Nigerian letter or \u201c419\u201d fraud\u2019."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con02a","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Internet governance is necessary to combat heinous crimes committed via the internet  The internet is a means of communication \u2013 therefore also a means of communication between criminals. And because it is global it creates global crime problems that need coordinated responses. One type of crime that has particularly become a problem on the internet is child sexual abuse material: the internet allows for an easy and anonymous distribution method which can even be secured by modern encryption methods. [1]  Governments can help fight this by requiring ISPs and mobile companies to track people\u2019s internet histories, hand over data when requested, and allow police to get information from them without a search warrant, something which has been proposed by the Canadian government. [2] In Australia, the government even proposed mandatory filtering of all internet traffic by ISPs to automatically filter out all child sexual abuse material. [3]  Admittedly, these measures seem drastic \u2013 but in cases like these, or similar cases like terrorism, the harm prevented is more important.  [1] \u2018Child Pornography on the Rise, Justice Department Reports\u2019. 2010.  [2] \u2018Current laws not focused enough to combat child porn online\u2019. 2012.  [3] Mcmenamin, Bernadette, \u2018Filters needed to battle child porn\u2019. 2008."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con03a","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Internet regulation is necessary to ensure a working economy on the internet  As seen above, the internet has enabled many types of criminal behavior. But it has also enabled normal citizens to share files. Music, movie and game producers have difficulty operating in a market where their products get pirated immediately after release and spread for free instantaneously on a massive scale. The internet enables violation of their right of ownership, gained through providing the hard work of creating a work of art, on a massive scale. Since it\u2019s impractical to sue and fine each and every downloader, a more effective and less invasive policy would be government requiring Internet Service Providers to implement a graduated response policy, which has ISPs automatically monitor all internet traffic and fine their users when they engage in copyright violation. Something along these lines has already been tried in France, called HADOPI, which has succeeded in decreasing the downloading of unauthorized content. [1]  Apart from this, governments also need to think about how to translate everyday offline activities onto the internet. For example, when you file your tax report offline, you would sign it with your handwritten signature. The online variant would be a digital signature. [2] Developing and deploying a digital signature would enable citizens and corporations to do business, file their tax reports and pay their taxes online.  [1] Crumley, \u2018Why France\u2019s Socialists Won\u2019t Kill Sarkozy\u2019s Internet Piracy Law\u2019, 2012  [2] Wikipedia, \u2018Digital Signatures\u2019, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con01a","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Internet regulation is necessary to ensure a safe internet  Citizens, corporations, and public organizations face several security threats when online: critical infrastructure systems can be hacked, like the energy transport system, [1] citizens can fall victim to identity theft, [2] and phishing, [3] whereby hackers gain access to bank accounts or other sensitive information. Specifically, it seems that the public sector is attacked the most. [4]  In response to cyber-threats like these, many governments have set up Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERTs), Incident Response and Security Teams (IRTs), or Computer Security and Incident Response Teams (CSIRT; the fact that we haven\u2019t settled on a fitting acronym yet shows how much it is still a novel phenomenon): agencies that warn citizens and organizations alike when a new threat emerges and provides a platform for (the exchange of) expertise in methods of preventing cyber-threats and exchanging information on possible perpetrators of such threats. Oftentimes, these (inter)governmental agencies provide a place where private CSIRTs can also cooperate and exchange information. [5]  These agencies provide a similar function online as the regular police provides offline: by sharing information and warnings against threats, they create a safer world.  [1] \u2018At Risk: Hacking Critical Infrastructure\u2019. 2012.  [2] \u2018Identity theft on the rise\u2019. 2010.  [3] \u2018Phishing websites reach all-time high\u2019. 2012.  [4] \u2018Public sector most targeted by cyber attacks\u2019. 2012.  [5] see for example the About Us page of the US-CERT or the About the NCSC page of the Dutch CERT"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con02b","title":"e internet freedom politics government digital freedoms freedom","text":"Battling hideous crimes shouldn\u2019t lead us to draconian and ineffective policies  Everyone is against child sexual abuse material. But in their drive to battle it, governments might go too far. For example, granting the police the right to search without (full) warrant is a harm to citizens\u2019 basic right to privacy and freedom from unwarranted government surveillance. [1]  The automatic internet filtering and data retention are possibly an even worse infringement on basic civil liberties: it designates all internet traffic and therefore all internet using citizens as suspect, even before a crime has been committed. This overturns the important principle that people are presumed innocent until proven guilty.  Moreover, instead of the police and prosecution changing their behavior, internet filters hardwire these new assumptions into the architecture of the internet itself. [2] This means it is more all-pervasive and less noticeable, thus constituting an even worse violation.  These draconian measures might even seem worth it, until you realise they don\u2019t work: blocking and filtering technology makes mistakes and can be circumvented easily. [3]  [1] \u2018Online surveillance bill critics are siding with \u2018child pornographers\u2019: Vic Toews\u2019. 2012.  [2] Lessig, \u2018Code is Law\u2019. 2000.  [3] \u2018Why government internet filtering won\u2019t work\u2019. 2008."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro02b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"This doesn\u2019t enhance Google\u2019s business proposition at all  Google already censors results all across the globe. It has been censoring digital piracy-related content since early 2011, but this hasn\u2019t led to users abandoning Google for another search engine. [1] It has been leaving a backdoor open for the US Government, but this also hasn\u2019t sent either users or employers packing. [2] Why should the small extra step of censoring according to China\u2019s laws do so?  [1] Sara Yin, Pcmag, \u2018Google Censors Piracy-Related Terms from Search Tools\u2019, January 27, 2011. URL:   [2] Bruce Schneier, CNN, \u2018U.S. enables Chinese hacking of Google\u2019, January 23, 2010. URL"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro02a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Not censoring helps Google\u2019s business proposition and corporate identity  Google\u2019s corporate motto is \u2018don\u2019t be evil\u2019. This is partly an issue of corporate identity, and partly a clever business proposition. In both cases, complying with Chinese censorship rules damages Google as a company.  The key to Google\u2019s dominance in the search market is that users know Google will always deliver the search results most relevant to them. By adhering to censorship laws, users will trust the relevance of Google\u2019s search results less, which hence erodes Google\u2019s business position as users will be more likely to try alternative search engines. [1]  [1] Rebecca Blood, \u2018Google's China decision is pragmatic, not idealistic\u2019, January 2010. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro03b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"China won\u2019t budge that easily  China has already faced trade sanctions for its human rights abuses for years, in particular there are bans on arms sales by the European Union that are still in place more than twenty years after the Tiananmen Square massacre that precipitated them. [1] These haven\u2019t helped a bit. [2] Why would a relatively small move like Google stopping its censorship work?  Moreover: true reform in China has to come from within. When it\u2019s forced from the outside, it will not be accepted. If Google stops cooperating with the government, reform-minded Chinese officials will have a harder time, because they will seem to be losing face in the eyes of more hardline officials. [3]  [1] See debate on EU arms sales to china  [2] James Dorn, \u2018Improving Human Rights in China\u2019, February 8, 1999. URL:   [3] Shaun Rein, \u2018Opposing View: Google\u2019s Big Mistake\u2019, March 28, 2010. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro01a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Not censoring its search results is a victory for human rights  The problem with Google censoring its results, is that in doing so, it is complicit in China\u2019s repression of free speech: it adapts its own search engine to display only the results the Chinese government wants, thereby limiting its citizens\u2019 basic human right to free access to information (a corollary to free speech). By avoiding this complicity, Google is taking a bold, praiseworthy step towards enhancing respect for human rights in China and with it, Google can set an important example for other businesses with dealings in China. [1]  [1] Human Rights Watch, \u2018China: Google Challenges Censorship\u2019, January 12, 2010. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro01b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Not censoring doesn\u2019t advance human rights in China at all  Human rights in China are violated on a daily basis. For example, the incidence of people \u2018disappearing\u2019 for no apparent reason has been on the rise. [1] These human rights violations won\u2019t suddenly end if Google were to stop censoring its results.  What\u2019s more likely to happen, when Google stops censoring results at google.cn, is that Google.cn will get shut down within days \u2013 thus, leaving Chinese citizens with no good way at all to access information, since google.com is on the other side of The Great Firewall and Baidu is a Chinese company fully compliant with the government\u2019s wishes. By staying, Google can at least broaden the access to information the Chinese citizens have, something Google itself had acknowledged in 2006 when entering the Chinese mainland. [2]  [1] Human Rights Watch, \u2018China: Enforced Disappearances a Growing Threat\u2019, November 9, 2011. URL:   [2] Karen Wickre, \u2018Testimony: The Internet in China\u2019, February 15, 2006. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro03a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Not censoring puts global pressure on China to change its free speech policies  Google\u2019s decision to stop censoring was world news, and has put internet freedom on everyone\u2019s agenda \u2013 even so much so, that U.S. Secretary of State mentioned internet companies ganging up to censor the Chinese corner of the internet specifically as a threat to freedom worldwide in a recent speech. [1] This helps to inform ordinary citizens of other countries who may not know about the \u2018great firewall\u2019 what the Chinese government is doing. By making a high-profile decision like this, and by engaging and informing the governments and publics of free and democratic countries like this, Google increases the public and political pressure on China to change its ways.  [1] Hillary Clinton, \u2018Conference on Internet Freedom\u2019, December 8, 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con03b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Google\u2019s business is inseparable from basic human rights  The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), a UN conference, affirmed that access to information is a basic human right, a corollary to the freedom of opinion and expression as articulated in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [1] It is a right because access to information is often basic to human life; to how to live in society, to work and to educate ourselves. China ratified the Universal Declaration back in 1948 when it was accepted by the UN\u2019s General Assembly, and was a party to the WSIS 2003 conference. This means that, if China is to be a responsible member of the international community, we can expect them to uphold the principles they publicly declare.  Google\u2019s mission is \u2018to organize the world\u2019s information and make it universally accessible and useful\u2019. Note that this mission happens to coincide with the basic human right of access to information. This is why Google\u2019s choice to interfere with China\u2019s domestic politics isn\u2019t just \u2018big business interfering with a state\u2019s sovereign politics\u2019 \u2013 it\u2019s a case of a big business whose business model happens to be providing a basic human right the sovereign state should have, by its own accord, provided a long time ago.  [1] World Summit on the Information Society, \u2018Declaration of Principles. Building the Information Society: a global challenge in the new Millennium\u2019, December 12, 2003. URL:  Last consulted: December 22, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con01b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Google\u2019s revenues wont decline because of this  Google as a company is still going strong \u2013 in the third quarter of 2011, it managed to exceed analysts\u2019 expectations and posted impressive revenue growth. Most importantly, the figures showed that finally the revenue from its mobile and video advertising platform started to come in. This means that the revenue for Google is now starting to come from all over their business portfolio, instead of coming from the search platform alone. [1] This result shows that Google\u2019s revenues won\u2019t sag a bit because of this choice.  Also, as argued above, by staying true to its company motto, Google actually strengthens, not weakens, its position with regards to the rest of the world \u2013 and possibly eventually in a democratic China.  [1] Financial Times, \u2018Google shares soar on higher earnings\u2019, October 13, 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con02a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Google will help Chinese internet freedom more by staying  As Google itself argued in 2006 when it first entered the Chinese domestic market; when Google is fully present in China, it can at least do its very best to allow its Chinese users as much access to all the information that Chinese users are allowed to look up. By expanding their access, Google can at least contribute to a broadening of the amount of information Chinese internet users can gather. The alternative is them relying on an even more censored Chinese search engine called Baidu, or having them try to access a heavily blocked, slowed down, restricted and monitored version of Google outside of China, for example google.com or the Hong Kong-based Google.com.hk. Having a locally accessible version of Google that is censored might not be optimal, but it\u2019s better than nothing. [1]  [1] Karen Wickre, \u2018Testimony: The Internet in China\u2019, February 15, 2006. URL:  Last consulted: December 22, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con03a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"As a business, Google shouldn\u2019t interfere with domestic politics  Business is business and politics is politics \u2013 and the two shouldn\u2019t mingle. When a company wants to operate in a foreign country, it should respect the government and its regulations. We require the same when a company wants to operate within our territory: suppose a big Chinese company came to our home country and suddenly started criticizing our domestic policies \u2013 these are the policies of the sovereign state whose territory it is, and outsiders have no place to tell it how to run itself. [1]  [1] Nicholas Deleon, TechChrunch, \u2018China has every right to be upset with Google right now\u2019, March 23, 2010. URL:  Last consulted: December 22, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con01a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Google can\u2019t afford to abandon the Chinese market  In 2010, the search market in China was valued at $1.7 billion and was expected to grow at an average of 50% per year for the coming few years. [1] After the 2010 incident, Google has been losing market share in China rapidly. [2] From a business perspective, Google just can\u2019t afford to miss out on such a business opportunity: not only will it miss entering this market when it is growing, it will also forfeit a comfortable position in the search market from which it can build its other businesses, like gmail and android, the way it does in other countries. [3]  [1] Melanie Lee, \u2018Analysis: A year after China retreat, Google plots new growth\u2019, Reuters, January 13, 2011. URL:   [2] Reuters, \u2018Google search share slips as Baidu gains report\u2019, July 26, 2010, URL:   [3] Kyle Baxter, \u2018Android isn\u2019t about building a mobile platform\u2019, January 4, 2011. URL:  Last consulted: December 22, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con02b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms access information house believes google","text":"Staying will not help Chinese internet freedom at all  If google.cn was to be left uncensored, then within a short period, google.cn would lose its license to operate and will be pulled down. Chinese internet users will then have to rely either on Baidu, which provides more or less the same results as Google, or will have to try to break through the blockades of the Great Firewall to reach the Hong Kong-based Google. If Google does censor itself, it will only state \u2018some results have not been shown\u2019 \u2013 Chinese citizens still won\u2019t know what has been hidden. Unless they then try to access the Hong Kong based Google, but then the Great Firewall will stop them anyway. Either way, Chinese citizens will be blocked from seeing what their government doesn\u2019t want them to see, so what\u2019s the difference? Google might as well stick to its principles and not censor itself."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro02b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"Consumers will find ways to evade detection  Evading detection for most of the surveillance methods are relatively easy: consumers could start relying on proxy servers to hide their IP-addresses or start encrypting everything they share online to avoid being detected by fingerprinting-software.  In fact, recent experience in France with its Haute Autorit\u00e9 pour la diffusion des \u0153uvres et la protection des droits sur internet (HADOPI) law suggests that despite a graduated response-policy, piracy is actually on the increase. [1] This shows that graduated response won\u2019t do what it is supposed to do; stem online piracy.  [1] Torrentfreak, \u2018Piracy Rises In France Despite Three Strikes Law\u2019, March 9, 2010. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro02a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"A graduated response will be an effective deterrent  Research has shown that consumers are likely to stop downloading from unauthorized sources when warned by their ISP. For example: Seven out of ten (72%) UK music consumers would stop illegally downloading if told to do so by their ISP, and 90 per cent of consumers would stop illegally file-sharing after two warnings from their ISP. [1]  This shows that the threat of a possible disconnection together with a friendly warning is enough to stop most consumers from downloading from illegal source. The reasoning behind it is simple: consumers can now download without a cost, a graduated response mechanism first raises awareness scaring off those who are only casually downloading out of convenience and then heightens the expected cost of infringement and thus makes it more likely consumers will use legal sources. [2] [1] IFPI, Digital Music Report 2009. 2009. URL for PDF:   [2] Olivier Bomsel and Heritania Ranaivoson, \u2018Decreasing copyright enforcement costs: the scope of a graduated response\u2019. 2009. Review of Economic Research on Copyright Issues, Volume 6(2), p. 13 \u2013 29. URL for PDF:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro03b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"Graduated response is a draconian punishment  Citizens these days rely on their internet connection for their everyday lives: banking transactions, filing tax forms, and other forms of essential communication are all done online. Cutting access to these basic services is a draconian punishment: it basically amounts to making daily life a whole lot harder. Even if essential services were to remain accessible to the offender they could lose access to things somehow considered less vital such as their online social life. The punishment in no way is proportionate to the \u2018crime\u2019 of downloading a song that would have cost 99 cents on iTunes."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro01a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"The unauthorised downloading of copyrighted material should be addressed and prevented by the state  Copyrighted material is intellectual property: someone worked hard for it to produce it. Downloading this content without paying the proper rights holder for it amounts to theft.  Furthermore, downloading copyrighted material from an unauthorized source creates an impossible market for producers of copyrighted content, because they have to \u2018compete with free\u2019. Why would the average consumer want to pay for a download from an authorized website, when she can get the same movie from a pirate-site for free? To build a commercially viable content industry online, we need to protect this industry from the unfair competition of the parallel market. [1]  [1] Piotr Stryszowski , Danny Scorpecci, Piracy of Digital Content. 2009, OECD Publishing. URL for purchase:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro01b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"Downloading isn\u2019t a crime  Downloading content is not comparable to theft of material things, like cars: after downloading the original owner can still use his or her own copy.  Moreover: governments have always allowed consumers some leeway for replicating content for themselves under the \u2018private copying exception\u2019 or \u2018fair use\u2019-policy. [1] Before the internet came along, this exception ensured it was legal that one person could copy a song from a radio broadcast transmission for personal use. Why should downloading a song from the internet be any different?  Finally, research has shown that those who download the most from pirate sites are also the ones who buy the most music online legally \u2013 why would the content industry want to punish their biggest and most loyal customers?. [2]  [1] Natali Helberger & P. Bernt Hugenholtz, \u2018No place like home for making a copy: private copying in European copyight law and consumer law\u2019. 2007. Berkely Technology Law Journal, volume 22, p. 1061 -1098. URL for PDF:   [2] Ars Technica, \u2018Study: pirates biggest music buyers. Labels: yeah, right\u2019. April 2009. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro03a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"A graduated response is the fairest way to enforce copyright legislation  First, the sanction after three warnings can be tailored to fit general notions of justice, the punishment need not be severe and could fit the crime: maybe a consumer would be cut off of the internet for only two weeks, or only cut off from accessing download sites but still be allowed to access government and banking sites, or receive a small fine.  Secondly, the consumer has ample time to change his or her behaviour: a consumer can insist on infringing copyright at least two times before the sanction takes place. The consumer can easily avoid being cut off (even temporarily), meaning the punishment likely doesn\u2019t even have to take place. [1]  [1] Barry Sookman, \u2018Graduated response and copyright: an idea that is right for the times\u2019, January 10th, 2010. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con03b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"Graduated response can be done prudently  Many companies have \u2018Terms of Agreement\u2019, violation of which automatically leads to cancellation of service. Suppose you don\u2019t pay your library subscription for a year: no one would complain of \u2018lack of due process\u2019 if your subscription was subsequently cancelled. A Graduated response policy is no different.  Moreover, the graduated response policy can be made to fit the rules of due process. For example, in the French HADOPI-law, after a third violation, the case gets referred to an \u2018expedited judicial procedure\u2019, typically used for minor traffic violations, after which that judge will decide.  Compare this to the unfairness before a graduated response policy is implemented: copyright holders might detect and sue one single consumer and extract a very heavy penalty, whilst the rest of the downloading consumers got away. Both the uncertainty and the height of the fine made the situation before a graduated response-policy an \u2018enforcement lottery\u2019. [1]  [1] Nathan Lovejoy, JOLT Digest \u2018Procedural Concerns with the HADOPI Graduated Response Model\u2019, January 13, 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con01b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"Graduated response is not a massive privacy violation  Firstly, ISPs already use Deep Packet Inspection right now, to engage in what they call \u2018network management\u2019, like checking whether users aren\u2019t hogging up bandwidth by downloading too much via peer-to-peer software. But moreover, it is hard to see how exactly every form of deep packet inspection is a privacy violation: the inspecting is done by automated software and only checks for infringements. If no infringement is detected, no one will know what was \u2018in the information packet\u2019. Take the example of monitoring for the presence digital watermarks: basically, the monitoring-software has a database of specific \u2018watermarks\u2019 that content holders put into their videos, for example a unique combination of pixels. The software only checks whether that combination is present. If it\u2019s not present, the software has no way of \u2018seeing\u2019 the information itself. Hence, even though it might sound scary, the technology can be designed in such a way that one can prevent it from becoming privacy violation. [1]  [1] see wikipedia: Digital Watermarking"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con02a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"ISP will not cooperate with a graduated response policy  The graduated response model requires cooperation from all Internet Service Providers. If just one ISP refuses, users will flock towards that ISP to be able to keep on downloading. Therefore there will always be an incentive to be the ISP that refuses so as to gain custom from others who have agreed to cooperate. ISPs will also have an incentive to not cooperate because the cost of monitoring and identifying is large, and significantly more so for smaller ISPs: initial estimates of the cost of graduated response for ISPs were around 500 million pounds over a period of ten years. [1]  [1] Michael Geist, \u2018Estimating the cost of a three strikes and you\u2019re out system\u2019, January 26, 2010. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con03a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"The graduated response is a violation of the basic right to due process  Detection of copyright infringement isn\u2019t usually done by a detective sitting behind a computer. It relies on software like automated crawlers and fingerprinting, often created by commercial vendors and hired by the copyright holders. This software automatically sends detected infringements to the ISP, without someone actually checking if this allegation is correct. This means many consumers can be unjustly accused of copyright infringement.  Moreover, most graduated response policies proposed require no judicial intervention at all for the sanction to be invoked. This means private organisations get to decide who has committed a crime and deserves the punishment. The ISPs and copyright holders therefore act as accuser, prosecution, judge and executioner. On top of this if a consumer would go to court, he would also face a reversal of the burden of proof: since he is suing against being fined, he has to prove that he is not guilty, a reversal of the presumption of innocence. [1]  [1] Peter K. Yu, \u2018The Graduated Response\u2019. 2010. Florida Law Review, Volume 62. Available for download (PDF) at:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con01a","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"The graduate response policy constitutes an invasion of privacy by the state  Graduated response would require huge amounts of monitoring and logging of all internet traffic using technical systems called \u2018deep packet inspection\u2019 (DPI) equipment. This means that a computer program will look in close detail at all of the information someone sends over the internet in order to check whether it violates some protocol, for example a \u2018fingerprint\u2019 of copyrighted data that the content creator put in.  This means a copyright holder, or a third party paid by the copyright holder to monitor internet traffic, suddenly has access to everything every consumer sends over the internet. This is a massive violation of privacy. Given the fact that advertising companies are already using DPI illegitimately for targeted advertising, it is obvious that content companies will also feel tempted to \u2018do more\u2019 with all that data they suddenly have access to. [1]  [1] Angela Daly, \u2018The Legality of Deep Packet Inspection\u2019, 2010. Presented at the First Interdisciplinary Workshop on Communications Policy and Regulation 'Communications and Competition Law and Policy \u2013 Challenges of the New Decade', University of Glasgow 17 June 2010. URL for download:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con02b","title":"p ip internet digital freedoms intellectual property house would use","text":"ISPs will gladly cooperate with graduated response  Almost a decade ago, ISPs engaged in a competitive battle to gain as much broadband penetration as possible. Now that markets have matured and broadband penetration has more or less \u2018maxed out\u2019 in developed countries, ISPs need to find new value propositions to attract customers. One of these value propositions is being able to offer high quality content at high speeds. To be able to offer this, ISPs will need the cooperation of content providers \u2013 who can ask something in return, like graduated response. [1] That this actually happens is borne out by the fact that in many countries ISPs are actually getting together to make sector-wide agreements, for example in the USA where the major ISPs have agreed to implementing graduated response. [2]  [1] Olivier Bomsel and Heritania Ranaivoson, \u2018Decreasing copyright enforcement costs: the scope of a graduated response\u2019. 2009. Review of Economic Research on Copyright Issues, Volume 6(2), p. 13 \u2013 29. URL for PDF:   [2] David Kravets, Wired, \u2018ISPs to Disrupt Internet Access of Copyright Scofflaws\u2019, July 7, 211. URL:"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro02b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"The freedom of speech does not mean that there is a right to reach as broad an audience as possible. It does not mean there is a fundamental right to access the internet or any other individual medium of communication. If indeed there is some kind of \u2018gap\u2019 in human rights it does not mean that it has to be filled by creating some spurious new right for individuals to enjoy. If there was a lack of recognition of a freedom of readership then this is because there is no need for the human right to exist let alone in a form that privileges access to the internet over other forms of information access."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro02a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"The right to internet access fills a gap in traditional human rights.  In our traditional human rights there is a hole when it comes to a right to receive and be able to seek out information. Almost everyone would consider freedom of speech and freedom of expression to be human rights but these rights are not very effective if there is not a way for those who wish to access that information. Michael L Best contends that Article 19 of the universal declaration of human rights on freedom of expression implies some symmetry but that freedom of authorship is privileged over freedom of readership. [1] In short governments could allow freedom of expression while ensuring that those expressing dissenting views have a very minimal audience without breaking human rights.  A right to the internet is the perfect human right to fill this gap. The internet is estimated to have over 35 billion web pages, [2] and the most recent digital universe study estimates that 1.8 trillion gigabytes would be created in 2011. [3] The sheer size of the internet means that it is the ideal medium for providing this right to access information. [4] The internet is also increasingly accessible to everyone making it possible to be considered universal; it is no longer something that the poor cannot hope to have access to. There are already over 2.1 billion people using the internet worldwide including 118 million in Africa. [5]  [1] Best, Michael L., \u2018Can the Internet be a Human Right?\u2019 Human Rights and Human Welfare, Vol.4 2004, p.23 (n.b. this link comes up with a warning when opened, dont worry it is safe - ahelling)  [2] World Wide Web Size.com, \u2018The size of the World Wide Web (The Internet)\u2019, 17 April 2012 .  [3] McGaughey, Katryn, \u2018World\u2019s Data More Than Doubling Every Two Years \u2013 Driving Big Data Opportunity, EMC2, 28 June 2011.  [4] Best, Michael L., \u2018Can the Internet be a Human Right?\u2019 Human Rights and Human Welfare, Vol.4 2004, p.23  [5] Clayton, Nick, \u2018Internet has More Than 2 Billion Users\u2019, TechEurope The Wall Street Journal, 19 January 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro03b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"This is taking the freedom of expression too far. A freedom to impart information does not mean the freedom to impart it through whatever medium the individual wishes simply through a method of communication. It is also taking it too far to consider that the government has a duty to prevent others from interfering with individual\u2019s access as this is impractical. Governments should not have the power to interfere with private businesses that may wish to deny internet users access for things like not paying their bills. The third interpretation is interpreting this freedom much too broadly, human rights are meant to prevent the government from oppressing their citizens rather than forcing government to provide something."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro01a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Internet access as a new human right.  Access to the internet can be considered a separate human right in and of itself. The UN special rapporteur in June 2011 published a report that implied that access to the internet is a human right \u201cThe Special Rapporteur remains concerned that legitimate online expression is being criminalized in contravention of States' international human rights obligations.\u201d [1]  The right to internet access can meet the necessary conditions to be a human right; as a right is should be universal, everyone should have access not just a few. The internet is becoming much more than just a tool but is becoming a fundamental part of society creating a new sphere of interaction that everyone has a right to have access to.  Creating a right to internet access would be addressing a specific contemporary problem as with other human rights that are specific such as a right to basic schooling, enshrined in article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human rights. Not having access to the internet is similar to not having basic schooling; it considerably narrows people\u2019s options and their horizons. As Tim Berners-Lee, the founder of the world wide web, argues \"Given the many ways the web is crucial to our lives and our work, disconnection is a form of deprivation of liberty.\" [2]  [1] La Rue, Frank, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Human Rights Council, Seventeenth session, A\/HRC\/17\/27, 16 May 2011, p.10 .  [2] Burkeman, Oliver, \u2018Inside Washington\u2019s high risk mission to beat web censors\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 15 April 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro01b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Creating a human right specifically for internet access is an example of \u2018human rights inflation\u2019 where by every group wants their issue to be a human right and as a result human rights that are not necessary or are too specific begin to devalue the whole concept of human rights. [1] While there may be a new \u2018society\u2019 operating online the internet is certainly not essential for the existence of society. An online society is an interesting distraction for people and indeed there are many who spend immense amounts of time cultivating virtual relationships but this virtual sphere does not need a human right to enable it to continue. The internet is in some ways a free for all and there have already been internet social networks that have collapsed or been taken offline. This may be disruptive for those who relied on this network as their online society but they can simply find another. If unable to access the internet they still have access to other forms of society in the real world. Thus while forming and taking part in society is fundamental for humanity that this should be possible online is not.  [1] Bleisch, Barbara, \u2018The human right to water \u2013 normative foundations and ethical implications\u2019, Ethics and Economics, 4 (2), 2006, p.8"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro03a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Internet access is a necessary part of the right to freedom of information and expression.  Freedom of expression and speech and freedom of information is a fundamental freedom and is article 19 in the universal declaration of human rights. This is usually taken to have three parts for governments to uphold: a duty to respect, for the government not to interfere with the freedom to impart information, a duty to protect, preventing interference with lawful communications and, a duty to fulfil, a duty to provide government held information. [1] Access to the internet falls within this. The duty to respect means that governments cannot block access for people wishing to use the internet to express themselves. The duty to protect means government should prevent others from interfering with internet users and the duty to fulfil could easily be taken just a little bit further to having to provide access to the internet. Freedom of expression therefore covers a freedom to access the internet as it already provides for a freedom to access mediums to express ones\u2019 self.  [1] Callamard, Agnes, \u2018Towards a Third Generation of Activism for the Right to Freedom of Information\u2019, in Freedom of Expression, Access to Information and Empowerment of People, UNESCO, 2009 pp.43-57. p.44"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con03b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"The conduit to access information is just as important as the information itself. There is little point in the information if we are cut off from the flows of that information and are unable to access it. [1] Having immense libraries may be an alternative method of accessing information for some but only for a tiny minority. As human rights are concerned with access to everybody the right an egalitarian method that allows everyone to access the information is needed just as much as the right to access the information. There is little point in a right to information without a corresponding right to access the internet or some other equally egalitarian method of obtaining that information.  [1] Best, Michael L., \u2018Can the Internet be a Human Right?\u2019 Human Rights and Human Welfare, Vol.4 2004, p.24"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con01b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Human rights are meant to protect the individual from the state rather than being dependent upon the state. The state cannot decide what these human rights are and can only constrain human rights if it is necessary to protect the human rights of another. [1] Human rights are necessary precisely because states ignore the freedoms of their citizens so often. The sources of international law are irrelevant when referring to human rights as these are a higher law natural law that overrides a system of international law that has been created only over the last couple of hundred years.  [1] Brown, Chris, \u2018Human rights\u2019, in John Baylis and Steve smith The globalization of world politics 2nd ed Oxford University Press 2001, pp.599-614 p.604"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con02a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Internet access is a commodity not a human right.  If a human right is inherent and inalienable then if something is to be a human right it has to be freely available for all rather than being much more available to those who are rich. The internet however is a commodity. We are charged for access to it and can be cut off for not paying our bills. We are charged more to be able to download more, in effect to have greater access to this human right. There has never been any suggestion that the equally great media advances of TV and telephones are technologies worthy of being considered a human right. As with the internet these increased the ability to express opinions to a wide audience, they helped democratise news and making it much more international. They meant that human rights violations could be much more easily told to the world in much the same way the internet does."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con04a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Internet access cannot be a human right when it is not available to all.  If human rights are inalienable and inherent in humans then no technology can be a human right as not everyone can ever expect access all of the time. Certainly at the moment huge swathes of the world have no internet access and this does not mean that their governments are violating their human rights.  The analogy might be given to freedom of movement. Freedom of movement is a human right however we don\u2019t need the aid of a car to be able to exercise this right the technology itself is unnecessary as we have an inherent ability to move just as we do to communicate."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con03a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Internet access is an enabler of rights not a right in itself.  The internet is an enabler and so has little value on its own. [1] No one would consider the internet a human right if there was no content or information on the internet, what good would be a right to stare at a screen? It is not therefore access to the internet that is the human right it is access to information. The internet is obviously useful for this but it is not essential. If someone was denied access to the internet while being locked in a library would he or she really have had any right to information infringed? In such a case the only argument for a right to the internet is that it faster to access the information through the internet than it would be to look it up in the books that are all around. There cannot therefore be considered to be a right to the internet even as part of any right to information because the right to information would simply require that a government provides access to this information not that it has to be via the internet. Moreover as an enabling technology it is quite possible that the internet may at some point be out of date and replaces by some new method of storing information. As something that is transitory it does not make sense to consider there to be any kind of inalienable right to the internet.  [1] Cerf, Vinton G., \u2018Internet Access Is Not a Human Right\u2019, The New York Times, 4 January 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con01a","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Human rights are dependent upon the state  There is clearly not universal or even widespread acceptance of the idea that internet access should be a human right. Human rights are dependent upon the state, the desires of the community, and that depends upon the state\u2019s socio economic context. [1] The internet cannot therefore be considered a universal human right because not all states are advanced enough to take responsibility for this right.  International law is based upon several sources; state practice, customary law, treaties and judicial decisions. [2] None of these sources yet recognise internet access as a human right, indeed if state practice is taken as deciding if human rights exist then the whole concept of human rights is open to question. [3]  [1] Turkin, G., Theory of International Law, 1974, p.81  [2] Shaw, Malcolm N., International Law 4th ed., Cambridge University press, 1997, Chapter 3.  [3] Watson, J.S., Legal theory, efficacy and validity in the development of human rights norms in international law, University of Illinois law forum, 1979, p.609"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con04b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Human rights are as much aspirational as they are fact. When the universal declaration of human rights came out the majority of people in the world did not have \u201cthe right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.\u201d [1] Having the internet as a human right will increase access as it makes it more difficult for governments to deny access and increases the priority to provide access. [2]  [1] United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, Article 21.  [2] Wagner, Adam, \u2018Is internet access a human right?\u2019, Guardian Legal Network, 11 January 2012."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con02b","title":"access information house believes internet access human right","text":"Being a human right does not prevent commoditization going alongside this. Everyone has a right to own property, as enshrined in the universal declaration of human rights, but it is accepted that property is also valuable in a commercial sense. Or more generally everyone has a right to shelter and this means that governments provide council housing and shelters for the homeless at the same time as houses often having very high prices. The human right is for a very basic level while those who wish can pay for more."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro02b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"There have been wrongful arrests during the war against terror. Riwaan Sabir was wrongfully arrested under the terrorism act in 2008 for downloading an al-Qaida training manual despite the manual having been downloaded from a US government website and been for his master\u2019s degree at the University of Nottingham. [1] Since the offence was online it is certainly possible that information from spying was a part of the cause for the arrest. It is true that we probably have less cause for concern when it is foreign governments doing the spying but this could still have consequences such as being denied entry if you wish to travel to or through the country.  [1] Townsend, Mark, \u2018Police \u2018made up\u2019 evidence against Muslim student\u2019, The Guardian, 14 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro02a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"You are not going to be arrested because the government has access to your communications  Clearly much of the time you really do have nothing to worry about when it comes to intelligence agencies having information about you. People are not regularly arrested without just cause and we have little evidence that democratic governments use this information to put pressure on their citizens. There have been no known cases of this happening since the start of the war on terror. [1] When it comes to foreign governments this is even less of a cause for concern; while your own government might be interested in various aspects of your life to help it with the services it provides foreign governments only have one motivation; their own national security. If you are not a threat to that national security the chances of them ever taking any action against you are essentially nonexistent.  [1] Posner, Eric, \u2018I Don\u2019t See a Problem Here\u2019, The New York Times Room for Debate, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro03b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"In the UK case this is not all it appears. The Intelligence Services Commissioner is comparatively toothless, and both it and the Interception of Communications Commissioner are immensely understaffed for monitoring all UK intelligence agencies. Some experts such as Professor Peter Sommer have even suggested \u201cI am not sure that ministers or the ISC would know what questions to ask.\u201d [1] Moreover this is trusting that ministers have the best interests of the people at heart, in the case of this conservative government which seems perfectly happy to introduce bills that erode freedoms such as the \u2018snoopers charter\u2019 this seems unlikely.  [1] Hopkins, Nick, \u2018William Hague on spying scandal: what he said \u2026 and what he didn't say\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro01a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"There is no physical risk  In terms of physical risk it is almost certainly true that you have nothing to fear from government having loads of information. With the exception perhaps of the Russian FSB and despite the James Bond films intelligence agencies in democracies are not in the habit of bumping people off this mortal coil. In this sense it does not matter at all what information the intelligence services have on you; no matter how naughty you may have been it is not going to be worth some kind of physical retaliation. Essentially the argument here is that it does no harm, and even does some good, so why should it not continue?"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro01b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Physical risk is not the only risk that people worry about. Denying someone their liberties such as privacy or freedom of expression does not pose a physical risk to them but that act is still wrong and it is still worth worrying about. Citizens have the right to go about their own business without their government spying on them. They should not have to concern themselves with what information the government does or does not have."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro04b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Clearly if no one ever actually looked at any information provided by surveillance then there would be no point in conducting it. Even if it were true that no one looks at any of the data being watched is still an intrusion that affects behaviour. It will affect decisions that are perfectly lawful because there will always be the slight worry that someone who you don\u2019t want to have that information because they will think differently of you will obtain it. When the information is out of your hands you can no longer be certain who will obtain it. [1] Since people have been arrested for the information that has been conducted, clearly sometimes the information is checked and used.  [1] Moore, Mica, and Stein, Bennett, \u2018The Chilling Effects of License-Plate Location Tracking\u2019, American Civil Liberties Union, 23 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro03a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"There are safeguards to prevent misuse  In democracies there are numerous safeguards and levels of oversight to prevent abuse. In the UK for example there is a \u201cstrong framework of democratic accountability and oversight\u201d. Agencies are required \u201cto seek authorisation for their operations from a Secretary of State, normally the Foreign Secretary or Home Secretary.\u201d The Secretary is given legal advice and comments from civil servants. Once the Secretary has given assent they are \u201csubject to independent review by an Intelligence Services Commissioner and an Interception of Communications Commissioner\u2026 to ensure that they are fully compliant with the law\u201d. [1]  [1] Hague, William, \u2018Prism statement in full\u2019, politics.co.uk, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro04a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"No one will ever actually look at the information  If the concern is privacy then there really should be little concern at all because there is safety in numbers. The NSA and other intelligence services don\u2019t have the time or motivation to be tracking down all of our foibles. [1] If the intelligence agencies are watching everyone then they clearly do not have the personnel to be watching the actual communications. Instead certain things or patterns will raise alarm bells and a tiny number will be investigated more closely.  [1] Walt, Stephen M., \u2018The real threat behind the NSA surveillance programs\u2019, Foreign Policy, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con03b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"The circumstances in the cold war were clearly different to today so this kind of abuse of power would be unlikely to happen. More broadly yes there is the potential for abuse in much the same way that there are people in banks who could steal large quantities of other people\u2019s money. That there is a potential opportunity does not mean it is ever used. Abuse can never be totally avoided but if abuse is a concern then whether or not there is a program of surveillance is not the highest concern. Even if there were not wide ranging surveillance problems those in intelligence looking to abuse their position would be able to obtain the information because they have the technology to do so."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con01b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Far from threatening democracy the intelligence agencies are using this information to protect democracy from terrorists who wish to overthrow the whole concept of democratic governance. Intelligence agencies are clearly under civilian control and have several layers of oversight to ensure that this kind of misuse does not take place. In the United States this means there is oversight from Congress and in the UK from Parliament. There is also judicial oversight in the form of the Interception of Communications Commissioner and Intelligence Services Commissioner in the UK [1] and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court in the US. [2]  [1] \u2018Judicial Oversight\u2019, Security Service MI5,   [2] \u2018Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court\u2019, Federal Judicial Center,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con02a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Lack of trust  The problem is that when it comes to privacy it is not really our personal physical security that we are worried about. Part of the problem is that we value our right to a private life and that we should have control over that to the extent of being able to decide how much information others know about us. To a large extent this is an issue of trust; we (sometimes wrongly) trust our friends and others with information about us. We often trust faceless entities; companies and governments too though usually to less of an extent. But a lot of that trust is as a result of their willingness to tell us what they know about us, to provide information in return, or to provide methods for us to restrict what they know. In cases like this that trust has not been earned; we were not asked, and not obviously given anything back, and there seems little change of us changing the terms of the relationship."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con05a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Loss of Privacy  It is wrong to state that we only have anything to \u2018fear\u2019 if we have done something wrong; a great many people want to keep things private where what they have done is morally perfectly right and justifiable. It is perfectly justified for a married couple to want to keep a video of them having sex private \u2013 even if it is sent from one partner to the other by email, or for someone to keep his\/her sexual orientation secret even if they have told someone about it. [1] If we want such information to be kept private does the state have any business picking that information up from our emails? It may not go any further than the intelligence agency, it is possible no one there will look at it but it is still an invasion of privacy.  [1] Phillipson, Gavin, \u2018Q&A: The right to privacy\u2019, BBC Religion, 14 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con04a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"The use of meta data causes unintentional harm  The other possible harm is unintentional. The amount of data involved is huge and too much even for a vast organization like the NSA to actually physically look at. Instead it uses data mining. This is why the NSA wants data that may seem useless to others. The records of which phone numbers are phoning who, as the NSA was obtaining of Verizon, might seem useless but can tell them who you are contacting, and how much contact time they have. In turn they could look at who your contacts have been talking to and if it turns out that several of them talk regularly to suspected terrorists then even if you are innocent a finger of suspicion might be pointed. There has even been a study showing that individuals can be identified from just the time of call and nearest cell phone tower after just four calls. [1] PRISM gives the NSA even more \u2018useless\u2019 data to play with. The results of this data mining may usually be accurate but will not always be so and the result of being flagged like this can be problematic for individuals. It may mean additional airport security, having problems getting a visa, [2] or in the worst case finding its way onto a no fly list.  [1] De Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre, et al., \u2018Unique in the Crowd: The privacy bounds of human mobility\u2019, Scientific Reports, 3, 25 March 2013,   [2] Brown, Ian, \u2018Yes, NSA surveillance should worry the law-abiding\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con03a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Abuse of information and power by intelligence agencies  Even when the government does not intend harm there are still cases where direct harms can occur as a result of surveillance. The most worrying are where the state abuses the information it holds. Abuse of power and of the information held by government is perhaps the main reason why it is difficult to trust in intelligence agencies. In one historical example from the 1950s FBI agents interviewed a Brooklyn liquor importer for repeating a rumor that the FBI Director J Edgar Hoover might be a \u201cqueer\u201d. This clearly necessitated a reminder through questioning that Hoover\u2019s \u201cpersonal conduct is beyond reproach,\u201d leading to the man quickly agreeing that \u201che thinks Mr. Hoover has done a wonderful job.\u201d [1] Did this have anything to do with national security? No. Was it an abuse of power and surveillance? Yes. So far as we are aware the intelligence agencies don\u2019t do things quite like this anymore but the revelations like PRISM, or the waterboarding a decade ago, show they are still happy to abuse their position from time to time. This is hardly a good way to build trust.  [1] Gage, Beverly, \u2018It\u2019s Not About Your Cat Photos\u2019, Slate, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con05b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Is it really an invasion of privacy if no one else knows about it even if that information is added to some giant computer database? The information we wish to keep secret remains a secret, in the unlikely event that some analyst reads the information they are never going to broadcast it to others as keeping secrets is a part of what intelligence agencies do."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con01a","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"A threat to democracy  Yes the NSA is unlikely to look at individual\u2019s personal information if the person in question is nobody of interest yet there are people who may be of interest to the state who are essentially innocent of anything except annoying the state. The ability for almost anyone in the intelligence apparatus to look up personal information has to worry anyone who might otherwise dissent, investigate the government, or turn whistleblower. Intelligence officials can hold the information as a weapon to ensure compliance and ruin careers if they don\u2019t get their way. [1] This has happened before. In the US when diplomat Joseph C. Wilson published about the manipulation of intelligence on uranium from Niger being used as part of the justification for the invasion of Iraq his wife had her cover blown and career destroyed by people within the Department of Defense. [2] When we know that the Obama administration has been more determined than ever to prevent leaks and prosecute perpetrators can it really be said there is no damage to democracy if these courageous people are not coming forward?  [1] Walt, Stephen M., \u2018The real threat behind the NSA surveillance programs\u2019, Foreign Policy, 10 June 2013,   [2] Wilson, Joseph C., \u2018What I Didn\u2019t Find in Africa\u2019, The New York Times, 6 July 2003,   Lewis, Neil A., \u2018Source of C.I.A. Leak Said to Admit Role\u2019, The New York Times, 30 August 2006,"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con04b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"Metadata and data-mining are not new they are simply becoming more frequent, and more accurate as a result of more information. In the past there have been other ways of collecting data; tax records, voter registration, reverse telephone directories. [1] At the same time government and the intelligence agencies are not even those who make most use of this, there are whole private companies devoted to sifting this data. [2] There is little reason why we should particularly worry about this being done by intelligence agencies.  [1] Gomez, David, \u2018Hoovered\u2019, Foreign Policy, 11 June 2013,   [2] See the debatabase debate \u2018 This House would not allow companies to collect\/sell the personal data of their clients \u2019."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con02b","title":"e free speech and privacy politics government digital freedoms privacy","text":"The intelligence agencies are not violating any right to privacy if they are not actually looking at the content of any emails, even less so as they in almost all cases won\u2019t even be looking at the metadata. It is not possible for intelligence agencies to be asking the people before engaging in every surveillance policy as even knowing the broad outlines of what the surveillance involves could allow the targets of that surveillance to avoid that surveillance. While individual citizens are not asked this is where the people\u2019s representatives should be trusted, it is ministers and members of parliament that allow surveillance and hold the agencies to account."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro02b","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"This has absolutely nothing to do with censorship \u2013 not having net neutrality will not stop users accessing certain sites, just make it slower. Data from some points of origin, especially games and file-sharing programmes slow down the entire network. It\u2019s unfair to other users."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro02a","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Risk of a two-tier Internet  As things stand there are relatively flat rate services. The concern is that ISP would charge higher rates for full Internet access or act to ensure that their own content arrived seamlessly and smoothly, while that of competitors was delayed or poorer quality or that higher bandwidth applications end up with a higher price-tag [i] .  This is of concern both to end users and to the producers of content. There are very real concerns here, as a result, about the impact this has on freedom of expression. The best way to avoid censorship \u2013 either commercial or political \u2013 is to ensure that it remains impossible to achieve in the first place.  Once it becomes possible to give preference to some forms of content or points of origin, then commercial censorship at least becomes a great deal easier.  [i] BBC News Website. \u201cBT Content Connect service faces \u2018two-tier net\u2019 claims. 4 January 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro03b","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"The idea that there is a virtue in providing things for free takes a somewhat cavalier attitude toward jobs. It is a predicate of this, and many other, arguments that the Internet should be either free or very cheap, but this does little for protecting genuine sources of expertise. Equally the costs incurred by ISPs for carrying the huge data loads of heavy users will simply end up being met by users who aren\u2019t using that level of data. It doesn\u2019t seem that unreasonable that those using the data should be paying for that at least. After all, they\u2019re already avoiding paying the studio, the writer, the actors, musicians [i] and many others involved in the production of goods. Freeware may be freely given, but plenty of other pieces of intellectual property aren\u2019t. Why should those people then have the data usage subsidised by others as well?  [i] Songwriters Guild of America. Rick Carnes. \u201cDemythologizing Net Neutrality."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro01a","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Privacy  This was the clinching argument in the Dutch example. Labour MP Martijn van Dam, one of the bill\u2019s co-authors said that Dutch ISP KPN was similar to \u201ca postal worker who delivers a letter, looks to see what\u2019s in it and then claims he hasn\u2019t read it. It is simply a basic principle of the Internet that for it to continue working as it does now, all data needs to be treated the same otherwise judgements will be formed on \u2018right\u2019 and \u2018wrong\u2019 data [i] .  The principle here is that the data being used is simply none of the ISPs business. Their job is simply to provide an agreed bandwidth, at an agreed price to the end user. How the end user makes use of that band width is up to them. If, for example, they\u2019re choosing to Skype from a mobile device \u2013 one of the points of contention \u2013 it\u2019s hard to see what that has to do with the ISP.  [i] PCWorld. Matthew Honan, MacWorld. \u201cInside Net Neutrality: Privacy and BitTorrent. 14 February 2008."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro01b","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"The postal worker analogy is an interesting one. Certainly, the end user wouldn\u2019t want the worker snooping through their mail; however they would expect to pay more for the stamp if they were sending a parcel \u2013 the equivalent of sending voice messages or receiving films rather than email and text. It is also not directly analogous to a postman looking at the contents of someone\u2019s mail because to tell what type of data it is and the size ISPs don\u2019t read the content of the data."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro03a","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Threats to Freeware, Shareware and Objectivity  There are very real concerns that ISPs have a commercial interest in guiding people away from certain sites \u2013 especially when those sites provide services or products for nothing when the ISP or a related company charges for a competing product. File sharing more generally is an obvious target. The example of Comcast against NetFlix and other file sharing sites is simply the most obvious [i] .  There are also concerns about the impact on objectivity more generally; the Internet works most effectively as a tool because it is, by definition cross-referencing. Although there are many mistakes on many sources as a whole it is possible to reach something resembling the truth. Essentially, \u201cWe need freeware, we need shareware, and we need open access. People need to be able to trust sources that they can find on the internet, rather than have them controlled in a small number of hands or by the government.\u201d [ii] Making some sites more accessible than others reduces users\u2019 choice and their ability to check multiple sites so preventing this cross-referencing.  [i] A useful overview of some of the more notorious examples can be found here .  [ii] Bob Gibson, Executive Director of the University of Virginia\u2019s Sorensen Institute for Political Leadership, on the Charlottesville, VA, politics interview program Politics Matters with host and producer Jan Madeleine Paynter discussing journalism"}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con03b","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"It\u2019s no secret that many companies have had difficulty working out effective models for dealing with the internet. That doesn\u2019t justify simple price-gouging. Neither does it justify an invasion of privacy. It\u2019s the equivalent of a restaurant waiting for customers to order, eat their meal and then set the prices."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con01b","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"The reverse also applies. In most countries the costs of basic infrastructure are shared. Taxpayers don\u2019t get a discount if they don\u2019t have kids in education, any more than they would just because they disagreed with a war that their taxes help to pay for. The argument doesn\u2019t make sense."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con02a","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Allow ISPs to monitor and remove illegal or unwanted data  Many ISPs are responding to user interests when cutting out particular types of data. At the request of the user why shouldn\u2019t they be able to monitor what is delivered to a certain IP address. Most \u2018net nanny\u2019 software is not that difficult to get around [i] .  Why not let parents who bought their kids a computer to help with their homework not be able to block them from making calls or watching movies?  If you compel net neutrality then, say, the ISP who caters for religious customers can no longer deliver the service that they have requested. Denying freedom of choice seems a high price to pay so that someone can get movies without paying for them.  Equally, if ISPs themselves want to stay within the law and prevent people from accessing illegal or otherwise unpleasant sites, why shouldn\u2019t they?  [i] Foss Force: Keeping Tech Free. Caesar Tjalbo. \u201cTop 10 Reasons ISPs are against net neutrality\u201d."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con03a","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Realistic costs for users and providers of bandwidth and phones  The example of mobile devices is, perhaps the most clear-cut. Manufacturers of mobile devices expect to make their money back and make a profit. They need to do this to pay salaries, invest in the next project and keep their shareholders happy. To do that they make a calculation based on the price of the original product and what additional revenue they are likely to make over the lifetime of that product\u2019s use.  Phone companies in particular have complained that major content providers are simply not paying a fair share of the costs with the VP of Verizon, for example, accusing Google of getting \u201ca free lunch\u201d at the expense of network providers [i] .  Net neutrality compels some companies to ignore basic financial realities [ii] . For all that Proposition \u2013 and others such as politicians in Amsterdam and Santiago \u2013 may think that changing the basic rules of economics is a good idea, they have yet to explain how this Socialist utopia will work.  [i] Washington Post. Ashad Mohammed. \u201cVerizon Executive Calls for End to Google\u2019s \u2018Free Lunch\u201d. 7 February 2006.  [ii] The Economist. \u201cThe Difference Engine: Download Dilemma\u201d. 6 May 2011."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con01a","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Incentivise ISPs to provide more data capacity  If the ISPs were actually making their money on the basis of data provision rather than bandwidth then it\u2019s in their interest to provide it. If they can\u2019t, they don\u2019t make money.  If they want to sell more data, they have to provide more bandwidth, otherwise they can\u2019t do it. This way both the data gluttons and the dieters get what they want. The gluttons get a fast provision of the resources they want or the capacity to share those resources at a reasonable speed and the dieters get cheaper provision.  Measures being pursued by the European Commission aim to do exactly this. They will allow ISPs to control the passage of data across their networks but must, at the same time, make it clear what they are doing and offer low data use price plans accordingly [i] .  This is more so with mobile devices than with \u2018plumbed in\u2019 ones. For many people, it wouldn\u2019t occur to them to use Skype for a call and a phone \u2013 even a smart one \u2013 is primarily just that, a phone. Why should they pay for a capacity they will never use because others can\u2019t take a bus journey without watching a movie?  [i] Out-Law.com: Legal news and guidance from Pinsent Masons. European Commission to propose net neutrality measures. 30 May 2012 ."}
+{"id":"test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con02b","title":"e internet freedom digital freedoms access information house supports","text":"Censorship has routinely been presented in terms of \u2018protecting public morals\u2019 or \u2018defending national security\u2019 or some similar euphemism, with legislation aimed at pornography but catching everything else in its track as simply the most obvious example [i] . It doesn\u2019t change what it is [ii] . In addition to which, there are very real reasons to believe that the incentives of ISPs here are more financial than moral \u2013 they would, after all, stand to make quite a lot of money.  [i] The New Statesman. Nelson Jones. \u201cThe Censored Isle\u201d. 6 August 2012.  [ii] Boston College Law Review. Prof. Jonathan Zittrain. \u201cInternet Points of Control\u201d. Vol. 44, pg. 653, 2003."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro02b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"Most suffering and pain can be accounted for by the free will that humans exercise; God made us free and we use that freedom for evil as well as for good. As for illness and disease, it is hard for us to know the mind of God, but it may be that these trials are a necessary part of a world in which free and spiritual human beings can evolve and develop."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro02a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"The problem of suffering  The world is full of suffering and pain among innocent people. If God is good and all-powerful then why is this the case? Either God does not exist or he is not worth believing in since he does not care about human suffering."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro03b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"This is an inaccurate caricature of the relationship between science and religion. In fact most of the great scientists of history, such as Descartes, Newton and Einstein, have been religious believers, and the more we learn about the physical world (e.g. the fine balance between the fundamental forces of the universe, necessary for organic life to develop) the more it seems that it has been designed to produce human life by an intelligent God. The fact that there is a physical side to reality does not, in any case, mean that there cannot also be a spiritual dimension. Nor does the fact that the mind and brain are closely correlated mean that they are the same thing."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro05a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"The Null Hypothesis  With regards to any proposition the only consistent and rational view is to assume that it is not true unless sufficient evidence is put forward to nullify that assumption.  The proposition need also be falsifiable, that is to say, there must be some potential fact that could be proven in order to disprove it. God is unfalsifiable because there is nothing."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro01a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"Religious belief is completely irrational  There is no evidence that God exists. Reported miracles, healings etc. are never reliably proved actually to have happened, and in any case everyone\u2019s religious experiences are different and point to the psychological differences between human beings not to any objective divine reality. Belief in God is simply wish-fulfilment. It would be nice if there was a loving all powerful being watching over us, but there isn\u2019t."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro01b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"There is good evidence that God exists and there are good arguments for accepting religious beliefs. The fact that we live in a beautiful, orderly universe in which human beings exist and have special moral and spiritual awareness points clearly to the existence of a divine Creator behind the universe. Billions of people have had religious experiences of one sort or another - all of them revealing the existence of divine reality - the only good explanation of this fact is that the divine reality is really there."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro05b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"All beliefs rely upon some form of presupposition as their grounding. The null hypothesis presupposes a natural world \u2013 but belief in God presupposes a supernatural world. It is unfair therefore to apply the null hypothesis to religious faith.  Moreover, belief in God is a different to belief in an object in the physical world that we would expect to be physically verifiable. [1]  [1] Wolf, Gary. \u2018The Church of the Non-Believers\u2019 WIRED Magazine. November 2006."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro04b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"Religion may have been the occasion for various social and political wrongs, but it is not the cause. You can be quite sure that if you took away all the world\u2019s religions people would still identify themselves with national and political groups and go to war over territory, political conflict etc. Equally elitism and bigotry are, sadly, parts of human nature with or without religion. In fact religious belief, when taken seriously and sincerely, is a force for good in the world, promoting humility, morality, wisdom, equality, and social justice. Social justice is at the heart of the Christian gospel."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro03a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"The God hypothesis is unnecessary  Science provides us with the tools to form a comprehensive view of the Universe which does not include a supernatural being. From Galileo to Darwin to the modern day, scientists have continually uncovered the true natural mechanisms behind the creation and evolution of the universe. There are no gaps left for God to act in [1] - science has revealed a closed natural order governed by natural laws. Brain science has shown that there is not a \u2018soul\u2019 but that all our mental states are simply caused by brain activity. There is, therefore, no reason to believe in life after death - one of the main tenets of religious belief.  [1] Bube, Richard H, \u2018Man Come of Age: Bonhoeffer\u2019s Response to the God-of-the-gaps\u2019, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society,  , p.207"}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-pro04a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"Religions have no true claim to special moral knowledge  Religions through the ages, and still today, have been agents of repression, sexism, elitism, homophobia, and - most of all - conflict, war, and racial hatred. The very nature of belief in received wisdom means that it must be, at its core, a conservative and regressive force. Moreover the positive moral rules that religions claim to promote tend to have existed independently of those religions \u2013 the world did not have to wait for the ten commandments to learn that murder and theft was wrong, but it waited until the 19th Century to reach a consensus that Slavery was wrong.  Whatever small amount of psychological comfort religious belief may give, the evils it is responsible for in the social and political worlds easily outweigh it."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-con03b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"This argument is based on a subtle fallacy \u2013 the only reason we are here to observe the fact that the Earth is so well suited to support life is that fact that it is so well suited to support life \u2013 if the Earth was a barren rock then we would not exist to see it. It shouldn\u2019t be surprising therefore that out of the billions of solar systems in the Universe; we live on the planet that is suited to our survival.  Additionally, while the conditions necessary for life appear to be rare (and our ability to observe planets from even relatively nearby solar systems is limited), the Universe has billions and billions of chances to \u2018get it right\u2019. It is very unlikely that you will win the lottery, but with millions of people playing it is actually very likely that somebody will win the lottery."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-con01b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"This is just special pleading; firstly there is no reason to consider Godly wisdom as being beyond our capacity to comprehend; and secondly there are discernable flaws in that wisdom as it is presented in a way that humans are supposed to be able to perceive and understand."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-con02a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"The Prime Mover  The universe follows rules of causality \u2013 cause precedes effect. But it cannot be the case that cause and effect regress infinitely into the past \u2013 there must be a \u2018prime cause\u2019. There is an identifiable point for this \u2013 the Universe was formed about 14 billion years ago with the Big Bang, before which we cannot detect any chain of causality. What was the prime mover? It had by definition to be a being existing outside of our conception of reality \u2013 the natural answer being \u2018God\u2019."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-con03a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"The rareness of Life  Life requires an extremely fine set of conditions in order to exist. The right distance from the Sun, a magnetic field to deflect solar radiation, the right atmospheric composition and conditions etc. These conditions are extremely rare; indeed only on Earth have we observed that they are just right for life to have evolved. [1] This is so unlikely that it leads to the conclusion that God must have intervened.  [1] McAlpine, Kate, \u2018Extraterrestrial life could be extremely rare\u2019, physicsworld.com, 1 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-con01a","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"Revealed wisdom  Godly wisdom is not the same as human wisdom and cannot be subject to the same criticism. The nature of humanity means that our ability to understand God\u2019s wisdom is fundamentally limited; and thus arguments based on morality or science are irrelevant \u2013 what matters is that God has revealed Himself."}
+{"id":"test-religion-frghbbgi-con02b","title":"faith religion general house believes belief god irrational","text":"This argument is an attempt to shoehorn God into one of the ever-shrinking gaps in our knowledge of the Universe and should be treated as such \u2013 it doesn\u2019t really give reasons why one should believe in God, it throws up conjecture and asks \u2018why not\u2019?  If everything needs a prime cause, what is the prime cause of God? If God can be an exception, why can't the universe be one especially since it is more rational with accordance to Occam's Razor - that the simplest hypothosis is most likely to be correct. This point is merely a substitution of one problem by another."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro02b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Evil may be thought of as the absence of good. It is a privation of goodness, just as darkness is the absence of light. God is good and the embodiment of goodness, but humans have been endowed with free will; they can make the choice not to follow the path of good. People have the ability to make both good and bad choices; if they did not then they would not truly be free. God\u2019s greatest gift to humanity is thus also a heavy burden. [1]  [1] Kekes, John. 1990. Facing Evil. Princeton: Princeton University Press."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro02a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"If there is a benevolent deity, then there should not be the kinds of evil observable in the world and He would likely show more interest in His creation than He appears to have done so far:  If God, or the gods, were good there would be no evil in the world. Disasters would not kill millions of innocents, disease and hunger would not claim the lives of children every day, war and genocide would not slaughter people indiscriminately as they have done for countless bloody millennia. The world is awash with blood, pain, and suffering. No loving God would make a world so imperfect and troubled. [1] The world\u2019s ills are perfectly explained by the natural, amoral development of the Universe, of life, and of humanity. The reality of the Universe, however, is incompatible with a God of goodness, as He is conventionally described by today\u2019s predominant religions, which stem from the Abrahamic tradition.  [1] Tooley, Michael. 2009. \u201cThe Problem of Evil\u201d. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro06a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"entirely natural theories can adequately explain belief in God and the development of religions, so an existent God is superfluous to the understanding of the phenomenon:  The reason people believe in God and why religions have formed can be explained perfectly well by natural processes and psychology. Religion is an outgrowth of humans\u2019 brain architecture developed through the process of evolution; it developed as a by-product of other useful cognitive processes. [1] For example, survival capability is promoted by an ability to infer the presence of potentially hostile organisms, the ability to establish causal narratives for natural occurrences, and the ability to recognize that other people are independent agents, with their own minds, desires, and intentions. [2] These cognitive mechanisms, while invaluable to human survival and communal development, have the effect of causing humans to imagine supernatural purposefulness behind natural phenomena that could not be explained by other means. No gods are required to explain religious belief, so the existence of such belief is no reason to believe in such beings. Religion was a cradle during mankind\u2019s childhood and adolescence. The time has come to grow up as a species and accept that there are no gods.  [1] Henig, Robin. 2007. \u201cDarwin\u2019s God\u201d. The New York Times. Available:   [2] Pinker, Steven. 2004. \u201cThe Evolutionary Psychology of Evolution\u201d. Annual Meeting of the Freedom from Religion Foundation. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro07b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"The question of God\u2019s existence does matter, not only to those who believe, but to understanding of life and its meaning. If there is a God and He has a plan for humanity and the Universe, then in order to understand the plan and to become an active part in it, one must try to understand in some sense the nature of God. However, even if God were disinterested in His creation, that would do little to affect whether He exists or not."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro03b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"It is unreasonable to suggest that God must reveal Himself to humanity, or to make His existence manifestly clear because that would undermine the value of faith. [1] Belief is an important component of all religious teachings because it is what allows the soul to transcend the material world and to commune with the divinity. For the religious, a life without faith is meaningless. Furthermore, if God were to make His desires and commands known, then free will would be undermined. It is necessary to the exercise of individual human agency that God not dictate every command to people. That is why God leaves life, at least on the surface, up to humans.  [1] Maitzen, Stephen. 2006. \"Divine Hiddenness and the Demographics of Theism\". Religious Studies 42."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro05a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"In reality there are only two theological positions, atheism and theism; agnosticism is nothing but timid atheism:  God, like unicorns, has never been shown to exist, and thus it is logical to accept that He, just like unicorns, does not exist. That is why a position like agnosticism makes no sense. There are no agnostics on the subject of unicorns; there are only agnostics on the subject of God because people tend to be reticent to say they are atheists due to the prevalence of belief of God even in the most secular societies. But fantasy is fantasy, and an agnostic is really just an atheist by another name. Were someone to claim that dragons exist, the person he told it to would not be justified responding saying he did not know whether they exist and that it must be an open question until evidence is presented to corroborate the claim. [1] Rather, he would likely respond with disbelief in the absence of evidence. That is how reasoning works. Thus agnosticism is a philosophically meaningless position. There is either belief or lack of belief, atheism or theism. Opponents of atheism seeking to hide in the nebulous realm of agnosticism, or who claim that because one cannot know there is no God one must be agnostic, hold a position that is philosophically bankrupt.  [1] Dawkins, Richard. 2006. The God Delusion. Ealing: Transworld Publishers."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro01a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Entirely natural theories can adequately explain the existence and development of the Universe and all it contains, making God irrelevant to the discussion of reality:  Physics and cosmology explain the development and evolution of the Universe and the bodies within it. Chemistry explains the interactions of substances and the origin of life. Biology explains the development of life\u2019s complexity through the long process of evolution. God, or gods, is a superfluous entity in the discussion of existence; He is entirely unnecessary to human scientific understanding. [1] At best, believers can point to various missing links in science\u2019s explanation, using God to fill the gaps. The God of the Gaps is a weak God whose domain grows smaller each day as science progresses. Furthermore, there is no evidence of the supernatural existing at all, if that is what God is meant to be. The burden of proof in a debate concerning the existence of something is on the individual making the positive claim. In a debate over the existence of God, it is up to the believer to provide evidence for that belief. [2] The rational position in the absence of evidence is atheism. It is not a positive claim about anything, but is merely the absence of belief in God, which makes sense in the light of there being no positive evidence of God\u2019s existence. If believers claim God lives outside the Universe, or that He cannot be empirically identified due to His ethereal nature, then in truth they are saying nothing. Only the natural world exists insofar as humans can demonstrate. The supernatural is pure fantasy.  [1] Boyer, Pascal. 2001. Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. New York: Basic Books.  [2] Russell, Bertrand. 1952. \u201cIs There a God?\u201d Campaign for Philosophical Freedom. Available:"}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro07a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Even if atheism was wrong and God did exist His seeming lack of interest and interaction with the Universe as far as humans can perceive means his existence is irrelevant:  It seems as if life goes on whether God exists or not. Theologians, philosophers, and laypeople have been fighting both in academia and on the actual battlefield over the question of God\u2019s existence, yet in all the centuries no definitive answer one way or the other has been given by either side. [1] It seems there is little value to belief one way or the other, so arguing for God\u2019s existence seems simply to be a waste of time. If God were proved to exist, or not to exist, little in life would change at all. Thus a position of atheism serves to relieve the hassle of pointless debate.  [1] Borne, \u00c9tienne. 1961. Atheism. New York: Hawthorn Books."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro01b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Science cannot explain everything. People have spoken of the existence of the soul and of God through the ages because reason and logic are sometimes not enough to explain the complexity and depth of the human experience. God is far more than the occupier of the gaps in scientific knowledge. However, the gaps are indicative of the limitations of science and show that faith and God can still have a place in human comprehension of the world."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro05b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"There is no strict dichotomy in theology. It is perfectly reasonable for someone unsure of whether God exists to take up a position of agnosticism, refusing to emphatically accept the existence of God or to deny it. Atheism is a positive claim insofar as it is a statement about the nonexistence of God. The burden of proof is thus not so clearly on the shoulders of theism alone. Rather, they are rival claims that each side must be supported by positive evidence."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro06b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Not everything about religion can be explained by evolutionary psychology. The existence of the soul and the concept of an ethereal God not directly connected to the processes of the world could not simply come about by way of evolution. Rather, there must be true meaning in these concepts, or they must at least be indicative of something other than the strictly material, contradicting the denials of atheism."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro04b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Just because God cannot be understood by conventional understandings of physics and logic does not invalidate His existence. In fact, it is unsurprising that trying to discuss the attributes of God would confound human reason. That is why faith is essential to understanding, and why science and reason are limited tools. Thus even if one considers the conventional description of God to be unsatisfactory, it is not sufficient reason to conclude that God does not exist. That is why one should at best adopt a position of agnosticism."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro03a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"If there were a God there would be irrefutable evidence of His existence and people would feel compelled to belief by the fact of it:  Many people do not believe in God, and the ranks of atheists are growing every day, particularly in the developed world. It seems that as human knowledge of the Universe expands and as social institutions develop and improve, people feel less dependent upon the crutch of religious faith, and place greater store in reason. [1] If God existed He would make His existence clear to all humanity, not just to a chosen few. In so doing His wisdom would naturally drown out an earthly knowledge, which would obviously be inferior to any that might be furnished by an omniscient being. [2] God has clearly never imparted His wisdom to people since no such divine wisdom exists in any holy book. Were there a correct holy book currently in use, it would necessarily be the only one, because everyone would acknowledge its superiority at once. Reality shows all holy books to be flawed works of flawed men. There is no glimmer of divine spark in any of them, and the only thing that separates most of them from the ravings of madmen is that large groups of people have chosen to believe them. The more reasonable conclusion is one of atheism, and that people believe in God out of ignorance, not revelation.  [1] Drange, Theodore. 1998. \"Nonbelief as Support for Atheism\". Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy.  [2] Schellenberg, John. 2005. \"The Hiddenness Argument Revisited\". Religious Studies 41."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-pro04a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"The nature of God as it is conventionally described is logically contradictory:  A creator god is a logical absurdity, as demonstrated by empirical fact and rational reflection. Certainly God cannot exist outside of the Universe, as such a concept is effectively meaningless. In fact, physics explains that when the Universe expanded as an inflating field of space and time as the result of a quantum fluctuation, causality itself arose from the process, making a causative agent \u201cprior\u201d to the Universe not only unnecessary, but also impossible. Furthermore, the idea of an omnipotent God is logically contradictory because if God were omnipotent He would be able to create an entity greater than Himself, yet that is impossible. [1] The very attribute is logically unfounded, making the conventional explanation of God invalid. Thus atheism, the absence of belief in gods, is the only logically justified theological position.  [1] Savage, C. 1967. \"The Paradox of the Stone\". Philosophical Review 76(1)."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-con03b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"If everything has a cause, then so too must the creator. Trying to place the deity outside of the spatio-temporal realm of the Universe is not a good argument, as nothing can be said meaningfully about what is \u201coutside\u201d the Universe, since we cannot observe or detect it. [1] Furthermore, saying God, or a creator, is uncaused and always existed is a poor argument because again this cannot be verified in any meaningful way. Irrespective of these problems, however, the argument falls down because it presupposes that the Universe has a cause, which is not necessarily the case. The very notion of causation is built into a temporal understanding of physics, which may not have been the case in the \u201cpre-Universe\u201d. Atheism can survive in the presence of science, theism cannot. If theism cannot survive, then neither can the agnostic middle ground based on the plausibility of theism.  [1] Mackie, J. L. 1982. The Miracle of Theism. Oxford: Oxford University Press."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-con01b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"The rational position in the absence of positive evidence about God is not agnosticism, but atheism. While there is always a degree of doubt in every statement, this does not mean that negative claims about an entities existence can never be made. One can rationally state that fairies do not exist, even if there is no positive evidence for their non-existence. The very fact that no evidence exists for the existence of fairies, in the same way there is no evidence for the existence of God, is evidence of the negative. Thus, in the evidence of positive evidence for God, the rational default position is atheism."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-con02a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"The complexity of the universe and of life cannot be explained by atheism:  Atheism suggests that the Universe came about by chance and the interaction of natural properties. Yet nature is marked by clear design that atheism cannot explain. The complexity of the human body, of planets, stars, and galaxies, and even of bacteria attests to the existence of creative agency. It is impossible that such things as interdependent species could come to exist without the guidance of a higher power. [1] Likewise, certain organisms can be shown to be irreducibly complex, meaning that if one were to remove any part of it, it could not function. This refutes the gradualist argument of evolution, since there is no selective pressure on the organism to change when it is functionless. For example, the bacterial flagellum, the \u201cmotor\u201d that powers bacterial cells, loses all functionality if a single component is removed. [2] Besides design, the only explanation of its development is blind chance, which seems less sensible. Atheism cannot account for these facts and thus collapses into nonsense.  [1] Ratzsch, Del. 2009. \"Teleological Arguments for God's Existence\" The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.   [2] Davis, Percival and Dean Kenyon. 1989. Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins. Richardson: Foundation for Thought and Ethics."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-con03a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Everything that begins to exist must have a cause. Since the Universe began to exist it must be caused:  Every human, every being, every object in the Universe is a finite and contingent being. These all have causes, yet a causal chain cannot be infinitely long. Humans are born, stars form from gases, even the Universe had a beginning 4.3 billion years ago. Nothing in the Universe causes itself. In order to escape the logical impossibility of the infinite causality loop it is necessary to posit the existence of an uncaused cause. This cause exists outside of the Universe, as it is cause of the Universe. [1] Without a creator, the Universe is a logical absurdity. Atheism cannot provide an alternative explanation to a creator, and thus fails quite literally from the beginning.  [1] Craig, William Lane. 1979. The Kalam Cosmological Argument. London: MacMillan."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-con01a","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"In the absence of positive evidence for the existence of God the rational position is agnosticism, not atheism:  In a situation where there is an absence of either positive evidence for a claim or definite negative evidence for it, the natural response is not rejection of the claim, but rather skepticism and admission of lack of knowledge one way or the other. [1] In the case of religion and God, this position is agnosticism. Humans are fallible organisms, and thus all statements about truth and about the Universe must be qualified by some degree of doubt. Positively rejecting the existence of God, as atheism does, ignores this requisite doubt even though it cannot prove that there is no God. Rather, in the absence of evidence for or against the existence of God, the most the atheist can say honestly is that he does not know. The claims of atheism are positive ones and thus require evidence; an atheist position is thus faith-based in the same way a theist one is.  [1] Hume, David. 1748. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. New York: Oxford University Press (2008)."}
+{"id":"test-religion-yercfrggms-con02b","title":"y epistemology religion church faith religion general god morality secularism","text":"Atheism does not seek to explain the origin of the Universe, life, etc.; that is what science is for. Atheism is about the existence of God. The atheist position is supported, however, by the fact that there is no evident design in the Universe. People tend to anthropomorphize their environment, trying to assign human-like qualities to animals and nature. All of the complexity in the Universe can be attributed to natural processes; the Universe, stars, and life are all the product of physical and chemical interactions. There is no mystery in the basic process. Complexity can be shown to arise from less complex conditions without aid of intelligent agency. Clearly, complexity is not indicative of a creator. The complexity of the Universe does nothing to support claims for the existence of a deity, but rather showcases the wondrousness of the natural world."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro02b","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"There are, of course, risks in any medical procedure. However circumcision remains astonishingly safe. Furthermore, denying the parents of a child the right to raise that child in accordance with their own beliefs would represent an unacceptable intrusion by the state into its citizens\u2019 private and religious lives.  By implementing the resolution, a western liberal democratic state is obliging, say, orthodox Jewish parents, to compromise some of their most important moral and cultural beliefs. Ultra-orthodox Jewish groups believe, literally and without equivocation, that whoever breaks the covenant with God by not submitting to circumcision will be condemned for all eternity. The state should not compel parents (and children) to endure the moral, psychological and ideological turmoil associated with such a compromise; ultra-orthodox Jewish parents will see the state as forcing infinite harm upon their children.  There are risks to giving a child a bike or taking them on a plane. Parents are aware of this but act in what they consider to be the best interests of their child.  If we were to prevent parents from every taking a decision that might be risky for their children, they would never cross the street, eat a Big Mac or take up sports."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro02a","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"There is always a risk associated with surgery and taking such a risk for no particular reason is irresponsible  A report by the Royal Dutch Medical Association noted that there was not a single medical body in the world that could point, categorically to a medical need for circumcision of infants. It further concluded that \u201cThe fact that this practice is not medically necessary and entails a genuine risk of complications means that extra-stringent requirements must be established with regard to this type of information and advice.\u201d Yet this is a practice that is performed around the world by people with little or no medical training and accepted by parents as an instruction from God.  Studies from the US suggest that around 230 baby boys die in America every year as a direct result of hemorrhaging following circumcision [i] .  [i]"}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro03b","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"The precautionary principle is alive and well but risks are inevitable in any procedure. There is no reliable data on fatalities directly related to circumcision.  The causes of the 10 million or so neonatal deaths that occur around the world each year are closely linked to the income and educational level of the mother, with diarrhea and malnutrition being the leading causes.  By contrast children that are born with access to modern surgery and informed parents are likely to do well."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro01a","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"Cutting off bit of children\u2019s bodies for no apparent reason is simply wrong  If this is simply a matter of performing a procedure with no apparent benefit to the patient \u2013 in most cases a young child \u2013 then it does rather raise the question of \u201cWhy\u201d. If the procedure were, say, cutting off a toe or an earlobe then all involved would require a clear and compelling case for such a practice. There are grown adults that think that cutting off a finger is the next stage up from getting a tattoo or a piercing [i] . At best most people would consider such a practice odd, at worst unstable. However, these are grown adults who have made the decision to mutilate their bodies for themselves and as a statement they feel appropriate.  Consider society\u2019s reaction if the fingers of unwilling adults were forcibly removed. What about unwilling children? What about the fingers of babies fresh out of the womb? The only sane response to such an action would be condemnation \u2013 and probably an arrest. The logic of this argument does not change if \u201cfinger\u201d is replaced with \u201cforeskin\u201d.  Research undertaken by the World Health Organization found that the overwhelming determining factor in the decision as to whether a boy should be circumcised was whether the father had been [ii] .  Although the report suggest a correlation with a reduction in the possibility in the spread of AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa it also comments, \u201cIf correctly planned, increased provision of accessible, safe adult male circumcision services could also increase opportunities to educate  men in areas of high HIV prevalence about a variety of sexual and reproductive health topics, including hygiene, sexuality, gender relations and the need for ongoing combination prevention strategies to further decrease risk of HIV acquisition and transmission.\u201d  Out with this area the rate of adult male circumcision is very low, suggesting that when the individual is of an age to give consent, they chose not to. Performing an act on a child that would not be consented to by an adult except in extremis would seem a fairly reasonable definition of child abuse.  [i] Shannon. \u201cDe-Fingered: Finger Amputations in BME News\/Publishers\u2019 Ring\u201d. BME News. 11 March 2008.  [ii] \u201cMale Circumcision: Global Trends and Determinants of Prevalence, Safety and Acceptability\u201d. World Health Organisation and the Joint United Nations Council on HIV AIDS. 2007."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro01b","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"Neo-natal circumcision is an operation that has been performed, perhaps, more than any other. It is performed mostly for cultural or religious reasons but there is also a body of evidence that suggest health benefits. There is very little suggestion in any study of any harm to the child.  In all sorts of situations societies allow parents to make decisions on behalf of their child.  In the absence of proven harm and in the presence of possible benefits in terms of health and hygiene there is really no danger in allowing the parents this option.  Those problems that can arise from the surgery are both very rare and as a result of faulty surgery rather than any risks innate within the process itself [i] .  This is mostly a religious or cultural decision that has survived within communities for thousands of years without howls of protest and with no proven harm. In the absence of a sizable body of opinion calling for it to be ended, why do so?  [i] Philip G. Koltz MD. \u201cIn Defence of Circumcision.\u201d Letters to the Journal, Journal of the Canadian Medical Association. 29 October 1966."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro03a","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"In any other situation involving minors a precautionary principle would be applied  Any risk needs to be justified against some benefit. In the absence of any demonstrable benefit then there is no need to tolerate any risk, particularly in the case of a newborn baby who cannot express his opinion one way or another and will not be able to do so for years to come.  The risks of circumcision have been repeatedly demonstrated. Though they may be rare, they run from septicemia through to blood hemorrhage and heart attacks. There is little research conducted on the long term effects of the procedure; however there is a growing body of evidence that a surgical complication rate is about 1 in 500 and the post-surgical rate of attrition is believed by many to be higher [i] .  [i] Paul M. Fleiss, MD. \u201cThe Case Against Circumcision\u201d. Mothering: The Magazine of Natural Family Living, Winter 1997, pp. 36--45."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con03b","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"It is possible to perform this operation at any time during a person\u2019s life and there is no compelling need to perform it on extremely young children. Doing so violates the child\u2019s right to be free from pain. Indeed the deliberate and unnecessary infliction of pain on a minor in any other circumstance would be considered abusive, it is clearly illogical not to consider it so in this instance. The only reason why circumcision is not considered abusive is that it is so commonplace. However, only a couple of generations ago (and to this day in many nations) so was the routine use of physical punishment in schools, which many now consider abusive and repugnant."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con01b","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"Parents do not have the right to presume their children\u2019s consent for procedures that are medically unnecessary, as in the case of circumcision.  Ultimately this is a choice that has more to do with culture than with medical need. The purported benefits are, at best, questionable and the results are irreversible.  The medical benefits of vaccination, by contrast, are undisputed and widely publicized. In those interests where the balance of risk is even remotely questioned, as in the case of the MMR vaccine, there is significant public debate and many parents have chosen to avoid the practice all together [i] .  [i] Paul M. Fleiss, MD. \"The Case Against Circumcision\". Mothering. Winter 1997"}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con02a","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"A practice that is thousands of years old and has not been found to cause harm during that time is unlikely to now  Where there compelling evidence from medical science that a process that predates it had some proven harm then there might be good reason to restrict it but that evidence simply isn\u2019t there. What is known is that circumcisions have been performed for millennia without causing widespread difficulties. In addition, historically, the procedure has been performed in circumstances far less safe than the confines of a modern, well-equipped hospital where it usually takes place now, and to no apparent ill effect.  Even using the term \u2018abuse\u2019 to describe such a practice shows a lack of respect for those people who are genuinely victims of abuse."}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con03a","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"Parents have the right to use their best judgment, in the light of medical advice, as to what is in the best interest of their child  There is compelling evidence that shortly after birth is the best time to perform this operation and that the rate of complications at this age is generally agreed to be between 0.2 and 0.4 percent. When performed later in life the risk of complications increases ten-fold to between two and four percent. In the light of this it is appropriate to recognize the rights of parents to approve a procedure that would be riskier if elected later in life on behalf of their child [i] .  [i] Michael Benatar. \"How Not to Argue About Circumcision\". The American Journal of Bioethics. 2003"}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con01a","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"There is no proven cause of harm and parents routinely make medical decisions for children to give their consent or otherwise  Circumcision is akin, in many ways, to vaccination; a routine and simple procedure with miniscule risks and compelling probable benefits. We acknowledge the right of parents to take these decisions on the behalf of their children, even if the benefits in question are primarily cultural and spiritual, and relativistic in character.  Parents routinely make decisions with far greater implications for their children\u2019s futures in terms of their education and general welfare on a regular basis and this should really be seen as no different [i] .  As has been established, even in the most impromptu settings, male circumcision, unlike FGM, runs almost no risk of causing severe injury or infection. MGM does not endanger or restrict a child's development, or his ability to living and normal, fulfilled adult life. Parents make much more damaging choices for their children all the time - choices that do not involve modification of a child's body.  The cost of raising a child as a junior rugby player is an increased risk that the child may sustain life changing injuries. The cost of sending a child to a Montessori nursery as opposed to a curriculum-based institution is the possibility that they may lack personal discipline or respect for authority later in life.  Parents are still permitted to make these decisions, despite the impact they may have on a child\u2019s development. Why not allow them to submit their children to a relatively minor and inconsequential aesthetic procedure?  [i] Dr. Brian Morris, Professor of Molecular Medical Sciences. \"Circumcision Should Be Routine; is Akin to a Safe Surgical \u2018Vaccine\u2019\". Opposing Views"}
+{"id":"test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con02b","title":"w crime policing religion religion general religions house believes male infant","text":"Just because a practice is old doesn\u2019t make it right. In addition to which societies\u2019 attitudes, especially in the West, have changed radically in relationship to how we view both the body and childhood.  There is no other area where the physical violation of a child\u2019s body would be tolerated, regardless of how old the process is. Indeed society tends now to reject ancient traditions as they relate to children, specifically because they are archaic, as is the case with corporal punishment. There is good reason to suspect that what may have been appropriate, possibly even beneficial, for semi-nomadic desert tribes is of little use in modern society."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro02b","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"It is undeniably true that greater investment in public services would help the poor. It is however, difficult to see how these two things are mutually exclusive. Indeed the results of this measure look set to considerably increase the chances of an education and healthcare for every child."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro02a","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"Poor families would be helped far more by investment in education and healthcare  This has been an urban and political obsession from the outset. The idea that the hungry and homeless need condoms more than food and shelter is clearly absurd. The poor would be better helped through \u201caccessible education, better hospitals and lesser government corruption.\u201d [i] Rather than interfering in the moral life of the nation, parliamentarians would be better exercised in tackling these concerns.  This issue has consumed political energy for over a decade and received massive national and international attention and yet there are far more pressing concerns for the nation \u2013 and its political leaders.  Instead this bill, which carries the marks of both political and moral corruption has been the main focus of the president and congress. At the very least this suggests a questionable sense of priority, at worst a gross lack of interest in the welfare of the Filipino people.  [i] Villegas, Socrates B., \u2018Contraception is Corruption!\u2019, CBCP News, 15 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro03b","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"It should be remembered that other values within the 1987 constitution include ecological balance and the recognition of the role of women, [i] both of which are advanced by giving women access to birth control. Pork barrel politics is an all too real tradition of Filipino politics, it is hardly unique to this bill. The fact that its use lead to the implementation of a policy that enjoys popular support is difficult to square with the somewhat wild claims of the Church about corruption. The CBCP has also been fairly free on allegations in this regard but very, very short on proof. The amount of political pressure required had more to do with calming fears of the Catholic establishment intervening directly in elections than with the views of the people.  [i] Talisayon, Serafin D., \u2018Teaching values in the natural and physical sciences in the Philippines\u2019, University of the Philippines,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro01a","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"The appropriate setting for sexual relations is within marriage, contraception encourages pre-marital sex  The population of the Philippines are overwhelmingly Catholic, it seems reasonable to accept that many, if not most, accept the teaching of the Church that safe sex is married sex. Appropriate sexual relations between husband and wife can lead to a fulfilling family life including children.  However, freely available contraception leads to a rise in premarital sex with the rises in unwanted pregnancies that go along with that. In the US, women having premarital sex increased from 2% in 1920 to 75% in 1999, a period that saw a massive increase in the availability of contraception [i] .. This runs against the teaching of the Church, which, itself, is one of the cornerstones of Filipino culture.  The first Mass was celebrated in 1521 and by the early 1600s, Catholicism was unquestionably the countries\u2019 dominant creed [ii] . The teaching of the Church on this issue is absolutely clear \u2013 and for four centuries those have been the values of the Filipino people. This bill undermines that understanding, it will lead to an increase in pre-marital sex with devastating consequences for, particularly, the young people of the archipelago [iii] . There is a reason why the Church argues against contraception and those values \u2013 that sex should take place within marriage, are deeply ingrained in the Filipino way of life.  [i] Greenwood, Jeremy and Nezih Guner \u201cSocial Change: The Sexual Revolution.\u201d Population Studies Center PSC Working Paper Series University of Pennsylvania.2009   [ii] Wikipedia. Roman Catholicism in the Philippines.  [iii] Bishop Filomeno Bactol, \u2018Naval diocese continues fight against RH\u2019,. CBCP News., 23 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro01b","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"It is simply untrue to suggest that Catholic hegemony is one and the same as Filipino values and that the two are \u2013 or have ever been \u2013 indistinguishably intertwined. Even where popular support for this very bill not sufficient proof, the very fact that the Filipino constitution states quite clearly that there is a division between the secular and ecclesiastical should be enough [i] .  [i] Constitution of the Philippines. Article III (Bill of Rights). Section Five."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro03a","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"The bill violates the Philippine values of harmony and respect  Perhaps the most important values in the Philippines are social harmony and respect for the family. [i] The Reproductive Health bill undermines both. Allowing contraception will take away a psychological barrier that prevents pre-marital or casual sex and once that barrier is crossed the individual will have higher sexual activity. [ii] In the Philippines this will mean greater numbers of teen pregnancies and pregnancies out of marriage because abortion will remain illegal.  In terms of politics these values mean support for democracy but also being against corruption and graft. [iii] Obviously the bill has been very politically divisive so undermining social harmony but also to pass this bill many parliamentarians had to be bribed so undermining this social harmony. The Reproductive Health bill represents the worst excesses of the pork barrel buffet. With a single-mindedness of purpose, the presidential palace has put everything on the table to shore up the votes required in parliament. Legislators, who had previously voted against the legislation, often repeatedly, where threatened with the loss of programmes in their constituencies if they failed to back the project, which has been at the heart of the presidential agenda [iv] .  [i] Dolan, Ronald E., ed., Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991.   [ii] Arcidiacono, Peter, et al., \u2018Habit Persistence and Teen Sex: Could Increased Access to Contraception have Unintended Consequences for Teen Pregnancies\u2019,  P.30  [iii] Talisayon, Serafin D., \u2018Teaching values in the natural and physical sciences in the Philippines\u2019, University of the Philippines,   [iv] Philippine Daily Inquirer. Philip Tubeza. \u2018Philippine President accused of \u2018bribing\u2019 Congress\u2019. Reported on Yahoo News 19 December 2012."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con03b","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"It is difficult to see how the life of anyone is improved by reducing sex to a cheap form of entertainment. Certainly not the unborn children and not the objectified women. Proposition is more than happy for women to take control of their own fertility \u2013 indeed we would go further and suggest that their boyfriends and husbands should do so as well. Recreational sex, within wedlock and during times of infertility removes all of these problems; a little planning and restraint achieves that aim. It also means that both parents need to show that they are responsible for the results; Op seems happy to say that people are uncontrollable beasts with no control over their desires \u2013 hardly an edifying concept."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con01b","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"Opposition have conveniently glossed over one critical issue in this debate \u2013 that the RH Bill has significant popular support [i] . It also, as has been demonstrated that a majority of elected representatives support it. In itself these two facts provide evidence that modern Filipinos are sick of the fact that around half of the 3.4 million pregnancies each year are unplanned or the atrocious reality that 90,000 women a year seek the help of back street abortionists. When many of these go wrong, they were denied access to medical care and around 1,000 die each year as a result [ii] .  The values for the respect for the life of the mother, the value of life of the child, respect for the opinions of the majority, respect for democracy and placing the future of individuals and society above the outdated mythology of the Church would seem to be alive and well in the decision to pass this bill.  [i] Rauhala, Emily, \u2018Culture Wars: After a decade of debate, the Philippines passes Reproductive Health Bill\u2019, Time, 17 December 2012.   [ii] Ibid."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con02a","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"There are clear and proven benefits to the health of the Filipino families, especially women  Both sides of this debate have spoken about the need to respect the rights and lives of women. It is, however, difficult to see how exactly opponents of the legislation reconcile this with their actions. Decades\u2019 worth of research demonstrates that educational, health and nutritional levels all fall once a family outgrows its means. In the slums of Manila that research is unnecessary as it is all too apparent at a glance. However the research is there [i] to provide grisly commentary to the narrative folding out on the streets.  Investigations on a personal, national and global level demonstrate that effective family planning is at the heart of eradicating poverty [ii] . When families have less children they are more able to afford better education for those they do have and have a greater incentive to do so as they need their child to be able to support them when they are retired. [iii] Proposition is keen that this money should have been spent on eradicating poverty \u2013 they fail to realise, deliberately or otherwise, that that is exactly what it is being spent on.  [i] Rauhala, Emily, \u2018The Philippines\u2019 Birth Control Battle\u2019, Time, 6 June 2008.   [ii] Brown, Lester, \u2018Smart Family Planning Improves Women\u2019s Health and Reduces Poverty\u2019, guardian.co.uk 14 April 2011.   [iii] Merrick, Thomas, W., \u2018Population and P{overty: New Views on an Old Controversy\u2019, International Family Planning Perspectives, Vol.28, No.1, March 2002,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con03a","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"Any body of values that claims to respect the rights of the individual must recognise the right of a woman to choose  Even the doctrines of the Church accepts that pregnancy is not, in and of itself, a virtue \u2013 there is no compulsion to maximise the number of pregnancies; there is simply a disagreement about how they should be avoided. The Church recommends that couples may minimise the chance without ever making it impossible through a chemical or physical barrier.  In some parts of the world a pregnancy, even one that is not planned, is seen as a time for joy \u2013 a blessing for the family that will lead to a new and happy life bringing pleasure to both parents, their society and the child. That ideal is very far from the experience of much of the world where a child is another mouth to feed on impossibly little income. For all too much of the world, that life will be cruel, nasty and short. In slums, favellas and barren wastes that life is likely to be one marked more by dysentery or diarrhea, malnutrition and misery than by the sanitised, idealised image promoted in the West. That is, of course, not to say that children everywhere cannot be a cause for joy, of course they can. Indeed even within the poorest of situations, a new child can be the focus of great joy in an otherwise hard life.  However, if that is to be the case, that child must be planned and prepared for. Overwhelmingly, the mother is likely to have paramount responsibility for the child; so that planning and preparation needs to be theirs. It is difficult to imagine the scenario that would reach the objective observer to reach the conclusion that the right group of individuals to reach that decision were a group of celibate men who had never met the parents and would take to role in the care or support of the child. Yet that, astonishingly, is what Proposition would like us to believe."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con01a","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"This is a victory for democracy \u2013 a precious Filipino value - clear majorities in both houses and in the wider public support it  Opposition have conveniently glossed over one critical issue in this debate \u2013 that the RH Bill has significant popular support [i] . It also, as has been demonstrated that a majority of elected representatives support it. In itself these two facts provide evidence that modern Filipinos are sick of the fact that around half of the 3.4 million pregnancies each year are unplanned or the atrocious reality that 90,000 women a year seek the help of back street abortionists. When many of these go wrong, they were denied access to medical care and around 1,000 die each year as a result [ii] .  The values for the respect for the life of the mother, the value of life of the child, respect for the opinions of the majority, respect for democracy and placing the future of individuals and society above the outdated mythology of the Church would seem to be alive and well in the decision to pass this bill.  [i] Rauhala, Emily, \u2018Culture Wars: After a decade of debate, the Philippines passes Reproductive Health Bill\u2019, Time, 17 December 2012.   [ii] Ibid."}
+{"id":"test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con02b","title":"church marriage religions society gender family house believes reproductive","text":"It is difficult to see how the life of anyone is improved by reducing sex to a cheap form of entertainment. Certainly not the unborn children and not the objectified women. Proposition is more than happy for women to take control of their own fertility \u2013 indeed we would go further and suggest that their boyfriends and husbands should do so as well. Recreational sex, within wedlock and during times of infertility removes all of these problems; a little planning and restraint achieves that aim. It also means that both parents need to show that they are responsible for the results; Op seems happy to say that people are uncontrollable beasts with no control over their desires \u2013 hardly an edifying concept."}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro02b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Intolerant schools cause more problems for not allowing freedom of religious expression. In a multicultural society, students should be aware of the different religious practices and cultural traditions of their classmates, and be taught to understand and respect these. Without such respect, religious groups with distinctive symbols, such as Orthodox Jews, Sikhs and Christians, will be driven out of mainstream education and forced to educate their children separately.1 As for the worry about safety issues, particularly concerning hair length, most classroom accidents occur when loose, long hair gets caught in machinery or in a flame which would not be a problem when hair is held in place under a headscarf.  1 'Religious Rights and Wrongs', The Economist, 4th September 2008, accessed 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro03b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Muslim women are not the only ones to feel a cultural division over their mode of dress. Most people are affected by the societal norms surrounding them. Fashion trends could be seen in exactly the same light as religious traditions. Banning head coverings is only likely to provoke a more extreme reaction among highly religious communities1. Framing laws to ban only Islamic forms of dress could be considered an attack on one religion. Feeling under attack could cause the Islamic community to close off into itself. They could set up religious schools where their children can dress as they want them to and not mix with children from other faiths. These effects could never be good for the integration of society and would further the influence of extremists. Internationally, the perceived attack on Islamic values would inflame wider Muslim opinion, feed conspiracy theories and add to the dangerous feeling that there is a clash of civilisations.  1 'France Bans Burqas: A Look At Islamic Veil Laws In Europe', Huffpost World, 4th April 2011 , accessed on 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro01b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Religious symbols are not seen as oppressive by those who choose to wear them. Many Muslim women view the veil as a means to protect their modesty and privacy. Just as we would not force any women to be seen in public in her underwear if she did not feel comfortable doing so, why should a woman be forced to show her hair if she does not want to? Modesty is a personal judgement call; some are comfortable in the smallest bikini while others prefer a lot more clothing. No one but the woman herself should make that decision. In fact, concerning the ban of the veil in Belgium, Muslim women have immediately challenged it and regard the ban as discriminatory.1  1 'Belgian ban on full veils comes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July 2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro05b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Even though the wearing of religious symbols could be a part of that specific religions' culture and practice, it must be remembered that Western society and culture brands itself as secular and, therefore, should take precedence over clashes with minority cultural practices. In Britain there has been controversy over movements to include Sharia Law in the British legal system, which ties in with this same argument of culture clashes concerning religious methods.1 Essentially, the question arises as to how far is tolerance for different cultural practices detrimental for the maintenance of a secular British culture and state.  1 Abul Taher, 'Revealed: UK's first official sharia courts', The Sunday Times, 14th September 2008 , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro04b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Deciding what people can and can\u2019t wear should not be the responsibility of schools. Enforcement may be potentially simple but only at the cost of creating a conflict between schools and their Muslim pupils and staff."}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con03b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"It would not be necessary to ban all religious symbols if one was banned. Banning religious symbols that are regarded as dangerous, such as the Kirpan, would be very different from banning crucifixes as the justification would be different.1 And if people start asking for other things to be banned, their cases should be listened to. Some of them may have a point for banning them. However if a symbol poses a risk then it should be banned in order to prevent that risk.  1 'Kirpan incident raises questions about court ruling', The Montreal Gazette, 16th September 2008 , accessed on 25th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con01b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"A ban on religious symbols would not be targeting the whole religious group. It would highlight the problems of symbols, such as the veil or Kirpan, within the boundaries of society. At the end of the day, full Muslim veils can be used as a disguise and, therefore, could pose a s a potential problem to the general population of people.1 If hundreds were people were killed by someone wearing a veil, would people be defending it then? In this way, it is the same for people wearing hoodies nowadays. A few tearaways and everyone socially brands them as criminals, or \"chavs.\" This scares people, especially the elderly and as such poses a risk not just to their health, but also to their safety. As a result, the religious symbols such as full veils should be banned due to safety concerns.  1 'Belgian committee votes for full Islamic veil ban', BBC News, 31st March 2010 , accessed 24th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con04b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"That the state is secular does not diminish the right to freedom of religion is enshrined in the UN charter, that all states have signed up to, and considered by many to be a basic human right.1 Some religions require special diets, others prayer at specific times. Why shouldn't a religious mode of dress receive as much protection as these other aspects of religious freedom? Surely equality in society is most accurately presented through allowing each individual, including their religious beliefs and modes of expression, to practice their religious traditions without hindrance.  1 'Declaration On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Intolerance And Of Discrimination Based On Religion Or Belief', 1981 Resolution of the UN Charter , accessed on 23rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con02b","title":"government religion church religion general secularism house would ban religious","text":"Some argue that religious symbols, particularly those that are clearly seen, are not just for personal benefit. They affect the safety of the society around them. For example, there have been worries about how the Muslim full-veil may be used as a disguise for terrorists and how veils make it harder to ascertain someone's identity. Therefore, some symbols at least involve others, maybe even unintentionally, through the uneasiness and suspicion they cause.  1 'The Islamic Veil Across Europe', BBC News, 15th June 2010 , accessed on 25th July 2011"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro02b","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"Different systems of matrimony can easily co-exist. Arranged marriages encourage family over individualism, placing emphasis on a more considerate view of relationships that encourages development and patience rather than Hollywood romance. It is however not a rejection of western values to practice arranged marriages.  As pointed out by those who have written extensively on arranged marriages, [1] people in them often have a view of relationships that sees their spouse as a companion and source of support, but not as their only source of happiness. Learning to love a spouse as opposed to being with someone with whom there already exists a romantic interest can mean learning to value smaller gestures rather than having overblown expectations from a relationship.  The notion that all marriages have to be based on clich\u00e9d and unrealistic notions of love is delusional and deeply flawed. The fact that so few marriages measure up to the conventional Western ideal could help to explain why divorce rates are so high upon non-arranged marriages. In societies that claim to be plural and tolerant, contrasting views of marriage existing side-by-side should surely be encouraged.  [1] \u2018Would you be happier in an arranged marriage?\u2019 Redbook.com -  (accessed 20 September 2012)"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro02a","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"Integration and the acceptance of Western values are important  Arranged marriages have not been a part of the cultures of most European countries for many years now. Part of the reason for this is because ideas about marriage have become more progressive, with people accepting that men and women of any orientation should be allowed to choose their own partners. This was even the case during the socially conservative era of the 1950s, when it was generally accepted in countries like Britain that people would court and meet their partners independently of their parents. [1]  Arranged marriages also conform to a view of women in particular which regards them as chattel. This does not fit in with the type of egalitarianism many European countries seek to practice, and thus does not conform to Western notions of individual rights. [2] It is also hypocritical to adopt a double-standard with diaspora communities, turning a blind eye to practices which many other majority groups find reprehensible. The rights and norms of a country of block of countries such as the EU must apply to all.  [1] Cook, Hera, \u2018No Turning Back: Family forms and sexual mores in modern Britain,\u2019 History & Policy -  (accessed on 19 September 2012)  [2] \u2018Human Rights with Reference to Women,\u2019 UKEssays.com -  (accessed on 19 September 2012)"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro03b","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"Domestic violence is hardly exclusive to arranged partnerships. Surely focusing exclusively on arranged marriages is missing the point somewhat. Domestic violence, especially against women, pervades many relationships across many European countries. There are just as many arranged marriages that are abuse-free, just as is the case with non-arranged marriages. To be logically coherent, the natural conclusion of the proposition\u2019s argument would be to ban every kind of relationship so as to completely eliminate the risk of domestic violence.  One can find numerous examples to illustrate this. One is that of Sai Srinivasan and Uma Viswanathan, who were brought together by their families, each with the choice of rejecting the other if they felt there was no fit, and have had a happy union ever since. [1]  More resources should therefore be channelled towards addressing violence against women (and men) in relationships of any sort \u2013 not simply targeting those that have more uninformed \u2018western\u2019 prejudices attached to them.  [1] Black, Lisa, \u2018Arranged \u2013 not forced - marriages a good match in many cultures,\u2019 Chicago Tribune, 27 July 2011 -"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro01a","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"Individual Freedom  Even if marriages are not made absolutely mandatory, covert family pressure can still propel people into unions where they will be unhappy. This is a form of restricted liberty as the consequences of people rebelling against arranged marriages can include being forced to leave home or suffering stigmatisation and reduced contact with family members. The stigma may also be the other way with the family feeling shame when their children reject their arrangements this in turn can lead to attempts at compulsion and even some cases like that of Shafilea Ahmed murder for the rejection of the marriage. [1] Clearly there is a thin line between arranged and forced marriages. Although things like stigmatisation are harder to police than physical intimidation or violence, it is only right that the state steps in to regulate these harms, giving people the legal mandate to challenge the practice as well as to discourage relatives from attempting it from the outset.  [1] Carter, Helen, \u2018Shafilea Ahmed killed by parents for bringing shame on family, court hears\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 21 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro01b","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"Such understandings of arranged marriages are insensitive and misleading. The reality of many arranged marriages is far from the one presented here. Often individuals do have a say in who they marry, and although parents may make the first move in introducing the potential bride and groom, many would not insist the marriage go ahead if the two personalities do not sync. [1] Parents often see it as a partnership between themselves and their children to decide who would be a future suitable spouse, with all sides having a say in the arrangement.  Arranged marriages are also a cultural norm in many societies, and to impose an outright ban on such an entrenched practice with so many nuances and variations would be a deeply insulting and ignorant gesture.  [1] Acharya Ingrum, Pri, \u2018The Reality of Arranged Marriages\u2019 -  (accessed on 21 September 2012)"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro03a","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"Women in arranged marriages in Europe are disproportionately likely to suffer abuse  Arranged marriages are often different when practiced in the home countries of many immigrant families in Europe, where women often have networks of friends and relatives to rely on. The danger with allowing arranged marriages to happen in EU countries are that the women at the centre are often far more vulnerable, away from their own family, unfamiliar with the local language and fully reliant on their husband\u2019s family. This makes it easier for domestic abuses to go undetected which is simply compounding problems of underreporting. [1] It is therefore likely that there is more domestic violence within arranged marriages. [2]  This is shown even amongst women who still consented to arranged marriages but faced abuse from their husbands \u2013 such as with the case of Razia Sodagar, whose husband abandoned her for another woman after she failed to fall pregnant. [3]  This illustrates how it is not always easy to draw a clear division between arranged marriages and forced marriages, as the former can often bear the same characteristics as the latter. It would therefore be safer to outlaw both.  [1] \u2018Ethnic domestic violence \u2018hidden\u2019\u2019, BBC News, 20 September 2007,   [2] Gotrik, Jennifer, \u2018India domestic abuse more common in \u2018arranged\u2019 marriages\u2019, Womennewsnetwork, 12 September 2011,   [3] \u2018Fighting Arranged Marriage Abuse,\u2019 BBC, 12 July 1999 -"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con03b","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"When the harm spills over into society, the personal becomes public. Arranged marriages do pose provable harms to the women of diaspora communities in the European Union. In such situations where vulnerable individuals are at risk, the state has a right to step in. This is already the case in other issues linked to inter-marital relations, such as the criminalisation of rape within marriage in Britain. [1]  Although the threats posed by arranged marriages are not always so clear-cut, the fact that within them they contain the potential for women to be abused and ill-treated means that state intervention is required. The harm that could arise as a result is that of continued threats to women in African and Asian ex-patriot communities across the EU.  [1] \u2018Guideline on rape: in marriage or by a partner,\u2019 Rape Crisis -  (accessed 23 September 2012)"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con01b","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"The new laws can set a precedent, even if it takes time. Bringing into practice such a law would arguably help send a message that certain practices do not sync with the sorts of societies European countries try to forge \u2013 this includes cases of Female Genital Mutilation, honour killings and forced marriages. Although the law is likely to be hard to police initially, in time it could allow for greater respect for values about the rights of individuals to be adopted by diaspora communities in Europe. \u00ad\u00ad\u00ad\u00ad\u00ad Other countries have adopted measures that are equally as far-reaching, such as the banning of wearing religious symbols in French schools. [1] Countries outside of Europe demand that ex-patriot Europeans within their borders comply with specific laws that arte designed to benefit the whole nation. It is therefore hardly unreasonable for EU countries to do the same.  [1] \u2018French Scarf Ban Comes into Force,\u2019 BBC, 2 September 2004 -"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con02a","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"It will cause resentment and make certain communities feel targeted.  Arranged marriages are seen as a very important aspect of the identity of lots of Euro-Asian communities. At a time when tensions between non-Muslims and Muslims in Europe are high enough, for example there were protests in London against the film innocence of Muslims, [1] targeting a practice carried out by many Muslim families could help extremist tendencies to flare up. It is important not try and cloak laws that are little more than blind intolerance with terms that make them seem like secular liberalism. Attempting to ban practices like wearing the veil in the name of inclusion have been proven to only inflame tensions, not improve integration. [2] Banning arranged marriages outright would therefore not only be intolerant, but potentially dangerous.  [1] Walker, Paul, \u2018Anti-US protesters in London condemn controversial film\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 16 September 2012,   [2] Younge, Gary, \u2018Europe: Hotbed of Islampobic Extremism,\u2019 14 June 2012 -"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con03a","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"The state should not be allowed to intrude in such personal matters  Matters relating to how individuals conduct themselves in a private and consensual environment are arguably not the concern of the state. This extends to how people get married and within which tradition, religion or denomination. European states are increasingly allowing non-traditional marriages such as gay marriages [1] so not allowing arranged marriages for those who want them would be a perverse step backwards. Given that arranged marriages in themselves do not have any proven harms, and that, as it has already been asserted, the harmful side of arranged marriages, like forced marriages have already been outlawed, the state cannot keep regulating something with such an arbitrary and wide-ranging definition that includes so many consenting adults.  Were EU states to do this, the harm caused would risk infringing on the very rights of the people the proposition claims they are meant to be protecting in the first place.  [1] \u2018Countries Where Gay Marriage Is Legal: Netherlands, Argentina & More, The Daily Beast, 9 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con01a","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"It\u2019s impossible to police such a law.  There is simply no feasible way of enforcing laws against arranged marriages, particularly as it is almost guaranteed that many communities will continue to practice them regardless. It will be impossible to tell whether a marriage has been started by arrangement if the community and the couple are unwilling to go to the police and most will be unwilling to report their own families when practicing a cultural tradition. Those who are deeply dissatisfied and beaten may do so but in this instance the law already allows divorce and abuse is punishable by the full force of the law.  Given that forced marriages have already been outlawed and that it has been established that arranged marriages in themselves cause few provable harms, the resources of any police force would arguably be wasted on enforcing such a law; investigations would be very intrusive and labour intensive.  Furthermore, given the continuation of practices like honour killings, [1] as well as rape and domestic violence, law enforcement personnel would be better placed targeting far more heinous crimes than arranged marriages. A tangible harm could arise from the police being made to direct their energies towards such minor misdemeanours, in that there could be fewer resources available for more serious crimes.  [1] \u2018Europe Grapples with \u201cHonour Killings,\u201d DW.de -  (accessed 17 September 2012)"}
+{"id":"test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con02b","title":"marriage society gender family house would ban arranged marriages eu countries","text":"You can extend that argument to any kind of illiberal practice. The same could easily be said of practices like FGM. Choosing not to ban certain traditions just because they are culturally entrenched could be extended to anything, from slavery to torture. The fact of the matter is that some practices simply cannot be allowed. There are already cases where the police choose not to intervene in cases of domestic violence where a south  Asian family is involved, giving rise to claims that they feel to timid to bring the same laws into practice for fear of infringing upon the cultural practices of minorities. [1] Furthermore, many writers like Pragna Patel [2] have claimed that the more illiberal elements of communities such as the South Asian diaspora are merely fabrications designed to oppress women. It is important not to fall into the trap of condoning practices that have no place in any society by allowing them to shelter behind the veil of \u2018cultural differences.\u2019  [1] Patel, Pragna, \u2018The Use and Abuse of Honour-Based Violence in the UK,\u2019 Open Democracy,6 June 2012 -   [2] Ibid.,"}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro02b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Outright banning this kind of prejudice does not directly tackle it \u2013 it ignores it. A better way for the government to tackle derogatory and prejudicial speech is to engage with it in a public forum and reasonably point out the flaws and ignorance that it embodies, rather than desperately trying to hide it from public view. In this way, those who are being attacked by these websites would feel as if the government is actively protecting them and their rights and punishing those who have violated them, rather than simply closing a few websites and allowing their authors to continue in other ways. This motion does not solve the problem of prejudice in the way it claims to."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro02a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"The government here may legitimately limit \u2018free speech\u2019.  We already set boundaries on what constitutes \u2018free speech\u2019 within our society. For example, we often endorse a \u2018balancing act\u2019 [1] an individual may express their beliefs or opinions, but only up to the point where it does not impede the \u2018protection of other human rights\u2019 [2] \u2013 other peoples\u2019 right not to be abused. In this case, if an individual expresses abuse towards another \u2013 especially racism - they may be deemed to be outside of the boundaries or free speech and can be punished for it. This motion is simply an extension of this principle; the kinds of sites which would be banned are those which perpetuate hatred or attack other groups in society, an so already fall outside of the protection of free speech. The harms that stem from these kinds of sites outweigh any potential harm from limiting speech in a small number of cases.  [1] Hera.org, \u2018Freedom of Expression\u2019, Human Rights Education Association,  on 09\/09\/11  [2] Hera.org, \u2018Freedom of Expression\u2019, Human Rights Education Association,  on 09\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro03b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Given the number of people who actually use Facebook [1] and other social networking sites, these occurrences were remarkably small [2] . These riots cannot be attributed to Facebook; it was the mindset of the rioters rather than Facebook itself which provided the raw determination for these riots to occur. If Facebook had been censored, they may have simply used mobile phones to co-ordinate their actions instead. Censoring these sites would not prevent such events, and would anger those who use Facebook to communicate with friends [3] and share photos [4] innocently.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Facebook hits 500m user milestone\u2019, 21 July 2010,  09\/09\/11.  [2] BBC News, \u2018UK Riots: Trouble erupts in English cities\u2019, 10 August 2011,  on 09\/09\/11.  [3] Santos, Elena, \u201cThe ultimate social network\u201d, softonic,  on 09\/09\/11.  [4] Santos, Elena, \u201cThe ultimate social network\u201d, softonic,  on 09\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro01a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Governments have a moral duty to protect its citizens from harmful sites.  In recent years, supposedly innocent sites such as social networking sites have been purposely used to harm others. Victims of cyber bullying have even led victims to commit suicide in extreme cases [1] [2] . Given that both physical [3] and psychological [4] damage have occurred through the use of social networking sites, such sites represent a danger to society as a whole. They have become a medium through which others express prejudice, including racism, towards groups and towards individuals [5] . Similarly, if a particularly country has a clear religious or cultural majority, it is fair to censor those sites which seek to undermine these principles and can be damaging to a large portion of the population. If we fail to take the measures required to remove these sites, which would be achieved through censorship, the government essentially fails to act on its principles by allowing such sites to exist. The government has a duty of care to its citizens [6] and must ensure their safety; censoring such sites is the best way to achieve this.  [1] Moore, Victoria, \u2018The fake world of Facebook and Bebo: How suicide and cyber bullying lurk behind the facade of \u201charmless fun\u201d\u2019, MailOnline, 4 August 2009,  on 16\/09\/11  [2] Good Morning America, \u2018Parents: Cyber Bullying Led to Teen\u2019s Suicide\u2019, ABC News, 19 November 2007,  on 16\/09\/11  [3] BBC News, \u2018England riots: Two jailed for using Facebook to incite disorder\u2019, 16 August 2011,  on 16\/09\/11.  [4] Good Morning America, \u2018Parents: Cyber Bullying Led to Teen\u2019s Suicide\u2019, ABC News, 19 November 2007,  on 16\/09\/11  [5] Counihan, Bella, \u2018White power likes this \u2013 racist Facebook groups\u2019, The Age, 3 February 2010,  on 16\/09\/11  [6] Brownejacobson, \u2018Councils owe vulnerable citizens duty of care\u2019, 18 June 2008,  09\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro01b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"While in a tiny minority of cases, such social networking sites can be used malevolently, they can also be a powerful force for good. For example, many social networking pages campaign for the end to issues such as domestic abuse [1] and racism [2] , and Facebook and Twitter were even used to bring citizens together to clean the streets after the riots in the UK in 2011. [3] Furthermore, this motion entails a broader move to blanket-ban areas of the internet without outlining a clear divide between what would be banned and what would not. For example, at what point would a website which discusses minority religious views be considered undesirable? Would it be at the expression of hatred for nationals of that country, in which case it might constitute hate speech, or not until it tended towards promoting action i.e. attacking other groups? Allowing censorship in these areas could feasibly be construed as obstructing the free speech of specified groups, which might in fact only increase militancy against a government or culture who are perceived as oppressing their right to an opinion of belief [4] .  [1] BBC News, \u2018Teenagers\u2019 poem to aid domestic abuse Facebook campaign\u2019, 4 February 2011,  on 16\/09\/11  [2] Unframing Migrants, \u2018meeting for CAMPAIGN AGAINST RACISM\u2019, facebook, 19 October 2010,  on 16\/09\/2011.  [3] BBC News, \u2018England riots: Twitter and Facebook users plan clean-up.\u2019 9 August 2011,  on 16\/09\/11.  [4] Marisol, \u2018Nigeria: Boko Haram Jihadists say UN a partner in \u201coppression of believers\u201d\u2019, JihadWatch, 1 September 2011,  on 09\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro04b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Any information from television or newspapers has already been regulated, so it is not a problem that it may now appear somewhere on the internet. It is exactly because the internet is a forum for free information and expression that so many people engage with it; removing this is a dictatorial move against ordinary citizens who seek information without bias and undue censorship."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro03a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Even sites that appeared innocent have had a devastating effect on society.  Some governments, such as the Vietnamese government [1] , have already seen sufficient cause to ban social networking sites such as Facebook. Recently in the UK, many major cities witnessed devastation and destruction as social networking sites were used to co-ordinate wide-scale riots which rampaged over London, Manchester, Birmingham, Worcestershire, Gloucester, Croydon, Bristol, Liverpool and Nottingham [2] . Rioters contacted each other through Facebook and blackberry instant messenger to ensure that they could cause maximum damage [3] , which resulted in the destruction of property [4] , physical violence towards others [5] , and even the deaths of three young men [6] . These events prove that seemingly innocent Internet sites can be used by anybody, even apparently normal citizens, to a devastating effect which has caused harm to thousands [7] . To protect the population and maintain order, it is essential that the government is able to act to censor sites that can be used as a forum and a tool for this kind of behaviour when such disruption is occurring.  [1] AsiaNews.it, \u2018Internet censorship tightening in Vietnam\u2019, 22 June 2010,  09\/09\/11  [2] BBC News, \u2018England Riots\u2019, 8 February 2012,  on 09\/09\/11  [3] BBC News, \u2018England riots: Two jailed for using Facebook to incite disorder\u2019, 16 August 2011,  on 09\/09\/11  [4] Hawkes, Alex, Garside, Juliette and Kollewe, Julia, \u2018UK riots could cost taxpayer \u00a3100m\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 9 August 2011,  on 09\/09\/11.  [5] Allen, Emily, \u2018We will use water cannons on them: At last Cameron orders police to come down hard on the looters (some aged as young as NINE)\u2019, Mail Online, 11 August 2011,  on 09\/09\/11.  [6] Orr, James, \u2018Birmingham riots: three men killed \u2018protecting homes\u2019\u2019, The Telegraph, 10 August 2011,  on 09\/09\/11.  [7] Huffington Post, \u2018UK Riots: What Long-Term Effects Could They Have?\u2019, 10 August 2011,  on 09\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro04a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"As an extensive form of media, the Internet should be subject to regulation just as other forms of media are.  Under the status quo, states already regulate other forms of media that could be used malevolently. Newspapers and books are subject to censorship [1] , and mediums such as television, film and video receive a higher degree of regulation [2] because it is widely recognised that moving pictures and sound can be more emotive and powerful than text and photographs or illustrations. The internet has many means of portraying information and opinion, including film clips and sound, and almost all the information found on television or in newspapers can be found somewhere on the internet [3] , alongside the millions of uploads from internet users themselves [4] .  [1] Foerstel, Herbert N., \u2018Banned in the Media\u2019, Publishing Central,  on 09\/09\/11  [2] CityTVweb.com, \u2018Television censorship\u2019, 27 August 2007,  on 09\/09\/11.  [3] Online Newspapers Directory for the World, \u2018Thousands of Newspapers Listed by Country & Region\u2019,  on 09\/09\/11  [4] Boris, Cynthia, \u201917 Percent of Photobucket Users Upload Video\u2019s Once a Day\u2019, Marketing Pilgrim, 9 September 2011,  on 09\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-con03b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Governments are often obliged to do things that the population doesn\u2019t like \u2013 raising taxes is an obvious example. However, it is also recognised that sometimes the government has to do these things in order to represent the long-term, best interest of its people \u2013 whether or not it is a popular measure at the time."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-con01b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"We already frown upon certain forms of speech [1] as we recognise that it is important to protect groups form prejudice and hatred. Allowing the expression of hatred does not automatically mean that ordinary people will denounce it as evil; rather, it normalises hatred and is more likely to be acceptable in the public domain. It also appears to show implicit acceptance or even support from the government when we take no steps to prevent this kind of damaging expression; as such, the government fails in its duty to ordinary citizens to protect them and represent their best interests.  [1] Tatchell, Peter, \u2018Hate speech v free speech\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 10 October 2007,  on 09\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-con02a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"The Internet is a free domain and cannot becontrolled by the government.  Given that the Internet is used as an international [1] and public space [2] , the government has no right over the information which may be presented via the Internet. In Western liberal democracies, governments are elected on the basis by which they can serve their own country \u2013 how they will create or maintain laws that pertain specifically to that nation, and how they will govern the population. The Internet is not country-specific, but international and free. As such, no individual government should have a right to the information on it. Asserting false authority over the internet would paint the government as dictatorial and a \u2018nanny state\u2019 [3] , demonstrating a lack of respect for its citizens by assuming that they cannot protect themselves or recognise the nature of extremist or potentially harmful sites and take the individual decision to distance themselves from such sites.  [1] Babel, \u2018Towards communicating on the Internet in any language\u2019,   [2] Papacharissi, Zizi, \u2018The virtual sphere\u2019, New Media & Society, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp 9-27, February 2002,  on 09\/09\/11  [3] BBC. \u2018A Point of View: In defence of the nanny state\u2019. Published 04\/02\/2011. Accessed from  on"}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-con03a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"People often react poorly to being censored by their governments.  In countries that do currently practice censorship of Internet information, their citizens often interpret this as suspicious and dictatorial behaviour. For example, in China growing discontent with the government\u2019s constant censorship has led to public outrage [1] , and political satire which heavily criticises the government [2] . Censorship can easily be used malevolently and is not always in public interest; this motion supports the ignorance of the population by hiding information and the reality of the situation. Therefore the cost of suspicion by the population of the state makes censorship of any kind less than worthwhile and it is better to allow individuals to make their own choices.  [1] Bennett, Isabella, \u2018Media Censorship in China\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 7 March 2011,  on 09\/09\/11  [2] Bennett, Isabella, \u2018Media Censorship in China\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 7 March 2011,  on 09\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-con01a","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"Censorship is fundamentally incompatible with the notion of free speech.  Censoring particular material essentially blinds the public to a complete world view by asserting the patronising view that ordinary citizens simply cannot read extreme material without recognising the flaws in it. This motion assumes that those who have access to material such as religious opinion sites will be influenced by it, rather than realising that it is morally dubious and denouncing it. The best way to combat prejudice is to expose it as a farce; this cannot be done if it is automatically and unthinkingly censored. Meanwhile, it is paradoxical for a government to assert the general benefits of free speech and then act in a contradictory and hypocritical manner by banning certain areas of the Internet. Free speech should not be limited; even if it is an expression of negativity, it should be publicly debated and logically criticised, rather than hidden altogether."}
+{"id":"test-science-ciidfaihwc-con02b","title":"censorship ip internet digital freedoms access information house would censor","text":"The Internet may be a global resource, but if information on it is have a detrimental effect upon a particular country, it certainly is that government\u2019s responsibility and right to tackle it. If it affects their society and the citizens within it, it affects the government and the means by which they can govern, particularly in relation to social policy. Moreover these websites, and specifically religious opinion websites, often seek to \u2018recruit\u2019 others to their school of thought or even to action; their purpose is often to gather support and followers [1] . Therefore there certainly is a risk that these people, who are often very intelligent and persuasive [2] , might lure others to them without protection by the government. It is a very real danger, and needs real protection.  [1] Kiley, Sam, \u2018Terrorists \u2018May Recruit On Social Networks\u2019\u2019, SkyNews, 12 July 2011,  on 09\/09\/11.  [2] Ali, Iftakhar, \u2018Terrorism \u2013 The Global Menace\u2019, Universal Journal The Association of Young Journalists and Writers,  on 09\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-pro02b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"What then is the interest of the animal? If releasing these animals into the wild would kill them then surely it is humane to put them down after the experiment. It must also be remembered that the interest of the animal is not the main and is outweighed by the benefits to humans. [5]"}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-pro03b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"The laws that restrict animal testing only allow it where it\u2019s needed.  Animal testing isn\u2019t cheap, meaning that if universities and the drug industry have a good reason to end it if they can. If we ban animal testing we won\u2019t know what it would be able to do in the future. Animal research now has better results than other ways of doing research. [8]"}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-pro01b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"The right of a human not to be harmed is based not on appearance but on not harming others. Animals don\u2019t participate in this.  Animals won\u2019t stop hunting because of the pain and feelings of other animals. Even if animal testing were to be abolished people would still eat meat, and kill animals for other less worthwhile reasons than animal testing."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-pro05b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"There is a moral difference between harm for the sake of harming an animal and harm in order to save lives. Lifesaving drugs is a very different purpose to betting or enjoyment that animal welfare laws are aimed at."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-pro04b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"The decision to test is not based upon the capacity to suffer. But it should be remembered that the individual being tested would not be the only one who suffers, for the intellectually disabled we must remember their families would suffer as well."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-con03b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"When a drug is first tested on human volunteers, they are only given a tiny fraction of the amount shown safe to give to primates showing there is another way, to start with very low doses. Animal research isn\u2019t a reliable indicator of how a drug will work in people \u2013 even with animal testing, some drugs trials go very wrong [15]."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-con01b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"To argue that \u201cthe ends justify the means\u201d isn\u2019t enough. We don\u2019t know how much animals suffer, as they can\u2019t talk to us. We therefore don\u2019t know how aware they are of themselves. In order to stop a moral harm on animals we don\u2019t understand, we shouldn\u2019t do animal testing.  Even if it were a \u201cnet gain\u201d because of the results, by that logic human experimentation could be justified. Common morality says that isn\u2019t OK, as people shouldn\u2019t be used to a means to an end. [12]"}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-con05b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Just because an animal is treated well as it is brought up doesn\u2019t stop the very real suffering during testing. Stricter rules and painkillers don\u2019t help as the lack of suffering cannot be guaranteed \u2013 if we knew what would happen, we wouldn\u2019t do the experiment."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-con04b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Not every country has laws like the EU or the US. In countries with low welfare standards animal testing is a more attractive option. Animal researchers tend to only do animal research so don\u2019t know about the alternatives. As a result they will use animal testing unnecessarily not as just a last resort."}
+{"id":"test-science-eassgbatj-con02b","title":"ent animals science science general ban animal testing junior","text":"Many of these drugs are \u201cme too\u201d drugs \u2013 ones with a slight change that doesn\u2019t make much difference to an existing drug. [14] So often the benefits from animal testing are marginal, and even if there was a slight increase in human suffering, it would be worth it based on the animal suffering saved."}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro02b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"It is true that a society in which information is widely available to the public is desirable, but what must be recognized that this argument of \u201csocial platform publicity\u201d encounters two main problems.  First of all, unless your information is lucky enough to go viral if you really want efficient online advertising you will have to pay for it, even when it comes to social networks. \u201cWhen Facebook launched its log-out screen ads, reports suggested it was charging $700,000 for them, but in reality they came bundled with a homage ad commitment, too. Buyers say they\u2019re now selling log-out ads standalone for around $100,000.\u201d(1). As a result, you can hardly call them \u201cfree\u201d.  Secondly, online advertising comes merely as a back-up or as an addition to full-time campaign ads. No matter what kind of event we are talking about, if it is of general interest, the information will be distributed to the population. It will be either promoted by the company itself, if we are talking about a massive price discount for the new Toyota, or by the local or national media, if we are talking about a concert or a sporting event. The information will be more efficiently transmitted through advertising mechanisms, as this allows the targeting of certain groups of individuals who are interest in those events rather than relying on people stumbling onto a Facebook page. For example posting an ad announcing a new soccer competition in a sports magazine will be more effective as we know the readers will be interested. There are other means which serve the purpose of promoting information, the promoters will pick the best ones, which may or may not mean Facebook.  (1) Jack Marshall \u201cWhat Online Ads Really Cost\u201d, February 22, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro02a","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook provides an information point  Undoubtedly, one of the most important aspects which will influence your efforts to improve your life is your ability to take advantage of every opportunity which comes up. Obviously, one of the, if not the, best way to do this is to stay connected with the world around you, this enables you to be able to quickly find out about job opportunities, sporting competitions or social events in your area. Facebook created and developed an efficient, extremely widely visited platform on which millions of users can get in touch with each other. This can prove to be an extremely useful tool both for companies or event planners and direct customers. No matter if we are talking about Google's new hiring policy or Toyota's new discount, an upcoming music festival or a football tournament for amateur players, Facebook is informing the individuals about these events, keeping them connected with their community.  Social networks are more efficient to serving this purpose than other more conventional means like TV commercials because it is free. A very good example of this is the Kony 2012 campaign, which informed the people about the atrocities that happened in Uganda at the time, mainly relying only on social media. The Youtube video telling its story has more than 98 million views and also there were more posts on Facebook about Kony on March 6th and 7th than even Apple\u2019s new iPad or TV releases. (1) No matter if we talk about TV ads, radio commercials or billboards, the price that has to be paid in order to promote an event is a big drawback for anyone who wants to inform the population. As a result, Facebook as with other social media is the online, cheap, efficient equivalent to an info point.  (1) Kyle Willis \u201cKony 2012 Social Media Case Study \u201c, March 8, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro03b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"There are immense problems with using Facebook to facilitate protests in oppressive regimes. Firstly, due to the anonymity of users, it would be extremely easy for government forces to disguise themselves as being protesters and find out future protest locations, thus allowing them to be one step ahead every time to crush the protest before it starts. Second of all, if all of these fail, the government could always shut down ISPs (Internet Service Providers), exactly in the way the Egyptian forces did. Their mistake was that they didn\u2019t shut them down soon enough, but it won\u2019t be repeated by future oppressive governments as they have the Arab Spring\u2019s example.(1) [1]  Surely, it is of great importance that people express their opinions through any means possible, even through mass protest. For this reason, over time western societies were shaped to encourage any discontented individual to express his or her view. We allowed the media to be free, it being the so called \u201cfourth estate\u201d due to its ability to pinpoint and underline any problem regarding government policies or actions. There is no need for Facebook or Twitter or any kind of social network to reveal any discontent in the population as we already have the media who is doing this. All the news agencies and TV stations are always looking for the sensational, looking for places where the government has failed in order to attract audience. One of the best ways of doing this is by polling and trying to reveal any group of individuals who were either discriminated or hurt by the government. As a result, if there are the necessary reasons for people to start protesting, we shouldn\u2019t worry about people not finding out that other individuals share their views as we have the media, one of the most influential elements of the society who is actively trying to do that.  (1) Marko Papic and Sean Noonan \u201cSocial Media as a Tool for Protest\u201d ,Stratfor, February 3, 2011   [1] For more on this see \u2018 This House would use foreign aid funds to research and distribute software that allows bloggers and journalists in non-democratic countries to evade censorship and conceal their online activities \u2019 and \u2018 This House would incentivise western companies to build software that provides anonymity to those involved in uprisings \u2019"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro01a","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook encourages socialisation  One of the most crucial elements in any child's development is the ability to socialize with peers. By having a large circle of friends to talk to and share interests, the child gains trust, self-esteem and self-confidence. If you have people to talk to when you have a problem, it is much easier to overcome any problems.  Facebook and social networks in general help teenagers on multiple levels to maintain and expand their circle of friends. Firstly, it lets you remain in touch with friends even if you are very far apart. As we live in an increasingly globalized world, friend circles tend to be broken up very easily. As a result, individuals need to be able to keep in touch in spite of the physical distance. Facebook enables them to do that. (1)  Secondly, by allowing people with shared opinions, hobbies or interests to gather, social networks allow users to expand their circle of friends, something that is more applicable the bigger the social network. Thirdly, it allows young people to spend more time with the friends and people they already know through chat conversations, shared photos or status updates. As a result, people who are engaged on these social networks have more self esteem, more confidence in them, feel more appreciated and tend to be happier in general due to their wide circle of friends. (2)  (1) Keith Wilcox and Andrew T. Stephen \u201cAre Close Friends the Enemy? Online Social Networks, Self-Esteem, and Self-Control\u201d Journal of Consumer Research, 2012   (2) Brittany Gentilea, Jean M. Twengeb, Elise C. Freemanb, W. Keith Campbella \u201cThe effect of social networking websites on positive self-views: An experimental investigation\u201d 2012"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro01b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"On this point, there are two levels of analysis which will demonstrate that, at the end of the day, Facebook has a detrimental effect on one\u2019s social abilities.  First of all, of course having a lot of friends has numerous advantages and it is undoubtedly beneficial to one\u2019s development, but being active on a social network isn\u2019t an indispensable prerequisite for this. As an individual, you can meet, talk, connect and share feelings and emotions in real life with your friends without any problems. People nowadays are not more socially bonded than before the appearance of Facebook and other social networks, because what Facebook did was merely shifting the face-to-face socialization to an online version of it. Moreover, you don\u2019t need the \u201cRock Fans\u201d group on Facebook in order to meet new people who are also interested in rock music, as you have real rock events and concerts where you can meet with people with whom you have shared interests and thus expand your friend group.  Secondly, when using social networks as a tool to socialize, teenagers tend to rely too much on them, getting comfortable chatting behind a glass monitor, but this can mean having problems exiting this comfort-zone. This happens as you feel less exposed if you are not talking to someone in person, but when you are forced to socialize in the real world you feel uncomfortable and awkward. As a result, their ability to socialize is diminished even more."}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro03a","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook is good for democracy  Social networks aid our society on multiple levels, one of them being the democratic process. This happens both in autocracies, where the democratic process is basically nonexistent and in western liberal democracies where Facebook acts as a megaphone for the will of the population.  Firstly, when talking about oppressive regimes, Facebook allows the population to organize themselves in massive protests which can, in time, overthrow the government. This is of particular importance as the population cannot organize protests \"offline\" in the real world, because government forces would quickly find them and stop the protests before they even started. These people need a safe house, where government intervention is minimized, so that they can spread the news and organize the protests. The online environment is the best options. We have seen this happening in the Arab Spring(1), Brazil (2), Turkey(3) as well as for protests in democracies as in Wisconsin(4)  For western liberal democracies too Facebook plays a very important role in aiding the democratic process. Even in a democracy the government often engages in unpopular policies. Unfortunately, as we are talking about countries with tens of millions of people, citizens often feel they can\u2019t make a difference. Luckily, here's where Facebook comes in. It connects all the people who share the same disapproval of government actions, removing the feeling that you can do nothing as there is no one backing you. Millions can come together to voice their opinions. Therefore there is more likely to be dissent. Moreover, the internet allowed individuals to start massive campaigns of online petition gathering, which they will later use as an irrefutable argument to the government showing the desire for change. There are a lot of sites, one of the biggest being Avaaz.org which facilitates this process, which use Facebook as a medium through which the petition is shared and so grows.  (1) Sonya Angelica Diehn \u201cSocial media use evolving in Egypt\u201d, DW , 04.07.2013   (2) Caroline Stauffer \u201cSocial media spreads and splinters Brazil protests\u201d, Reuters ,June 22, 2013   (3) \u201cActivists in Turkey use social media to organize, evade crackdown As protests continue across Turkey against the government\u201d   (4)Wikipedia"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-con03b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"On this point, it may be true that children who get distracted easily use Facebook as an excuse not to study, but that doesn\u2019t mean that social networks are the cause of this phenomenon. These children tend to use them as social networks are very accessible. Almost every single moment you are surrounded by technology that can connect to social networking sites; a smartphone, a laptop or a computer, which you can use to log in on Facebook. Even if it weren\u2019t for these social networks, those kids would likely still be getting 20% worse grades than other students, as they would just find other activities to replace it with. There will be no change in their mentality, perception of learning or process of decision making.  If the student is using Facebook at least there is a chance they are using it productively, for example, by participating in a Facebook group created by a professor for students of a particular class, then the social network may have a positive influence.  Moreover, Facebook makes students feel socially connected, with a greater sense of community. This can be beneficial in boosting students\u2019 self-esteem. Past studies have shown that students who are active on Facebook are more likely to participate in extra-curricular activities.(1)  (1) Julie D. Andrews \u201cIs Facebook Good Or Bad For Students? Debate Roils On\u201d April 28, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-con01b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook enhances people\u2019s lives and brings numerous advantages. Facebook provides information and social support through the creation of a network of friends; sometimes this communication will bring them into contact with material that makes them envious. The need then it to focus on the things in Facebook that are positive. It is clear that people prefer a Facebook which is concentrated around subjects of interest, friends\u2019 updates and funny pictures rather than one which is constantly reminding them about their failures or about their acne.  Therefore, users will try to block any type of harmful information, as generally you dislike being reminded about things that make you feel bad about yourself. At the end of the day, no matter of user, the accent will always be on meeting new people, having fun and making the connection with people that you already know stronger rather than searching for reasons to be envious on other people. If life satisfaction declines when using Facebook more often then users will log in to Facebook less often, but this is far from being a reason to abandon social networks entirely. Facebook is a commercial enterprise: if it is bad for people\u2019s life satisfaction they will vote with their feet. At the moment it is clearly perceived as being positive."}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-con02a","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook has some dangerous consequences  Facebook is becoming more and more integrated into our lives, but unfortunately the uncertainty of who is at the other end of the computer is proving to be a massive threat to our mental and physical safety.  First of all, undoubtedly, rape is one of the most serious and unforgiveable crimes anyone can commit, as it leaves permanent physical and mental scars on women. Unfortunately, Facebook is used by troubled men to take advantage of naive women. They use Facebook in order to get in touch with their victims (often posing as someone who he is not), and after they get to know each other, after he gained the victims trust he deceives her into meeting him, a mistake she\u2019ll regret forever. As physical integrity is one of the rights most fundamental rights, and as Facebook is facilitating the violation of this right, it is absolutely clear that these social networks are detrimental to the society.(1)(2)  Secondly, another level on which Facebook is harmful is cyber bullying. It affects many adolescents and teens on a daily basis. Cyber bullying involves using technology to bully or harass another person. Sending mean Facebook messages or threats to a person, spreading rumours online or posting hurtful or threatening messages on social networking sites are just a few of the ways in which a lot of children get bullied every single day.  \u201cDespite the potential damage of cyber bullying, it is alarmingly common among adolescents and teens. According to Cyber bullying statistics from the i-SAFE foundation:  Over half of adolescents and teens have been bullied online, and about the same number have engaged in cyber bullying. More than 1 in 3 young people have experienced cyberthreats online.\u201d(3)  (1) Justin Davenport \u201cHunt for \u2018Facebook rapists\u2019 before they can strike again\u201d London Evening Standard, 15 November 2012   (2) \u201cTwo men gang-rape girl in Kota after befriending her on Facebook\u201d, Times of India, Aug 21, 2013   (3) Bullying Statistics"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-con03a","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook has a negative impact on learning  For many students, the constant flow of news, status updates, pictures and comments which comes through Facebook every single hour is proving to be a very distracting, which not surprisingly affects their educational progress. It negatively impacts learning. Studies show that students who checked in on social networks while studying had grades that were 20% lower than the grades of those who didn\u2019t.(1)  A 20% difference in grades can be the difference from being awarded a scholarship at a prestigious university at being obliged to enrol in the community college, or very easily between passing and failing. Education is one of the most important things in anybody\u2019s life as it greatly affects future prospects. Of course socialising is important as well but we should try to avoid one negatively affecting the other.  (1) Julie D. Andrews \u201cIs Facebook Good Or Bad For Students? Debate Roils On\u201d April 28, 2011   (2) Larry Rose \u201dSocial Networking\u2019s Good and Bad Impacts on Kids\u201c American Psychological Association August 6, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-con01a","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook is bad for life satisfaction  Every single day, there are millions of users sharing photographs, messages and comments across Facebook. Unfortunately, this type of \u201conline socialization\u201d that Facebook has initiated is nothing but detrimental to the teenagers, the most frequent users of the platform. The emotion which is most common when staying online is envy. \u201cEndlessly comparing themselves with peers who have doctored their photographs, amplified their achievements and plagiarised their bons mots can leave Facebook\u2019s users more than a little green-eyed.\u201d(1)  Not only do they get envious, but they also lose their self esteem. As a result, they have the tendency to be isolated and find it harder to socialize and make new friends due to the bad impression they have for themselves. In a poll, 53 per cent of the respondents said the launch of social networking sites had changed their behaviour - and of those, 51 per cent said the impact had been negative.(2 ) One study also backs this statistics up by finding that the more the participants used the site, the more their life satisfaction levels declined.(3)  In conclusion, daily use of social networks has a negative effect on the health of all children and teenagers by making them more prone to anxiety, depression, and other psychological disorders.(4)  (1) \u201cFacebook is bad for you\u201d, The Economist, Aug 17th 2013   (2) Laura Donnelly \u201cFacebook and Twitter feed anxiety, study finds\u201d The Telegraph, 08 Jul 2012   (3) \u201cFacebook use 'makes people feel worse about themselves' \u201c, BBC News, 15 August 2013   (4) Larry Rose \u201dSocial Networking\u2019s Good and Bad Impacts on Kids\u201c American Psychological Association August 6, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-cpisydfphwj-con02b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"It is absolutely regrettable that men use Facebook in order take advantage of certain women, but we must not forget that because of these very situations Facebook and many NGO\u2019s initiated campaigns to prevent these kind of tragedies happening again(1). Such campaigns have informed thousands of women about the dangers of meeting strangers, both the virtual world and in the real one, and how to avoid them. These campaigns both help women avoid the threat in the first place and encourage them to make sure they are protected, for example by carrying pepper spray, so at the end of the day, a significant number of women are now more protected against being rape because of these social networks. Facebook has clearly not increased the incidence of rape as statistics (2) show that the number of rape cases has dropped dramatically since the start of the world wide web.  Cyber bullying is potentially a problem. On this level too, Facebook recognized the possibility of certain teenagers posting harmful or offending information about another party so it took action in order to try and stop this from happening in the future. As Facebook officials are declaring, they will \u201cupdate the training for the teams that review and evaluate reports of hateful speech or harmful content on Facebook. To ensure that our training is robust, we will work with legal experts. We will increase the accountability of the creators of content that does not qualify as actionable hate speech but is cruel or insensitive by insisting that the authors stand behind the content they create \u201c(2). Facebook has an entire department to try to prevent such cyber bullying. Moreover Facebook is comparatively secure from cyber bullying compared to some sites; it is not anonymous and users can unfriend people and prevent people who they don\u2019t know from accessing their profile.  (1) Facebook   (2) Federal Bureau of Investigation   (3) Facebook"}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro02b","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Cyber attacks might be disruptive, but they do not result in destruction, violence, injury and death the same way traditional armed aggressions do. For the majority of businesses and citizens, disruptions to online baking might be very inconvenient, but they are in no way equal to actual bombings and deaths. Targeted power grids, if they result in power outages, is mostly a discomfort in contrast to actual killings and atrocities that happen during wars. Plus, the infrastructure that really matters in a conflict, such as nuclear plants or military weaponry, cannot be hacked as they are not connected to the internet [13] [14]. Developed countries might be very used to amenities and comfort of online services and computers, however, a definition of armed conflicts as acts of war is much more universal because everywhere a human life is more important than any form of comfort. This is why people have a right to life and not a right to internet."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro02a","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Cyber attacks can do serious damage to the state  Large scale cyber attacks can result in substantial harms to the state equivalent to those of an armed attack. Many states are dependent on flawless functioning of government and financial services online, and attacking them would cause mass disruption. For example, massive cyber attacks can cause serious disruption to economy by targeting financial, banking and commercial services; they can target government websites and steal confidential information that would compromise country's security, as was the case with USA in 2007 [10]; they could target power grids and shut down infrastructure on a massive scale across the country. All these instances cause disruption and leave the targeted country vulnerable with the government unable to operate successfully. This way, for instance, a large scale cyber attack from Russia on Georgia 2008 caused massive disruption to government, banking services, and communication within and outside of the country [11]. For these reasons USA's Pentagon decided to consider a cyber attack that 'produces the death, damage, destruction or high-level disruption that a traditional military attack would cause' an act of war [12]. Given the damage of possible attacks to the state, large-scale cyber attacks should be considered an act of war."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro03b","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"While a modification to international law is needed in terms of acknowledging the gravity of cyber attacks, it does not mean that these should be considered acts of war. There are many things that states do that other states do not like and even find harmful, but these things are not considered to be equal with acts of war. Instead they are things that states need to reach agreements over to control. War is the last possible resort in such cases, there are other less drastic options such as sanctions to encourage the hostile state to desist.[27]  Moreover, it is not true that cyber attacks are not condemned enough. The reason that countries generally do not engage in cyber attacks openly is because of fear of international condemnation [16]."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro01a","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Cyber attacks are no different from traditional attacks  The world has developed along with the new digital medium. Lots of crucial business and government services have moved online. While the military modernised in relation to digital developments, a definition of an act of war has not caught up with it yet. It is now being suggested that the digital domain is the new realm of warfare for the 21st century. States have already been using cyber attacks in hostilities and as acts of aggression against each other. For instance, USA and Israel have released a virus Stuxnet that sabotaged parts of Iran's nuclear programme in 2010, followed by retaliatory cyber attacks by Iran on USA [7]. In the 1998 war over Kosovo the USA successfully hacked Serbia's air defence systems, which left Serbia vulnerable to air attacks [8] [9]. Cyber attacks are thus attacks that can be perpetrated by states against other states in an effort to weaken the other state, the same way armed attacks are used. Given these realities large scale cyber attacks should be considered acts of war."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro01b","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"An important thing about recognising something as an act of war is that it allows countries to retaliate. This includes military retaliation that causes human casualties, and political and economic sanctions, which impose suffering on the civilian population. The crucial difference between armed conflicts and cyber conflicts, is that in cyber attacks people, military or civilians, do not actually get killed. However, if we recognise cyber attacks as acts of war, this would allow an attacked state to retaliate with force resulting in human casualties. There is no way one could equate disruption in computer services to that of loss of human lives, therefore recognising cyber attacks as acts of war would be disproportional and unjust. Serbia's example that included human casualties following a cyber attack is not relevant as the cyber attack was as a part of a larger military attack."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro03a","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Currently there is no way to legally respond to cyber attacks by other states  Currently international law on how a state can respond to cyber attacks by another state is lacking: it only covers cyber attacks during armed conflicts or those are tantamount to an armed conflict [15]. An attacked state thus has no legitimate means to respond to cyber attacks. This leaves them no option of self-defence, which is an important element in international law. Moreover, without international law regulating cyber warfare between states, there is no actual illegitimacy for cyber attacks. Despite their far-reaching and grave consequences, cyber attacks by other states do not feature heavily in the news. Few people actually know about cyber attacks between USA and Iran, which would be an unimaginable situation should these states resorted to military attacks. This apparent lack of condemnation and attention in the wider society to cyber attacks further decreases ability of the state to defend themselves or even call out an aggressor publically as there is little to fear from global opinion for such actions"}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con03b","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"A definition of aggression in traditional warfare is the act that threatens sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another state [26] \u2013 a definition which is expected to be used with cyber attacks too. It is highly unlikely to see a small scale cyber attack corresponding to this definition. For instance, taking down a media web page (as the Syrian Electronic Army did) does not threaten political independence of another state in a way that taking down all the government websites, and thus rendering the state incapable of functioning, does. Recognising that a cyber attack can be an act of war, does not mean that any cyber attack, will be considered such. In practice this same ambiguity is inherent in war \u2013 a country might consider it a casus belli if another\u2019s military chases terrorists onto its territory but this would be similarly ambiguous if there were no casualties and it was not a direct attack."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con01b","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"In case of non-state actors attack, many practitioners in international law agree that the state can still retaliate in self-defence if another state is 'unwilling or unable to take effective action' to deal with attacks coming from within their territory [19]. This applies to traditional warfare, but the same way it can apply to cyberwarfare. If a country is not doing anything, or not doing enough, in order to ensure cyber security and persecute cyber attackers, then the attacked country has a right to take measures against cyber attackers."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con02a","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Cyber attacks are difficult to trace  Cyber attacks are very difficult to trace as cyber attackers hide their digital tracks [20]. Cyber attackers also often launch attacks from poorly protected computers in other countries, which in no way implicates that the state was responsible for attacks \u2013 for instance, roughly 10% of spam comes from computers in China, but that is not Chinese spam [21]. The situation is different with traditional warfare, where there is evidence of weapons used, uniforms spotted, and reports of witnesses on site. Of course, we can expect states to lie about launching cyber attacks, thus China and the USA trade accusations about responsibility for cyber attacks, but there is no good way to test the truth. All of this means that an act of war would be judged based on incomplete and misleading information about another state\u2019s involvement, threatening international peace and resulting in the loss of human life for no good reason."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con03a","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Definition of a large scale cyber attack is extremely vague  Armed acts of aggression are a good method of judging if an action is an act of war because they result in actual destruction, violence and loss of human life. Cyber attacks, on the other hand, do not and thus there is no objective way to tell what scale of a cyber attack is enough to constitute an act of war. While Pentagon claims a cyber attack that is equivalent of damage caused by traditional warfare as a standard, how is it supposed to be applied if pretty much all of the cyber attacks have been bloodless [24]? For instance, stealing large amounts of confidential data from a country is a large scale cyber attack, and could have an immense economic impact, but it is bloodless and so how much damage does there need to be before it can be a casus belli? It is very difficult to measure the impact of even a very evident and intense cyber attack, as NATO found out when assessing a cyber attack on Georgia in 2008 [25]. While the Pentagon might have a nice theoretical framework, in reality there are too many unanswered (and possible impossible to answer) questions. This can lead to abuse of justifications for war and unnecessary violence."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con01a","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"Cyber attacks are often carried out by non-state actors  Cyber attacks are often carried out by non-state actors, such as cyberterrorists or hacktivists (social activists who hack), without any involvement of the actual state. For instance, in 2007 a massive cyber attack launched on Estonia was blamed on Russia due to the then on-going tensions between these two states [17]. However, the attacks on Estonia were generated from all over the world; and even those from Russia could not have been linked to the Russian authorities, who denied involvement. Similarly, a huge wave of cyber attacks dubbed GhostNet that compromised computers in 103 countries in 2009 was blamed on China, not the least for hacking computers of Tibetan authorities. However, it could not be conclusively proven that this was an attack perpetrated by the Chinese authorities [18]. Any retaliation against a state for a cyber attack can never be certain to be against the right target \u2013 the state should not be blamed for the actions of its individual citizens."}
+{"id":"test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con02b","title":"warpeace science internet house would consider large scale cyber attack act war","text":"It is unlikely that states would freely attack other states when there is unclear evidence as to who the perpetrator was. In any country that is going to engage in military action regardless of the reason there is intense public debate this would apply all the more if the reason was novel (for instance, those on interfering against Syria's Assad's regime), so we can expect public scrutiny to apply to cyberwarfare as well.  Furthermore, there are also cases when cyber attacks can be traced to a particular country hostile country or even particular group within the country. This can happen when the country or groups within it themselves admit to the attack, as the Syrian Electronic Army, sympathetic to Assad's regime, cyber attacking USA in 2013 [22]. Or through intensive investigation. Tools to track cyber attacks are also constantly being perfected. For example, IPv6 (the latest version of the internet protocol) is the most effective at decreasing anonymity of cyber attackers [23]. So there are scenarios when cyber attackers are known and can be tracked, and the states have a right to treat them as acts of war."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro02b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Child grooming, and having a sexual relationship with a minor are already criminal offences. If that doesn\u2019t stop a potential predator, breaking the \u2018facebook law\u2019 in the process is unlikely to. A teacher who intends to abuse a child will still find ample opportunity to do so. This law takes a powerful educational tool from the hands of good teachers while doing very little to stop bad ones from acting inappropriately."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro02a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Electronic communication facilitates sexual misconduct.  Social networking websites have proven to be particularly effective for child grooming by pedophiles [1] . Teachers are already in a position of power and trust in the relationship with their students. Being allowed to communicate with students via facebook would greatly facilitate misconduct by a teacher who wants to start an inappropriate relationship with a student, by giving him virtually unlimited access to the students after school. In fact, many such relationships do involve some form of electronic contact1. By banning this form of communication, the law would make it harder for teachers with bad intentions to carry them through.  [1] Choo, Kim. \u201cOnline child grooming: a literature review on the misuse of social networking sites for grooming children for sexual offences\u201d Australian Institute of Criminology. 2009."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro03b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Even assuming the child already knows about the law and therefore that online contact with their teachers is not allowed, which will often not be the case, a child will trust the authority figure closest to him. The teacher can easily convince the child that the rule is not that important or that their relationship is an exception."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro01a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"A teacher-student relationship is not one between friends or equals.  According to Carol Shakeshaft an expert in sexual misconduct by teachers: \u201c[e]ducators who use social media for personal and intimate conversations and contact are not much different from those who spend their time hanging out with students at the beach. You have to ask why a teacher would do this. The honest answer is that it rarely has anything to do with student learning. [1] \u201d Interacting with one\u2019s teachers the same way as with one\u2019s friends, sharing personal information, can only erode the respect and distance that a teacher needs in order to be an authority figure and a mentor for her young charges. Even if such \u2018friendships\u2019 were entirely innocent, they would still cast enough suspicion on the teacher-student relationship to put considerable strain on the teacher\u2019s role as educator and their ability to do the job.  [1] Shakeshaft, Carol. \u201cUsing Social Media to Teach: Keep it Transparent, Open and Safe.\u201d The New York Times. 19 December 2011."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro01b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"This law assumes the worst of teachers and frames all teacher-student interaction in a negative way. Yet so many educators have found contact through social media to be a powerful tool in facilitating learning and expanding knowledge. It may be more appropriate to establish some guidelines for how to use such media safely and professionally, rather than banning their use altogether."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro04b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Teachers should always be careful about what they post and how they portray themselves on the internet, whether they are friends with their students or not. Such pictures might surface even if students don\u2019t have direct access to them. An educator should lead by example and someone who is of dubious moral character may not be the best-suited person to teach at a school in the first place."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro03a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Acting as a warning signal for children at risk.  It is very difficult for a child to realize that he is being groomed; they are unlikely to know the risk1. After all, a teacher is regarded as a trusted adult. But, if the child is aware that private electronic contact between teachers and students is prohibited by law, the child will immediately know the teacher is doing something he is not supposed to if he initiates private electronic contact. This will therefore act as an effective warning sign to the child and might prompt the child to tell a parent or another adult about what is going on."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro04a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Teacher\u2019s personal life might undermine educational message.  Access to a teacher\u2019s private information and photos may lead to weakening her position as an educator. How can a teacher convincingly speak against smoking or substance abuse if students have access to pictures portraying the teacher themselves drinking or smoking [1] ? For example, a principal from the Bronx, who had been trying to impose a strict dress code at her school, was branded a \u2018hypocrite\u2019 by her students when a risqu\u00e9 photo of her was found on her facebook page [2] . And even if the teacher will be careful not to post anything inappropriate on her page, a friend or acquaintance might thereby undermining the teacher. A strict separation of personal and professional life would prevent such incidents from happening.  [1] Preston, Jennifer. \u201dRules to Stop Pupil and Teacher from Getting too Social Online\u201d. The New York Times. 17 December 2011. nytimes.com\/2011\/12\/18\/business\/...\/rules-to-limit-how-teachers-and-students-interact-online.html.  [2] Keneally, Megan. \u201dPupils at scandal hit school post sexy Facebook shot of principal over hallways.\u201d The Daily Mail. 5 December 2011."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con03b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"This shift in the role of the teacher from educator to supervisor may actually negatively affect teachers. What if a teacher sees her students post pictures of themselves in inappropriate circumstances, drinking or smoking or scantily clad? What if she discovers cyber bullying? Does she have an obligation to intervene or contact the parents of the children involved? Might that do more harm than good? What if the teacher fails to act and a child gets hurt? Should the teacher be held professionally or legally responsible for that failure? Until clear guidelines are established on what exactly the responsibility of teachers would be in such a situation, the supervision of social media use by children should probably be left to parents rather than educators."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con01b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Even if this were a great educational tool, some kids may not have access to it. Poverty or a parent\u2019s life style choice might leave kids without access to a computer or the internet, preventing them from joining into such online discussions. This might make them feel more isolated from their peers and leave them behind in their work. The classroom is a space where everyone can be equal and have equal access to learning. The internet may not provide equal access and may hinder some students as a result. The use of such resources may also be to the detriment of other more traditional methods. For example the teacher may feel there is less need to explain homework if anyone who has difficulties while doing the homework can simply ask over the internet."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con02a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"The law would violate freedom of speech and association.  Under this law a random person who the student has never met, even a potential predator, would be allowed to send a message via facebook or twitter. And yet a teacher doing the same thing, regardless of the content of that message, would be instantly committing an offence. Every person is allowed to speak to and associate with whomever they choose. That is a fundamental right that the government is not allowed to take away [1] . A person\u2019s status as a teacher should not be an excuse to violate their rights.  [1] Solove, Daniel. \u201cMissouri Bans Teachers from Friending Students on Social Networking Webistes.\u201d The Huffington Post. 02 August 2011."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con04a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"The law would be hard to enforce.  It would be difficult to find out whether a student and teacher have had contact over the internet. If a teacher were having a relationship with a student, and this law was in effect, both parties would try to conceal it from others and from the authorities. There is then a question about how the state would find out about such behaviour. Would the state be allowed to access private facebook accounts, personal computers, or internet service provider records to make sure teachers and students are not communicating with each other? That would constitute a serious intrusion and privacy violation."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con03a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Teachers can be essential in supervising cyberspace.  Social media has become the primary way in which children interact with their peers. These interactions are largely unsupervised by any adult, and yet they have a fundamental impact on the development of the children involved. Adolescents use social networking websites to gage peer opinion about themselves which may subsequently influence identity formation [1] . With so much cyber bullying happening on such websites, and postings of inappropriate behaviour that may later surface to affect a student\u2019s chances of getting into college or getting a job, it would be useful to have a teacher supervise these interactions to make sure no harm comes to the children involved.  [1] Pempek, Yermolayeva, and Calvert. \u201dCollege students social networking experiences on facebook.\u201d Journal of Applied Developmental Pshychology. Vol. 30. 2009."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con01a","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Social media can be powerful educational resources.  Many teachers have been using social media as an extension of the classroom, some of them setting up discussion pages, or allowing students to contact them about homework or things that they did not understand in the classroom, it allows the teachers to provide extra help whenever the student needs it. This keeps students interested and makes learning fun by using a tool that they are already fond of. The enormous success of tools like \u2018The Khan Academy\u2019, which uses youtube videos to deliver lectures to kids, is proof of that [1] . It also allows even those students who are too shy to speak out in class or ask for help, to participate3. Tools like facebook and twitter have the advantage of being ready-made platforms that lend themselves well to extending classroom discussions through groups, pages, pictures, and videos. Not all schools have access to the funding to set up such pages separately and not all teachers have the skills to create them. It would be a mistake for schools to dismiss their use and their value.  [1] Khan, Salman. \u201dTurning the Classroom Upside Down.\u201d The Wall Street Journal. 9 April 2011."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con04b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"The state wouldn\u2019t need blanket access to teachers\u2019 personal accounts. If suspicions arose that a teacher were breaking the law, as with all cyber-laws, the state could subpoena the information needed as proof. This law would work mainly as a deterrent for teachers to contact their students via social media. Knowing that they\u2019d be committing an offence that could result in sanctions or losing their job, would be a strong disincentive against it."}
+{"id":"test-science-nsihwbtiss-con02b","title":"n science internet house would ban teachers interacting students social","text":"Speech can be restricted in order to protect the vulnerable groups, like children, from harm. Such a law does not attempt to keep educators from communicating or associating with their students. It merely insures such interactions happen in an appropriate manner and forum."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro02b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"Anti-ballistic missile systems are a largely unproven technology, and still have many problems that do not make them a viable option for strategic defense, at least not at present. Furthermore, there is the excessively high cost of designing and building such a system, which has been in development for 25 years. It has cost billions of dollars over the decades, including $53 billion between 2004 and 2009, the largest single line on the Pentagon\u2019s budget for those years. For all this, only an unproven system of questionable efficacy has been produced. It would be better to stop throwing good money after bad trying to develop a technology that may never be useful. Also, even if the technology were made effective, the same technology could be used as a countermeasure by enemy countries against the interception of their missiles, making the system even less effective, if not useless (Sessler, et al., 2000). Furthermore, the system does not protect the vital interests of the United States because it angers countries like Russia, which has actually begun increasing its conventional force distributions on its Western border with the rest of Europe, and to threaten to deploy short-range nuclear missiles on its border. The political destabilization caused by the missile defense program is not worth its ephemeral benefits."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro02a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"A strategic missile defense shield will be an effective defense against ballistic missile attacks targeted at the United States and its allies  The missile defense shield the United States intends to build is the most effective and complete ballistic missile shield ever devised. When fully armed with a complement of anti-ballistic missiles both within the United States itself, and in allied nations in Europe, the shield will be virtually impregnable to external missile attack. This means the chance of a nuclear attack succeeding against it will be very unlikely, reducing the chance not only of a full-scale nuclear war between the United States and another nuclear power, but also against missiles fired by rogue states or terrorists, the biggest threats in terms of actual use of nuclear weapons (The Economist, 2009). Technologically speaking, anti-ballistic missile missiles have developed by leaps and bounds in recent years. The current system being put into operation by the United States is the Aegis combat system, designed for deployment on US Naval vessels. This new development has served to sidestep the problems associated with ground and space-based missile defense arrays, due to the slow response time of ground missiles, and the still unfeasible orbital deployment. The sea-based defense array, furthermore, lacks the problem of the land-based system in that it does not need to be placed in countries other than the United States in order to be effective (thus avoiding the political problems of the past). Technology and diplomacy have clearly made a national missile defense system highly desirable."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro03b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"Nuclear capability has historically created more stable international relations between countries, as described in the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). The United States and Russia never engaged one another in open conflict during the whole span of the Cold War, for example, for fear of setting off a nuclear cataclysm neither could survive (Waltz, 1981). MAD breaks down, however, with the advent of national missile defense systems. This is due to the fact that when a state cannot guarantee its second-strike, or even first-strike capability it becomes vulnerable. Countries without missile defense systems will be defenseless against those that have them. Furthermore, as the technology is disseminated and more countries possess missile defense systems, stability decreases as it will become a gamble as to which country can more successfully counteract the offensive and defensive missile systems of the enemy. Missile defense makes the world less, not more safe."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro01a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"As a matter of principle, every country, including the United States, has the right to defend itself to the best of its technological and economic ability  The nation-state is the fundamental building block of the international system, and is recognized as such in all international treaties and organizations (Mearsheimer, 1993). States are recognized as having the right to defend themselves, and this right must extend to the possession of a strategic national missile defense system. The United States has every right to develop such a system if it will furnish a greater measure of defense for its citizens and interests. US military technology is the most advanced and prodigiously financed in the world, which is why it is generally the United States that stands at the forefront of new defense and combat systems. The National Missile Defense program is simply the newest tool in the arsenal of the world\u2019s greatest military, whose purpose is entirely defensive. To shield itself from potential ballistic missile, and even nuclear, attack the United States has the right to build a missile shield to defend itself and its allies under its aegis. There is no principled justification for a country to not pursue defense initiatives that benefit itself and that it wishes to pursue."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro01b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"It is not always within the right of a state to develop weapons and technology, since international treaties ban, for example, the development of chemical and nuclear weapons. Furthermore, when the development of weapons will be detrimental to the state that builds them, it is in their interest no to do so. In the case of national missile defense, the United States is angering several countries, particularly Russia, and potentially upsetting the balance of mutually assured destruction (Harding, 2007). Clearly more than a right to self-defense must be considered when developing new kinds of armament."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro04b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"Conventional war is a nasty thing, and can be just as destructive as nuclear war, if not as immediate. The threat of war is only increased with the breaking down of MAD, as countries will be able to engage one another without fear of the existential threat of nuclear holocaust. Furthermore, if many countries have access to missile defense systems they will likely be able to employ countermeasures against their enemies\u2019 systems, bringing the chance of nuclear weapons deployment back to the fore."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro03a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"A robust missile defense shield will provide the protection previously afforded by the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction, allowing the US to dismantle much of its dangerous nuclear arsenal  With a fully functioning missile defense shield deployed, nuclear-armed ballistic missiles become obsolete, unable to ever reach their targets. This means countries\u2019 strategic obsession with second-strike capacity, the ability to return fire with nuclear weapons should they be attacked by them (Mutually Assured Destruction), will cease to be an issue, as first-strikes are destined to be wiped out before they hit a single target. What this means is that countries with missile defense systems can feel secure without the need of retaining massive nuclear arsenals. This will alleviate the pressure to have stockpiles of warheads and will promote disarmament. Mutually Assured Destruction has become a far less secure strategy as nuclear proliferation has occurred to states with different strategic conceptions. This has been seen in the United States, which since its full adoption of the Aegis system has actively pursued a policy of reaching a new accord with Russia on nuclear arms reduction. This culminated in 2010 with the signing of the New START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty), an accord to reduce the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers by half (Associated Press, 2011). This new step toward nuclear disarmament could not be politically possible in the United States without a replacement defense, which only a national missile defense system can provide."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-pro04a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"Strategic missile defense technology is substantially more advanced and discriminating in application than nuclear weapons, making potential future wars less potentially devastating  An operational national missile defense system renders nuclear weapons, and intercontinental ballistic missiles generally, obsolete. When a country can shoot down all enemy missiles, those weapons lose their power. The future of war, once countries have access to the technology to build missile shields, will no longer be marked by fingers held over the proverbial red button. Rather, the incentive for conflict between states armed with effective missile defenses will be to seek diplomatic solutions to problems. The technology will likely be in the hands of many nations very soon, as the United States has already provided the technology to Japan and Australia, and will be building defense batteries in Romania from 2015 (McMichael, 2009). Furthermore, even should war break out, they will necessarily be far less destructive, as they will not feature the city-leveling power of nuclear missiles. With missile defense, war will be less likely and, should it occur, less destructive."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-con03b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"While missile defense technology still has problems that need to be worked out, its future is very promising. The most recent technology, Aegis, is far more effective in testing than its predecessors and has been deployed on a number of Navy warships and in Japan and Australia (McMichael, 2009). The technology will with time become extremely effective at stopping enemy missiles. In a world with more and more countries developing nuclear weapons, many who oppose the United States and its allies, it is imperative that the United States has an effective defense against them. A missile defense system is the most promising such defense."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-con01b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"MAD is not an effective means of maintaining world security. It relies upon states being too afraid to ever attack one another with nuclear weapons, but the risk of one doing so remains, irrespective of the doctrine. In terms of deterring conventional warfare, that assumes that the state being attacked would chose mutual destruction over potential, transitory subjugation. MAD has too many inherent risks and raises the very real chance, as weapons amass and proliferate, of their being used (Sagan, 1993). National missile defense systems provide a very real defense against not only full-scale attacks by other states, but against nuclear-capable rogue states, such as North Korea, which is seeking to develop intercontinental ballistic missile technology of its own. Should North Korea ever be able to attack the United States or its allies with nuclear weapons, the world will need the ability to counter it. National missile defense is simply a strategic necessity of the modern world in which nuclear weapons may fall into the hands of unstable, aggressive states who might actually try to use them."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-con02a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"The political consequences of the system make the world less safe  Many countries look upon the national missile defense program of the United States as a serious threat to their security. Russia stands at the forefront of this group, and has for several years actively opposed the development of an anti-ballistic missile technology. If the program is a success and only the United States and its close strategic allies possess the ability to develop such defenses, they will have a marked advantage over all other countries in terms of fighting ability, as the United States would be able to use its own ballistic missiles to intimidate and attack its opponents while being effectively immune to retaliation. Fears over the development of the system have led Russia to make extremely threatening postures on its European border; when the United States planned to deploy a battery of interceptor missiles in Poland in 2008, Russia responded by increasing troop numbers along its European borders and even threatened to deploy its own battery of short-range nuclear missiles on the border (Harding, 2007). This sort of conflict is extremely dangerous, and raises the chance of international conflict escalating into war. Such an outcome is extremely undesirable, and the defensive capabilities of a missile shield are not enough to warrant such risks. Furthermore, the United Nations has sought to end research into anti-ballistic missile technology, and has on several occasions called on the United States to stop its testing (Reuters, 1999). Much of the international community fears the instability that might arise from the breaking down of the current world order of nuclear deterrence between states."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-con03a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"The system is an incredibly expensive venture that may not even work  Research and development of effective strategic defense systems has been ongoing since the Reagan administration, to little lasting benefit. The US government has spent hundreds of billions of dollars in the past two decades on developing missile defense technology, including nearly $60 billion in the past five years, and still it is incomplete and its effectiveness questionable. Many scientists have attested to the ineffectiveness of missile defense, as it currently stands. It is very difficult to hit a flying missile with another missile, and test-runs of the technology have been patchy at best (Sessler et. al., 2000). The dream of an effective missile defense shield that can successfully intercept enemy intercontinental ballistic missiles has yet to come to fruition. It would be better to stop throwing good money after bad and to fold up the project entirely."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-con01a","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"Mutually Assured Destruction breaks down when national missile defense systems are introduced, destabilizing world security:  Nuclear weapons create stability, as described in the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Countries with nuclear weapons have no incentive to engage in open military conflict with one another; all recognize that they will suffer destruction if they choose the path of war (Waltz, 1981). If countries have nuclear weapons, fighting simply becomes too costly. This serves to defuse conflicts, and reduce the likelihood of the outbreak of war. When states have nuclear weapons they cannot fight, making the world a more peaceful place. Furthermore, armed with a nuclear deterrent, all states become equal in terms of ability to do harm to one another (Jervis, 2001). If a large state attempts to intimidate or to invade a smaller neighbor, it will be unable to effectively subdue it, since the small state will have the power to seriously injure, or even destroy, the would-be invader with a few well-placed nuclear missiles (Mearsheimer, 1993). The dynamics created by MAD are entirely lost when national missile defense systems are brought into the equation. Anti-ballistic missile missiles effectively eliminate the surety of MAD; it becomes a gamble of whether one\u2019s nuclear arsenal will be able to penetrate the missile shield of the enemy. This increases the chance of a nuclear war, since an aggressor state can count on its missile shield to deflect the second-strike attempted by its opponent. Furthermore, in the case where both states in a conflict have missile defense arrays, as will likely occur as the technology is disseminated, the outbreak of war is also more likely, since each will try to race the other to the ability to counter each other\u2019s offensive and defensive missiles. Clearly, the technology will only destabilize world relations, not offer greater security."}
+{"id":"test-science-dssghsdmd-con02b","title":"defence science science general house supports development missile defence","text":"The United States has rarely bent the knee to international pressure with regard to issues directly affecting its security, nor should it. Not only does the United States have a right, as do all states, to defend itself against any potential foreign aggression, it is also the primary purveyor of the public good of international security, policing the sea lanes and serving as the United Nations\u2019 primary peacekeeper (Brooks and Wohlforth, 2008). This role places the United States in particular danger because it means it often contends with, and gains the enmity of, some of the most dangerous groups in the world. North Korea, for example, has been at odds with the United States for many years. Furthermore, the United States\u2019 development of a missile defense shield has allowed it to feel safer. It is thus more willing to engage in dialogue concerning and implementation of nuclear arms reduction programs, as occurred with the recent New START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) with Russia (Associated Press, 2011). This reduction is in compliance with the wishes of the United Nations, and is arguably more important for international security. Additionally, in the case of Russia, the United States has been able to reach a compromise by which Russia will not oppose its sea-based missile defenses, so long as they are not built on land on the Russian frontier."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-pro02b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"There are many ways to correct for the dearth of some works on the market such as orphan works. By simplifying copyright law, reducing lengths of copyright and more robust searches for legal provenance can all help correct for the shortfalls without eroding an important part of law and material rights. Or indeed the law might be revised simply to free works that have unclear ownership from copyright by default. Creators should retain, no matter how annoying it may be to would-be enjoyers of their work, control over their artistic output. Artists\u2019 creations are fundamentally their own, not the property of the state or society."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-pro03b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Choosing to release one\u2019s work into the viral market may be a shrewd business and artistic move, or it might not. All of this depends on the individual artist and the individual work. Nine Inch Nails both has the money that they can afford to take the risk and the name recognition that means they can be sure some fans will purchase the music, this is not the case with most artists. Thus the decision can really only be made effectively and fairly by the artists themselves. Trying to usurp that choice through a state mandate only serves to undermine the artist\u2019s creative vision of how he or she wishes to portray and distribute their work to the world."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-pro01b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Although ideas are not tangible intellectual property generally, and copyright in particular, is far from a fiction. Rather it is a realization of the hard work and demiurgic force that sparks the generation and fulfilment of artistic endeavour. The property right assigned over these things to their creators is a very real one that recognizes their fundamental right over these works as owners, and the right to profit from them. The artist must have the right to prevent even non-commercial use of the idea if it is to maintain its value and so retain for the creator the ability to commercialise it. These protections are critical to the moral understanding of all property and must be rigorously protected, not eroded for the benefit of some nebulous notion of social good."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-pro04b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"It may be costly and sometimes ineffective to police copyright, but that does not make them any less of a right worth protecting. If artists or firms feel that they might benefit from fighting infringers of their rights, they should have the right to do so, not simply be expected to roll over and give in to the pirates and law breakers. The state likewise, has an obligation to protect the rights, physical and intangible, of its citizens and cannot give up on them simply because they prove difficult and costly to enforce. Furthermore, the ensuring health of the economy is a primary duty of the state and this means aiding its domestic businesses and one of the ways it does that is by acting to enforce copyright both internally and if possible externally."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-con03b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Few artists ever see much profit from their work anyway, many choosing the life of bohemian squalor in order to keep producing art rather than taking up more profitable pursuits. Vincent van Gogh sold almost nothing, but his drive to create never abated. No doubt the true artists will continue to feel the urge to create under this policy, and the loss of a few marginal cases must be weighed against the massive losses to art in general, such as the huge curtailment of exploration of and response to existing works, which are often artistically meritorious in their own right, and also the rendering unavailable of much of the artistic output of the world."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-con01b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"People deserve recompense for their work, but the stifling force of current copyright prevents the proper sharing and expansion of the artistic canon, to the intellectual and spiritual impoverishment of all. Creative commons licenses strike an important balance, by leaving artists with the power over commercial uses of their work, including selling it themselves, while permitting it to permeate the public sphere through non-commercial channels. This is the best way to weigh these competing needs in a complex society. It is not preventing the creator from profiting from his work. It is not a total abrogation of people\u2019s rights, but a giving over of some rights for the benefit of all."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-con04b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Artists rarely make all that much money in the first place, and a great many only work as an artist part time. More importantly, they can still profit from their art, since they retain exclusive commercial rights to their work. Oftentimes they will actually benefit from operation under a creative commons license because it provides wider dispersal of their work, which builds a broader name and market for their work."}
+{"id":"test-science-ascidfakhba-con02b","title":"arts science censorship ip digital freedoms access knowledge house believes all","text":"Upon entering the public arena works of art take on characters of their own, often far different than their original creators did, or could have, imagined. The art is consumed, absorbed, and reimagined and takes on its own identity that the artist cannot claim full ownership over. It is important that art as a whole be able to thrive in society, but this is only possible when artists are able to make use of, and actively reinterpret and utilize existing works. That art does, due to its origination belong more to the people, who should have access, even if the artist, like Beckett has bizarrely rigorous feelings about the work."}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro02b","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"The fears about GM food have been nothing more than a media spin. The media have created a story about nothing due to headlines such as 'Frankenfood'. Simply because people are scared they assert that there are not enough testing of the benefits of GM foods.  The proposition is mainly falling into a media trap because at the moment all reasonable precautions are being taken for ensured safety. There is no reason why many different strains of GM crops cannot be produced and planted - where this is not happening at present, it should be.  However, the need for many different strains is not an argument against some or all of those being GM. Adding or removing genes from natural varieties does not make the rest of their DNA identical. Furthermore, there is no concrete scientific evidence of what harm is done by the spreading of GM pollen. [1]  All these effects are considered when a genetically modified crop is to be approved for agricultural use, if a product would cause any of the above mentioned effects, it would not be approved. [2]  [1] Open Forum on Agricultural Biotechnology in Africa, Biotechnology FAQ, Would the spread of GMO traits into traditional maize be a serious problem ?,  , accessed 09\/07\/2011  [2] Bionetonline.org, Is it safe to grow genetically modified foods ?,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro02a","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"Genetically modified food is a danger to eco-systems.  GM foods also present a danger to the environment. The use of these crops is causing fewer strains to be planted. In a traditional ecosystem based on 100 varieties of rice, a disease wiping out one strain is not too much of a problem. However, if just two strains are planted (as now occurs) and one is wiped out the result is catastrophic. In addition, removing certain varieties of crops causes organisms, which feed on these crops, to be wiped out as well, such as the butterfly population decimated by a recent Monsanto field trial. [1] This supports the concerns that GM plants or transgenes can escape into the environment and that the impacts of broad-spectrum herbicides used with the herbicide tolerant GM crops on the countryside ecosystems have consequences. One of the impacts was that the Bacillus Thuringiensis toxin was produced by Bt crops (GMOs) on no-target species (butterflies), which lead to them dying. [2]  Another concern is also that pollen produced from GM crops can be blown into neighboring fields where it fertilizes unmodified crops. This process (cross-pollination) pollutes the natural gene pool. [3] This in turn makes labeling impossible which reduces consumer choice. This can be prevented with the terminator gene. However, use of this is immoral for reasons outlined below. Furthermore, not all companies have access to the terminator technology.  [1] Whitman D., Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful, published April 2000,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011  [2] WWF Switzerland, Genetically modified Organisms (GMOs): A danger to sustainable development of agriculture, published May 2005, www.panda.org\/downloads\/trash\/gmosadangertosustainableagriculture.pdf , p.4 , accessed 09\/02\/2011  [3] Whitman D., Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful, published April 2000,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro03b","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"The immoral behavior of some people towards this technology is not a reason to ban it unless it can be shown that more harm than good is caused. This research is important to deal with global climate change which is reducing the landmass of the earth that can grow food, whilst the global population is rising.  Regulation may be better than outright banning, as we do with many aspects of business. For example gene patenting and the discovery of new genes is an area very similar to genetically modified foods. In the US gene patenting is allowed and when the company Myriad Genetics found the gene BRCA1 and BRCA2 (connected with breast cancer) and made too many restrictions on the use of it (so it hurt people in general), the court stepped in and allowed others to use it, gave them more rights over the \u201cpatented product\u201d. [1] With this we see, that there can always be regulation of products if a company attempts to profit out of the misery of others. The same can be done with GMOs. If the company is demanding too high prices, preventing farmers from doing their work, the courts and legal system can always step in. Just because one company acts unethically, this does not mean that all must. There is a market for ethical consumerism, so the actions of a few corporations are not a reason to ban GMOs entirely.  [1] Nature.com, Testing time for gene patents, published 04\/15\/2010,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro01a","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"Genetically modified food is too new and little researched to be allowed for public use.  There are two problems associated with scientifically testing the impact of genetically modifying food. The first is that 'Peer review' (the checking of scientific test results by fellow scientists) is often made impossible by the unwillingness of biotechnology companies to give up their results for review. [1]  Furthermore, government agencies are often unwilling to stop GM foodstuffs reaching the shelf because of the clout that the companies have with their government. So in regards to research, there have not yet been unbiased findings showing that GMO crops are safe.  It is true, that in the US, there have been no adverse consequences from over 500 field releases in the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) evaluated in 1993 data on genetically modified organisms regarding safety claims. The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) believes that the USDA evaluation was too small scale, to actually asses the risks. Also many reports also failed to mention or even measure any environmental risks connected with GM food commercialisation. [2]  Also, there are a number of dangers associated with the food itself, even without scientific evaluations. For example, the addition of nut proteins to soybeans caused those with nut allergies to go into shock upon eating the soybeans. Although this was detected in testing, sooner or later a transferred gene will cause risk to human health because the scientists did not conceive it could be a problem. [3] This will become a greater problem as more modifications are introduced. There are also possible dangers associated with the scientific technique itself by which the DNA is modified, an example is the spread of antibiotic resistance.  [1] Pusztai A., Genetically modified foods: Are they a risk to Human\/Animal Health ?, published June 2001,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011  [2] Shah A., Is GE food safe ?, Global Issues,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011  [3] European Federation of Biotechnology, Allergies from GM food, published September 2000,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro01b","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"This debate should be decided on the basis of hard facts, not woolly assertions and environmental sentiment. Until scientific tests show there to be some real risk of harm from farming and eating GM food there is no case for a ban or a moratorium.  Not only is genetically modification well understood but extensive testing is applied to every new GM foodstuff before it is placed on the market.  The European Food Safety Authority explains that tests of GMOs include a comparative assessment between the GMO and its non-GMO counterpart and there is a case by case evaluation of every single GMO entering the market \u2013 however, because products are so different there is no \u201cby the book\u201d procedure for testing. [1]  Researcher Nina Fedoroff from the Penn State University explains: \u201cGenetically modified foods are as safe to eat as foods made from plants modified by more traditional methods of plant breeding. In fact, they are very probably safer, simply because they undergo testing that has never been required for food plants modified either by traditional breeding techniques or by mutagenesis, both of which can alter a plant's chemical composition.\u201d [2]  [1] European Food Safety Agency, FAQ on genetically modified organisms,  , accessed 09\/05\/2011  [2] Pacchioli D., Are genetically modified foods safe to eat ?,  , accessed 08\/28\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro03a","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"GMOs would create too much dependency on biotechnology companies  The legislative framework and historical behavior governing and guiding the operation of big business is geared towards maximizing shareholder returns. This propensity has been demonstrated time and again and might suggest that the GM companies are not modifying the food in the interests of better health, but of better profit. This is reinforced by the nature of many of the GM modifications, including terminator seeds (infertile seed requiring a re-purchase of seed stock each season), various forms of pest and herbicide resistance potentially leading to pests (and weeds) resistant to the current crop of chemical defenses. One of the more disturbing manifestations of this is the licensing of genes that are naturally occurring and suing those who dare to grow them, even if they are there because of cross contamination by wind-blown seeds or some other mechanism. [1] One has only to look at the history of corporations under North American and similar corporations\u2019 law to see the effect of this pressure to perform on behalf of the shareholder. The pollution of water supplies, the continued sale of tobacco, dioxins, asbestos, and the list goes on. Most of those anti-social examples are done with the full knowledge of the corporation involved. [2]  The example of potato farmers in the US illustrates big company dependence: \"By ''opening and using this product,'' it is stated, that farmers only have the license to grow these potatoes for a single generation. The problem is that the genes remain the intellectual property of Monsanto, protected under numerous United States patents (Nos. 5,196,525, 5,164,316, 5,322,938 and 5,352,605), under these patents, people are not allowed to save even crop for next year, because with this they would break Federal law of intellectual property. [3]  [1] Barlett D., Monsanto\u2019s Harvest of Fear, published May 2008,  , accessed 08\/27\/2011  [2] Hurt H., The Toxic Ten, published 02\/19\/2008,  , accessed 09\/05\/2011  [3] Pollan M., Playing God in the Garden, published 10\/25\/1998,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-con01b","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"Genetic modification is unnatural. There is a fundamental difference between modification via selective breeding and genetic engineering techniques. The former occurs over thousands of years and so the genes are changed much more gradually. Genetic modification will supposedly deliver much but we have not had the time to assess the long-term consequences. [1] A recent study by the Soil Association actually proves that many of the promises companies gave were false. GM crops did not increase yield. Another example is a frost-resistant cotton plant that ended up not ripening. [2] GMOs do not reliably produce the benefits desired because we do not know the long term effects of utilizing them. Given the risks, we should seek to ban them.  [1] Pusztai A., Genetically modified foods: Are they a risk to Human\/Animal Health ?, published June 2001,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011  [2] University of Alberta, Genetic Ethics Lecture, published Fall 2008,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-con02a","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"Genetically modified organisms can solve the problem of food supply in the developing world.  The possible benefits from GM food are enormous. Modifications which render plants less vulnerable from pests lead to less pesticide use, which is better for the environment. Other modifications lead to higher crop yield, which leads to lower food prices for all. However, This technology really comes into its own in developing countries. Here where water is at a shortage, modifications (which lead crops to needing less water), are of vital importance. The World Health Organization predicts that vitamin A deficiency, with the use of GMOs, could be wiped out rapidly in the modern world. The scientists developed the strain of rice, called \u201cgolden rice\u201d, which produces more beta-carotene and this way produces 20 times more vitamins than other strains, creating a cure for childhood blindness in developing countries. [1]  The fact that it has not is illustrative of the lack of political and economic will to solve these problems. GM food provides a solution that does not rely on charity from Western governments. As the world population increases and the environment deteriorates further this technology will become not just useful but necessary.  [1] Black R., GM \u201cgolden rice\u201d boosts vitamin A, published 03\/25\/2005,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-con03a","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"Genetically modified organisms will prevent starvation due to global climate changes.  The temperature of the earth is rising, and the rate of increase is itself increasing. As this continues, foods that grow now will not be acclimatized to the hotter conditions. Evolution takes many years and we simply do not have the time to starve while we wait for this to occur. Whilst there may be a vast supply of food now, we need to look to the future and how our current crops will withstand our changing environment. We can improve our food supply for the future if we invest in GM crops now. These crops can be made specifically to deal with the hotter conditions.  Moreover, Rodomiro Ortiz, director of resource mobilization at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre in Mexico, is currently conducting trials with GM crops to get them to grow is drought conditions. [1] This has already in 2007 been implemented by Monsanto in South Africa and has shown that genetically modified maize can be grown in South Africa and so prevent starvation. [2]  In other countries, this would also mean that foods could be cultured where organic foods would not be able to. This would mean those in third world countries could grow their own crops on their low nutrient content soil. This has the additional benefit of not impacting on the environment as no transport would be needed to take the food to the places where it is needed; this would have to occur with organic foods grown in areas of good soil and weather conditions. [3]  [1] Ortiz R., Overview on Crop Genetic Engineering for Drought-prone Environments, published December 2007,  , accessed 09\/05\/2011  [2] African Center for Biosafety, Monsanto\u2019s genetically modified drought tolerant maize in South Africa,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011  [3] Rosenthal E., Environmental Costs of Shipping Groceries around the World, published 04\/26\/2008,  , accessed 09\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-con01a","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"Genetically modified food is no different from any other scientific advance, thus should be legal to use.  Genetic modification is entirely natural. The process of crop cultivation by selective breeding, which has been performed by farmers for thousands of years, leads to exactly the same kind of changes in DNA as modern modification techniques do. Current techniques are just faster and more selective. In fact, given two strands of DNA, created from the same original strand, one by selective breeding and one by modern modification techniques it is impossible to tell which is which. The changes caused by selective breeding have been just as radical as current modifications. Wheat, for example, was cultivated, through selective breeding, from an almost no-yield rice-type crop into the super-crop it is today. [1]  [1] Trewas A. and Leaver C., How Nature itself uses genetic modification,Published January 6 2000, Nature,  , accessed 09\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-science-sghwbdgmo-con02b","title":"science general house would ban development genetically modified organisms","text":"GM food will do nothing to help solve the problems in developing countries. The problem there is not one of food production but of an inability to distribute the food (due to wars, for example), the growing and selling of cash crops rather than staple crops to pay off the national debt and desertification leading to completely infertile land. Bob Watson, the chief scientist at the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), has stated that GM technology is oversold. The problem is not that there is not enough food, but that the food that is available is not being distributed. \u201cToday the amount of food available per capita has never been higher, how costs are still low, and yet still around 900m people go to bed hungry every night\u201d [1] . Instead of money being invested into genetic modification, what should be looked at is which areas allow food to go to waste and which areas need food, and then a redistribution needs to occur. Better transport and roads is where money should be invested. Not with potentially hazardous GM crops.  In addition, the terminator gene prevents the farmer from re-growing the same crop year after year and instead must buy it annually from the producer. Abolishing the terminator gene leads to the other problem of cross-pollination and companies demanding reparations for the \u201cre-use\u201d of their crops.  [1] Sample I, Nearly a billion people go hungry every day \u2013 can GM crops help feed them?, published 01\/23\/2009  , accessed 09\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro02b","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"It is incredibly unlikely that any randomly selected member of a particular group would be attempting to commit a crime. Racial, ethnic and identity groups are extremely large. Terrorist organisations, even al Qaeda, rarely contain more than a few hundred members. The relative proportion of individuals belonging to any particular identity group who also belongs to a terrorist organisation is likely to be impossibly small.  The impact of the perceptions of the communities involved, however, would be significant, allowing for accusations of racism and persecution.  Statistically, profiling would have very little impact: in 2005, US Airlines carried 745.7 million passengers. [i] Faced with figures like that random stoppages make far more sense.  Although exact figures are not available even if just two or three million fell within the profile group, it would be impossible to search all of them. The use of profiling, however, as a result of the PATRIOT Act, led to, among others, the late Sen. Ted Kennedy being stopped; it does not and cannot work. [ii]  [i] \u20182005 Total Airline System Passenger Traffic Up 4.6 Percent From 2004\u2019, Research and Innovative Transport Administration, 2006,   [ii] \u2018Senetor? Terrorist? A Watch List Stops Kennedy at Airport\u2019, Swarns, Rachel L., The New York Times, 20 August 2004,"}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro02a","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"Profiling would have caught many of the perpetrators of terrorism in recent years.  Profiling takes account of many more characteristics than an individual\u2019s ethnicity. Targeted checks would have caught, for example, the so called Christmas Day Bomber. Individuals who pay in cash for a one way flight while carrying no luggage, as Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab [i] did, are a fairly small group and it makes sense to target them.  Profiling is a great deal more subtle than a decision to target a single ethnic group. It is entirely possible to identify patterns in the behaviour of terrorists, drug mules and smugglers, and to respond to that accordingly.  Obviously, the more refined the profile can be, the better. It is incredibly unlikely that an affluent, Caucasian businessman with a return ticket for the following day is either a suicide bomber or a drug smuggler. Both common sense and statistics show this to be the case.  [i] \u201cObama vows to repair intelligence gaps behind Detroit airplane incident\u201d. The Washington post, 30 December 2009."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro03b","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"The scale of flights in Israel- both domestic and international- is tiny. Compared with the North American and European aviation markets, screening passengers entering and leaving Israeli territory requires an entirely different approach. Equally the racial diversity of Tel Aviv is quite different to New York and London.  The Pew Research Centre estimates that there are 2.6 million Muslims living in the US [i] , a number equal to twice the population of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv combined. The pressures on airports between a small state in the Middle East and the transportation hubs of the US and Europe are totally different. The very account cited by Proposition talks about some passengers being interviewed for up to half an hour, that is a rather different prospect when dealing with JFK or Heathrow. It is just not a practical solution.  [i] \u201cThe future of the global muslim population\u201d. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, January 2011."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro01a","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"When you know terrorists are likely to be members of particular national and ethnic groups, it is simply more practical to focus searches on those groups.  The reality is that all of the major terrorist attacks against Western targets in recent years have been perpetrated by young, Muslim men. It doesn\u2019t require any prejudice at all to realise that they are the most sensible group to check and recheck.  Although it is important to respect people\u2019s rights and liberties regardless of ethnicity or religious belief, a sensible security policy must force police officers and security officials to make decisions based on factual information. Everybody- including most members of the groups identified by profiling- has an interest in not being blown up on an aeroplane. They will, therefore, accept that this is a regrettable necessity. Airport staff can only stop so many people and it makes sense to target groups that terrorists are likely to be part of."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro01b","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"The presumption of innocence is a principle worth defending and an important part of this is rejecting policing strategies that assume certain groups are more likely to be engage in criminal activity than others. In the last ten years, a few dozen people, at most, have been involved in terrorist acts at airports. Meanwhile, millions upon millions of young, Muslim men have flown across continents and oceans without the slightest disruption.  It is both unfair and foolish to target a single group as being more likely to contain terrorists. It builds resentment among the group concerned and is unlikely to reveal any practical results because of the numbers concerned."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro03a","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"The experience of Israel proves that profiling works  Israel has been using profiling for decades to identify those individuals at airports that should be stopped, questioned and have their luggage thoroughly checked [i] .  Despite the massive threats that Israel faces, the Israeli state does not feel the need to invade the privacy of most passengers because they simply know what and who they are looking for. This approach has meant that, despite high odds, hijackings and bombings are not the routine affairs on El Al flights that one might expect it to be.  As the focus for terrorist atrocities has now become the US and the UK, it simply makes sense to follow the example of a nation that has been such a target since its creation.  [i] \u201cExposing hostile intent\u201d. SecuritySolutions.com."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-con03b","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"This opposition argument is potentially contradictory. It argues that the majority of Muslims are reasonable people and then, on the other hand, that the moment reasonable security measures are put into place there will be a massive increase in radicalised young people willing to act as suicide bombers.  Everybody accepts that security checks are necessary at airports and for the most part they are applied universally. However, if opposition is correct, it would seem absurd to suggest that millions of reasonable people would suddenly take affront at the simple fact that they happen to be part of a social group that has an unusually high number of rogue elements. Indeed, suggesting such a thing could be construed as a racist act; implying that the people concerned are in some way incapable of reaching this regrettable, if logical, conclusion."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-con01b","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"The use of the term \u201cracism\u201d suggests that assumptions made by screeners are based on prejudice, not fact. Profiling, which takes far more than race into account, has a solid basis in fact. It is entirely sensible to attempt to prevent criminal acts by being particularly cautious in the investigation of those groups and individuals that are most likely to pose a risk to other passengers.  Risking the lives of innocent passengers in the name of political correctness is simply absurd. These are measures that protect the security of thousands of passengers at the cost of minor inconvenience to a few.  Any reasonable traveller- Arab or not- would accept that there is a reason for these actions in the same way that passengers realise that delays caused by security controls and passport checks are an unavoidable nuisance in an era of routine international travel."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-con02a","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"Randomly checking passengers\u2019 identities is much safer than allowing terrorists to know in advance who the authorities are seeking.  Making statements in advance as to who is likely to be stopped at airports is the most dangerous action any government could take. There are innumerable ways in which it would be possible to perform a terrorist act, and random checks mean that all possible routes are equally likely to be apprehended.  By contrast, actively and visibly subjecting members of particular ethnic groups to stricter security checks will enable terrorists to determine where surveillance in airports is at its most lax. The most dangerous terrorist groups operate on an international level, recruiting attackers from a wide range of backgrounds and ethnic groups. It would therefore be comparatively easy for an organisation such as al Qaeda to mount an attack using only individuals who do not conform to the authorities\u2019 profile of a potential terrorist.  More importantly random checks mean that all people, regardless of the background, age or appearance are equally deterred from considering criminal or terrorist acts.  On the basis that it would be impossible to search everyone at a major international airport, the deterrence factor offered by random stops is far more effective than searching a tiny proportion of a designated group."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-con03a","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"Profiling exacerbates terrorism as it reinforces the perception that Muslims and marginalised ethnic groups face prejudice.  The reality is that if a plane can be held up with a box-cutter, a broken glass bottle from duty free or flammable alcohol from the same source could be just as threatening.  However, increased use of air marshals- armed plainclothes police officers who travel secretly on certain flights- means that even these desperate tactics are likely to be ineffectual.  Institutionalising prejudice and assumption will add legitimacy and grativas to terrorist propaganda that seeks to radicalise curious or confused young people.  Not only is profiling ineffectual, it is likely to exacerbate the situation."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-con01a","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"Profiling is simply institutionalizing racism an reduces minorities to the status of second class citizens  Profiling is, in the end, simply wrong. Britain suffered for decades from the \u2018innocent until proven Irish\u2019 attitude of their security forces, which did nothing but engender resentment among Irish individuals who were trying to live and work in the United Kingdom. For western nations to make the same mistake in their approach to Muslims would be the gravest folly.  Aviation authorities are, ultimately, under the control of the state, and if a government announces that they consider all members of a group to be potential criminals, it sends out a very provocative message."}
+{"id":"test-society-tsmihwurpp-con02b","title":"terrorism society minorities inequality house would use racial profiling part","text":"In other areas of enforcement it is routine to use simple common sense when identifying security risks. A group of students coming off a cheap flight from Amsterdam are simply more likely to have illegal drugs in their possession than a group of pensioners returning from a tour of museums in St Petersburg.  Of course it is important that airport authorities should be vigilant and avoid making damaging assumptions, but that is no reason for them to be reckless.  There are a limited number of people that can be stopped and searched or questioned at an airport; wasting that time on passengers who are extremely unlikely to pose any threat presents a substantial risk of peoples\u2019 lives and safety."}
+{"id":"test-society-cpisydfphwj-pro02b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"It is true that a society in which information is widely available to the public is desirable, but what must be recognized that this argument of \u201csocial platform publicity\u201d encounters two main problems.  First of all, unless your information is lucky enough to go viral if you really want efficient online advertising you will have to pay for it, even when it comes to social networks. \u201cWhen Facebook launched its log-out screen ads, reports suggested it was charging $700,000 for them, but in reality they came bundled with a homage ad commitment, too. Buyers say they\u2019re now selling log-out ads standalone for around $100,000.\u201d(1). As a result, you can hardly call them \u201cfree\u201d.  Secondly, online advertising comes merely as a back-up or as an addition to full-time campaign ads. No matter what kind of event we are talking about, if it is of general interest, the information will be distributed to the population. It will be either promoted by the company itself, if we are talking about a massive price discount for the new Toyota, or by the local or national media, if we are talking about a concert or a sporting event. The information will be more efficiently transmitted through advertising mechanisms, as this allows the targeting of certain groups of individuals who are interest in those events rather than relying on people stumbling onto a Facebook page. For example posting an ad announcing a new soccer competition in a sports magazine will be more effective as we know the readers will be interested. There are other means which serve the purpose of promoting information, the promoters will pick the best ones, which may or may not mean Facebook.  (1) Jack Marshall \u201cWhat Online Ads Really Cost\u201d, February 22, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-society-cpisydfphwj-pro03b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"There are immense problems with using Facebook to facilitate protests in oppressive regimes. Firstly, due to the anonymity of users, it would be extremely easy for government forces to disguise themselves as being protesters and find out future protest locations, thus allowing them to be one step ahead every time to crush the protest before it starts. Second of all, if all of these fail, the government could always shut down ISPs (Internet Service Providers), exactly in the way the Egyptian forces did. Their mistake was that they didn\u2019t shut them down soon enough, but it won\u2019t be repeated by future oppressive governments as they have the Arab Spring\u2019s example.(1) [1]  Surely, it is of great importance that people express their opinions through any means possible, even through mass protest. For this reason, over time western societies were shaped to encourage any discontented individual to express his or her view. We allowed the media to be free, it being the so called \u201cfourth estate\u201d due to its ability to pinpoint and underline any problem regarding government policies or actions. There is no need for Facebook or Twitter or any kind of social network to reveal any discontent in the population as we already have the media who is doing this. All the news agencies and TV stations are always looking for the sensational, looking for places where the government has failed in order to attract audience. One of the best ways of doing this is by polling and trying to reveal any group of individuals who were either discriminated or hurt by the government. As a result, if there are the necessary reasons for people to start protesting, we shouldn\u2019t worry about people not finding out that other individuals share their views as we have the media, one of the most influential elements of the society who is actively trying to do that.  (1) Marko Papic and Sean Noonan \u201cSocial Media as a Tool for Protest\u201d ,Stratfor, February 3, 2011   [1] For more on this see \u2018 This House would use foreign aid funds to research and distribute software that allows bloggers and journalists in non-democratic countries to evade censorship and conceal their online activities \u2019 and \u2018 This House would incentivise western companies to build software that provides anonymity to those involved in uprisings \u2019"}
+{"id":"test-society-cpisydfphwj-pro01b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"On this point, there are two levels of analysis which will demonstrate that, at the end of the day, Facebook has a detrimental effect on one\u2019s social abilities.  First of all, of course having a lot of friends has numerous advantages and it is undoubtedly beneficial to one\u2019s development, but being active on a social network isn\u2019t an indispensable prerequisite for this. As an individual, you can meet, talk, connect and share feelings and emotions in real life with your friends without any problems. People nowadays are not more socially bonded than before the appearance of Facebook and other social networks, because what Facebook did was merely shifting the face-to-face socialization to an online version of it. Moreover, you don\u2019t need the \u201cRock Fans\u201d group on Facebook in order to meet new people who are also interested in rock music, as you have real rock events and concerts where you can meet with people with whom you have shared interests and thus expand your friend group.  Secondly, when using social networks as a tool to socialize, teenagers tend to rely too much on them, getting comfortable chatting behind a glass monitor, but this can mean having problems exiting this comfort-zone. This happens as you feel less exposed if you are not talking to someone in person, but when you are forced to socialize in the real world you feel uncomfortable and awkward. As a result, their ability to socialize is diminished even more."}
+{"id":"test-society-cpisydfphwj-con03b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"On this point, it may be true that children who get distracted easily use Facebook as an excuse not to study, but that doesn\u2019t mean that social networks are the cause of this phenomenon. These children tend to use them as social networks are very accessible. Almost every single moment you are surrounded by technology that can connect to social networking sites; a smartphone, a laptop or a computer, which you can use to log in on Facebook. Even if it weren\u2019t for these social networks, those kids would likely still be getting 20% worse grades than other students, as they would just find other activities to replace it with. There will be no change in their mentality, perception of learning or process of decision making.  If the student is using Facebook at least there is a chance they are using it productively, for example, by participating in a Facebook group created by a professor for students of a particular class, then the social network may have a positive influence.  Moreover, Facebook makes students feel socially connected, with a greater sense of community. This can be beneficial in boosting students\u2019 self-esteem. Past studies have shown that students who are active on Facebook are more likely to participate in extra-curricular activities.(1)  (1) Julie D. Andrews \u201cIs Facebook Good Or Bad For Students? Debate Roils On\u201d April 28, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-society-cpisydfphwj-con01b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"Facebook enhances people\u2019s lives and brings numerous advantages. Facebook provides information and social support through the creation of a network of friends; sometimes this communication will bring them into contact with material that makes them envious. The need then it to focus on the things in Facebook that are positive. It is clear that people prefer a Facebook which is concentrated around subjects of interest, friends\u2019 updates and funny pictures rather than one which is constantly reminding them about their failures or about their acne.  Therefore, users will try to block any type of harmful information, as generally you dislike being reminded about things that make you feel bad about yourself. At the end of the day, no matter of user, the accent will always be on meeting new people, having fun and making the connection with people that you already know stronger rather than searching for reasons to be envious on other people. If life satisfaction declines when using Facebook more often then users will log in to Facebook less often, but this is far from being a reason to abandon social networks entirely. Facebook is a commercial enterprise: if it is bad for people\u2019s life satisfaction they will vote with their feet. At the moment it is clearly perceived as being positive."}
+{"id":"test-society-cpisydfphwj-con02b","title":"computers phones internet society youth digital freedoms privacy house would join","text":"It is absolutely regrettable that men use Facebook in order take advantage of certain women, but we must not forget that because of these very situations Facebook and many NGO\u2019s initiated campaigns to prevent these kind of tragedies happening again(1). Such campaigns have informed thousands of women about the dangers of meeting strangers, both the virtual world and in the real one, and how to avoid them. These campaigns both help women avoid the threat in the first place and encourage them to make sure they are protected, for example by carrying pepper spray, so at the end of the day, a significant number of women are now more protected against being rape because of these social networks. Facebook has clearly not increased the incidence of rape as statistics (2) show that the number of rape cases has dropped dramatically since the start of the world wide web.  Cyber bullying is potentially a problem. On this level too, Facebook recognized the possibility of certain teenagers posting harmful or offending information about another party so it took action in order to try and stop this from happening in the future. As Facebook officials are declaring, they will \u201cupdate the training for the teams that review and evaluate reports of hateful speech or harmful content on Facebook. To ensure that our training is robust, we will work with legal experts. We will increase the accountability of the creators of content that does not qualify as actionable hate speech but is cruel or insensitive by insisting that the authors stand behind the content they create \u201c(2). Facebook has an entire department to try to prevent such cyber bullying. Moreover Facebook is comparatively secure from cyber bullying compared to some sites; it is not anonymous and users can unfriend people and prevent people who they don\u2019t know from accessing their profile.  (1) Facebook   (2) Federal Bureau of Investigation   (3) Facebook"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro02b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"If there is no equal access to education and training opportunities, this measure does not address gender inequality. On the contrary, gender quotas are likely to bring inefficiencies because companies face sanctions if they do not abide by the legislation.  Introducing this legislation on the overall population of the EU rather than simply on matters regarding qualified women will introduce impediments to businesses across sectors. The EU member states uphold gender equality in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. Therefore, women do not face particular institutional obstacles to their employment. On the contrary, they have the legal support of the EU law.  Moreover, evidence shows the effects of quotas are distortive. In the case of Sweden, the short-term effects of quotas suggest some negative impact on firm returns. The companies had to reorganise their activities to compensate for this consequence. [1] Even in Norway, many firms changed their status (e.g. they moved to other countries) to avoid the sanctions for non-compliance while those who introduced the compromise experienced a relative decline in annual profits over assets associated with the quota. [2]  [1] Pande, Rohini & Deanna Ford, \u201cGender Quotas and Female Leadership: A Review\u201d , Background Paper for the World Development Report on Gender, 2011  [2] Matsa, David, and Amalia Miller. \"A Female Style in Corporate Leadership? Evidence from Quotas.\" American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 30 April 2012"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro02a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"More women in the labour market leads to higher GDP  By introducing gender quotas to ensure gender equality, one could not only increase the labour force by bringing more women but also enhance the labour productivity and the available talent pool in a country. This would stimulate businesses to expand, innovate, and compete. This process has an effect of raising tax revenue and social security payments. The overall effect is the positive growth of the economy.  Therefore, addressing social injustice and higher economic returns are mutually supportive goals.  This argument is particularly relevant for qualified women who could be hired at executive positions, but are prevented from doing so due to cultural beliefs, societal practices, and lack of economic and institutional support. A study by Asa L\u00f6fstr\u00f6m on the links between economic growth and productivity in the labour market argues that if women\u2019s productivity level rises to the level of men\u2019s, Europe\u2019s GDP could grow 27% which makes women\u2019s participation is of crucial importance to Europe\u2019s economy. [1] Quotas would allow for a better utilisation of the talent pool; as currently, 59% of the students graduating from Europe\u2019s higher educational institutes are women. [2] With the current access to education and the introduction of quotas against barriers of existing prejudices, women will have incentives and support to increase their productivity  In the case of Norway, the quota law requires all public, state-owned , municipal, inter-municipal and cooperative companies to appoint at least 40% women on their boards per 2008. The law led to a fast increase from 6% women on boards of public limited companies in 2002 to  36% in 2008. [3]  [1] L\u00f6fstr\u00f6m, Asa. Gender Equality, Economic Growth and Employment. Swedish Presidency of the European Union, 2009. Web.  [2] European Parliament, \u201cGender Quotas in Management Boards\u201d, 2012  [3] Working Paper: \u201cThe Quota-instrument: Different Approaches across Europe\u201d. N.p.: European Commission\u2019s Network to Promote Women in Decision-making in Politics and the Economy, 2011. Web."}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro03b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"There is no clear and conclusive statistical data to support the long-term link between quotas and women\u2019s participation on highest executive positions. The introduction of quotas around the world has not increased the number of women on high positions in some male-dominated sectors and there is no certainty that such policy measures in the EU will change the current status quo. For example, despite the 40% increase in women in executive positions, there was no significant change in the number of female CEOs .  Moreover, there should not be a one-size fits all binding quota, but member states should come with their own rules that change gender mentality in the respective country. Gender equality and women\u2019s choice of career have cultural and industry-specific implications which common gender quotas do not address"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro01a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Gender equality is based on fundamental human rights endorsed by the EU which needs to be addressed  Gender equality at the workplace is an important principle that businesses should follow. If we consider men and women to be equal then they should be equally represented at the top levels of politics, society, and business. This is not simply a national issue, but a pan-EU problem of justice and equal rights. Gender equality is linked to the fundamental human rights that the EU endorses and the lack of progress in terms of women in high positions of Europe requires a proactive stance. As Morin-Chartier argues, the EU directives are about being a model for one another and the quotas will serve as an archetype for others worldwide. Therefore, the quotas are necessary to encourage progress in this field as other tools have not brought equal gender representation."}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro01b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Gender equality comes from the society. Businesses operate in a different way than the overall society and imposing quotas on them will not necessarily change the gender inequality. Businesses require skills to expand and progress and, therefore, quotas undermine them by affecting their employment process. At the same time, these measures do not address the origins of inequality which are linked to tradition and cultural background of a society and thus, will not bring progress in this field."}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro04b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"It is difficult to evaluate whether a business institution change its values due to the increased number of women on board. On the contrary, companies stick to their values and hire people who behave according to them.  Also, it may be early to measure the positive impact of the quotas in Norway. A University of Michigan study found that the increased presence of women on boards in Norway led to slight losses in companies\u2019 value. [1] One of the possible reasons is that women hired after the quotas implementation often had less upper management experience than the employees hired before that and who had to leave their posts, so companies could fulfil the quotas.  [1] Sweigart, Anne. \"Women on Board for Change: The Norway Model of Boardroom Quotas As a Tool For Progress in the United States and Canada.\" Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 32.4, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro03a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Quotas encourage women to pursue education and professional job positions  Quotas attempting to maximise the number of educated and skilled women in executive positions could improve corporate performance and help raise national productivity. But doing so will depend on keeping ambitious, well-qualified women moving up the management ranks. Gender quotas will encourage more women to pursue education and career options leading to the top of executive positions. Quotas create incentives for women to adapt their job preferences to the more accessible boardroom positions and develop necessary skills which would reduce the need for positive discrimination in the future. Encouraged to develop relevant skills, women will contribute to the long-term talent pool and the economy. According to McKinsey report, women\u2019s interest in being leaders increases as they progress from entry level to middle management [1] which is exactly what the principle behind quotas aims to encourage - more women following professional career development. This is very important in the short run during which, according to research, women who have high position stimulate other women\u2019s interest in traditionally male-dominated sectors and encourage them to pursue similar career paths. [2]  [1] Barsh, Joanna, and Lareina Yee. \"Unlocking the Full Potential of Women in the US Economy.\" McKinsey & Company. N.p., 2011. Web .  [2] Australian Human Rights Commission, \u201cWomen in leadership\u201d"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro04a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Quota-led gender equality in executive boards will help shape a gender sensitive and highly performing business environment.  There are many reports showing that there is a positive correlation between the number of women on high positions and the companies\u2019 performance. A report from The McKinsey Organizational Health Index (OHI) argues that companies with three or more women in top positions (executive committee and higher) scored higher than their peers. Companies that score highly on all the OHI measures have also shown superior financial performance. [1]  This is often related to the high overall education level of women on boards. In Norway, there has been some advancement in firms\u2019 human capital as a result of the quotas, [2] which may result in increased profits in the future due to the increasing number of well educated women.  Female managers tend to promote a communal and collaborative style of leadership that can improve a company\u2019s performance and work culture. Organizations with women in top leadership positions are also more likely to provide work-life assistance to all employees. [3] Norwegian scholars have found that the increased number of women on boards has led to more focused and strategic decision-making, increased communication, and decreased conflict. [4] In fact, many successful business women, such as Sheryl Sandberg, also argue that more women in business could change business ethics and the male-associated image of successful business model that will bring competitive advantages to companies and thus, to the EU economies. [5]  [1] Barsh, Joanna, and Lareina Yee. \"Unlocking the Full Potential of Women in the US Economy.\" McKinsey & Company. N.p., 2011. Web .  [2] Sandberg, Sheryl, Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead, New York, 2013  [3] Matos, Kenneth, and Galinsky, Ellen, \u201c2012 National Study of Employers\u201d, Families and Work Institute, 2012, p.45  [4] Sweigart, Anne. \"Women on Board for Change: The Norway Model of Boardroom Quotas As a Tool For Progress in the United States and Canada.\" Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 32.4, 2012  [5] Sandberg, Sheryl, Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead, New York, 2013"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con03b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Binding quotas are more effective than most of the other tools, particularly voluntary quotas. Member states, however, could implement any other policy instrument they find suitable alongside the quotas. Yet, binding gender quotas bring quicker results especially in the short run. According to the a report on gender quotas published by the European Department, they are the most successful mechanism to narrow the gender gap in corporate boards and achieve the economic targets by giving the progress on women\u2019s participation on boards. Once targets are reached, policy instruments of positive discrimination will be abolished; therefore, gender quotas are the optimal solution due to their quick effects as in the case of Norway. [1]  [1] European Parliament, \u201cGender Quotas in Management Boards\u201d, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con01b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Gender equality in the work force will most certainly have a positive effect on the economy. The US economy would have been 27% smaller without women expanding their job share from 37% to 48% between 1970 and 2009, women went from holding 37% of all jobs to nearly 48%. [1] In addition, the economic history of OECD shows that a large proportion of post-war economic growth was due to the increased presence of women in the labour market. [2] The introduction of quotas will ensure this more skilled women working in many industries which will help these industries expand. A study by Asa L\u00f6fstr\u00f6m on the links between economic growth and productivity in the labour market argues that if women\u2019s productivity level rises to the level of men\u2019s, Europe\u2019s GDP could grow 27% which makes women\u2019s participation is of crucial importance to Europe\u2019s economy. [3] Such growth is crucial for the EU in the context of the economic crisis.  [1] Barsh, Joanna, and Lareina Yee. \"Unlocking the Full Potential of Women in the US Economy.\" McKinsey & Company. N.p., 2011. Web .  [2] Sweigart, Anne. \"Women on Board for Change: The Norway Model of Boardroom Quotas As a Tool For Progress in the United States and Canada.\" Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 32.4, 2012  [3] L\u00f6fstr\u00f6m, Asa. Gender Equality, Economic Growth and Employment. Swedish Presidency of the European Union, 2009. Web."}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con02a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Public and private institutions should hire people based on skills not gender to achieve positive economic impact  Businesses advance when they hire the best person for a job who can unite people and create value. These qualities are individual and enhanced through training rather than not gender-specific. Letting both private and public companies to hire according to their needs and those who meet them is a more efficient way to ensure economic growth.  In some countries in the EU the proportion of women with relevant education is lower and such a measure will bring structural inefficiencies in the short to mid - term for the companies and the overall economy. The empirical data from Norway, for example, reveals that after being exposed to a severe limitation on their choice of directors, boards experienced large declines in value. [1] Often women hired after the quotas implementation had less upper management experience than the previously hired employees. However, since the average size of boards did not increase, male employees were dismissed and less experienced female professionals hired, so that companies could fulfil the quotas.  [1] Ahern, Kenneth, and Amy Dittmar. \"The Changing of the Boards: The Impact on Firm Valuation of Mandated Female Board Representation.\" The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2012."}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con03a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"There are other policy options that are less distortive and more advantageous for the economy.  Quotas are discriminatory and could be anti-constitutional in countries like France while there are other policy instruments that could be easier to implement.  Rather than implementing quotas as a top-down approach, for example, there could be more access to capital and less regulatory obstacles for starting businesses for women. However, women in OECD enterprise account for an average 30% of all entrepreneurs and there are more self-employed or firm-owners. These gender gaps are particularly large in Ireland, Iceland, and Sweden. [1] Entrepreneurs or individuals starting up new firms are crucial to productivity in all countries. In the OECD area, the levels of entrepreneurship are highest in countries showing the fastest growth. The number of women entrepreneurs, as seen in female to male start-up ratios, is also growing fastest in these countries, which include the United States and Canada. Enhanced access to credit and less red tape for women-owned ventures is a promising source of business and job creation without the distortive effects of quotas on business competitiveness.  Other non-legislative instruments encouraging gender equality in companies are labels, awards, charter signing, and rankings. [2] They do not require externally imposed structural changes but stimulate companies to commit to gender equality in a manner acceptable to them.  Moreover, even if quotas are implemented, they should be flexible and voluntary. A one-size fits all binding quota scheme could easily harm more national economies than it would help. Even by implementing voluntary rather than obligatory quotas in addition to existing national efforts for gender equality, the EU could avoid economic distortions and constitutional complications.  [1] OECD, \u201cGender and Sustainable Development: Maximising the economic, social and environmental role of women\u201d, 2008, p.35  [2] European Parliament, \u201cGender Quotas in Management Boards\u201d, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con01a","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"There is no clear link between gender quota and economic growth  As Pande and Ford found in their report, countries often adopt gender quotas as a response to changing attitudes to women. However, these countries more often than not are Western advanced economies characterised by efficiency. [1] Therefore, the correlations between gender quotas and good economic performance cannot be attributed entirely to the gender equality measures.  Moreover, the competitiveness of the EU economies is damaged by domestic policies and the sovereign debt crisis which will have a larger negative impact on the European economies rather than this measure. Therefore, the expected spillover effects on the economy are unlikely to be realised. [2]  Such sceptic views on quotas when accompanied by bad economic factors are shared by international institutions like the International Labour Organisation (ILO). Breaking the glass ceiling may require affirmative action like gender quotas, but if supply-side barriers remain, even such proactive policies will not necessarily lead to the desired result of gender equality and economic advantages. [3]  [1] Pande, Rohini & Deanna Ford, \u201cGender Quotas and Female Leadership: A Review\u201d , Background Paper for the World Development Report on Gender, 2011  [2] ibid  [3] Gerecke, Megan, \u201cA policy mix for gender equality? Lessons from high-income countries\u201d, International Labour Organisation, 2013, p.13"}
+{"id":"test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con02b","title":"gender house believes gender quotas eu are advantageous economies member states","text":"Inefficiencies related to outcomes are not necessarily related to the quotas. There are other factors affecting a company performance regardless of changes in staff, such as the general conditions of the industry, national and world economies. The quotas allow for flexibility in terms of technical solutions to different types of companies and ensure women candidates are successful in being selected for a certain share of eligible places. It does not aim to undermine advantages of existing decision-making, but to bring a change in the corporate world and to strengthen EU\u2019s competitiveness by using the full capacity of its talent pool. There are more women (59%) than men graduating from European universities [1] and their talent is underutilised at high decision-making levels where they are necessary. Quotas that are legally binding will bring quick results in that regard.  [1] European Parliament, \u201cGender Quotas in Management Boards\u201d, 2012"}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro02b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Pornography does not objectify people, for they are portrayed as acting. Objects do not act, subjects do.  Telling people what they cannot do is a greater loss of identity than any way by which they may be portrayed by pornography, for only the latter can be challenged.  Sex is not negative towards women, repression is, sex is liberating not dehumanizing! The only thing that is dehumanizing is the belief that natural impulses as sex should have negative moral conotation, including the expression of it(in this case porn)."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro02a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Porn is inherently dehumanising  Pornography necessarily objectifies people: it presents a sexual desire, an urge, which is immediately attended by another person, often performing acts which we would find demeaning, until the original urge is satisfied. The use of others for pleasure treats them as means to one\u2019s own ends, and denies them any value as rational subjects with a will of their own. This affects, naturally, the participants in pornography, but also their viewers who adopt corrupted notions of what to value in others, and furthermore other women who are later affected by men using the same metric to interact with them."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro03b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Women may indeed be harmed through these ideals. However, all forms of media, fashion posters, [1] and razors, all carry the same risk of people potentially hurting themselves with it. This is not grounds for a ban.  Furthermore, placing the blame on pornography for this kind of attitudes is very problematic in that it removes responsibility from the real culprits in society, the men who treat women in this manner when they are not acting.  [1] See the debatabase debate \u2018 This House would ban sexist advertising \u2019"}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro01a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"The feminist movement should not allow women to sell themselves  In most cases, pornography is not entered into willingly. Similarly to prostitution, the sale of one\u2019s own body and one\u2019s dignity is so drastic that consent is often not sufficiently informed to be legitimate. There are patriarchal structures in society that force women into these industries, particularly when they are vulnerable and this seems to be a good last resort. This leads to a loss of integrity, a strong stigma in society, and most importantly, abusive conditions in the production process. As well as high risks of unwanted pregnancies or sexually transmitted diseases, violent sex practices and abusive conditions after filming often occur (Lubben). [1]  Furthermore, the harms of pornography do not exclusively affect the consenting participants. Other women across the world who are not supporting this industry are equal victims of society and the norms promoted by pornography of how women should be, and how it is acceptable to treat them. These people have not consented.  [1] Lubben, Shelley. \u201cEx-Porn Star Tells the Truth About the Porn Industry.\u201d Covenant Eyes. 28 October 2008."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro01b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"What is the difference between working as a pornographic artist and working as a street sweeper, or someone who unblocks the drains? Neither of those is an ideal job, and will rarely be a youth\u2019s first career option. Both involve the use of my body for a sometimes unpleasant task. Yet one of them is considered dehumanising, and the other a valuable service to society. The fact is there is little difference between pornography and any other job. The comparison to prostitution is invalid: the key problem faced by prostitutes is the lack of security, since it is set in contexts that make them particularly vulnerable to violence and abuse.  In pornography, health and security risks such as STDs are addressed in many countries, and can be done so more: in California, for instance, porn actors are required to wear condoms on set. These problems can be tackled in the same way as is the failure to comply with regulations in any other industry. Non-consensual sex, violence, extreme pornography, and child pornography, are all illegal: the problems with pornography must go beyond these (Section 63 - Possession of extreme pornographic images). [1]  [1] \u201cSection 63 - Possession of extreme pornographic images.\u201d Criminal Justice and Immigration Act. 2008."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro04b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"We live in a society in which no judge will recognise \u201cI saw it on the TV\u201d as a valid excuse for a crime. We allow people to watch violent films believing they will be able to distinguish between pornography and reality. For cases such as Ted Bundy, clearly issues other than pornography must have been at play: there have to be pre-existing anti-women values and, in such extreme cases, mental instability.  Furthermore, the link between pornography and violence is not intrinsic; it is nothing the feminist movement cannot change through greater influence and\/or restrictions."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro03a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Pornography fuels unreachable ideals  Pornography presents a distorted perception of people, sexuality, and relationships, which has a further effect on a broader societal level. It promotes unreachable ideals of how both women and men should be in bed, and pushes both in the direction of what is idealised in pornography. This may push men to be more dominating than otherwise and women to suffer from anorexia, low self-esteem, and promiscuity. We can expect women to be the most affected by this, simply because the porn industry is owned almost entirely by men, and because there are pre-existing patriarchal structures in society ready to promote the idea that women are there to serve men.  Altogether, pornography merely promotes a new stereotype: that women are generally happy to have sex at any time, that they will respond positively to any man\u2019s advances, and if a woman does not, there is something wrong with her."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro04a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Pornography eroticises violence  Many forms of media are often accused of inciting violence, promoting stereotypes, or indoctrinating in some form or another. While this is contentious, the key principle that \u2018sex sells\u2019 is more obvious. Pornography is not like other media in that, while most other films are aimed at entertainment, this is aimed at arousal. That is, it is aimed at immediate and fully selfish pleasure, which is much more forceful and addictive than mere laughter.  The psychological effect of pornography is harmful due to the associations it conditions its audience to make. It eroticises violence through portrayals (fake or genuine) of rape and a general treatment of women that is comparable to torture, yet presented in a context that necessarily biologically excites its viewers. Through continuous exposure to the link between abuse and intense pleasure, this link is easily extended to personal relationships. The master-slave dialectic suddenly becomes acceptable. Compulsive rapists, such as Ted Bundy, are often found to have consumed mass amounts of pornography (Benson). [1] More subtle, yet certainly still present is the force of such associations on young teenagers who have not yet had a sexual relationship and rely on pornography for guidance. This has a potentially massive impact given that 11 is the average age of first internet porn exposure (Techmedia Network). [2]  [1] Benson, Rusty. \u201cVile Passions.\u201d AFA Journal August 2002.   [2] Techmedia Network. Feminist Porn Award."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con03b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Even if achieving a fully effective ban is impossible, it is the responsibility of the feminist movement to take a stance and not condone practices that harm women in practice and promote dangerous messages. Making it illegal will limit it at least an extent, and due to all the harms pornography causes the smallest improvement is an important goal.  It is an exaggeration to claim pornography would have such an effect. The reasons for banning pornography would be the same as for banning prostitution (coercion issues for the participants) and other forms of media that incite to directly offensive acts towards particularly vulnerable people.  It is, rather, the actual sexual culture and view of people\u2019s relationships promoted by pornography that leads to higher levels of rape and harassment."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con01b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"The consent women supposedly show in the pornographic industry is no more valid than it is considered in prostitution or sex trafficking. Non-pornographic actresses are often coerced into pornography by their agents or producers. The pornographic industry preys on vulnerable parties: poor, psychologically vulnerable, or dependent people.  Furthermore, even if some do give full consent, this does not apply to all the women who are forced into prostitution or pornography, raped, sexually harassed, or generally oppressed as a result of the harms produced by pornography. Pornography makes the emancipation of women from men impossible, and the feminist movement cannot condone it even at the expense of a few women who want to express themselves. Other safer forms of art exist for this purpose."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con02a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Pornography liberates women  Pornography is massively produced and distributed: this provides women with a vast platform through which to define their sexual identity. This has been a great tool in the past: in the 1920\u2019s America, the flapper became a great role model for women by promoting revolutionary values of a strong, sexual woman: she danced wildly in jazz clubs, was openly lesbian, and sexually active. This image spread throughout the country thanks to the boom of the film industry in the Roaring Twenties (Rosenberg). [1] Now pornography plays, or at least can play, this same role.  Pornography breaks the taboo of sexuality for women, and promoting the continuation of taboos is a label and a stereotype which the feminist movement must oppose. Instead, it should use pornography to spread its values. There is nothing intrinsic about pornography that makes it anti-women. There is female-friendly pornography, and in fact there are Feminist Porn Awards granted every year since 2006 (Techmedia Network). [2] There is also homosexual porn and porn that presents women as dominant: this can empower women and break current stereotypes, not only that women are not sexual, but that women in general cannot be powerful in society. The feminist movement should seek to promote this flow of ideas of what gender can be and allow women to influence the way their sexuality is perceived by men.  [1] Rosenberg, Jennifer. Flappers in the Roaring Twenties. About.com,   [2] Techmedia Network. Feminist Porn Award."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con04a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"The feminist movement cannot afford to alienate itself from society  The term \u2018feminism\u2019 is often associated with men-hating and the radical view that women are superior to men as opposed to gender equality. This happens because extreme feminists who uphold such opinions are consistently given greater media coverage by virtue of having the loudest voices and creating headlines that sell. As a result, the feminist movement is currently lacking the support it deserves and even those who take feminist positions often don\u2019t want to call themselves feminists. (Scharff) [1]  It would be a bad move for it to further radicalise itself and attempt to ban something as present in society as pornography. It will never work, and it will merely make women and men more reluctant to espouse feminist ideologies for fear of being associated with a \u2018hate group\u2019.  [1] Scharff, Christina, \u201cMyths of man-hating feminists make feminism unpopular\u201d, Economic & Social Research Council, 7 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con03a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Attempting to ban it would only cause further problems  There is no guarantee that a ban on pornography would improve gender stereotypes: in fact, it seems to be quite the opposite. Pornography is a flourishing industry with incredibly high demand, and much like with prohibition in the past, it is na\u00efve to believe a ban can make a difference. It is actually even harder with pornography, because of the ease through which it can be distributed through the net. Rather, a ban would expand the black market with all the problems that come with it today: child and non-consensual pornography, violence, unhealthy conditions, and a general lack of regulations. Furthermore, the extent that a ban could ever limit pornography, this would lead to further problems. On one hand, the feminist movement sends a worrying message that sex is harmful to women, and by extension that sex is for the benefit of men. Restoring a taboo on sexuality actively confines women to being dominated in bed, and in society in general.  Secondly, if pornography is limited, the vessels through which men can satisfy their sexual urges are also restricted. This can lead, at best, to greater sexual harassment, greater pressure on women to provide sexual services, and to more infidelity. At worst, and most probably, it leads to higher levels of rape."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con01a","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"Freedom of expression is essential for women  Social movements should limit themselves to pushing for the rights of social groups, not restricting them. The feminist movement, as a social movement, should not limit the voices of women in the same way their oppressors have throughout history. Banning pornography would directly restrict the freedom of choice of women who want to manifest their sexuality and express themselves in revolutionary ways in art and media. Examples such as amateur and improvised porn, which are independent of a director, show the deep value of self-expression and self-definition women can find in this form of art. The desire of some actresses to become internationally recognised as \u2018sex symbols\u2019, become porn stars, or simply convey that sex is for women too, is a legitimate one, and not an act of desperation. This must be taken into account in cases of pornography between consenting adults, for consenting adults."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con04b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"The feminist movement must, above all, strive to protect the people who are oppressed by anti-women structures in society: it cannot ignore the problems women face. Social movements are there because the rights of minorities in society are being ignored: they are necessarily going against the flow of public opinion, and sometimes they need to be radical in order to uphold the rights others ignore. A big problem requires big changes."}
+{"id":"test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con02b","title":"media modern culture pornography society gender family house believes feminist","text":"It is simplistic to assume that the problems women face now, are the same that they faced in the 1920\u2019s. All they have in common is that, in some sense, women are used for men\u2019s ends. In the 1920\u2019s it was primarily as housewives, but now, it is as sexual objects. The kinds of images of women employed in advertisement and most kinds of media testify to this, and in pornography these views are expressed in a particularly forceful way.  Furthermore, it is a misconception to say that pornography can lead to revolutionary gender stereotypes when fundamentally it depends on stereotypes, the sexy teacher\/nurse\/friends\u2019 mother being common themes. Through pornography, the best women can achieve is to jump through one label to another. Why? Because it is an industry fundamentally controlled by men, for men.  As a result, furthermore, there can be no self-expression when you are doing what a director (often male) tells you to do.  Even if the feminist movement has in fact succeeded in promoting their values in a portion of pornographic films, this will have no effect if people do not watch it. There is nothing to indicate that soft, female-friendly pornography will be more appealing to men than what is currently all over the net: over 100,000 sites offer illegal child pornography, and over 10,000 hard-core pornography films are released every year and the numbers increase exponentially (Techmedia Network). [1]  [1] Techmedia Network. Internet Pornography Statistics. TopTenReviews, n.d."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-pro02b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Again employment needs to be contextualised with what type of jobs are provided and entered into. It remains questionable as to whether the mental health of women improves if women are employed to work within hazardous work environments, or where there is no job security.  For example domestic workers remain vulnerable to different abuses - such as non payment, excessive work hours, abuse, and forced labour. Women may be vulnerable to gender based violence on their way to work. Furthermore, street traders are placed in a vulnerable position where the right to work is not respected. The forced eviction and harassment of female street-traders is a common story, underlined by political motivations. A recent example includes the eviction of street hawkers in Johannesburg [1] .  [1] See further readings: WIEGO, 2013."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-pro03b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"For rights to be granted women need to be able to have a position within trade unions, and policy change is required.  A recent study shows fewer women than men are found in trade unions across eight African countries looked at in a study(Daily Guide, 2011). The greatest degree of women\u2019s involvement was from teacher and nurses unions, however, there remains a lack of representation at leadership levels. The lack of a united, or recognised, women\u2019s voice in trade unions undermines aims for gender equality and mainstreaming for those women who are working.  Additionally, at a larger scale, policy change is required. Empowerment cannot occur where unequal structures remain - therefore the system needs to be changed. Governments need to engender social policy and support women - providing protection, maternity cover, pension schemes, and security, which discriminate against women and informal workers."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-pro01b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"The relation between employment, money, and household poverty is not a simple correlation when we consider the type of jobs women are entering. In developing countries work in the informal economy is a large source of women\u2019s employment (Chen et al, 2004). In the case of Sub-Saharan Africa, 84% of women in non-agricultural work are in the informal economy (ILO, 2002). Only 63% of men work in the informal economy. Women represent a large proportion of individuals working in informal employment and within the informal sector. Informal employment means employment lacks protection and\/or benefits, and the informal sector involves unregistered or unincorporated private enterprises.  Such a reality limits the capability to use employment to escape poverty (see Chant, 2010). With wages low, jobs casual and insecure, and limited access to social protection schemes or rights-based labour policies, women are integrated into vulnerable employment conditions. Data has shown informal employment to be correlated with income per capita (negative), and poverty (positive) (ILO, 2011). Further, the jobs are precarious and volatile - affected by global economic crisis.  Women\u2019s employment in Africa needs to be met with \u2018decent\u2019 work [1] , or women will be placed in risky conditions.  [1] See further readings: ILO, 2014."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-con03b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Yes education may help to determine the extent to which labour participation empowers women but it is the participation itself that is the actual tool that empowers. A well-educated woman who is kept at home doing nothing is not empowered no matter how good her education might have been. In Saudi Arabia there are more women in university than men yet there is 36% unemployment for women against only 6% for men (Aluwaisheg, 2013). The women are educated, not empowered."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-con01b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"With the right to work within the productive sphere, the responsibility of care becomes shared. This may take some time but eventually equality will be the result. If you consider the changes occurring within the developed world - such as improved access to child-care facilities and the rise of stay at home dads, the integration of women into paid employment shows changes in gender roles. The double burden may occur temporarily, but in the long-run it will fade."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-con04b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"Within Gender and Development the importance of bringing men into the picture of gender discrimination has been recognised. Therefore working with men will change enable gender roles to be changed."}
+{"id":"test-society-epiasghbf-con02b","title":"economic policy international africa society gender house believes feminisation","text":"How we define empowerment is broad - encompassing all changes that women are able to make, through agency, to tackle their subordinate position. Therefore labour force participation does provide empowerment. Labour participation provides an opportunity for women to control household resources, demand rights, and organise for equal justice. There is no silver bullet, or objective, to achieve women\u2019s empowerment."}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-pro02b","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"In the twenty years of a patent\u2019s duration, any prospective research is carried out in fear of recriminations and law-suits from the patent-holder. Laboratories offering patented genetic tests for research studies have been asked to \u201ccease and desist\u201d unless they refer materials to or get a license from the patent holder 1. Where one company has the right of exploitation, they possess a monopoly and inevitably will be able to charge what they like. It is only after countries threatened or actually invoked provisions of the WTO Treaty, for example, that companies offered to decrease the price of their Aids medicines for African countries 2. Those provisions would have permitted the governments to grant compulsory licenses.Further on, gene-patent holders can often control the useof \u2018their\u2019 gene; if they have the claim for the test, they can prevent a doctor from testing a patient\u2019s blood for a specific genetic mutation and can stop anyone from doing research to improve a genetic test or to develop a gene therapy based on that gene 3.So any further research is in the mercy of the patent owner. Even if information is public, if it is not possible to use it and build upon it without permission. It is therefore possible for the patent holder simply to horde patents and prevents any research using that patent to the detriment of science, medicine and the patients who could be benefiting.  1. Cook-Deegan R., Gene patents, The Hastings Center,  , accessed 07\/20\/2011  2. BBC News, \u201cBrazil to break AIDS drug patent\u201d,  , accessed 15\/9\/2011.  3. CRS Report for Congress, Gene Patents: A Brief Overview of Intellectual Property Issues, 2006,  , accessed 07\/21\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-pro02a","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Patenting enables knowledge sharing  Patents are typically granted for twenty years only. After this period the monopoly ends. All companies ask is that for a limited time they are able to benefit from their investments, and that in that period if another company wishes to pursue a project in their area then they should have to give their permission for the use of the patent. Patenting does not mean withholding information in secrecy.  On the contrary, patents actively encourage openness in science, because if you were not able to disclose your findings without fear of exploitation, then you would keep your findings secret. This would be to the detriment of medical advancement.  For example the Human Genome Sciences\u2019 patented their discovery of the CCR5 receptor gene, which was then discovered by other scientists at the National Institutes of Health, that the small number of people missing the receptor appear to be immune to HIV 1. This could be done because Human Genome Sciences has a policy that \"we do not use our patents to prevent anyone in academics or the nonprofit world from using these materials for whatever they want, so long as it is not commercial.2\"  Patenting makes sure that the information is registered and shared. The other option, whereby companies do not patent the information and keep it as a \u201ctrade secret\u201d, hurts everybody much more and slows down the rate of scientific progress.  1. Dutfield G., DNA patenting: implications for public health research, WHO  2. Chartrand, Sabra, \"Human Gene Patented as Potential Fighter Against AIDS\" The New York Times, 6 March 2000,"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-pro01a","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Genes are intellectual property thus patentable  The patenting office stipulates that a successful patent applicant must have found something in nature, isolated it, and found a way to make something useful with it.The genome research of companies satisfies these criteria, so why should it be any different? The genome companies have invested resources to create intellectual property (patents), which refers to \u201ccreations of the mind.\u201d Under US law includes intellectual property inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, names, images, designs, and trade secrets. The law states, that any person who \u201cinvents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof, may obtain a patent.\u201d In biomedicine the patentable inventions include materials, such as new drugs or new cell lines, and methods for deriving or growing them, such as extraction or cloning techniques.1  1. Merz J., Mildred K., What are gene patents and Why are people worried about them ?, Community Genetics 2005"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-pro01b","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Of course genes should be treated different from any product or other invention; genes are the very basis for human life and to claim that anyone has the right to be regarded as the \u2018owner\u2019 of a particular gene, which we all share in our bodies, shows a venal disregard for humanity. If companies want to patent treatments which target specific genes, then that\u2019s okay, but not the genes themselves.The University of Colorado explains: \u201cInventions include new processes, products, apparatus, compositions of matter, living organisms, and\/or improvements to existing technology in those categories can be patented. Abstract ideas, principles, and phenomena of nature cannot be patented.\u201d1  1. Patents FAQ Patents FAQ, University of Colorado,"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con03b","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"We are happy to put a price on our ideas and knowledge, which are as much building blocks of life as our genes. Each individual already sells his ideas and has a price tag so patenting makes no further devaluation than that which is already there.Even if ownership of another person\u2019s parts is immoral, morality never had a lot to do with gene patenting.Patent agencies allow such immoral things as poisons, explosives, extremely dangerous chemical substances, devices used in nuclear power stations, agro-chemicals, pesticides and many other things which can threaten human life or damage the environment to be patented. This is despite the existence of the public order and morality bar in almost all European countries.1So why make a difference with gene patenting, which does not harm, but may actually benefit a great amount of people.  1. Annabelle Lever , Is It Ethical To Patent Human Genes?, UCL 2008,"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con01b","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Firstly, it is not self-evident, that people have a right to use and possess something, such as medicine that they did not create.So why should people have the right to use a product that someone else discovered through the power of their own cognitive abilities. Actually demands to not patent and just research for the greater good are contradictory to the government taking care of all their people. The best way for the government to encourage medical research that provides these benefits is through patents. Patenting of genes is therefore a right that is based on the right to ownership of your own thoughts and should therefore be granted to the companies \/ individuals. There is no consistent legal basis for deciding that genes are not patent-eligible without deciding that many other \u2018natural products\u2019 are also ineligible."}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con02a","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Patenting inhibits research and therapeutics  The prevailing belief is that this is an area of such great importance and potential benefit to mankind, as such there should be no, self-interested impediment to genome research. The only barriers should be those of conscience.  The Human Genome Project is one of the government funded projects that makes all its research freely and publicly available. They are not driven by profit and offer information on their discoveries for free enabling others to build upon their findings.  The problem with patents is that companies claim ownership without regard towards moral issues. It is purely in the pursuit of their profits that they decide not to allow others to build on their findings and make the process of discovering treatments far more difficult. An example of this is the Myriad company which, whilst holding patents on BRCA 1 & 2, genes connected with breast cancer, prevented the University of Pennsylvania from using a test for these genes which was substantially cheaper than the company\u2019s own screening procedure. 1  Instead of protecting their research investment, companies should have a moral duty to facilitate in any way they can to the development of cheap, available treatments and screenings for diseases which are so dangerous to so many people.  1. Spektor, Michelle, \"Genes Are Still Patentable, Federal Appeals Court Rules\", Science Progress, 17 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con04a","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"A liability regime not patents.  There are alternatives to the kind of blanket patenting that stifles innovation and drives up prices . The most obvious is to have no patents at all for genes which would result in a free for all but might have the result the proposition argues it would, that without any kind of pay back for the research no one will do the research in the first place.  However there are alternatives that prevent many of the problems of patents while still bringing in many of the benefits . This would be to have some kind of rights for the discover. Unlike patents there would be no right to refuse or provide conditions for access to the discovery. This would be a use now pay later system. Anyone could research using the discovery or seek to commercialize it but would have to pay a fee which would depend upon what the application was1. Palombi has proposed the creation of \u2018Genetic Sequence Rights\u2019 \u201cthe GSR would be administered using\u2026 the present \u2018international\u2019 patent system so as to minimize establishment costs and to facilitate its adoption. A GSR would be granted to the first person to file and disclose a genetic sequence defining genetic material of any origin and explaining its function and utility\u2026 The GSR would become part of an international electronic database which would be freely accessible by any person.  Upon registration the GSR holder would have the right to a GSR use fee (GSR fee). The GSR fee would vary depending on the nature of the use. For publicly funded institutions such as universities, experimental use would not attract a GSR fee, but for commercial entities, the GSR fee would apply commensurately with the nature of the use2.\u201d This would therefore create a much fairer system that both encourages research for commercial purposes and for academic purposes.  1. Dutfield G., DNA patenting: implications for public health research, WHO   2. Palombi, Luigi, \u201cThe Genetic Sequence Right: A Sui Generis Alternative to the Patenting of Biological Materials\u201d, Patenting Lives Conference, 1-2 December 2005, p.18.  ,"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con03a","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Immoral to own a human life  Patenting genes and DNA fragments is immoral because of their significance for human life and welfare. It is immoral to own building blocks of the human life. Commercialization of human genes degrades value of human life. Once we give people the possibility to put an ownership tag on genes (basics of life), there is people who value human life merely based on monetary value. Bidding for the best gene, highest price and making the basics of life the same as buying a car. Andy Miah in his essay on Ethical Issues in Genetics argues: \"Evidence of such disaffection has appeared most recently from the emergence of Ron's Angels, a company set up for the auctioning of female eggs and male sperm to infertile couples seeking 'exceptional' children. Whilst numerous companies of this kind now exist, Ron's Angels is interesting not simply for having arranged a standard and reasonable price for such genes; far from it. Rather, as indicated above, eggs and sperm are awarded to the highest bidder.\"1 Thus making the perception of human life what people believe is \"fair to pay\" and creating a race to figure out the cheapest ways of buying parts of the human body. 1 10) Miah, A., Patenting Human DNA. In Almond, B. & Parker, M. (2003) Ethical Issues in the New Genetics: Are Genes Us?"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con01a","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Patenting drives up the cost of therapies and renders them unaffordable to the poor  The government and its laws should take care of all their people. Because the state is a construct built by all the people, who all pay taxes to support it, laws should also be based to benefit the greatest amount of people possible.In the case of the Myriad company, which holds, together with the University of Utah Research Foundation, rights over tests for ovarian cancer, it prevented cheaper tests being offered to the public. As a result, Myriad is the only company that can market a test for the mutations, and it charges as much as $3,000 . That is a price that for many is inaccessible. Patients\u2019 state: \u201cThere is no other, cheaper test that you could go get in another laboratory, because they have the exclusive patent,\u201d she explained, adding that Myriad also controls the efficacy of the test\u2014second opinions are only available for certain surgeries 1.Because patenting harms the accessibility of diagnostics and testing, it should not be allowed.  1. Pratt P.A., Court Rules That DNA Is Information, Not Intellectual Property, published March 30th 2010,  , accessed 07\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-society-asfhwapg-con02b","title":"aw society family house would allow patenting genes","text":"Patenting in general is creating more possibilities for patients than if there was no patenting and less competition for development. Even if treatments and diagnostics for some diseases are expensive, they are at least there and are beginning to benefit the people that need them most. If the government is that concerned for the well-being of its poor patients, the issue of private and public dis-allocations is far more troubling than patents.  However, if the government does believe that such a treatment in necessary for the greater good of the country, which happens in very few cases, there still are mechanisms to loosen patent rights. The Hastings Center explains that governments and other organizations can encourage research on needed therapies, such as a malaria vaccine, by setting up prizes for innovation related to them or by promising to purchase the therapies once they are developed 1. Other measures rely on voluntary action. Patented drugs can be sold at little or no mark-up in poor countries. Scientists and their employers can decide not to patent an invention that might prove useful to other researchers, or they might patent it but license it strategically to maximize its impact on future research and its availability to people in need. For example, when the scientist Salk believed he has developed a vaccination that should be basic health care, he decided not to patent his polio vaccine, which saved millions 2.Also, companies like GlaxoSmithKline have initiatives for having drugs made more available and affordable to poor countries 3. Governments and NGOs can also contribute.  Experts in research analysis (Professors Walsh, Cohen, and Charlene Cho) concluded that patents do not have a \u201csubstantial\u201d impact upon basic biomedical research and that \u201c...none of a random sample of academics reported stopping a research project due to another\u2019s patent on a research input, and only about 1% of the random sample of academics reported experiencing a delay or modification in their research due to patents 4.\u201dMost of the newly developed gene therapies \/ genes are not that essential to be for free for everyone and further on for those few, that are, there are different methods of abuse prevention.  1. Cook-Deegan R., Gene patents, The Hastings Center,  , accessed 07\/20\/2011  2. Josephine Johnston, Intellectual Property in Biomedicine, The Hastings Center,  , accessed 07\/21\/2011  3. IB Times, \u201cGSK lead initiative to help poorer countries\u201d,  accessed 07\/20\/2011  4. CRS Report for Congress, Gene Patents: A Brief Overview of Intellectual Property Issues, 2006,  , accessed 07\/21\/2011"}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-pro02b","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"The concept of a nation is an artificial one [1] \u2013 there is no logical reason why we should draw lines on maps and declare that people may not pass from one side of a line to another without permission. Moreover xenophobia and racism can only be tackled by exposure to people from other cultures, not insulation from them \u2013 and in any case, policy should not be dictated by the prejudices of a few racists.  [1] Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London 1991, p.5."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-pro02a","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"States must be responsible to their own citizens first  There will always be trafficking as long as there aren't open borders. And we should maintain strict controls on both immigration and asylum. States must focus on the needs of their people first, and the reaction of citizens in accepting countries is quite rightly the feeling that their hospitality and good intentions are being abused at the moment. The social harms that these feelings cause - suspicion, xenophobia, racism and disruption of social harmony and tolerance [1] - are too large and too damaging to the actual citizens of states to justify the maintenance of a failing system that may help some few outsiders. The responsibilities of governments to their own citizens must come first.  [1] L\u00e6gaard, Sune, \u2018Immigration, Social Cohesion, and Naturalisation\u2019, Centre for the Study of Equality and Multiculturalism, p.2"}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-pro03b","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"There have been no serious links between terrorism and the asylum system. The 9\/11 hijackers all had visas and recent terror cells in Europe have all been 'home grown'. If anything an asylum system provides more security and border control for states. Even if there was no asylum system, people would still flee persecution but instead they would be forced to turn to people traffickers to circumvent all border controls, and thus never be documented or assessed at all. This would also increase the already huge numbers of migrants, especially women, who are exploited by traffickers in sex and underground industries, and also the sheer number of people present in a country of which the authorities have no knowledge."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-pro01a","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"The Whole System is broken  It is not clear that the system works at all. The majority of those who apply for asylum are working-age males, [1] which implies that there is a strong economic angle. And worse still, even if countries decide that an applicant has no basis to their claim they are frequently unable to deport them because they often go missing, as 75,000 in Britain have, [2] or because, perversely, they may be punished on return to their country for having sought refuge. So essentially the asylum system provides a loophole for unrestricted immigration, which is both expensive, and dangerous for states. In the age of global terrorism it is a huge risk to allow undocumented individuals to enter and roam freely within any country.  [1] Blinder, Scott, \u2018Migration to the UK: Asylum\u2019, The Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford, 23 March 2011.  [2] Whitehead, Tom, \u201975,000 asylum seekers have gone missing in past 20 years\u2019, The Telegraph, 6 April 2011."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-pro01b","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"Much of the fear of the asylum system being used by economic migrants is simply media hysteria and xenophobia. The vast majority of asylum claims (in the UK around 75%) are still rejected, which shows the system works. [1] Also it is not being abused in the way many people believe. Very few people are willing to leave their family and community, pay to travel thousands of miles to new country, in risky circumstances, with only a small chance of being accepted there, unless they have real reason to fear for their safety. The numbers of people seeking asylum are not historically unprecedented either, and most applicants still come from countries we recognise as dangerous, such as Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. Compared to other forms of immigration the numbers who are accepted via the asylum regime are negligible.  [1] Blinder, \u2018Migration to the UK: Asylum\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-pro03a","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"The system is open to abuse  It is extremely difficult to tell if someone is a genuine asylum seeker or not; for obvious reasons many will have little or no documentation, and all the evidence that they have suffered persecution may be in a faraway country and impossible to obtain. In many cases it may be impossible to prove that the person claiming asylum is even from the country that they claim to be from.  Asylum decisions are therefore based largely on a judgement call by the investigating officer on whether they thing the person in front of them is being truthful or not \u2013 that leaves the system open to motivated people who are economic migrants or may even pose a security threat."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-con03b","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"Democratic nations can support like-minded groups in all manner of other ways, such as funding and training opposition groups, giving them international representation, and by applying pressure to oppressive governments. With individual asylum applicants they are still faced with the same problem of assessing who has genuinely taken a \u201cbrave and noble\u201d step, which is very hard. Furthermore it is not at all clear that the hope of asylum is a motivator towards political action. Revolutions and resistance forces existed long before the creation of any formal asylum regime, and continue in the contemporary absence of any access to them. Often by harbouring those who have opposed oppressive regimes, perhaps in a similarly violent manner, states drastically reduce their ability to negotiate with and apply leverage to the authoritarian governments that are the problem in the first place."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-con01b","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"It would be nice to offer safety to everyone who genuinely deserved it, but practically it is almost impossible to tell who is genuinely fleeing persecution, and who is simply seeking economic benefit. In many cases there may be a combination of the two. Tracking down the histories of applicants to verify their claim is frequently impossible, and enormously expensive. The point of moral obligations as opposed to legal obligations is that it is the donor who decides how great their sacrifice should be. States may perfectly fairly decide to try to protect refugees in more affordable and uncontroversial ways, such as providing aid to refugee camps and foreign governments who work nearer crisis areas. Accepting refugees is not obligatory."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-con02a","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"The rights of refugees are a cornerstone of international law  Signatories of The 1951 Convention on Refugees have a legal responsibility to offer asylum to any foreign national who has a well-founded fear of persecution, for political, religious, ethnic or social reasons, and who is unwilling to return home. Moreover the refugee is protected against forcible return when his life may be threatened, something which is an obligation even for countries which are not parties to the convention bust respect as it is part of international customary law. [1] This treaty is one of the cornerstones of international human rights law, and as such states should uphold it to the letter.  [1] Jastram, Kate, and Achiron, Marilyn, Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law\u2019, P.14."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-con03a","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"We must practice what we preach  Democratic nations preach the language of freedom, human rights and justice. They encourage those who live under oppression to oppose their rulers and work towards these goals. This is all rendered hollow, and hypocritical if they then refuse to protect individuals who are persecuted for taking the brave and noble step of working to improve their societies. Not only is this a moral failing but practically very harmful too. It is in the interests of democratic nations to spread democracy and peaceful forms of government. If the people of authoritarian nations don't feel they have the support of other, then the incentive for them to risk everything and stand up in the name of freedom is diminished, and so too the best chance of change in such oppressive regimes."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-con01a","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"We have a duty to help the persecuted  The principles which underlie the asylum regime are as valid as ever. Millions still face persecution, death and torture globally because of who they are or because of their convictions. Democratic countries still have a moral obligation to offer protection to these people. We all recognise it as a horrendous failing by the countries who turned away Jewish refugees in the early days of Nazism where both the United States and the UK turned away large numbers or refugees, [1] and only the Dominican Republic was willing to take in large numbers. [2] This should never happen again. Developed nations have both the wealth and security to make them the best destinations for those seeking refuge.  [1] Perl, William R., \u2018The Holocaust conspiracy: an international policy of genocide\u2019, 1989, pp.37-51  [2] Museum of Jewish Heritage, \u2018\u201dA Community Born in Pain and Nurtured in Love\u201d Jews who were given refuge by Dominican Republic\u2019, 8 January 2008."}
+{"id":"test-society-simhbrasnba-con02b","title":"society immigration minorities house believes right asylum should not be absolute","text":"The Convention on Refugeehood was written in, and for, a totally different world. Its framers would never have anticipated the ease with which global travel is now possible, allowing huge numbers both legitimate and illegitimate to apply for asylum. Migrants can now move between countries with ease, 'shopping' for the place they see as being softest. If democracies feel these numbers are too great they should always put restricting them ahead of out of date laws."}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro02b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Opposition agree that the culture and law of a nation has a prodigious impact on the conscience of its civilians. However, according to Alcinda Honwana, an anthropologist and authority on the topic of child soldiers, the problem does not \"have its roots in African traditional culture.\" [i] Although culture has an impact on society, the issue of child soldiers is not affiliated with it.  Side proposition implied that conscripting children should be excusable if it is permitted by an authoritative body of local law. However, are laws based on value-sets that do not aspire to an accessible law making process more valid than the abiding law of that nation? No. Side opposition believe that the \"rule of law is a legal maxim according to which no one is immune to the law.\u201d The fundamental purpose of government is the maintenance and promotion of basic security and public order. Without it the nation will deteriorate.  The proposition mentioned the Democratic Republic of Congo as an example. The DRC signed the \u201cConvention on the Rights of the Child\u201d on 21 September 1990. During this time era, Congo was not a declared democracy. However they have hitherto developed a more democratic and stable government. Additionally, DRC has not withdrawn from the Convention on the Rights of the Child, thus accentuating the fact that they are strongly against conscription of children.  Being oblivious of the fact that conscripting child soldiers is illegal is no defence. As side opposition\u2019s substantive material will show, both national and international systems of law are expected to take account of the fact that cultural, environmental and social plurality will lead to variable rates of compliance with particular laws. While it may be difficult to make community leaders liable for the creation of child soldiers, the ICC frequently seeks to make officials linked to state actors liable for failing to protect children from military recruitment [ii] .  Moreover, cultural relativism originally assumed some degree of parity and open exchange between communities with diverging cultural values. There is no parity between the value-sets of stable liberal democratic states and the adaptations that vulnerable cultures undergo in order to survive amongst prolonged military conflict.  Finally, it would damage the reputation and reduce the efficiency of the ICC if states were permitted to argue that regions in which child soldiers were active had an established tradition of military activity among the young.  [i] \u201cChildren\u2019s Involvement in War: Historical and Social Contexts\u201d, Alcinda Honwana, The Journal of the history of Childhood and Youth, Vol 1 2007  [ii] The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dylio, The International Criminal Court,"}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro03b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The proposition understates the extent to which the needs of child soldiers are catered to by international justice bodies. The Paris Principles [i] , which are used to guide the formation and functions of national human rights organisations, state that  \u201c3.6 Children who are accused of crimes under international law allegedly committed while they were associated with armed forces or armed groups should be considered primarily as victims of offences against international law; not only as perpetrators...  3.7 Wherever possible, alternatives to judicial proceedings must be sought, in line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child and other international standards for juvenile justice.\u201d  Although not strictly binding, an onus is placed on bodies such as the ICC to seek alternatives to the trial process when dealing with children. (The Principles define a child as anyone less than 18 years of age).  Even where children are placed in the role of officers or recruiters, they are unlikely to be tried in the same fashion as an adult.  This leaves only the issue of social exclusion following the process of demobilisation and treatment. Many of the problems of reintegration highlighted by the proposition do not seem to be uniquely linked to ICC prosecutions. Columbian child soldiers are as likely to be perceived as threatening whether or not they have come to the attention of the ICC. The ICC does not create negative stereotypes of former child soldiers.  As noted above, it seems perverse to give military commanders an opportunity to use cultural relativism to excuse their culpability for what would otherwise be a war crime. Ranking officers are much more likely than Yemeni tribesmen or orphaned Sudanese boys to understand the intricacies of such a defence, and much more likely to abuse it. Realistically, the commanders of child solders, and the politicians who sanctioned their use are the only class of individuals pursued by the ICC.  Where the boundaries between community leader, military officer and political leader become blurred, the court will always be able to fall back on its discretion. Practically, however, this mixing of roles is only likely to be observed in marginal communities a few major conflict zones. This does not favour stepping away from established judicial practice in order to create an entirely new form of defence.  [i] \u201cPrinciples and Guidelines On Children Associated With Armed Forces or Armed Groups\u201d, International Workshop on National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, 2007,"}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro01b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"Side proposition are attempting to make an argument in favour of reforming the ICC\u2019s prosecution guidelines, but are doing so in terms of the culturally relative definition of adulthood. In other words, side proposition are trying to discuss war, realpolitik and international justice using the language of social anthropology. This approach is flawed.  Arguments about the appropriate age to allow a child to hunt, to leave school or to marry pale beside the life-and-death significance of participation in warfare. A child does not become an adult by acting like a soldier, and those who recruit children into military organisations do not necessarily view them as adults. Indeed, children are seen as easy targets for recruitment, due to their emotional immaturity, their gullibility and deference to those who wield authority.  Children may join armed groups out of necessity, and in the interests of survival, but this does not mean that those armed groups should accept child volunteers, or should escape criminal liability when they do so. Although the west is now a safe and prosperous place to live, the categories of war crime that the ICC prosecutes were created in response to the depravity and ruthlessness of conflicts that liberal-democracies experienced directly.  The developed, liberal democratic world is not blind to the sense of necessity that drives children to take up arms. However, it understands only too well that child soldiers are unnecessary. Children do not autonomously organise into armed militias \u2013 they are recruited by states and groups with defined political and military objectives. Such groups should be aware that there is no value or necessity underlying the use of children in combat, and should be made legally accountable when they flaunt this norm."}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro04b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The ICC is not likely to target children or the leaders of marginalised communities when prosecuting the use of child soldiers. Officials of states parties who play a role in commanding and deploying military units can be held liable for failing to prevent the use of child soldiers at a local level.  If the agony of their circumstances forces a community to recruit ever younger boys into its militia, then officers, ministers or heads of state, along with the commanders of non-state actors, can be brought to trial for allowing children to be used as soldiers. This will be the case whether these individuals do so negligently or by omission. A guilty party need not engage in a positive act.  ICC prosecutors and judges exercise their discretion in order to avoid the types of injustice that the proposition describes. The lack of prosecutions relating to the ad-hoc use of child soldiers by pro-independence groups in South Sudan underlies this fact [i] .  Moreover, the ICC is bound by the principle of complementarity, an obligation to work alongside the domestic courts and legislators of the states that refer potential war crimes to the international community. If a state\u2019s corpus of law allows for a margin of appreciation in judging the actions of isolated and endangered communities, these principles must also be reflect in the investigation and inquiries conduct by the ICC.  Complementarity enables the ICC to function with the flexibility and insight that proposition assume it lacks.  [i] \u201cRaised by war: Child Soldiers of the Southern Sudanese Second Civil War\u201d, Christine Emily Ryan, PhD Thesis, University of London, 2009"}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-con03b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"As noted above, the definition of adulthood accepted within western liberal democracies is not a cultural absolute. It can be argued that the legal cut-off point- be it sixteen, eighteen or twenty-one years of age- is largely arbitrary. Children who care for disabled parents take on adult responsibilities inconceivable to many undergraduate students. Many developing world cultures would regard the under-emphasis of practical skills and physical training that exists in the education systems of knowledge-based western economies to be tantamount to neglect.  In both war-torn Afghanistan and peaceful Botswana, a boy of fourteen is considered old enough and able enough to hunt; to protect his younger siblings; to marry or to be responsible for a harvest. Why should an Afghani child or his parents be condemned for allowing him to participate in the defence of his community? A family in a similar position in Botswana may never have been confronted with that choice. Although they might find the idea appalling in peace-time, the pressing necessity of war can cause opinions and beliefs to become highly flexible.  This restatement of cultural relativism goes hand in hand with side proposition\u2019s concluding objection. Although a culture can quickly assimilate and normalise necessary practices- such as arming children- it need not think that they are objectively good and valuable. It may be keen to abandon the practice.  A community that responds to an urgent need to arm children may not want to arm children.  Side opposition regard the use of child soldiers as symptomatic of cultural depravity, of a callous attitude to suffering. This approach patronises communities subject to privations and abuses now unknown in the west. It assumes that traditions cannot be overturned and that societies in the developing world will hasten to use their children as cannon-fodder for without devoting any thought or debate to the risks involved."}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-con01b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"The purpose of the resolution is not to eliminate conflict in the developing world. Side proposition are merely seeking to remove the harmful side effects of the way in which the use of child soldiers is currently prosecuted \u2013 the risk of criminalising children and teenagers, the stigma attached to being a child soldier, and the condemnation of communities that rely on child soldiers for protection.  Children are already the victims of atrocities perpetrated against civilians. They already volunteer to engage in military service. Armed groups that target civilian populations have already broken international law and have proven willing to do so repeatedly. Children will always be a target, whether or not they have sought out the means with which to defend themselves.  With the international community unwilling to provide wide-ranging policing and supervision of international legal norms, it is not just to condemn individuals and communities who unwillingly take up arms to try to survive attacks by groups who flagrantly disregard international law.  Peaceful communities forced to adopt abnormal survival strategies in the face of lawless aggression should be given the opportunity to compel the ICC to make situation specific judgments."}
+{"id":"test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-con02b","title":"traditions law human rights international law society family house would require","text":"It is not sufficient to observe that there exist groups that use brutality to recruit and control child soldiers. As accounts of conflicts in South Sudan and Myanmar show, politically motivated recruitment of children is less common than children volunteering through necessity.  Side opposition should not overlook the fact that there are few constructive alternatives available to children in such situations. Educational institutions are often the first forms of state support to be withdrawn when war breaks out. Many children are orphaned as a result of the indiscriminate targeting of civilians. Taking flight as a refugee may postpone a child\u2019s exposure to conflict, but is rarely useful in escaping it.  Proposition have already established that child soldiers do not originate exclusively within state-based bodies or organised opposition groups seeking control of a state. They are just as likely to be the products of necessity or non-western conceptions of adulthood. The status quo is blind to this distinction, failing to recognise that military involvement is entirely consistent with other norms of adulthood in certain non-western cultures. Further, taking up arms as part of an organised, coherent force is often preferable to remaining a vulnerable, untrained civilian.  Finally, it should be noted that very few opposition-side speakers are likely to argue that individuals, including children, do not have a right to defend themselves against aggression. However, a right to self-defence can be rendered meaningless if weak individuals are not permitted to combine their strength and resources to defend themselves. For ICC prosecutors this would likely be seen as the first step to forming a militia. For a physically weak fourteen year old, it is simply a survival strategy."}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-pro02b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"People who move to the cities have chosen to move from their families and dear ones, because they want to create a new and better life for themselves. Armed with great motivation, they enter the cities and are often prepared to undertake work that others do not want to do, hoping to climb the social ladder later on. Interestingly it is often the case that those in slums have a higher rate of employment than those not living in slums. In Uganda for example only 9% of young men are neither in school or employment compared to 16% for those not living in slums. [1] This benefits the development of the city and it is only with this extra workforce that the city can fully develop, thus most big cities have at some point had slums, such as London\u2019s East End in the 19th Century. It might take time, but for the long-term benefits of the cities, rural-urban migration should be promoted. An example of this slow kind of development is the progress that is seen today in Kibera outside of Nairobi where small parts of the shanty-towns are gradually converted into lower middle-class communities.  [1] Mboup, Gora, \u201cMeasurement\/indicators of youth employment\u201d, Expert Group Meeting on Strategies for Creating Urban Youth Employment Solutions for Urban Youth in Africa, June 2004, www.un.org\/esa\/socdev\/social\/presentation\/urban_mboup.ppt"}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-pro03b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The argument is based on the idea that there is a lot of investment that is just waiting to be made in rural areas. In reality, this is not so. Until there are real investors who are prepared to change the conditions of rural areas in developing countries, it is morally bankrupt to force people to remain in an untenable situation as marketing material for hypothetical investment."}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-pro01b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The government has a right to make some decisions on behalf of the people, but not any decision. Once the state acts against one group of people to further the interest of an already privileged group of people it loses this right as the state exists to protect everyone in society not just the majority or a privileged group. This is precisely the case in this motion. People who live in rural areas are already disenfranchised and condemned to terrible conditions, and the proposal only serves those who want their comfortable bourgeois life to be even more comfortable."}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-pro04b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"The principle at the heart of this debate is that of the rights of the individual. While it might be true that a large group of people make uninformed decisions, a ban on any decisions in relation to where people live will keep the individuals from making any decisions, informed and uninformed. The damage to those who actually could improve their lives greatly outweighs the benefits, especially as the resources that would be needed for this policy could be used to educate and inform people in rural areas and thus improve the basis of their decisions."}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-con03b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"This kind of argument underestimates the capacity of human potential. People in rural communities devote all their efforts and their creativity towards getting to the cities because they believe it is the best for them and their families. If they do not have this option, they can devote that energy to their community and make it grow to compete with the cities. It is then the duty of the government that imposes this restriction to support such commitments by giving them the right conditions to improve their situation by investing in rural areas as much as urban ones."}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-con01b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"Freedom of movement is not an intrinsic human right, but rather a right that can and should be given by the state where it is possible. For example the state puts people into prisons; this infringes their freedom of movement. This is partially as punishment, but the core rationale for this is to protect the people outside of the prison from potentially dangerous people. [1] But for that, there would be significantly cheaper and more efficient ways of punishing criminals. The people whose freedom of movement is restricted are a threat to people living in the cities and to the economy of the nation as a whole. In the better interest of the nation and to protect innocent people whose lives will be damaged by unrestricted migration, these people must accept restricted freedom of movement.  [1] See the debatabase debate \u2018 This House believes criminal justice should focus more on rehabilitation \u2019"}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-con04b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"While factually true for developed nations, this point completely disregards the reality of developing nations. Most of the labour that is available is unskilled, whether it is in the rural or urban communities. There is little reason to believe that the poor will automatically be able to gain better education should they move to the city. The harm caused by letting migrants flood the cities to lead a miserable life greatly outweighs that of having one or two too intelligent farmers who miss out on their calling."}
+{"id":"test-society-epsihbdns-con02b","title":"economic policy society immigration house believes developing nations should","text":"No amount of confusion can compare with the nearly anarchical state of places like Nairobi, where there is no law and very little state. [1] In the current situation where there is a menacing trend that threatens the very fabric of society, even if the law would not work to its full effect, it is better for it to work partially than not to have it at all. Corruption is a separate issue that already festers in these regions under the status quo and does not need this extra policy to thrive. This must be dealt with separately, but it is indeed regrettable if a good policy is kept from being put into practice from fear of a phenomenon that is in no manner causally contingent upon the policy.  [1] Maxwell, Daniel., \u201cThe Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.\u201d 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999, World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939\u00b11953. S0305-750X(99)00101-1."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro02b","title":"","text":"This harm, realistically, is minimal. Those who want to buy guns would still buy them illegally without 3D printers. Guns can be cheap in the black market since they can be mass produced, and to print a gun one first has to purchase a printer, the materials and often also the blueprints. This is similarly the case for other illegal substances. The risk that things can be used for harmful purposes is not a sufficient reason, because those who want to harm themselves or others have the means to do so already. That is why the Madrid bombers were able to develop their own bombs from the internet before 3D printers had been developed: where there is a will, there will always be a way, and it is the will and not the way that it is ever useful to tackle."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro02a","title":"","text":"Private 3D printers make it impossible to regulate illegal products  As the technology develops, it seems likely that guns like the one created by Defense Distributed will continue to appear, becoming cheaper, more functional and more accessible. While the US succeeded in promptly removing the blueprints, removing blueprints from the internet will quickly prove impossible as the phenomenon inevitably becomes more widespread.5  This is dangerous for all the same reasons that we do not allow people to produce their own weapons: we cannot ensure criminals or mentally ill people do not gain access to them, and we cannot track them after they have been used to commit a crime. Furthermore, they can be made of plastic, thus making them essentially undetectable to most security scans. When weapons become so easily accessible, crimes become easier for terrorists or criminals to commit, and thus more crimes take place. By banning printers before blueprints spread, we could avoid disasters such as the 2004 bombings in Madrid, in which the bombs were produced from instructions on the internet6.  Similarly, the production of drugs and other illegal substances becomes impossible to regulate when anybody can produce anything in their own homes from plans on the internet. Restricting the spread of blueprints online is impossible, so the physical means of production must be regulated before they become irreversibly accessible. Banning household 3D printers, therefore, is a necessary step to uphold the rules we find important to our safety.  [5] Winter, Jana. \u201cHomeland Security bulletin warns 3D-printed guns may be \u2018impossible\u2019 to stop\u201d, FoxNews.com, Fox News. 23 May 2013.   [6] \u201cOnline University: Jihad 101 for Would-Be Terrorists\u201d, Spiegel Online International. 17 August 2006."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro03b","title":"","text":"If you purchase a poor quality product, you are the one to blame: this is already the case now if one chooses to buy a cheaper product from a less reliable source. Under a 3D printer market you are still likely to be purchasing most of your products from reliable brands with an incentive to keep producing quality products as they want you to return and buy more of their products. If you choose not to, you are aware of the risk you take, and can easily inform yourself of the risks on peer review websites and forums before making your choice."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro05a","title":"","text":"Solid piracy will become as problematic as virtual piracy  Intellectual property law is split into copyright, design protection, patents, and trademarks. All areas can be easily infringed by 3D printing.13 There is no meaningful way of sustaining these laws against individuals who choose to use 3D printers to benefit from the hard work of others. Much in the same way one can steal music online, blueprints for products can be decoded or stolen and subsequently reproduced at almost no expense. It may be impossible to determine where this has been done.14 This is unjust in itself, but it also creates a large deterrent from innovating by removing the profit incentive. Corporations and individuals will be pushed away from creating high quality innovative products if they know their blueprints can be pirated and spread online for free or for less than they themselves charge, making their effort in creating them worthless.  [13] Gehl, Mary. \u201cThe Implications of 3D Printing\u201d, Technology, Koinonia House. September 2012.   [14] Lawrence, Jon. \u201c3D Printing: legal and regulatory issues\u201d, Economic Frontiers Australia. 8 August 2013."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro01a","title":"","text":"3D printers promote uncontrolled consumerism  While 3D printing may revolutionise professional manufacturing and lead to less waste, in the household it promotes mindless consumerism. By producing anything desired cheaply and more accessibly, without even having to leave your house, they encourage people consume much more than they otherwise would. This happens because individual consumers tend not to be concerned about the sustainability implications of every purchase: they will do so even less when 3D printers allow instant gratification.  On one hand, it can make people more dependent on material possessions, which makes it harder for them to attain more sustainable forms of happiness. Additionally, this eventually leads to more waste and overproduction, reversing all the potential benefits of industrial 3D printing."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro01b","title":"","text":"Yes, perhaps in the short term the excitement of a 3D printer will make people print more than they can make use of. In the long run, however, it is likely that by making goods more affordable for everyone 3D printers will be able to reduce problems of scarcity. When people have a more equal access to necessities, material possessions cease to become such a symbol of power, and they become less important for people."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro05b","title":"","text":"For the people for whom the illegality of piracy is not a deterrent, the illegality of owning a domestic 3D printer will not be an obstacle either. Banning 3D printers may only result in large scale 3D printer manufacturing piracy.  Under this model, on the other hand, even if there is a slight infringement on intellectual property, a tax can be imposed on the private ownership on 3D printers that is used for rewarding innovation.15  [15] See \u201cThis house would abolish intellectual property rights\u201d, Debatabase."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro04b","title":"","text":"This argument ignores the massive impact 3D printers can have on long-term sustainability, by providing access to the goods the Third World needs to get out of poverty.10 Food, water, medicine and shelter are examples of things that are expensive to transport and difficult to spread, and yet can be produced by 3D printers at a much lower cost. When the things that are scarce in the third world become less scarce, developing countries will be able to compete more fairly with the Western world.  Even in the short term, these harms will not happen. The only short term consequence will be a shift from this labour-intensive form of production into another labour-intensive sector. A massive surplus of cheap labour will still attract new investors in other sectors where 3D printers do not have a monopoly. This is already the case with investment into call centres in India and the Philippines11, and tourism throughout the developing world12.  [10] \u201cA third-world dimension\u201d, The Economist. 3 November 2012. www.economist.com\/news\/science-and-technology\/21565577-new-manufacturing-technique-could-help-poor-countries-well-rich-ones  [11] McGeown, Kate. \u201cThe Philippines: The world\u00b4s hotline\u201d. BBC News. 17 July 2011.   [12] Samimi, Ahmad, Sadeghi, Somaye, and Sadeghi, Soraya. \u201cTourism and Economic Growth in Developing Countries: P-VAR Approach\u201d, Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro03a","title":"","text":"Technology should not circumvent consumer protection laws  The great appeal of 3D printers is that they make consuming more efficient than normal methods: however, normal methods are inefficient in part because they undergo important checks and balances. Without proper regulations, standards are quickly dropped to save money and the health of thousands of consumers is put at risk. Such is the case in China, where consumer protection regulations are inefficient.7 Through 3D printing this becomes a global problem. Any company, real or fake, can sell products online without them having been approved. This means that people may buy dangerous products from unidentifiable, and thus legally unaccountable, companies. Shifting the burden of ensuring safety standards away from companies and onto consumers, who have significantly less information, is a threat to consumers\u2019 health and safety.  [7] \u201cChina again heads EU\u2019s dangerous products list\u201d, EUbusiness. 16 April 2010."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro04a","title":"","text":"Household 3D printing can, in the short term, destroy developing economies  All nations to develop economically depend on the importation of capital. In most cases, this takes the shape of labour-intense manufacturing. In fact, scarcely any countries have developed without transitioning through having a large manufacturing sector.8 It takes time for these countries to develop the capital and infrastructure to enter higher barrier to entry markets, such as the service sector. Transitioning without of manufacturing is therefore not an option for the majority of developing nations, and the exceptions that have succeeded in creating economic growth without large scale manufacturing, such as India and Sri Lanka, relied on spectacular luck.9 As a result, many developing nations depend on exporting cheap products to the developed world, where consumption is the highest.  If demand for the goods they produce is satisfied in the developed world, such countries will be unable to export. Because of the labour intensiveness of the manufacturing this will affect a large number of people. Short term drops in growth are particularly harmful in the developing world, where social security is too underdeveloped to cushion their effect. People who work long hours for minimal wages do so because unemployment is not an option. Were these factories to have to close suddenly, the social consequences would be devastating.  3D printers provoke this to happen by satisfying all demand for cheap products. When individuals in Western liberal democracies can get access to cheaper products from their own home, developing nations will be unable to compete, and their exports fall substantially. 3D printers should remain at the industry level, where companies are more likely to rationally prefer importing cheap products over the extra costs of using 3D printers, such as electricity, and are likely to continue trade with the Third World.  [8] \u201cBreaking In and Moving Up: New Industrial Challenges for the Bottom Billion and the Middle Income Countries\u201d, Industrial Development Report, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). 2009.   [9] \u201cThe Service Elevator\u201d, The Economist. 19 May 2011."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con03b","title":"","text":"The difference is minimal between only companies having 3D printers and extending them to households. Printer owners would, for example, still have to purchase and transport printing materials. Many printers still involve large levels of waste19, and these are probably the lower quality printers that individual consumers are more likely to afford. Furthermore, household printing can actually harm the environment by provoking people to consume more than they would if price and convenience were deterrents. Industrial printing on its own can make a significant difference in terms of eco-friendly production: this should not be compromised by dropping all limits on production.  [19] Faludi, Jeremy. \u201cIs 3D printing an environmental win?\u201d, GreenBiz. 19 July 2013."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con01b","title":"","text":"There is still a need for expertise: although they make manufacturing easier, 3D printers require knowledge that most people do not have. Most people will still be unable to create most products from scratch (and it may be dangerous to try). Individuals will therefore still have to rely on companies for their everyday needs. It is also untrue that they will never have to leave their home, since they will also need to purchase and transport printing materials."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con02a","title":"","text":"Banning 3D printers wastes a chance for innovation  Right now, there are large barriers to entry for individuals and small companies trying to enter any market. Economies of scale make it hard for them to compete with large manufacturers, and they are additionally bound to slow and inefficient quality regulations. This severely limits any kind of innovation. The collective possession of 3D printers would facilitate creation. Anybody could have an idea and implement it into a solid product, which is cheap to produce in your own home without economies of scale. There are already examples all over the world of people creating innovating prototypes and attracting investors16. 3D printing therefore means that anyone can set up in manufacturing without large start-up costs. This means that the flow of ideas in society and the discussion that accompanies it \u2013 such as people posting blueprints on blogs and forums and improving each other\u2019s products \u2013 would develop infinitely faster than when it is limited to large manufacturers.17  [16] Palermo, Elizabeth. \u201c10 Amazing 3D-Printing Startups\u201d, Business News Daily. 18 June 2013.   [17] Wainwright, Oliver. \u201cIs DIY design more than a passing fad?\u201d, Architecture and Design Blog, The Guardian. 24 July 2013."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con05a","title":"","text":"The state should refrain from imposing bans  In Western liberal democracies, we generally consider an individual\u2019s private sphere to be worth protecting. We only give the state license to violate it when something is objectively largely harmful to that person or to society. When something is not very clearly harmful we let people make their own decisions because the state is not infallible in its judgements about what lifestyles are better than others.  Therefore, simply saying that there is a risk that printers will be misused is not sufficient grounds for banning them altogether. If technology makes it easier for people to do what they want, this is a good thing; if people then want to do things that we consider harmful this is a problem in itself. The solution is not to ban an entire means of production in order to stop a minority from producing dangerous things, but to educate people about the risks so they can freely make better decisions. Making it harder for people to do bad things is useless, furthermore, since those that wish to purchase a gun or take drugs can already find ways of doing so without 3D printers. One may even argue that it is better for everybody to have access to a gun, for example, and not only those who are willing to break the law to get one."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con04a","title":"","text":"3D printing opens the doors to a post-scarcity society  Industrial 3D printing allows for a cheaper, faster and more sustainable form of production, but somebody still has to sell and purchase the products. Household 3D printers give people the possibility of producing otherwise inaccessible things for a minimal cost, up to hundreds of times cheaper than their current store price20. Numerous websites, such as Thingiverse21, already act as databases for free printable designs. This trend would allow people to save thousands on necessities: food, appliances, medicine, and human organs are some examples. Even systems for power production or more efficient ways of collecting sustainable energy could be created. This would make scarcity disappear as we know it, and thus tackle one of society\u2019s greatest problems. This is a very long way off even with 3D printers but if it is to occur it is essential that the means of production not be monopolised by companies.  [20] Kelly, Heather. \u201cStudy: At-home 3-D printing could save consumers \u2018thousands\u2019\u201d, What\u2019s Next, CNN. 31 July 2013.   [21] Thingiverse, Makerbot Industries."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con03a","title":"","text":"Household 3D printers would reduce the environmental harms of consuming  The more is produced by 3D printing, the better: it makes consuming much more environmentally friendly. They involve less transportation costs, no large scale factories, and by involving additive manufacturing, they can use as little as only a tenth of the material that subtractive manufacturing would require.18 When households, and not only companies, have access to 3D printers, companies will no longer have to move products around the world, but can sell electronic blueprints instead. Furthermore, things are only actually produced after they have been purchased, reducing waste even more.  [18] \u201cPrint me a Stradivarius\u201d, The Economist. 10 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con05b","title":"","text":"The restrictions on what the state can ban are only valid inasmuch as they protect fundamental right. The supposed right to 3D printers is not fundamental, but is derived from a right to own good things, if they are available. If the state can provide an alternative that yields similar benefits it does not actually infringe any fundamental right by banning their domestic use. For example, industrial 3D printed manufacturing also provides cheap and innovative products. On the other hand, the potential harms of domestic printers are exponential, and we do not have a right to anything that causes harm to society. The state therefore has a mandate to ban 3D printers in households."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con01a","title":"","text":"Democratising manufacturing gives people more freedom  Individuals are the most fit to decide for themselves what they need and what they want to be happy. When corporations attempt to match demand they do so imperfectly because they have to cater to large numbers of people. Letting people create and customise whatever they want gives them, quite literally, an infinite selection to choose from. This maximises freedom for the consumer and leads to a better quality of life: most of your needs can be met exactly as you want them, without even having to leave your home."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con04b","title":"","text":"A post-scarcity society is unrealistic. 3D printers still come with large costs, in terms of machinery, materials and blueprints. Those that can afford the more complex printers and the higher quality materials will benefit much more than others. While these costs exist, and there is no near future in which they do not, scarcity will continue to be a problem. This is especially the case since the need for expertise remains. The vast majority of products of reasonable quality will still be produced by corporations with a profit incentive, and available only to those who can afford them."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con02b","title":"","text":"Household 3D printers will, in practice, hamper innovation both from companies and individuals. Firstly, individuals will still be faced with the large barrier to entry of lacking sufficient expertise to produce much of what they want. Any \u201cflow of ideas\u201d that may arise will only be composed of low-quality designs. Secondly, individuals will have less incentive to innovate when the market is out of control and free designs are floating all over the internet. Any attempt at differentiation is impossible.  Thirdly, and more importantly, the problems with copyright law once 3D printers are domestic will deter both companies and individuals from innovating. Revolutionary products require effort and knowledge to design: they will not be created without a profit incentive."}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro02b","title":"","text":"Despite Ethiopia\u2019s economic dreams, demand risk may mean a shortfall in profits. Internally, supply may exceed demand once the GERD is complete. The unaffordability of energy has led to low demands for electricity in the past. The possible reductions in subsidies to repay loans for building the dam will increase prices, which will then lower demand further [1] . Exporting the energy may not work either. To export power Ethiopia needs neighbours with developed transmission lines and a willingness to buy the electricity. The weak economic position of countries like Sudan [2] and poor relations with others suggest that international buyers won\u2019t be too forthcoming.  [1] Wikipedia \u2018Dams and Hydropower in Ethiopia\u2019 date accessed 12\/12\/13  [2] World Bank \u2018Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Credit in the amount of SDR 26.44 Million\u2019 20 November 2007 p.20"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro02a","title":"","text":"Economic benefits of the dam for Ethiopia  The dam will produce significant economic potential for Ethiopia. In 2013, Ethiopia had to import 125,000 metric tonnes of coal to fuel its power stations. Over 50% of the country\u2019s imports are orientated towards meeting its fuel demands [1] . If Ethiopia can replace these imports with its own energy then it can make significant savings. The diverted money could be contributed towards development, which would be assisted by greater accessibility to electricity. In addition to this, 12,000 jobs will be created [2] and Ethiopia will become an energy exporter. The excess energy from powering Africa will be enough to supply the surrounding region, making energy a viable export market for Ethiopia to tap in to [3] . In combination with the greater access electricity dependent to income-generating activities, these factors give Ethiopia hope of a positive economic future.  [1] Tekle,T. \u2018Ethiopia imports $1 billion in fuel from Sudan via Djibouti\u2019 in Sudan Tribune 30 March 2013  [2] Joy,O. \u2018Earth, Wind, and Water: Ethiopia bids to be Africa\u2019s powerhouse\u2019 CNN 8 November 2013  [3] Ibid"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro03b","title":"","text":"GERD will have environmentally positive consequences for the region. The major environmental benefit is the clean and renewable energy source. There is an unlimited supply of electricity and the production of this energy does not contribute to global carbon dioxide emissions. Another environmental benefit is that the dam will reduce the chances of flooding downstream and drought, enabling the country to better combat climate change which is worsening these factors [1] . Flood protection will prevent settled areas from being destroyed through rising river levels, benefitting Sudan and Egypt as well as Ethiopia.  [1] Consulate General of Ethiopia, Los Angeles \u2018Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam\u2019 data accessed 12\/12\/13"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro01a","title":"","text":"The dam is predicted to provide energy for all of Ethiopia  When the dam is in full effect, it should be able to provide the entirety of Ethiopia\u2019s population with electricity. The United Nations Foundation placed access to energy as a high priority for developing countries, it enables access to key services and enables more income-generating activities [1] . If Ethiopia discontinued the project, then they would deprive their citizens of economic and health security. Using energy from a dam will have its own benefits. The energy will be renewable source and will provide energy security for this developing state, thus justifying the project.  [1] The United Nations Foundation \u2018What We do: Achieving Universal Energy Access\u2019 data accessed 10 December 2013"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro01b","title":"","text":"While in theory the 6,000 MW dam can power all of Ethiopia, the reality is quite different. Areas of Ethiopia, such as Ogaden and Eritrea-Ethiopian border, are relatively unstable; making it hard to build a sufficient power grid in these regions. In Ogaden, instability in the past led to the withdrawal from the oil fields [1] , and this conflict-zone will most likely make the completion of a national grid a problem. The hurdles to producing the means to provide energy to these areas means that there probably will not be universal access to the GERD\u2019s electricity.  [1] Wikipedia \u2018Ethiopia: Exports\u2019 date accessed 10 December 2013"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro03a","title":"","text":"Environmental Benefits of the GERD  GERD will have environmentally positive consequences for the region. The major environmental benefit is the clean and renewable energy source. There is an unlimited supply of electricity and the production of this energy does not contribute to global carbon dioxide emissions. Another environmental benefit is that the dam will reduce the chances of flooding downstream and drought, enabling the country to better combat climate change which is worsening these factors [1] . Flood protection will prevent settled areas from being destroyed through rising river levels, benefitting Sudan and Egypt as well as Ethiopia.  [1] Consulate General of Ethiopia, Los Angeles \u2018Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam\u2019 data accessed 12\/12\/13"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-con03b","title":"","text":"A contender to Natural Flow Theory is the Doctrine of Reasonable Use. This theory states that water can be used as long as it does not cause unreasonable damage to the flow. While there will be some loss of water to evaporation in GERD reservoir, it is predicted to be minimal compared to other dams in the region [1] . The threat from the irrigation projects can also be mitigated by developing more efficient techniques, which is a high priority of the Nile Basin Initiative [2] .  [1] Water Technology \u2018Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Project\u2019 Data accessed 12\/12\/13  [2] \u2018Nile Water: Downstream versus upstream countries\u2019 27 May 2010"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-con01b","title":"","text":"The colonial era agreement is outdated and does not apply to the modern world. Ethiopia\u2019s population has now exceeded 90 million, which is more than Egypt\u2019s 83 million, and yet it only has a small claim to the river. Many upstream countries, like Uganda, feel that the downstream countries have constrained and damaged them by denying access to majority of the Nile\u2019s water [1] . These states have created a new agreement the Cooperative Framework Agreement in which there is a \u201cprinciple of equitable\u2026 utilization\u201d and each \u201cstate has the right to use within its territory\u201d. [2] The upstream countries argue supersedes the old colonial treaty if it ever had any validity. [3] The Ethiopian government has assured Egypt and Sudan that they will receive enough water to live off comfortably. Sudan has been satisfied by the rearrangements [4] which implies that Ethiopia will not deprive downstream countries of access to the Nile.  [1] Schwartzstein, Water Wars  [2] \u2018Article 3\u2019, Agreement on the Nile River Basin Cooperative Framework, International Water Law, 2010  [3] Ibrahim, \u2018The Nile Basin Cooperative Framework Agreement\u2019, p.302  [4] Peppeh,K. \u2018Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt meet again to discuss GERD\u2019 Zegabi 8 December 2013"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-con02a","title":"","text":"Ethiopia does not need another hydroelectric dam  Ethiopia\u2019s decision to become an energy hub has led to the construction of unnecessary dams in the face of viable alternatives. Ethiopia has already constructed nine dams which produce more energy than the country consumes [1] . A significant disadvantage of these dams is that droughts can lower their energy output which, combined with lower river levels for nine months of the year, results in the dams being ineffective [2] . The Ethiopian government has already announced plans for a geothermal plant being built for 2018 to offset the disadvantages of the current dams [3] . The geothermal plant costs $0.7 billion less than the hydroelectric dam, and the company constructing it claim it will produce twice as much energy as the hydroelectric dam when the latter is at its peak [4] . It would be more viable, therefore, to invest in thermal energy rather than another hydroelectric project.  [1] US Energy Information Administration \u2018Ethiopia\u2019 30 April 2013  [2] International Rivers \u2018Ethiopia\u2019s Biggest Dam Oversized, Experts say\u2019 5 September 2013  [3] Wikipedia \u2018Energy in Ethiopia\u2019 data accessed 11\/12\/13  [4] Maasho,A. \u2018Ethiopia to get $4billion investment for leap into geothermal power\u2019, Reuters, 24 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-con03a","title":"","text":"Natural Flow Theory  Natural Flow Theory (NTF) is the concept that every riparian user (land touching the water) has a right to the water unaltered and undiminished [1] . Dams tend not to disrupt water flow directly, however water use and evaporation from the large reservoir upstream from the dam could reduce the flow of the Blue Nile. In turn, this could affect downstream countries. Evaporation from the Aswan dam in Ethiopia amounts to around 14 billion cubic metres [2] . The GERD will face similar problems, meaning that the downstream countries will have a reduced water flow. The reservoir will also become a tempting target for large agricultural businesses as well. These companies, many of them foreign, have taken part in \u2019land grabbing\u2019 to secure water before for large irrigation projects [3] and could potentially tap in to the large reservoir. A similar example is the Colorado River, where dams and irrigation projects have reduced the flow of the river and impacted heavily on the river delta [4] . These threats to the Blue Nile\u2019s river flow demonstrate the likelihood of decreased access to water in the downstream countries, violating the major principle of NTF.  [1] Smolen,M., Mittelstet,A. & Harjo,B. \u2018Whose Water is it anyway?\u2019 Southern Region Water Program August 2012  [2] Consulate General of Ethiopia, Los Angeles \u2018Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam\u2019 data accessed 12\/12\/13  [3] Fisher,S. \u2018Africa for Sale\u2019 International Rivers September 2011  [4] Wikipedia \u2018Colorado River\u2019 date accessed 12\/12\/13"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-con01a","title":"","text":"Egypt and Sudan will have their legal rights infringed  The two downstream countries have a combined claim to a majority of the River Nile\u2019s water. Through the Nile Waters Agreement, an old colonial treaty, Egypt and Sudan are owed 48 billion m\u00b3 and 4 billion m\u00b3 of water from the Nile respectively [1] . Each country also has a veto on any upriver activity. Both of these rights are known but ignored by the Ethiopian government, in violation of an internationally recognised treaty. This has led Egypt to be particularly prominent in claiming that their rights are being abused as 70 billion m\u00b3 of water from the Blue Nile (which they are dependent on) is used by the Ethiopians. This is a violation of the Nile Rivers Agreement and demonstrates Ethiopia\u2019s poor position to justify the GERD construction.  [1] Azikiwe,A. Water and the Geopolitics of the Nile Valley: Egypt confronts Ethiopia, GlobalResearch.ca"}
+{"id":"training-environment-eegwiahbe-con02b","title":"","text":"Geothermal power plants have their own drawbacks as well. Prime sites are often far away from population centres which means that there are losses of electricity between the plant and the customers. Drilling into heated rock is a difficult process and once complete there must be constant management to ensure that the source is not overused [1] .  [1] Siegel,R.P. \u2018Geothermal Energy: Pros and Cons\u2019, Triple Pundits 15 June 12"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams require massive initial investments. True, dams generate cheap electricity, when the dams are eventually built. But building dams is incredibly costly. Actual costs for hydropower dams are almost always far higher than estimated; in a number of cases, the actual cost was more than double the estimated cost. The Itaipu Dam in South America cost $20 billion and took 18 years to build. This was 488% higher than originally estimated. [1] Given that there are cheaper alternatives than large-scale dams for renewable and accessible energy, dams aren\u2019t worth it from an economic perspective.  [1] International Rivers, Frequently Asked Questions."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams provide cheap access to renewable energy  In 2010, about 1.4 billion people had no access to electricity. [1] Hydropower provides a source of energy that is cheaper even than conventional coal. [2] Large dams can last for over a hundred years [3] and are easy to switch on and off according to demand, making them very cost-effective. Given that having no access to electricity makes work and study nearly impossible, alleviating global poverty by giving access to electricity is an important step to take.  [1] IEA, Access to Electricity, 2010  [2] Wikipedia. Cost of electricity by source.  [3] WWF, Dam Right!, 2003"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro03b","title":"","text":"As well as benefits hydroelectric dams have added dangers. Dams increase the risk of earthquakes, because the weight of the water-reservoir impacts the Earth\u2019s crust underneath. [1] Moreover, big dams run the risk of bursting, causing massive damage in their wake. The bursting of the Chinese Banqiao dam in 1975 is estimated to have cost about 230,000 lives. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Earthquake risk from dams\u2019, 2002  [2] The New Internationalist, \u2018Big dams, big trouble\u2019, 2003"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Hydro electric dams reduce carbon dioxide emissions  Hydroelectric dams burn no fossil fuels so emit no greenhouse gasses at all in producing energy. Suppose we replace all coal fired power stations with hydroelectric power stations. In 2010, over 42% of global electricity production was produced through coal, accounting for over 28% of global carbon dioxide emissions. [1] Since there is more than enough potential capacity for hydropower, [2] we could hypothetically completely replace coal and even other fossil fuels for electricity, thus helping cut down greenhouse gas emissions massively.  [1] IEA, Power generation from coal, 2010  [2] Energy Consumers Edge. Hydropower dams pros and cons."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams don\u2019t reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Dams currently hold off about 15% of global freshwater runoff. If we want to sustain biodiversity and river-related goods and services, we can\u2019t easily increase the number of dams. [1] Also: building dams requires cutting down forests, which themselves are important tools in combating greenhouse gases, since they consume and \u2018lock up\u2019 carbon dioxide. Plus, the construction of the dams themselves releases carbon dioxide. Finally: global energy demand is expected to continue increasing, [2] meaning that hydropower will probably just be added to the supply and not replace coal.  [1] International Rivers, Frequently Asked Questions.  [2] IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2010, Executive summary"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams can be used to provide flood control and irrigation  The large water reservoirs created by hydroelectric dams can provide facilities for water sports and can become tourist attractions themselves. The reservoirs can be used for irrigation to help farmers and can be a means for flood control. A prime example of this is the Tennessee Valley Authority, an organisation responsible for flood control, electricity generation, economic development and even fertilizer generation in the Tennessee Valley in the U.S., spanning parts of Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky, Georgia, North Carolina and Virginia. [1]  [1] Tennessee Valley Authority, homepage."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con03b","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams don\u2019t destroy communities, governments do. Building dams only violates human rights if the governments building them do so. That\u2019s why we never heard of large-scale human rights violations when the Hoover Dam in the United States was built. Moreover, responsible dam builders in the International Hydropower Association have taken steps to ensure they build dams with the utmost respect for human rights, through the guidelines mentioned above."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con01b","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams can mitigate methane emissions. Dams can capture the methane released from their reservoir and even use it to their benefit: an experimental project in Brazil showed that hydroelectric dams can capture the methane and burn it to produce even more energy, whilst at the same time preventing the methane from being released. [1]  [1] BBC News, Earthquake risk from dams, 2002"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con02a","title":"","text":"Hydro electric dams destroy existing ecosystems  Large dams wreak havoc with the environment: they destroy habitats and ecosystems both further upstream and downstream. They prevent salmon from swimming upstream to spawn. The water going through them is often warmer and devoid of nutrients, depriving downstream riverine wildlife of their natural habitat. A shocking example is China\u2019s Three Gorges Dam, which Scientific American called \u2018an environmental disaster\u2019. [1]  [1] Scientific American, \u2018China\u2019s Three Gorges Dam: An environmental disaster?\u2019 2008"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con03a","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams destroy communities  What applies to the environment, also applies to the human communities. Building dams often involves relocating people and removing them from their ancestral homelands. For example, China\u2019s Three Gorges Dam involved relocating 1.3 million people, [1] involved severe human rights abuses [2] and has had dire social consequences. [3]  [1] CBS News, \u2018China Completes Three Gorges Dam\u2019, 2009  [2] International Rivers, Human Rights dammed of at Three Gorges, 2003  [3] New York Times, \u2018Chinese Dam Projects Criticized for Their Human Costs\u2019, 2007"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con01a","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams increase methane emissions  Hydroelectric dams emit a lot of methane, which is an even more potent greenhouse gas then carbon dioxide. This happens when the plants and vegetation submerged in the reservoir start to rot under water: they then produce methane which bubbles up and is released into the atmosphere. On balance, some dams produce more greenhouse gasses than conventional power plants running on fossil fuel. [1]  [1] New Scientist, \u2018Hydroelectric power's dirty secret revealed\u2019, 2005"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con02b","title":"","text":"Hydroelectric dams can mitigate the ecological impact. Hydroelectric dams can take steps to mitigate their environmental impact. For example, for salmon, dams these days have \u2018fish ladders\u2019, allowing them to reach their spawning grounds. For these and other sustainability measures, the International Hydropower Association developed several guidelines and protocols to minimize ecological impact as far as possible. [1]  [1] International Hydropower Association, Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Climate Change, by dint of the complexity of the model, is virtually impossible to plan for. Developing an adaptation regime would simply create an ever-changing model while removing necessary intellectual and economic resources from the prevention regime that is already in place. This would not only mean transferring research resources there is also government and regulatory activity as well as industrial compliance structures and other outlays."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro02a","title":"","text":"The shifts required will take decades to plan and implement, they are already urgent  Transforming entire sectors of the economy and the resulting shifts in patterns of migration, training, employment and resourcing will be both complex and complicated and require a massive logistical effort. Waiting until the world\u2019s grain baskets are already dustbowls or Manhattan is underwater is simply unrealistic.  Instead, nations individually and collectively need to plan and begin to implement the necessary changes now. Even the process of achieving political agreement on some of the likely changes could take decades. 2050 has been widely seen as the date when the ravages of Climate Change will be all too obvious; 30 years is no time at all in diplomatic and industrial terms [i] .  The financial costs of inaction on Climate Change have been estimated at $74tn, however that pails into insignificance with the broader human costs [ii] . Against that the World Bank has estimated that the costs of adaptation at a wildly varying but still relatively modest $4bn - $109bn a year [iii] .  [i] BBC Website. Temperatures could rise by 3C by 2050, models suggest. 25 March 2012.   [ii] Friends of the Earth. \u201cClimate Change: The Cost of Inaction\u201d 2006.   [iii] The World Bank. \u201cThe Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro03b","title":"","text":"This argument is predicated on the idea that it is possible to build a model that would allow for adaptation. In the light of some of the challenges currently posed by Climate Change that seems improbable. Without a clearer idea of what adaptation would look like or what it could even potentially achieve, making it a priority against something that can be shown to work seems reckless in the extreme."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Prioritising prevention hasn\u2019t worked  It is a demonstrable fact that efforts to reduce carbon emissions haven\u2019t worked. Despite the conferences, the treaties and the pledges; global carbon emissions continue to rise \u2013 up 6.7% from 2009 to 2010. [i] The world\u2019s largest economies continue to be the worst offenders and, with the BRIC economies joining their ranks, that look set to continue.  If you\u2019ve been trying something for over 20 years with no notable success, then it seems sensible to try something else.  Added to which, many scientists, such as James Hansen, [ii] believe that a tipping point in the climate and broader ecosystem is imminent \u2013 with some suggesting that it has already been passed [iii] . We need to accept that Climate Change is not something that may happen in the future but something that is happening now. Extreme weather events are happening now, glaciers are melting now; the climate is shifting now, as is shown for example by the sea ice levels which in 2012 were at their lowest extent since we started monitoring it, the previous lowest extent was only set in 2007. [iv] Managing that reality to mitigate its impact on humanity and the rest of the ecosystem is the most responsible thing to do [v] .  [i] Rogers, Simon, and Harvey, Fiona, \u2018Global carbon emissions rise is far bigger than previous estimates\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 21 June 2012,   [ii] Hansen, James, \u2018Tipping point: Perspective of a climatologist. In State of the Wild 2008-2009: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands, and Oceans.\u2019 E. Fearn, Ed. Wildlife Conservation Society\/Island Press, pp. 6-15.   [iii] Fred Guterl. \u201cSearching for Clues to Calamity\u201d, New York Times. 20 July 2012.   [iv] Doyle, Alister, and Chestney, Nina \u2018Arctic summer sea ice might thaw by 2015 \u2013 or linger for decades\u2019, Reuters, 30 August 2012,   [v] UNEP Progress Towards Meeting Internationally Agreed Goals. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro01b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s been apparent from Rio onwards that ensuring action would require both patience and an acceptance that governments and industry would only genuinely get on board when Climate Change became an emergency rather than a distant theory. That is now starting to happen in a million ways, small and large. Changing the focus to another 30 years project now would just allow for another set of delays and missed targets."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro03a","title":"","text":"The necessary research alone will take time and should be a priority  There are significant research challenges that need to be addressed in terms of envisaging what an adaptation regime would look like. For example how adaptation would tie into to other types of change \u2013 social, economic, demographic, etc. Answering these questions, alone, will take time but are a necessary precursor to building a realistic adaptation routine [i] .  The urgency here comes from the fact that it will take time to establish new systems to work on this at an international level. One of the difficulties demonstrated by the experience of initial studies of climate change was that it needed to be conducted on a global scale, frequently involving complex and expensive modeling systems. There are several backstages to establishing this and the majority of relevant academics are currently working on prevention models rather than designing an entire new framework of prediction.  Developing such frameworks will require the focus of governments, in terms of research funding policies and agreeing enforcement and delivery models.  Given the choice between building a framework that can work and focussing on one that hasn\u2019t, the choice seems to be fairly obvious [ii] .  [i] National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility website.   [ii] See also the UN site here"}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con03b","title":"","text":"Renewables always looked like being \u2018too little, too late\u2019 and that now appears to be the case. Carbon based energy sources remain, massively, the major players of global energy production and that looks set to continue to be the case. It is time to take a mature response to that reality and manage the problem rather than pretending that a magical solution is going to be produced in the form of technological breakthroughs in nuclear or other energy technologies."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con01b","title":"","text":"Opposition concedes that adaptations will happen as individuals respond to climate change, it is only fair and sensible that governments should make sure those changes happen in a managed fashion. To take one, small example; the increasing unwillingness of insurers to accept the risks of flooding for homes and businesses in some parts of the world requires a governmental response; many of those who bought homes that may be affected by flooding bought that property before they would have known about climate change."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con02a","title":"","text":"The focus on prevention should not be diluted  It has taken three decades to drag most polluting business and many governments \u2013 and some are not yet there \u2013 to this stage of accepting that mitigation is necessary. Many remain unwilling to accept reality and are only making those grudging efforts they have undertaken because of the full force of global public opinion and the efforts of some governments and international bodies. Moving that focus simply allows those who weren\u2019t happy about the challenges of carbon reduction to go back to the bad, old days.  Equally it allows industries such as coal off the hook at the very point when the pressure is really starting to count [i] . Some of the myths about clean coal or the supposedly environmental sensitivity of uranium mining are now sinking into the public consciousness \u2013 saying \u2018let\u2019s do this instead\u2019 would run the risk of a return to business as usual.  [i] Michael McCarthy. UK to push for global Green accounting system. The Independent. 10 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con04a","title":"","text":"Adaptation is likely to hurt poorer nations  Pollution is a global problem, with the greenhouse gas emissions of richer nations impacting on their poorer neighbours. Adaptation would most likely take place on a predominantly national basis, allowing those with the resources \u2013 built on their historical use of carbon energy \u2013 to find ways to adapt to some of the problems caused by Climate Change, while poorer nations are left without the capacity to do so.  Only a global focus on combating the basic causes of climate change will tackle the problem in a fair and equitable way, as richer nations cut back on their carbon-enriched lifestyles while developments in technologies offer benefits to the world as a whole rather than those who are already carbon rich as a result of geological or historical accident [i] .  [i] See the Jamaica Declaration 1994."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con03a","title":"","text":"Increasing oil costs make this the best time to be focussing on alternative energies  The pressure to invest in carbon-light forms of energies is starting to bear fruit as costs of oil make them financially viable. There are still enormous infrastructural costs but allowing carbon energy-based sectors to shift over to either shale gas or oil by taking the focus off prevention will mean that these incredibly polluting fuels are used \u2013 as the infrastructure is already in place and it is more financially palatable \u2013 rather than keeping up the pressure in favour of carbon reduction, energy efficiency and the growth of renewables. Germany and Denmark have proved that an effective renewables market can be the focus of a mature economy but that only happened with sustained political pressure. Scotland is moving in that direction as are some US states and other nations. Removing that pressure now would be a huge missed opportunity."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con01a","title":"","text":"Some of the required adaptations are impossible  In some Climate Change scenarios \u2013 for example, a diminution of global oxygen output as a result of the effect of desalination resulting from melting polar caps or enforcing reduced consumption of resources through their more equitable distribution \u2013 are either impossible in biological or practical terms [i] .  As a result, the only available option is reducing the carbon footprint of humanity as a species. Overwhelmingly, scientists agree that this is the only solution. Adaptation is, in reality, an attempt to hide from \u2018an inconvenient truth\u2019. Nobody likes being told that there is simply no way around the problem but that is the reality.  Some adaptations will, no doubt, happen naturally as people adjust but the focus of governments should remain on prevention.  [i] Stephen Leahy. \u201cClimate Change Threatens Crucial Marine Algae\u201d, Inter Press Service. 8 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con04b","title":"","text":"Seeing the fight against Climate Change as some panacea for international inequality has always been a non-starter. The rich nations are simply not going to give up their competitive advantages in terms of production. However, a sensible global response to issues such as the migration likely to result from some of the outcomes of changing climates, might mitigate some of their worse excesses."}
+{"id":"training-environment-crasbmurcc-con02b","title":"","text":"The mono-focus on prevention has, effectively, blinded the world\u2019s governments to the real issue \u2013 that climate change is happening and will continue to happen. That is a process that will require great adaptation on behalf of everyone. As with any significant change, it needs to be managed. Economies and societies have been dramatically altered in the face of significant changes such as warfare. It\u2019s time to face up to that reality."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro02b","title":"","text":"Nuclear power is no better placed to deliver the amount of energy required. There is an unrealistic focus on nuclear power as a magical solution to climate change. Despite increasing demand the amount of electricity being generated by nuclear is projected to fall not rise. The share of nuclear energy will decrease from 30% to 25% in electricity generation by 2020. According to current projections, the nuclear generation capacity in the EU would fall by as much as 33 GWe by 2020; this fall would mostly have to be met by dirty power plants using gas, or particularly coal [1] .  The focus on nuclear power diverts attention from other renewables. In reality going nuclear would squeeze out renewables. Indeed, the former Secretary of State for Business Patricia Hewitt said in a Commons debate on a 2003 Energy White Paper: 'It would have been foolish to announce \u2026. that we would embark on a new generation of nuclear power stations because that would have guaranteed that we would not make the necessary investment and effort in both energy efficiency and in renewables' [2] .  [1] Update of the nuclear illustrative programme in the context of the second strategic energy review, 13th November 2008, Brussels.  [2] The case against nuclear power\". Greenpeace. January 8, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro02a","title":"","text":"Energy demands are increasing exponentially and nuclear power is the only renewable source capable of matching it  Although EU countries are using energy more efficiently, demand for energy continues to rise, especially in the new eastern European member states. The demand for electricity is expected to rise by 8-9% by 2020 meaning a much more urgent need for generating capacity [1] . At the same time world energy consumption is projected to expand by 50% from 2005 to 2030 leading to high oil and gas prices [2] . The production of renewable energy is not growing at a fast enough pace to replace fossil fuels; wind, wave and solar simply cannot provide the quantities of energy required. It is possible \u2013 indeed, desirable - to combine nuclear power with other renewables, but nuclear energy is a crucial part of that mix as the only option capable of producing the quantity of energy required. Nuclear power is actually more efficient than any other power source: a gram of uranium 235 contains as much energy as four tons of coal [3] .  [1] Update of the nuclear illustrative programme in the context of the second strategic energy review, 13th November 2008, Brussels.  [2] International Energy Outlook 2008, Energy Information Administration, June 2008, Chapter 1.  [3] Max Schulz. \"Nuclear Power Is the Future\". Wilson Quarterly. Fall, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro03b","title":"","text":"Nuclear power plants are not much of an improvement over conventional coal-burning power plants despite claims that nuclear is the 'clean air energy.' Uranium mining, milling, leeching, plant construction and decommissioning all produce substantial amounts of greenhouse gases. Taking into account the carbon-equivalent emissions associated with the entire nuclear life cycle, not just the nuclear fission itself, nuclear plants contribute significantly to climate change and will contribute even more as stockpiles of high grade uranium are depleted1.  Nuclear waste can remain radioactive for thousands of years. It must be stored for all this time away from water into which it can dissolve and far from any tectonic activity. This is virtually impossible and there are serious concerns over the state of waste discarded even a few decades ago. A report by the Environment Agency attacked Britain's disposal system as many containers used to store the waste are made of second-rate materials, are handled carelessly, and are liable to corrode; computer models suggest up to 40% of them could be at risk of being compromised within as little as 200 years2. Tens of thousands of containers of this waste, bound in concrete, are simply being stored above ground, mainly at Sellafield, while the Government and the nuclear industry decide what to do with them. On present plans it is assumed they will remain there for up to another 150 years before being placed in a repository underground, and then another 50 years before it is sealed3. This problem would only be added to if more nuclear power stations were built.  1The case against nuclear power\". Greenpeace. January 8, 2008 2 Geoffrey Lean, 'Nuclear waste containers likely to fail, warns \"devastating\" report', The Independent, 24th Aug., 2008, 3 Geoffrey Lean, 'Nuclear waste containers likely to fail, warns \"devastating\" report', The Independent, 24th Aug., 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro01a","title":"","text":"Alternative renewables are inefficient for the cost  Nuclear power is the most practical renewable energy source as all the others face major difficulties either in scaling up to provide enough to be a major component of nations energy mix, don't provide energy all the time, the 'base load', or cause other environmental problems. Nuclear is a proven technology with large firms that can build large amounts of nuclear energy generation capacity.  The most efficient source of renewable energy has been hydroelectric power, however, this usually creates more problems than it solves. Building a large dam necessarily floods an enormous region behind the dam which in turn can displace thousands of people. There are also enormous ecological costs to dam building. A classical example is the Aswan dam in Egypt along the Nile. Not only did many thousands lose their homes but the yearly inundation of the Nile, which fertilised the surrounding land for thousands of year, was also stopped; the subsequent silting up of the river destroyed much wildlife1. A similar story of ecological destruction and human homelessness surrounded the more recent Three Gorges dam project in China2.  Wind, tidal, and solar power are all affected by issues of reliability. The tendency of wind power, in particular, to be a volatile source of energy, means that other power sources such as fossil fuel power stations have to make up the shortfall when wind levels drop. Tidal power technology is still in at an early stage and may take years to become profitable. It also has the potential to cause environmental problems in the marine environment. For a large area of the European Union, there is not the potential to exploit solar power as there are not enough hours of sunlight.  \"Wind and solar power have their place, but because they are intermittent and unpredictable they simply can't replace big baseload plants such as coal, nuclear and hydroelectric. Natural gas, a fossil fuel, is too expensive already, and its price is too volatile to risk building big baseload plants. Given that hydroelectric resources are built pretty much to capacity, nuclear is, by elimination, the only viable substitute for coal. It's that simple.\"3  1 'Environmental Impact of the Aswan High Dam', 2 'Three Gorges Dam is a disaster in the making, China admits' by Jane Macartney, Times Online 27th September 2007, 3\"Going Nuclear A Green Makes the Case\", by Patrick Moore, Washington Post. April 16th, 2006:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro01b","title":"","text":"Nuclear power is itself inefficient: For every three units of energy produced by the reactor core of a U.S. nuclear power plants, two units are discharged to the environment as waste heat. Nuclear plants are built on the shores of lakes, rivers, and oceans because these bodies provide the large quantities of cooling water needed to handle the waste heat discharge1.  It is perfectly true that alternative energy is not efficient enough to serve the energy needs of the world's population today. However, with investment all these methods could be made efficient enough. Not enough has been done to make use of all the natural energy sources that do not create the kind of damage nuclear power generation causes. We need to develop more efficient ways to capture wind, water and solar power, to explore other options and to reduce the level of power required. This is not an argument for nuclear power but one for greater resources to be put to develop natural energy sources and help protect the planet for future generations.  1Got Water? Nuclear Power Plant Cooling Water Needs.\" Union of Concerned Scientists"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is almost always one renewable resource that a given country can exploit with sufficient investment; tides for islands, the sun for equatorial countries, hot rocks for volcanic regions. Any given country can in principle become self-sufficient in terms of renewable energy. The global distribution of uranium is hugely uneven (much more so than fossil fuels) and the use of nuclear power therefore gives countries with uranium deposits disproportionate economic power. Kazakhstan became the world's number one supplier of uranium in 2009, and other major producers such as Russia, Namibia, Niger and Uzbekistan may not be reliable1. It is far from inconceivable that uranium could be subject to the same kind of monopoly that the OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) places on oil.  1 'Kazakhstan plans to become global leader in uranium production by 2009', Silk Road Intelligencer, 23rd July 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro03a","title":"","text":"Nuclear power is clean and emits significantly less CO2 than other renewable energy sources  In many senses nuclear energy is the cleanest of renewables. It does not produce emissions such as CO2 and greenhouse gases, which are harmful to the population and the environment. Roughly 700 million metric tons of CO2 emissions are avoided each year in the United States by generating electricity from nuclear power rather than some other source; according to the U.S. Department of Energy, that is nearly equivalent to the CO2 released from all U.S. passenger cars [1] .  It is true that it does produce radioactive waste but since this is in solid form it can be dealt with relatively easily and stored away from centres of population. Furthermore, as new technology becomes available to allow the more efficient use of nuclear fuel, less nuclear waste will be produced. (A recent example is the development of the fast breeder reactor, which uses fuel much more efficiently [2] )  [1] Max Schulz. \"Nuclear Power Is the Future\". Wilson Quarterly. September, 2006  [2] \u2018Breeder reactor\u2019, Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro04a","title":"","text":"Nuclear power gives countries energy security and self-sufficiency  In addition, the use of nuclear power reduces our foreign energy dependency. The European Union is a net importer for energy, and as such is reliant on Russia and Norway, predominantly, for oil and gas supplies. Events such as the dispute between Russia and the Ukraine over gas supplies demonstrated that the EU's energy can easily be disrupted by political situations outside its control1. It also means that the EU could be drawn into disputes between Russia and neighbouring countries because it has a vested interest in the region. This could set a dangerous precedent, where the EU could be intimidated by Russia, because the EU relies so heavily on Russian gas. Building more nuclear power stations would ensure a more secure supply of energy, thereby avoiding the potential for energy supply to become a politically charged issue on an international scale.  1 'Russia-Ukraine gas dispute', Wikipedia"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con03b","title":"","text":"We hear a lot about the depletion of supplies of fossil fuels, however it is not mentioned that there is also a potential problem with the supply of uranium: \"There is currently a gap in the amount of uranium being mined and the amount of uranium being consumed,\" states Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa (Necsa) CEO Rob Adam1.  This would potentially be ok if it did not look like we are approaching a uranium peak. The peak in supplies of uranium seems likely to arrive sometime between 2030 and 2040 with uranium being almost totally gone by 2070 or 2120 at the latest. It is the peak that matters, as after this point supply will not be able to keep up with demand. If you take into account that nuclear energy produces 16% of world electricity, and less than 5% primary energy supply, it seems impossible to me for nuclear energy with current technology to ever satisfy a big part of the world's energy demand2. It means that nuclear power is not a sustainable base which we should be looking to be dependent on.  1 Matthew Hill, 'Global uranium production will need to double by 2015 to catch up with demand', Mining Weekly, 25th June 2007, 2 Uranium resources and nuclear energy, Energy watch group, December 2006, p.5.,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con01b","title":"","text":"For nuclear power plants any cost figures normally include spent fuel management, plant decommissioning and final waste disposal. These costs, while usually external for other technologies, are internal for nuclear power. Costs are high compared to coal fired generation precisely because the externalities associated with high carbon outputs are not taken into account, whereas similar externalities relating to nuclear generation are. If costs are calculated equivalently to coal power stations then nuclear power is competitive.  Also the cost of construction and decommissioning of nuclear power plants is often overestimated; the French and Swedish nuclear industries estimate decommissioning costs to be just 10 -15 % of the construction costs and budget this into the price charged for electricity1. Nuclear is actually increasing its competitiveness as gas and oil prices rise, new technology makes nuclear power more efficient and construction and decommissioning costs less. An OECD study in 2005 showed nuclear overnight construction costs ranged from US$ 1000\/kW in Czech Republic to $2500\/kW in Japan, and averaged $1500\/kW. Coal plants were costed at $1000-1500\/kW, gas plants $500-1000\/kW and wind capacity $1000-1500\/kW2. The difference, when weighed against nuclear power's other advantages, is thus not that great.  1 'Cost of nuclear power', 2 'The Economics of Nuclear Power', World Nuclear Association, January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con02a","title":"","text":"Promoting continued nuclear research is against our security interests  Spreading the peaceful use of nuclear power brings important security benefits. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, whose signatories include every state in the world apart from India, Pakistan and Israel (plus North Korea and Iran whose membership fluctuates), is largely a provision for the sharing of nuclear power technology, which it promises to share among members who do not produce nuclear weapons (or, in the case of the 5 nuclear states, who commit to a gradual and continual reduction in weapons stockpiles). This has seen states including Brazil and Argentina abandon their nuclear weapons programmes, in order to gain access to nuclear power technology1. It is in our interest to promote peaceful use of nuclear technologies, encouraging scientists to find employment in an industry which is both peaceful and useful rather than selling their skills to the highest rogue bidder. The treaty also establishes and sets the remit of the International Atomic Energy Agency, which all members are bound to grant unlimited access to in order to facilitate inspection of nuclear facilities. This ensures that facilities cannot surreptitiously be used to facilitate the creation of nuclear weapons.  1 'Nuclear weapons not appealing to all countries' by Renee Montagne, npr, 17th April 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con04a","title":"","text":"Nuclear power is potentially extremely unsafe  It is unfortunately the case that the nuclear industry has a bad reputation for safety. This is undeserved. The overwhelming majority of nuclear reactors have functioned safely and effectively for their entire lifetimes. The four historic nuclear disasters (1957 Windscale Fire, 1979 Three Mile Island and 1986 Chernobyl, 2011 Fukushima, Japan) killed fewer people than the oil and coal industries have1. \"The multi-agency U.N. Chernobyl Forum reported last year that 56 deaths could be directly attributed to the accident, most of those from radiation or burns suffered while fighting the fire. Tragic as those deaths were, they pale in comparison to the more than 5,000 coal-mining deaths that occur worldwide every year\"2.  Further, the two major nuclear accidents, at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, were both in old style reactors, made worse in the latter case by poor Soviet safety standards. The Chernobyl disaster took place at a time when our understanding of nuclear issues was much lesser than it is now, and was the result of poorly trained staff in the plant's control room. Power stations today are better staffed, better maintained and better understood, and because the effects of an attack upon them are acknowledged, they are better defended and monitored by the armed services. No system can be 100% safe, but solid design principles can minimize risk.  Perhaps the best guarantee of safety standards in the nuclear industry is the increasing transparency with which the industry is presenting itself. Many of the problems in its early days were caused by excessive control due to the origin of nuclear energy from military applications. As the gap between the two separates so the nuclear industry becomes more accountable. The question is, is the slight risk of a nuclear accident a worse danger than the inevitable climate catastrophe that awaits us?  1 'Risks of Nuclear Power' by Bernard Cohen, University of Pittsburgh, 2Patrick Moore, a prominent environmentalist and founding member of Greenpeace, \"Going Nuclear A Green Makes the Case\", Washington Post, 4\/16\/06\""}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con03a","title":"","text":"The supply of uranium needed for nuclear power is not actually unlimited, renewable or sustainable  The projected lifespan of uranium must be compared to that of oil, gas and coal which are irrefutably running out. Uranium supply is expected to last for over 200 years, which could be extended to 30,000 with modern technologies. There has not been sufficient research undertaken to explore new potential sites, new forms or ways of prolonging the life of that which we already have access to. For example, it has been claimed recently that there are potential alternatives to uranium which could be used in the nuclear process: \"There is also almost always thorium, a lightly radioactive metal, in the same ores, and it has to be disposed of.\" This disposal would create the same amount of energy as nuclear fission. The USA and Australia have potentially very big mines for rare earths and they are going to be producing Thorium as a waste product anyway, what better way to dispose of it than by creating energy?1  1Tim Worstall, You Don't Bring a Praseodymium Knife to a Gunfight, Foreign Policy, 29\/9\/10, See also:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con01a","title":"","text":"Nuclear power is very expensive  For nuclear power plants any cost figures normally include spent fuel management, plant decommissioning and final waste disposal. These costs, while usually external for other technologies, are internal for nuclear power. Costs are high compared to coal fired generation precisely because the externalities associated with high carbon outputs are not taken into account, whereas similar externalities relating to nuclear generation are. If costs are calculated equivalently to coal power stations then nuclear power is competitive.  Also the cost of construction and decommissioning of nuclear power plants is often overestimated; the French and Swedish nuclear industries estimate decommissioning costs to be just 10 -15 % of the construction costs and budget this into the price charged for electricity1. Nuclear is actually increasing its competitiveness as gas and oil prices rise, new technology makes nuclear power more efficient and construction and decommissioning costs less. An OECD study in 2005 showed nuclear overnight construction costs ranged from US$ 1000\/kW in Czech Republic to $2500\/kW in Japan, and averaged $1500\/kW. Coal plants were costed at $1000-1500\/kW, gas plants $500-1000\/kW and wind capacity $1000-1500\/kW2. The difference, when weighed against nuclear power's other advantages, is thus not that great.  1 'Cost of nuclear power', 2 'The Economics of Nuclear Power', World Nuclear Association, January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con04b","title":"","text":"The nuclear industry has a shameful safety record and it is haunted by the constant risk of meltdown or explosion. \"No reactor in the world is inherently safe. All operational reactors have inherent safety flaws, which cannot be eliminated by safety upgrading. Highly radioactive spent fuel requires constant cooling. If this fails, it could lead to a catastrophic release of radioactivity. They are also highly vulnerable to deliberate acts of sabotage, including terrorist attack\"1. Chernobyl and Japan's Fukushima plant has shown the world what happens when cooling systems fail.  The effects on the local people and the environment are devastating. It cannot be a coincidence that the rate of occurrence of certain types of cancer, such as leukaemia, is much higher in the population around nuclear plants. It is perfectly true that modern nuclear reactors are safer but they are not completely safe. It is not worth the risk.  The dumping of nuclear waste also presents a host of problems. The Nuclear Inspectorate in the UK has been very critical of safety standards within the industry; it is too dominated by the profit motive to really care about safety and too shrouded in secrecy to be accountable. According to Agenda 2000: \"The problem of nuclear safety in some candidate countries causes serious concerns to the EU... and should be urgently and effectively addressed. It is imperative that solutions, including closure where required, be found to these issues in accordance with the Community nuclear acquis and a \"nuclear safety culture\" as established in the western world as soon as possible\"2.  1\"End the nuclear age.\" Greenpeace. October 2008 2 European Nuclear Threats Old and New, Nuclear Monitor, November 2003, pp.3-5,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ogecephwgn-con02b","title":"","text":"Encouraging the further adoption of nuclear power is against our security interests. The scientific understanding and technology needed to generate nuclear power is the same as that needed to create nuclear weapons, and it is all too easy for rogue states to pretend they are only interested in peaceful uses while secretly pursuing military applications. This is the route India and Israel have followed, and that Iran may well be following at present. The process of enriching uranium to make it into fuel for nuclear power stations can be a step towards further enriching it to make nuclear weapons. Used fuel from nuclear power stations can be separated out to recover any usable elements such as uranium and plutonium through a method called reprocessing. Plutonium is a by-product of the nuclear fuel cycle and can also be used to make nuclear weapons1.  Even if the intentions of foreign governments are good, widespread nuclear power plants are at risk of terrorism, in both the developed and developing world. If a 9\/11-style bomb was flown into a nuclear power plant, the potential disaster would be catastrophic. And the more nuclear material is transported around the world, the easier it will be for terrorists to get hold of some in order to make their own nuclear weapons. An atomic bomb might one day be within the reach of some international terrorist groups, but even today a simple \"dirty bomb\" (in which highly-radioactive materials is blasted over an urban area using conventional explosives) could be deadly to many thousands of people. Encouraging the spread of nuclear technology enables the spread of nuclear weapons.  1 'Reactor-grade and Weapons-grade plutonium in nuclear explosives', US Department of Energy Publication, January 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro02b","title":"","text":"While Africa may not have the resources now to pay for adaptation costs of $50billion or more after another fifty years of economic growth it may do. Africa could afford the current $7-15billion if it were considered necessary."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Africa does not have the resources to protect itself from climate change  A report by the United Nations Environmental Project estimates that adaptation costs to Africa per year could already be $15billion, reach $50billion by 2050 and anything up to $350billion by 2070. Funding for adaptation to Africa in 2011 was only $454milliion. [1] This is not a gap that Africa can make up itself; in 2010 all spending on education was less than $50billion. [2] Africa can\u2019t afford to adapt itself while responding to an expanding population as well as its existing problems of poverty and disease. It is clear that developed countries that do have the resources have to step it and take responsibility.  [1] Schaeffer, Michiel et al., \u2018Summary\u2019, Africa Adaptation Gap Technical Report, United Nations Environmental Project, 2013  , p.xi  [2] \u2018Public spending on education; total (% of GDP) in sub saharan Africa\u2019, Trading Economics,  , \u2018Gross domestic product 2010\u2019, World Bank,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro03b","title":"","text":"For most of the time they were emitting the west did not have any idea of the consequences. The developed world therefore cannot be held responsible for emissions before the 1980s. On the other hand knowledge of the effects has not prevented developing countries from immensely increasing their emissions. Clearly the developed world is still responsible for more emissions but they are also responsible for developing technologies to reduce emissions such as renewable power."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro05a","title":"","text":"The developed world has the necessary skills  Many of the areas of adaptation are areas where the west has the relevant expertise; seasonal forecasting, adjusting farming \u2013 perhaps by engineering hardier plants, weather insurance etc. Africa does not have experience or experts in many of the relevant areas, for example Africa lags behind in bioscience, [1] so it makes sense for the west to provide these experts. And while they do so the west might as well also pay the cost of these expertise and also provide the necessary skills education and training to overcome these problems.  [1] Wafula, Kevin, \u2018Africa still lags behind on bioscience capacities, says Scientist\u2019, Africa Science News, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Climate change is already costing lives  Lives are already being lost to climate change; a report by Climate Vulnerability Monitor estimates that already almost 5million are lost per year to climate change, even without the distorting numbers from pollution there are 400,000 deaths per year. [1] While attributing individual events to climate change is difficult research by climate scientists suggests that the lack long rains in Somalia in early 2011 is between 24 and 99% the result of greenhouse gasses. This famine has killed between 50 and 100 thousand people. [2] With lives being lost the urgency of funding adaptation to reduce these loses is clear.  [1] Climate Vulnerability Monitor, \u2018A Guide to the cold calculus of a hot planet\u2019, DARA, September 2012,  , p.17  [2] Straziuso, Jason, \u2018Global warming may have fueled Somali drought\u2019, Phys.org, 15 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Yes there are almost certainly some casualties already to climate change but almost certainly considerably less than either of these numbers; there have always been casualties due to \u2018Heat & Cold Illnesses\u2019 (35000) but are all these attributable to climate change? Probably not. There were extreme weather events even before climate change. Even if there are such deaths this does not amount to meaning the developed world should fund adaptation; just like not every outbreak of violence in Africa should be considered the responsibility of the developed world not every natural disaster is."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro05b","title":"","text":"The developed world will no doubt be willing to provide expertise and some may even be willing to work pro-bono while doing work for poorer countries. The developed world should not be paying for such work. Providing money to pay for western workers in Africa both invites corruption and is really for the benefit of the developed countries by providing work for western firms. [1] Instead the focus has to be on the transfer of skills to Africans so that they can meet the challenges from climate change themselves.  [1] Moyo, Dambisa, \u2018Why Foreign Aid is Hurting Africa\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 21 March 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro04b","title":"","text":"Why should developed countries pay because Africa happens to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change? Western countries have nothing to do with Africa\u2019s geography and climate change vulnerability."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro03a","title":"","text":"The developed world has the responsibility to help others  The IPCC says that it is \u201cextremely likely\u201d that human activities are the cause of the temperature rise. [1] This means the biggest historical emitters have a responsibility to pay for the consequences. From 1900 to 2004 the United States produced 314,772 million metric tonnes of CO2 compared to China\u2019s 89,243 million metric tonnes and while India now produces more CO2 Germany over the same period emitted three times as much. [2] History matters as much of the CO2 remains in the atmosphere for decades or hundreds of years. It is the responsibility of those who caused the problem to protect innocents from the fallout of their actions.  [1] Harvey, Fiona, \u2018IPCC climate report: human impact is 'unequivocal'\u2019, theguardian.com, 27 September 2013,   [2] Vaughn, Adam, \u2018A history of CO2 emissions\u2019, Datablog guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Africa will be among the hardest hit  The IPCC starts its chapter on Africa \u201cAfrica is one of the most vulnerable continents to climate change and climate variability\u201d. [1] It is also the poorest continent in the world so least able to cope. In the GAIN index by the Global Adaptation Institute which measures vulnerability and readiness for climate change eight of the bottom ten are African states. [2] The changes to Africa could be dramatic; 40% of wildlife habitats could disappear, crop yields fall by 5% despite already being the lowest in the world and 70 million are at risk of flooding as sea levels rise. [3] If anywhere needs help from developed countries in adaptation it is Africa.  [1] Boko, Michel, et al., \u2018Africa\u2019, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u2019, IPCC, 2007,  , p.435  [2] Gain Index, 2011,   [3] Bloomfield, Steve, \u2018Africa \u2018will be worst hit by climate change\u2019\u2019, The Independent, 6 November 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con03b","title":"","text":"Aid programs are already dealing with most of \u2018the low hanging fruit\u2019 in terms of preventing deaths and will continue to do so. However providing aid to other areas does not absolve the west of the need to provide funds for adaptation when they have created the change in the first place."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con01b","title":"","text":"While countries like Australia are going to be hit by Climate Change they at least have the resources to carry out adaptation on their own. Poor countries don\u2019t have the money so there will not be any adaptation. The result will be more natural disasters and deaths through disease both things that are seen as worthy of providing aid. I would be much better to help prevent these disasters being too severe than waiting until they occur to provide aid."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con02a","title":"","text":"Responsibility is not the developed world\u2019s alone  First developing countries now produce a large share of emissions; China, India and other rising countries should also have to pay. They also at the same time have increasing financial resources. Second even if countries bear responsibility in proportion to emissions it does not follow developed countries should meet the costs of adaptation. People have always adapted to their climate as an essential part of survival [1] and the climate has always been changing even if at a slower rate so why should the developed world pay in this particular instance? That the west should cut its emissions so that it produces no more than the average per capita is equitable. It is however not equitable for one group to have to pay for the adaptation of others to their environment.  [1] Clark, Duncan, \u2018What is climate change adaptation?\u2019, theguardian.com, 27 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con04a","title":"","text":"Adaptation won\u2019t work  Adaptation is simply working to reduce the effects of climate change, it will not prevent it from causing damage. Take hurricanes; adaptation would dictate that the buildings should have been made out of stronger materials and sea walls built to stop storm surges. Yet as with any other form of disaster management there is a sensible amount to adapt if building a 10foot sea wall will stop 95% of storm surges is it really worth building one of 20foot for twice the price to stop 99%?  Many forms of adaptation are directly contrary to demographic trends on the continent. Yes hardier crops can be introduced to mitigate the problems of drought but will these also feed a growing population? Yes people can migrate from those areas that will be worst hit but can their neighbours take in the extra people? For example climate change is one cause of drought in the Sahel, [1] to the south rainfall and flooding may actually increase in southern Nigeria though it will be unpredictable. [2] The obvious solution then would be migration from the Sahel south but the UN projects Niger\u2019s population to grow to almost 70million by 2050 and Nigeria\u2019s to 440million, [3] could Nigeria really take the extra population from its northern neighbour as well as its own growth?  [1] Thomas, Alice, \u2018Sahel villagers fleeing climate change must not be ignored\u2019, theguardian.com, 2 August 2013,   [2] Uyigue, E., and Agho, M., \u2018Coping with Climate Change and Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta of Southern Nigeria\u2019, Community Research and Development Centre, 2007,   [3] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, \u2018World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision\u2019, esa.un.org,  (using medium variant)"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con03a","title":"","text":"There are other more urgent things to be spending money on  Money should be spent where it can make most difference. The cost of many methods of adapting to climate change is high compared to the gain. The developed world should focus aid on areas that can do most good rather than on adaptation. Even those who argue that climate change will be very costly and deadly implicitly agree that there are more worthwhile things. In Climate Vulnerability Monitor\u2019s estimates of deaths the vast majority, 3.1million, are due to indoor smoke. [1] This however is something that is not solved through adaptation to climate change but through mitigation; by providing $25 cooking stoves. [2]  [1] Climate Vulnerability Monitor, \u2018A Guide to the cold calculus of a hot planet\u2019, DARA, September 2012,  , p.17  [2] Aroon, P.J., \u2018Secretary Clinton is promoting cookstoves to save the world. Seriously\u2019, ForeignPolicy.com, 22 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con01a","title":"","text":"Each country should tackle its own problems  Every country is going to be affected by climate change in one way or another developed countries included. Australia has often been singled out as being a country that is \u201canti-climate\u201d [1] but Australia is already being hit by bigger bushfires and sudden floods and the cost on Australian infrastructure is estimated to rise to $9billion per year by 2020 and continue rising, [2] and this is only one small slice of the costs such as crop failures due to drought, health problems \u2013 there have already been increases in dengue fever and malaria in Australia. [3] Developed countries which are also going to be severely affected by climate change have a responsibility to their own people first and should not be paying for other countries to adapt.  [1] Readfearn, Graham, \u2018Australia slides down to bottom on climate change performance index\u2019, theguardian.com, 18 November 2013,   [2] The Climate Institute, \u2018Coming Ready or Not: Can Australia's infrastructure handle climate change?\u2019, 29 October 2012,   [3] Buckley, Ralf et al., \u2018Climate response Issues, costs and liabilities in adapting to climate change in Australia.\u2019, Griffith University, 2007,  , p.24"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con04b","title":"","text":"Many places today have not even done the minimum and need funding to help them do so. There can be no denying that some defences can make a big difference; in 1900 Galveston was hit by a hurricane which killed up to 12000 people, 15 years later after the building of a sea wall only 53 people died in a similar hurricane. [1] In many cases this kind of adaptation is simply sensible policy to prevent disasters that should be carried out regardless of climate change.  [1] Morris, Julian, \u2018The Terrible Toll of Typhoon Haiyan Doesn't Excuse Bad Policy\u2019, reason.com, 15 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con02b","title":"","text":"In India 456 million people live on under $1.25 per day, [1] it is absurd to suggest that India despite having higher CO2 emissions than Japan, indeed almost double, [2] should have the same responsibility for cutting emissions, or for paying for the consequences.  [1] The World Bank, \u2018New Global Poverty Estimates \u2013 What it means for India\u2019, 26 August 2008,   [2] Boden, Tom, and Blasing, T.J., \u2018Preliminary CO2 emissions 2010\u2019, Carbon Dioxide Analysis Center,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-pro02b","title":"","text":"First of all, power plants operating on renewable resources are not as green as one might think. Hydroelectric and tidal power can harm water ecosystems, wind turbines can harm wildlife and solar plants need a large space to be built on and are only really efficient in deserts. Nuclear power stations are relatively green since they do not primary produce any \u201cdirty gases.\u201d The only problem is mining uranium and the nuclear waste, which is increasingly able to be recycled and potentially reused as fuel for more modern nuclear plants.  Furthermore, gas stations are operating with non-renewable source of energy \u2013 natural gas. Therefore, when speaking about efficiency -nuclear power stations are generally more effective than gas power stations [1] [2] \u2013 it is better for environment to operate on few nuclear power stations rather than on many of gas power stations. Nuclear power stations are not flexible, but they can represent the base of needed energy, which does not fluctuate, and the rest of needed energy which varies in time may be supplied with power plants operating on renewable sources and few power plants operating on other non-renewable sources.  [1] \u2018Cooling power plants\u2019, World Nuclear Association, September 2012,   [2] Kirk T. 2007 Physics IB Study Guide, Oxford University Press, p.68"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-pro02a","title":"","text":"Nuclear energy goes against Green World  In order not to harm environment, not to cause climate changes, renewable power plants (wind, water, solar) should be used. However, these do not work together with nuclear power plants. Nuclear plants \u2013 giant very hot machines \u2013 are designed to operate at full speed (85%) all the time. They are not designed to change the output quickly. Since they are very expensive to build, they are not economic unless operated at full speed (also turning off and on is expensive). Solar and wind power plants are not stable (output varies because of natural factors) and thus need a backup, called a baseload. Nuclear plants are not a good backup for renewables. We need nimble plants in order to support wind and solar plants. Nuclear power stations do not work with solar, wind and water power stations, because they are running at full speed all the time (because of economic and technical reasons). Instead gas plants that can be powered up and down as required are needed to balance power generation. If we want to move towards Green World \u2013 nuclear energy does not help us to do so. [1]  It is generally agreed that we want more renewable power generation in Europe even if there are disagreements about where plants should be situated or how much must come from renewable sources. The European Union aims to have 20% of energy from renewable sources by 2020. [2] And if it is to meet CO2 reduction targets far more will be needed in following decades.  Nuclear is also not as helpful as renewables in meeting these CO2 reduction targets. It is estimated that renewables produce 10-40g of CO2 pre kWh of electricity produced, but nuclear is currently much higher at 90-140g\/kWh, though still only a tenth of coal. And as mining becomes more difficult it is estimated that this could double making nuclear no better for reducing CO2 than gas power. [3]  [1] Nelder, Chris, \u2018Why baseload power is doomed\u2019, smartplanet, 28 March 2012,   [2] European Commission, \u2018Directive Of The European Parliament And Of The Council Amending Directive 98\/70\/EC relating to the quality of petrol and diesel fuels and amending Directive 2009\/28\/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources\u2019, Europa.eu, 17 October 2012,   [3] \u2018CO2 emission of electricity from nuclear power stations\u2019, Time for change, May 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-pro03b","title":"","text":"The essence of the argument may be correct, however, the basis is not. The stress tests were to great extent based on unrealistic threats like strong earthquake (which are extremely rare \u2013 almost non-existent in Europe away from the Mediterranean) or crash of big airplane. In these cases truly, lives could be endangered, however, the possibility of these cases ever occurring is nearly zero. Even if some investments in safety measures were needed (like in case of the safety systems in case of blackout) implementation of those would be substantially lower than phasing out nuclear reactors and building a replacement capacity of equal capacity from renewable sources."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-pro01a","title":"","text":"Nuclear energy is non-renewable source  While nuclear power it is often proclaimed as clean this does not mean it is a renewable resource like wind, wave, or solar power. Nuclear power plants use uranium to produce energy, which, of course, needs to be mined. Currently only 2.3% of uranium used in reactors in EU is mined in the EU [1] . Moreover, the world\u2019s main uranium deposits are located outside the EU. The use of nuclear energy thus undermines energy self-sufficiency of the EU. This may pose a serious threat to the future. Natural (and other) resources are usually used as the first intermediates of diplomatic disputes. When a country wants to exert diplomatic pressure on another country (or bloc of countries like EU), trade bans or embargos are widely used. For example in 2009 Russia stopped gas supply to Ukraine due to trade dispute between their two national gas companies. Therefore, the supply of uranium may be susceptible to diplomatic and trade relations (which are often volatile) and consequently nuclear power may not be reliable. Is it one of the aims of the EU to become less dependent on imported material needed for energy production. [2]  As a non renewable resource we also need to think about the possibility of supplies running out. The concept of \u2018peak uranium\u2019 is sometimes overblown but there is only a 230 years supply of uranium at current consumption rates. If the price gets high enough then there are other options for production, including from seawater, but this would clearly mean a big increase in cost and concerns that producers will try to keep cheaper uranium to themselves and export for much higher prices. [3] Thus over longer term the nuclear energy may become far more expensive, or even unavailable due to lack of fuel.  [1] Euratom, \u2018Euratom Supply Agency Annual Report 2012\u2019, European Commission, 2013,   [2] European Commission, \u2018Renewable energy\u2019, Europa.eu, 2013,   [3] Fetter, Steve, \u2018How long will the world\u2019s uranium supplies last?\u2019, Scientific American, 26 January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-pro01b","title":"","text":"The main source, or fuel, for production of nuclear energy does not have to be uranium, thorium can be used. While the number of reactors may increase the consumption of uranium may well actually go down as the next generation of reactors will get more energy from the uranium they use. More specifically fourth generation reactors would reuse the uranium multiple times up to the point where they may be more than a hundred times more fuel efficient than current reactors. [1]  Furthermore, uranium is not mined only in one specific country, but in variety of countries (Kazakhstan, Canada, Australia, Russia, Niger, United States). As we can see, these countries differ from each other in any way \u2013 political situation, regime, relationships with other countries etc. Therefore, even in the case of war with one or few countries from where uranium is obtained, the supply can be established from other sources, other countries. Therefore, there is a very little possibility of diplomatic pressure, since uranium can be obtained from variety of sources.  Together with thorium, which can be obtained from countries like India, Turkey, Brazil, EU can be considered as independent from any one source of uranium or thorium.  [1] Hansen, Dr. James, \u20184th Generation Nuclear Power\u2019, OSS, 18 January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-pro03a","title":"","text":"Nuclear energy in Europe is currently considered to be dangerous  In the response to Fukushima accident European Commission carried out a series of stress tests on nuclear power plants in the EU to minimise the risk of such an accident occurring in the EU. The results were disturbing. According to the report European power plants are not well prepared for an emergency situation. Some of the power plants would have less than hour to restore safety systems in case of electric blackout. [1] Currently more than 100,000 citizens live in proximity (30 km) of 111 reactors. Should anything go wrong, many lives would be endangered. The problems could be resolved by dramatic investments into the safety measures. However, these investments would require approximately \u20ac25 bn [2] . This is a sum indebted European Union cannot afford. Therefore shutdown and substitution of these hazardous plants would be a much better idea.  [1] European Commission, \u2018Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the comprehensive risk and safety assessments (\u201cstress tests\u201d) of nuclear power plants in the European Union and related activities\u2019, Europa.eu, 4 October 2012,   [2] Paterson, Tony, \u2018Europe\u2019s \u2018dangerous\u2019 nuclear plants need \u20ac25bn safety refit\u2019, The Independent, 18 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-con03b","title":"","text":"The phase out of the nuclear power stations may be costly; however, it will happen sooner or later anyway. Nuclear stations are constantly phased out and new, more advanced plants are built in their place. Old plants require constant investment in safety measures. The costs are thus inevitable. Abandoning nuclear power in many cases need only involve committing to not build more nuclear plants. However, even if the costs of phasing out were higher than costs of sustaining network of nuclear plants, the gain from more safe, more environmental friendly energy would outweigh the harms. Concerning the social costs, workers in nuclear power plants could find jobs in broader energy production market, since the technical requirements for jobs are not that different in different power plants and there would still be demand for jobs in the energy sector."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-con01b","title":"","text":"Having only one plant also poses a risk that if something goes wrong it creates a high risk of blackout for whole region the plant is supplying. Additionally we need to remember the immense cost of nuclear power plants. Olkiluoto 3 has suffered from immense overruns and spiralling costs which have more than doubled to 8.5 billion Euros. [1] When a wind turbine is about 2.5 million Euros then well over 3,000 turbines can be built for the same cost. [2]  [1] Koistinen, Olavi, \u2018Suomenkin uusi ydinvoimala maksaa 8,5 miljardia euroa\u2019, Helsingin Sanomat, 13 December 2012,   [2] \u2018How much to wind turbines cost\u2019, Windistry, accessed 18 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-con02a","title":"","text":"Nuclear research is necessary for the future of green energy  Historically a lot of the opposition to nuclear power has been about the waste they generate and that it will remain radioactive for tens of millennia. No one therefore wants nuclear waste in their neighbourhood making the pollution from coal and gas plants seem pale by comparison. Yet this is an objection that is increasingly outdated and what had been the Achilles heel of the nuclear industry is being turned into a strength.  The EU has a chance to be a world leader in nuclear power generation. With the fourth generation of nuclear reactors which are much safer than current models and create almost no nuclear waste currently being designed. [1] Moreover an even more advanced nuclear plant, this one based upon fusion rather than fission is currently being built in the Provence-Alpes-C\u00f4te d'Azur region of southern France. It is an experimental reactor that will not produce any waste at all and could help revolutionise clean power. [2]  Only if Europe continues investing in nuclear power will we be able to realise the dream of completely clean and completely safe nuclear power. This would then benefit the whole world by enabling such clean energy production elsewhere.  [1] Swierk, \u2018Visegrad 4 for 4th generation nuclear reactors\u2019, National Centre for nuclear research, 21 July 2013,   [2] Iter, \u2018The Project\u2019, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-con03a","title":"","text":"Phasing nuclear out would be too expensive  Any phase out of nuclear energy in the EU would be tremendously costly, to an extent indebted Europe cannot afford. First costs stem from closing of nuclear reactors. These would include safely disposing or sealing all radioactive materials involved in production, closing buildings, dismantling the generators etc. In the UK the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority estimates that 19 nuclear plants in the UK that are set for decommissioning will cost \u00a370 billion. [1] Secondly, new generation of power plants would need to be built. Suitable places would need to be found, land bought and prepared for construction, power plants and electricity network constructed. These alone would cost sums counted in billions of euros regardless of whether these plants are renewable or not. Moreover, social costs would have to be included, since many highly specialised jobs in the nuclear power industry would be irrecoverably lost. The nuclear power industry in the UK alone employs 44,000 people. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Nuclear clean-up \u2018to cost \u00a370bn\u2019\u2019, 30 March 2006,   [2] Cogent, \u2018Nuclear industry profile\u2019, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-con01a","title":"","text":"Highly efficient when operating at high rates  The nuclear power plants have huge energy outputs. That means we can produce energy faster at lower price, due to the high energy density of uranium (we can extract far more energy from it than from any other source). Thanks to this fact, there is no need to build many power plants, since a few nuclear plants can easily supply whole country, for example in Slovakia only 2 power plants supply more than half of electric energy. This is beneficial because residents object to having power generation nearby, building one nuclear plant affects many fewer people than the number of wind turbines that would be needed to generate the same amount of electricity. The nuclear power plant being built at Olkiluoto in Finland will produce 13TWh per year [1] equivalent to more than 3000 wind turbines. [2] This has the additional environmental benefit of requiring fewer materials for construction.  [1] \u2018Olkiluoto 3 \u2013 Finland\u2019, Areva, accessed 18 November 2013,   [2] \u2018FAQ \u2013 Output\u2019, National Wind Watch,  , This gives 3.285GWh per year for a turbine which would be more like 4000, but it also states that the wind industry say their turbines work at a higher capacity than that accounted for in their calculation."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephbesane-con02b","title":"","text":"The most recent power plants such as Olkiluoto are third generation plants. Fourth generation plants are still decades away. Yes research into Fusion must continue but the plant that is being built is simply a test plant and even it won\u2019t be fully testing until 2027, it would be decades after that before any commercial plants come into operation even if everything works. Research into both types but particularly fusion are separate from the nuclear power plants that Europe currently has. These could all be shut down without any impact on research. Moreover why spend billions on research when we already have technologies that provide clean electricity?"}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro02b","title":"","text":"The problem with this argument is that it prioritizes the enjoyment of some individuals over others with no real justification. The grey wolf, for example, went extinct in the Yellowstone region in the first place because humans considered it a pest and a threat to livestock and so hunted it to extinction. Clearly these people didn't enjoy the 'diversity' the grey wolf provided. We don't usually give something the force of law regarding animals just because some people enjoy it. For example, the UK has now banned fox hunting even though a great many people found it to be a source of pleasure and recreation. [1] If everyone desired the protection of all endangered species, there would be no need for this law, but the fact that a law is needed to restrain human action shows that not everyone 'enjoys' this biodiversity in the same way.  [1] BBC News \u201c'More foxes dead' since hunt ban\u201d. BBC News. 17 February 2006."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Aesthetics  An environment with a great diversity of plant and animal species in it can act as a source for art and entertainment, enriching the lives of humans. Thus the preservation of endangered species is an important part of ensuring this diversity continues to exist so people and enjoy and be inspired by the many varied kinds of life on this earth. A good example of this is the re-introduction of the grey wolf into Yellowstone Park in the United States (where it had previously become extinct due to human action), which added to the biodiversity of the region and caused a greater influx of tourists into the park. [1] People enjoy being surrounded by different kinds of nature, and so protecting endangered species is an important part of protecting human enjoyment.  [1] Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. \u201cHow Many Endangered Species are there in the United States?\u201d. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3[8]. October 2008."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Superior human intellect and sentience only means that we should make sure we consider the moral ramifications of our actions, not that we should take any particular action as a result. It is entirely in keeping with this for us to conclude that human life and enjoyment are more important than animal life and species survival, and so for us to decide not to protect endangered species when this (as it by definition always will) infringes upon human benefits and enjoyment."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Protecting endangered species protects the interests of humans  Protecting endangered species helps protect humans: Humans actually benefit in a large number of ways from the protection of endangered species and thus continuing biodiversity. Firstly, the diversity of life and living systems is considered by many scientists to be a necessary condition for human development. We live in a world built on a carefully balanced ecosystem in which all species play a role, and the removal of species from this can cause negative consequences for the whole ecosystem, including humans. [1] There is also the potential for almost any species to hold currently-unknown future benefits to humans through products they could provide. One example of this is the scrub mint, an endangered plant species which has been found to contain an anti-fungal agent and a natural insecticide, and thus holds great potential for use that benefits humans. [2] Endangered species have also been known to hold the key to medical breakthroughs which save human lives. One example of this is the Pacific yew (a tree species) which became the source of taxol, one of the most potent anticancer compounds ever discovered. [3] Biodiversity also helps protect humans in that different species' differing reactions to ecological problems may in fact act as a kind of 'early warning' system of developing problems which may one day negatively affect people. This was the case with the (now banned) dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) pesticide, as the deterioration of the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon through their exposure to DDT in fact alerted humans to the potential health hazards of this pesticide, not just to animals but also to humans. [4] Thus the preservation of endangered species helps to protect humans, as this means plants and animals continue to play their specific role in the world's ecosystem which humans rely on, can act as an 'early warning' for problems which may affect humans, and may hold the key to scientific and medical breakthroughs which can greatly benefit humanity. Al this could be lost through the careless extinction of plant and animal species.  [1] Ishwaran, N., & Erdelen, W. \u201cBiodiversity Futures\u201d, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3[4]. May 2005   [2] Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. \u201cHow Many Endangered Species are there in the United States?\u201d. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3[8]. October 2008.   [3] Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. \u201cHow Many Endangered Species are there in the United States?\u201d. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3[8]. October 2008.   [4] Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. \u201cHow Many Endangered Species are there in the United States?\u201d. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3[8]. October 2008."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro01b","title":"","text":"This argument fails to take into account the costs of protecting endangered species and weigh them against the potential harms of them becoming extinct. In a world where only 5% of plant species have been surveyed for their potential medicinal value, [1] this means protecting the survival of the other 95% purely for the potential value that only a fraction of them may possess. All of this means denying development human development now, by not opening areas up for agriculture or not constructing housing. These are very real costs which impact upon peoples' lives, and may even outweigh those scientific and medical advances which may or may not be found in currently endangered species.  [1] Kurpis, Lauren. \u201cWhy Save?\u201d EndangeredSpecie.com. Copyright 1997-2002."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro04b","title":"","text":"By this argument, no human generation could ever decide that protecting a species is more trouble than its worth and so let it become extinct, as there would always be the theoretical possibility of a future generation that might regret this choice. Every choice we make as a generation constrains and widens the choices available to future generations. If we protect endangered species and therefore limit agricultural and housing land (to protect their environments) we deny future generations more plentiful food supplies and better housing. We may even deny the existence of more humans in the future by not having enough food to feed a population which could grow faster if the food supply was greater. We cannot allow the remote possibility of future regret to cause us to take actions which a great many people will 'regret' in the present."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Humanity bears a moral responsibility to other species  Human moral responsibility to other species: Humans are unique and unprecedented in life on earth in that their intelligence and sentience far surpasses that of any other species ever known to have existed. Humans are not simply forced to kill or ignore other species by instinct alone, as other species are, but rather can make a variety of choices based not only on information but on moral grounds. Thus with our greater power comes a greater responsibility to act in a moral fashion, and not simply to prioritize our own human good over that of other species. The ability of animal species, for example, to feel pain and suffering is something we should consider and try to avoid, as we recognise that pain is bad for ourselves, and thus must be bad for animals as well. Similarly if we believe our own survival is a good thing, we should recognise that the survival of other species is also a moral good, and act accordingly to protect endangered species."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Humanity owes a moral responsibility to future generations  Human moral responsibility to future generations: Species extinction is an irrevocable occurrence. Outside of the film 'Jurassic Park', extinct species cannot be summoned back from the grave once human action has put them there. This means that when a current generation makes the decision not to protect an endangered species and thus allows human action to drive it to extinction, this denies future generations the ability to make up their own minds about the pros and cons of the survival of that endangered species, especially considering that they might want that species to exist for the aforementioned scientific, medical, aesthetic or moral reasons. For example, there is a great modern-day interest in the dodo species of bird which was hunted to extinction in Mauritius in the 17th Century. [1] The opinion of many in the modern world today is one of regret at the bird's extinction and that it should have been protected, but a lack of consideration of the wishes of future generations in the 17th Century has meant that the humans of the 21st Century are denied the ability to decide on the value of this species themselves. Because we place a moral value on the ability of humans to make decisions (as we consider it to be a good thing when we ourselves have this ability) we should recognise that the possibly differing opinions of future generations should constrain our choices somewhat, and we should protect endangered species so that future generations can decide for themselves regarding their value.  [1] BBC News \u201cDodo skeleton find in Mauritius\u201d. BBC News. 24 June 2006."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con03b","title":"","text":"Other species may allow species other than themselves to die out, but they fail to do this because they act purely based on instinct and their instincts do not dictate to them to save other species. Humans, however, are capable of acting for a far greater number of reasons and after more consideration. For example humans are capable of empathy with other species and understanding that their pain and suffering mirrors our own, and thus that we should prevent it on moral grounds. What makes humans special is that they are more thoughtful than any other animal, and thus the moral standards for our behaviour are much higher."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con01b","title":"","text":"These possible harms can be outweighed by the gains we make as humanity from protecting these species. It is important to note that the way we benefit from protecting endangered species extends benefits not just to the current generation but to future generations in terms of the preservation of biodiversity for scientific and aesthetic reasons. By contrast, allowing farmers to hunt to extinction species which are a threat to their livestock is only a short-term gain which applies almost exclusively to the farmers themselves and not to humanity as a whole."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con02a","title":"","text":"The term \"endangered\" is inconsistently applied  The practical difficulties of the 'endangered' status: The complications which have grown up surrounding the 'endangered' status given to some species are in themselves a good reason to do away with this cumbersome and harmful practice. It should firstly be noted that it can be incredibly difficult to get species removed from the 'protected' lists even once they have been added even when their numbers show they are no longer in jeopardy. The grey wolf again serves as a good example; it is considered to be 'endangered' (and thus protected) in the United States, as there are only 3,700 such wolves in the lower 48 States today, despite the fact that an estimated 58,000 grey wolves live in the wild in Alaska and Canada. [1] This is clearly an example of a misapplication of the 'endangered' label but which is incredibly difficult to revoke once it has been given, due to pressure from ecological groups and the media.  The sort of laws used to 'protect' endangered species may even incentivize the exact opposite kind of behaviour on the part of landowners. When, for example, a farmer finds on his land an animal from an endangered species, and the law thus requires him to make significant changes to his farming practices to protect the creature, this imposes a significant economic cost on him. This means that that farmer may have a large economic incentive to simply dispose of the creature and hide the evidence of its presence, when in the absence of the law the farmer might not take any steps to intentionally exterminate all examples of that endangered species on his land. Economists writing in the Journal of Law and Economics found an example of similarly perverse incentives provided by endangered species protection law amongst logging companies in the United States. When faced with a protected species of woodpecker which preferred to nest in trees at least 70 years old, and which when found, the law required timber owners not to harvest wood within a large area around that woodpecker's nest, loggers simply responded by harvesting more trees in areas where these woodpeckers might appear and by intentionally harvesting tees at age 40 instead of waiting for them to mature to 70 and thus becoming potential habitats for the woodpeckers. This resulted in even less available habitat for the woodpeckers than before the protection laws were passed [2] This example helps to further illustrate how 'protecting' endangered species requires cumbersome legislation that is prone to mistakes, difficult to retract and may incentivize even more harmful behaviour towards these species than if the laws did not exist.  [1] Bailey, Ronald. \u201cShoot, Shovel and Shut Up\u201d. Reason.com. December 31, 2003.   [2] Lueck, Dean, and Michael, Jeffery A. \u201cPreemptive Habitat Destruction Under the Endangered Species Act\u201d. Journal of Law and Economics. Vol. 46. No. 1. April 2003"}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con04a","title":"","text":"Human rights trump those of lower animals  Why human rights always trump animal rights: It has already been established that laws protecting endangered species cause harm to humans by denying them the opportunity to engage in behaviour they would otherwise desire to do. The problem with this is that it elevates 'animal rights' to an equal plane with human rights and therefore restricts human life and happiness. This is wrong as humans enjoy superior mental faculties to animals and also have greater sentience, meaning that humans are aware of their pain, suffering and the opportunities denied to them (for example through laws restricting land development) in a way in which animals are not. As a consequence, we should cause humans to have less happiness in life in order to protect the lives of 'endangered species', as animals' lives, 'happiness' and suffering are less meaningful than that of humans."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con03a","title":"","text":"Species extinction is an inevitable process  Species extinction is a part of the natural world: Within evolution species naturally go arise and later become extinct as they struggle to adapt to changing environments and competition with other species. This be regarded as a part of the 'survival of the fittest' which drives evolution. Most extinctions that have occurred did so naturally and without human intervention. It is, for example, estimated that 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct, and humans have existed at the same time as only a fraction of these species. [1] Therefore it cannot be claimed that species going extinct will somehow upset the delicate natural balance or destroy ecosystems. Ecologists and conservationists have in fact struggled to demonstrate the increased material benefits to humans of 'intact' wild systems over man-made ones such as farms and urban environments, which many species simply adapt to. [2] Therefore any claims that humans causing the extinction of other species are somehow acting 'un-naturally' or 'immorally' or that they are risking ecological collapse as a consequence are mistaken, as they fail to understand that extinction occurs as a natural fact and that ecosystems adapt accordingly. No other species acts to prevent species besides itself from becoming extinct, and therefore again allowing another species to die out is in no way 'un-natural.'  [1] Raup, David M. \u201cExtinction: Bad Genes or Bad Luck?\u201d W.W. Norton and Company. New York. 1991  [2] Jenkins, Martin. \u201cProspects for Biodiversity\u201d. Science. 14 November 2003."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con01a","title":"","text":"Protecting endangered species can harm human communities  Protecting endangered species can harm humans: Protecting endangered species by definition means restricting activity that humans would otherwise want to do, be it by turning woodland into farmland, turning meadows into housing developments, or by preventing us from eliminating 'pest' species which kill livestock or damage crops. For example, the reintroduction of the grey wolf into Yellowstone Park has increased once more the risk to livestock in the region and caused economic harms to ranchers there. [1] Some of these species may even pose a threat to human lives, which may have been why they were hunted to extinction in the first place. In any case, less agricultural land and less land for housing can only mean higher food and housing costs (due to their decreased supplies in the face of a rising human population) for people, which has a detrimental impact upon human life.  [1] Bailey, Ronald. \u201cShoot, Shovel and Shut Up\u201d. Reason.com. December 31, 2003."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con04b","title":"","text":"This argument fails to note that states restrict human behaviour towards animals with the aim of protecting animals in many situations, not just that of 'endangered species'. For example the aforementioned fox hunting ban, which outlawed hunting foxes with dogs as it was deemed excessively 'cruel' to the animal, even though many people enjoyed the practice. [1] This is done not only because humans are able to hold themselves to a higher moral standard than animals but also because animal suffering tends to produce a negative emotional response in many humans (such as amongst those who disliked the suffering of foxes in hunts and pushed for the ban), and thus we prevent human suffering by preventing animal suffering.  [1] BBC News \u201c'More foxes dead' since hunt ban\u201d. BBC News. 17 February 2006."}
+{"id":"training-environment-achbessbp-con02b","title":"","text":"This is argument for the reform of these laws, not against the laws themselves. Laws could also be introduced, for example, to require loggers to allow a certain percentage of their trees to reach the appropriate age for woodpecker nesting, or better review panels created to consider removing the 'endangered' label when it is no longer appropriate. These laws can shift as we see incentives shifting in order to ensure that good behaviour in incentivized overall."}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-pro02b","title":"","text":"To say the job numbers are questionable is an understatement. The Department of State issued a report in August putting the estimated number at between 5-6000. [1]  Furthermore, Trans-Canada, one of the major shareholders has backed off larger estimates in public, floating figures in the 20-25,000 range. TransCanada's initial estimate of 20,000 \u2014 which it said includes 13,000 direct construction jobs and 7,000 jobs among supply manufacturers \u2014 is far more conservative. [2]  Why the discrepancy? The Washington Post investigated and found that the same author of the Keystone report, Ray Perryman also wrote a report predicting massive job gains from a Wind Farm project. Among the predicted jobs were:  \u201c51 dancers and choreographers, 138 dentists, 176 dental hygienists, 100 librarians, 510 bread bakers, 448 clergy, 154 stenographers, 865 hairdressers, 136 manicurists, 110 shampooers, 65 farmers, and (our favorite) 1,714 bartenders.\u201c [3]  Furthermore all of these estimates ignore potential job losses they may affect existing workers in the oil industry once the Pipeline is complete. It is perfectly possible that there will be a net loss of jobs.  As for the Unions, it will provide short-term construction jobs, which is why they support it. But almost any project would do the same.  [1] United States Department of State Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs, \u2018Executive Summary Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Keystone XL Project\u2019, 26 August 2011,   [2] Kessler, 2011,   [3] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Job creation  The XL Pipeline project has the potential to create a large number of jobs, both in its construction, and in refining and processing at its terminal points within the United States.  Keystone Pipelines has produced a report which indicates that the Pipeline should create 118,000 jobs, with as many as 250,000 in total after spinoffs have been counted. [1]  Labor Unions have accepted this line and are aggressively lobbying for the Pipeline, [2] even though it means siding with Republicans and against their own party. Furthermore, Politicians ranging from Jon Huntsman to Bob Casey have embraced the job-creating p[3]otential of the Project.  [1] The Perryman Group, \u2018The Impact of Developing the Keystone XL Pipeline Project on Business Activity in the US\u2019 June 2010,   [2] Fox, Liam, \u2018Unions Back Keystone XL Pipeline Threatens Clash with Occupy Movement\u2019, News Junkie Post, 3 December 2011,   [3] Kessler, Glenn, \u2018Keystone pipeline jobs claims: a bipartisan fumble\u2019, Washington Post, 14 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Canada\u2019s friendship with the United States is based on shared values, interests and a shared language, things it does not and never can share with China in the foreseeable future. As such, while delaying approval of the Keystone Pipeline might well cost the United States a pipeline, it is unlikely to cost America Canadian friendship.  Furthermore, while the delay of the Pipeline project may well have made the Chinese bid more attractive, the fact that the Chinese government already owns 10% of the Canadian oil industry and was willing to put up the money [1] for a Pipeline is an indication that they may well be willing to a build a second Pipeline of their own regardless of what the United States does, even if it does not make economic sense in the short-run.  [1] Radia, Andy, \u2018Should the Harper government allow Chinese ownership of Alberta\u2019s oil sands\u2019, Canada Politics, 13 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-pro01a","title":"","text":"The pipeline will reduce American dependence on Middle Eastern and Latin American oil  Currently, the United States imports nearly two-thirds of its Petroleum, with the leading suppliers including nations such as Nigeria, Venezuela and Saudi Arabia. [1]  Due to political instability and the difficult US relations with these nations, US supplies cannot be considered secure, and with the results of research into alternative sources of energy being decades away from fruition the United States needs alternative sources of oil today.  One option is Canada, which is individually already the United States\u2019 single largest energy supplier. Canada\u2019s known reserves total 179 billion barrels, placing it third behind Saudi Arabia, but some estimates have put its total at as high as 2 trillion barrels. [2]  The XL Pipeline project would help bring this oil overland into the United States. On the Canadian end, the increased market access would lead to rapid development, which in turn would increase Canadian capacity to the level to which it could reach a much greater portion of US demand.  Furthermore, the United States enjoys close relations and an open border with Canada, meaning that this oil will likely arrive without the strings attached that come from buying from Venezuela or the Middle East. In the case of the latter the Pipeline would allow the US to disengage from the region to a degree.  Even if hypothetically Canadian relations were to turn frosty, the existence of the pipeline would nevertheless ensure that the US would remain the only viable market.  [1] U.S. Energy Information Administration, \u2018U.S. Imports by Country of Origin\u2019,   [2] Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, \u2018Alberta\u2019s Oil and Natural Gas Industry\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-pro01b","title":"","text":"The XL Pipeline, upon its completion would simply be replacing one source of Oil dependency with another. And what Canada makes up for in political friendliness, could be undone by the fact that US oil would be coming from a much smaller number of sources.  Furthermore, resolving US supply problems will not solve the global energy shortage that will arrive as Oil deposits shrink and Chinese demand rises. Oil will remain a source of political instability.  The only true path to energy independence is to find alternative renewable sources that do not leave the United States and the rest of the world dependent on resources that are limited both in amount and in their geographical locations. The XL Pipeline might even undermine these efforts as it will create a false sense of security."}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Rejecting the pipeline bid would worsen US relations with Canada  Canada\u2019s Oil reserves will be of major strategic value in the next century. Currently the United States is Canada\u2019s preferred trading partner and strategic ally, both because of a history of past cooperation, and because the US is both more willing and able to support Canadian claims to the Arctic than China. The Pipeline would consolidate this relationship, ensuring that the development of Canada\u2019s reserves would occur with the American market in mind, because once built, it would be far more expensive to build a second Pipeline than to simply use the existing one.  The United States, is not however, Canada\u2019s only option. Canada is determined to sell the oil one way or another, and an American refusal will not save the environment. What it will do is make Canada look elsewhere. The Canadian government publicly floated a joint-Canadian-Chinese pipeline proposal which would bring the oil to the Pacific after the Obama Administration delayed consideration of the project until after 2012. [1]  Just as the Keystone Pipeline would lock Canada into the US Market, a decision to develop Canadian reserves with the Chinese market in mind would be difficult to reverse, and undermine the energy independence of the United States rather than secure it.  [1] Tan, Florence, and Hua, Judy, \u2018Analysis: Harper\u2019s bet may pay off; China open to Canadian oil\u2019, Reuters, 25 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-con01b","title":"","text":"Almost any form of producing and transporting oil risks an environmental disaster if things go wrong, as was demonstrated in the summer of 2010 by the major British Petroleum spill in the Gulf of Mexico.  Historically however land-based Pipelines have been far safer than Oil Freighters or off-shore platforms because of the ease of access, which means that spills can usually be responded to rapidly. The real damage with the BP Spill was due to its isolated location in deep water and the consequent difficulty of reaching it.  Furthermore, fears of the carbon emissions are flawed because they are based on the assumption that if the Pipeline is not approved the Tar Sands will not be developed. But this is not the case. The Canadian Government has already shown interested in an alternative Chinese proposal which would see a Pipeline built to deliver the oil to the Pacific, and eventually to the Chinese market. [1] If the oil is going to be burned one way or another, it is best for the United States to do it, because the United States enjoys higher fuel efficiency standards and generally cleaner vehicles.  [1] Yahoo news, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-con02a","title":"","text":"America should not become more dependent on oil  A successful development of the Pipeline would deepen the Unite States\u2019 dependence on Oil, and undermine the drive towards renewable fuels.  Historically, consumers switch fuels not when alternatives are available, but when economic forces cause costs to rise to such a point that it becomes inefficient not to switch. This is one reason why the EU has found such success with taxes on gasoline which brought its price above 4$ a gallon long before it reached that price on the market. The result was a rush to adopt smaller and more fuel efficient cars, and to ration other energy consuming hardware.  The main result of the Keystone Pipeline will be to lower fuel costs in the short-term, under pricing electric cars and alternative fuel sources. When gas prices finally rise, as they eventually will, the United States will find itself far behind the rest of the World in renewable technology.  Given that renewable technology will be one of the major sources of economic power in the next few decades, choosing short-term savings over-long term investment seems like a bad idea."}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-con01a","title":"","text":"Environmental risks  There are serious environmental factors that should be fully examined before any decision is made to approve the Pipeline project.  For one thing, the Pipeline will mostly extract Oil from Tar Sands. Extracting oil from tar sands is much more complicated than pumping conventional crude oil out of the ground. It requires steam-heating the sands to produce a petroleum slurry, then further dilution. One result of this process, the Canadian Environmental Ministry says, is that greenhouse gas emissions from the oil and gas sector as a whole will rise by nearly one-third from 2005 to 2020 \u2014 even as other sectors are reducing emissions. [1]  Former NASA Climatologist James Hansen has suggested that if the Pipeline is completed it is \u201cGame Over for the Planet\u201d. [2]  Furthermore, the path of the proposed Pipeline will bring it close to the Ogallala Aquifer which provides 30% of the United States\u2019 total irrigation supply and 82% of the drinking water to the 2.3 million people who live within the region it serves. Furthermore, within that region is just under 20% of all US agricultural production.[3] A major spill along the Pipeline would have the potential to render the entire Aquifer unusable.  [1] Girling, Russell K., \u2018The proposed Keystone XL pipeline will be built responsibly\u2019, The Hill\u2019s Congress Blog, 13 July 2011,   [2] Mayer, Jane, \u2018Taking it to the streets\u2019, The New Yorker, 28 November 2011,   [3] US Geological Survey, \u2018High Plains Regional Ground-Water Study\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-raceeghg-con02b","title":"","text":"History does show that renewable technology tends to develop when it is economically efficient. Alternatives to fossil fuels will be found when fossil fuels are too expensive to buy, and therefore people are willing to buy what is initially an inferior product. It is only then after general adoption, that the inferior product will improve to the point at which it is equal to the product it is replacing.  The fact is that as long as there are large scale supplies of fossil fuels available, and those supplies are plentiful enough to be affordable, consumers will be unwilling to accept the inferior performance they will get from electric cars, or the inferior comfort of smaller vehicles. The EU, with a far superior public transportation system is a bad comparison with the United States, as it is likely that the price at which Americans would accept the same sort of compromises is much higher, and no amount of environmental concern or preaching about alternative energy will generate the political capital to force them to if they don\u2019t have to.  Furthermore, what the opposition ignores in this argument is that it is often the poor who will suffer the most from artificially high fuel prices. Raising prices will increasingly make driving a luxury good, limiting the mobility of low income workers. This will both reduce their standard of living (i.e. ability to take vacations) and reduce their options for work and therefore for advancement."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Bullfighting has existed for thousands of years in the cultures it is practiced in, and yet these cultures have not become inherently barbaric or bloodthirsty, so arguments that say bullfighting has such effects on people are simply incorrect. What is at stake is not just 'entertainment' but rather something that many in these bullfighting countries perceive as being an art form intrinsic to their culture. Madrid has recognized and protected bullfighting not as a sport but as an art form.(1)  Bullfighting supporters in Europe have even campaigned for UNESCO World Heritage status for bullfighting.(14)  This cultural value makes bullfighting particularly significant and justifies any suffering the bull may endure."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Harming animals for entertainment is immoral  If a creature suffers then there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. All animals are sentient beings that experience joy, happiness, fear and pain, in the same way that human beings do. As Bentham previously noted, it does not matter that they cannot express this suffering in the same way as humans can (by speaking about it) or reason about their suffering in the same way -the important thing is that they can suffer in the first place. We can have no right whatsoever to make them suffer for our 'enjoyment'. If any torture inflicted to an animal deserves condemnation, bullfights are the worst kind of torture since they are performed solely in the name of entertainment. We must end the animals' torture and stop these shows of brutality and violence. It is too small a step from the intentional infliction of pain on an animal to the torture and killing of human beings.(5)  Bullfights perpetuate the idea that injuring and killing an animal for amusement is acceptable, and that is not an idea which any state with any concern for animals, or for its human citizens, should wish to be prevalent. Part of the 'attraction' of bullfighting for crowds is witnessing death. Advocates of the practice make this into an argument for the practice. But, a desire to see death in front of one's own eye's amounts to bloodlust. Why should humans be accommodated in such a morbid pursuit? Eric Gallego, an animal rights protester, said in 2010: \u201cBullfighting is a bloody entertainment. We must stop this cruelty because we don\u2019t want to be a barbaric society in Europe.\u201d(6)  This argument applies just as much to any other country in the world: why would we want to encourage people to enjoy pain and suffering, as we have laws which make causing pain and suffering illegal (both for humans and animals) in almost every other context? Bullfighting is therefore immoral, and encourages cruel and immoral behaviour in other areas, and so it should be banned."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Many cultural and sporting events involve serious risks. Football, American football, rugby, boxing, acrobatics, and many other cultural and sporting events involve serious, inherent risks to humans. But, they are not banned. Bullfighting should not, therefore, be alienated for the risks that it entails. Also, the risks of bullfighting bring out courage and bravery. If there were no risks, there could be no bravery in bullfighting. The matador wants to take these risks so that he can demonstrate his courage, and the fans honor that ultimate risk-taking. These risks should not be shunned, but celebrated, just as they often are in other cultural and sporting events."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Bullfighting is a form of animal torture  Bullfighting constitutes animal torture because it is exactly the suffering of the animal from which the entertainment of the crowd is drawn, and the level of suffering inflicted is on the level of that caused by torture. Jeremy Bentham argued that \"Cock-fights and bull-fights, the chase of the hare and the fox, fishing, and other amusements of the same kind, necessarily suppose a want of reflection or a want of humanity; since these sports inflict upon sensitive beings the most lively sufferings, and the most lingering and painful death that can be imagined.\"(1)  The want of humanity even in modern bullfighting is shown by the sadistic cruelties inflicted on the bulls: According to anti-bullfight veterinarian Jos\u00e9 Zald\u00edvar, in the great majority of cases, the matador missed the vital spot that would cause the bull to die quickly. \"These provoke internal bleeding. It is a slow, agonising death \u2013 as the high acidity of their blood proves.\"(2)  At the end of the fight, the bull may not be yet dead while his body parts are cut-off to be kept as trophies. Spanish bull breeders receive EU agricultural subsidies, meaning that, in the EU, taxpayers' money from all countries (not just those with legal bullfighting) goes to support this terrible industry.(3)  Also, in order to reduce the risk to the matador, sometimes the bull\u2019s horns are shaved. This can inflict some pain on the bull and can also make it more sensitive to other forms of pain during the fight.(3)  Moreover, bulls are not the only creatures to suffer in bullrings. The tormented bull does not understand that it is the man on the horse's back that is causing his pain, only that he is in agony. He therefore sees the horse as his enemy as much as the man. It's not unusual for horses used in bullfights to be so badly gored by the bulls that they have to be killed, but only after they have been dragged from the ring and the view of the spectators.(4)  All this suffering makes bullfighting as unacceptable as the many other kinds of animal cruelty which most countries ban, such as cockfighting, dogfighting or any other form of grievous harm inflicted on an animal for 'entertainment' purposes.(2)  We have these laws because governments have generally acknowledged the truth of Bentham's words: \"It doesn't matter if they can reason; it doesn't matter if they can speak; what does matter is if they can SUFFER.\"(5)  All nations need to follow through on this principle by making bullfighting illegal, just like any other form of animal torture."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Bullfighting is not about torturing for enjoyment; clean and quick kills are what is prized most by the bullfighting community. If a matador fails to deliver such a kill, and the bull suffers needlessly, then he will be jeered and shamed. This dynamic demonstrates a clear sense of decency within the bullfighting community.(8)  It is na\u00efve to pretend that the alternative for bulls and cows is a long, happy life in the meadows and then a natural death. Rather, bulls and cows are kept and bred for their meat and eventual slaughter, a process which can be made to seem just as horrific as bullfighting if the same descriptive language is used. There is no significant moral difference between watching a bull die in a bullfight for enjoyment and having a cow killed to make meat so people can enjoy eating it. Must not it be so, according to Bentham's logic, that eating meat for enjoyment displays as much 'want of humanity' as bullfighting? Indeed, in many ways bullfighting is at least more honest: the violence is clear and there for all to see, whereas the death of the cow is hidden from the consumer of a hamburger. Bullfighting is in no way uniquely cruel or even more cruel than eating meat, and so to ban it would be unjustified."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Bullfighting is too dangerous to humans to justify  Many matadors are gored each year. In 2010, famed matador Julio Aparicio was gored in the throat by a bull during the Festival of Saint Isidro. The bulls horn went through his neck and throat and up through his mouth. Such gruesome scenes, and the risks that matadors must take with their lives, have no place in a modern society.(7)  The culture and audience pressure of bullfighting actually increase the danger for matadors. The bullfighters perceived and praised as 'the best' are the ones that come closest to the bull, letting its horns pass inches by the fighter\u2019s side, etc. The greater the risk for the bullfighter, the greater the reward from the crowd. The bullfighter is not trying to stay as far away as possible in order to make a riskless kill; they are trying to demonstrate their courage and bravery in the face of potentially fatal risks.(8)  In Spain and most other countries with bullfighting, the horns of bulls are not shaved, but rather kept sharp, increasing the danger for the matador.(8)  The state bans many other kinds of activities on the grounds that they are harmful to the participants: taking narcotics is illegal, driving without a seatbelt is illegal, and in many countries even legal guns are required to be fitted with safety devices to protect the user. This is yet another instance where, if the state did not step in, individuals would enter into certain activities which would be harmful to them. The need for the state is especially keen here due to the pressure to take risks put on matadors and others by the audience and the bullfighting community, which may lead many of them to take risks, and suffer injuries, they otherwise would not, for fear of losing 'face'. Bullfighting is just too dangerous to humans to allow, and so the state should step in and ban bullfighting to protect all those involved."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-con03b","title":"","text":"Tourists will visit Spain and other bullfighting countries regardless of whether or not bullfighting exists, and as people become more ethically aware and act accordingly while on holiday, tourist attendance at the shows looks set to fall even further. Indeed, a poll commissioned in April 2007 found that 89% of the British public would not visit a bullfight when on a holiday.(11)(3) Therefore the loss of tourist income will be minimal, as bullfighting does not even appeal to most tourists.  Those profits which do ensue from bullfighting generally end up in the hands of a small bullfighting elite, not the general population. Moreover, almost everywhere bullfighting requires significant government subsidies to function. The subsidies that prop up this declining industry take money away from serious social problems such as access to public health, education, infrastructures, the elderly, public safety, social housing and environmental policies.(11)"}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-con01b","title":"","text":"Many traditions have been defended for their cultural, traditional value. Stoning women for immodesty is one of them. Such tradition-for-tradition's-sake arguments do not actually prove anything, as cultures are constantly evolving and changing -the ban on bullfights can be just one more such change.(11)  The bullfighting tradition is based on cruelty to bulls, and so simply being 'old' and 'traditional' is not enough of a justification. Cruelty is cruelty no matter where in the world it happens. Our understanding of animals has improved a great deal in recent times. There is no place in the 21st century for a \u2018sport\u2019 which relies on animal cruelty for \u2018entertainment\u2019. Moreover, people need not see a bull die in order to understand death. Video, pictures, books, and news reports all make it possible for individuals to learn about and understand death. It's occurring around us naturally all the time. It is completely unnecessary, therefore, to artificially produce death in the bullfighting arena in order to create an appreciation of the cycle of life and death, etc. Nature watching is also a good alternative. Or even hunting or fishing, in which an individual generally attempts to quickly and decently kill an animal that they will then eat. Torturing a bull for entertainment is unnecessary when compared to these outlets for understanding life and death. Furthermore, majorities in bullfighting states oppose it as well. Recent polls have shown that in Spain 67% are not interested in bullfighting, and in France, 69% of people oppose public funding for bullfighting.(3)"}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-con02a","title":"","text":"Bullfighting is no more harmful than the alternatives for bulls and cows  Robert Elms argued in 2010 that \"Those who see bullfighting as cruel are, of course, right. It is cruel that man should breed and kill animals for his enjoyment whether as a dinner or a dance. But to my mind the life of an Iberian fighting bull, a thoroughbred animal which lives to a minimum age of four, roaming wild, feasting on Spain's finest pasture, never even seeing a man on foot, is far superior to that of the many thousands of British bulls whose far shorter lives are spent entirely in factory conditions and killed in grim abattoirs so that we can eat beefburgers.\"(10)  Moreover, Bulls are celebrated and honored in bullfighting. In most bullfighting countries, bulls are honored as mystical creatures of immense strength and beauty. Statues of bulls regularly stand outside of bullfighting stadiums, and depict the animals in the most majestic, strong, and beautiful way possible. These statues frequently standalone without an accompanying matador in the depiction.(8)  This respect and appreciation of the bull is a demonstration of the decency with which the art form treats the animal. All members of the bullfighting community, fighters and crowds alike, prize quick and relatively painless kills. If a matador fails to deliver such a kill, and the bull suffers needlessly, then he will be jeered and shamed. This dynamic demonstrates a clear sense of decency within the bullfighting community.(8)  Therefore there is no compelling moral reason to ban bullfighting, as in many ways it is either no worse or even superior to the other roles assigned to cows and bulls in Western cultures. If anything, the end result (death for human enjoyment) is the same if the animal is eaten or dies in a bullring, but at least in a bullfight the cultural value and artistic expression gives the creature's life and death a poetry and nobility which it will never have in a mechanical slaughterhouse or a butcher's shop."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-con03a","title":"","text":"Bullfighting is economically important for some regions  \"The ban will be economically disastrous for Catalonia, and not just because of direct losses,\" the head of Spanish bullfighting lobby group Mesa del Toro, Eduardo Martin Penato, told the online edition of daily newspaper Publico in January of 2010. Following the ban in Catalonia, sector representatives could demand as much as 400 million euros in damages in courts to compensate for losses caused by the ban, including to hotels, restaurants and other establishments.(12) A conservative lawmaker in the Catalan parliament noted that this \"is enough to build six hospitals, 100 schools or fight against unemployment.\"  Top Spanish matador El Juli said about the Catalonia ban that it \"would cause big losses for an important economic sector, which provides a livelihood for many families.\" The bullfighting sector directly employs about 40,000 people in Spain, according to some sector estimates. International accounting network BDO has also estimated that bullfighting generates about 2.5 billion euros a year for the Spanish economy, drawing 14 million spectators last year.(12) This sort of economic harm would be mirrored across bullfighting nations, as they would also lose out on tourist revenue which brings in vital foreign capital. These benefits to the economies of these (often poor) regions far outweigh any harms to the bulls."}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-con01a","title":"","text":"Bullfighting is an art-form and an important cultural tradition  Ernest Hemingway said about bullfighting that it is \"a decadent art in every way [...] if it were permanent it could be one of the major arts.\"(9) Bullfighting should thus not be understood as simply a 'bloodsport' with some cultural connotations but rather as an inherently cultural art form. The poet Garcia Lorca said in the 1930s that bullfighting is \"the last serious thing in the modern world\".(10)  In many ways the seriousness of watching a life-and-death struggle in the arena is nothing short of poetic and this significance is perceived not only by the audience and the bullfighting community but in the wider culture of the nations which currently permit bullfighting. Robert Elms argued in 2010 that, in nations which do not practice bullfighting, \u201cOur squeamishness means that we prefer death which is mechanical and invisible, while the Spanish understand that it is part of a cycle.[...] It is a public celebration of death (a subject we prefer to hide from in Britain) which, when it is done well, becomes a celebration of life. The man charged with the task of delivering a fine end to this fierce and powerful creature will dance with it along the way, laying his own life on the line to create a swirling symbiosis.\"(10)  Hemmingway echoed this, arguing that bullfighting promoted an understanding of violent death: \"The only place where you could see life and death, i. e., violent death now that the wars were over, was in the bull ring and I wanted very much to go to Spain where I could study it. I was trying to learn to write, commencing with the simplest things, and one of the simplest things of all and the most fundamental is violent death.\"(9)  This is why Madrid and other places have protected and recognized bullfighting as an art form, not just a sport.(1)  The understanding and cultural value in the bullfighting nations stems from their long history of the practice. Bullfighting traces its roots to prehistoric bull worship and sacrifice. The killing of the sacred bull (tauroctony) is the essential central iconic act of Mithras, which was commemorated in the mithraeum wherever Roman soldiers were stationed. The oldest representation of what seems to be a man facing a bull is on the celtiberian tombstone from Clunia and the cave painting \"El toro de hachos\", both found in Spain.(8)  The continuity of the modern bullfights with these ancient commemorations is shown by the fact that in Spain, many youth idealize bull fighters for their strength, grace, and wit in outmaneuvering bulls.(10)  This is valuable in inspiring and compelling success in future generations. Bullfighting is a genuinely popular and enjoyed cultural art form in many nations: Spanish bullrings are not kept alive by tourists. Rather, despite the economic recession which has hit Spain especially hard, the bullfights are still thriving, its top practitioners are huge stars, and its fan are intensely devoted, because it is still the very soul of this dark and complex country. Bullfighting thrives because its local fans are dedicated, and they are dedicated because they perceive its poetry and value to the culture.(10)  Thus bullfighting has a cultural value which trumps misplaced concerns regarding 'animal rights', especially as 'animal rights' are simply a concept created by each culture and defined in different ways. Culturally, it is acceptable in the West to eat meat, and so this is legal even though it causes cows to suffer and die. Similarly, the culture of the bullfighting countries places a value upon the bullfight, thus privileging it above the 'rights' of the animal. To allow the moral qualms of other non-bullfighting cultures to dictate cultural practices in Spain or Mexico would be to privilege these other cultures' values above those of bullfighting nations, and deprive them of part of their uniqueness. As Robert Elms argues, if the bullfight dies out due to the pressure of other cultures' moral qualms, bullfighting nations will become \"more like everywhere else, dominated by gaudy globalism and neutered by the homogenising forces of technology and accepted taste.\"(10)"}
+{"id":"training-environment-assghbansb-con02b","title":"","text":"There is nothing noble or poetic about the death of a bull in a bullring. The bulls in a standard bullfight are drugged and confused animals, debilitated and run in circles by others who stab them with spears before the matador approaches to make the \"kill shot\" with his sword. Anyone who believes this fight to be fair is mistaken. By the time a matador approaches to actually kill the bull, the animal typically has enough spears in his neck and back muscles to prevent him from fully lifting his head.(7)  By contrast, most nations have laws regulating slaughterhouses to ensure that animals killed for meat endure as little pain as possible. The animal is unaware of 'dignity' or 'poetry', but rather only knows its suffering, and consequently this all that the state should take into consideration, with the logical conclusion being to ban bullfighting to protect the animal."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-pro02b","title":"","text":"This would certainly make sense if it was expected that the cull would eliminate bovine TB however this is not the case. The estimated reduction in bovine TB cases is expected to only be 16% as a result of a cull of 70% of badgers in an area. [1] This is because only a small proportion of badgers, possibly as low as 6% and at most 30-40%, have bovine TB. [2] Another reason is that other animals, such as deer and foxes, also can pass on bovine TB. [3] Clearly most of the cost in terms of compensation will therefore remain. There may be some small cost savings but these are marginal.  [1] Ghosh, Pallab, \u2018Badger cull will reduce cattle TB infections slightly\u2019, BBC News, 28 September 2012,   [2] Packham, Chris, \u2018like Owen Paterson, I had pet badgers. But their real place was in the wild\u2019, theguardian.com, 27 August 2013,   [3] Worral, Patrick, \u2018FactCheck: the badger cull \u2013 what we know and what we don\u2019t know\u2019, Channel 4 News, 27 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-pro02a","title":"","text":"A cull would save on the cost of compensation to farmers  A cull would be much cheaper than the cost of compensating farmers for their losses as a result of bovine TB. The cost of the disease to the taxpayer is estimated to be \u00a31billion over the next ten years \u2013 mostly as a result of compensation payments for farmers. This cost also damages farmers\u2019 livelihoods as the average cost of a TB breakdown on a farm is \u00a334,000 of which the farmer has to pay \u00a312,000. [1] By contrast the cost of the cull is estimated to be \u00a31000 per square kilometre per year meaning the trials for the culls would cost a total of \u00a32.2million. This then is considerably cheaper than the cost of the disease so will be saving both farmers and taxpayers a considerable cost. [2]  [1] \u2018Bovine TB (tuberculosis)\u2019, Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs,26 March 2013,   [2] Agencies, \u2018How badger cull policy was reached\u2019, The Telegraph, 27 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Clearly such actions would be against the law. It has been made clear that even if there were to be a cull the protections that currently exist for badgers would continue to exist as before any cull. For individuals to be taking the matter into their own hands if there is no cull would be illegal and should be punished as such."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-pro01a","title":"","text":"A cull is needed to prevent bovine TB  Bovine TB is a disease that affects cattle. When a herd is infected the animals in question need to be slaughtered to prevent the disease getting into the foodchain. The UK\u2019s Chief vet, Nigel Gibbons argues that the risk of infection of humans will increase if there is no cull. [1] Since the protection of badgers in 1992 there have been increases in the numbers of badgers and at the same time an increase in infections. In 1992 there were only about 800 infected herds but by 2012 that had increased to 9000. Scotland, which has only 10% of the UK\u2019s badgers compared to 25% in the South West of England has very low prevalence of bovine TB. [2] It seems clear that we need to halt the spread of bovine TB to prevent the infection of humans and a badger cull has to be a part of the answer.  [1] Bawden, Tom, \u2018Chief vet: We need badger cull to prevent spread of TB to humans\u2019, The Independent, 30 May 2013,   [2] \u2018Bovine tuberculosis statistics and costs\u2019, bovinetb.info,  (chart f and j)"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Some of the costs are largely illusionary. Yes we stop food that is tested positive from bovine TB from getting into the food chain but this ignores that the tests are not accurate so there is likely meat that is infected getting into the foodchain anyway. Bovine TB is mostly in parts of cattle that are not eaten and cooking kills the TB bacterium. At the same time almost all milk is pasteurised so again the bacterium is killed posing no risk to human health. [1]  The main difficulty with the argument that a cull will prevent TB is that we do not know which way infections run. Do badgers infect cattle or the other way around. Currently the evidence suggests that it is cattle that infect badgers this is why there are areas with high badger populations without bovine TB problems such as the north of England. It is all but certain that any large jumps in infection over large distances are the result of cattle to cattle transmission. [2] Looking at the chart presented it is clear that the biggest jump from under 2000 to over 5000 infected herds occurs immediately after foot and mouth suggesting the increase was a result of cattle movements.  [1] \u2018expert reaction to TB test-positive cattle entering the food chain\u2019, Science Media Centre, 1 July 2013,   [2] Dawson, D.G., \u2018Badgers and TB, where is the science?\u2019, University of Birkbeck, March 2013,  (6, 10, 11)"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-pro03a","title":"","text":"If there is no cull farmers will simply carry out their own killing  Without a cull farmers will simply take the issue into their own hands in order to protect their herds. If the government will not act on the issue of badgers then farmers will feel they are left with no choice. According to groups that aim to protect badgers there are already an estimated 9,000 badgers killed each year through gassing, poisoning, and baiting. [1]  [1] Jenkinson, Stephen, \u2018Protect the Badger, Why Bother?\u2019, South Yorkshire Badger Group,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con03b","title":"","text":"A vaccine for cattle does not yet exist in a form where it is possible to tell the difference between a vaccinated cow and a cow infected by bovine TB. This means that vaccinated cattle would have to be treated the same way as infected cattle so would not be salable. Vaccination is not 100% effective and would run the risk of other countries banning exports. [1] Vaccination of badgers on the other hand is costly with the first phase of the welsh trials having amounted to \u00a3662 per jab despite the vaccine itself costing much less. [2]  [1] \u2018Cattle Vaccination\u2019, Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 24 January 2013,   [2] \u2018NFU Cymru slams bovine TB vaccination costs\u2019, NFU Cymru, 29 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con01b","title":"","text":"In this instance the question is one of balancing suffering. Yes culling will result in a certain amount of suffering from badgers but not culling and letting TB run rampant causes suffering in cattle. To humans cattle are much more valuable than badgers as we have several uses for their produce. It is clear that if there has to be suffering it should be badgers, not cattle that do so."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con02a","title":"","text":"Culling could increase rather than reduce TB  There have been trials of culls of badgers before and they have not been successful. In a randomised badger culling trial in 30 areas of England each measuring 100km2 it was found that \u201cremoving badgers by culling was found to disrupt their social organisation, causing remaining badgers to range more widely both inside and around the outside of culled areas.\u201d The result of increased movement was \u201cProactive culling was associated with a 25% increase in the incidence of cattle TB on neighbouring un-culled land.\u201d [1] Reactive culling can result in even higher increases with the risk of bovine TB more than doubling. [2] Clearly this could be dealt with through a complete cull that would not encourage movement of badgers but as the badger remains protected this is not possible. There are also difficulties with knowing how many badgers there really are because they live underground and only come out a night. Counting by numbers of setts is unreliable when there may be many that are disused or where there are badgers that use more than one sett. [3]  [1] Bourne, John, et al., \u2018Final Report of the Independent Scientific Group on Cattle TB\u2019, Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs,  Pp.19-20  [2] Imperial College London News Release, \u2018badger Localised reactive badger culling raises bovine tuberculosis risk, new analysis confirms\u2019, Imperial College London, 13 July 2011,   [3] Carrington, Damian, \u2018Counting the cost: fears badger cull could worsen bovine TB crisis\u2019, The Guardian, 27 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con04a","title":"","text":"A relaxation in cattle controls, not badgers, caused the problem  Bovine TB was almost eradicated in the UK yet the number of cases have shot up since the 1990s. The cause however is not badgers. Rather it is the result of BSE and Foot and Mouth disease which resulted in huge numbers of cattle being destroyed. To help the cattle farmers get back on their feet restrictions were all but lifted and cattle were moved all over the country. It is notable that the Isle of Man, which has no badgers, does have bovine TB. [1]  John Bourne, who led a trial of badger culling, suggests the cattle movement controls should be tightened before anything as drastic as a cull is undertaken. \u201cThe cattle controls in operation at the moment are totally ineffective\u2026 It's an absolute nonsense that farmers can move cattle willy-nilly after only two tests. Why won't politicians implement proper cattle movement controls? Because they don't want to upset farmers.\u201d The problem is that the tests are not accurate so herds can pass the tests while they still have the disease so when cattle are moved they infect other herds. [2]  [1] Kaminski, Julia, \u2018Badger culls don't stop tuberculosis in cattle \u2013 the evidence is clear\u2019, theguardian.com, 11 August 2011,   [2] Carrington, Damian, \u2018Counting the cost: fears badger cull could worsen bovine TB crisis\u2019, The Guardian, 27 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con03a","title":"","text":"There are other options to a cull  Culling badgers is just one option for reducing the incidence of bovine TB. We are forgetting that the rate of bovine TB is increasing mostly because the UK was very successful at wiping out bovine TB in the past. In the 1930s the national infection rate was around 4 in 10 cattle, this was reduced to less than one in 1000 in the mid-1960s. [1] This was done by removing infected cattle; this is still done today but that it was so successful in the past shows that other methods work. Badgers are not a new species in the UK and would have represented the same risk in the 1960s.  Also potentially a better option is vaccination. This can be done either by vaccinating the badgers, or most effectively by vaccinating the cows. Wales has opted to go for a vaccination of badgers, a field study has found that vaccination can result in a 74% reduction in the proportion of wild badgers testing positive for TB. [2] It can also be done comparatively cheaply by using volunteers (the same people who are campaigning against the culls). It will still cost \u00a32000 per km2 (about twice the cull) and it is clear that even if herd immunity is achieved in badgers this won\u2019t immediately stop infections of cattle from badgers but considering the cull is expected over 9 years with only a 16% improvement in infection rates a vaccine would seem to be a good alternative. [3]  [1] Rollins, Julian, \u2018Badgers: To cull or not to cull\u2019, BBC Countryfile, 8 April 2009,   [2] \u2018Research into Bovine TB\u2019, Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 10 December 2012,   [3] \u2018Bovine TB vaccination no magic bullet say MPs\u2019, parliament.uk, 5 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con01a","title":"","text":"Culling badgers is inhumane  The culling of badgers will not be done in a humane way. The intention is that badgers will be shot by trained marksmen but according to the RSPCA \u201cTheir anatomy makes it difficult to shoot a free-roaming badger\u201d the result is likely to be large numbers of injured badgers with many escaping \u201csuffer agonizing deaths underground.\u201d [1] As badgers are sentient beings we should be seeking to avoid causing them harm and suffering.  [1] RSPCA, \u2018RSPCA deeply saddened by start to badger cull\u2019, politics.co.uk, 27 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con04b","title":"","text":"As opposition itself has stated we do not know the exact cause of the transmission of bovine TB and the increase in cases. Badgers are almost certain to be one cause if the increase so they must be dealt with. There are already controls on the movement of cattle; they need to have tests first and this has not halted the increase so something else needs to be tried."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwcb-con02b","title":"","text":"An area of 100km2 is not particularly large thus making it possible for badgers to be moving into areas where there has been no culling. In a more general cull this would not be possible as the badgers would simply be moving into other areas which have also seen culls."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Out of town centres distort urban growth patterns. Because they are not organic growth, out of town centres often warp local infrastructure provision. So, while (for example) they may have good access roads built, there will be fewer amenities built at the same time, and subsequent residential development which follows in the path often grows too quickly to incorporate the sort of planned town infrastructure which developed in more traditional, carefully planned town centre environments. Because out of town centres often do not clearly serve a particular residential area, they distort growth as it means that, rather than responding to a residential area's needs, the centre is built and attracts residential development around it for convenience, regardless of whether this is the most appropriate planning approach for local communities."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Out of town centres bring development in their wake.  Out of town centres bring development in their wake. As out of town centres are often built on aesthetically unappealing \"brownfield\" sites, the injection of large investment by a retailer is a vote of confidence in the area and this has a knock-on effect in the local economy. The out of town centre acts as a magnet for further positive development locally. Other amenities and housing will typically start to congregate near the shop and the centre creates a boom for the local economy. This is not only true in the initial construction stages, it will also apply once it is up and running, as retail staff will typically be recruited fairly locally. In Edinburgh, the multi-million development of the out-of-town shopping centre in Livingston is believed to have created more than 1500 jobs alone1.  1 Edwards, G. (2005, July 28)."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro03b","title":"","text":"t of town malls do not serve shopper interests well. It is time-consuming for shoppers to visit out of town centres because of their distance from population centres and the tendency for their access roads quickly to become clogged with traffic. This can eradicate any time saving from the convenience of having shops or retail categories clustered in a single geographical location. They also marginalise parts of society. For example, people without access to cars are effectively excluded from actively using them. This especially affects some social groups, e.g. the poor and the elderly. Ultimately, if out of town malls reduce their town centre shopping options, they will have less not more shopping choice."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Malls promote competition and serve consumers well  Hypermarkets and malls promote competition and so serve consumers well. Because of their huge purchasing power and economies of scale, large retail chains with huge outlets such as Wal-Mart, Tescos and Carrefour can offer products much more cheaply than smaller high-street rivals. The convenience and greater enjoyment offered by out of town malls can also push urban shopping centres into improving their own provision for consumers. This can be seen through improvements in the urban environment, better policing, cheaper parking and more ease of access, and the provision of entertainment and special events (e.g. farmers markets, foreign markets and street festivals) to draw shoppers in from a wider area. The public have voted with their feet, in 2003 48% of everything bought in Britain was bought in out of town stores1.  1 Watkins, M. (2003, June 27). The phenomenon of out of town retailing in the UK. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from AC Nielsen:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Out of town retail developments actually reduce effective competition because smaller urban outlets are not able to compete with them on price. In the United States for example, Wal-Mart pays workers the bare minimum and imports goods produced for a lot cheaper overseas1. Local stores cannot compete. After a while the urban shopping centre will become \"hollowed out\", with most stores shutting and only a few niche retailers or stores catering to poorer and less mobile social groups remaining. Once this competition is removed, the out of town stores can put up their own prices, especially as malls and other out of town retail centres are actively planned to reduce direct competition within particular retail sectors (e.g. only one large food retailer, only one Do-It-Yourself store, only, only a few shoe shops, etc.).  1 Freeman, R. (2003, November 21). Wal-Mart collapses U.S. cities and towns. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from Executive Intelligence Review:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Out of town shopping malls offer a better shopping experience  Out of town malls offer a better shopping experience. It is easier for shoppers to visit an out of town retail development than an urban or town centre shopping area. Typically, out of town malls offer access roads which are not crowded and plenty of \"free\" car parking. This is welcomed by shoppers and is in contrast to many city centre or high street shopping areas. It is also convenient for shoppers to be able to make their purchases under one roof. In an out of town shopping centre, shoppers are typically able to complete their purchases in one covered mall, and perhaps even in one giant store. This is less time-consuming and less stressful than the more traditional experience of needing to visit multiple different shops. In addition, the interiors of shopping centres are actively managed and so are typically clean, relatively safe and may offer their own entertainment (e.g. skating rinks, cinemas, live music). This is typically less true of more traditional shopping areas, where for example at night poor lighting may be off-putting to some shoppers. As retail outlets in town continue to close, Britain reports growing demand for out-of-town shopping vacancies1.  1 Kollewe, J. (2011, June 14). High street chains snap up spaces in out-of-town shopping parks. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from The Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con03b","title":"","text":"Out of town shopping centres do not damage local communities, they strengthen them. Shopping is easier, more convenient and more accessible than before, leaving more time for community activities. Furthermore, they act as hubs for community cohesion, teenagers can use the entertainment facilities, parents can shop. Any residential opportunities that arise only 'hollow' the community out for a short period of time, the influx of investment in the area (propelled by the shopping centre's presence) will ensure that the town and the shopping centre gradually close back together."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con01b","title":"","text":"Out of town retail developments need not be bad for the environment. Out of town centres are often built on land that would otherwise be derelict (e.g. Sheffield's Meadowhall Mall or Bluewater in Kent) and so, if anything, improve the quality of the area. Building modern retail outlets large enough to be economic in urban centres would also involve a great deal of destruction and the sacrifice of historic buildings and local character. Local pollution can be greatly reduced by using modern energy-saving designs which are not possible in city-centre locations, and by providing bus and light-rail services from nearby population centres."}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con02a","title":"","text":"Out of town malls damage town centres  Out of town malls damage town centres. Because the out of town developments are remote from the town centre, shoppers go there without passing the urban shops, which eliminates the opportunistic purchases which form a large part of many small shops' custom. They also damage the sense of community spirit. Out of town centres are typically managed by national firms and house chain shops, whereas the town centre will normally have a larger proportion of locally owned and run shops. Not only does this encourage a net outflow of money from the local community, it also reduces local involvement in the town centre, which can have a negative knock-on effect on civic pride and municipal participation. In Douglas, Arizona shops in the town centre have been forced to close due to a loss in sales to out-of-town centres. According to a 2010 report, over 23% of all spending on groceries was spent outside of the town itself, causing at least one major store in-town to fold and put all its employees out of work1. As such, out of town centres also remove a sense of local diversity. Because out of town centres are typically nationally run from outside the community, they all look alike and are less sensitive to local shoppers' needs. They are more likely to focus on homogenous product and service offerings across their sites.  1 Blaskey, L. (2011, July 13). Safeway to close. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from Douglas Dispatch:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con03a","title":"","text":"Out of town centres damage local communities' identities  Out of town centres damage local communities' identities. In addition to the damage they do to local trade and civic identification, out of town centres are often far enough out of town that they are not clearly regarded as forming part of the local community. Frequently they lie outside the jurisdiction of the urban council, and so contribute nothing to the local area in taxes. One proposal has suggested using additional taxes on out-of-town retailers to ensure that British high streets can be either maintained or revived1. Furthermore, as out of town centres start to attract residential building nearby, this can \"hollow out\" the community identity and economic viability of the original town.  1 Travel Weekly. (2011, May 19). Out-of-town retailers 'must fund town centre revival'. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from Travel Weekly:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con01a","title":"","text":"Out of town retail developments are bad for the environment  Out of town retail developments are bad for the environment. They encourage pollution because they are further from town centres than traditional retail units and encourage the use of cars for fairly short, environmentally harmful journeys. They also frequently involve the destruction of large areas of countryside, not only to accommodate the retail development itself, but also the parking, access roads and secondary development that usually follows. This is made worse by the standard one or two story design of modern malls, which results in wasteful sprawl. Efficient urban development, by contrast, tends to go upwards (or downwards) in multi-storey buildings, often with parking below and apartments above retail space. Friends of the Earth, an environmental lobby, has recently pushed a ban in Northern Ireland on all out-of-town shopping centres, arguing they 'increase consumption and waste and dramatically increase cars on the road'1  1 Friends of the Earth. (2011, June 10). No more out of town shopping centres. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from Friends of the Earth Northern Ireland:"}
+{"id":"training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con02b","title":"","text":"Out of town shopping centres represent a sensible, efficient land use. Large-scale shopping does not sit well with residential behaviour. For example, early morning deliveries and late-night shopping can create a lot of noise. In a traditional environment where shops are immediately beside residential areas, this is a nuisance to local residents; this is not the case in out of town sites. Only out of town locations offer the retail industry the space it needs to function. To run an efficient modern shop, large amounts of space with particular planning needs often have to be used. This is often incompatible with densely populated, built-up areas where retail units are largely unable to be altered significantly to meet modern needs."}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-pro02b","title":"","text":"The costs of establishing and administering a cap-and-trade system could be substantial. It demands that a cap be set, monitored, and enforced. This is a highly complicated process, given the size of the energy market, and would demand substantial administrative oversight. Further, should the monitoring not be perfect, given the size and power of the firms involved, it is likely that they will be able to find loopholes in order to deal with the problem.  A carbon tax is predictable, as are most simple tax systems. A cap-and-trade system, on the other hand, is subject to market fluctuations, speculation, and volatility. This could have a bad effect on energy prices. Specifically, if the market becomes subject to speculative attack, it would be likely that energy companies would have to offset the risks in the market by raising energy prices. Further, such market volatility could lead to certain energy companies being unduly punished for changes in the market that they simply could not have predicted. [1]  [1] \u201cCarbon Markets Create a Muddle.\u201d Financial Times. 26\/04\/2007"}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-pro02a","title":"","text":"Cap and Trade is More Economical Than a Carbon Tax  \"The efficiency [of a cap-and-trade system] comes with the \"trade\" part. Let's say you have two power plants, each emitting 100 tons of carbon per hour. The first can reduce its emissions by 20 tons at a cost of $5 per ton, and the second can reduce its emissions by only 10 tons, at a cost of $30 per ton. Clearly the efficient thing to do is to make the former reduction rather than the latter, with the owner of the second plant paying the owner of the first plant to offset the first owner's extra costs [by buying carbon credits and the \"right\" to pollute from the first plant].\" [1]  This technique allows effective emissions reductions to occur at the lowest cost. Hence as this is less disruptive to business they are more likely to be on board and not try to get around a cap and trade system using accounting methods in the same way that they might with a tax.  A cap-and-trade system is more flexible in the global economy. Nations that adopt a cap-and-trade system can later link that system into other cap-and-trade systems around the world. It would not be as easy for a carbon tax to achieve this. This is important in today's global economy, where multinational companies exist across borders.  As such cap-and-trade is the most viable solution that if implemented could lead to a long term solution and agreement between countries regarding reductions in emissions. [2]  [1] Nast Conde, \u201cWhy a Cap-And Trade System Beats a Carbon Tax.\u201d Portfolio.com 19\/04\/2007   [2] Nast Conde, \u201cWhy a Cap-And Trade System Beats a Carbon Tax.\u201d Portfolio.com 19\/04\/2007"}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-pro03b","title":"","text":"A carbon tax essentially considers all carbon emissions harmful to the environment, and warranting of equal punishment so is therefore fairer. A cap-and-trade system only punishes carbon emissions above a certain level, treating only certain kinds of emissions as \"bad\". A carbon tax, therefore, sends a strong message to polluters that all their emissions are harmful, that they should be phased out, and that they should invest in environmentally-friendly sources of energy. This dramatic message may be particularly important if we view global warming to be a serious crisis.  Companies are even willing to pay a premium for the stability provided by this system [I1] ; the premium being the tax itself, and the lack of the potential for profit through the trading of carbon credits. Further as a system that is easy to understand it is easier for directors to allow their firms to ease in to the system. [1]  [1] Ugur Akinci, \u201cCarbon Tax Versus Cap And Trade Approaches to Global Warming \u2013 Part 1.\u201d Doubletaxes.com 2007   [I1] Examples and case studies required."}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cap and Trade is Better at reducing carbon emissions than a carbon tax.  A cap-and-trade system provides companies with credits if they are able to reduce their emissions below an established level. They can then sell these credits for a profit. So, if a company takes action to reduce its carbon emissions below the designated level, than it can make a profit. This is a powerful market incentive that is more likely to cause companies to invest money in finding ways to reduce their carbon emissions. A carbon tax, conversely, only provides the incentive of cutting costs, and does not offer this important profit motive.  With cap-and-trade emissions are much more likely to be meaningfully reduced, specifically because the cap is static and as such nations can choose to raise and lower it as they wish. Within this mechanism, market prices would simply reflect the availability of credits. As such, nations can guarantee a reduction in carbon emissions just by reducing the number of credits in the market.  Finally, because cap and trade affects all companies and minimises cost to them, it provides all companies with an incentive to work toward green technology. Under the status quo, where subsidies and research grants are paid to businesses researching emissions reduction technology, the government has to decide which companies are \u201cbest\u201d at solving the ecological damage that industry causes. Other companies feel they don\u2019t have to contribute because they are simply being taxed instead. We do not know where the next development in green technology will come from. As such a smaller impetus for everyone is likely to be better than a large impetus for a small number of companies who might not, in any event, be able to develop workable solutions to emissions problems. [1]  [1] Mankiw, Gregory, \u201cCarbon Tax Problem,\u201d 11\/04\/07"}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-pro01b","title":"","text":"A tax on carbon by comparison to a cap and trade system provides a much more powerful message regarding the importance of carbon policy. Whilst a trade system seems to the general public and to an extent to firms, like simply another product to manage, a tax carries very strong connotations owing the severity of other taxes levied by governments. As such it provides a stronger incentive for firms to change their attitudes toward carbon.  Further, a cap and trade system is flawed because often polluters will pollute heavily before the system begins. As the only way to implement cap and trade is to do so based on past emissions (or risk being incredibly unfair), this means that many companies will emit as much as possible so that their baseline emissions will be set highly enough to give them a measure of leeway.  Further, a carbon tax system is much easier to change based on the effects of the policy on climate change in the future. Whereas a cap and trade system must deal with changes to the market of cap and trade itself as well, as changes to the overall market. A cap and trade system is more complicated than a centrally imposed tax. Therefore, it will be harder to predict and adjust the behaviour of the credit market in the future.  A carbon tax also allows for the redistribution of the taxed money into researching green causes. It leads to a better overall result because money can be focused on companies that have shown progress in this area and taken from those companies that have no intention of changing the field. [1]  [1] Shapiro, Robert. \u201cVs. Cap-Trade.\u201d Carbon Tax Centre. 04\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-pro03a","title":"","text":"A Cap and Trade system is fairer to producers  Carbon emitting energy industries emerged long ago, before anyone thought about the environmental impact of this industry. It is wrong to suddenly consider all energy production that involves carbon emissions a social \"harm\", after decades of thinking to the contrary. Modern energy producers should not be punished for their participation in an industry whose emergence pre-dates concerns of global warming.  Further, A cap-and-trade system is \"fair\" because it rewards \"efficient\"-polluters while punishing \"non-efficient\" polluters: Given the above argument, this is a more reasonable approach to rewarding and punishing an industry whose emergence pre-dates the environmental concerns surrounding carbon emissions."}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-con03b","title":"","text":"A carbon tax would be more likely to pass on problems to consumers. With the tax being as clear as it is, firms could quite easily appeal to the public and claim that it is the government that is causing them to change prices. Given the inelastic nature of the markets for energy and food, if a number of core companies were to take this action at the same time, then it could simply lead to the government taxing people more for the mistakes and harm that firms cause.  Whilst the public bear some measure of responsibility by consuming the firms\u2019 products, the majority of the cost should be borne by the firm. This is especially true in energy markets where it is impossible for consumers to simply avoid using energy altogether. Moreover, businesses are in a better position to control and improve the efficiency of their operations than their customers are.  Given that a cap and trade system results in a lower loss for firms it is less likely to be passed on to the people instead."}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-con01b","title":"","text":"The basic problem is that a carbon tax would be seen as a new tax. New taxes are typically unpopular. This makes it hard for politicians to support a carbon tax, as they are beholden to their constituents, and their likely desires to avoid such a tax. This in itself makes it unlikely a Carbon Tax would ever be implemented.  Further, a carbon tax would require complicated enforcement mechanisms. These mechanisms would impose an administrative burden on the state more severe than that created by a cap-and-trade system. In a carbon tax, emitters would pay a tax for every tonne of carbon emitted. This requires that the government know precisely how much carbon is being emitted by energy producers. This is not easy to determine, and requires that a government put in place monitoring mechanisms. Deploying these mechanisms universally would be very complicated, expensive, and require much administration. Then, ensuring that all these monitoring devices operate properly and that all energy producers comply with the tax would also involve a substantial administrative overhead.  This would be equally as complicated as a cap-and-trade system, which requires much the same administration, but also encourages other companies to keep tabs on their competitors and their emissions. Credit trading spreads the administrative costs of carbon taxation over a number of companies, all of whom will be acting to protect their carbon credit investments and the stability of the market they are traded on."}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-con02a","title":"","text":"Carbon Taxes Are More Progressive both Politically and Economically than Cap and Trade  Carbon taxes are progressive and help economically marginalised communities to a much greater extent than cap and trade. Currently, affluent businesses, individuals and legal persons usually emit a much larger amount of carbon than poor people. A flat tax on emissions causes a significant amount of money to be redistributed from the rich to the poor. Moreover, the poorest in society are often the first and worst affected by environmental damage. They lack the capital necessary to move out of areas affected by problems such as smog and water pollution.  A carbon tax is a particularly useful system of redistributive justice, because money made from taxing firms can then be reinvested into finding greener energy solutions. Specifically this money can be invested in green energy companies that have already shown progress in producing goods that reduce carbon consumption. As such, a carbon tax not only reduces carbon consumption directly, but can also do so indirectly by investing in technology to prevent carbon consumption in the future. [1]  [1] Shapiro, Robert. \u201cVs. Cap-Trade.\u201d Carbon Tax Centre. 04\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-con03a","title":"","text":"Cap and Trade will Harm Energy Consumers  Carbon trading would harm smaller and start-up business to a significant extent. It is easier for wealthy companies to reduce their carbon consumption as they have a greater level of wealth and thus a greater ability to do so. As such under a market mechanism they would have more credits. Poorer businesses would have to buy carbon credits from the richer ones, compromising competitiveness; in addition, small business parks and areas attractive to start-ups would potentially become sinkholes for pollution under the proposition. The resolution could undermine the efficiency and profitability of small but agile engineering and manufacturing firms, such as the mittelstand businesses that have recently flourished in Germany.  The volatility of cap and trade markets means that firms would have to insure against the markets turning against them. In practical terms, this means that following the implementation of a cap and trade scheme firms would have to significantly increase fuel prices in order to hedge against the possibility of the market turning against them and harming their company. As such even if cap and trade is a more \u201cefficient\u201d system it still harms consumers significantly."}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-con01a","title":"","text":"Cap and Trade is Less Feasible Than a Carbon Tax  Carbon taxes are useful owing to the transparency behind them. It helps companies working for green causes gain a strong reputation and support among the public because they are seen to be paying for their pollution. A cap and trade system is significantly more difficult to understand and as such this means that there will likely be less public will behind the system and thus a lesser incentive for transparency.  A cap-and-trade system demands that the government determine the emissions baselines for companies, the allocation of carbon credits, and the monitoring and enforcement of all of the above. This is a major administrative burden. A carbon tax would be simpler and require less oversight, and would cost domestic tax payers less.  The complexity of a cap-and-trade system would make it easier for companies to cheat. This is largely because the enforcement of this system would be difficult and open to manipulation by skilled lawyers, accountants and consultancy firms.  Further, Governments have the incentive to establish conditions favourable to the performance of their own national companies. They can do so by, for example, offering more carbon credits than they should to the companies of their country. The EU's emissions trading system is the primary example of this occurring. [1]  [1] Shapiro, Robert. \u201cVs. Cap-Trade.\u201d Carbon Tax Centre. 04\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-environment-echbcatspct-con02b","title":"","text":"A \"regressive\" tax is one that disproportionately burdens poorer groups. The amount of money payable under a regressive tax gets lower as payment taxed increases, or the activity taxed becomes more productive.  Energy consumption generally makes up a larger portion of the personal budgets of poorer groups. This is because their budgets are significantly smaller and they tend to purchase a greater deal of perishable goods. Specifically, durable goods such as new sets of cutlery etc. tend not to increase the level of carbon consumption in a household. However, perishable goods such as food often need to be cooked.  Companies that are subjected to a flat carbon tax that cannot be offset by carbon credit training are likely to pass on some of their tax liability to consumers in the form of increased prices. As has already been established, the cost of consumables and energy purchases constitute a greater proportion of the income of poorer households. A flat carbon tax, even if levied against businesses and industrial polluters would, inevitably, be paid in part by the poor.  Tradable carbon credits, on the other hand, could conceivably result in a net transfer of wealth to the poor. Although the poor spend a bigger proportion of their income on energy, the wealthy consume a far greater amount of carbon in absolute terms. So under a cap-and-trade regime, we would expect the poor (and the energy thrifty) to have excess credits to sell to their more profligate neighbours. [1]  [1] Stein, Adam. \u201cCarbon tax vs. carbon market: who would win in a fight?\u201d Terrapass.com 15\/08\/2006"}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro02b","title":"","text":"We agree that speciesism is wrong but we do not think that refusing animals rights is speciesist because there are relevant moral differences between animals and humans. And even if refusing animal rights is speciism, there is nothing wrong with speciesism in the first place. It is natural to value the lives of one's own species more than those of another species because we are programmed that way by evolution. We are expected to care more about our own families than about strangers and similarly to value the lives of our own species more than those of animals. It is only natural and right that if we had to choose between a human baby and a dog being killed we should choose the dog."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Speciesism is wrong  Just as racism is wrongful discrimination against beings of a different race and sexism is wrongful discrimination against a being of a different gender, speciesism is wrongful discrimination against a being of a different species. Wrongful discrimination occurs when there is no other reason for the discrimination except the mere fact that the being is of the race, sex, or species that they are. For example, if an employer refuses to employ a black woman over a white woman because she has an inferior qualification this is justified discrimination whereas if he refuses to employ the black woman simply because she is black then this is wrongful discrimination. Human beings are speciesist towards animals because we sacrifice their most important needs for our trivial desires: their life for our enjoyment of a burger.  You might think that we are allowed to have special relationships to people that are similar to us but there is a difference between special relationships and being active cruel and discriminatory. Our evolutionary instinct to protect our own species may not be ethically correct in contemporary society.  Similarly, we ought not to 'put down' animals who are too expensive to care for. We do not allow human beings to kill off their children when they experience financial difficulty because we believe that human beings value their lives. It would be justifiable to kill off something that has no interest in living, such as a plant, but since we believe that animals do have an interest in living it would be speciesist to kill off a puppy simply because it is not human. We know that society believes animals have an interest in living sometimes because there is outcry when baby seals are clubbed or when elephants are poached for their ivory. Yet at other times we are happy to eat animal flesh and wear leather. This is a contradictory stance. We ought to be consistent in our views and to condemn speciesists.  Refusing animals rights is speciesist. Speciesism is wrong. Therefore, it is wrong to deny animals rights."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro03b","title":"","text":"Equality requires that two beings are actually equal on some fundamental level. Human beings have certain essential similarities that make them equal. These do not stretch to animals. Human beings are able to distinguish right from wrong while animals have no notion of ethics. We are thus able to consider what kind of a society we want to live in and we are affected when we feel that there is social degradation. Animals, however, do not have this sense. We have fundamental dignity which animals do not. This is clear in the fact that animals do not experience shame or embarrassment, desire respect, or have a notion of self. Furthermore, human beings can consider their future and have particular desires about how they want their life to play out. These are different for every individual. This is why we are concerned with choice and protecting individualism and religion. Animals on the other hand are concerned only with immediate survival. They have only instincts, not individual desires and wants.  For these reasons, we can't consider animals to be equally morally considerable. As for the propositions standard of relevance for the criteria which distinguish animals from humans in any given case, we would argue that the fundamental individuality and humanity of our species is relevant in every case because it makes animal life fundamentally less valuable."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro05a","title":"","text":"Even if we did think that animals were less intelligent than humans beings they should be protected by rights  Babies and individuals with learning disabilities may lack intelligence, a sense of justice and the ability to conceive of their future. We ensure that babies and the learning disabled are protected by rights and therefore these factors cannot be criteria by which to exclude a being from the rights system. Therefore, even if animals are not as advanced as human beings they should be protected by rights. An inability to know what's going on might make being experimented on etc even more frightening and damaging for an animal that it may be for a human being."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro01a","title":"","text":"Animals are intrinsically worthy of rights because they are sentient  Sentience is the property of being conscious. Sentience brings with it the ability to experience. There is a massive difference in the way that we treat sentient and non-sentient beings instinctively. We see nothing wrong with forming relationships with one\u2019s pets but we tend to deem people with emotional relationships to objects mentally ill. Here we are talking about something more than sentimentality but rather the kind of relationship in which one is concerned with the other party\u2019s emotional wellbeing. We even feel concerned about the wellbeing of sentient beings which whom we do not have a personal connection. For example we may feel upset when we see a dog run over on the road. This would be a very difficult reaction to how we might feel if we see an object crushed by a car. We feel moral outrage at the clubbing of seals.  The instinctive way which we differentiate between these two categories relates to the type of value they have. Whilst objects have value because of how they affect us - e.g. they are useful or remind us of a good time or person \u2013 we believe that animals have intrinsic value.  This means that a sentient being must never be treated as a means rather than an end in and of itself. Animals are sentient. Therefore, animals must not be treated as a means to an end but as intrinsically valuable."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro01b","title":"","text":"First off, you are appealing to instincts which not everyone has. People who work on farms are happy to slaughter animals. A lot of people do not own pets simply because they do not feel any affection towards animals and care more for material objects. Many people do not care about the clubbing of seals. It is human beings of course who perform these clubbing, murder sharks, poach etc. Furthermore, it is irrational that people care about their pets because cows are equally as sentient as animals yet people are happy to eat veal and battery farmed beef and clearly do not care about the cow.  People treat pets as property. They buy and sell them, put them down when they contract illnesses that are too expensive to treat, give them away when they move houses etc. These are things that they certainly wouldn\u2019t do to human beings. If you want to argue according to what humans do instinctively then we instinctively value humans more than animals and are happy to eat and kill animals.  Furthermore, we do not think that using a descriptive claim- what humans feel instinctively- means that you can then make a prescriptive claim \u2013 that all sentient beings deserve equal consideration.  In many ways we treat other human beings as only extrinsically valuable. Neo-Malthusians believe we should allow the poor to die of hunger to ensure that the current population does not suffer from the scarcity that arises from overpopulation. Many wars have involved killing lots of people to achieve political aims. Therefore, we often treat humans as extrinsically valuable."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro05b","title":"","text":"We do not analyse human beings on a case by case basis but rather by what distinguishes human beings as a whole, as a species. Infants have the potential to become rational and autonomous etc. The profoundly retarded represent flawed human beings. Retardation is not a human characteristic just as being 3-legged is not a characteristic of a dog though there are both retarded humans and 3-legged dogs."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro04b","title":"","text":"Even if animals are able categorize images in photographs and learn sign language, they are still phenomenally less intelligent than human beings. They will never study philosophy or perform brain surgery or even invent a wheel. Furthermore, intelligence does not prove the ability to self-actualise. Mourning others does not prove that animals value their own lives. Perhaps it implies that animals enjoy company but whether they consider the value of their companion's life and their future potential is questionable. Without the ability to value one's own life, life itself ceases to be intrinsically valuable.  The farming of animals does involve death but it is difficult to prove that death is intrinsically a harmful thing. Pain is certainly a harm for the living but animals are farmed are killed very quickly and they are stunned beforehand. Animals on farms do not know that they will be killed so there is no emotional harm caused by the anticipation of death.  There is no evidence that the painless killing of animals should carry any moral weight."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Animals are equal to human beings.  It is true that animals and human beings are different. It is also true that men are different from women and children from adults. Equality does not require beings to be identical. It is true that whilst many people argue women should have the right to abortion, no one argues the same for men because men are unable to have an abortion. It is similarly true that whilst most people believe all human beings have a right to vote, no one argues that animals deserve a right to vote \u2013 even those who support animal rights.  Equality does not mean that beings all deserve the exact same treatment. It means rather that we consider equally the equal interests of animals and humans. If we deem amount A to be the maximum amount of suffering a person be allowed to endure, then that should apply equally to an animal, though humans and animals may suffer different amounts under different circumstances.  The principle of equality advocates equal consideration, so it still allows for different treatment and different rights. Equality is a prescriptive rather than a descriptive concept. What\u2019s important is that beings should ONLY be treated differently where there is a morally relevant difference between them. For example, we can justifiably deny dogs the right to vote because there is a relevant difference in intelligence between dogs and humans. However, there is no justification for battery-farming chickens who have a capacity to suffer. There is evidence that they experience fear, pain and discomfort. Although chickens may be less intelligent and unable to speak , these differences are not morally relevant to whether or not they should be placed in these conditions.  We ought to consider animals equally to the way we consider humans. If we were to do so we would give animals rights. We ought therefore to give animals rights."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro04a","title":"","text":"Even if it matters whether or not humans and animals are similar, humans and animals are in fact similar enough that both should be granted rights.  We have already noted that beings do not need to be similar in order to be equally morally considerable. Assuming but not conceding that this is false, we will prove that animals are in fact incredibly similar to human beings, so much so that we should grant them rights.  First of all, animals have an equal capacity to experience pain. While we are unable to know exactly what other humans or animals are experiencing, we can make inference from what we observe. According to Peter Singer: \u201cNearly all the signs that lead us to infer pain in other humans can be seen in other species...The behavioural signs include writhing, facial contortions, moaning, yelping or other forms of calling, attempts to avoid the source of pain, appearance of fear at the prospect of its repetition, and so on\u201d. [1]  In addition we know that animals have nervous systems very like ours, which respond physiologically as ours do when the animal is in a circumstance in which we would feel pain\u2014an initial rise of blood pressure, dilated pupils, perspiration, an increased pulse rate, and, if the stimulus continues, a fall in blood pressure. Although human beings have a more developed cerebral cortex than other animals, this part of the brain is concerned with thinking functions rather than basic impulses, emotions, and feelings. These impulses, emotions, and feelings are located in the diencephalon, which is well developed in many other species of animals, especially mammals and birds.\u201d Animals therefore have the capacity for physical and emotional suffering, and so should be granted rights.  [1] Singer, Peter. \"All Animals are Equal.\" Ethics for Everyday. (Benatar, D Ed.) McGraw Hill: New York. 2002"}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con03b","title":"","text":"We clearly have direct duties to animals if we condemn the clubbing of baby seals and like activities. Furthermore, it is not enough simply to state what duties we do and don't have. There needs to be a reason why we do not have direct duties to animals. What distinguishes them from human beings that might answer this question? We would argue that there is nothing. Animals unlike other 'property' can suffer and feel pain and have an interest in living."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con01b","title":"","text":"We are morally responsible creatures and we can survive perfectly well without being cruel to animals. Animals are different because they need to hunt to survive and are not morally responsible. The interests they satisfy by being cruel to other animals (namely the need to eat) are momentous whereas the human need to wear a fur coat or have a tasty burger instead of a vegetarian pasta dish is trivial. We even use animals for entertainment, something that by definition is unnecessary."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con02a","title":"","text":"Animals are not moral agents  It makes no sense to give animals rights because they cannot makes decisions about what is right and wrong and will not try to treat us in an ethical manner in return. Why make them a moral agent by giving them rights?"}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con05a","title":"","text":"Most rights have no bearing for animals  The right to dignity would mean nothing to an animal. Animals are incapable of being humiliated and are not harmed by being reduced to human servitude. A dog is not ashamed of its nudity or having to eat out of a bowl and wear a leash. Animals happily copulate and defecate in front of humans and other animals. What exactly an undignified action might be for an animal it is difficult to say.  The right to education, to vote, to fair trial, to be innocent until proven guilty, to privacy, marriage, nationality, religion, property, freedom of thought, freedom of speech, workers rights and shelter all seem impossible to apply to animals.  If we specially tailor rights to animals then how is that different to the status quo where we have certain laws protecting animals?"}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con04a","title":"","text":"Animals have no interests or rationality  Some philosophers argue that only beings that are able to make rational choices can have moral rights because the function of rights is to protect choice. Animals are not able to make rational choices because they can only follow instinct, they cannot follow logic.  Some philosophers believe that the function of rights is to protect interests. An argument from R.G. Frey argues that animals do not have interests because they do not have language. In order to desire something one must believe that one does not currently have that something and therefore believe that the statement \u2018I have x\u2019 is false. One cannot have such a belief unless one knows how language connects to the world. Animals can\u2019t talk so they certainly are unable to know what it is that the sentence \u2018I have x\u2019 means in the real world. Therefore animals cannot have desires. Without desires animals cannot have interests. If the function of rights is to protect interests then animal rights serve no purpose. [1]  [1] Frey, R,G. \"Rights, Interests, Desires and Beliefs.\" Ethics for Everyday. (Benatar, D Ed.) McGraw Hill: New York. 2002"}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con03a","title":"","text":"We only have indirect duties to animals  Philosophers such as Immanuel Kant argue that we only have indirect duties towards animals. This means that we may not treat animals in such a manner that our actions are in conflict with our duties towards human beings. A human has no duty towards a dog not to kick it but a human has a duty towards the dog's owner not to damage his property. Pigs and cows are not loved by any human being so we cause no harm when we kill and eat them. Though the farmer may have owned the cow before, the beef becomes our possession when we purchase it. Wild animals are not owned by any human being so we may do to them what we wish.  Some people argue that cruelty towards animals can lead to cruelty towards humans but there is no evidence that people who work in slaughterhouses are more violent towards other people. In fact, there seems little connection at all between how people treat animals and humans. A slave driver may adore and pamper his dog but beat and kill his slaves.  If we have no direct duties to animals how can we grant them legal protection in the form of rights? The law should only prevent us harming animals when that clearly harms other people. For example, by killing a dog we infringe another person's human right to property."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con05b","title":"","text":"There is no reason why the rights we grant animals need be the same rights that we grant human beings. There may be laws that protect animals but these will be taken more seriously as rights because of the status we give to rights. Furthermore there are several rights that do apply to animals: the right to life, freedom of movement and the right not to be subjected to torture."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con01a","title":"","text":"We are at the top of the animal hierarchy and should treat other animals accordingly in order to further our own species.  We have always been superior to animals. Just as a lion can kill antelope and a frog can kill insects, so too human beings have struggled their way to the top of the food chain. Why then can we not exercise the power we have earned? Animals exercise their power and we should do the same. It is our natural obligation to do so.  The reason we have always killed animals is because we need them. We need meat to be healthy and we need to test medicines on animals to protect our own race. We use animals to further our own race. This too is surely a natural obligation."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con04b","title":"","text":"If only rational beings should be protected by rights then we should not protect babies or profoundly retarded people; but this is absurd. Animals do make choices according to their preferences e.g. lions choose a mate and dogs choose a spot to lie in the sun One is able to have interests without language because it is easily possible to be aware of a desire and understand that desire even if one does not think of that desire in words. Furthermore, there is some evidence that animals have languages of their own e.g. dolphins, birds.The challenger can also reject either theory of rights in favour of the other."}
+{"id":"training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con02b","title":"","text":"There is a different between being morally responsible and being morally considerable. Human beings are both. Moral responsibility implies a duty and therefore a capability to act in an ethical manner. Animals can not of course be morally responsible as they do not have the intellectual capacity to ascertain what is right and wrong, only instincts as to how to survive. We cannot expect animals to be morally responsible but this does not mean that human beings do not have a duty to be morally responsible. It would be ideal for all beings to act in an ethical manner but only humans are capable of considering ethics and therefore we are the only morally responsible beings. Moral considerability refers to whether or not a being deserves to be treated in an ethical manner. There is a burden on the proposition to show why moral considerability relies on being morally responsible. Profoundly retarded human beings and babies are unable to be morally responsible and yet we consider them to be morally considerable."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro02b","title":"","text":"To worry about animal rights more than human rights is not sensible. When the two are compatible, this is a good thing, but in this case the ban would have the effect of forcing Jews and Muslims to choose between keeping their religion and eating meat. This is a more important concern than animal welfare: although eating meat is not an essential part of life, it is not reasonable to deny it to someone."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro02a","title":"","text":"We should treat animals well  It is important to treat animals as kindly as we can. Not causing harm to others is among the basic human rights. Although these rights cannot be said to apply directly to animals, we should extend them a certain respect as living, sentient beings, and as a minimum we should avoid causing them unnecessary harm. [1] Moreover, taking animal welfare seriously will accustom us to considering the effects of our actions in other contexts, and help us be generally sensitive to cruelty.  Inflicting unnecessary harm on animals is therefore a bad thing. Many governments already have many policies aimed at preventing this. For example, in 2004 the UK passed a law banning hunting with dogs on the grounds that it is cruel. [2] The Council of Europe and through it the European Union already requires stunning, with an exception for religious practices. [3] Removing this exception is the best course for animal welfare.  Killing animals for food may not be philosophically wrong \u2013 after all, many species do the same. But if we are going to do so, we should cause as little harm as possible in the process, and this requires using humane slaughter methods.  [1] \u2018Why Animal Rights?\u2019, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 2013,   [2] \u2018Hunting and the law\u2019, Gov.uk, 4 April 2013,   [3] The Member States of the Council of Europe, \u2018European Convention for the Protection of Animals for Slaughter\u2019, Strasbourg, 10.V.1979,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro03b","title":"","text":"Doing something democratically doesn\u2019t make it right or fair. No matter how much you care about animal rights, you have no right to force other people to do the same. The fact that you disagree with them doesn\u2019t make them wrong.  We generally accept that the state may control what people do in order to protect society. This proposed ban goes beyond that remit, as religious slaughter of animals does not cause harm to other people. That being the case, it is unjust to stop them."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Slaughter without stunning is painful for the animal  Slaughter without stunning is painful for the animal. All slaughter methods which do not involve stunning work by bleeding the animal so that it suffers brain-death. This is normally done by cutting the neck. Depending on the species of animal, it can survive for anything between 20 seconds and 2 minutes after this.  Although animals can\u2019t tell us if they are in pain, the best metrics we have \u2013 brain activity, eye movement and making sounds \u2013 indicate that the animals are in pain during this period. [1] Rendering the animal unconscious stops it feeling pain immediately.  When we have two methods of killing the animal available, it is inhumane to use the more painful one. It follows that we should require stunning.  [1] Federation of Veterinarians of Europe, \u2018Slaughter of animals without prior stunning\u2019, FVE Position Paper, FVE\/02\/104, 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro01b","title":"","text":"The evidence as to the amount of pain an animal feels is by no means clear. Many of the studies showing the animals suffer have been criticized for not carrying out the slaughter in the way prescribed by religious law. Moreover, other studies claim that cutting the throat in this way stops blood flow to the brain so rapidly that it has the same effect as a stun.  Despite all the evidence that religious slaughter does cause pain, the opposition to this remains scientifically credible, and so we can\u2019t base a government policy on one or the other."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro04b","title":"","text":"To successfully remove such meat from the food chain, any ban would have to extend to importing such meat. Under this model, Jews and Muslims would literally be forced to become vegetarian \u2013 a radical and discriminatory suggestion which significantly breaches their rights.  Consumers may very well want to be better informed about their meat. But labeling systems have been proposed which would address this concern without a ban. It also needs to be said that many non-religious abattoirs are also inhumane. To be fully ethical, any such labeling system would have to label all the animals where the stun didn\u2019t work, and should also take account of the way the animals were raised and transported. Banning just religious slaughter is not a consistent moral position, and shouldn\u2019t be government policy."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Animal welfare is a legitimate political aim  It is important for animal rights to be represented in political discourse. The animal rights movement has many supporters. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has 3 million members worldwide. [1] In the UK, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) are both in the 15 wealthiest charities. [2]  The point of democracy is that people decide collectively how they want their state to run. In one poll in the UK, 45% of people backed a ban on shechita. [3] Democracy requires that we take this seriously, and if the animal rights movement wins the debate then we should implement a ban.  [1] \u2018Membership Services\u2019, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, accessed 30 May 2013,   [2] Rogers, Simon, \u2018Britain's top 1,000 charities ranked by donations. Who raises the most money?\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 24 April 2012,   [3] Rocker, Simon, \u2018Forty five per cent of Britons ready to ban Shechita\u2019, TheJC.com, 27 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Since this meat is often sold unlabeled, this affects everyone  Meat from animals slaughtered without stunning can turn up anywhere. Some parts of each animal are not used in kosher food, and they are generally sold on the normal market. This means any supermarket product could turn out to have such meat in it. Halal food is even more common, and many places serve halal meat as standard. [1]  So we cannot just consider the religious community: this meat reaches everyone. People with concerns about the way their food is produced would be distressed if they knew they were eating meat which had been inhumanely slaughtered. The fact that they don\u2019t actually know is neither here nor there \u2013 we should bear in mind their ethical positions.  Everyone is eating the meat, so everyone has a say. Banning the production of this meat would remove it from the food chain and help make sure people know what they\u2019re eating.  [1] Fagge, Nick, \u2018Halal Britain: Schools and institutions serving up ritually slaughtered meat\u2019, Daily Mail, 25 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con03b","title":"","text":"Stunning is only unreliable when done badly. All of the objections listed represent cases where best practice was not being followed. It is important to implement stunning properly, but there are plenty of stunning methods which, when carried out properly and carefully, have been shown to be fully effective.  Religious slaughterhouses are not immune to failures either, with the most common reported problem being an insufficiently sharp knife. The same report cited by opposition condemns the religious slaughter of animals and says \u201cwhen shechita is performed on chickens in Britain, only about half the birds have both their carotid arteries completely severed by the cut\u201d allowing brain activity to continue for up to 349 seconds. [1] Requiring stunning will improve the base line of welfare we are working towards, and we can then start to worry about ensuring compliance  [1] Stevenson, Peter, \u2018Animal Welfare Problems in UK Slaughterhouses\u2019, Compassion in World Farming Trust, July 2001,  , p.19, 21"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con01b","title":"","text":"Although we want to protect freedom of religion, it is not as fundamental as other rights. When two rights clash, we have to decide which should take precedence \u2013 for example, your freedom of action is limited by my right not to be punched in the face. Further, we will normally resolve clashes so as to first stop physical harm, followed by emotional or other harm. Freedom of religion, though important, comes further down the list.  In this case, the more \u201cfundamental\u201d of the rights in play is the right of the animal to be protected from unnecessary pain. It is more closely linked to reducing suffering, which an appropriate goal for society. So in this particular case, we should put the animals first."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con02a","title":"","text":"When done properly, religious slaughter is as good as any other  Much of the research which suggests that religious slaughter causes pain is flawed. To show that the method is necessarily painful, you would have to watch a trained person with perfect equipment. However, many studies into slaughter have observed religious slaughter done in a way which doesn\u2019t meet the religious requirements, and so doesn\u2019t tell us anything about the real world. For example, one study of shechita done in New Zealand used a knife which was half the length required by Jewish law, making it more likely to tear the wound and cause pain. [1] These are not trivial details \u2013 they materially affect the humaneness of the process.  As well as this, campaigners often conflate different types of slaughter in ways that are not scientifically accurate. Different animals \u2013 horses, cattle, sheep, poultry, rabbits etc. \u2013 and even different breeds of animals react differently to both the slaughter and the stunning. Before we can assess the applicability of a study we need to know what kind of animal was being used, the length and sharpness of the knife, the precise location of the cut and other details.  The available evidence only shows the unsurprising result that religious slaughter causes pain if done badly, just like any other kind of slaughter. It is sensible to argue for better regulation, but a ban is not supportable.  [1] Regenstein, Joe M., \u2018Expert Opinion on Considerations When Evaluating All Types of Slaughter:  Mechanical, Electrical, Gas and Religious Slaughter\u2019, Cornell University, 23 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con05a","title":"","text":"The problem is not a significant one  The animal welfare movement should be tackling more important things. In the UK, only about 3% of cattle, 10% of sheep and 4% of poultry are slaughtered without stunning. [1] Farming and transporting causes the vast majority of the pain in the life of a given animal before it ever arrives at the slaughterhouse. This is a much more important issue, as it affects every animal, not just the small proportion slaughtered without stunning.  From the slaughter to the animal actually dying is normally within 20 seconds, and can be as low as 2 seconds, depending on the species of animal. [2] The distress caused by this in not significant in the grand scheme of things. Given that the animal is being slaughtered, some discomfort is inevitable, but religious slaughter \u2013 even if it is more painful than slaughter with stunning \u2013 can hardly be described as prolonged or systematic cruelty.  [1] Rhodes, Andrew, \u2018Results of the 2011 FSA animal welfare survey in Great Britain\u2019, Food Standards Agency, 22 May 2012,   [2] Grandin, Temple, \u2018Welfare During Slaughter without stunning (Kosher or Halal) differences between Sheep and Cattle\u2019, Grandin.com, September 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con04a","title":"","text":"Attacking religious practices makes religious groups uncomfortable  Banning religious slaughter will be perceived by religious people as a direct attack on their faith. Historically, religious minorities have been susceptible to persecution, and these groups tend to remain quite sensitive. Often, people seeking to discriminate against a group will jump on the bandwagon of legitimate criticism and turn it into persecution. Religious slaughter has been used in this way in the recent past: a proposed ban in the Netherlands received much support from anti-Muslim groups. [1] This sort of persecution makes minorities less likely to integrate into society and compare values with us, which is exactly what we would like to encourage.  Appearances matter greatly in politics. All too often, the media focuses not on what is actually happening but on how people and politicians are talking about it. When a senior British politician was reported as having called a police officer a \u201cpleb,\u201d the result was outrage over perceived elitism in the government. [2] If a ban on religious slaughter were to be imposed, it is virtually guaranteed that someone or other would make insensitive comments, and this is how the ban would then be reported, as in the example from the Netherlands.  This ban would play into the hands of those seeking to stir hysteria and outrage. Whilst the principle may be correct, the government cannot appear to be siding with such people.  [1] \u2018Dutch MPs effectively ban ritual slaughter of animals\u2019, BBC News, 28 June 2011,   [2] Robinson, Nick, \u2018Andrew Mitchell resigns over police comments row\u2019, BBC News, 20 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con03a","title":"","text":"Most stunning methods are not reliable  The stunning methods in general use can and do go wrong. Electrical stunning requires the right size of charge, applied to the right place for the right amount of time. If done badly, the stun itself can cause pain, and can even fail completely. In one survey of Bristol abattoirs, not a single one was fully compliant with best-practice. Captive bolt stunning must also be done at a specific point on the animal\u2019s head. A 1990 study found that in as many as 6.6% of cases, cattle had been insufficiently stunned, and 2.6% actually had to be shot again (one reported worst-case involved a cow being shot six times).  Poultry slaughter often takes place on a mechanized production line, which causes serious concerns. Birds are dragged through an electrically charged water bath to stun them, but a 1993 study showed that 13.5% of birds were receiving shocks prior to being stunned \u2013 again, causing needless pain. Some birds lift their heads out of the bath, avoiding the stun completely. [1] Other, similar problems are associated with other stunning methods.  Religious slaughter methods ensure that each animal is handled individually, so that it is kept calm, killed quickly and is properly dead. Because of the need to comply with religious law, the overseeing bodies put a large amount of effort into ensuring compliance with best-practice. Requiring them to stun animals actually causes more harm than good.  [1] Stevenson, Peter, \u2018Animal Welfare Problems in UK Slaughterhouses\u2019, Compassion in World Farming Trust, July 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con05b","title":"","text":"The animal welfare movement can tackle whichever problems it wants to. It is absurd for opponents of the movement to try and tell us what our agenda must be, or that we shouldn\u2019t regard this as significant. Moreover, if we kept asking, \u201cwhy are we spending our time on this,\u201d we would never get anything done at all. It makes sense to pick achievable targets, and a ban on religious slaughter is achievable partly because of the relatively limited nature of the problem.  We can exploit the momentum this gives our movement to make further progress on other issues."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con01a","title":"","text":"The rights of humans are more important than the rights of animals  Animal rights are not generally accepted as universal rights in the same way as human rights are. If we want to have a shared society, it is necessary to grant each other certain rights, such as respecting personal autonomy and property. Because we reciprocate, we are able to work as a whole which is greater than the sum of its parts. There are different philosophical theories as to the source of these rights, but the important thing is what they allow us to achieve. It is generally accepted that the right to a religion is one of these rights, as for many people religion is fundamental to their identity \u2013 most estimates for the number of religious people in the world are over 80%. [1] In comparison, animal rights are in no way critical to society.  In our debate, freedom of religion is clashing with causing pain to animals. The former, being a human right, should take precedence over the latter, an animal right. Although we would not give blanket consent to all religious practices, this particular practice is one which there is no reason for banning.  [1] \u2018Religions\u2019, The World Factbook, 2010 est.,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con04b","title":"","text":"The government should not be racist, but neither should it be so politically correct as to paralyze itself. Religion is not a blanket defense against things which the country decides it is not prepared to allow. Religious groups must be prepared to engage constructively with those around them, discussing and comparing values \u2013 this is intrinsic to \u201cintegration into society.\u201d Knee-jerk reactions against any challenge to their way of life completely miss the point, and they must think about our values just as we think about theirs.  It is our responsibility to make sure the debate does not get hijacked by racists, but if we do this sufficiently well we can successfully cast the debate as legitimate criticism rather than oppression."}
+{"id":"training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con02b","title":"","text":"Without accepting the premise that the two types of killing cause equal pain and it is only if the slaughter is done badly that there is a problem the slaughter is more likely to be done badly with religious slaughter. Training people to do religious slaughter well is harder than training them to do other kinds of slaughter. In particular, the latter is more mechanized, so as long as the equipment is properly maintained many problems can be avoided. Religious slaughter is much more prone to human error.  It will be much easier to teach people best practice and improve animal welfare if we require them to use the simpler methods, where less training is required. This is a more efficient way of improving animal welfare than studying a myriad of different types of knife etc."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro02b","title":"","text":"The nuclear industry around the world has always sought to improve the rights and protections of workers in uranium mines and to lessen the environmental impact of those mining activities [i] .  Compared to the environmental impact of coal and oil withdrawal, uranium is relatively harmless.  Compared to the space taken up by windfarms with their impact on the local environment and the devastation that can be caused by Hydroelectric, this is a low impact industry.  [i] Press Release. \u201cEnvironmental Aspects of Uranium Mining\u201d. World Nuclear Association. February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The nuclear industry is constantly judged on criteria that do not take its externalities into account  Nuclear puts great store on the fact that it is a \u2018clean fuel\u2019 however this assessment tends to ignore several factors in terms of social and other costs. Although much attention has been given to the possible harm of dealing with fuel rods at the end of their life, much less is given to the mining of Uranium in the first place. To take one of many examples, in 2006 the Navajo nation won a lengthy legal fight to prevent Uranium mining ever taking place on their land. Similar efforts by communities in Latin America have been less successful.  The industry bears none of the costs for the illnesses, poisoned rivers, fatalities and other costs of this process [i] .  [i] Laurie Fosner. \u201cUranium Mining in the Navajo Nation\u201d. Sprol. 20 June 2006"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro03b","title":"","text":"All societies inherit problems from previous generations this age has acquired a global population that has increased seven-fold in the course of two generations and has a desperate need for energy. Nuclear power fills that need and consistently works to ensure that its byproducts are rendered harmless.  No industry has put more work into ensuring that it does not leave a mess behind it \u2013 nor is any industry under more scrutiny on the subject.  The Nuclear Industry has routinely accepted its responsibility to future generations in a way that other sectors of the mainstream energy sector have refused to."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro01a","title":"","text":"The nuclear industry has constantly required government bailouts and has never been commercially viable in an open market  The nuclear industry is always keen to point out how cheap it is to produce a therm of energy through splitting an atom. However, these figures tend to leave out a few details such as the decade of taxpayer\u2019s dollars it takes to build a nuclear plant in the first place or the 20,000 years it takes to reprocess the fuel rods afterwards.  In every nation with a civil nuclear industry, the tax payer has been paying through the nose to keep it running. Even with all of this support, the price of nuclear industry is still not competitive. In the US alone the bill is running at over $150m in hard cash [i] , when British Nuclear Fuels Ltd (BNFL) had to start facing up to the costs of reprocessing its spent fuel in 2001, the British government was required to underwrite the cost of 2.1 billion pounds in that year with an anticipation of ten times that during the forthcoming years. The alternative would have been bankruptcy for the entire industry [ii] .  [i] Mark Hertsgaard. \"The True Costs of Nuclear Power\". Mother Earth News. April\/May 2006  [ii] Rob Edwards. \u201cTaxpayer bailout bankrupt nuclear plants; leaked BNFL report\u201d. Sunday Herald. 14 July 2002."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The costs of protecting oil supplies are significantly than any externalities created by the nuclear industry. In addition to which most sectors of the renewables industry have yet to even turn a dollar. Solar power, for example would have to compensate the enormous quantities of land it takes up to even cover its own costs [i] .  Of course there are externalities in the production of nuclear power, as there are in any other industry \u2013 especially the energy sector. If the oil industry had to carry the cost of wars in the Middle East or the reparations due for climate change it would be bankrupt tomorrow. If tidal power providers had to pay for the long term damage to coastlands, no-one would even think about floating a barrage.  By any standards nuclear is relatively cheaper and runs a much cleaner ship than most parts of the sector.  [i] Simon Grose. \u201cFalse Dawn of Solar Power\u201d. Cosmos. 25 October 2006."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro03a","title":"","text":"It is simply unethical to invest in an industry that will leave the problems it creates to be dealt with for thousands of years into the future  Were humankind to stop all nuclear energy use tomorrow we, as a species, would have to deal with the repercussions of nuclear power for four times longer than human civilization has so far existed. Polluting our own age is one thing but to bequeath such a heritage to generations as yet unimagined let alone unborn. To give this some context, in the case of just one isotope, plutonium 239 \u2013 the most poisonous substance known to mankind \u2013 had the Ancient Egyptians used this as an energy source to build the pyramids we would still be dealing with it today and it would still have 235,000 years to go."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con03b","title":"","text":"It is interesting to note that the only places where nuclear energy has provided a dominant share of the national energy market are France, Russia, Canada (specifically Ontario) and now, increasingly China. All of which have heavily centralised energy markets.  Indeed the correlation between bureaucracy, the possession or desire for a nuclear arsenal and the use of overpriced nuclear energy appears to go beyond coincidence."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con01b","title":"","text":"Nuclear power has, worldwide, received billions, if not trillions, of dollars of investment. By comparison the renewables industry has received tiny grants from central government and, despite a lack of funding and running forty years behind in terms of the attention of governments, it is holding its own with an expanding market share. As of the 8th of July 2011 the US was more reliant on renewable energy than nuclear [i] according to the Energy Information Administration.  All of this was accomplished despite massively disproportionate funding. According to the primary Congressional report on the subject:  \u201cEnergy research and development (R&D) intended to advance technology played an important role in the successful outcome of World War II. In the post-war era, the federal government conducted R&D on fossil fuel and nuclear energy sources to support peacetime economic growth. The energy crises of the 1970s spurred the government to broaden the focus to include renewable energy and energy efficiency. Over the 33-year period from the Department of Energy\u2019s inception at the beginning of fiscal Year (FY) 1978 through FY2010, federal spending for renewable energy R&D amounted to about 16% of the energy R&D total, compared with 14% for energy efficiency, 26% for fossil, and 37% for nuclear. For the 63-year period from 1948 through 2010, nearly 12% went to renewables, compared with 9% for efficiency, 25% for fossil, and 50% for nuclear.\u201d [ii] Put simply the renewables industry has been outspent but is still producing more energy in the world\u2019s largest consumer.  [i] \u201cUS Renewable Energy Production Now Greater Than Nuclear\u201d. Future of Energy Blog. 8 July 2011.  [ii] Fred Sissine. \u201cRenewable Energy R&D Funding History: A Comparison with Funding for Nuclear Energy, Fossil Energy, and Energy Efficiency R&D\u201d. Congressional Research Service. 26 January 2011."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con02a","title":"","text":"Renewables are mostly unproven, experimental technologies being developed on a small-scale basis that is not ready to take up the gap to move away from fossil fuels under climate change agreements  The renewable sector is a rapidly changing market moving in between micro-renewables and massive offshore projects. It is a fascinating area as an emergent technology field but it lacks stability both in terms of technology and investment.  Realistically nuclear power is going to have to play an important role in bridging the gap \u2013 at the very least \u2013 on the road away from a carbon dependent economy [i] .  The technology and funding is simply not in place for any renewable technology to take up the hard lifting from oil and coal yet.  [i] G Paschal Zachary. \u201cThe Case for Nuclear Power\u201d. SFGate (San Fransisco Chronicle). 5 February 2006."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con03a","title":"","text":"Nuclear power has a proven track record in France, Canada and Russia and an increasing role in new energy markets  There are already stable markets for nuclear power around the world with plants providing a consistent share of energy to the consumer. Although there are now renewable suppliers providing some share of total demand it is rare for them to have established relationships with either suppliers or major industrial consumers.  There are, however established models of how nuclear power can be blended into an integrated energy supply system."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con01a","title":"","text":"There is no instance in which renewable energy has been able to provide a major share in the energy market  Despite the best intentions of major players in the energy market, renewable fuels have simply not been able to keep up with demand. It has a limited role in supplying electricity and virtually none in any other area.  Although Nuclear is poor in the provision of non-electrical energy as well it has proved a more consistent form of energy in every arena than renewables. It has proved to be cleaner than any form of fossil fuels. With technological advances it is the obvious fuel of the future and, as a result deserves further funding and research."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con02b","title":"","text":"It is useful to deal with the idea that nuclear is a CO2 free fuel. When the entire fuel cycle is considered then Nuclear power is a direct contributor to climate change emissions [i] .  It is then possible to add in additional carbon footprints such as the emissions caused by building and staffing a large plant.  It is also a question worth asking as to when climate change-related pollution became the only standard. There are plenty of other ways of polluting the environment and belching out irradiated gases into the ocean would seem to meet that standard.  [i]"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-pro02b","title":"","text":"The Arctic covers a huge area, of course there are some parts that should be protected. Just as with any other area in the world, areas of special scientific or environmental significance should be protected. However, just picking a line on the map and saying \u2018no drilling north of here\u2019 makes little sense. Why not a degree further south \u2013 or north? Protection should be awarded on a site by site basis, just as it would be anywhere else in the world."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Arctic is a diverse but fragile ecosystem  Mineral extraction is not a clean process [1] and the Arctic is acknowledged as a fragile ecosystem. In addition to the pollution that using these fuels will cause elsewhere in the world, the process of extraction itself is fraught with risks. There is some destruction caused simply by the process of building and running rigs with everything running normally, but the nightmare scenario is a major spill. [2] Let\u2019s be clear, with the best will in the world, there will be a spill; difficult and unpredictable conditions, gruelling tests for both the machinery and the engineers that manage it, and a track record that leaves a lot to be desired in far more habitable and accessible environments. There are two difficulties posed in terms of an off-shore (or below-ice in this case) spill. The first problem is that stopping the spill would be vastly more complicated logistically than anything previously attempted, making previous deep-sea containment exercises seem simple by comparison. [3]  The Exxon Valdez disaster showed the large scale damage that oil spills near the poles can have large and long lasting effects on the ecosystem; hundreds of thousands of seabirds were killed in the spill and it is estimates some habitats will take 30 years to recover. [4] Any such disaster is made much worse above the arctic circle because of the cold. Oil degrades faster in warmer waters because the metabolism of microbes that break the oil down works much more slowly in the cold arctic waters, at the same time the oil spreads out less so provides less surface area. [5] In 2010 it was reported that more than two decades after the spill there were still 23,000 gallons of relatively un-weathered oil in Prince William Sound. [6]  The second issue, as demonstrated by large scale experimentation in the 1970s is that the oil would interact with the Polar ice to affect a far larger area than would normally be the case.  At the very least, it seems sensible to have a moratorium on sub-glacial drilling until the technology is available to deal safely and securely with a spill.  [1] Bibby, N. Is Norman Baker Serious about Saving the Environment? Liberalconspiracy.org. 18 march 2012.   [2] McCarthy, Michael, The Independent. Oil exploration under the arctic could cause \u2018uncontrollable\u2019 natural disaster. 6 September 201   [3] Vidal, John, \u2018Why an oil spill in Arctic waters would be devastating\u2019, The Guardian, 22 April 2011,   [4] Williamson, David, \u2018Exxon Valdez oil spill impacts lasting far longer than expected, scientists say\u2019, UNC News Services, 18 December 2003, no.648,   [5] Atlas, Ronald M., et al., \u2018Microbes & Oil Spills \u2013 FAQ\u2019, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 22 April 2013,   [6] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, \u2018Intent to Prepare a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council\u2019s Restoration Efforts\u2019, Federal Register, Vol.75., No. 14, 22 January 2010, p.3707"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no reason to believe that a warming arctic will be a more competitive arctic or that the littoral powers will not be able to share the resources the region provides. Norway and Russia managed to fix their maritime borders in the Barents sea in order to exploit the potential resources there. [1] There being resources to exploit can just as often provide a motivation cooperate because if this does not happen then no one can exploit the resources.  [1] Brigham, Lawson W., \u2018Think Again: The Arctic\u2019, Foreign Policy, Sept\/oct 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-pro01a","title":"","text":"The Arctic should be saved for future generations  As we are using the resources of so much of the planet we should think about our legacy to future generations and leave the resources of the arctic to future generations. There are several reasons why we should do so.  First of all drilling in the arctic means drilling in some of the harshest conditions on earth; with many of the projects being set up it means drilling in deep areas of the ocean that were inaccessible only a couple of decades ago. It also means drilling in freezing conditions while being potentially vulnerable to icebergs. Disasters like the Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico have shown that oil companies are not prepared for oil disasters in deep water and repair would be more difficult a long way from civilization. [1]  While the technology for this does not yet exist in future it probably will. It makes sense that we should leave such hard to reach resources until it is possible to extract it easily and safely. In the mean time we should be focusing our efforts on easier to reach resources and on developing alternatives. Such a policy will be beneficial to future generations both through making a greener economy and by leaving an emergency reserve of fossil fuel that can be used if necessary.  [1] Lawless, Jill, \u2018Tony Hayward: BP Was Unprepared For Gulf Oil Spill, 'We Were Making It Up Day To Day'\u2019, HuffPost, 9 November 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is oil and gas that we already know about and already have the expertise to exploit. The technology that we don\u2019t yet have will only be developed if there is a demand for them \u2013 if the demand is now the technology will be developed. There is little point in us leaving this particular fuel to future generations when we are the first generation that has the technology to exploit such deposits. Future generations may improve on the technology and make it safer but the fundamental capability, the breakthroughs that make it possible have already happened. Future generations on the other hand will have their own breakthroughs in terms of new forms of power and new discoveries of fuels. They are then much less likely to need these resources than we do now."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-pro03a","title":"","text":"A treaty similar to the Antarctic Treaty would prevent competition  The opening up of the arctic Ocean through climate change also opens up territorial claims as where there are resources at stake states are keen to make a claim so as to exploit them. For example in 2008 Russia\u2019s then President Medvedev stated \u201cOur first and fundamental task is to turn the Arctic into a resource base for Russia in the 21st century.\u201d [1] Such competition for resources can lead to conflict as is increasingly being shown in the East and South China Seas.  The Antarctic Treaty however freezes these territorial claims, as would our proposed treaty. It also bans military activity so preventing any completion from getting out of hand. [2] The proposal would also ban the exploitation of the Arctic\u2019s resources so reducing the cause of any conflict.  [1] Keating, Joshua, \u2018Medvedev makes a play for Arctic riches\u2019, Passport Foreign Policy, 17 September 2008,   [2] \u2018The Antarctic Treaty\u2019, Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-con03b","title":"","text":"There is noticeable absence in the list of countries set to replace the Middle East; That absence is Russia. It is hard to see how being subservient to Putin \u2013 with nuclear weapons and a massive military \u2013 is preferable to going cap in hand to the House of Saud. It is also unclear that this will be a benefit in terms of security and conflict. These countries are so dependent on oil that undermining their economies in this way could lead to more, not less conflict."}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-con01b","title":"","text":"The obvious response to \u2018growing demand\u2019 being a problem would seem to be to reduce demand. When this has been attempted by states, there have been complaints that this was an unfair burden on business. Once the market adjusted, by increasing price, the same people demanded the right to increase supply. There is not particularly a growing demand for mineral resources; there\u2019s a growing demand for energy and transport, it\u2019s time to get serious about new, cleaner ways of meeting that demand. It has to be remembered that oil and gas from the arctic is not cheap; oil projects in the region cost billions before they even begin extracting. It is also questionable whether there really is 160 billion barrels of oil \u2013 it has not been explored so we do not know how much is there. To take an example of just such an uncertainty in a much less extreme environment China claims the South China Sea has up to 200 billion barrels of oil [1] while the US Energy Information Administration thinks it is between 5-22 billion barrels. [2]  [1] Rogers, Will, \u2018Beijing\u2019s South China Sea Gamble\u2019, The Diplomat, 4 February 2012,   [2] \u2018South China Sea\u2019, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 7 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-con02a","title":"","text":"Creating jobs and opportunities  The areas covered are among the least developed in the world. Standards of education and income for indigenous peoples are very low and, to date, there has been little to motivate any nation to do anything about that. For example Canada is rated the 6th in the world by the UN\u2019s Human Development Index but if the same index was rating Canada\u2019s First Nations it would be 76th. [1]  However, oil companies have already invested billions into exploration and the future nor these areas \u2013 as well as employees with existing skills in mineral extraction could be protected and enhanced by the opportunities offered by these new areas for development.  With those directly created and saved jobs come, literally, millions of others in transportation, distribution, energy supply and manufacturing and other sectors that depend on affordable energy costs. First nations in those areas that have oil booms have considerably better employment prospects; in Canada nationally natives aged 25-54 have an employment rate of 70.1% but in Alberta, the biggest oil producing region, the rate was 77.7%. [2]  Proposition rightly notes that pressures are growing on these industry sectors but fails to offer any solution that would ensure the livelihoods of millions of people around the world as well as revitalising some of the most dispossessed communities on the planet.  [1] Silversides, Ann, \u2018The North \u201clike Darfur\u201d\u2019, CMAJ : Canadian Medical; Association Journal, 177(9): pp.1013-1014, 23 October 2007,   [2] The Vancouver Sun, \u2018Alberta first nations benefit from oil boom\u2019, Canada.com, 16 December 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-con03a","title":"","text":"Relieving areas of conflict such as the Middle East  Currently the main supplies of oil and gas are from the Middle East with more coming from Africa and in the western hemisphere from Venezuela. These oil producers include many unstable regimes; many of them engaged in appalling human rights abuses against their own citizens. This is because regimes with such natural resources buy off their people meaning there is little accountability. [1] In addition to the obvious ethical issues that are created by continuing to fund brutal regimes that happen to be sitting on billions of barrels of crude, it\u2019s also economically risky to be so much in the pocket of such regimes.  Securing energy security has long been an ambition for much of the West. The Carter Doctrine of 1980 \u201can attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States,\u201d was a direct response to the oil shocks of the previous decade. [2] In Canada, the USDA and the Nordic states, the possibility of secure energy is made a reality by the Arctic.  By removing the world\u2019s dependency on regimes such as Saudi Arabia, there is much greater room for manoeuvre when it comes to challenging those regimes records. It would also allow the west in particular to tie themselves to the interests of the peoples of the Middle East rather than to those of their rulers.  [1] Chatelus, Michel, and Scehmeil, Yves, \u2018Towards a New Political Economy of State Industrialisation in the Arab Middle East\u2019, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2 (May, 1984), pp.251-265, pp.261-262  [2] Bacevich, Andrew J., \u2018The Carter Doctrine at 30\u2019, World Affairs, 1 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-con01a","title":"","text":"There is a growing demand for mineral resources  Improving the lives of its citizens is one of the most important roles of the state. And in terms of improving lives economic growth is usually considered the most important economic goal. [1] And in order to grow cheap fuel is needed. Nuclear energy is still precarious, and expensive, and renewable technologies cannot come close to meeting the existing needs of the west, let alone those of Russia, China, Brazil, India and the rest.  We are confronted with a stark reality \u2013 either use new sources of oil and gas while investing in replacement technologies or see a collapse in standards of living and life expectancy around the world.  There is much to be said for less carbon-based economies but we don\u2019t have one yet. Until that option is available, the lights need to be kept on. The area north of the Arctic Circle is thought to contain as much as 160 billion barrels of oil, more than a quarter of the world's undiscovered reserves. [2]  There are costs to exploiting those reserves \u2013 some of them environmental \u2013 but they pale into insignificance compared with the collapse of the global economy that would result from the projected increases in global oil and gas costs.  [1] \u201853% Say Economic Growth More Important Than Economic Fairness\u2019, Rasmussen Reports, 21 January 2013,   [2] Nakhle, Carole and Shamsutdinova, Inga. Arctic Oil and Gas Resources: Evaluating Investment Opportunities. Oil, Gas & Energy Law Intelligence, vol.10 issue 2, February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-environment-cephwcear-con02b","title":"","text":"To start with, let\u2019s not believe the line that local communities see this as an unadulterated good \u2013 they have very real concerns about the impact on their qualities of life. [1] It\u2019s also untrue that workers elsewhere in the world see this as purely beneficial; many of these workers live with the toxic results of drilling and refining oils and they have expressed their concerns about the health effects. [2] Yes there is increased infrastructure but much of it is not of the sort that benefits communities, like oil pipelines. The one group for whom there is unalloyed joy at this prospect is a small one that comprises the owners and executives of oil companies. If opposition wants to make the case that some people want to keep the money flowing, fine. But at least be honest about who those people are.  [1] Macalister, Terry, \u2018Arctic resource wealth poses dilemma for indigenous communities\u2019, The Guardian, 4 July 2011.   [2] Sturgis, Sue, \u2018Pollution from oil refinery accidents on the rise in Louisiana.\u2019, Southernstudies.org, 3 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro02b","title":"","text":"Those same studies suggest that individuals do little extra to protect themselves, as they consider sexual offences to be suitably rare that they can plausibly tell themselves it won't happen to them. This is exacerbated by the fact that most sexual offences are committed by someone who the victim knows. If they already know the person, they are likely to consider them a limited threat, as the popular perception of sexual offences is still one of an offence committed by a stranger. Furthermore, people tend to be highly trusting of their own impression of people. Finally, the harms from never engaging with former sex offenders in a community are set out at Opposition Argument TWO."}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro02a","title":"","text":"This helps people protect themselves and their families  People can use the information about the offenders in their area to ensure this. It is especially useful to have a modus operandi; if a local offender is known for typically abducting people walking on their own at night, people can alter their behaviour to ensure they always have company, or get a taxi after dark. More direct measures can be taken, by avoiding contact with that person, or avoiding entering into a close relationship with them. Furthermore, more general measures can be taken to be more vigilant, install better locks, and avoid leaving vulnerable people alone. Some studies1 suggest that there is an increase in measures taken to protect other people where this information is given.  1 Zgoba, K., \"Megan's Law: Assessing the Practical and Monetary Efficacy\", December 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro03b","title":"","text":"The option given to the police and victim to not disclose the information undermines the principled claim in Proposition Argument Two that people should be free to determine the importance of the information on their own; this denies them that freedom in some cases. Given cases where there is a risk of vigilantism are the ones which excite the most public feeling, these cases may be the ones which people feel are most important to know about."}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro01a","title":"","text":"This acts as a deterrent.  Knowing that, if they commit an offence, their name, photograph, and a description of their crimes will be widely published deters people from committing the offence in the first place and equally of reoffending. Firstly, this is because there are strong moral norms preventing such behaviour; this policy acts not only to reinforce those moral norms (by clearly designating people who commit such an offence as being worthy of shaming), it also increases the consequences of breaching such norms. Specifically, potential offenders will realise the harm this may cause to their personal relationships, and any future relationships \u2013 these are typically things people value, and so people will act to minimise this harm. Further, if someone is willing to commit a sexual offence, it is reasonable to assume they value sexual encounters. Such publication may limit their opportunity to access such encounters in the future, and therefore the policy aims to operate such as to minimise what a person desires should they commit a crime.  It is perhaps useful to compare this deterrent to the deterrent offered by prison. It can be argued that the deterrent of prison is a weak one, because there is an information problem \u2013 people do not know how bad prison is. This is exacerbated by media narratives that suggest prison is a soft touch, even the Prison Officers Association in the UK claims jail is too soft. [1] This may be especially true for those of the socioeconomic background who are more likely to commit criminal offences; they are probabilistically poorer and less likely to have a job, so the harms of prison (loss of freedom, harming job prospects) may seem less important.  [1] Knapton, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro01b","title":"","text":"Firstly, within relationships; a person looking to commit such an offence is unlikely to be deterred because they expect that, because of the existence of the relationship, they will not be convicted of such an offence. Also, sexual offences against a partner are often an expression of a dominating power within a relationship. In such a case, the offender does not expect the offence to be reported due to the control (s)he holds over the victim. As such, the size of the penalty is less important, as they do not expect to receive it.  The second circumstance such offences are committed is against a stranger, typically in public. When a person is willing to act in breach of such clear moral norms, they are less likely to be concerned about this being published broadly, and so the deterrent will be weaker.  These are exacerbated by the fact that many sexual offences are committed in times of passion, where a person\u2019s decision making is focused heavily on the short-term \u2013 and so the possibility of a future shaming is not taken into account, and deterrence does not occur.  Finally, it is unrealistic to claim prison is a weak deterrent; the removal of liberty matters to almost everyone, and the difficult conditions of prison are well-known, particularly amongst repeat offenders."}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro04b","title":"","text":"Freedom is not an absolute good; only something that typically advances overall utility, as we understand that people are normally better placed to maximise their utility, being the only ones with knowledge of their desires and values. This, however, is not such a case \u2013 as the opposition arguments below suggest, this causes harmful consequences that outweigh any claimed benefits of utility. Furthermore, this area seems to be one where the police are better placed to determine the importance of the information, given their expertise in offending and re-offending , and especially given the tendency on behalf of the public to panic, and place more importance on past convictions than it factually requires."}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro03a","title":"","text":"How this would work  This policy involves an active disclosure campaign, through websites and the newspapers, where a sex offender has their name, their photo, their address and the nature of their crime published on a website, or in the local media. It may include poster campaigns about individuals for particularly serious crimes, with the aim of both informing people and causing shame. It may be sensible to allow the police to not disclose the information in the following circumstances; 1) where a significant risk of vigilantism exists, 2) where it is against the wishes of the victim, and 3) where it may jeopardize an ongoing criminal investigation. Early studies showed that Megan's law in the United States had high rates of voluntary compliance, between 70 and 80% and rising, proving that the policy is practical1.  1 Simpson, Rachel, ''Megan's law' and other forms of sex-offender registration', NSW Parliamentary Library Research Service, Briefing Paper NBo. 22\/99, November 1999,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-pro04a","title":"","text":"The state has a duty to maximise freedoms.  All states in some way limit individual freedoms, by requiring them to follow laws and enforcing these laws with the coercive power of the state. However, such limits can be justified in so far as they advance others freedoms; limiting Person A's freedom to kill enhances Person B's freedom to live. States therefore derive their legitimacy to deny freedoms from their advancement of overall freedom. This policy enhances the freedom of people to defend themselves and their family by providing them with information about offenders (see Argument Three), and allows them to determine for themselves the importance of that information1.  1 law.jrank.org, 'Sex Offences"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con03b","title":"","text":"While such an argument may act to limit the value of the deterrent effect, it does not completely remove it; there will remain some additional deterrence to some potential perpetrators of sexual offences. This is because some potential offenders will consider the potential harm to themselves of their action, and a greater potential harm will mean they are less likely to commit these offences."}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con01b","title":"","text":"Clearly, vigilantism is a problem; however, the proviso in the policy should act to limit this, as where there is a threat of harm the information will not be released. Furthermore, it will be possible to offer people under threat police protection. Finally, a strong justice system is likely to limit vigilantism, as people perceive justice as being done, and are therefore less likely to resort to acts of individual violence."}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con02a","title":"","text":"The harms of stigmatization and alienation.  This harm mainly refers to the possibility of re-offending, which occurs in approximately 30% of cases over a six-year period (although note that the figure is for committing any other offence, not another sexual offence)1. When society labels such people in a very public way as criminals, it may be difficult for them to reintegrate in society. This is because people who know of their crimes will be less willing to engage with them, whether they knew them previously or not. Specifically, it will be very difficult for businesses to employ them if they are publically known to have been convicted of a sexual offence, because of the possible public outrage this would cause. Previous offenders are therefore likely to be distanced from society, shunned by old friends, likely to have difficulty in making new friends, and likely to find it difficult to find employment. It may further encourage them to make friends with those with similar backgrounds. This makes them feel outside society, less constrained by its moral norms, and therefore more likely to commit offences. Furthermore, the difficulty of access to employment may make them turn to crime to survive.  Finally, academic literature on stigmatization suggests that for a stigma to prevent reoffending, the stigma needs to be easy to scale up for subsequent offences2; given the blanket nature of this policy, this does not seem possible.  1 Home Office, \"Reconviction Rates of Serious Offenders and Assessment of their Risk\", 2002, 2 Rasmusen, E., \"Stigma and Self-Fulfilling Expectations of Criminality\", September 1996,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con04a","title":"","text":"Expense.  As alluded to in Counterargument Four above, sexual offences are typically committed within relationships, or by someone the victim knows; around 80% according to some studies1. These proportions are also probably larger, in that rape by an acquaintance is less likely to be reported, as a victim is better able to normalise the incident as a misunderstood sexual interaction.  This indicates that a deterrent effect is less likely to work, because of the lower chance of the offence being reported, and the relative power within any such relationship. The offender is less likely to respond to that deterrent, as they perceive it as so unlikely to occur to them.  1 National Center for Victims of Crime, \"Acquaintance Rape\", 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con03a","title":"","text":"Who commits sexual offences?  As alluded to in Counterargument Four above, sexual offences are typically committed within relationships, or by someone the victim knows; around 80% according to some studies1. These proportions are also probably larger, in that rape by an acquaintance is less likely to be reported, as a victim is better able to normalise the incident as a misunderstood sexual interaction.  This indicates that a deterrent effect is less likely to work, because of the lower chance of the offence being reported, and the relative power within any such relationship. The offender is less likely to respond to that deterrent, as they perceive it as so unlikely to occur to them.  1 National Center for Victims of Crime, \"Acquaintance Rape\", 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con01a","title":"","text":"Allowing the population to know where sex offenders are would encourage vigilantism.  Vigilantism is a real threat to those publicised as sexual offenders, especially those whose sexual offences involve children. For example, in the UK a vigilante published a database naming almost 10,000 paedophiles1, and some misdirected vigilante attacks have been committed against those with no criminal convictions, such as a paediatrician2.  Therefore, there is the possibility of harm occurring in that offenders who have served the punishment the justice system feels is adequate being subjected to further punishment and violence. Furthermore, there is the possibility of mistakes being made and people being subject to violence for no reason.  1 The Telegraph, \"Internet vigilante publishes database naming 10,000 paedophiles\", November 2010, 2 The Independent, \"Vigilante mob attacks home of paediatrician\", August 2000,"}
+{"id":"training-health-sshwnasso-con02b","title":"","text":"Firstly, given the low % of offenders who commit serious crimes within 6 years is around 10%1, this seems like it may be a marginal issue.  Furthermore, it seems unlikely that people who already know someone will stop associating with them merely because of their stigmatization. Family, for example, tend to be very forgiving, as are close friends, who are likely to believe their long-term view of somebody is more accurate and to forgive a mistake. Such people will be able to ensure a person is not alienated from all society.  This may also be a benefit; if an offender has a tendency to commit sexual offences within relationships, it may be useful to limit his relationships (or at least warn their partner of such a tendency), such that this is not likely to occur again.  Finally, it can be shown that if this policy does increase the deterrent effect to first-time offenders, this may be more important. This is because some people will be prevented from ever being imprisoned, associating with other prisoners, and acquiring a criminal record"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro02b","title":"","text":"How can it be that only tobacco companies get singled out and told not to advertise their products, while many others (such as prescription drugs) are allowed to market their products? There are many products which are hugely dangerous, take alcohol for example. Whilst drinks can be advertised, in the UK they must also carry a drink responsibly warning. Why can tobacco companies not do the same especially when you consider how much more immediate the danger from alcohol is?"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Restrictions reach out to the general population  A ban or high restrictions is a good measure to diminish the effects of smoking in society, because unlike the spreading of information (which is usually done by schools \/ clubs), governmental restrictions or a total ban will ensure the access of measures to the whole population. Through a ban on advertisement or higher taxation those citizens not involved in active educational structures get educated about the problem.  Studies on the ban of advertisements show that bans actually contribute great amounts to the reduction of smokers. \"The tobacco industry employs predatory marketing strategies to get young people hooked to their addictive drug,\" said Dr Douglas Bettcher, Director of WHO's Tobacco Free Initiative. \"But comprehensive advertising bans do work, reducing tobacco consumption by up to 16% in countries that have already taken this legislative step.\"1  So because these measures can drastically decrease smoking when other measures have failed, the state is right to impose bans on advertisement, higher prices or any other measures.  1 The Times of Malta, more public scrutiny of tobacco industry, published 01\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro03b","title":"","text":"While a government has a responsibility to protect its population, it also has a responsibility to defend their freedom of choice. The law steps in to prevent citizens causing harm to others, whether deliberately or accidentally. However, it should not stop them taking risks themselves - for example, dangerous sports such as rock-climbing, parachuting or motor-racing are legal. It is also legal to indulge in other health-threatening activities such as eating lots of fatty foods, taking no exercise, and drinking too much alcohol. Banning smoking would be an unmerited intrusion into personal freedom.  As the proposition points out, cigarettes are not dangerous because they are defective; rather they are inherently, potentially, harmful. But people should still be allowed to choose to buy and smoke them. A better comparison is to unhealthy foods. High cholesterol or a high intake of fat can be extremely harmful, leading to heart disease, obesity, and other conditions; but manufacturers of these products are not punished. Consumers simply like the taste of fatty food. People should be allowed to smoke cigarettes and to eat fatty foods - both these things are sources of pleasure which, while having serious associated health risks, are only fatal after many decades, unlike a poisonous food or an unsafe car, which pose immediate and high risks."}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Restrictions benefit the health of third parties  This argument is built on the premise that a ban or higher taxation in practice will lead to less smokers, especially protecting the families of smokers and other non-smoking citizens from potential health risks and premature death.  Smoking also has wider effects, not simply restricted to smokers themselves. So-called 'passive smoking' is becoming an important issue: in a smoke-filled environment, non-smokers are also exposed to the risks associated with tobacco. Especially when it comes to homes and families there is a high likelihood of \"passive smoking\". Research suggests that partners of smokers have an increased chance of developing lung cancer, even if they do not use tobacco products. Recent research even shows, that according to the Journal Archives of Pediatrics, children living in households of smokers are more prone to mental illness, depression and attention deficit disorder (ADHD)1.  So because restrictions on smoking prevent harm risks to families of smokers and third parties we should highly regulate or ban them.  1 Anits M. Schimizzi, 'Special Editorial: Smoke Signals How Second Hand Smoke Can Impact Your Child's Mental Health, Child-Psych, 10 August 2011, accessed 6 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro01b","title":"","text":"First of all, a ban on smoking might just lead to people deciding to turn on to the black market for tobacco, not solving the problem of passive smoking or any other effects. Same also goes for the possibility of higher taxation, people might just choose a relocation of funds due to higher prices of cigarettes.  Further on, if we do accept the premise, that smoking will maybe decrease, the evidence for passive smoking is very slim indeed, with very few controlled studies having been carried out. At most, those who live with heavy smokers for a long period of time may have a very slightly increased risk of cancer.  Also it is true that smoke-filled environments can be unpleasant for non-smokers, but there are reasonable and responsible ways around this - smoking rooms in offices and airports are an excellent example. Some bars and restaurants may choose to be non-smoking establishments, giving customers the choice to select their environment. Allowing people to make their own, adult decisions is surely always the best option."}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro03a","title":"","text":"The state has to take measures to protect the health of its citizens  There is little doubt that smoking tobacco is extremely harmful to the smoker's health. In the US, for example, research by the American Cancer Society suggests that tobacco causes up to 400,000 deaths each year1 - more than AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse, car crashes, murders, suicides, and fires combined. World-wide some 5 million people die from smoking each year2 - one every ten seconds - which estimates suggest will rise to 10 million by 2020. Smokers are up to 22 times more likely to develop lung cancer than non-smokers, and smoking can lead to a host of other health problems, including emphysema and heart disease.  In a democracy the people elect leaders and trust them with a term, where their duty is solely to look after the wellbeing of the country and its citizens. The politicians, having the resources and time, are well equipped to make a better and more informed decision on activities dangerous to the individual, others and the society. Therefore one of the principles is, that elected representatives have to make sure their citizens get the best possible protection in society. Even if this infringes on some of their rights. That is why taking hard drugs and breaking the speed limit are also illegal. It would therefore be reasonable to ban smoking or limit with different means the usage of tobacco - an activity which kills millions of people each year.  Precedent is that if a company produces food that is poisonous or a car that fails safety tests, the product is immediately taken off the market. Since all cigarettes and other tobacco products are poisonous and potentially lethal, they should all be taken off the market. In short, smoking should be banned or very harshly regulated.  1 Cancer Action Network, Help Fight Tobacco and Save Lives, 2 Ash.Research report, Tobacco: Global trends, August 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con03b","title":"","text":"Smoking is not a real choice, as nicotine is an addictive drug - in fact; recent allegations suggest that tobacco companies deliberately produce the most addictive cigarettes they can.  Up to 90% of smokers begin when they are below the age of 181, often due to peer pressure; once addicted, continuing to smoke is no longer an issue of freedom of choice, but of chemical compulsion. Like other addictive drugs such as heroin and cocaine, tobacco should be banned since this is the only way to force people to quit. Most smokers say that they want to kick the habit"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con01b","title":"","text":"People often express concern about taxes harming the poor, since they are both most likely to smoke and the least able to afford it. But when tobacco prices are kept low, more poor people use tobacco, and thus waste more of their money on it. In Bangladesh, as prices have remained low over the years, per capita spending on tobacco has increased. While raising taxes may harm some poor individuals who are unable to quit, in many situations this problem is alleviated by the existence of alternate low-cost tobacco products. To the degree that these are minimally advertised and unpalatable, they may be a resource to the addicted while being unlikely to attract the uninitiated. In addition, if the policy benefits a large number of poor smokers but harms a few, then the decision may have to be made to tolerate the harm in order to benefit the many.  Negative effects can be addressed through programs to help the poor quit, or to subsidize a food substance generally consumed only by the poorest1.  1 PATH Canada and Work for a Better Bangladesh, Tobacco and Poverty,"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con02a","title":"","text":"Democratic systems should educate on smoking rather than restrict it  The principle of democracy is to let people make their decisions and to ensure, that the decisions they make are as informed as possible. Due to the maximization of an individual's happiness the government should only have the possibility to give information to their citizens and let them all decide, how they want to make use of their freedom of choice.  One of the options is a targeted campaign against smoking and information on smoking harms. Actually, the National Bureau for Economic research states that there has not been enough investment in counteradvertising, which is designed to reduce consumption and also fits into the framework of a response function.\"The counteradvertising response function slopes downward and is subject to diminishing marginal product. The levels of counteradvertising that have been undertaken are small in comparison to advertising. The empirical work finds evidence that counteradvertising does reduce consumption.\"1  So before limiting the citizens freedoms the state should try the \"soft line\" with informing their citizens.  1 Henry Saffer, The Effect of Advertising on Tobacco and Alcohol Consumption, The National Bureau for Economic Research, published Winter 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con04a","title":"","text":"This will open up a black market  The lesson of prohibition of alcohol in America in the 1920s was that banning a recreational drug used by a large proportion of the population merely leads to crime and contraband.  A case of this is India, where the contraband trade of cigarettes consists of the international brands that are smuggled into India and the duty evaded cigarettes manufactured domestically by small and unscrupulous manufacturers. \"With steep duty increases over the last few years this segment has grown exponentially,\" the Tobacco Institute of India states1.  Not only is there a case to be made for a flourishing black market, countries lose with this control over the products and can harm their citizens even more with not controlling the consumed substances.  1 Ashish Sinha, High tax on cigarettesmaking contraband market flourish, The Financial Express, published 11\/05\/2010,"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con03a","title":"","text":"Smoking is a choice of lifestyle the government should not intervene with  Freedom of choice is what differentiates democracies from dictatorships, autocracies or any other form of government. It goes by the principle, that the individual is free to do, whatever he or she wants, as long as this choice does not limit the freedom of choice, bodily integrity or any other human right of another individual in society.  This also applies to smoking. While the law steps in to prevent citizens causing harm to others, whether deliberately or accidentally it should not stop those taking risks themselves.  The state allows individuals to make lifestyle choices that endanger their life all the time. Because there is not difference between smoking and the other life endangering activities, banning or severely regulating smoking would be an unmerited intrusion into personal freedom."}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con01a","title":"","text":"Regulation harms safety and the poor population  Cigarettes are so common that there is hardly any chance all the people will stop. What will happen is that policies, regarding tobacco regulation or banning will mainly restrict the possibilities of the poor.  In 2009, in the US, a law to triple the federal excise tax on cigarettes was signed, which meant that the federal tax on cigarette jumped from 39 cents per pack to $1.01 today. The administration projects, that such a \"sin tax\" will bring in at least $38 billion over the next five years. Smokers, usually coming from lower socio-economic backgrounds (getting welfare, unemployment or disability checks instead of paychecks) still pay the whole cigarette tax, while they do not get the same amount of funding as others. Anyone concerned about widening income inequality should have second thoughts about this distribution of the tax burden1. Effectively this means, that while a higher financial burden might not cause problems to high and middle class smokers, it will cause the poor smoker, to either limit the freedom of choice by not buying cigarettes or either make sure other necessities, such as food, other supplies will not be provided. In fact researchers estimate that in Bangladesh 10.5 million people are going hungry and 350 children are dying each day due to diversion of money from food to tobacco2.  The current situation is that poor turn to \"shag\" or rolling tobacco for self-made cigarettes, which may then be more harmful as the state cannot control it's ingredients as thorough or in the end even turn to the black market of tobacco farmers, where there is no control"}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con04b","title":"","text":"Most people who smoke tobacco are law-abiding normal citizens who would like to stop. They would not resort to criminal or black-market activities if cigarettes were no longer legally available - they would just quit. Banning smoking would make this happen and massively lighten the burden on health resources of the countries in which it was banned. The reason why such actions may have happened in India was probably poor regulation of the market or mainly poor execution of already set out rules. Something that is easily preventable in Westernized countries."}
+{"id":"training-health-adhgphwfrs-con02b","title":"","text":"Rather than the state pouring money into campaigns, they should spend it on other more important things, such as improving the health system, infrastructure or other, more important things.  The UK Department of Health doubled its media spending from less than"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro02b","title":"","text":"The ban is unnecessary because it will prove to be useless. Although the Bloomberg-appointed Board of Health gave their rubber stamp of approval to Mayor Bloomberg\u2019s proposal, several board members voiced their apprehension of the ban and its effectiveness. Board member, Dr. Michael Phillips brought up the fact that the ban unfairly targeted establishments regulated by the city because those regulated by the state\u20147-Elevens and grocery stores\u2014would continue selling larger sodas. The ban also focuses on sugary drinks alone. [1] \"We're really looking at restricting portion size, so the argument could be\u2026what about the size of a hamburger or the jumbo fries, and all that kind of stuff?\u201d The mayor himself said in the MSNBC interview that the goal was to target portion size. [2] Yet, somebody can easily buy four 16-ounce drinks and be worse for it. The people could also pass the deli and patronize the grocery store for large sodas, affecting the Deli\u2019s business while still maintaining high sugar intake. The ban would be useless in fighting obesity because there are too many easily accessed loopholes and as it stands now, would just be a major inconvenience.  [1] Saul, Michael Howard, \u2018City Drinks Plan Questioned\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 12 June 2012.  [2] Briggs, Bill, and Flam, Lisa, \u2018Bloomberg defends soda ban plan: We\u2019re not taking away your freedoms\u2019, Health on Today, 1 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro02a","title":"","text":"The ban is necessary to confront the growing problem of obesity in NYC.  Although rising obesity levels in the city have been a major issue in New York City recently, any measures already enacted have failed to curb the growing numbers of obese New Yorkers. The Bronx has the largest percentage of overweight adults, a staggering 70 percent; the other four boroughs also have seen increases in the past decade. Sixty-two percent of Staten Island adults are overweight; followed by Brooklyn, at 60 percent; Queens, at 57 percent; and Manhattan, at 47 percent, according to city health data. [1] The New York City Department of Health has enacted several programs promoting healthier living such as health fares in low-income areas and the Adopt A Bodega initiative, through which local bodegas or small delis and groceries agree to sell produce from family-owned, local farms, providing healthier foods to New Yorkers for reasonable prices. But the results, or rather lack of them, show that education and access are not enough. [2] As Mayor Bloomberg has argued, the ban will have an effect because it follows the principle that if some people have smaller portions given to them, they will consequently drink less. The Mayor doesn\u2019t hope to prevent all people from drinking soda. In fact he emphasizes that this ban wouldn\u2019t come close to restricting personal freedoms because people would still be free to order however much soda they would like. The customers would simply have to be served multiple containers. [3] This is not going to eradicate excessive sugar-intake, however a study by Dr. Brian Elbel, an assistant professor of population health and health policy at NYU Langone School of Medicine in New York City, determined that 62% of drinks bought at restaurants were over the size limit and the result would be that the average consumer would take in 63 fewer calories per trip to a fast-food restaurant [4] .  [1] Hu, Winnie, \u2018Obesity Ills That Won\u2019t Budge Fuel Soda Battle by Bloomberg\u2019, The New York Times, 11 June 2012.  [2] \u2019New York City Healthy Bodegas Initiative 2010 Report\u2019, NYC Department of Health & Mental Hygiene and NYC Center for Economic Opportunity.  [3] Briggs, Bill, and Flam, Lisa, \u2018Bloomberg defends soda ban plan: We\u2019re not taking away your freedoms\u2019, Health on Today, 1 July 2012.  [4] Jaslow, Ryan, \u2018Research finds NYC soda ban would cut 63 calories per fast food trip: Would that have any impact?\u2019, CBS News, 24 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no obligation on the city to protect citizens from their own choices. Citizens are responsible for their own bodies including what they eat and drink. Making any part of government responsible for this would mean a need for much more regulation on almost anything that would protect lives. In this case it would require a much tougher response than simply a partial ban that only affects large drinks. Moreover if there is such an obligation why is it the obligation of the city while the state does not have such an obligation with regards to 7-11s?"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro01a","title":"","text":"There is precedent of paternalistic government policies in NYC.  The principle of paternalism, that the state may interfere with another person, against their will, with the motivation of protecting that person from harm, [1] underlines a wide range of policies and laws across the United States, and there is already a precedent for such paternalistic laws particularly within New York City. New York City, under the leadership of Mayor Bloomberg, has enacted regulations on smoking, restaurants\u2019 use of salt and trans fats. Laws prohibiting marijuana, cocaine, and other potentially harmful drugs are made with the goal to protect citizens. Seatbelt laws and the prohibition of cell phone use while driving all infringe upon a person\u2019s freedom of choice but have been accepted for their inherent positive causation meaning there will be less deaths and injuries in accidents. Paternalistic policies are made to maintain the public\u2019s safety and well-being with the assumption that the government \u201cknows best.\u201d Mayor Bloomberg\u2019s proposed ban on soda sold in containers larger than 16 ounces targets the growing problem of obesity in New York City. Although obesity has been a popular topic of discussion in the City, there has been negligible advancement in weight-loss. This growing problem shows that education is not enough to incentivize people to control themselves. Dr. Donald Klein writes, \u201cA fleeting, short-term self that enjoys chocolate, nicotine, or heroin is working his will on an enduring self that pays the cost. Although we may fancy ourself a fully integrated and consistent being, it might make more sense to describe ourself as a bundle of multiple selves, selves that overlap, intermingle, and sometimes conflict\u201d. [2] That more than 50% of New Yorkers are overweight shows the people do not recognize their own long term interests. [3] Mayor Bloomberg\u2019s goal is to limit soda consumption of the population. He has the wellbeing of New Yorkers in mind and he is following a precedent that people need guidance in personal choices.  [1] Dworkin, Gerald, \u2018Paternalism\u2019, in Edward N. Zalta e., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Summer 2010.  [2] Klein, Daniel B., \u2018The Moral Consequences of Paternalism\u2019, Ideas on Liberty, May 1994.  [3] Hu, Winnie, \u2018Obesity Ills That Won\u2019t Budge Fuel Soda Battle by Bloomberg\u2019, The New York Times, 11 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro01b","title":"","text":"The ethical implications of paternalism are that the government is taking away personal freedoms because the government presumes that it \u201cknows best\u201d for the population. Paternalism inherently assumes that individuals cannot be trusted to make its own decisions. Personal freedom, however, is a cornerstone of the United States; The Constitution and the Bill of Rights guarantee individual\u2019s freedoms, limit the role of government, and reserve power to the people. [1] A competent person\u2019s freedoms should never be infringed upon, even for that person\u2019s own good. John Stuart Mill wrote, \u201c. . . the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right.... The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is of right, absolute, over himself. Over his own body-mind, the individual is sovereign\u201d. [2] The paternalistic policies cited by the proposition that apparently set a precedent for this ban on soda are not good comparisons. Smoking bans for example are paternalistic in nature yet are morally acceptable because smoking not only harms the person but also those surrounding the smoker through passive smoking. Henry David Thoreau was quoted in saying \"[If] . . . a man was coming to my house with the conscious design of doing me good, I should run for my life\". [3] No government can be sure that their policies are what are universally right for its people; this should be left for the individual to decide.  [1] McAffee, Thomas B., and Bybee, Jay S., \u2018Powers reserved for the people and the states: a history of the Ninth and Tenth Amendments\u2019, Praeger Publishers, Westport, 2006, P.2  [2] Mill, John Stuart, On Liberty, 1859.  [3] Andre, Claire, and Velasquez, Manuel, \u2018For Your Own Good\u2019, Issues in Ethics, Vol.4, No.2, Fall 1991."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro03a","title":"","text":"The City has the obligation to protect its citizenry  Thomas Jefferson said \u201cthe purpose of government is to enable the people of a nation to live in safety and happiness\u201d. [1] As an elected government led by Mayor Bloomberg, the government of New York City is obligated to lead the city in a positive direction. In Bloomberg\u2019s case it was among his campaign promises \u201cTo achieve the biggest public health gains in the nation\u201d and given his record with the smoking ban this kind of proposal is the obvious way to achieve such a goal. [2] as the Soda ban is not an infringement upon personal rights but a necessary public health measure. The ban on large sodas does not prohibit the consumption of soda, it simply impedes negative choices for poor nutrition. [3] The City has an obligation to promote healthy living as a form of keeping its citizenry safe and the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene clearly states \u2018Ourmission is to protect and promote the health of all New Yorkers\u2019. [4] \u201cObesity is a nationwide problem, and all over the United States, public health officials are wringing their hands saying, \u2018Oh, this is terrible,\u2019\u201d but Mayor Bloomberg said, \u201cNew York City is not about wringing your hands; it's about doing something.\u201d The mayor continued by including how he viewed his duty: \"I think that's what the public wants the mayor to do.\u201d [5]  [1] Thomas Jefferson quoted by Hughes, David, \u2018Ed Miliband doesn\u2019t seem to know what government is for\u2019, The Telegraph, 17 March 2010.  [2] Paybarah, Azi, \u2018Bloomberg Envisions 2013, Thompson Sees Empty Promises\u2019, The New York Observer, 26 October 2009.  [3] Park, Alice, \u2018The New York City Soda Ban, and a Brief History of Bloomberg\u2019s Nudges\u2019, Time, 31 May 2012.  [4] \u2018About the NYC DOHMH\u2019, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.  [5] Grynbaum, Michael M., \u2018New York Plans to Ban Sale of Big Sizes of Sugary Drinks\u2019, The New York Times, 30 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con03b","title":"","text":"First how democratic the governance of the city is does not detract from the right of the city government to restrict the size of soda drinks. The system of government has not been changed in order enact this particular regulation. Second it must be remembered that Mayor Bloomberg himself was elected. He was elected to a third term with 51% of the vote compared to 46% for his Democratic rival. [1] To be elected for a third time in a Democrat stronghold gives him a good deal of electoral legitimacy.  [1] Goldman, Henry, \u2018Bloomberg Wins Third NYC Mayor Term Beats Comptroller Thompson\u2019, Bloomberg, 4 November 2009."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con01b","title":"","text":"Freedom of choice is not absolute; it does not mean the consumer should be free to buy whatever they want from wherever they want. For example there is no expectation for restaurants and stores to always have both Pepsi and Coca Cola. In this instance freedom of choice in terms of size is not absolute; there is the freedom to have as much soda as the consumer desires they simply have to buy it in smaller portions. Arguing that representatives\u2019 not being able to choose whether to enact this legislation is also restriction of choice ignores that Bloomberg himself is an elected politician that was chosen by the people."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con02a","title":"","text":"The Ban Would Be a Barrier to Free Enterprise  The proposal for this ban on large sodas would only affect businesses regulated by the NYC Board of Health. Restaurants, delis, food carts, and concession stands at theaters and stadiums would be affected because they are considered Food Service Establishments (FSEs). The ban would exclude grocery stores, 7-Eleven\u2019s, and other establishments that are not considered FSE\u2019s but are regulated by the State. Consequently, the ban cause the FSE to face repercussions as they would have to serve less soda (the goal of the ban), but also this selective, non-universal ban could encourage consumers to patronize other establishments where they would not be affected by the ban. There is currently a level of demand for large sodas in the market, but the ban would place a barrier on that whole sector of the market. It would be the government directly impeding free enterprise by providing different sets of rules for competing stores. In addition, New Yorkers would be encouraged to report violating establishments that would receive $200 fines. [1] It would be unfortunate to hurt businesses for a ban that wouldn\u2019t necessarily be effective in its main goal to curb obesity because of the multiple blatant loopholes.  [1] \u2018From Supersized to Human-Sized: Reintroducing Reasonable Portions of Sugary Drinks in New York City\u2019, NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene Briefing, 12 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con03a","title":"","text":"It is undemocratic to have the law pass through the board of health.  While the City has the right to exercise its abilities within the law to protect and aid New Yorkers, it must do so as a democratic body representing its constituents. The soda ban, whether it would actually do anything to curb obesity, is wrong because it isn\u2019t representative of the people. Councilman Dan Halloran spoke at the \u2018Million Gulp March\u2019 in protest of the ban: \u201cMr. Mayor, if you want to make a law, go through your legislature, and make the law. Do not try to backdoor it through an administrative agency that is unaccountable to the people.\u201d [1] Mayor Bloomberg\u2019s attempt to pass this ban without the input or approval of the people is undemocratic. The New York City Health Department is an eleven-person committee appointed by the Mayor. [2] Thus, there is a large risk of Mayor Bloomberg exercising his personal will through this branch without any regulation. The proposed soda ban would be a fiat with the rubber stamp of approval from the Board of Health, but no citizen input.  [1] Arkin. James, \u2018Councilman Halloran: Bloomberg \u2018Missing Boat About Liberty\u2019 With Soda Ban\u2019, The Daily News, 11 July 2012.  [2] \u2018Board of Health\u2019, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con01a","title":"","text":"The Soda Ban is an infringement upon the personal right to choose  Although the soda ban is not a blanket prohibition of sugary drinks, the proposed ban impedes the public\u2019s right to choose. \u2018Big Government\u2019 has become an important issue to many who view the extensive array of government regulations and laws as excessively interventionist and intruding. [1] By Mayor Bloomberg proposing this ban, he continues a trend of the government curbing citizens\u2019 rights to choose, and interfering in the personal lives of its citizenry. The government has no right to be restricting the size of someone\u2019s portions, this is the government regulating one\u2019s diet. This ban inherently affects the consumer\u2019s right to choose because it is prevents the choice of a larger size of soda. The Mayor hopes to influence New Yorkers\u2019 choices toward better nutrition.  Moreover Mayor Bloomberg\u2019s method is not through a representative legislative body but through his personally appointed Board of Health (2), [2] the people have therefore been denied their right to choose, through their representatives, whether this legislation should be allowed.  [1] \u2018big government\u2019, British & World English dictionary, Oxford university Press.  [2] \u2018Board of Health\u2019, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con02b","title":"","text":"There are only slight price differences between 34 and 18-ounce sodas. McDonalds and Coca-Cola corporations were pushing independent franchises to lower the price of sodas to one dollar. [1] While the goal of the ban is to cut down the consumption of soda, the government has the right to put their citizens\u2019 health needs above free enterprise. The non-universality of the ban is unfortunate but this ban is merely a small step in the direction of curbing obesity rates. The fact that restaurants will not be able to serve gigantic portions of soda will not push New Yorkers from eating at those restaurants to eating their meals at 7-Elevens. These are clearly two separate markets; one for purchasing drinks the other for consuming them with meals. It is therefore wrong to conclude that this is any kind of barrier to free enterprise.  [1] Ziobro, Paul, \u2018McDonald's Bets Pricing Drinks At $1 Will Heat Up Summer Sales\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 18 March 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro02b","title":"","text":"If a parent gives into pressure from a young child so easily, even when she knows it\u2019s the wrong thing to do, then she has bigger parenting problems to worry about than the presence of toys in fast food meals. The government cannot possibly step in to eliminate all temptations and negative influences on children\u2019s choices. Parents need to be firm and provide their kids with the guidance necessary to choose what is best."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Making it easier for parents to raise their children well.  As well meaning as parents may be in trying to guide their kids toward better nutritional choices, they face a formidable opponent: the fast food marketing machine that spends over 4 billion dollars on advertising a year, much of it targeted directly at kids [1] . This can create enough \u2018pester power\u2019 [2] from the kids themselves, seduced by the toy that comes with the meal, that it can persuade parents to make bad choices they wouldn\u2019t otherwise make. By eliminating at least one layer of negative pressure, this law would help parents make those healthy choices that they already know are best.  [1] Philpott, Tom. \u201cThe fast-food industry\u2019s 4.2 billion marketing blitz.\u201d Grist. November 10. 2010.   [2] \u201cSan Francisco Happy meal Toy Ban Takes Effect, Sidestepped by McDonald\u2019s.\u201d Huffington Post. November 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is important to instil good habits in children at an early age. But the manner in which it is done is equally important. Kids should be taught to make choices based on what is best for them, through information and appropriate explanations, rather than just being shielded from potential dangers. That kind of behaviour, predicated on reason and understanding, will have a far more lasting impact on the way they make choices, than just protecting them from temptation, with which they will inevitably have to cope later in life."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Marketing aimed at children should be subject to strict regulations.  Unlike adults, children are not able to make healthy decisions for themselves. They don\u2019t understand what calories, sodium content, or saturated fats are. They are unable to comprehend the long-term effects that fast food might have on their health and development. On the other hand, a toy is instantly appealing to them and offers a straightforward incentive to opt for such a meal. As long as the negative consequences cannot be explained to kids in a clear and compelling manner, we should not make unhealthy food even more desirable for them. We should not allow children to make bad choices based on information they don\u2019t understand [1] .  [1] Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity. \u201cFast Food FACTS: Evaluating Fast Food Nutrition and Marketing to Youth.\u201d Yale University. November 2010."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Children may have a strong preference for a certain type of meal over another, but young kids don\u2019t buy their own food. Parents do. And if kids might not understand that fast food is bad for them, their parents should. If a child is eating too much fast food, that is not a marketing success, it\u2019s a parenting failure."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro04b","title":"","text":"Even if we were to accept that the government has a role in combatting the so-called \u2018obesity epidemic\u2019, that does not justify it taking any measures it deems appropriate. The government should at the very least be able to prove that there is some link between the toys sold with the fast food meals and the rise in obesity. After all, the toys have been around since the late 70s. The \u2018obesity epidemic\u2019 is a far more recent phenomenon."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Bad nutrition habits start during childhood.  Giving away toys with meals that are calorie laden and of poor nutritional quality creates an emotional attachment between the child and fast food [1] . This bond will then follow that child into adulthood, making it harder for her to make better nutritional choices in order to become a healthy individual. This ban would break that bond and make it easier for children to grow up to be healthier adults.  [1] Storm, Stephanie. \u201cMcDonald\u2019s Trims Its Happy Meal.\u201d The New York Times. July 26, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Obesity is a public health issue .  All around the world, obesity has become a serious threat to public health. And the problem starts early on. In the US, for example, 17% of youth are obese4. Obesity itself has many consequences; most obviously on health such as increasing the risk of numerous diseases like heart disease, there are however economic costs both for treatment of these diseases, lost working days and due to less obvious costs such safety on transport and its resulting fuel cost. [1] Tackling obesity is therefore well within the purview of government policy. A failure to act might seriously affect the economic productivity of the nation, and even bankrupt healthcare systems [2] . A measure like the toy ban would be a first step to tackling the problem at the root, preventing children from growing up into obese adults.  [1] Zahn, Theron, \u201cObesity epidemic forcing ferries to lighten their loads\u201d, seattlepi, 20 December 2011,   [2] \u201cObesity \u2018could bankrupt the NHS\u2019\u201d. BBC. 15 December 2006."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con03b","title":"","text":"While McDonald\u2019s may have found a way to circumvent the ban, the significant pressure that was applied to them in the process led the company to improve the quality of the Happy Meal, by providing clients with fresh fruit and healthier drink options. Therefore, the ban could be considered a success."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con01b","title":"","text":"This is not exactly a ban on the sale of fast food to children. This ban does not affect the options of bad foods that parents can continue to feed to their young children if they choose to do so. They will even be able to continue buying happy meals \u2013 simply without the toy. It merely alters the incentives slightly toward promoting better, healthier choices by making fast food less appealing."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con02a","title":"","text":"The ban is ineffective in addressing the problem of obesity.  Studies have shown that only a very small amount of the calories consumed by children come from foods like the Happy Meal. And while kids are eating at fast food restaurants at an alarming rate, it is their parents who make the decision to take them there 93% of the time. Of the kids who do want to go to McDonald\u2019s, only 8% cite the toy as the primary reason. Therefore, this piece of legislation seems to tackle a perceived problem rather than a real one. Legislators would be better off focusing their attention where it matters: providing information to parents about making better choices for their kids, and improving the quality of school lunches, which are actually provided by the government and are eaten by kids every single day, often as their main meal [1] .  [1] Eskenazi, Joe, and Wachs, Benjamin. \u201cHow the Happy Meal ban explains San Francisco.\u201d San Francisco Weekly. January 19, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con03a","title":"","text":"Such bans are easy to side step.  The San Francisco ban has already been circumvented by McDonalds who has started selling their Happy Meals without the toys and then selling the toys separately for a nominal price [1] . Banning the sale of any toys in fast food restaurants would be difficult without prompting legal action from the companies. The steep legal costs of defending such a law would waste public resources that could easily be put to better use.  [1] Eskenazi, Joe. \u201cHappy Meal Ban. McDonlad\u2019s Outsmarts San Francisco.\u201d San Francisco Weekly. November 29, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con01a","title":"","text":"This ban constitutes serious governmental intrusion into parental responsibilities and private choices.  Parents, not politicians, should be responsible for guiding the choices their children make and the food they eat, especially when they pay for it with their own money. Parents may have other reasons for wanting their children to have the meal with a toy, for example the toy is a useful distraction for the child. Governments should not try to impose their own idea of what constitutes appropriate food choices for children on parents and on businesses. Governments may aim to promote and educate, but imposing bans on private businesses goes too far [1] .  [1] Martinez, Michael. \u201cMayor vetoes San Francisco ban on Happy Meals with toys.\u201d CNN. November 13 2010."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con02b","title":"","text":"Of course there is no such thing as a silver bullet solution to a problem as complex as childhood obesity. This ban would need to be part of a bigger push to regulate the fast food industry\u2019s marketing to children and to provide kids and parents with better choices and information. That doesn\u2019t mean the ban has no merit or that it would not play a beneficial role in the fight against obesity."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro02b","title":"","text":"The problem with studies that claim to prove there is no harm with multiple vaccines, are that they are studies that are firstly based on ethical restrictions. A test that would conclusively prove the harm of multiple vaccines would require deliberately denying certain children inoculation. Secondly, they monitor only the general population (in preliminary studies they exclude certain risk groups) and in studies after the administration of vaccines usually contribute some of the negative results to other environmental factors.  Studies are therefore in no way conclusive and do not disprove fully the claim that there is no harm connected with multiple vaccines."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Multiple vaccines cause no harm  Despite fears to the contrary, multiple vaccines cause no harm. Being given immunization in many cases means that people receive a weakened virus. Many believe that because of this they will have a weakened immune system and also suffer from long term body harm. The evidence suggests this is not the case, and that combined vaccinations cause no adverse harm in the vast majority of cases.  A University of Louisiana study, in which more than 1,000 children underwent in-depth neuropsychological tests after receiving a series of vaccinations, found that \u2018there was no evidence of neurodevelopmental delays or deficits associated with on-time vaccination\u2019. [1]  Further, multiple vaccinations, which ensure not only that children get their vaccinations but that they do so as quickly as possible, are associated with \u2018improved performance\u2019 compared with a control group that received the vaccinations individually and therefore more slowly [2] . Therefore, not only are multiple vaccines harmless, they are a better choice for parents hoping to ensure their children are inoculated from certain diseases.  This is nothing but scare-mongering by the press. No evidence exists that there is a link between MMR or any multiple vaccine and the development of autism. Pseudo-experts are exploiting the pain of families that have children which have this unfortunate disease. They should be ashamed of themselves.  [1] KevinMd.com, Multiple vaccines in infants are harmful, a theory disproved  , accessed 06\/13\/2011  [2] KevinMd.com, Multiple vaccines in infants are harmful, a theory disproved  , accessed 06\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Even though major science research has shown that there is no link between syndromes such as autism and multiple vaccinations, a major aspect proponents of the theory claim is the ingredient \u201cMercury\u201d, that may cause many of the problems for brain cells and other behavioral functions. For example according to a study, Mercury that is present in MMR \u201creadily crosses the blood-brain barrier, preferentially targets nerve cells and nerve fiber and degrades them\u201d. [1]  [1] David Thower, A review of evidence between Vaccination and regressive autism, NTL World  , accessed 06\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Multiple vaccines serve millions with improved immunity  Multiple vaccines do the job of individual vaccines, but more efficiently and faster. Vaccines work because our body has a natural defense system called the immune system. The immune system recognizes foreign bodies such as viruses and bacteria and creates antibodies to destroy them. Once your immune system has had contact with a particular virus or bacteria it knows how to protect the body against it. Vaccines use the body\u2019s ability to do this to help protect us against diseases that may otherwise be deadly. Vaccines contains part of the virus or disease and when injected stimulate the body to create antibodies to fight and neutralize the disease.  Multiple vaccines specifically are more efficient in delivering such vaccines than separate, individual injections. Combined vaccines reduce the number of necessary injections by a third, meaning less pain and less possible side-effects. Combined vaccines also reduce the time that children are at risk from the diseases being vaccinated against, leading directly to fewer cases of such diseases in the population [1] . The MMR combined vaccine, for example, which protects against measles, mumps and rubella, has led to an \u2018all-time low\u2019 number of children catching these diseases since being introduced in the United Kingdom [2] .  Let us be absolutely clear. The alternative to multiple vaccinations are single vaccinations, which take time and expose risk. Undoubtedly children\u2019s lives have been endangered or lost for a completely fictional harm.  [1] Bupa, Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine, January 2010,  , accessed 13\/07\/2011  [2] NHS Choices, Introduction,  , accessed 13\/07\/11"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro01b","title":"","text":"While multiple vaccines serve many, there are great concerns for individual members of society. This is why the United States government, for example, has established the \u201cVaccine Injury Compensation Funds\u201d. The mission of these funds is that: \u201cThe VICP was established to ensure an adequate supply of vaccines, stabilize vaccine costs, and establish and maintain an accessible and efficient forum for individuals found to be injured by certain vaccines.\u201d [1]  The compensations are given, according to the HRSA to victims of the following vaccinations:  \u201cDiphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTP, DTaP, Tdap, DT, Td, or TT), Haemophilus nfluenza type b (Hib), Hepatitis A (HAV), Hepatitis B (HBV), Human papillomavirus (HPV), Influenza (TIV, LAIV) [given each year during the flu season], Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR, MR, M, R), Meningococcal (MCV4, MPSV4), Polio (OPV or IPV), Pneumococcal conjugate (PCV), Rotavirus (RV), Varicella (VZV), Any combination of the vaccines above, Additional vaccines may be added in the future.\u201d [2]  Many of the vaccinations listed above are multiple vaccines. From this we can conclude, that many of them are not safe for each individual that gets vaccine.  [1] Health Resources and Service Administration, IVCP program,  , accessed 06\/11\/2011  [2] Health Resources and Service Administration, IVCP program,  , accessed 06\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro04b","title":"","text":"The problem with current testing is that, while they provide some control groups usually those with rare reactions are not included in trials (because it may represent even less than 1 % of the population in a country). So even though there is deliberate screening for rare reactions, it is very likely that such events do not even get detected. The policy is that if serious reactions are found when the vaccine is in widespread use, the vaccine may be withdrawn. But by then it has made already damage and endangered human lives.  Further on, due to ethical concerns vaccine trials may deliberately exclude members of high risk groups and so prevent conclusive consequences for those groups. So while vaccines may be safe for the general population, they represent a high risk for parts of the population for which trials have not been done due to different reasons. [1]  [1] Why it is important to monitor vaccine safety, Center for disease control and Prevention,  , accessed 07\/10\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Multiple vaccines do not cause autism  In 1998, Dr, Andrew Wakefield started a big campaign against multiple vaccinations, when his research, published in The Lancet (a medical journal) a study on how MMR jabs increase the likelihood of children for autism. Because it was published in a well-known magazine it was considered a reliable source.  Since then several studies (31 according to the NHS) disproved the claims made by a study. They\u2019ve proven there is no link between MMR vaccinations and autism. [1]  Further on the World Health Organisation explained in 2003, that autism, especially in countries with high vaccination rates has not increased. The WHO states, that: \u201cAutistic spectrum disorder represents a continuum of cognitive and neurobehavioral disorders including autism. The prevalence of autism varies considerably with case ascertainment, ranging from 0.7 \u2013 21.1 per 10 000 children, with autistic spectrum disorder estimated to be 1 \u2013 6 per 1000.\u201d [2]  Based on that evidence we see, that not more children became autistic because of the vaccination and that on scientific grounds there is no found linkage between autism and multiple vaccination.  [1] NHS: Ruling on doctor in MMR scare, January 2010  , accessed 06\/13\/2011  [2] World Health Organization, MMR and Autism, published 01\/23\/2003  , accessed 06\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-pro04a","title":"","text":"All vaccinations are tested rigorously before they are approved, and tracked afterwards  All vaccinations are tested rigorously before they are approved for use. As vaccinations represent an important and potential harmful intrusion in an individual\u2019s body, it is very important that they are safe. This is especially clear when governments decide to make immunization obligatory; they have to be sure they administer to their citizens safe vaccinations.  Based on the increase in the number of compulsory vaccinations in different countries, many governments have also stocked up on the funding of vaccination controlling of offered immunization treatments. Such stockpiling would only occur if they were confident that the vaccines have passed through a rigorous testing process.  Furthermore, even after being approved, organizations exist, like the United States Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System, as a center for tracking adverse events related to specific vaccines. If the events classified as serious are reported regularly for a specific vaccine, the vaccine can be subject to further study [1] .  [1] Why it is important to monitor vaccine safety, Center for disease control and Prevention,  , accessed 07\/10\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-con03b","title":"","text":"The mere fact pharmaceutical companies make profits from their vaccines is not evidence of anything other than innovation and sound economics. It wouldn\u2019t matter how hard pharmaceutical companies wanted people to believe vaccines were safe, if they were harmful, the evidence would be quickly apparent. The fact only a few people have been compensated for damages resulting from vaccines is testament not to the will of pharmaceutical companies to deny the ill effects of their vaccines, but rather proof that in the overwhelming majority of cases, the vaccines are safe and effective."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-con01b","title":"","text":"The American board of Pediatricians states that: \u201cStudies on the diversity of antigen receptors indicate that the immune system has the capacity to respond to extremely large numbers of antigens. Current data suggest that the theoretical capacity determined by diversity of antibody variable gene regions would allow for as many as 109 to 1011 different antibody specificities. But this prediction is limited by the number of circulating B cells and the likely redundancy of antibodies generated by an individual.\u201d  And further on, the board explains that: \u201cIf vaccines overwhelmed or weakened the immune system, then one would expect lesser immune responses when vaccines are given at the same time as compared with when they are given at different times. However, the following vaccines induce similar humoral immune responses when given at the same or different times:  1) MMR and varicella  2) MMR, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP), and OPV  3) hepatitis B, diphtheria-tetanus, and OPV  4) influenza and pneumococcus  5) MMR, DTP-Hib, and varicella  6) MMR and Hib and 7) DTP and Hib  Achieving similar immune responses by giving vaccines at the same time at different sites may be more easily accomplished than by combining vaccines in the same syringe. Challenges to giving many vaccines in a single injection are based partly on incompatibilities of agents used to buffer or stabilize individual vaccines. [1]  [1] Offit Paul, Addressing Parents\u2019 Concerns: Do Multiple Vaccines Overwhelm or Weaken the Infant\u2019s Immune System?, 01\/01\/2002,  , accessed 06\/01\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-con02a","title":"","text":"Cases prove that vaccines have bad consequences for children\u2019s health  Human bodies are different and react to drugs differently. Especially when there is not just one foreign substance, but let us say 24 of them given to a human body over a period of time, there is increased risk that at least one of the substances may cause damage to the body. The drugs can damage an individual for life.  The case of Robert Fletcher can be used as an example (reported by the Telegraph): \u201cThe seizure occurred ten days after the vaccination. Robert is severely disabled as a result of vaccination. Mrs Fletcher said: \u201cRobert is nearly 19 but mentally he is like a 14-month-old toddler. He can\u2019t stand unaided and he is doubly incontinent. He can\u2019t speak except to say \u2018Hi, Mum\u2019 or \u2018Hi, Daddy\u2019.\u201d [1]  Robert Fletcher is not the only one with such severe symptoms and worse is that physicians never can be sure what the outcome will be. So multiple vaccines are dangerous, as they have no predicted outcome (because people\u2019s response to vaccinations are varied) but, in a minority of cases, they present with very severe consequences.  [1] Heidi Blake, Man disabled by MMR vaccine awarded 90 000 after 13-year fight, 08\/30\/2010  , accessed 05\/31\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-con03a","title":"","text":"Pharmaceutical companies want people to believe it\u2019s safe  The vaccination market is large and very profitable; as such, pharmaceutical companies have an interest in and the clout required to ensure that vaccines that are harmful are not reported as such. Up to the year 2003 manufacturers' profits on vaccinations have risen as the average cost to fully immunize a child at a private physician's office has climbed 243% since 1986, from $107 to $367. The most prominent beneficiaries have been the two producers who dominate the U.S. market for DPT and polio vaccines, Connaught Laboratories ($300 million in U.S. sales last year) and Wyeth-Lederle Vaccines & Pediatrics ($350 million). U.S. revenues for both companies have increased 300% since 1986, estimates David Molowa, international pharmaceutical analyst at the Wall Street investment firm Bear Stearns. In the same time only a few people have been compensated for the loss or impairment of their children due to vaccines. [1]  Further on in the document: \u201cVaccines get the full story\u201d: The same people who make rules and recommendations about vaccination profit from vaccine sales. For example, Dr. Julie Gerberding, who was in charge of the CDC for eight years, is now the President of Merck Vaccines. Dr. Paul Offit, a member of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practice (ACIP), developed and patented his own vaccine. [2]  These organizations and beneficiaries have a vested interest in ensuring that their vaccinations appear publicly as safe and harmless.  [1] Whale Magazine, The lethal dangers of billion-dollar vaccine business with government approval, drug companies sell vaccines that leave your child brain damaged, can spread polio from your baby to you and can even kill,  accessed 06\/13\/2011  [2] International Medical Council on Vaccination, Vaccines get the full story,  , accessed 06\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-con01a","title":"","text":"More vaccines together destroy the immune system  Giving just one vaccination shot to a body means injecting in it a virus. The subsequent process is justified as follows, using the example of a polio vaccination: \u201cThe vaccine is a clear, colorless sterile suspension for subcutaneous injection. IPV contains strains of the 3 types of polioviruses (Types 1, 2, and 3). After some time has passed, produces protective antibodies in the blood (serum immunity)\u201d as stated by Brown University. [1] So by this logic, the more vaccines are combined and given together the more viruses are induced to the body of a child. This could potentially cause a weakened immune system if the antibodies did not form as expected.  Dr. Neustaeder Randal states that in 1996 a study (published in the New England Journal of Medicine) found out that the tetanus vaccine, for example, disables the immune system in HIV patients. Tetanus vaccination produced a drop in T cells (cells which should protect the body from any dieseases) in 10 of 13 patients, a classic sign of immune deficiency. HIV viral replication increased dramatically in response to tetanus vaccine. Finally, white blood cells from 7 of 10 uninfected individuals became more susceptible to HIV infection following tetanus vaccination. [2]  This demonstrates, for some, a connection between a weakened immune system and vaccination. This connection would only be exacerbated with multiple vaccinations.  [1] Vaccine Strategies, Brown University  , accessed 06\/03\/2011  [2] Neustaedter Randal, Do vaccines disable the immune system ?,  , accessed 06\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhgamvs-con02b","title":"","text":"Every single medicine has some side effect, but we don\u2019t ban all medicine.  In most cases vaccinations may have some mild side effects:  \u201cDTaP\/IPV\/Hib: The vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio and Hib may cause redness and swelling on the site of vaccination, which lasts a few days. Babies may have a mild fever for up to ten days following the jabs.PCV: Redness and inflammation at the injection site affects about one in seven children. Mild symptoms of irritability, raised temperature and digestive disturbance may occur.MenC: Swelling and redness at the injection site is common. Some toddlers have disturbed sleep and some a light fever within a few days of their jab. Older children may complain of a mild headache.  MMR: Cold symptoms, a fever and swollen salivary glands may be noticed in children any time from a few days to three weeks after their MMR jab. Some may develop a rash or lose their appetite for up to ten days.\u201d [1]  The side effects are very low compared with those associated with the diseases themselves. Mild versions of the symptoms associated with the disease being vaccinated against are occasional side effects. Allergic responses are very rare.  [1] Babies and immunization, BBC Health  ,accessed 06\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is wrong for donors to attempt to change the policies of a sovereign state. Each state has equal rights, which include the right to be free from interference from any other group [1] . The West is therefore violating state sovereignty when they attempt to change domestic policies which they dislike [2] . African governments have a right to self-determination without the interference from the West; they are no longer colonies.  [1] Political Realism in International Relations Karpowicz, K 02\/04\/13  [2] Quandzie,E. Anti-gay aid cut: Bring it on, Ghana tells UK 02\/11\/11"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Cutting aid could produce a change in policy direction  If the West did decide to reduce aid to African states it could pressure African states to change their policies on homosexuality. Africa is renowned for the dependency on aid. Analysts claim that this dependency negates the need for African economies to reform, relying instead on foreign governments and NGOs [1] . This reliance on aid could be exploited to alter policy within those African countries that are unable to act economically independently. This policy has been successful in the past. When Britain cut \u00a319m to Malawi in 2011 for arresting two men for marrying; there was a reversal of government policy in the African state and all anti-homosexual laws were suspended [2] .  The equality created by this policy change would allow greater access to retroviral drugs and other HIV\/AIDS treatment for the gay community. Laws outlawing homosexuality, and the stigma of the false connection between HIV and homosexuality, have decreased the accessibility of the gay community to treatment [3] . Corrections to these laws, from the economic pressure of aid withdrawal, would allow those with HIV\/AIDS in the gay community to seek help without fear of rejections or prosecution.  [1] Astier,H. Can aid do more harm than good? 1 February 2006 BBC  [2] Karimi,F. \u2018Amnesty: Malawi suspends anti-gay laws\u2019 CNN 6 November 2012  [3] Anti-Gay discrimination fuels HIV\/AIDS in Africa: Report Reuters 01\/03\/07"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The international community has an obligation to help poorer countries, and cannot simply walk away from it over an issue such as this. Exploitation, through imperialism and other means, has been a major feature of Western relations with Africa. From colonial policies to current trade agreements the West has exploited Africa [1] . The West now has an obligation to compensate Africa for the damage which exploitation has done to development. Aid is considered to be vital to ensuring national and international security to the world, removing donations could result in destabilisation as economic links between the government and people deteriorate [2] .  [1] Annan calls for end to \u2018unconscionable\u2019 exploitation of Africa\u2019s resources, Stewart, H 10\/05\/13  [2] United Nations The 0.7% target: An in-depth look"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Persecution of homosexuals is morally wrong  From a moral perspective, it is wrong to discriminate against someone for their sexuality. Everyone should have equal rights; Hilary Clinton stated that \u2018gay rights are human rights\u2019 [1] , the derogation of such rights is a serious moral affront. There is evidence that homosexuality is not optional [2] . Discriminating on sexual orientation is therefore the same as discriminating upon factors such as race and ethnicity. Even if changeable it would be the same as discrimination on the basis of identity or religion.  Same sex relations are victimless which calls in to question whether it could ever be defined as something to be criminalised. Whilst some may point to male on male rape, these figures are low compared to male on female rape. In the U.S. where homosexuality is legal, only 9% of rape victims were male and only a small proportion of those being male on male [3] . Criminalising and institutionally embedding hatred against homosexuality has served to alienate many Africans from their families and communities [4] . Discrimination on the basis of homosexuality is not something any donor would want to endorse even implicitly it is therefore morally right to cut the aid.  [1] The Obama Administration\u2019s Bold but Risky Plan to make Africa Gay-Friendly Corey-Boulet,R 07\/03\/12  [2] Kingman,S. \u2018Nature, not nurture? New Studies suggest that homosexuality has a biological basis, determined more by genes and hormones than social factors or psychology, says Sharon Kingman. 04\/10\/1992  [3] Wikipedia Gender by rape  [4] The Guardian Persecuted for being gay. 13 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro01b","title":"","text":"There are many in Africa who believe that sexual orientation is a matter of choice and view the act as unnatural. Religious groups in particular oppose male homosexuality due to sodomy being viewed a sin [1] . If a certain act is viewed as a sin, and it is optional, then it is only logical that this activity should be prohibited under law. In a sense, it is moral to have laws restricting homosexuality in place via this logic. [2] The U.S. and other Western states should not condemn African states and reduce aid for legislating in a way they consider moral.  [1] Islam and Africa \u2018Islam and Homosexuality\u2019  [2] Should donors rethink aid to states that persecute gay people? Ware,G. 25\/01\/12"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Western Money, Western Discretion  When Western States threaten to cut aid, they are referring to their own money. This money should therefore be spent at the discretion of the donating country. In 2012, the USA\u2019s and UK\u2019s budgets for aid were \u00a312.2 billion [1] and \u00a39 billion respectively. The UK\u2019s spending is set to increase to about \u00a311.3 billion by 2014 [2] . This is money which could be spent to ease economic hardships at home, as many newspapers have pointed out [3] , however it is given to other countries to aid them instead. Donating states also spend a great deal of time attempting to convince their citizens that giving aid is a good use of their money. Should they oppose a policy which they see as discriminatory then it is understandable that they should use their discretion when donating aid.  [1] Britain second in world for aid spending Dixon, H. 04\/04\/12  [2] Aid: how much does the UK spend, why it\u2019s so important and how it works. Provost,C. & Tran,M. 20\/03\/13  [3] Britain leads the way in foreign aid-unfortunately Clark,R. 19\/06\/13"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con03b","title":"","text":"Cultural Imperialism has major advantages to it as well. Culture and identity has been used throughout history as a tool for fuelling the flames of conflict, leading to the mass genocides such as that of Rwanda [1] . This aspect of culture incites hatred against those who might otherwise not be targeted, such as homosexuals. [2] The desire to stamp out such attitudes does not represent a diminishment of African culture simply a change. Similar attitudes were held in the west until recently. African culture has similarly changed in the past; the comparatively recent introduction of Christianity to much of the continent (the exception being Ethiopia) was such a change.  [1] RothKopf, D \u2018In Praise of Cultural Imperialism\u2019 in Foreign Policy, no. 107 (1997) pp.38-53  [2] Ibid"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con01b","title":"","text":"While there are those who oppose gay rights in the West, there are many which support them and government policy does not have to run along the lines of consensus constantly. 2013 saw victories for gay marriage in the UK with the royal assent of the Marriage (same sex couples) Act [1] and in the USA with the removal of key elements of DOMA by the Supreme Court [2] . Those who still oppose homosexual rights are becoming the political periphery in these Western states. The current legislative success demonstrates that unity on same-sex rights is growing, and that it is not hypocritical to export this to the international stage.  [1] Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013\u2019 Parliament of the United Kingdom 17\/07\/13  [2] US Supreme Court in historic rulings on gay marriage BBC 27\/06\/13"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con02a","title":"","text":"The reduction of aid will cause innocent people to suffer  A reduction of aid to Africa will likely affect the most vulnerable in society rather than the politicians who can adjust the law. The African continent shows signs of growth, but 40% of sub-Saharans live below the poverty line [1] . Cutting aid to states that criminalise homosexuality will increase poverty among individuals who have no influence over their government\u2019s policy. This is an issue which both African states and African LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexuals, Transgender) groups agree upon [2] . Ahmed Lawan, a senator from Nigeria, argued that there needs to be more dialogue and diplomacy if the West is to convince them [3] . Should aggressive policies be used to leverage policy change, such as reducing aid, then African nations will be deterred from making pro-western changes to legislation. LGBT groups want donor countries to ensure that aid is distributed more evenly, and guarantee that aid directed towards human rights reaches homosexuals rather than cutting aid all together [4] . If aid is cut, it will serve to weaken ties between Africa and their donor countries, as well as worsen Human Development Indicators.  [1] Our Africa, \u2018Poverty\u2019  [2] Should donors rethink aid to states that persecute gay people? Ware,G. 25\/01\/12  [3] Ibid  [4] Should donors rethink aid to states that persecute gay people? Ware,G. 25\/01\/12"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con03a","title":"","text":"Cultural Imperialism  Cultural Imperialism is the \u2018the practice of promoting a more powerful culture over a least known or desirable culture\u2019 [1] . Culture provides an identity which is naturally coveted. Attempting to impose mainly Western, liberal values on Africa equates to a dilution of African culture. Globalisation has spread US culture throughout the world [2] . This has led many to lament the weakening of unique cultures, claiming that the USA is drowning out all cultures that do not agree morally with themselves [3] . The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) stated \u2018that respect for the diversity of cultures, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation, in a climate of mutual trust and understanding are among the best guarantees of international peace and security\u2019 [4] . Attempting to change Africa\u2019s attitude towards homosexuality is an attempt to increase the influence of Western culture on the continent. These cultural ties to attitudes on homosexuality are so powerful that even strict Muslims and Christians are brought together on this issue [5] . To deprive Africans of their cultures and their morals is at odds with the UNESCO\u2019s idea of maintaining cultural diversity throughout the world.  [1] Princeton \u2018Cultural Imperialism\u2019  [2] Ezema,I.J. \u2018Globalisation, information revolution and cultural imperialism in Africa: Implications for Nigerian library and information professionals.\u2019 University of Nigeria, Nsukka  [3] Cultural Imperialism Ekeocha, O. 08\/09\/13  [4] UNESCO \u2018Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity\u2019 02\/11\/01  [5] Islam and Africa \u2018Islam and Homosexuality\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con01a","title":"","text":"There is not universal endorsement of full homosexual rights in the West  The adoption of gay rights is by no means universal in the West, so why should Africa have to change their policies? US Christian evangelical groups have opposed the Obama administration\u2019s policy towards homosexual rights in Africa. The Justice for Gay Africans campaign group claim that these groups have worsened hostility on the continent through action that they have taken in Africa [1] . Domestically there is opposition to gay rights as well. The Defence of Marriage Act (DOMA), which was signed into law by a Democrat President and a Republican congress, enabled states to refuse to recognise same sex marriages [2] and demonstrates the opposition to gay rights in donor countries. One in six homosexuals and bisexuals have been the victims of hate crime in the UK, with only one in ten cases resulting in a conviction demonstrating homophobic attitudes in the UK [3] . The lack of consensus in the West therefore makes it hard to morally justify the imposition of homosexual rights abroad.  [1] Gay Rights: Africa, the new frontier Chothia,F. 07\/12\/11  [2] Defence of Marriage Act  [3] Ellison,G., Gammon,A. & Guasp,A. \u2018The Gay British Crime Survey 2013\u2019 Stonewall"}
+{"id":"training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con02b","title":"","text":"Reducing funds is an unfortunate, although necessary, mechanism for pressurising the political elite to legalise homosexuality. Africa\u2019s democracies, such as Nigeria, have to be sensitive to the needs of their citizens. Even dictatorships have to maintain a grasp on the people\u2019s will. Once the African population starts to feel the impact of reduced aid, the only viable way to remedy the situation will be to re-legislate on the same-sex issue.  Foreign aid struggles to reach those who need it the most anyway, with corruption in the Ugandan government (and the disappearance of \u00a31.3 million) causing the UK to cut aid to Uganda in 2012 [1] . The funding itself is then redirected away from African governments, but will reach those who need it the most through non-governmental organisations which will negate the suffering predicted by critics [2] .  [1] BBC \u2018UK cuts aid to Ugandan government\u2019 16\/11\/2012  [2] Gray,S. \u2018Minister confirms UK will redirect aid, not cut it, for human rights violations\u2019 Pink News 22\/11\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro02b","title":"","text":"A ban on trans fats will cause specific harms which cannot be fixed by switching to other fats or food preparation methods. Particularly hard hit would be small businesses, who would struggle to make the transition because they no not have the budgets to research alternative ways to make their products taste the same and so are likely to end up at a disadvantage compared to their bigger rivals. Moreover all businesses would suffer from reduced shelf life for their products.(7)  Such a ban does not make economic sense, and despite propositions claims trans fats cannot always be easily replaced. We use trans fats because they work well. For example they are needed in hydrogenation in order to convert liquid vegetable oils in to being solid, needed for example to make margarine, the amount of trans fats used for this can be reduced but not eliminated. Moreover, Michael Mason of The New York Times argues: \"for preparing certain kinds of foods, there are few alternatives besides the saturated fats that have long been high on the list of artery-clogging foods.\u201d(18)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Healthier equivalents of trans fats exist  It is easy and inexpensive to replace trans fats with other, less harmful products without significantly altering the taste of the food. Kraft eliminated trans fats from its Oreo cookies, with little public perception of any change in taste.(1) Similarly, the Wendy's restaurant chain tested a new frying oil in 370 franchises, with customers not noticing a difference in taste. Denmark imposed a national ban on trans fats with which even McDonald's has complied.(1) Replacements for trans fats will get cheaper and cheaper with time, as they are used more frequently and as the companies that produce and distribute them increase their sales volumes and are able to sell them for lower prices.  Since trans fats are not irreplaceable, objections for the sake of consumer freedom are also unconvincing. As with lead added to paint, trans fats are unnecessary additions to products that can cause significant harm. Most people remain ignorant of the presence of trans-fats in their food, and of their effects. In this area the ban on trans fats differs from restrictions placed on the sale of alcohol and tobacco and so the two kinds of bans are not comparable. Not only are trans fats easy to substitute in foodstuffs, without impairing quality or taste, the presence of trans-fats is hard to detect. It is all-but impossible for informed and conscientious consumers to avoid buying and eating trans-fats.  While banning cigarettes and alcohol mean banning an entire product category, banning the ingredient of trans fats means no such thing. Rather, it simply means that readily available replacement ingredients must be used in the preparation of the same foods. And, since these fatty replacements are widespread and cheaply available, food makers and consumers should have little difficulty making the adjustment to making and consuming the same, albeit slightly modified, foods."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro03b","title":"","text":"The American FDA considers the use of trans fats to be 'generally safe'.(1) The British Food Standards Agency says the UK's low average consumption of trans fats makes a complete ban unnecessary.(6) These organisations are already supposed to regulate foodstuffs and monitor trans fats, if they agreed that they needed to act surely they would.  For individuals considered especially vulnerable to the effects of trans-fat consumption, such as the old or the poor, the government should consider education, not a ban. Moreover, the real issue here isn't about health, but about the right of a citizen of a free country to choose to eat whatever foods he wishes. The role of government is not to restrict the freedoms of its citizens but to protect individuals and to defend their right to act freely. Informed, adult individuals have every right to eat whatever fattening, caloric or artery-clogging meals they please. Government health boards have no right to restrict the foods law-abiding citizens choose to put into their own bodies.(10)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Trans fats are uniquely unhealthy  One of the purposes of government is identify possible threats to health and protect the people from these threats. The fact that some government regulations seem 'silly' or misplaced, or cannot easily be understood by lay-people is not a compelling argument for having no regulations at all, or for not having regulations in the case of trans fat. The commentators who denounce the 'nanny state' do not indicate what, if any, regulations or styles of regulation they approve of. Do they think there should be no inspections of restaurants by health inspectors? No regulation at all of food or drug safety by the Food and Drug Administration? Some commentators think that people should be encouraged to study the dangers of trans fats and make their own judgements about what to eat. But people have limited time to do research on such matters. It makes sense to delegate the research to a central authority, so that instead of 300 million people trying to learn about trans fats and every other lurking menace, a handful of experts can make recommendations based on the likely responses and desires of the average, informed citizen.  Non-specialists\u2019 capacity to absorb information on complex chemical and biological subjects is quite limited. The majority of us are reliant on the research of others for most of what we know.(5) The opinion of the experts on the dangers of trans fats is conclusive: trans fats are unsafe.  The American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers all uses of trans fats to be 'generally regarded as safe.' This allows the use of trans fats in whatever way food producers desire. \u2019Safe\u2019 for the FDA means 'a reasonable certainty in the minds of competent scientists that the substance is not harmful under its intended conditions of use', which no longer applies to trans fats. This 'generally regarded as safe' status should be revoked which in turn would greatly restrict its use in food.  The other option would be to allow local jurisdictions to regulate trans fats, but this would be more costly and lead to a patchwork of regulations.(1) The most effective method of controlling the use of trans-fats is through centralised, nationally applicable policy making. The poor and young are particularly vulnerable to the negative health effects of trans fats; at the very least, the threat posed to these groups justifies the use of informed regulation. Professor Alan Maryon-Davis, president of the UK Faculty of Public Health said in 2010: \"There are great differences in the amount of trans-fats consumed by different people and we are particularly concerned about young people and those with little disposable income who eat a lot of this type of food. This is a major health inequalities issue.\u201d(6)  The government has a legitimate interest in protecting its citizens from harms that they are not best placed to understand or avoid themselves, and so a ban on trans fats would not only save lives but would also be legitimate under the government's role to protect when citizens cannot reasonably protect themselves."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro03a","title":"","text":"The state should ban trans fats to protect the public  One of the purposes of government is identify possible threats to health and protect the people from these threats. The fact that some government regulations seem 'silly' or misplaced, or cannot easily be understood by lay-people is not a compelling argument for having no regulations at all, or for not having regulations in the case of trans fat. The commentators who denounce the 'nanny state' do not indicate what, if any, regulations or styles of regulation they approve of. Do they think there should be no inspections of restaurants by health inspectors? No regulation at all of food or drug safety by the Food and Drug Administration? Some commentators think that people should be encouraged to study the dangers of trans fats and make their own judgements about what to eat. But people have limited time to do research on such matters. It makes sense to delegate the research to a central authority, so that instead of 300 million people trying to learn about trans fats and every other lurking menace, a handful of experts can make recommendations based on the likely responses and desires of the average, informed citizen.  Non-specialists\u2019 capacity to absorb information on complex chemical and biological subjects is quite limited. The majority of us are reliant on the research of others for most of what we know.(5) The opinion of the experts on the dangers of trans fats is conclusive: trans fats are unsafe.  The American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers all uses of trans fats to be 'generally regarded as safe.' This allows the use of trans fats in whatever way food producers desire. \u2019Safe\u2019 for the FDA means 'a reasonable certainty in the minds of competent scientists that the substance is not harmful under its intended conditions of use', which no longer applies to trans fats. This 'generally regarded as safe' status should be revoked which in turn would greatly restrict its use in food.  The other option would be to allow local jurisdictions to regulate trans fats, but this would be more costly and lead to a patchwork of regulations.(1) The most effective method of controlling the use of trans-fats is through centralised, nationally applicable policy making. The poor and young are particularly vulnerable to the negative health effects of trans fats; at the very least, the threat posed to these groups justifies the use of informed regulation. Professor Alan Maryon-Davis, president of the UK Faculty of Public Health said in 2010: \"There are great differences in the amount of trans-fats consumed by different people and we are particularly concerned about young people and those with little disposable income who eat a lot of this type of food. This is a major health inequalities issue.\u201d(6)  The government has a legitimate interest in protecting its citizens from harms that they are not best placed to understand or avoid themselves, and so a ban on trans fats would not only save lives but would also be legitimate under the government's role to protect when citizens cannot reasonably protect themselves."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con03b","title":"","text":"Many large and small chains have already made the transition to alternatives to trans-fat, so it is entirely possible. These alternatives will get cheaper with time as they are used more frequently and as the companies that produce and distribute them increase their sales volumes and are able to sell them for lower prices, meaning that small and individual restaurants will indeed be able to afford them and survive. Moreover, the health concerns in this debate override purely economic concerns or the closure of small businesses, as lives are involved."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con01b","title":"","text":"Health experts agree that banning trans fats would save thousands of lives specifically because the substance is dangerous even when consumed in very low quantities. They are simply a dangerous additive, which adds no extra value to food. 'Taste' considerations are simply a red herring, as switching to other fats would produce no meaningful change in taste, as has been demonstrated by several large food corporations who have made the shift without disappointing their customer base. The fact that other foodstuffs may be dangerous is an argument for better education or regulation regarding them, or -if merited -their own bans, but is not a case against banning trans fats. Trans-fats are significantly different to all the other unhealthy foods listed by side opposition, as trans fats are easily replaceable by less unhealthy substitutes, which things like sugar are not."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con02a","title":"","text":"The government should provide information to consumers, not restrict choice  Milton Friedman argued in the 1980s: \"If we continue on this path, there is no doubt where it will end. If the government has the responsibility of protecting us from dangerous substances, the logic surely calls for prohibiting alcohol and tobacco. . . . Insofar as the government has information not generally available about the merits or demerits of the items we ingest or the activities we engage in, let it give us the information. But let it leave us free to choose what chances we want to take with our own lives.\"(11)  George Mason University economist Don Boudreaux asks what a trans-fat ban is a model for: \"Petty tyranny? Or perhaps for similarly inspired bans on other voluntary activities with health risks? Clerking in convenience stores? Walking in the rain?\"(12) Morally the government should be consistent when it bans things, the sale of an undeniably deadly products such as tobacco is sometimes allowed so far less dangerous substances should be allowed.(13)  Education should be considered an alternative to banning trans fats or other unhealthy food. There should be aggressive education campaigns to educate consumers as has been done with tobacco.. At the moment consumers are ignorant, they need to know what they are, the dangers and the consequences. Information on trans fats should also be part of a wider program of nutrition awareness which will put it in context. . Many people have rejected tobacco as a result of raised awareness; the same will occur with trans fats. The food industry would respond to consumer demand and reduce the use of trans fats and other ingredients considered \u2018bad\u2019.(13) Information on trans-fats is not hard to come by: the Centre for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), for example, is happy to inform about the dangers of dietary trans-fat, and has no trouble getting its declarations of doom on television and into newspapers.(11) This consumer pressure is already occurring. In the United States, for example, many fast-food chains and food manufacturers have already eliminated trans fats from their products or have pledged to phase them out. To pick one case, Wal-Mart is going to reduce its sugar, sodium content and remove all trans fats from its food.(14)  Left to its own devices, the market will solve this 'problem' in all areas which consumers consider it to be a problem, all without needing an unwieldy government ban. Therefore the government should educate its citizens regarding the health concerns surrounding trans fats, but leave it up to the citizens to choose what they eat."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con03a","title":"","text":"Banning trans fats in uneconomical  A trans-fat ban would hurt small restaurants the most. Carlie Irwin argues: \u201cSince most of the big chains have already started the process of eliminating trans-fat from their food, the ban would be no big deal to them. But small, independent restaurants are another story. The potential ban has small restaurant owners sweating and nervously eyeing their deep fryers. As the St. Louis Business Journal points out, many small restaurant owners don\u2019t have the ability to effectively and efficiently reformulate their menu items. So banning trans fat could mean that your favorite independently-owned fried chicken joint down the street will be shuttering its doors.\u201d(17)  Consequently, a trans-fat ban would breed legal exceptions and inconsistencies. For example, in Illinois bakeries were exempted from their ban because lawmakers knew that it would drive up their costs and hurt the bakeries specialty items. Many other small businesses would be similarly affected Restaurants and other specialty vendors who use trans-fat products on site would also be affected. Lawmakers then have a choice of either reducing the effect of the ban and including lots of bureaucratic exemptions or punishing these businesses.(9) Tina Pantazis, the manager of Dino's Burgers, which operates two hamburger outlets in California, argues: \"The only effect [a ban on trans fat] is going to have on the consumer is that we are going to have to raise our prices.\"(19)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con01a","title":"","text":"Trans fats are not uniquely unhealthy  The issue with trans-fat is that there is no better substitute. The fact is that the substitutes are also as bad, if not worse, than trans-fat itself. By banning trans-fat, restaurants will have to adopt these substitute substances, thus undermining the work of the government. This process is a waste of our resources as the government will have to spend huge amount of money to bring about a ban on trans-fat without getting any positive outcome.  The trans-fat ban would only have clear benefits if it were to cause a general reduction in the overconsumption of high-fat foods, but a restaurant ban on one ingredient will not achieve this. This will mean that money will be wasted as increased costs will be passed on to the consumer while there is no benefit.(8) Trans fats are not uniquely and excessively unhealthy. Sugar is unhealthy. Salt is unhealthy. Runny eggs, rare meat, processed flour, nearly anything consumed too frequently or excessively is potentially dangerous. We would not ban these foods because they are unhealthy so the same should apply to trans fats.  The current obesity crisis within the US is not the result of regulatory failure and will not be solved by a ban on trans fats. Better choices, better parenting, exercise and personal restraint are the keys. None of these behavioural traits can be mandated by government.(9) Even if trans fats were eliminated from food products, overall a ban would do nothing to help individuals develop healthy lifestyles. While the ban would curtail consumption of onion rings (if they were cooked in trans fats), for example, it would remain perfectly legal to gorge oneself on H\u00e4agen-Dazs or chocolate, both unhealthy foods that contain no trans-fat.(10)  The main alternatives to trans-fat is not even that much healthier. In most cases, food makers will move to saturated fat, which carries all of the same health risks, for example it has been linked to diabetes and cancer.(9) The ban is therefore unlikely to have a perceptible effect on public health.  Trans-fats actually serve two useful purposes. Firstly, trans fats serve an important function of extending the shelf life of products.(1) This is necessary for both producers and consumers as it makes producing these foods cheaper and reduces waste. It also means that consumers are less likely to consume spoiled food and become sick as a result. Secondly, trans fats are tasty and offer enjoyment to consumers. Trans fats keep foods from turning rancid on store shelves; give croissants their flakiness, keep muffins moist and satisfy the sweet tooth. The enjoyment of such tasty foods has a qualitative value to one's emotions and happiness.(3) Therefore trans fats are not uniquely unhealthy and a ban would not improve general public health -it would simply remove a useful and tasty substance from the market. Thus a ban is unjustified."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con02b","title":"","text":"Calling for an \"education campaign\" to inform consumers of what they are eating may sound sufficient, but this is very often just not enough. No matter what the government does, people will simply miss the \"instructional\" information provided by the government and will continue to consume trans fats without full information regarding its negative effects. In such circumstances, it is the government's job to step in a take action through a ban or other measures.  Moreover, when a harmful trend such as the use of trans-fats becomes endemic and entrenched, it becomes increasingly difficult for citizens to always be aware of the fact that a food has trans fats in them and make the \"choice\" to eat or not to eat them.(15)  Producers include trans fats into foods without adjusting labelling, further affecting consumers\u2019 ability to purchase foods that do not include trans-fats. The trans fats hidden in many processed foods are worse for a person's health than saturated fats. In 2005, CHOICE, an Australian watchdog tested more than 50 processed foods and found many contained trans fats at unacceptably high levels. After re-tests it was still clear that, while the fast-food chains had reduced their levels of trans fats, and some of the foods tested previously had eliminated trans fats altogether, others now contained even more than before. Foods such as pies, cakes and doughnuts may contain trans fats without the consumer even knowing about it.(16)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is not cruel if it can be shown that this restriction is in the patient\u2019s own interest. The status quo prevents patients from living out their last days on a stream of experimental drugs. We prevent drug companies from using them as risk-free testing (under your policy drug companies would presumably be able to shrug off any responsibility for adverse consequences by saying that it was the patient\u2019s choice to try an experimental drug), and allow them instead to receive the appropriate support for someone at the end of their life, and come to terms with that.  Further, it is important to remember that drugs at this stage are not necessarily miracle cures! If someone is refused access to a trial this is normally to reduce the risk of adverse consequences: it is wrong to give someone an experimental drug that could negatively impact the quality of their final days."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-pro02a","title":"","text":"It is cruel to deny people the last hope  At a point when all ordinary medical avenues have been expended, and the outcome appears bleak, new treatments still undergoing trials can be seen as the last hope.  People are often aware of the existence of currently experimental drugs, they are likely to research into possible cures, and indeed there may have been attempts by their doctor to get the patient onto the trial.  However, not everyone who could benefit from treatment is accepted onto a clinical trial: some trials, at some stages, restrict their recruitment to, for example, patients with no complicating factors or other illnesses.  It is unethical and cruel to make people live out their last days knowing that there was something that could have helped, but to which access was restricted through no fault of their own: thus, you should allow anyone with a terminal illness access to such treatments."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-pro03b","title":"","text":"First, note that the reason for the existence of the placebo arm is to determine if the drug is more effective than placebo, so in some cases the drug will not be, and nothing will have been lost!  Second, for this point to stand, it has to be shown why the present generation should be prioritised above all future ones: the consequences of giving the present patients a slightly increased chance of survival is to negatively impact patients in the future in a myriad ways (see opposition arguments).  Third, there are a number of reasons to doubt that this is, in fact in the present patient\u2019s best interest: it is not the case that terminally ill people have \u2018nothing to lose\u2019 and can therefore be used as human guinea pigs (providing there is an, as yet unspecified, probability of survival). The large-scale provision of un-trialled drugs may well result in side-effects denigrating the quality of the patient\u2019s remaining years.  Finally, the practical consequence considered can be sidestepped through a) better supervision of trials and b) improved doctor-patient relationships (a particular problem during the AIDS crisis). Further, note that the case of AIDS is something of an anomalous one: AIDS patients were more numerous and politicised than any other group before or since, thus enabling this sort of trial-breaking behaviour."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Freedom of Choice  We live in a free society, and accept that people have the right to do as they please; including exposing themselves to risk, as long as in so doing they do not harm others (Mill\u2019s harm principle).1  To deny people the right to choose to take drugs that are still undergoing testing that, whilst they are risky, may save their lives, is a violation of this principle: in choosing to expose themselves to that risk, no-one else is harmed and indeed in the long run others may be saved as a result of the tests. Further, with the assistance of medical professionals and other support, the decision to take this risk can easily be well-informed and consensual.  1 Wilson, Fred, \"John Stuart Mill\", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition),"}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is not the case that this is a policy with no harms other than to the person with a terminal illness (see opposition arguments).  Second, it seems unreasonable to suggest people are making a free and informed choice in this instance: no-one has sufficient information for taking the drug to represent anything but a gamble; this is why there is a need for tests."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-pro03a","title":"","text":"It is unethical to force a \u2018volunteer\u2019 to take the chance of being randomised onto the placebo arm of a trial  Under the status quo, someone with a terminal illness is offered two choices: death, or to join a trial (where such trials exist). However, when they join a trial they face the possibility that they will be given a placebo, not the drug.  Whilst this is probably in the best interest of future patients (a good clinical trial will determine the efficacy of the new treatment), it rides roughshod over the rights of the current patients (not to be sacrificed for future generations) and the duty of physicians to act in the best interests of their present patients.  There are two consequences here: the first is that it is morally dubious to use the present patients as mere means to an end, rather than acting in their own best interests, especially where, if randomized to the placebo arm the outcome of death is a certainty.  The second consequence is a practical one: compliance with the trial is lessened at the point at which patients can take alternative measures to increase their chance of survival. This was best documented during the early stages of the AIDS crisis in the 1980s, where there was evidence of \u2018cheating\u2019 during the trials1. People lied or bribed their way into clinical studies; and shared drugs to dilute the \u2018risk\u2019 of being on placebo.  This has the obvious impact of casting doubt on the scientific results of the trials: you can no longer be sure who has taken what, and what other conditions they may have.  1 Sch\u00fcklenk, Udo, and Lowry, Christopher, \u2018Terminal illness and access to Phase 1 experimental agents, surgeries and devices: reviewing the ethical arguments\u2019, British Medical Bulletin, Vol.89, 2009, pp.7-22,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con03b","title":"","text":"There is no reason why, under this model, you could not retain suitable precautions to ensure that this doesn\u2019t happen.  For example, you could continue the obligation for companies to sell the drug at cost (they would, naturally, continue to be incentivised by the huge profits they expect to make when the drug is licensed). Further, you could impose financial sanctions on companies that refused to take appropriate action towards completing testing."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con01b","title":"","text":"First, this may well be overridden by the individual rights of present patients (see proposition arguments).  Second, the greater time taken to recruit is one that may be offset by greater numbers: whilst the trial will be of a lower quality (no control group, etc.) there will nevertheless be a greater number of people willing to take the drug (people who wouldn\u2019t have wanted to be part of a trial, but are willing to try the new treatment). Consequently, it may well be possible to compensate for the other problems with the trial. Further, alternative trialling models can be employed, for example using patients who choose not to take the drug as the control group. Whilst you lose the benefit here of having a double-blind trial (as under the status quo), you gain in terms of the benefits to current patients."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con02a","title":"","text":"This gives people false hope  If these drugs are made available, you risk giving many people false hope in the last days of their lives. People, particularly when in desperate situations, tend to overestimate a treatment\u2019s efficacy.  Given that these treatments are still undergoing the trial process, it is possible that they are ineffective, or have side-effects that outweigh any benefits.  Thus, to allow such drugs and treatments to be handed out during the testing process, there is a great risk of giving people false hope. This is especially the case given the compromised role of the physician in this scenario: ordinarily, if a patient wants an experimental drug, they can have a discussion with their physician that stresses the \u2018in trial\u2019 nature of the drug, and thus the uncertainty of it working. Subsequent experiences (the inconveniences of trials; filling in forms and receiving expenses) reinforce the idea that these drugs were experimental, and that the bulk of the benefit from the trial accrues for future patients.  Consequently, in that scenario it is easier for the physician to help the patient to come to terms with the end of life; to deal with this and to realise that any trial drugs give only a slim chance of improvement. In the scenario envisaged by this proposition, experimental drugs can be acquired as easily as licensed ones, and therefore there is no longer that clear distinction for the patient between \u2018doing all you can\u2019 in the ordinary sense, (trying every treatment that is known to be effective) and trying \u2018one more (experimental) drug\u2019.  Therefore, the patient is less likely to be able to come to terms with their own condition, and therefore less likely to be able to deal with the emotional trauma inflicted not only upon them, but on close family and loved ones."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con04a","title":"","text":"This policy enhances the role of drug reps and advertising, at the cost of evidence-based medicine  By allowing anyone who is critically ill to use experimental drugs you enhance the already dubious role of drug company reps: especially in the USA, (where doctors do not operate under the NHS guidance found in the UK), there is already a problem of patterns of prescription being altered by the techniques of drug reps, rather than by evidence1. Where drugs are for sale before they have completed testing, there is even less evidence available, and therefore less ability for physicians to contest the claims of either reps or their own patients (who may have heard of the drug during their own research). Hence you magnify the problem of potentially ineffective of even harmful prescription.  1 Harris, Gwyn, \u2018Pharmaceutical representatives do influence physician behaviour\u2019, Family Practice, Vol.26 2009, pp.169-70,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con03a","title":"","text":"This reduces the incentive for pharmaceutical companies to complete the testing process  Testing new drugs is a very expensive process, in 2000 the average cost was estimated at around 86 million for the large scale phase III tests1 however this is contested and it could be much higher it represents 40% of pharmaceutical companies R&D expenditures, which since a recent estimated the development cost of a drug can be up to $5.8billion (due to including failures) the cost of trials would in some cases then be $2billion,2 which is currently funded by pharmaceutical companies. They fund these tests because it is either impossible, very difficult or very risky to access large markets before testing has been completed (e.g. in the USA companies are only allowed to sell new drugs \u201coff-study\u201d, i.e. during trials, at cost3)  If you allow all terminally ill patients access to experimental drugs, you reduce the incentive for companies to continue testing their products: they will have access to a large market prior to the completion of testing, and will therefore have no incentive to complete trials, which are expensive and risk finding the product ineffective.  1 DiMasi, Joseph A. et al., \u2018The price of innovation: new estimates of drug development costs\u2019, Journal of Health Economics, Vol.22, 2003, pp.151-185, p.162   2 Roy, Avik S. A., \u2018Stifling New Cures: The True Cost of Lengthy Clinical Drug Trials\u2019, Project FDA Report, No. 5, April 2012,   3 Sch\u00fcklenk, Udo, and Lowry, Christopher, \u2018Terminal illness and access to Phase 1 experimental agents, surgeries and devices: reviewing the ethical arguments\u2019, British Medical Bulletin, Vol.89, 2009, pp.7-22,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con01a","title":"","text":"Disastrous impact on medical trials  We need medical trials. It is important to have large groups of recruits, which can often be very difficult: a problem with the speed at which new treatments for rare diseases is the rate of recruitment (and therefore the length of time taken to complete the trial)1.  If you pass this motion, trials will face large problems with recruitment, an area where there are already sometimes shortages2: if people can get access to the drug without a) the possibility of being placed in the placebo arm or b) inconveniences of being part of a trial, there is a reduced chance of them choosing to enter the trial.  Consequently, the sample size in trials will be decreased. This will have a couple of outcomes:  First trials will take a longer time to be completed as a result of fewer volunteers and this is bad for patients currently taking the new drug as well as for future patients. This is because it will take longer to determine the safety of the drug meaning if it is dangerous those taking the drug will be taking it for longer before the danger is fully appreciated and if safe then the drug will have taken longer to get to the market than it could have. The longer the trials take to complete, the more people are forced to decide whether to take the drug in the absence of reliable information. This means that, at such a stressful time, people are effectively forced to gamble the quality of their remaining years with the hope of gaining a few more (new drugs are unlikely to be \u2018miracle cures\u2019. Rather, they are likely to extend life by driving the disease into remission).  It is important to remember that, at this stage, it has yet to be determined whether new drugs are more effective than old ones, and second, that the sorts of drugs used to treat terminal illnesses tend to come with substantial side effects. As a consequence, if many people are using a new treatment before trialling has been completed, they may be using something that is not effective and has side-effects that significantly impact the quality of the last years of their life.  Finally, the longer trials are delayed, the greater the chance that future trials will be biased by media hype ad speculation. It is both easy and profitable for media outlets to exaggerate early successes of a drug with claims and headlines such as \u201cwonder drug\u201d.  This is problematic because of the tendency towards confirmation bias on the part of researchers: the greater their expectation of a positive result, the more likely they are to alter data to receive that result. Note that this is not as a result of deliberate fraud or deception, but rather, the result of any number of small decisions that, cumulatively, create a large result.  1 Jenkins, John, \u2018Considerations for Clinical Trial Designs\u2019, U.S. Food and Drug Administration,   2 \u2018Volunteer for research at UNClinicalStudies.org\u2019, University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con04b","title":"","text":"Drugs that are still undergoing clinical trials do not have a complete void of information about them. Presumably this policy covers drugs that have completed at least some testing in humans (say, phase one of the trials), and therefore at least some information would be available on which doctors and patients could base their decisions.  Further, it is implausible to suggest that doctors are entirely under the sway of advertisers: whilst drug reps under the status quo have some influence in getting a doctor to use one drug rather than another, this is in instances where there is little to choose between those products, and (importantly!) both are licensed, safe and effective. They would clearly not be so reckless as to blindly follow a drugs rep and prescribe an untested product to their patient."}
+{"id":"training-health-hpessghwgt-con02b","title":"","text":"Doctors are trained in the presentation of news to their patients. This includes the delivery of bad news, and the dispelling of media-myths. Patients with terminal illnesses are often well-informed about their disease, and (in particular those with chronic conditions) often gain a good understanding of the possibilities of future treatments.  The risk that they may all get carried away on a wave of false hope is, consequently, minimal. Patients in this circumstance are more than capable of reaching, in conjunction with their physician, an informed decision regarding experimental drugs, and make a choice accordingly. The moderate risk of someone making an error in no way outweighs the chance of giving someone some more time with their family.  Countries that already allow access to treatments that have not completed trials do not just allow the doctor to simply proscribe the drug as with any other. Rather the doctor will need to apply for access to the drug.1 In addition the drugs company will also have to give its approval.2 As a result it is unlikely that the patient will consider this the same way as they do normal drugs.  1 \u2018Special Access Programme \u2013 Drugs\u2019, Health Canada, 15 August 2005,   2 \u2018Compassionate Use of Unapproved Investigational Product\u2019, Pfizer,"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Although the use of virtual networks and doctors may provide solutions to share knowledge it creates other difficulties. The use of VDP as an educational tool clearly has downsides. First it is not designed for training; if it were why not use a tool specifically for training? As the VDP is not any educational benefits have to be considered secondary. Unlike with a specifically educational tool there is no way for the experts to test that the knowledge they are passing on is being learnt or that their advice is being followed.  Additionally, if the use of virtual doctors is educating medical officers on the ground does it ensure the newly trained professional will stay in Zambia? The bigger picture of what the officers do, and whether the government implement competitive labour policies, requires consideration."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The network approach: promoting learning  The use of ICT and creating a network of professional experts enables learning and knowledge transfer between health workers and academics. In addition to the brain-drain, whereby skilled health professionals continue to emigrate from Zambia, Zambia also shows a slow rate of training of new health workers. Therefore the VDP provides a vital learning tool. VDP provides practical skills by healthcare workers to learn from first-hand experience while having access to a field of experts, or advisers, able to answer any questions. The quality of healthcare will be improved as workers in remote locations are given access to information and correct answers for diagnosis. A global pool of skills can be drawn upon, and utilised, when required."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Mobility remains a key issue across Africa. The WDR (2009) identifies three key sources for effective integration: institutions, infrastructure, and interventions. Infrastructure includes systems that facilitate the geographical movement of goods, services, people, and ideas - such as roads. The reality of a mobile clinic therefore relies heavily on having the infrastructure to support flexibility, mobility, and frequent movement.  Mobile clinics still won\u2019t be able to reach all patients that need their help; public investment is required into infrastructure such as roads and railways first. The project can only work if mobile clinics are able to be mobile. Further, even if they are mobile it doesn\u2019t necessarily ensure people become ill when the medical officer happens to be visiting."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro05a","title":"","text":"Taking healthcare beyond basic needs  Not only does VDP improve access to primary health care but the networks developed between different health advisers mean changing health demands can be met. Across Africa there is now a shift in the type of diseases prevalent. Increasing rates of non-communicable disease are being recorded - for which advisers can provide ongoing support. Additionally, there remains a need to improve understanding and treatment of mental health issues within rural areas in particular. Concern with mental health requires greater recognition across Africa. Finally, data can be collected on health issues affecting rural areas for targeted intervention."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Tackling access: working in rural areas  Zambia\u2019s human resource crisis in healthcare is most prominent in rural areas. Poverty remains widespread and despite Zambia\u2019s high economic fortune as a result of copper during the 1960s it has become a heavily-indebted poor country. The World Bank (2013) classifies 76% of Zambia\u2019s poor as residing in rural areas. With disparities in access to health prevalent, Zambia needs to train new doctors and nurses to ensure the population can access health care. The VDP is therefore tackling the issue of access within rural, and remote, areas.  Access to health is a human right, and the VDP is ensuring such rights are become a reality in rural areas and rural populations. Mortality and morbidity can be reduced as rural health workers are able to diagnose and treat a wider range of conditions."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Zambia needs to improve its health care system in general, not work on implementing a virtual programme. Physical contact is still necessary for diagnosis and treatment.  Alternative schemes are being used to meet health needs and improve the structure of Zambia\u2019s health system. For example, the Clinton Foundation and DFID [1] have invested in the provision of community health workers. These programmes invest in training community health workers across Zambia\u2019s rural regions. The health workers trained are therefore physically located within the regions. This is much more important than having virtual doctors on call.  [1] See further readings: Clinton Foundation, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro05b","title":"","text":"Can the VDP go beyond basic needs and rights when the scale, and scope, of basic need is so large? Figures show a negative image not only of physical health, also the environment in which people live in. The maternal mortality ratio is calculated at around 590 per 100,000 and infant mortality (under 1) stands at 53 per 1,000 live births. However, only 61% of the population have access to improved drinking water; and 48% are able to access improved sanitation facilities (UNICEF, 2013).  Can we rely on NGO\u2019s providing the VDP to fulfil basic needs when the challenges are so large?"}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro04b","title":"","text":"A study carried out by Masiye (2007) indicates only around 40% of Zambia\u2019s hospitals can be defined as efficient. There remains a significant problem of resource wastage in Zambia\u2019s hospitals and the hospitals are technically inefficient in producing, and delivering, services. Health goals cannot be achieved in Zambia if hospitals continue to function inefficiently. This raises concern as to how the hospitals cope once referrals are sent? Is the wider health system adequate?  Outsourcing of medical professions into rural areas, and making improvements in the speed and quality of referrals does not resolve the issue of hospital quality. Although VDP\u2019s can act to significantly reduce the number of inappropriate referrals investment, training, and improved management, is still required within Zambia\u2019s hospital system. Additionally, improved access to drugs is needed. Drug shortages have been reported due to corruption scandals - funding provided to supply drugs in the health sector have previously gone missing [1] . Generic drugs are in short-supply, and high demand. Without doctors being able to access vital drugs, whether they are located in hospitals or remote areas, treatment cannot be provided.  [1] See further readings: IRIN, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Flexibility of mobile clinics  The use of mobile clinics and ICT in health not only tackles issues around location accessibility to health, by travelling into remote areas, but also the flexibility provided through the clinics mobility means a larger population can be seen and treated.  Virtual doctors are flexible; one doctor can be providing his or her expertise through numerous local doctors and nurses at any time. They can help staff with much less training make the correct decisions. By using mobile clinics the location is flexible - and can be altered depending on variations in social need and seasons -, and the time individuals can access the clinic is flexible. Mobile clinics are more responsive to demand."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Speeding up referral  Each mobile clinic will be equipped with vital tools and equipment, and staffed with a medical assistant, a midwife\/nurse, and project officer. Furthermore, the presence of a medical staff team means a number of services can be provided for women, men, and children. The team are able to carry out tests on the ground, and if required refer the patient to a hospital. Referrals are made by the staff, with all required information passed on to the hospital and an appropriate appointment made.  The VDP makes each actor within the referral and treatment process aware of their position and role. The VDP appropriately delegates jobs; thus improving the system of hospital referrals and minimising unnecessary costs from inappropriate referrals."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con03b","title":"","text":"Technology will only be required within the mobile clinics, to enable the VDP networks to be used. It is a key component, but not the only foundation of which the VDP is based on. This means that the clinics can carry equipment to ensure access to the internet remains \u2013 such as a satellite connection. Furthermore, significant developments have been made in Zambia\u2019s technological revolution. Internet connectivity has improved in rural areas; and pioneering movements across rural areas - such as the implementation of solar-powered internet - means connectivity is spreading into rural, remote, Zambia."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con01b","title":"","text":"Today the inclusion of private stakeholders in providing access to health is proving to be a sustainable approach. To achieve developmental impact the public sector is no longer the key source or actor. Although increased support by the government - both financial and political - may be required in the future it is not fundamental for the implementation stage. The VDP can continue to grow and be sustainable through the work of private organisations and funders. The state can later step in and expand the system nationwide when it is fully demonstrated. Private partnerships are changing how health-care is provided and its sustainability."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con02a","title":"","text":"Resolving the health service crisis?  To what extent does the VDP resolve the lack of health service professionals in Zambia? Two caveats emerge.  Firstly, the project shows how intervention from international organisations can work against trade union demands and employment issues. The project is introducing a model of outsourcing. The medical staff do not need to be based in hospitals so reducing government costs and decentralising employees. Recent strikes by nurses [1] shows dissatisfaction with work conditions and overwork. It raises concern over the motives of the VDP. Is the VDP encouraging social protection and an ethical work environment for all medical professionals? Or is the VDP an escape mechanism to keep wages low and neglect demands made by working nurses? A majority of the expert \u2018virtual doctors\u2019 employed are volunteers. Ultimately then the government might consider the VDP a good excuse not to invest in training Zambian doctors.  Secondly, does the VDP resolve the issue of brain drain? Improved incentives and increased salaries are required for trained medical professionals, to motivate them to stay. The VDP may help educated doctors but it does not provide them with reasons to remain in Zambia, rather it gives them contacts with outside healthcare systems where their skills will be much better rewarded.  [1] See further readings: Kunda, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con04a","title":"","text":"Will virtual doctors be used?  Even if VDPs do improve access to health services we cannot assume the health services will be used. The use of traditional healers, and practices, remains popular across rural Zambia [1] . If the population is unwilling to use modern medicine then providing better access to that medicine will be of little benefit. If formally trained doctors and medicines are not accepted, or trusted, by communities then the resources being spent on VDPs would be much better spent on education to encourage people to make better use of the facilities they already have than introducing new technology based solutions that will simply be more likely to be rejected.  [1] See further readings: Bansal, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con03a","title":"","text":"A dangerous reliance on technology?  ICT is providing innovative solutions to resolve many social problems across Africa. However, is there now a dangerous reliance on technology? Not everyone has access to mobiles and signal remains precarious. When answers, diagnosis, and treatment, are reliant on using technology in the field it needs to be ensured that the service fitted in mobile clinics will remain reliable for field health workers. Additionally, it needs to be ensured that the network of global professionals frequently check messages for updates and respond as quickly as possible. The quality of health service cannot be improved if the response time remains low due to insufficient technology or connectivity. The scheme requires partnerships to telephone and information technology companies.  The reliance on technology is also danger when we consider what information the technology used is actually providing. The VDP will mainly involve text-based emails and messages to provide patient information. Expanding to use images and videos - such as through Skype - will ensure the virtual doctor is more involved in the process, reducing error."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con01a","title":"","text":"How sustainable?  A key issue that needs to be raised is funding. Currently the VDP is funded by a range of corporate partners - including Microsoft and Google. However, for the project to be sustainable in the long-run investment is required from a wider range of bodies, and further partnerships need to be formed with the public sector. The government needs to be included as a funder and supporter. The neglect, and exclusion, of the government within discussion on health projects - such as VDP - only acts to remove their responsibility and obligation to tackle the social dilemma. Healthcare is the responsibility of government, not the NGOs and private firms that are providing VDP."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con04b","title":"","text":"Figures showcasing the popular use of traditional practices, and medicine, do not show the reasons behind use. It fails to recognise the degree of choice and the nature of treatment provided. If people don\u2019t have access to modern medicine then they will go to that which is available. The answer then is to increase access to modern medicine to provide the alternative."}
+{"id":"training-health-dhiahwivdp-con02b","title":"","text":"The VDP is providing a number a solution to the lack of human resources within Zambia\u2019s health sector. VDP is enabling the growth of local jobs, for Zambian nationals. Although there are no current figures to estimate the amount of jobs that will be provided within the health sector, the VDP has currently been rolled out into six sites and continues to expand. New clinics will be set-up across Zambia, as well as Tanzania, Malawi and Kenya. A growing body of health workers will be required to maintain the VDP network; reducing the doctor to population disparity in Zambia."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro02b","title":"","text":"The added cost to public healthcare that comes as a result of diseases brought upon by smoking is vastly outweighed by the amount of money governments around the world receive in taxes on tobacco. The UK currently takes around 60% of the cost of a pack of cigarettes in tax duty. In 2008, the US took over $16 billion in tobacco tax revenue1. Such high tax duties and revenues can hardly be justified if smokers are not even to get healthcare for their money. And without the taxes, cigarettes would be much cheaper, encouraging more people to smoke. Moreover, because smokers tend to die earlier than non-smokers, per head the average health care costs are lower than those of non-smokers2. 1 Tax Policy Centre, US Tobacco Revenue Statistics, 2 USA Today, 15 Jul 11, Do smokers cost society money.. Accessed 15 Jul 11."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro02a","title":"","text":"Smokers are a drain on economic resources  Smokers contribute a disproportionately large amount to the cost of healthcare. They are a drain on resources. In the UK it is estimated that up to 9,500 beds are blocked daily by smokers, and that up to eight million doctor consultations are required on their behalf each year. A well-informed smoker, unable or unwilling to quit, might assume an increased risk for himself but he would also be indirectly increasing the likelihood of others being unable to access necessary healthcare and this is not fair. Allowing smokers to take scarce beds or organs needed for transplants - that could otherwise go to those suffering from genuine misfortunes - is an unjust allocation of resources."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro03b","title":"","text":"Many smokers do not choose to harm themselves, they simply can't help it. The 1988 US Surgeon General's report on the addictive nature of cigarette smoking provides proof of what is now widely accepted \u2013 smoking cigarettes is highly addictive. Moreover, there are high correlations between people smoking and being under stress or having parents that smoke. All of this suggests that people do not necessarily choose to smoke and may not be able to choose to give up. Given that smokers can therefore be portrayed as suffering from involuntary addiction, it would seem sensible to tackle this addiction alongside physical health issues, as oppose to dismissing smokers altogether."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro05a","title":"","text":"As smokers have a higher chance of harm from surgery due to complications arising from their habit, it is more efficient to prioritize non-smokers  Failure to quit smoking before surgical procedures increases cardiac and pulmonary complications, impairs tissue healing, and is associated with more infections and other complications at the surgical site. For example, in a study of wound and other complications after hip or knee surgery, no smoker who quit beforehand developed a wound infection compared with 26% of ongoing smokers and 27% of those who only reduced tobacco use. Overall complications were reduced to 10% in those who quit smoking compared with 44% in those who continued1. This means that surgery costs more on average for smokers and is also less likely to be effective. Treating more smokers means devoting more resources for lower results. Therefore, prioritizing non-smokers, at least in certain areas of healthcare, would be beneficial to society as a whole. 1http Peters, M.J. (2007) Should smokers be refused surgery? British Medical Journal,"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro01a","title":"","text":"The law would act as a deterrent against attempts to conceal a smoking habit to procure healthcare  There are realistic ways a policy of denying healthcare access to smokers could be carried out. Insurance companies already ask lots of health-related questions, often including whether their client is a smoker, when assessing life insurance premiums. In these cases, you are required to give details of your lifestyle by law. Of course, some people do not, however this is to be expected since no law is one hundred per cent effective. Sanctions exist to discourage dishonest behaviour. A similar model could be put in place requiring a declaration of smoker status to the health authority. Indeed, many doctors already enquire about their patients' smoking statuses on an informal basis. It is also particularly hard to lie about being a smoker for two reasons. First, other people inevitably see you smoking. This means an abundance of witnesses in the case of a dispute, and thus a disincentive to lie. Second, people require doctors to undertake detailed examinations for treatment purposes, thereby allowing them to see obvious outward signs of smoking: tar deposits, tar in cough, yellowed fingernails, etc."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro01b","title":"","text":"Denying, or even reducing, access to healthcare for smokers is impractical, and therefore an unrealistic policy goal. First, the extent to which care is denied is questionable. Does the proposition model include denying palliative care? If it does, this literally means leaving people to suffer agonising pain in emergencies while they try to locate private prescription painkillers, if they can afford them. Further, does it include denying emergency procedures such as resuscitation in the case of a heart attack? If it does, where are patients supposed to go? Private emergency rooms are few and far between, or non-existent, in many countries \u2013 never mind private ambulances. Second, in order to encourage smokers to stop smoking, the process needs to involve reactivating access to healthcare if smokers quit. But any cut-off point at which the right is re-activated will necessarily be arbitrary. Some studies have suggested that, for instance, teenagers do irreparable damage to their respiratory systems even if they stop smoking young. If all citizens make an informed decision to smoke, as the proposition argues, isn\u2019t it the case that teenagers make an informed decision to do inordinate damage to their bodies? If it is, then why should there be an absolute cut-off point at which one reassumes healthcare rights? Should there be a relative scale? Wouldn\u2019t this be impossible to construct on a scientific basis?"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro05b","title":"","text":"Smokers may have a higher chance of harm from surgery due to complications arising from their habit, but this is not a phenomenon specific to them. Cardiovascular disease, or heart disease to most people, is the number one killer of men and women in the United States1. It is caused by the build-up of fatty deposits that clog the vessels - those at risk are often smokers, but can just as often be those who are overweight, have diabetes or simply high blood pressure. As such, it is not justified to single out smokers when those with unhealthy diets can just as easily cause complications in their surgeries.  1. Daily News, 13 Jul 11, Cardiovascular disease: Defend yourself by lowering the risks.Accessed 14 Jul 11."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is no evidence that limiting access to healthcare would act as a deterrent. In fact, in the developing world, where a smoker would on average have worse access to healthcare, tobacco consumption has increased significantly over the last decade.1 Furthermore, governments have indeed acted to discourage smoking through a variety of methods. These have included advertising campaigns and banning smoking in public places and they seem to have worked. Cigarette use in the developed world has declined over the last 50 years. In the UK, smoking rates have dropped by half between 1974 and 2009, from 45% down to 21%2. A majority 59% have never taken up the habit3. 1 World Health Organization, The Tobacco Atlas, 2 Daily Telegraph, 22 Jan 09, Lowest ever number of smokers after public ban and health campaigns.Accessed 14 Jul 2011. 3 Daily Telegraph, 22 Jan 09, Lowest ever number of smokers after public ban and health campaigns.Accessed 14 Jul 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro03a","title":"","text":"The added cost to public healthcare that comes as a result of diseases brought upon by smoking is vastly outweighed by the amount of money governments around the world receive in taxes on tobacco. The UK currently takes around 60% of the cost of a pack of  Many people have to wait for surgery when they have fallen ill or gotten injured through no fault of their own. Many of the people they are waiting behind have fallen ill out of choice. This includes smokers who have contracted diseases as a result of their habit. There is a vast array of information, easily available to smokers, on the dangers of cigarettes. If despite this, a person chooses to smoke anyway then it is unfair that others who have fallen ill out of genuine misfortune should have to wait in line behind them for healthcare. This problem is particularly in acute in states that have universal healthcare, where non-smokers are forced to wait in a queue for treatment behind those who have negligently made themselves ill smoking. In Britain for example, they have attempted to avoid this by establishing standards under which surgery is denied to obese patients1. Thomas Condliff, the patient, was denied gastric band surgery due to having a body mass index lower than the threshold under which they believed the surgery would be effective2. The priority in such cases is and should be with those who have made a conscious decision to develop an unhealthy habit. 1 BBC News, 11 Jul 11, Man appeals for NHS gastric bypass surgery. Accessed 14 Jul 11."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro04a","title":"","text":"Denying access to healthcare for smokers would act as a deterrent, discouraging smokers  Governments should do everything they can to discourage smoking. They already attempt to do so in a number of ways, such as through ensuring graphic health warnings are present on all tobacco packaging. Many states have also introduced legislation banning smoking indoors in an attempt to discourage the habit. However, smoking is still a massive problem - millions of people still do it. The refusal of medical treatment to smokers would surely be a massive deterrent to current\/potential smokers from continuing\/starting the habit. The safety net of modern healthcare being pulled from underneath them would be a powerful incentive to give up the habit, and reduce the estimated $100 billion that the White House believes smokers cost the economy annually through loss of productivity1. 1 USA Today, 15 Jul 11, Do smokers cost society money.. Accessed 15 Jul 11."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con03b","title":"","text":"Denying access to healthcare for smokers will not hurt the economy, for the health care costs of smokers are substantially larger than those of non-smokers. In fact, 'health care costs for smokers at a given age are as much as 40 percent higher than those for non-smokers' . Furthermore, though the opposition points out that because smokers die younger, average health costs are in fact lower than non-smokers, denying access to healthcare will have two effects which will cancel each other out: more people will give up smoking, increasing gross medical costs for the state, but those who don't will die younger for they won't get treatment, which will offset the previous rise."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con01b","title":"","text":"There are realistic and practical ways in which the policy of denying healthcare to smokers could be carried out. Smoking is a habit that has clear and demonstrable physical effects, which often correlate with the regularity and longevity of the habit; doctors are trained to recognize such symptoms and do not need patient confirmation. Furthermore, if the bill made it quite clear that healthcare was to be denied to present smokers, the hypothetical presented by the opposition is easily negated. The goal of such a bill would to be to ensure that both smokers gave up the habit and non-smokers did not take up the habit. In this case, the man taking up smoking is in the wrong and is acting contrary to the law. He would have little room for complaint."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con02a","title":"","text":"Denying access to healthcare for smokers will lead to thousands of people being turned away and potentially dying from preventable illnesses  The denial of access to healthcare for smokers is a policy that will directly lead to the turning away of millions of people, merely for making one perfectly legal, if ill-advised lifestyle choice. In a state like France, where 20 per cent of the population, 12 million people, are smokers, such a policy would leave a large minority unable to access basic healthcare for issues that may be unrelated to their smoking habit . Furthermore, it may lead to the ridiculous situation whereby smokers are dying from preventable diseases despite hospitals being under-utilized, as a fifth of the population is no longer allowed in."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con05a","title":"","text":"Denying healthcare to smokers is a restriction on people's liberties  Whether or not you believe it should be, smoking tobacco is legal. At the same time, healthcare is regarded as a fundamental human right, alongside rights to education, food and water. Denying someone healthcare is to impede upon his\/her basic liberties and this cannot be justified when, in the eyes of the law, they have done nothing wrong. Criminals have the right to healthcare \u2013 it is often that you hear that the trial of a war criminal is being delayed while they receive treatment. Take the cases of Ratko Mladic or Slobodan Milosevic for example 1. If healthcare is given to men who have committed genocide then surely it should be given to smokers. Also, if a Government adopts the line that one's behavior determines the kind of health service one receives then what is to stop that Government applying such a mantra beyond smoking and controlling the practices of those they govern in any number of ways?  1.  and"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con04a","title":"","text":"Denying healthcare to smokers alone is victimization  The denial of healthcare, an established right, without the citizen doing anything either immoral or wrong is pure and simple victimization. Suppose you are a doctor and you have two patients waiting for a heart transplant. Patient A is 65. He does not exercise, has never had a job and has committed a series of crimes throughout his life. Patient B is in his 20s, with a first class degree from a good university. He is a trained doctor himself and wants to go and work in the developing world, to help people suffering from leprosy. But Patient B is a heavy smoker. Should you therefore prioritize patient A? It seems problematic to victimize smokers, particularly considering smoking is legal. If you are going to discriminate against smokers then surely you should discriminate against alcohol drinkers and people who do extreme sports as they are also knowingly endangering themselves. Smoking reduces life expectancy by 2.5 years for men, but obesity reduces life expectancy by 1.3 years and if high blood pressure is added to that by a total of 2.8 years all are preventable so why should only smoking be discriminated against?1 Maybe you should discriminate against people who choose to live in polluted cities. And then there are drug users. What about people who could afford private health care? Should age, occupation and past convictions be taken into account? It seems arbitrary and unfair to single out smokers. Yet, if we start to take into account all the factors that determine who \"deserves\" to be prioritized for healthcare, then we are left with the unsavory, illiberal practice of Social Darwinism. 1 Harvard School of Public Health, \"Four Preventable Risk Factors Reduce Life Expectancy in U.S. and Lead to Health Disparities\", 22 March 2010, accessed 24 August 2010."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con03a","title":"","text":"Denying access to healthcare for smokers will hurt the economy  Economically, the healthcare of the nation is important for maintaining a productive workforce. Do we really want to lose otherwise functional members of the workforce the first time they contract an aggravated throat infection and cannot afford, or delay for financial reasons, a simple course of antibiotics? Quite apart from productivity, as The Guardian notes, smokers in the United Kingdom also contribute over \u00a310 billion to government coffers through the tobacco tax 1. To lose this source of revenue will do more to hurt national health services than the occasional complication in surgery granted to a smoker. Lastly, because smokers die younger than non-smokers, though they cost more per year, over their lifetime their average health costs are lower than those of longer-living, non-smokers.  1."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con05b","title":"","text":"Goods provided by the state, like healthcare, are often, and necessarily, subject to certain provisions. For example, in order to get unemployment benefits, a person must prove that they are regularly looking for a job and a means to get themselves off benefits. Denying access to healthcare for smokers does not mean denying them healthcare access forever; they can regain unlimited access if they stop smoking. Therefore, prioritizing non-smokers for healthcare in certain cases is not impeding upon smokers' basic liberties but a recognition that those who care about their own health enough to not smoke should be prioritized."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con01a","title":"","text":"Denying healthcare to smokers is impractical  There are several reasons why limiting access to healthcare for smokers could prove impractical. Ultimately they surround the issue of how you define who is a smoker. One man might have chain smoked for 20 years but given up for a year, since a bill limiting access to healthcare for smokers was passed. Meanwhile, another might have been smoking cigarettes now and again just for the past year. Who would be prioritized if the two were on a waiting list for the same operation? If the law penalizes anyone who has ever smoked then it would not provide nearly as strong an incentive to stop smoking. But, if the law does not penalize anyone who has smoked, then choosing whom to punish would seem quite arbitrary. Furthermore, what is stopping people from simply lying about how much\/whether they smoke? They might not show any obvious signs of being a smoker. Even if they do, they could claim to have given up, work around fumes or be a victim of passive smoking."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con04b","title":"","text":"In practice, it is both viable and beneficial, in certain cases, to prioritize non-smokers for healthcare. Where there is more chance of a transplant being successful in a non-smoker for example. It is true that people can knowingly damage their health in other ways, such as drug taking or alcohol abuse and it may well be viable to limit access to healthcare in these cases also. This does not mean that every factor in a patient's life must be scrutinized in order to decide where they are placed on a doctor's waiting list. In public policy, the line must be drawn somewhere. Prioritizing non-smokers can mean that more people can be helped with same amount of resources and, where this is the case, it should be practiced."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghhwdsas-con02b","title":"","text":"The opposition fails to recognize the impact that such a policy will have on smokers. Access will only be denied to smokers who continue to smoke once the bill is in place, if it is proven that they have given up, they will be free to access healthcare. Therefore, the only smokers who will be turned away, and who will potentially die from preventable illnesses are those who place their habit above that of their life."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro02b","title":"","text":"To not promote abstinence is not a neutral position, it is a position the implicitly encourages sexual promiscuity. Children are at risk of severe psychological and physical harm from having sex too young, and should be encouraged not to do so. Promoting \u2018safe sex\u2019 is implicitly encouraging sex by implying that it is safe and a normal thing to be doing. This will encourage young people to believe that there is no risk when this is not the case even if they do follow the prescriptions they have been taught about sex."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro02a","title":"","text":"Abstinence is an outdated view, based on religious teaching, which may be a personal choice but is not to be expected as the norm for everyone  Young people express their sexuality as part of their development to adulthood. It is not having sex that is a problem, but having unsafe sex or hurting people through sexual choices. Refusing to promote safe sex would mean not moving with the times. Just because schools do not promote safe sex does not mean that adolescents will not experiment with sex. They will already be exposed to sexual imagery and ideas of sex so it is necessary that they are taught properly how to remain safe.  Schools may also want to talk about abstinence at the same time; it is a way of keeping sexually safe. However schools have to recognise that the majority of pupils are unlikely to stick to abstinence regardless of how much the school promotes it. It is therefore necessary for the school to also promote and educate about safe sex."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro03b","title":"","text":"The problem with mandatory sex education is precisely that it presents that information in an organised fashion \u2013 by the state. In doing so the right of the parents to raise their children in accordance with their structure of beliefs is usurped."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro01a","title":"","text":"Ignorance about sex is the primary cause of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)  The spread of AIDS in the 80s and 90s showed that education and information is more important than ever as exemplified by the slogan in the British 1980\u2019s advertising campaign to prevent AIDS \u2018AIDS: Don\u2019t Die of Ignorance\u2019. The campaigns were credited with credited with changing behaviour through warnings on adverts and informing through an information leaflet. [1] This shows that education can work even when starting from scratch. Giving sex education in schools is crucial to the spread of information to each successive generation, and may be supplemented by frank discussion at home.  [1] Kelly, Jon, \u2018HIV\/Aids: Why were the campaigns successful in the West?\u2019, BBC News Magazine, 28 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro01b","title":"","text":"While a serious disease, AIDS transmission makes up only a tiny proportion of sexually transmitted infections each year. [1]  Firstly the harm of these infections has always been satisfactorily low before public Sex Education, and secondly even if mandatory public education did have a substantive benefit it would not outweigh the infringement on the moral freedom of the parents.  [1] Health Protection Agency, STI Annual Data Tables"}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro04b","title":"","text":"True, but nor does it make sense to make the classes mandatory once the child reaches an age where it is legally able to decide whether it wants to partake of them. Nor does this mean that these classes need to be promoting safe sex rather than simply teaching the facts and encouraging abstinence."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro03a","title":"","text":"The information age makes attempting to hide information on sex impossible  The internet provides a vast amount of easily accessible information about sex, of varying degrees of quality. Most children in the west now have access to the internet and are therefore likely to have access to this information on sex, or at least educational materials on sex even if the child\u2019s access to the internet is controlled.  Given that it is impossible to prevent children from accessing this information if they really want to, it makes sense to present it to them in an organised and accurate fashion. Rather than allowing children to find information on their own through what may well be unreliable resources it is necessary that they should get good reliable information. That this information when there is safe sex education comes from the school means that the children know that they information is reliable. They can then use this information to help them decide how reliable any further information they may find from other sources is."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro04a","title":"","text":"Restricting information to children is inconsistent with the age of consent  With the age of consent being 16 and with young people being able to vote at 18, it does not make sense for parents to have control over whether their children attended sex education classes right up until the age of 19 or whenever they finish full time schooling.  The age of consent means that there is clearly a need to be taught about sex from that age of consent. This is something that cannot be guaranteed to happen in all individual households if left to the parents whereas it can be ensured in schools."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con03b","title":"","text":"Parents often know nothing (or worse, are armed with dangerously naive delusions) of the sexual state of their children. The picture painted by abolitionists is inaccurate \u2013 the process of deciding what is taught in schools involves parents\u2019 groups and school governing bodies on a school-by-school basis, so parents do have a role in deciding what is taught. But ultimately, the state should be involved in educating the whole child, not just in doling out academic ideas \u2013 and should work hard to safeguard sexual health of youngsters, a field near-impossible to separate from sex education.  This is a subject just as important for the development of young people as the conventional subjects such as maths and English. The role of \u2018teacher\u2019 has to change with time. Once, teachers only instructed the children of the well-off or acted as a branch of the church, now they teach everyone in a secular society. As their role changes, they must remain responsible and obey the law: thus, the scaremongering of suggesting teachers will abuse their students or lure them into relationships is irrelevant, as both sides believe that is wrong, and should be prosecuted.  Rules banning discussions of sex in schools can deny teachers the ability to deal with real problems. When an individual student comes to a teacher with a problem, a rule against discussing such things in the classroom will probably mean that this outlet of help the troubled adolescent has sought out, often because he feels the family isn\u2019t the place to get help, will be denied to him, will turn its back on him. Like it or not, in today\u2019s fractured society teachers have taken on the role of counsellor, and this rule will indirectly curtail their ability to fulfil it. The result of that will be appalling."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con01b","title":"","text":"Our children are sexually active. They are making decisions that can affect the rest of their lives. They should be able to choose responsibly and be well-informed about the likely outcomes. They should know about sources of free or cheap contraception, who to turn to when pregnant or if they suspect they have a venereal disease, how to use contraception to avoid both, and, contrary to the impression of abolitionists, they should be told the benefits of abstinence. How can you tell people about that if you refuse to discuss sex? How can you imagine they will take you seriously if you turn a blind eye to something so many of their peers are doing?  They need an external source of support to resist peer pressure, and have sex later rather than sooner: lamentably, it is presumed amongst many young people that having unprotected sex with many partners at an early age is the norm and they encourage others to do it (and attempt to humiliate those that don\u2019t). We need mechanisms to support those that want to resist that pressure: sex education is such a mechanism. Sex education is part of a package of provisions needed to help our teenagers avoid the terrible pitfalls of unwanted pregnancy and venereal disease. This problem is here \u2013 pretending that it isn\u2019t won\u2019t make it go away. How else do opponents of sex education propose to deal with the huge problems of STDs and teen pregnancy? Effective and widely supported sex education programs can achieve real results. For example, in the Netherlands, amongst people having intercourse for the first time, 85% used contraception \u2013 compared to 50% in the UK."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con02a","title":"","text":"Children are bad decision makers  Sex education informs children about sex, and then invites them to make a choice. But as demonstrated all the time, children are bad decision-makers, often choosing what is bad for them. That is why adult society often needs to decide for them \u2013 what they should eat, what they should watch on T.V., when they are mature enough to be able to choose whether or not to drink or smoke. Surely sex is just as important as those things \u2013 just as dangerous, just as potentially destructive. The abdication of our responsibility in the sexual arena is shameful; we should be unafraid to simply tell children this is something they cannot do, aren\u2019t mature enough to consent to yet \u2013 a responsibility we seem to shrink from even though it is reflected by the stated aim of society enshrined in the law of the age of consent. Lessons implicitly lauding the pleasures of intercourse are entirely contrary to that aim."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con04a","title":"","text":"Sex education for underage children undermines the law  Sex education classes for those under the age of consent undermines the law. It says, \u2018don\u2019t do this \u2013 but given that you are, do this, this and this.\u2019 This sends a terrible message about the law \u2013 that breaking it isn\u2019t serious, that authority (as represented by teachers) tacitly approves of that illegality, will tolerate it and even encourage it.  Sex education fails to tell our children clearly what is right and what is wrong. And remember that these are children, who need clear boundaries to guide their behaviour, and who may not understand the subtleties appreciated by liberal educationalists. In any case, so few teachers want to teach this subject that the quality of teaching is awful. Those that do end up teaching it are often the oddest characters in the teaching establishment. Many teachers happy to \u2018cover\u2019 other subjects are uniquely embarrassed by this one, or object to it on moral grounds and will not do so, leaving it to the most liberal members of staff."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con03a","title":"","text":"Responsibility for children's moral and sexual upbringing is not the responsibility of schools  This is none of the state\u2019s business. Teaching this subject en masse in a classroom reduces it to biological notions, group embarrassment and crude jokes. Furthermore, children have never needed this from the state: left alone, they learn from their family and surroundings and grow naturally into adults without the state\u2019s involvement. Few things are responsible for parental disaffection with education more than the teaching of sex and sexuality in ways contrary to their wishes.  Parents have a right to determine the moral environment in which their children develop and this is a huge intrusion into that right. That moral environment has been manipulated again and again over the last forty years by a liberal teaching establishment set on undermining traditional values and beliefs. Sex education has been a prime weapon in that social engineering. That tool should be taken away from teachers, who as a body have proven themselves undeserving of it. As for the tedious idea that children somehow need the nanny state to look after their sexuality \u2013 who knows children and their needs better than parents? Schools are responsible for so much that is wrong with our children, and by giving them free licence to delve into students\u2019 sexuality, things become so much worse, blurring the line between teacher, adviser, confidante, and sometimes in extremes, between teacher and lover \u2013 an abuse of power that bringing sex into the classroom makes so much easier."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con01a","title":"","text":"Sex education leads to experimentation and early intercourse, and indirectly encourages promiscuity  Sex education leads to experimentation and early intercourse, and indirectly encourages promiscuity. The most moral form of Sex Education says \u2018you shouldn\u2019t do this, but we know you are,\u2019 thus pushing children to consider their sexual existence before they need to or indeed should. Thus sex education\u2019s message is invariably confused \u2013 on the one hand, by saying \u2018here are the perils of teen sex \u2013 so don\u2019t do it,\u2019 and on the other hand, \u2018here is how to have teen sex safely.\u2019  Less moral forms start by saying, \u2018the best form of a relationship is a loving, constant relationship\u2019 and then say, here are the ways to use protection if you\u2019re not in such a relationship\u2019 \u2013 a logic which presumes children are in sexual relationships to begin with. The justification for this is that \u2018adolescents know all about sex\u2019 \u2013 an idea pushed in our permissive society so much it\u2019s almost a truism \u2013 but contrary to that bland generalisation, many children don\u2019t do these things early, don\u2019t think about these things \u2013 they actually have childhoods, and these lessons stir up confusion, misplaced embarrassment or even shame at slower development. They also encourage children to view their peers in a sexualised context.  The openness with which education tells students to treat sex encourages them to ask one another the most personal questions (have you lost your virginity? \u2013 how embarrassing, how uncool, to have to say no), and to transgress personal boundaries \u2013 all with the teacher\u2019s approval. Inhibitions are broken down not just by peer pressure, but by the classroom. As pro-sex education people love to point out, children develop in their own time \u2013 but that means that some are learning about this too early, as well as \u2018too late.\u2019 We in society are guilty of breaking the innocence of childhood, earlier and earlier \u2013 and these lessons are a weapon in the forefront of that awful attack on decent life."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con04b","title":"","text":"Well taught sex education does no such thing. Sex and responsibility classes must tread a fine line, first stressing the importance of waiting until ready before having sex, and pointing to the physical benefits of fewer partners and starting sex later \u2013 but must then move on to the reality of modern Britain\u2019s sex-ridden teen culture, without applauding it, and try to decrease the very high levels of STDs and pregnancy. Yes, that\u2019s hard to do \u2013 but that doesn\u2019t mean we shouldn\u2019t do it. On the contrary \u2013 it\u2019s one of the most important duties society faces today. Arguments about poor teaching apply equally to maths. We often have to try to recruit teachers in unpopular fields \u2013 true, difficult, but hardly unique. The answer is to improve teacher training, both for new graduates and for practising teachers, and to bring in outside consultants from the health and social welfare sectors, who have deep experience in this area."}
+{"id":"training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con02b","title":"","text":"That logic might sound impressive \u2013 but it\u2019s the same one that fails to control underage drinking, underage smoking, the watching of rated movies by those forbidden to do so, the eating of bad food \u2013 and underage sex. It\u2019s the same poor parental logic that has seen a generation of children grow up divorced from the society around them, children who die from drugs overdoses and whose parents say (honestly), \u2018I just had no idea.\u2019 It\u2019s time to talk to our young people about what they do \u2013 honestly, frankly, without frightening them into dishonesty and deception. To do otherwise perpetuates the cycle of ignorance about youth society, and perpetuates the status quo of being able to do nothing to change it."}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro02b","title":"","text":"Force feeding is undignified. The World Medical Association considers \u201cEven if intended to benefit, feeding accompanied by threats, coercion, force or use of physical restraints is a form of inhuman and degrading treatment.\u201d [1] This is treatment which the European Convention on Human Rights prohibits in Article 3 on the prohibition of torture. [2] The patient\u2019s right to refuse treatment should be respected even if they are mentally ill. (N.B. Anorexia is not recognised as a mental illness in every country).  [1] World Medical Association, \u2018WMA Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers\u2019, 2006  [2] European Court of Human Rights, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms\u2019, 2010, P.4"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro02a","title":"","text":"Anorectic patients are not able to make the decision for themselves.  Anorectic patients are typically treated under mental health legislation (e.g. the UK 1983 Act). They do not make a free choice because they are not rationally able to weigh up decisions and consequences, they \u2018feel\u2019 fat when they obviously are not and are irrational as they are willing to starve themselves to the point of death when suicide is not their intent. [1] The patient is not \u201ccapable of forming unimpaired and rational judgements concerning the consequences\u201d (British Medical Association 1992). There have been court cases that have confirmed that force feeding should be allowed when a patient is considered mentally ill. For example the case of \u201cB vs. Croydon Health Authority\u201d in 1994 it was judged, that B (a borderline personality disorder patient, which involves suffering from an irresistible desire to inflict-self-harm) can be force fed, even though she did not give consent to the treatment.  The court explained that because she was not aware of the seriousness of her condition and she had found it difficult to break out of the cycle of self-punishment, she was deemed unfit to make decisions about her nutrition. [2]  [1] Fedyszyn & Sullivan, \u2018Ethical re-evaluation of contemporary treatments for anorexia nervosa\u2019, 2007,  , p.202  [2] Keywood K., B v Croydon Health Authority 1994, CA: Force-Feeding the Hunger-Striker under the Mental Health Act 1983., University of Liverpool,  , accessed 07\/22\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro03b","title":"","text":"Far from helping solve the patient\u2019s psychological problems force feeding is just as likely to exacerbate the problems and make them much less willing to seek out treatment, something that they are often already unwilling to do. [1] While it may be the case that when starved people over-estimate their own size those who are anorexic in the developed world did not start out starved so there must have been a different initial cause of the anorexia that will need to be found and solved, there are numerous different types of psychological treatment that can help do this. [2]  [1] Jimerson, Shane R. et al., \u2018Eating Disorders: Treatment\u2019, 2002,   [2] NHS Choices, \u2018Treating anorexia\u2019, 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro01a","title":"","text":"Life is more important than dignity  Life is more important than dignity, many medical treatments are unpleasant or painful but they are necessary to preserve life. Without force feeding the anorectic patient will often die. In Australia about 80 per cent of all anorexic children required hospital admission (from 101 cases), and of those, 50 per cent required tube feeding as a life-saving measure to manage starvation. [1] When a patient requires emergency treatment doctors should do what is necessary to save the patient\u2019s life. Psychological problems can only be treated if the person is alive. Treatment for the psychological problem should be considered to go hand in hand with saving the patient\u2019s life as in the B vs. Croydon Health Authority where force feeding was ruled to be complemented the use of other methods to treat her psychiatric problems. [2]  [1] McLean T., Half of anorexic kids need force feeding, 2008,  , accessed 07\/22\/2011  [2] Keywood K., B v Croydon Health Authority 1994, CA: Force-Feeding the Hunger-Striker under the Mental Health Act 1983., University of Liverpool,  , accessed 07\/22\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro01b","title":"","text":"Life is more important than dignity. None the less there is a significant difference between someone who is in an emergency condition being treated without their consent and someone who has previously refused treatment being forced to have treatment. Patients are allowed to make decisions doctors believe are unwise. [1]  [1] Patients.co.uk, \u2018Consent To Treatment (Mental Capacity and Mental Helth Legislation)\u2019 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro04b","title":"","text":"When it comes to hunger strikes the World Medical Association says that \u201cForcible feeding is never ethically acceptable.\u201d [1] While there are obviously differences in terms of the objective when it comes to the consent of the patient there is no difference. In both cases the patient does not want to be force fed and understand what the consequences may be.  [1] World Medical Association, \u2018WMA Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers\u2019, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro03a","title":"","text":"Force feeding can help psychologically.  A healthier body weight is necessary to be able to treat the patient\u2019s psychological problems. Studies in Minnesota show that when normal volunteers were starved, they began to development anorectic patterns. They over-estimated the sizes of their own faces by approximately 50%. This shows the impact of starvation on the brain. [1]  [1] Fedyszyn & Sullivan, \u2018Ethical re-evaluation of contemporary treatments for anorexia nervosa\u2019, 2007,  , P.202"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro04a","title":"","text":"In the first instance, doctors should always act to keep a patient alive  Medical ethics say that a doctor has a responsibility to keep the patient alive to administer treatment. In the UK Diana Pretty was denied the right to die by the House of Lords even though she consistently requested it. The Israeli Courts ordered the force- feeding of political hunger strikers arguing that in a conflict between life and dignity, life wins. India prosecuted a physician who allowed a hunger striker to die. The medical profession take their responsibility for life very seriously on a global level."}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con03b","title":"","text":"Yes there will be negative consequences to such a step as force feeding however this is only done when it is absolutely necessary and the negative consequences of not doing so are much worse. Doctors will only force feed if they are convinced that doing so is for the good of the patient, indeed they are prohibited from taking such a step if it is not absolutely necessary."}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con01b","title":"","text":"Short term success is all that is necessary to save a life. Once the anorectic patient is out of danger then more long term treatments can be explored. This means working out how to reduce the fear of food and of weight and if the patient has become worried about going to hospital then at least there is time to sort that out as well. While emergency force feeding has to be within a hospital not all treatment has to take place in such an environment and ongoing psychological treatment can take place elsewhere."}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con02a","title":"","text":"Anorexics need to be able to trust their doctors.  The most successful policies are where anorectic patients feel safe and trust their doctors so are willing to go to clinics voluntarily as they feel that they are in control of the situation. [1] Conversely an anorectic patient\u2019s fear of weight gain, especially forced weight gain in hospital is an obstacle to treatment. If an anorexia nervosa sufferer thinks that they will be force- fed they may be less likely to seek treatment or advice.  [1] Susic, Paul, \u2018Anorexia Treatment and the Unwilling Patient\u2019,  , accessed 07\/21\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con04a","title":"","text":"The focus should be on palliative care.  Some doctors advocate focusing on palliative care (relief of pain but not treatment of cause) due to the low full recovery rates of anorexia sufferers. Research Studies show that over 10 years only approximately 20% of patients recover. Those patients who are sufferers for more than 12 years are unlikely to ever recover."}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con03a","title":"","text":"Force feeding strategies may cause physical harm  Force-feeding has negative consequences. If the patient is dangerously thin and is then force-fed, it can led to Hypophosphataemia (reduction of phosphates in the blood) which causes heart failure. Anorexics are characterised by self-denial and often do not come forward voluntarily. Indeed it according to Dr Sacker anorexia is often not even about food rather \"By stopping food from going into the body, what they really feel is they can be in control of their body.\u201d [1] This desire is actively harmed by force feeding as a result they are even less likely to come forward voluntarily if they are faced with the possibility of force- feeding.  [1] CBS, \u2018A very thin line\u2019, 02\/11\/2009,  , accessed 07\/22\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con01a","title":"","text":"Compulsory treatment is not a long term solution.  Compulsory treatment may only be successful in the short term. In the long term it does nothing to reduce the fear of food, weight and hospital felt by the patient and is a barrier to treatment. Hospital admission often has a worse outcome for the patient; there are increased mortality rates which are then even higher for those who are admitted against their will. [1] Suicide accounts for 27% of anorexia deaths. [2] Compulsory treatment may make the patient more depressed and at greater risk from harm.  [1] Fedyszyn & Sullivan, \u2018Ethical re-evaluation of contemporary treatments for anorexia nervosa\u2019, 2007,  , p.201  [2] BBC News, \u2018Compulsory treatment \u2018helps anorexics\u2019\u2019, 1999"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con04b","title":"","text":"Palliative care is defeatist and does not attempt to cure the problem. Recovery is always a possibility and that is what doctors should be striving for \u201cIn a 10 year follow up of 76 severely ill women with anorexia, Eckert et al found that 18 (24%) had fully recovered, about half had a benign outcome, and only five (7%) had died.\u201d [1] Doctors do not often have to deal with severe or chronic anorexia. Just because it is a very long treatment schedule that can be harrowing for a doctor, this not a reason to settle for palliative care. Better support structures ought to be put in place to enable the doctor to fulfil their obligation to the patient.  [1] Williams, Christopher J. et al., \u2018We should strive to keep patients alive\u2019, 1998,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con02b","title":"","text":"In 1997 the Mental Health Act Commission opened the door to allowing force feeding of anorexic patients in the UK by allowing the compulsory admission of anorexics to hospital. This change of policy did not reduce the number of patients being admitted for treatment which has gone up from 419 in 1996-7 to 620 in 2005-6. [1]  [1] Disordered eating, Anorexia Nervosa Statistics (Uk),  , accessed 07\/22\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro02b","title":"","text":"A range of health programs are already available. Many employers offer health insurance and some people deliberately choose to work for such companies for these benefits, even if the pay is a little lower. Other plans can be purchased by individuals with no need to rely on an employer. This means they are free to choose the level of care which is most appropriate to their needs. For other people it can be perfectly reasonable to decide to go without health insurance. Healthy younger adults will on average save money by choosing not to pay high insurance premiums, covering any necessary treatment out of their own pockets from time to time. Why should the state take away all these people\u2019s freedom of choice by imposing a one-size-fits-all socialist system of health care?  Human resources professionals will still be needed to deal with the very many other employment regulations put in place by the federal government. Instead of employees being able to exercise control over their health care choices and work with people in their company, patients will be forced to deal with the nameless, faceless members of the government bureaucracy."}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro02a","title":"","text":"Current health care systems are not sustainable  American health insurance payments are very high and rising rapidly. Even employer-subsidised programs are very expensive for many Americans, because they often require co-payments or high deductibles (payment for the first part of any treatment). In any case employee health benefits are being withdrawn by many companies as a way of cutting costs. For those without insurance, a relatively minor illness or injury can be a financial disaster. It is unfair that many ordinary hard-working Americans can no longer afford decent medical treatment.  Moving to a system of universal health care would reduce the burden on human resources personnel in companies. At present they must make sure the company is obeying the very many federal laws about the provision of health insurance. With a universal system where the government was the single-payer, these regulations would not apply and the costs of American businesses would be much reduced."}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro03b","title":"","text":"The United States government cannot afford to fund universal health care. Other universal social welfare policies such as Social Security and Medicare have run into major problems with funding. Costs are rising at the same time that the baby boomer generation are growing old and retiring. Soon tens of millions of boomers will stop contributing much tax and start demanding much more in benefits than before. In such a situation we cannot afford to burden the nation with another huge government spending program. Nations that provide universal health care coverage spend a substantial amount of their national wealth on the service.  With government control of all health care, caps will be placed on costs. As a result many doctors would not be rewarded for their long hours and important roles in our lives. The road to becoming a doctor is long and hard; without the present financial rewards many young people will not choose to study medicine. Current doctors may find that they do not want to continue their careers in a government-controlled market. The American Medical Association does not back a government-controlled, single-payer universal health care system.  The current system of offering group insurance through employers covers many Americans with good quality health insurance. The group plan concept enables insurance companies to insure people who are high risk and low risk by mixing them in the same pool. Issues over losing or leaving a job with health benefits are dealt with by federal laws which require companies to continue to offer workers cover for at least 18 months after they leave employment."}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Health care would substantially reduce overall costs  With universal health care, people are able to seek preventive treatment. This means having tests and check-ups before they feel ill, so that conditions can be picked up in their early stages when they are easy to treat. For example in a recent study 70% of women with health insurance knew their cholesterol level, while only 50% of uninsured women did. In the end, people who do not get preventive health care will get treatment only when their disease is more advanced. As a result their care will cost more and the outcomes are likely to be much worse. Preventative care, made more accessible, can function the same way, reducing the costs further. [1]  In addition, a single-payer system reduces the administrative costs. A different way of charging for the care, not by individual services but by outcomes, as proposed by Obama\u2019s bill, also changes incentives from as many tests and procedures as possible to as many patients treated and healed as possible. [2]  We thus see that not only does universal health coverage inherently decrease costs because of preventative care, much of the cost can be avoided if implemented wisely and incentivized properly.  [1] Cutler, D. M., Health System Modernization Will Reduce the Deficit, published 5\/11\/2009,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [2] Wirzibicki, A., With health costs rising, Vermont moves toward a single-payer system, published 4\/7\/2011,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the idea that better access to preventative medicine will quickly and drastically lower general medical care costs is an incredible notion, it sadly is just that \u2013 a notion.  As an aside, the same argument \u2013 lowered costs \u2013 could be made for simply improving the existing tactics of preventative medicine without the need to invest into universal coverage.  Returning to this proposition though, while it might be realistic to expect some reduction in costs from improved prevention, those would very unlikely ever amount to a significant amount \u2013 and certainly not an amount that would make introducing universal health coverage a feasible strategy. [1]  Universal health care will cause people to use the health care system more. If they are covered, they will go to the doctor when they do not really need to, and will become heavy users of the system. We can see in other countries that this heavier use leads to delays in treatment and constant demands for more resources. As a result care is rationed and taxes keep going up.  [1] Leonhardt, D., Free Lunch on Health? Think Again, published 8\/8\/2007,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro04b","title":"","text":"There are several reasons why health care should not be considered a universal human right.  The first issue is one of definition \u2013 how do we define the services that need to be rendered in order for them to qualify as adequate health care? Where do we draw the line? Emergency surgery, sure, but how about cosmetic surgery?  The second is that all human rights have a clear addressee, an entity that needs to protect this right. But who is targeted here? The government? What if we opt for a private yet universal health coverage \u2013 is this any less moral? Let\u2019s forget the institutions for a second, should this moral duty of health care fall solely on the doctors perhaps? [1]  In essence, viewing health care as a right robs us of another, much more essential one \u2013 that of the right to one\u2019s own life and one\u2019s livelihood. If it is not considered a service to be rendered, than how could a doctor charge for it? She couldn\u2019t! If it were a right, than each of us would own it, it would have to be inseparable from us. Yet, we don\u2019t and we can\u2019t. [2]  We can see that considering health care as a basic human right has profound philosophical problems, not the least of them the fact that it infringes on the rights of others.  [1] Barlow, P., Health care is not a human right, published 7\/31\/1999,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011  [2] Sade, R., The Political Fallacy that Medical Care is a Right, published 12\/2\/1971,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro03a","title":"","text":"Health care programmes currently do not offer equality of care  The United States as a whole spends 14% of GDP (total income) on health care. This includes the amount spent by the federal government, state governments, employers and private citizens. Many studies have found that a single-payer system would cut costs enough to allow everyone in the USA to have access to good health care without the nation as a whole spending more than it does at the moment. Medicare, a government-run health care program, has administrative costs of less than 2% of its total budget.  The current system of health maintenance organisations (HMOs) has destroyed the doctor-patient relationship and removed patients\u2019 ability to choose between health care providers. Patients find that their doctors are not on their new plan and are forced to leave doctors with whom they have established a trusting relationship. Also, patients must get approval to see specialists and then are allowed to see only selected doctors. Doctors usually can\u2019t spend enough time with patients in the HMO plans. By contrast a universal health system would give patients many more choices.  In the current system the employee and the employee\u2019s family often depend on the employer for affordable health insurance. If the worker loses their job, the cost of new health insurance can be high and is often unaffordable. Even with current federal laws making insurance more movable, the costs to the employee are too high. With a single-payer, universal health care system, health insurance would no longer be tied to the employer and employees would not have to consider health insurance as a reason to stay with a given employer. This would also be good for the economy as a whole as it would make the labour market more flexible than it has become in recent years."}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-pro04a","title":"","text":"Healthcare has been recognised as a right  The two crucial dimensions of the topic of introducing universal health care are morality and the affordability.  Paragraph 1 of Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states the following: \u201cEveryone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.\u201d [1]  Analyzing the text, we see that medical care, in so far, as it provides adequate health and well-being is considered a human right by the international community. In addition, it also states, that this right extends also to periods of unemployment, sickness, disability, and so forth.  Despite this, why should we consider health care a human right? Because health is an essential prerequisite for a functional individual \u2013 one that is capable of free expression for instance \u2013 and a functional society \u2013 one capable of holding elections, not hampered by communicable diseases, to point to just one example.  Universal health care provided by the state to all its citizens is the only form of health care that can provide what is outlined in the Declaration.  In the US the only conditions truly universally covered are medical emergencies. [2] But life without the immediate danger of death hardly constitutes an adequate standard of health and well-being. Additionally, programs such as Medicaid and Medicare do the same, yet again, only for certain parts of the population, not really providing the necessary care for the entire society.  Further, the current system of health care actively removes health insurance from the unemployed, since most (61%) of Americans are insured through their employers \u2013 thus not respecting the provision that demands care also in the case of unemployment. [3]  But does insurance equal health care? In a word: yes. Given the incredible cost of modern and sophisticated medical care \u2013 a colonoscopy can cost more than 3000 dollars \u2013 in practice, those who are not insured are also not treated. [4]  [1] UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, published 12\/10\/1948,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [2] Barrett, M., The US Universal Health Care System-Emergency Rooms, published 3\/2\/2009,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [3] Smith, D., U.S. healthcare law seen aiding employer coverage, published 6\/21\/2011,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [4] Mantone, J., Even With Insurance, Hospital Stay Can Cost a Million, published 11\/29\/2007,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-con03b","title":"","text":"Profits do drive innovation. But there is nothing out there that would make us believes that the profits stemming from the health care industry are going to taper off or even decrease in a universal coverage system. In short in a single-payer system, it\u2019s just the government that\u2019ll be picking up the tab and not the private companies. But the money will still be there.  An expert on the issue from the Brigham and Women\u2019s Hospital opined that this lack of innovation crops up every time there is talk of a health care reform, usually from the pharmaceutical industry, and usually for reasons completely unrelated to the policy proposed. [1]  Whereas the opposition fears new research into efficiency of medical practice and procedures, we, on the other hand, feel that\u2019s exactly what the doctor ordered \u2013 and doctors do too. [2]  [1] Klein, E., Will Health-Care Reform Save Medical Innovation?, published 8\/3\/2009,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011  [2] Brown, D., \u2018Comparative effectiveness research\u2019 tackles medicine\u2019s unanswered questions, published 8\/15\/2011,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-con01b","title":"","text":"It is not, in fact, universal health care itself, that\u2019s inefficient, but specific adaptations of it. Often, even those shortcomings are so blown out of proportion that it\u2019s very difficult to get the whole story.  Universal health care can come in many shapes and sizes, meant to fit all kinds of countries and societies. When judging them it\u2019s often useful to turn to those societies for critiques of their coverage systems.  Despite the horror stories about the British NHS, it costs 60% less per person than the current US system. Despite the haunting depictions of decades long waiting lists, Canadians with chronic conditions are much more satisfied with the treatment received than their US counterparts. [1]  We should not let hysterical reporting to divert us from the truth \u2013 universal health care makes a lot of economic, and, more importantly, moral sense.  [1] Krugman, P., The Swiss Menace, published 8\/16\/2009,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-con02a","title":"","text":"Universal healthcare is not affordable  No policy is created, debated or implemented in a vacuum. The backdrop of implementing universal health coverage now is, unfortunately, the greatest economic downturn of the last 80 years. Although the National Bureau of Economic Research declared the recession to be over, we are not out of the woods yet. [1] Is it really the time to be considering a costly investment?  With estimates that the cost of this investment might reach 1.5 trillion dollars in the next decade, the answer is a resounding no. Even the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities \u2013 a left leaning think tank \u2013 opined that the Congress could not come up with the necessary funding to go ahead with the health reform without introducing some very unpopular policies. [2]  Does this mean universal health care should be introduced at one time in the future? Not likely. Given that there are no realistic policies in place to substantially reduce the \u201criot inducing\u201d US public debt [3] and the trend of always increasing health care costs [4] the time when introducing universal health care affordably and responsibly will seem ever further away.  [1] New York Times, Recession, published 9\/20\/2010,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011  [2] New York Times, Paying for Universal Health Coverage, published 6\/6\/2009,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011  [3] Taylor, K., Bloomberg, on Radio, Raises Specter of Riots by Jobless, published 9\/16\/2011,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011  [4] Gawande, A., The cost conondrum, published 6\/1\/2009,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-con03a","title":"","text":"Universal healthcare stifles innovation  Profits drive innovation. That\u2019s the long and short of it. Medical care is not exception, albeit the situation is a bit more complicated in this case.  The US\u2019s current system has a marketplace of different private insurers capable of making individual and often different decisions on how and which procedures they\u2019ll choose to cover. Their decisions are something that helps shape and drive new and different practices in hospitals. A simple example is one of virtual colonoscopies. Without getting into the nitty gritty, they often require follow up procedures, yet are very popular with patients. Some insurers value the first, some the other, but none have the power to force the health care providers to choose one or the other. They\u2019re free to decide for themselves, innovate with guidelines, even new procedures. Those are then communicated back to insurers, influencing them in turn and completing the cycle.  What introducing a single-payer universal health coverage would do is introduce a single overwhelming player into this field \u2013 the government. Since we have seen how the insurer can often shape the care, what such a monopoly does is opens up the possibility of top-down mandates as to what this care should be. With talk of \u201ccomparative effectiveness research\u201d, tasked with finding optimal cost-effective methods of treatment, the process has already begun. [1]  [1] Wall Street Journal, How Washington Rations, published 5\/19\/2009,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-con01a","title":"","text":"Universal healthcare systems are inefficient  One of the countries lauded for its universal health care is France. So what has the introduction of universal coverage brought the French? Costs and waiting lists.  France\u2019s system of single-payer health coverage goes like this: the taxpayers fund a state insurer called Assurance Maladie, so that even patients who cannot afford treatment can get it. Now although, at face value, France spends less on healthcare and achieves better public health metrics (such as infant mortality), it has a big problem. The state insurer has been deep in debt since 1989, which has now reached 15 billion euros. [1]  Another major problem with universal health care efficiency is waiting lists. In 2006 in Britain it was reported that almost a million Britons were waiting for admission to hospitals for procedures. In Sweden the lists for heart surgery are 25 weeks long and hip replacements take a year. Very telling is a ruling by the Canadian Supreme Court, another champion of universal health care: \u201caccess to a waiting list is not access to health care\u201d. [2]  Universal health coverage does sound nice in theory, but the dual cancers of costs and waiting lists make it a subpar option when looking for a solution to offer Americans efficient, affordable and accessible health care.  [1] Gauthier-Villars, D., France Fights Universal Care's High Cost, published 8\/7\/2009,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [2] Tanner, M., Cannon, M., Universal healthcare's dirty little secrets, published 4\/5\/2007,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-fhhphwisu-con02b","title":"","text":"We need to analyze this issue from a couple of different perspectives.  The first is this trillion per decade cost. Is this truly a cost to the American economy? We think not, since this money will simply flow back into the economy, back into the hands of health care providers, insurance companies, etc. \u2013 back into the hands of taxpayers. So in this sense it is very much affordable.  But is this a productive enterprise? For the millions of people that at this very moment have absolutely no insurance and therefore very limited access to health care, the answer is very clear.  In addition, the reform will more or less pay for itself, not in a year, not even a decade \u2013 but as it stands now, it\u2019s been designed to have a net worth of zero. [1]  Lastly, just because we live in a bad economic climate doesn\u2019t mean we can simply abandon all sense of moral obligation. There are people suffering because of the current situation. No cost can offset that.  [1] Johnson, S., Kwak, J., Can We Afford Health Care Reform? We Can't Afford Not to Do It., published 9\/1\/2009,  , accessed 9\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro02b","title":"","text":"People will only make better choices regarding their food only if people actually read the labels.  A survey of Irish consumers found that reading labels is rare. In fact, 61% of men and 40% of women never read the labels on food before they make the purchase. [1]  In addition, when labels are actually read, they seem to work only in more affluent parts of the society and so this is only going to have any effect in tackling obesity in one segment of society. [2]  [1] Hills, S., Half of all consumers ignore food labels, published 2\/24\/2009,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [2] Kersh, R., Obesity & the New Politics of Health Policy, published in February 2009,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro02a","title":"","text":"Food labeling helps people make better choices regarding their food  Given that there is a global trend of increasing numbers of overweight and obese people, [1] food that is fattening and therefore contributes to this problem needs to be clearly labeled so people can avoid them.  Research shows that having this nutritional information helps people make better choices. Up to 30% of consumers reconsider buying a food item after reading the food label and finding out what\u2019s inside [2] .  Another study points out that there were \u201csignificant differences in mean nutrient intake of total calories, total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, dietary fiber, and sugars\u201d when people could go ahead and use the information about the food they were considering buying. [3]  It is therefore clear that making more information about food available, especially in the form of readily available food labels, helps people make choices that will help the fight against obesity.  [1] Elseth, M., Obesity numbers rise in 28 states, published 6\/29\/2010,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011  [2] Arsenault, J. E., Can Nutrition Labeling Affect Obesity?, published in 2010,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011  [3] diabetesincontrol.com, Nutritional Labeling and Point-of-Purchase Signs Work to Make Better Choices, published 8\/10\/2010,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro03b","title":"","text":"For every company that actually makes an effort to create a program of healthy products, there ten that use labels to promote a \u201cfunctional food\u201d gimmick.  More and more products are being labeled with the \u201chealth food\u201d and \u201cfunctional food\u201d labels. One strong example of that is the \u201ccontains added vitamins and minerals\u201d label in the U.S., with foods being fortified with vitamins \u2013 so seemingly improved for the better. Yet the U.S. population\u2019s vitamin deficiencies are at an all time low. An epidemiologist at the University of Pennsylvania also notes that these fortifications and the labels that come with them are mostly a tactic used to distract consumers from actual nutritional problems \u2013 those of excess. [1]  [1] Narayan, A., Figuring Out Food Labels, published 5\/2\/2010,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro01a","title":"","text":"Food labeling is an important form of consumer protection  It is a basic right for us as consumers to know what it is we eat.  Today more and more foods that we buy are processed [1] , they include many harmful additives, causing conditions such as hyperactivity in children [2] , or are advertised as health food, but are in reality loaded with sugar or salt [3] .  It is therefore necessary for consumers to be made aware of all their food contains in order to make safe and healthy choices for themselves and their families.  [1] Parvez, S., Processed food exports rise 41pc, published 3\/26\/2009,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011  [2] Rosenthal, E., Some Food Additives Raise Hyperactivity, Study Finds, published 9\/6\/2007,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011  [3] Smellie, A., That 'healthy' bowl of granola has more sugar than coke... and more fat than fries: Busting the diet food myths, published 5\/21\/2011,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro01b","title":"","text":"Food labeling rarely helps consumers find out what exactly it is they are eating, because of the convoluted names companies use to describe ingredients.  Forcing companies to label food does not mean they will actually make those labels easy to understand and useful. Even when it comes to things as important as common allergens in food, it is very difficult to understand whether it is included or not. [1]  [1] Webster Family Wellness Center, Confusing terms make food labels difficult to understand, published 5\/7\/2011,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro03a","title":"","text":"Food labeling encourages food companies to provide food more in tune with consumer values  Innovation is inevitable. That holds true for food industry as much as any other industry \u2013 and the food companies want to share their progress with the consumer to benefit from it. With the impact food labeling has on consumer choices, companies turned the issue on its head, producing food that is more in tune with what the people want and using labels to tell us about it.  An example is PepsiCo\u2019s \u201cSmart Spot\u201d program that is intended to help consumers identify healthier products \u2013 products the company developed as a consequence of consumer pressure for healthier drinks that contain less sugar. What is more, the strategy proved very profitable for the company, with the smart spot products sales increasing 13 percent or three times as fast as the rest of the business. [1]  We see that companies were able to adapt to the pressure labeling created with excellent products, in tune with consumer values, and make a profit as well.  [1] Warner, M., Under Pressure, Food Producers Shift to Healthier Products, published 12\/16\/2005,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con03b","title":"","text":"Although we agree that it is the role of government to ensure a fair marketplace, we do not agree that the case described should be included in this definition.  What we see is simply consumers reacting in accordance to their values \u2013 and currently the public opinion is quite opposed to the introduction of GMOs into their diets (71% in EU). [1] So it is only natural that products that include them are valued less.  It also goes to show that these products should be labeled, so that consumers can make informed decisions in accordance to what they believe \u2013 something much more important in this case than a company\u2019s profits.  [1] Bonny, S., Why are most Europeans opposed to GMOs? Factors explaining rejection in France and Europe, published 4\/15\/2008,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con01b","title":"","text":"There are two things we need to respond with in this case. One regarding the current state of labels and the other the strategy of fighting obesity.  It is a fact that the current label designs leave something to be desired. If currently only a certain (but not at all negligible) percentage go ahead and actually read the labels that does not mean that labels are inherently ineffective. It might just as well, if not more likely, mean that the current design of labels is simply not attractive and useful enough for people to pay attention to. Therefore efforts are being made to revamp the food label to improve its effectiveness. [1]  As to the second, food labels are but a weapon in our arsenal against fighting obesity. It might be that on their own they will not defeat the epidemic, but they certainly play a key part of the overall strategy. [2]  [1] Associated Press, New food nutrition labels from FDA coming, published 9\/3\/2011,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [2] Benassi, M., The launch of a dynamic process, published in May 2006,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con02a","title":"","text":"Food labeling allows companies to deceive consumers  What we have seen with introducing visually impressive food labels is that companies started adopting similar visual elements to promote their products in a dishonest way.  Let\u2019s take for instance Dannon\u2019s Activia, which was marketed as health food (with very convincing packaging that went with that strategy). The labels claimed that the product helped improve digestion by hastening it. Yet the FTC (Federal Trade Commission) found this claim to be false.  On a similar note, Kellogg\u2019s Rice Krispies featured packaging purporting that the product boosted immunity. Again, the regulator found this untrue. [1]  We see that the companies, so in essence telling consumers to trust information on the packaging, can easily misuse labeling.  [1] Singer, N., Foods With Benefits, or So They Say, published 5\/14\/2011,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con03a","title":"","text":"Food labeling introduces unfair prejudice against certain products  Requiring companies to label their products a certain way might unfairly influence the sales of this product. Let us observe this point on the example of GMOs in food.  For instance, a study investigated the influence of labeling a cornflakes product with different variations on the theme of containing GMOs. The packaging might say that the product contained \"USDA approved genetically modified corn\" or \"may contain genetically modified corn\", basically stating the same thing. Yet the first product was evaluated much more favorably than the second, with a 6% price perception difference. [1]  Considering that GMOs are considered safe by the health authorities, [2] it would be unfair to prejudice against these products by specifically targeting them, when they pose no risk to health.  [1] Onyango, B. M., et al., U.S. Consumers' Willingness to Pay for Food Labeled 'Genetically Modified', published in October 2006,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011  [2] WHO, 20 questions on genetically modified foods, published 12\/10\/2010,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con01a","title":"","text":"Food labeling does not change consumer behavior  Food labels may include useful dietary information, but they will not significantly impact actual consumption for two reasons.  The first is that people don\u2019t really read or use the labels. A study at WSU shows that only 41% of men actually read the labels. The women did better, but still only 59% of them actually read the labels \u2013 which does not mean they actually understood or heeded the advice on them. [1]  The second reason concerns the connection between actually getting the information and acting on it. Research on posting calories on restaurant menus shows that customers actually ordered slightly more calories compared to before the information was made available. [2]  Thus we see that food labels are not enough to nudge customers towards better and healthier food choices.  [1] Warman, S., Reading food labels can help battle obesity, published 9\/16\/2010,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011  [2] Hartocollis, A., Calorie Postings Don\u2019t Change Habits, Study Finds, published 10\/6\/2009,  , accessed 9\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con02b","title":"","text":"These examples do not really demonstrate that food labels do not work or are deceptive but rather that consumers should be educated better about how to actually read and recognize them \u2013 something the consumers themselves want, a fact known now for decades. [1]  On the other hand, stricter regulations on packaging advertising are being called for as well, attacking the problem from another perspective. [2]  We contend that better educated consumers on the one and better regulations on the other will uproot this problem at hand. In addition, this just goes to show that food labels are anything but ineffective \u2013 they just need to be known and regulated better.  [1] Hackleman, E. C., Food label information: what consumers say they want and what they need, published in 1981,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011  [2] Neuman W., U.S. Seeks New Limits on Food Ads for Children, published 4\/28\/2011,  , accessed 9\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is difficult to assess the true harm caused by cannabis. There are limits to the scope for information on its effects because of its illegal nature1. However, it is widely acknowledged that there are links between cannabis use and mental and physical health problems2. It is also widely acknowledged that excessive cannabis use can harm relationships and prevent people from acting as functional members of society. Cannabis is generally smoked with tobacco and cannabis users are more likely to drink alcohol. Regardless of whether cannabis itself is worse for you than tobacco or alcohol, it is still bad for you and therefore it should remain illegal.  The reason alcohol and tobacco are legal is not related to their effect on our health. They (alcohol and tobacco) are legal as they have existed in this country since long before laws were passed in relation to health and were far more popular than cannabis so it would have been much harder to ban them. Cannabis is illegal not because it supposedley is worse but because it is was less commonly consumed. That said, alcohol and tobacco are irerelvent in this debate.  1 Wolff , J. (2009, December 1). The art and science of evidence about drugs. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from Guardian:  2 Frank. (n.d.). Cannabis. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from Talk to Frank:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro02a","title":"","text":"Alcohol and tobacco are more harmful drugs, yet remain legal.  Although cannabis can have some harmful effects, it is not nearly as harmful as tobacco or alcohol. Research by the British Medical Association shows that nicotine is more addictive. In England and Wales, cannabis was said to have helped cause 17 deaths, compared to 6627 for alcohol and 86,500 for tobacco1. A study, published by The Lancet, that scores drugs out of 100 for the harm they cause the user and others, gave alcohol 72, tobacco 27 and cannabis 202.  Given that tobacco and alcohol are more likely to harm the user and other people, it seems ludicrous that they should be legal and cannabis should not be. The legalization of cannabis would remove an anomaly from the law. 1 TDPF. (n.d.). Drug Related Deaths. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from Transform Drug Policy Foundation: 2 The Economist. (2010, November 2). Scoring Drugs. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from The Economist:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro03b","title":"","text":"Legalizing cannabis would not stop the criminals who currently sell it from continuing to commit crimes. They could simply diversify their activities. Many of them would already be dealing other drugs or involved in other criminal activities. The legalization of cannabis could simply give them a legitimate base from which they may operate.  In order to end the \"war on drugs\" and the problems of violence associated with it, all drugs would have to be legalized. While some debate the harmful effects which cannabis may have, few argue that drugs like heroin and crack cocaine do not present a serious threat to people. To sell these kinds of drugs legally would be irresponsible and would ruin lives, families and communities."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro01a","title":"","text":"People should be allowed to do whatever they want to their own bodies  It is important that we have the liberty to do what we want to our own bodies. People are allowed to eat or drink to their detriment. In many countries it is legal to take one's life. Why then, should people not be allowed to harm themselves through cannabis use? (Assuming that cannabis use is harmful. In most cases, this is highly debatable.)  Smoking cannabis may have effects on others, such as through the effects of passive smoking. However, regulation has been brought in to minimize the effects on others for alcohol and cigarettes, such as bans on smoking in public places, and the same thing could be done for cannabis."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro01b","title":"","text":"While individual liberty is an important good, there are cases in which a Government can be justified in behaving in a paternalistic manner, even to prevent individuals harming themselves. Few people debate the law that you must wear a seatbelt in cars, for example.  Moreover, cannabis can harm others and many of the ways in which it does so would not be possible to counter with regulation. In the words of philosopher George Sher, \"Drug use harms strangers by involving them in the collisions, shootouts and other catastrophes to which the impaired and overly aggressive drug users are prone. It harms family members by depriving them of the companionship and income of their addicted partners. It harms fetuses by exposing them to a toxic and permanently damaging prenatural environment. It harms children by subjecting them to the abuse of their drug-addled parents\"1. 1 Wolff, J. (n.d.). Regulation of Recreational Drugs. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from University College London:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro04b","title":"","text":"Cannabis does not open the mind. Rather, it harms it. Many researchers have concluded that cannabis impairs short-term memory, cognition and motivation. It has also proven to be highly addictive for some users and has damaged people's mental capabilities and abilities to function in society1. 2 Mabry, C. D. (2001, October). Physicians and the war on drugs: the case against legalization. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from Qualified Surgeons:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro03a","title":"","text":"If cannabis was legalized, it could be regulated  Many of the problems associated with cannabis use arise from the fact that it is illegal. Cannabis is the world\u2019s most widely used illegal drug \u2013 23% of Canadians admit to having smoked it and up to 7 million people in the UK are estimated to do so.  In 2009, the UN estimated that the market for illegal drugs was worth $320 billion. This market is run by criminals and is often blighted by violence. It has cost thousands of innocent lives, particularly in supplier countries such as Mexico and Afghanistan 1. In the US, Milton Friedman estimated that 10,000 people die every year as a result of drug dealers fighting over territory 2. Many of the victims are innocent people, caught in crossfire. By legalizing cannabis, the size of this market for illegal drugs would be significantly reduced and so, effectively, would the number of crimes and unnecessary deaths that come with it.  Another way of seeing the problems of prohibition is to look at the failed attempt at alcohol prohibition in the 1920s. People continued to consume alcohol, only it became 150 per cent stronger, was as easy to obtain for minors as for adults, and was sold by murderous gangsters like Al Capone 3.  Given all of the problems associated with prohibiting cannabis, it seems nonsensical to spend billions fighting a drugs war when instead governments could reduce crime and make money by selling cannabis in a regulated manner. They could spend some of the profit on treating people who did experience any harmful effects.  1.United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2010,   2.Hari, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro04a","title":"","text":"Cannabis opens the mind in a positive and beneficial manner  Cannabis use can alter one's perception of reality or consciousness. The alteration need not be thought of as spiritual or religious to be respected for what it is; a fresh look on a reality that we are programmed as humans to perceive only in a particular manner. Cannabis can help humans perceive that complex reality from simply a different perspective, which can benefit our appreciation for that reality and our unique and limited perceptions of it. With this more intelligent approach to cannabis consumption, it is easy to argue that mental, perceptual, and societal benefits exist1. 1 Harris, S. (2011, July 6). Drugs and the Meaning of Life. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from Huffington Post:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con03b","title":"","text":"First, it is not necessarily a bad thing for cannabis use to increase. Countries with the highest usage rates include some of the most prosperous in the world \u2013 Canada, Australia and New Zealand for example.  Secondly, even if increased cannabis use is a bad thing, there is little evidence to prove usage would necessarily go up if cannabis were legalized. Usage may have risen slightly in the Netherlands but cannabis was depenalized in 1976 and usage rates remain lower than in the US today. Moreover, there are other reasons why usage rose. According to Dirk Korf of the Institute of Criminology at the University of Amsterdam, \"There is no appreciable causal connection between the Dutch decriminalization of cannabis and the rate at which cannabis use has evolved\" 1.Portugal decriminalized drug use in 2001 and, a decade later, drug usage and drug related crime rates have fallen and cannabis use remains below the European average2 .  1. Griffin, 2011,   2. Hari, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con01b","title":"","text":"There is little evidence of cannabis being a gateway drug. In fact, there is a higher correlation between cigarette smoking and hard drugs. If anything, the only way in which cannabis could be said to be a gateway drug is that it is illegal and people may be inclined to buy other illegal drugs after they have bought cannabis, particularly as some dealers will sell other drugs. This problem, however, would be immediately eradicated if cannabis were legalized.  Furthermore, the people who refer cannabis as a \"gateway drug\" don't take into consideration the prerequisites and situations people are in prior to ones marijuana use. The people who use it as an additive to relaxation occasionally and are in a relaxed environment, maybe with a few friends over to hang out aren\u2019t using it as an escape from reality but at an additive to their relaxation and fun. When cannabis is referred to as a \u201cgateway drug\u201d people are generally and unknowingly referring to the people who use marijuana as an escape from a much less than pleasant reality and \u201csmoke themselves sober\u201d therefore requiring a harder drug to get the same high and escape that cannabis once provided for them."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con02a","title":"","text":"Uncertainty over the effects of cannabis means it is best to be prudent  The debate over the effects of cannabis is based largely upon conflicting evidence. For example, some argue it can cause psychosis while others argue it only has positive effects on the mind. The effect of any illegal drug is a very difficult area to study 1. Most drug users use more than one drug and researchers are often limited to studying those who admit themselves into clinics with a crisis \u2013 something of a skewed sample.  Given that Governments cannot accurately predict what the effects of legalizing cannabis would be, it is prudent to maintain illegality. What if, for example, a state decided to legalize cannabis, to only discover five years later that it has a dramatically more negative impact on human cognition than previously thought, or that it substantially increased the risks of psychosis?  1.Wolff, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con04a","title":"","text":"Cannabis is harmful  Studies have shown that cannabis may cause a number of physical and mental problems. It can cause respiratory problems, increase one's heart rate and lower one's sperm count. Cannabis use is also associated with causing or worsening some forms of psychosis. It has also been found to increase tiredness, depression and paranoia, impair short-term memory and hormone production and cause general cognitive decline1. As for cannabis' medicinal qualities, safer, more effective drugs are available. They include a synthetic version of THC, cannabis' primary active ingredient, which is marketed in the United States under the name Marinol. 1 Frank. (n.d.). Cannabis. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from Talk to Frank:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con03a","title":"","text":"More people will use cannabis if legalized  If cannabis is legalized, it will become socially acceptable and more people will smoke it. It will also become more readily available. In the Netherlands, cannabis usage went up after it was legalized1. With more people smoking, more people will experience the adverse physical and mental health effects - more people will be harmed. Furthermore, as Dr. David Murray has noted, 'marijuana use is the leading cause of treatment need for those abusing or dependent on illegal drugs'2; therefore not only will more people use cannabis, more of them will be addicted.  1 Mackenzie, D. (1998, February 21). New Scientists Marijuana Special Report. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from UKCIA: 2 Dubner, Stephen J., 'On the Legalization - or not - of Marijuana', Freakonomics, 30 October 2007"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con01a","title":"","text":"Cannabis is a gateway drug  People who use cannabis will be more likely to move on to harder drugs. While the bad effects of cannabis may be disputed, the harmful effects of hard drugs cannot \u2013 they seriously damage people\u2019s health. A major study in 2011 found that \u2018smoking cannabis daily sets users up for a lifetime of multiple drug use\u2019 1. Heavy users are more likely to resort to crime to fund their addiction. Their habit often harms their relationships with friends, colleagues and family. State money then has to be spent on benefits, on policing, and on rehabilitation programs.  1. Griffin, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con04b","title":"","text":"While there are studies that argue that cannabis is harmful, there is no substantial proof of many of the harmful effects it is accused of having. Indeed, there are many studies that claim it does not have these harmful effects. For example, a 15-year John Hopkins University study published in May 1999 found \"no significant differences in cognitive decline between heavy users, light users, and non-users of cannabis.\"1 It is also claimed by many researchers that while cannabis has some potentially harmful effects, it is far less harmful then tobacco and alcohol2. Cannabis is also known to have medicinal qualities, such as in relieving pain for MS sufferers. In California, for example, it is possible to obtain a \"medical marijuana\" card. 1  2 The Economist. (2010, November 2). Scoring Drugs. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from The Economist:"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con02b","title":"","text":"Legalization of cannabis would make it easier for scientific studies to take place, thereby providing a more accurate picture of the physical, psychological, spiritual and sociological effects of the drug. Just as the lift of the taboo on discussions of a sexual nature in schools around the world has resulted in people being more informed as to the dangers of unprotected sex, so would the increased availability and accuracy of scientific data on cannabis serve to reduce the ratio of abuse to responsible use."}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Surely the fact that what is healthy is also considered sexy should be embraced. Any motivation to lose a few pounds in a country where more than a quarter of people are obese [1] is surely a good thing for public health. Prop bemoans that diet advertising is targeted at the young and yet this is the group that policy makers routinely target with legislation to encourage healthy living and an early acceptance of the need for good health.  [1] Jeremy Laurance, \u2018Britain is the fattest nation in Europe\u2019, The Independent, 17 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Selling to the vulnerable  Diets are predominantly targeted at those who feel desperate. It has nothing to do with medical need, a constant round of being told that there is only one way to look attractive inevitably encourages people to adopt a mindset that 'thin' equals 'attractive'. This has nothing to do with a medical need nor do diets represent a medical solution; at least not in the meaning of 'diet' at the focus of this debate.  The pressure on people, especially young people, to conform to a certain stereotype of physical perfection is astonishing and comes from many sources \u2013 music, magazines and the celebrity culture endemic in the media. It is notable that there is a well studied correlation between mass media consumption and eating disorders and fears of poor body image. [1]  Diet programmes sell the dream that as long as you look like a given ideal you will come to be like them. This is nearly always untrue. [2] However, it is particularly attractive to those who are most susceptible to peer pressure; primarily the young but really anyone with a desire to fit in. The advertising picks up on this, pictures of happy, smiling, thin people with successful personal lives. It's simply an illusion and has little to do with the realities of medical need.  [1] Kristen Harrison and Veronica Hefner, \u2018Media Exposure, Current and Future Body Ideals, and Disordered Eating Among Preadolescent Girls: A Longitudinal Panel Study\u2019, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.35 No.2, April 2006, pp.153-163, p.153   [2] Federal Trade Commission, \u2018Weighing the Evidence in Diet Ads\u2019, November 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no doubt that weight is not purely a medical issue but that a positive appearance helps self-confidence and opens lifestyle opportunities. Different people approach losing a few pounds in different ways, some have the time for the meticulous dietary exercise and training regime Prop is suggesting but most don't. Promotion of other option is simply meeting that need."}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Medical concerns  Dieting is a medical choice and should be treated as such; advertising the available options rather than discussing this with a doctor means that people do not have all of the available information and cannot make their decision in a safe environment.  In comparable areas such as giving up smoking, controlling drinking, making decisions about exercise, knowledge about inoculations before travel and so forth, we prize medical expertise. The diet industry in the UK is worth \u00a32bn [1] (it's $61bn in the US) and is marked out by allowing the same people to tell us that we are sick in the first place and then tell us the cure and then do it all again when the solution didn't work.  Generally accepted medical opinion is that this is a slow process with miracle cures both unlikely to work in the first place and, where they do, more unlikely to last. In some cases the dieting may even threaten health. For example French doctors have criticised the Dukan diet, Dr Boris Hansel for example says \"There are real risks \u2026 infertility, sleep apnoea, high blood pressure, type-two diabetes, liver disease or cardiovascular problems. Following this diet is not harmless; it could cause real health problems\" but its endorsement by celebrities mean that many will ignore such warnings or never even hear of them. [2]  Most ridiculously, the solution that does work \u2013 moderate eating and regular exercise is absolutely free and available to all.  [1] Arabella Weir. Try it \u2013 don't diet. The Guardian. 31 December 2010,   [2] Kim Willsher, \u2018Dukan diet divides French doctors over effect on health\u2019, The Guardian, 30 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro01b","title":"","text":"People often wish to change their appearance for cosmetic rather than medical reasons. As with other cosmetic changes, from a new wardrobe to surgery, this can be expensive, and may even have some risks, but it is accepted because we know that it makes people feel better. It's a lifestyle choice and is no more the business of government than choosing a new jacket or deciding to get an earring."}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Inventing the idea of fat  There's a lot to be said for eating well and being generally healthy. It's not just a matter of weight but the effect that bad nutrition has in contributing to heart conditions, blood pressure, energy levels and other health indicators. [1] None of these things are helped by trying to drop three stone in a couple of months by filling your body with one thing regardless of what it needs at the time as many of these diets do  Our physical appearance should be an indicator of our lifestyle not an accessory to it.  The diet industry has poured considerable time and effort, with help from Holywood and the publishing industry, in to promoting the idea that thin and emaciated are the same thing.  Fad diets are, for many, less healthy than being a little overweight.  [1] BMJ, \u2018Obesity \u2013 how to lose weight\u2019, 31 October 2012, p.3,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-con03b","title":"","text":"There is an enormous difference here. Even fast food chains themselves accept that their product should not be eaten all day everyday. Supermarkets have taken on board healthy messages about people's five a day or low fat brands. They've built these messages into their wider marketing strategy. Diet ads, by contrast, do claim to be a panacea that will instantly make you sexy, healthy, popular and, apparently successful. They are 21st century snake oil merchants and should simply be run out of town."}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-con01b","title":"","text":"It's simply not true to say that people automatically take their adverts with a pinch of salt. Research in the US suggests that 1 in five young adults trust advertising to always tell the truth and a clear majority think it does \u201cmost of the time\u201d [1] , as this is exactly the group that is primarily of concern it can't be taken for granted that they will use caution or undertake further research.  [1] Harris poll. Young adults more trusting of advertising. 5 November 2010."}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-con02a","title":"","text":"Banning advertising won't work  How exactly is a ban on promoting diets supposed to work? Proposition isn't talking about tackling advertising online, presumably because it's difficult to do, nor is prop tackling the issue of books promoting certain techniques. So this ban would have failed to catch the largest craze of recent years, the Atkins diet.  Equally diets are a mainstay of teen and women's magazines and a fairly central pillar of lifestyle sections of newspapers. Even so called 'quality' papers endlessly talk about lifestyles issues such as how they don't work and everyone would be better off retiring to a country manor in Shropshire for Swedish massage and a diet of organic barley.  Unless prop is talking about starting to ban books or shut down entire sections (and profitable sections at that) of publishing companies then it is difficult to see how this measure will have any real affect."}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-con03a","title":"","text":"Countercase; Tackling food advertising  If the Proposition is so keen to tackle obesity then regulating then it should tackle food advertising rather than the advertising of diets. [1] Banning the promotion of dieting ads while people are sitting in front of the TV munching on the take away food or complaining that the remote is 'all the way' on the other side of the room, smacks of shutting the stable door after the horse has bolted.  Diets are a response, one of many as Prop is keen to point out, to a serious problem that only government can begin to address.  From before we are old enough to walk most people in the developed world are hooked on a fat-, sugar- and salt-rich diet. [2] Going after dieting ads is simply an effort by governments to be seen as doing something in a way that has little electoral impact. People will still use diets because of the gaps, such as the web, already mentioned however it doesn't require government to say anything as risky as \u201cYou're fat because you eat rubbish and don't move around much\u201d to the electorate \u2013 or worse still, \u201cYour children are fat because you can't put your foot down and tell them they can't have another choc-ice or more chips\u201d.  Prop's entire case is tokenism of the highest order.  [1] Denis Campbell, \u2018Call for ban on TV junk food ads before 9pm watershed\u2019, The Guardian, 4 September 2012,   [2] AP, \u2018Study: Bad Eating Habits Start Near Age 2\u2019, InteliHealth, 27 October 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-con01a","title":"","text":"It's my body and I'll starve if I want to  The main problem facing Prop's entire case is that this is simply none of the government's business. What people eat or don't eat is a private matter and the intervention of the nanny state would have us all on a diet of compulsory cabbage and nut roast.  People can be grown up about this, and where they're children, their parents can be grown up about this. The entire health and education system already exists to tell us to eat our greens and cycle to work; for those people who chose not to do so, they have a range of diet option and advertising tell them what those options are. The government regularly runs healthy eating advertising campaigns, and they often focus on obesity such as the Change4Life campaign, so there is plenty of opportunity to get the other side across. [1]  It's free speech, it's a free choice for the consumer, it's called the market.  Prop seems to think that consumers are idiots, nobody believes that a diet for a couple of weeks will make them look like a super model any more than buying a pair of speedos will. However, they can assess the different products, decide which one they trust more, do further research if they want to and then choose.  [1] Politics.co.uk Staff, \u2018Anti-obesity campaign launched\u2019, Politics.co.uk, 2 January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-health-mthwhwbpd-con02b","title":"","text":"The fact that it is difficult to do everything is no reason not to do something. At the very least articles and books have to go through an editorial process and are open to challenge by other articles and books. That's not true for bought space.  In the same way that we regulate the claims that can be made about cars, gambling websites and dating agencies to protect consumers without banning discussion of transport, money or love, advertising and journalism are treated differently."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-pro02b","title":"","text":"Human beings are naturally inclined towards violence and conflict. Sex and violence are primal parts of our genetic make-up and we do not need alcohol to bring them to the surface.  A study conducted by the University of Osnabr\u00fcck (Germany) explains that individuals who are the cause of domestic violence usually have very little or no capacity for empathy from the early stages of their development. It states, that the domestic violence is deeply rooted in their psychology. Thus, nothing to do with alcohol as the cause of third party harm. [1] Alcohol, at worst, may slightly exaggerate these tendencies - but that makes it the occasion not the underlying cause of violent crimes. The underlying causes are biological and social and abuse would happen anyway, even without alcohol. [2]  Making rape and murder illegal does not eradicate rape and murder, so it is unlikely that making drinking alcohol illegal will do so either.  [1] European Council of Europen - Human Rights, Explaining the inclination to use violence against women, October 1999,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011  [2] Hanson D., Drinking Alcohol and Domestic Abuse, State University of New York,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-pro02a","title":"","text":"Banning alcohol protects third parties (family members) from harm.  Alcohol is a contributory factor to a huge proportion of disputes and distress in society. It also contributes to the psychological problems of the alcohol consumer children. While the problem might not be connected to one individual in society, it is important that laws protect those, who might abuse their rights and with this hurt others.  Currently in the US alone, there is an estimated 6.6 million children under 18, which live in households with at least one alcoholic parent. [1] It was never the fault of these children that others started to drink and harm them. According to psychological studies many of the children coming from alcohol abuse families have problems such as low self-esteem, loneliness, guilt, feelings of helplessness, fears of abandonment, and chronic depression. Children of alcoholics in some cases even feel responsible for the problems of the alcoholic and may think they created the problem. [2]  Alcohol is also a great contributor not only to psychological, but also to physical damage. Many times, alcohol is an easy excuse for domestic abusers. The incidence of domestic abuse in households, where there is alcohol abuse is a lot higher and the abusers name the effects of alcohol as their main cause of violence. [3]  With taking away alcohol we take away the fuel of many of the abusers, thus protecting third involved parties.  [1] Alcohol Information, Alcohol Statistics,  , accessed 08\/14\/2011  [2] Parsons T., Alcoholism and it\u2019s effects on the Family, AllPsych Journal, published 12\/14\/2003,  , accessed 08\/16\/2011  [3] University of Minnesota, Alcohol and Domestic Violence,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-pro03b","title":"","text":"First of all alcohol abuse (excessive amounts of alcohol) contribute only to a small percentage of all alcohol use in society. Even in Germany, where prices of beer are very low in comparison to other beverages, the data shows, that only 1.7 million (in a country of more than 80 million) use alcohol in a harmful way. [1] So why force people to give up something, just because a minority is not sure how to use it.  Further on, even if it was a concerning amount of people whose health is impacted by alcohol abuse, campaigns and information have very effectively reduced the death rate for cirrhosis. During a 22-year period, death from cirrhosis: dropped 29.8% among black men, 15.3% among white men, 47.9% among black women and 33.3% among white women [2]  [1] Ryan R., The Highs and Lows of Germany's Drinking Culture, published 11\/18\/2006,  , accessed 08\/18\/2011  [2] Hanson D., Alcohol \u2013 Problems and Solutions, State University of New York,  , accessed 08\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-pro01a","title":"","text":"Governments have the obligation to protect citizens from harmful substances  Alcohol is a mind altering drug, which can cause individuals to take actions they would have not done otherwise. This does not refer to loosened inhibitions, but also extends to harmful acts against themselves and others.  Democracy is based on the principle that the majority of people are to elect leaders and trust them with a term, where their duty is solely to look after the wellbeing of the country and its citizens. The politicians, having the resources and time which they have to use, to get well equipped to make more informed decision on activities dangerous to the individual, others and the society. One of the principles in society therefore is that elected representatives have to make sure their citizens get the best possible protection in society. Even if this infringes on some of their rights. Alcohol for a long time has been kept because the government trusted the people; they would make responsible decisions regarding alcohol. However, each year, the society loses, on a 30 year based average, more than 75,000 individuals to alcohol related diseases or accidents. [1] Thus the citizens proved not to be responsible; even though they had information available they did not make the choice that would keep them alive.  The government has a duty to protect those irresponsible citizens, because otherwise they will not be able to contribute to society to the extent they could without alcohol. And because the government does not know who is the one that will make a stupid decision that will engender their lives in the long run, for the sake of few individuals\u2019, alcohol has to be banned for all.  Therefore, because the government has been trusted with the duty to make informed decisions instead of the individuals and to protect the individual, it is right to allow them to ban alcohol if they believe it is very harmful.  [1] msnbc.com, Alcohol linked to 75,000 U.S. deaths a year, published 06\/25\/2005,  , accessed 08\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-pro01b","title":"","text":"Individuals are sovereign over their own bodies, and should be free to make choices which affect them and no other individual.  Since the pleasure gained from alcohol and the extent to which this weighs against potential risks is fundamentally subjective, it is not up to the state to legislate in this area. Rather than pouring wasted resources into attempting to suppress alcohol use, the state would be better off running information campaigns to educate people about the risks and consequences of alcohol abuse."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-pro03a","title":"","text":"Banning alcohol would lead to healthier individuals.  A ban of alcohol would have a great impact on the health of every individual.  Alcohol and especially alcohol abuse are very common problems in today\u2019s society. Long lasting abuse of substances leads to many chronic diseases such as liver cirrhosis (damage to liver cells); pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas); various cancers, including liver, mouth, throat, larynx (the voice box), and esophagus; high blood pressure; and psychological disorders. [1]  With a ban of alcohol we would very much lower the rates of consumption, as already current drug laws show. Even though drugs have a similar effect as alcohol, because of the risk of consequences when using those substances.  Therefore in general the number of alcohol addiction would sink and cause also less of a financial health burden. According to the US alone, the economic cost of alcohol abuse in 1998 was 184.6 billion dollars. [2] This is a burden which many state budgets have to bear.  Therefore if this cost can be prevented, the lives of people improved (by not getting the chronic diseases) we should do so.  [1] Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Alcohol and Public Health,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011  [2] Harwood, H.; The Economic Costs of Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the United States, 1992. Report prepared for the  National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con03b","title":"","text":"Laws change attitudes. Many times laws are the first step towards more approval of a certain new societal value and even lead the step to a quicker mentality change.  This was seen with the legalizing of gay marriages in many countries, among them also in some states in the US. In 2010 the approval among US citizens reached more than half of the population, which is a drastic improve from the past. [1] In the beginning there was very little approval of the policy and same-sex marriages in general, an open discussion about the law, the first actual practical implications of the law and consequences have over time gained more acceptances in most Western countries towards gay marriage.  The same principle will apply to an alcohol ban. While in the beginning there will probably be a lot of protest, there will probably also be a change of mentality later on.  [1] Gallup, Americans acceptance of gay relations crosses 50 %  , accessed 08\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con01b","title":"","text":"The state is obligated, when the health of citizens is on the line, to pass laws and regulations that protect them. The precedent has already been established in most countries with most forms of drugs. Citizens\u2019 rights in this case are not a right to have drugs, but a right to be protected from the harmful effects of the substances, not merely on their own bodies but society as a whole. Governments would be derelict in their duty if they did not act to remove such harmful substances from society."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con02a","title":"","text":"Prohibition would be impractical and serve only to create an enormous black market  In comparison to any other drug, alcohol is very easy to produce (hence the great amount of vineyards) and very much engraved in the culture of especially European countries.  Therefore a ban would be very ineffective, as the people would do it due to the ease of producing alcohol and the cultural acceptance. A ban would bring just more deregulation and loss of taxes through the black market.  We might acknowledge that the legal implications will scare away some people from drinking alcohol, but the main part of population will want more. Because there is a strong inelastic demand and the illegal supply will flourish.  This can be seen already with both and illegal drugs. It is also the lesson of Prohibition in the USA in the 1920s. Smuggled alcohol brought in from much cheaper continental countries will undercut both pubs and law-abiding retailers, and will circumvent the normal regulations which ensure consumer safety, such as proof-of-age or quality controls. In Saudi Arabia, a country with an alcohol ban, the Saudi police had seized over 100,000 bottles of eau-de-cologne with an expired expiration date. The methanol in cologne recently led to the deaths of over 20 people who drank it and many others were blinded. Earlier, over 130,000 bottles were confiscated. [1] Because people wanted alcohol so badly and could not get it. While in Europe there might not be much of poisoning going on, a great amount of alcohol because of the different wine regions. Only Spain has already 2.9 million acres of land devoted entirely to the planting of wine grapes. However, it is only number 3 when it comes to the amount of wine actually produced. [2] So in comparison to the Arabic countries, there is a lot of ground where easily to produce alcohol and therefore making it hard to control.  Worse, criminals will find a market for cheap, home-brewed alcohol, of the kind which kills or blinds hundreds of people a year in countries like Russia. [3] Overall criminality will flourish, with the gang violence associated with Prohibition or the drugs trade.  An alcohol ban has worked mainly in countries where it is very tight tied to religion and to the religious practices. Especially in countries that are secular and more multicultural, the ban would be impossible to enforce. The harms associated with black market alcohol are too great for us to risk introducing this proposal.  [1] Hanson D., Alcohol \u2013 Problems and Solutions, State University of New York,  , accessed 08\/18\/2011  [2] A Beginners Guide to Spanish Wine,  , accessed 08\/18\/2011  [3] Sodertorns Hogskola, The Alcohol Use in Russia and the Baltic Sea Region, published April 2000,  , accessed 08\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con04a","title":"","text":"Banning alcohol harms the economy.  Not only would banning alcohol infringe people\u2019s civil liberties to an unacceptable degree, it would also put thousands of people out of work. The drinks industry is an enormous global industry.  In 2007, it was a $970 billion global market for alcoholic beverages, experiencing a period of unprecedented change. While about 60 percent of the market was still in the hands of small, local enterprises, truly global players are steadily emerging and creating an even greater market. There are not good enough reasons for wreaking this havoc on the world economy. [1]  A point further on is that currently governments raise large amounts of revenue from taxes and duties payable on alcoholic drinks. To ban alcohol would take away a major source of funding for public services. In addition, the effect of banning alcohol would call for additional policing on a huge scale, if the prohibition were to be enforced effectively. If would create a new class of illegal drug-users, traffickers, and dealers on an unprecedented scale.  [1] Jackson J., Spirited performance, published May 2007,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con03a","title":"","text":"Banning alcohol is a quick fix to a wider societal problem.  By banning alcohol the government is searching for a quick way out of the problem of people excessively drinking, making bad decisions when under the influence of alcohol.  Alcoholism and also drunk driving is a problem in many countries over the world. It has taken governments for over 30 years to decrease the number of drunk driver accidents, to decrease the number of drinkers in certain regions. This is a hard campaign battle, the government has to battle. According to a recent study, by the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, campaigns contribute to approximately 13 % of decrease in drinking through time. This is a number with which many governments are not satisfied as they are pouring a lot of money in the campaigns. [1] In Scotland alone, the annual expenditure for the \u201cdrink driving campaign was \u00a3141000. [2] Because of quite high expenditure on campaigns, countries may see a ban as an easy way out of these expenditures. Therefore for the government it seems maybe reasonable to prevent just all citizens from drinking. With this the government might be saying that the problem is fixed (because no one is allowed to drink alcohol anymore), but mainly it is just superficially solving it.  As people\u2019s mentality has not changed just through a law passing, they have created only more problematic users, they cannot target with campaigns and so do not impact the society. A quick public message that they fixed the superficial problem, while leaving citizens in their misery.  [1] Elder R., Effectiveness of Mass Media Campaigns for Reducing Drinking and Driving and Alcohol-Involved Crashes, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, published 2004,  , accessed 08\/13\/2011  [2] Institute of Alcoholic Studies, Economic cost and benefits,  , accessed 08\/13\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con01a","title":"","text":"The state should keep alcohol legal in order to maximize citizens\u2019 rights.  Governments are not there to be the mothers of citizens, but should allow people to freely live their lives as long as they do not hurt others.  A government might have the wish to build a society that is obedient, productive and without flaws. This may also mean a society without alcohol, cigarettes, drugs or any other addictive substances. Such a society might have its benefits in a short term, but seen long term it has more unsatisfied individuals.  With drinking alcohol responsibly no one is getting harmed; in many cases not even the individual, as it is actually beneficial for the health. A glass of wine per day is good for decreasing the risk of cancer and heart disease, scientists say. [1]  So if someone in society has decided that it is good for them for whatever reason possible to use a substance that impacts only them, the state should not prevent them from doing so. This is because the society has been made from the different individuals, which lead different lifestyles and therefore have very opposing opinions views on what freedom is. A society that is free and where individuals are happy is a society where individuals engage more and also give more back to the society. So if alcohol will make the people happy and then more productive, we should maintain status quo.  [1] Bauer J., Is wine good for you ?, published 6\/4\/2008,  , accessed 08\/14\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con04b","title":"","text":"It is true that currently thousands of people are employed by the alcoholic drinks industry. However the fact that an immoral industry employs a lot of people is never a good argument to keep that immoral industry going (similar arguments apply to the cases of prostitution, arms dealing, fox hunting, battery farming, etc.) Instead, a gradual process would have to be implemented, which would include governments providing funding for training for alternative careers.  Also it is true that tax revenues would be lost if alcohol were banned. However, again, this is not a principled reason to reject the proposition, simply a practical problem. It should be pointed out that governments would save a huge amount of money on police and health spending (through the reduction in crime and alcohol-related illness) which would go at least some of the way to offsetting the decreased tax revenues."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahwba-con02b","title":"","text":"In any single law, that prohibits substances there is going to be the danger of a black market. In Canada, a black market for alcohol developed despite the legal status of alcohol (it was due to high taxation). The Association of Canadian Distillers actually estimated that 25 % of all spirits in Ontario are consumed illegally (without paying taxes). [1]  The problem therefore is not going to lay in the ban itself, but in the enforcement of legislation and thorough control of the markets.  [1] Mackenzie Institute, Prohibition\u2019s Hangover \u2013 Ontario\u2019s Black Market and Alcohol,  , accessed 08\/17\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Many ads don't include enough information on how well drugs work. For example, Lunesta is advertised by a moth floating through a bedroom window, above a peacefully sleeping person. Actually, Lunesta helps patients sleep 15 minutes faster after six months of treatment and gives 37 minutes more sleep per night. The Majority of ads are based on emotional appeals, but few include causes of the condition, risk factors, or important lifestyle changes. In a study of 38 pharmaceutical advertisements researchers found that 82 percent made a factual claim and 86 percent made rational arguments for product use. Only 26 percent described condition causes, risk factors, or prevalence. [1] Thus not giving the patients balanced information that would make them aware, that taking one of the pills is not a magic solution to their problem.  Actually, according to a study conducted in the US and New Zealand, patients requested prescriptions in 12% of surveyed visits. Of these requests, 42% were for products advertised to consumers and consumers could not recall more than 4 different products of medicine. [2]  This proves that the decisions made by the patients are not more informed and mainly only pressure to the advertised drugs.  [1] Creating Demand for Prescription Drugs: A Content Analysis of Television Direct-to-Consumer Advertising. Ann Fam Med. 2007 January; 5(1): 6\u201313.   [2] Mintzes B. and co-workers, Influence of direct to consumer pharmaceutical advertising and patients' requests on prescribing decisions: two site cross sectional survey, BMJ 2002,  , accessed 08\/01\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Patients will be better informed than under the status quo  Advertising prescription drugs enables patients to learn, and to request innovation faster in order to benefit from the new drugs that health personnel still have not gotten used to.  Advertising increases consumer awareness of drugs, which makes consumers more likely to take appropriate medication. The drugs market is complex and so advertising can help explain the differences between treatments, for example between contraceptive pills intended to reduce period pain, period flow and those simply to prevent pregnancy.  Advertising under current rules is used to inform patients of new drugs which may be appropriate for conditions which they suffer from (such as recent asthma drugs which reduce the frequency of attacks), but which their doctor might overlook or not have the time to crosscheck against her list of patients. [1]  56% of AMA general practitioners believed that direct-to-consumer advertising had prompted some of their patients to seek treatment for a condition which would have otherwise been neglected. [2] If a patient has taken the time to actively consider a particular drug and then visits their doctor, whether they are prescribed it or not, they are building up a positive relationship with their doctor and are more likely to continue to take an active interest in their health.  Further on, in states where there is no direct to consumer advertising but there is advertising to doctors, patients are disadvantaged because it is in the interest for private medical insurance firms or national health services to keep information about expensive new drugs from patients.  In the UK it was because of cost that the Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) refused to allow the prescription of Herceptin, a drug which US studies have shown reduces the damage done by breast cancer. Ultimately pressure from Roche, the drug\u2019s manufacturer and from patients resulted in the drug being authorized for use, but the process was much faster in the US where Roche could run advertisements alerting consumers to the potential benefits of Herceptin, and thereby immediately giving patients access to a similar level of information as their doctors and allowing them to push for its authorization.  [1] Patient View \u2013 for improving patient care, Information on prescription medicines: the views of EU-based patient groups,  , accessed 08\/07\/2011  [2] Lyles A., Direct Marketing of Pharmaceuticals to Consumers, Annual Review of Public Health, published May 2002,  , accessed 08\/08\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro03b","title":"","text":"This leads to patients requesting drugs they do not need and in many cases are even harmful to them.  The prescription drugs are very different from freely available drugs. They often treat serious diseases, and so advertising those should target mainly people that are very ill and especially vulnerable. On the other hand, with direct-to-consumer advertising, many people who do not have a serious disease become convinced that they need the prescription drug, because the advertisements scare them.  Because of such advertisement, in the U.S. there was a rapid widespread exposure to dangerous drugs before risks were fully recognized, as with troglitazone (Rezulin) for diabetes and cisapride (Propulsid) for nighttime heartburn. Causing people to become more ill instead of healthier, because this leads to a higher \u201cself-diagnosing\u201d. [1]  [1] Health Information Action, Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising The European Commission\u2019s Proposals for Legislative Change, September 2011,  , accessed 08\/07\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Advertisements for prescription drugs are not significantly different from any other advertisement  Advertising serves an important purpose by informing the public about a specific product. It is also regulated from manipulation, and therefore deserves no special restrictions; these same restrictions and watchdogs would be in place if advertising of drugs were allowed to make sure that no drug is misrepresented. We trust consumers to view adverts with a level of skepticism and we know that they form only one part of the research that goes into, say, buying a car. Drug companies have become more open in recent years. For instance, GSK now publishes the results of all their drug trials (including the ones that fail) online and there are plenty of other sources of information on drugs available. A drug that remains unused is a drug that is helping nobody; adverts are simply a reasonable way for drug companies to help consumers find out about their products within a safe and highly regulated environment [1] .  When the first discussion in the European Parliament was started, regarding the advertisement of pharmaceuticals, the pharmaceutical industry specifically pointed out the anomaly that exists: \u201cSpecific laws stood in the way of it communicating with patients over its products, even when others could. Presumably, this meant information was communicated by the media about new medicines. In this regard, the restrictions on the pharma industry contrast with the freedom enjoyed by manufacturers of vitamins and herbal remedies, who routinely advertise products to patients.\u201d [2] This shows that it is unjust to make any differences between the companies.  [1] Debate: Should Drug Companies be allowed to advertise prescriptions direct to the public.   [2] Jessop N., Will DTC Advertising appear in Europe ?, published 01\/07\/2011,  , accessed 07\/29\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Advertising does not attempt to tell the truth, but to give a biased view of a product. Companies spend millions of dollars a year on advertising, and would not do so if there were no return on this investment. While purchasing a particular brand of cola on the basis of an advert might not be disastrous for the consumer, using an inappropriate drug could be.  Drugs companies have also shown their willingness to abuse their advertising rights. For instance the FDA has recently had to insist that the possible side effects of drugs must be listed as an integral part of TV advertisements, because advertisements were being produced in which the list of side effects was read at too fast a pace to be understood.  It is thus understandable that in a survey soon after the 1997 regulations on direct to consumer advertising, 80% of American Medical Association (AMA) General Practitioners (GPs) thought it was not a good idea and undermined their role. [1]  [1] FDA: Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Prescription Drugs:Looking Back, Looking Forward, published October 2005, www.fda.gov\/downloads\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/CDER\/ucm095993.ppt , accessed 08\/07\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Actually prescription drugs are generally sold expensively worldwide, especially in North America and receive enormous profits, regardless of the advertising. Companies actually have enormous budgets dedicated to advertising, in countries where it is legal. They are required to spend this money because they have to compete with other companies that are advertising their products, but if there were no advertising, they could spend the money on more research.  The pharmaceutical industry has been the most profitable industry in America for each of the past 10 years and, in 2001, was a five-and-one-half time more profitable than the average for Fortune 500 companies [1] . Moreover, in Canada, the sale of a typical patented branded drug would bring about a profit margin of almost 70% [2] .  \u201cU.S. Pharmaceutical Launches: Marketing Spend and Structure\" reveals that the average blockbuster brand in the United States allots 49% of its budget to fulfill advertising needs. This hefty allotment is attributed to the fact that most blockbuster brands target a mass-market audience that requires large-scale advertising. [3]  Advertising reduces the incentive for research into new drugs as companies have found the returns on investment in advertising are better than those on research and development. This is particularly the case as it has become increasingly difficult to find a \u2018blockbuster\u2019 drug (because increasingly, new drugs are minor adjustments to existing ones). Significant changes to the way drugs are researched are needed for scientific advancements, but such changes are expensive and carry high risks of failure. It is of much lower risk is to the manufacturer to relicense existing drugs for new markets and new consumers, thereby allowing them to re-brand the drug [4] .  So they do not use the money mainly for research for new therapeutics, but spend nearly half of it on advertisements to maximize their profit even more.  [1] CIBC World Markets (2003) 2003 Investors' Guide to The Canadian Drugstore Industry, published 2003,  , accessed 07\/30\/2011  [2] Families USA (2002) Profiting from Pain: Where Prescription Drug Dollars Go,  , accessed 07\/30\/2011  [3] PR Newsmedia \u2013 United Business Media, Pharmaceutical Advertising: United States vs. Europe, published 12\/22\/2010,  , accessed 07\/29\/2011  [4] Turning ideas into products- a pharmaceurtical paradigm shift."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Advertising will enable patients to get better treatment earlier in their illnesses  Advertisements\u2014especially those that identify symptoms\u2014can lead to a healthier citizenry, as consumers become aware of their diseases earlier, and can thus find the drug that targets their problem at an earlier stage. Many drugs can prevent or reduce the likelihood of a patient requiring surgery (for instance anti-cholesterol drugs can reduce the buildup of atheroma in blood vessels, which cause cardiovascular heart disease and strokes, thus reducing the likelihood of a heart bypass being required and improving any post-stroke rehabilitation). This not only saves money but is also better for patients. Surgery involves the risk of complications as well as taking time both directly and in post-operation rehabilitation.  Also many degenerative conditions can be best treated by early intervention; if patients are aware of the drugs that are available at an early stage they are more likely to take them, thereby increasing their standard of living and reducing their long-term cost to state or private health cover providers."}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Adverts generate profit. Profit funds research into improved drugs  We should not attack drugs companies for making profits from their products, nor for encouraging patients to use them. Each new drug costs an average of $500m to produce and very small percentage of the drugs that are researched ever make it to the market. [1] The more profitable the industry, the more new drugs it can afford to research and develop and thus the more patients who can receive appropriate treatment. Many of the complex cures being developed for diseases like cancer, HIV\/AIDs, SARS and Avian Flu will take decades to research. In the meantime, drug companies require funding streams from other drugs to continue research.  Drugs have become increasingly expensive and advertisement helps to cover those costs. From 1980 and 2004, from about $6 billion (in 2005 dollars) to $39 billion. There has been a real growth rate of about 8 percent a year, on average.  By comparison, drug firms\u2019 gross margins\u2014sales revenue minus costs and income taxes\u2014have been increasing more slowly, by about 4 percent annually. [2]  So, with more personalized medicine and greater costs in drug development, the industry needs a greater source of revenue in order to research therapeutics further. Advertising would provide this revenue.  [1] Hollis A., Me-too drugs: is there a problem ?, University of Calgary, published December 2004,  , accessed 08\/08\/2011  [2] Congres of United States, Research and Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry, October 2006,  , accessed 08\/01\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-con03b","title":"","text":"According to a financial study conducted by the Villanova School of Business explained that there is no significant burden to the health care system due to direct-to-consumer advertising. The study, conducted in the years 2001 \u2013 2005 in the United States, shows that there is no significant relationship between advertising and price sensitivity. The comparison with other countries shows, the prices of pharmaceuticals and the price for health care (for drugs) have not risen in the United States.  Through advertising, after the introductory phase of a drug, the health system is not burdened more. Simply put people are just able to choose between drugs, in a comparable price range easier and therefore do not cost additional money to the state. [1]  So a greater financial burden is no excuse from prohibiting companies to advertise products.  [1] Villanova University, DOES DTC ADVERTISING RAISE PRICE? THE IMPACT OF  PHARMACEUTICAL ADVERTISING ON CONSUMERS\u2019 PRICE SENSITIVITY, published 2005  , accessed 08\/07\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-con02a","title":"","text":"Advertising puts pressure on doctors to prescribe inappropriate drugs to their patients  If a patient sees a drug that is inappropriate for him, and asks their doctor for it, if his doctor does not prescribe it, then he may ignore his doctor and seek a second or third opinion. In private health care systems it is likely that economic pressure will result in a doctor eventually agreeing to the patient\u2019s demand.  In nationalized health services \u2018pester power\u2019 has resulted in doctors giving in to patients in the past rather than arguing with them (seen, for example, in the massive over-prescribing of antibiotics by British general practitioners for viral infections against which they are ineffective). If the doctor prescribes another drug (perhaps a cheaper generic version), even if it is chemically identical to the branded and advertised drug, the reverse-placebo effect may result in the drug being less effective than it should be, because the patient believes it is a weaker treatment. The patient may also be less willing to complete the prescription, or to visit that doctor again, thereby undermining the doctor-patient relationship. [1]  Prescription medicines are fundamentally complex and dangerous, which is why they require a prescription by a qualified doctor. It is not helpful to have a patient who lacks the decade of medical training a GP has self-diagnosing on the basis of an advert.  [1] FDA: Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Prescription Drugs:Looking Back, Looking Forward, published October 2005, www.fda.gov\/downloads\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/CDER\/ucm095993.ppt , accessed 08\/07\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-con03a","title":"","text":"The costs and effects of advertising will place an additional burden on the healthcare system  Allowing advertising places an additional burden on the health care system.  As a result of advertising, if it were allowed, many patients would request the more expensive brand drugs and so place an additional burden on the public health care system. The offered generic drugs have the same effect; they are simply cheaper because they do not spend several millions on advertising.  Drug costs are increasing at a faster rate in the United States than anywhere else in the world (roughly by 25% year on year since the mid-1990s). This growth has been mainly driven by patients demanding advertised drugs (they accounted for half the 2002-2003 increase, for instance). Advertised drugs are always more expensive than generic rivals because of the branding and advertising costs, as well as the increased price that manufacturers can demand for a snappily named product. In private health care systems, this drives up insurance premiums, thereby pricing large numbers of people out of health care coverage (44 million Americans have no coverage, despite the United States spending more per capita on health care than any other country). Alternatively, it forces many people to select insurance packages with lower levels of coverage (the solution introduced in 2005 by the Bush administration). The EU has estimated that its member states with public healthcare systems would be crippled if they spent as much on drugs as the United States [1] .  Actually estimates in the United Kingdom state that, by buying generic drugs, the public health care system could save more than \u00a3300m a year. General practioners could make more use of cheaper, non-brand versions of the drugs, without harming care. An example of the NHS overpricing drugs: one treatment for gastric problems, Omeprazole, can be bought from wholesalers for between \u00a32.50 and \u00a33.40, yet the NHS pays \u00a310.85 every time it is prescribed. To make the matter worse, doctors often over-prescribe; at least \u00a3100m could be saved if they were more careful in this matter. [2]  Therefore, because it would create a substantial financial burden to the current public health care system, allowing advertising would be a bad idea.  [1] Heath Care in the United States.   [2] BBC News, Drug profiteering claims denied, published 03\/14\/2004,  , accessed 07\/30\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-con01a","title":"","text":"Creating a mentality of illness  Advertising to patients promotes a \u2018pill for every ill\u2019 mentality as the drug industry seeks to \u2018create\u2019 new markets for its drugs by convincing patients that a pill can solve their problems.  This leads both to greater hypochondria and to self-diagnosis of normal conditions as medical ones. For instance in October 2001, GSK ran advertisements for Paxil in the New York Times, claiming the drug would solve chronic anxiety. These advertisements came at a time when the events of 9\/11\u2014rather than a medical condition\u2014were probably to blame for New Yorkers\u2019 stress. The FDA declared in a 1999 study that fewer than one in four new drugs has any therapeutic value and the medical community now accepts that prevention through lifestyle choices is often the best way to tackle disease (for instance, rather than seeking a weight-loss or diabetes wonder-pill, childhood obesity should be tackled through exercise and healthy eating).  Pill-popping seems easier and so is more attractive to many patients but in practice it is worse for the long-term health of society. By allowing the prescription drugs to be advertised we are making more people believe they are ill and need pills for them, rather than explaining to them that their back pain and high blood pressure are problems caused by their lifestyle choices. [1]  [1] Health Information Action, Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising The European Commission\u2019s Proposals for Legislative Change, September 2011,  , accessed 08\/07\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-bhhghwapc-con02b","title":"","text":"The majority of products that are advertised treat currently under-treated conditions. Drugs dealing with diseases such as depression, diabetes, and high cholesterol are some of the most frequently advertised. These advertisements can help inform viewers about their conditions, and prompt visits to physicians, who can help treat the problem early on.  Additionally, informed citizens are good for society, as physicians do not always recommend necessary or helpful drugs. In the status quo, patients do not visit their doctors often enough to be diagnosed. Only approximately half the patients in America get beta blockers after a heart attack. Clearly, an advertisement for beta blockers would be informational, rather than harmful."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro02b","title":"","text":"Legalising sex work means legalising the trading of bodies as a commodity. The practice is disempowering and undermining human rights, not vice-versa. It remains immoral that the state should grant such transactions and introduce prostitution as a career path. By legalising sex work to control HIV, the state becomes an active agent in illegitimate practices. Further, the state makes money while no gains are made for workers. Who really benefits from legalisation?"}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro02a","title":"","text":"Sex work is legitimate work.  Sex work is employment, and therefore requires legal protection. It remains the government responsibility to provide security for their productive workforce and enable them to organise, and unionise. Sex work empowers women and men by providing a means of income, independence and control over sexual practices, and flexible employment. A legal framework will enable sex workers to be able to unionise. Unions remain a source of power in politics.  Recognising sex work as legitimate work enables positive intervention. Firstly, taxes can be collected by the state; and social security schemes established. Pensions can be set up and a safety-net for if workers become ill and or infected provided. Sex workers will be recognised as citizens, contributing to national wealth. Secondly, labour laws - such as minimal wages, hours, and safety, can be implemented. Labour laws are a means of regulating conditions of employment and workplaces preventing exploitation [1] .  [1] ILO (2013) defines \u2018decent work\u2019 as productive work; work whereby rights are guaranteed and social protection provided; and work that promotes social organisations."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro03b","title":"","text":"Introducing new \u2018good\u2019 laws can drive sex work activities underground, and contradictorily reduce access to necessary health care services. Legislation does not ensure universal access: legalising sex work does not stop unequal politics.  First, the provision of HIV\/AIDS treatment and care is dependent on the global-economy and influenced by investor faiths, ethics, and motives [1] . Therefore access to ART (Antiretroviral treatment) among sex workers is controlled by who is providing aid and distributing resources. Second, the most effective prevention strategy is believed to be ABC (Abstinence, Be faithful, and use a Condom). Such mottos exclude sex workers, and directly place the burden of HIV\/AIDS to the individual. Such mottos are founded on strong Christian beliefs - legalising sex work cannot easily change traditional structures.  [1] A decline in global AID funding has been noted with the global economic downturn (World Bank, 2011). Further, the impact of faith-based institutions, and PEPFAR\u2019s \u2018anti-prostitution pledge\u2019, on HIV\/AIDS has been discussed (NSWP, 2011 Avert, 2013)."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro05a","title":"","text":"Gender equality.  Engaging in sex work is a choice; a reflection of individual agency, whereby control is granted over their own body. One has the right to choose how they use their body; therefore legalising sex work legitimising a woman\u2019s, or man\u2019s, right over their body and sexuality."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro01a","title":"","text":"Decriminalising increses sex workers\u2019 rights.  Sex workers remain stigmatised across Africa. Legalising sex work enables the practice to be decriminalised, and rights provided.  Being a sex worker where it is illegal creates additional risks and vulnerabilities. Reports from South Africa show that criminalizing sex workers makes them more likely to be victims of inhuman police action [1] . Sex workers are raped, abused, and harassed. The risk of unsafe sex is therefore practiced outside of their occupation as no legal rights are provided. Legalising, and subsequently decriminalising, sex work will first, tackle corrupt police soliciting sex. Secondly, a new rights framework is provided. Sex workers are able to fight exploitation and claim rights for protection by prosecuting perpetrators if raped or abused.  Sex work will continue either way - but legalising it means legal safety, protection, and negotiation, is provided.  [1] The legalisation of sex work has been introduced by the ANC Women's League (ANCWL) in South Africa. See further readings: BBC, 2012; Daily News, 2013)"}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro01b","title":"","text":"The reality of a causal relation between legalising sex work and decriminalisation remains questionable. Accepting sex work within the legal framework does not ensure the practice is de-stigmatised or becomes regulated. Such contradictions indicate the depth of social stigmatisation towards sex work.  Taking the case of Senegal, where prostitution has been legalised, police abuse continues and sex workers actively choose to work in unregulated environments. In Senegal\u2019s booming sex trade industry, prostitutes are required to register with the police and granted a identity card confirming health requirements have been met. However, their identification places sex workers open to discrimination by the police and social stigma [1] . Further, the legalisation of the industry in Senegal has attracted immigrants and refugees to work within the industry. They lack citizenship rights; therefore legal protection is limited and abused. Clandestine sex work remains prevalent. Sex workers represent around 18% of HIV prevalence, particularly higher amongst women (Aids Alliance, 2013).  Sex workers rights will only emerge once sex work is de-stigmatised, the act of selling sex is no longer taboo, and corrupt laws changed to provide sex workers with respect and protection beyond the law. The stigma of sex work is the basis of illegality and criminalisation.  [1] Senegal has a predominantly muslim population."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro05b","title":"","text":"Gender inequality, hierarchies and violence, will become legalised [1] . Across Africa, women account for a higher proportion of the population living with HIV - gender inequalities are a key driver of the epidemic. For example, patriarchal structures encourage polygamy in marriage; and women\u2019s roles in the reproductive sphere forces them into the caregiver role when someone in the household gets HIV\/AIDS.  The legalisation of sex work will ensure the epidemic continues to \u2018feminise\u2019. Women will become commodified, meeting male demands and desires, within a unequal gender society.  [1] Further readings on the debate of gender and sex work see: Richter, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro04b","title":"","text":"The inclusion of youths and children misses out a crucial component - poverty. Busza (2006) identifies three forms of \u2018sexual exchange\u2019: sex work, transactional sex, and survival sex. Children are often recruited into the sex trade as a result of poverty, desires for consumption, and a lack of social support.  The \u201dsugar daddy\u201d phenomenon across Africa is a case in point. Older men are able to entice young women, and children, through false promises and material products [1] .  Without providing key necessities, and alternatives to meet needs, practices will be driven further underground and youngsters placed at greater risk.  [1] For examples see: IRIN, 2013a; 2013b."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro03a","title":"","text":"Legalising ensures health care and safe sex.  Legalising sex work will enable regulation. Responsive laws can promote safe sex practices and enable access to health services [1] .  Firstly, sex workers fear asking for health assistance, and treatment in public services, due to the illegal and criminalised nature of sex work. WHO (2011) predicted 1 in 3 sex workers received adequate HIV prevention; and less are able to access additional health services. Access is limited due to the criminalised status, but also cost of treatment and transport, inconvenient opening hours, and humiliation [2] . Secondly, the illegal nature of sex work has been attached to safe-practice tools. In Namibia, where prostitution remains commonly practiced but illegal, the criminalisation of accessing condoms enhances vulnerabilities. Following stop and searches by the police 50% of sex workers reported their condoms were destroyed (OSF, 2012). Within the 50%, 75% subsequently had unprotected sex. Being defined as illegal puts workers at greater risk.  Through legalisation sex workers can access tests and openly seek treatment, care and support.  [1] ICASA, 2013, has argued national responses need to enable inclusive, and universal, access to health care treatment to combat HIV\/AIDS.  [2] See further readings: Mtewwa et al, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro04a","title":"","text":"Monitoring who enters the sex trade.  By including sex workers under a legal framework regulatory rules can be imposed on who enters the profession, such as is found in Senegal. The introduction of Senegal\u2019s Identity Card means frequent health checks are required upon registration to be a prostitute. Additionally, the use of children and youths within the sex industry can be controlled.  Global estimations of HIV\/AIDS show young people are at highest risk. The UNDP (2013) called for a legal framework able to ensure the protection of children and youths. Regulation and monitoring is the only way to do so."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-con03b","title":"","text":"By legalising sex work the duty, and ethics, of care are granted to national bodies. The state is able to intervene and act when the rights of sex workers are identified as being breached. The individual self becomes empowered, and integrated into, a legal framework."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-con01b","title":"","text":"Legalising sex work means control and regulation can be imposed on all aspects of the industry. Legalization ensures the sex workers are recognised as citizens, and workers, with rights. It does not preclude similar action relating to the demand aspect."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-con02a","title":"","text":"The causality is wrong.  Legalisation doesn\u2019t prevent HIV\/AIDS transmission, safe sex, or effective regulation. Workers need to be taught about safe sex; safe sex needs to be legalised; and HIV transmission criminalised. National governments need to concentrate on providing access to prevention tools - such as condoms.  Legalisation should not suddenly be announced by government but only done if it is what sex workers want and is the best option for them, this can be done through consolations with groups such as the Global Network of Sex Workers Projects(see NSWP, 2013), to help formulate policy that will work for everyone"}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-con03a","title":"","text":"Legalization leaves \u2018risk\u2019 in the hands of the worker.  Legalising sex as work, puts the burden of risk to the sex workers themselves; and having its basis from European law models raises questions over applicability across Africa. Although, in theory, a legal framework will enhance a duty of rights and a voice for workers, it also becomes the individual who need to be aware of rights, safe practices, and security risks. Legalisation means individuals become responsible. However, when considering how youths are lured into cities, and workers enter the profession following promised opportunities, is that \u2018just\u2019? Before legalising the profession individuals need to be granted choices to not engage in such practices. The family relations forcing migration and prostitution need evaluation. How much power can national legislation have when traditional, local, and family power relations limit choices to enter sex work? Will state actors follow laws when sex work remains culturally unacceptable? Further, legalization needs to be met with opportunities to exit the industry."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-con01a","title":"","text":"The market framework: sex work is an industry.  Sex work needs to be understood as a market-based industry. Sex workers are influenced by supply and demand [1] . It needs to be questioned both who, what, and why sex workers are forced into sexual exchanges and alternatively, why demand is found.  The legalisation of sex work focuses on the supply-side - potentially ensuring safer, and just, practices for sex workers. However, demand is not resolved. First, legalization does not ensure customers are tested for HIV\/AIDS and take precautions. Legalisation may not change behaviour or attitudes. Second, legalization may increase demand through sex tourism, commercial trafficking or exploitation. What drives the sex industry? Legalisation will result in expanding the sex industry, as seen in the 25% increase in the Netherlands following legalisation (Daley, 2001). In Uganda, condom use declines with more regular customers (Morris et al, 2009).  We need to ask what should be included within a legal framework - supply, demand; brothels, customers, or sex workers?  [1] The \u2018Swedish model\u2019 rolled out in Europe is based on tackling demand. The legal reforms have been set to target the demand for prostitution through its criminalisation."}
+{"id":"training-health-dssiahwlswo-con02b","title":"","text":"Criminalising HIV transmission puts human rights in greater jeopardy. The stigmatisation of HIV\/AIDS will remain prominent. The acceptance, and inclusion, of sex workers will become further marginalised as they become symbols of risk, disease, and transmission. This is something no sex worker would want. Countless articles from Ghana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa suggest public support legalising sex work (i.e. see Ghana Web, 2013)."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro02b","title":"","text":"This argument assumes that we know God\u2019s intentions. Evidently, there is no biblical statement on the ethics of human cloning. Who is to say that it is not God\u2019s will that we clone ourselves? Hindu thought potentially embraces IVF and other assisted reproduction technology (ART). [1] Moreover, every time that a doctor performs life-saving surgery or administers drugs he is changing the destiny of the patient and could be thus seen as usurping the role of God. Furthermore, we should be very wary of banning something without being able to say why it is wrong. That way lie all sorts irrational superstition, repression, fundamentalism and extremism.  [1] Tierney, John, \u2018Are Scientists Playing God? It Depends on Your Religion\u2019, The New York Times, 20 November 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Playing God  Cloning is playing God. It is not merely intervention in the body\u2019s natural processes, but the creation of a new and wholly unnatural process of asexual reproduction. Clerics within the Catholic, Muslim and Jewish faiths have all expressed their opposition to human cloning. However, this objection to cloning is not specifically theological. David Hume, the eighteenth-century Scottish moral philosopher, warned us to heed our feelings as much as our logical reasoning. Leon R. Kass of the University of Chicago has stated in relation to human cloning, that mere failure to produce scientific reasons against the technology does not mean we should deny our strong and instinctive reactions to it. As he states, there is a \"wisdom in repugnance\". [1]  [1] Kass, Leon R., \u2018The Wisdom of Repugnance\u2019, New Republic, Vol. 216, Issue 22, 2 June 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro03b","title":"","text":"This argument is wholly unsuited to the modern age. Society freely allows single people to reproduce sexually, whether by accident or design. Existing lawful practices such as sperm donation allow deliberate procreation without knowledge of the identity of the father. Surely it is preferable for a mother to know the genetic heritage of her offspring, rather than accept sperm from an unknown and random donor? Moreover, reproductive cloning will allow lesbian couples to have children genetically related to them both. It might be better for the welfare of the child for it to be born into a happy relationship, but the high rates of single parenthood and divorce suggest that this is not always possible."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro05a","title":"","text":"Cloning treats children as objects  Cloning treats children as objects. Children will be manufactured by an expensive technological process that is subject to quality control. The gulf between an artisan and an artefact is immense. Individuals will be able to have a child for the sake of having children, or as a symbol of status, rather than because they desire to conceive, love and raise another human being. Cloning will not only allow, but actually encourage, the commodification of people."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cloning is unsafe  The technology is unsafe. The nuclear transfer technique that produced Dolly required 277 embryos, from which only one healthy and viable sheep was produced. [1] The other foetuses were hideously deformed and either died or were aborted. Even today, cloning animals through somatic cell nuclear transfer is simply inefficient. The success rate ranges from 0.1 percent to 3 percent, which means that for every 1000 tries, only one to 30 clones are made. Or you can look at it as 970 to 999 failures in 1000 tries. [2]  Moreover, Ian Wilmut and other commentators have noted that we cannot know whether clones will suffer from premature ageing as a result of their elderly genes. Dolly the sheep herself suffered from premature arthritis. [3] There are also fears that the reprogramming of the nucleus of a somatic cell in order to trigger the cell division that leads to the cloning of an individual may result in a significantly increased risk of cancer.  [1] Barnes, Deborah, \u2018Research in the News: Creating a Cloned Sheep Named Dolly\u2019, National Institutes of Health Office Science Education,   [2] University of Utah, Learn Genetics: Cloning,  , accessed 08\/20\/2011  [3] Kilner J., Human Cloning: What's at Stake, published 08\/10\/2004,  , accessed 08\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Cloning is in this respect no different from any other new medical technology. Research is required on embryos in order to quantify and reduce the risk of the procedures. Embryo research is permitted in Britain until the fourteenth day of embryo development. Many other Western countries are also actively engaged in embryo research. The thousands of \u2018spare\u2019 embryos generated each year by IVF procedures and destroyed could be used to the good purpose of human cloning research. It should be noted that cloning has come a long way since dolly in 1997. In 2008 Japanese scientists managed to create clones from the bodies of mice which had been frozen for 16 years. [1]  [1] BBC News, Scientists clone from frozen mice,  , accessed 08\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro05b","title":"","text":"The decision making and the effort that will be required to clone a human suggests that the child will be highly valued by its parent or parents. Furthermore, we should not pretend that every child conceived by sexual procreation is born to wholly well-intentioned parents. The desire to have \u2018a son and heir\u2019 is common around the world but does not concern the welfare of the future child. Similarly, children are often conceived out of marital custom, in order to consolidate a relationship, or even in order to gain free accommodation from local housing authorities. Finally, many children are not intended at all, but are born as a result of unplanned pregnancies. There would be no fear of \u2018accidental cloning\u2019 that could bring a child to a parent who was unprepared, or unwilling, to love it."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro04b","title":"","text":"When people resort to talking in wholly empty abstract terms about \u2018human dignity\u2019 you can be sure that they have no evidence or arguments to back up their position. It is difficult to understand why the act of sexual intercourse that leads to sexual procreation is any more \u2018dignified\u2019 or respectable than a reasoned decision by an adult to have a child, that is assisted by modern science. The thousands of children given life through IVF therapy do not suffer a lack of dignity as a consequence of their method of procreation. The Catholic church regards every embryo from the moment of existence as a living person. This position is not shared by most Western governments, and it would deny not only cloning, but IVF and all the medical knowledge and benefits that have accrued from embryo research."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Cloning harms families  Reproductive cloning harms the integrity of the family. Single people will be able to produce offspring without even the physical presence of a partner. Once born, the child will be denied the love of one parent, most probably the father. Several theologians have recognised that a child is a symbolic expression of the mutual love of its parents, and their hope for the future. This sign of love is lost when a child\u2019s life begins in a laboratory."}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Cloning violates human dignity  Reproductive cloning is contrary to human dignity. \u2018Donum Vitae\u2019, the declaration of the Catholic church in relation to the new reproductive technologies, holds that procreation outside the conjugal union is morally wrong. [1] Many secular organisations, such as the WHO [2] and UNESCO [3] have issued statements that similarly find cloning violates human dignity. Assisted reproductive technologies might all be seen as challenges to human dignity, including IVF and sperm donation. However, human cloning is a completely artificial form of reproduction, which leaves no trace of the dignity of human procreation.  [1] Cardinal Ratzinger, Joseph, \u2018Instruction on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day\u2019, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith,   [2] Brock, Dan W., \u2018Cloning Human Beings\u2019, e-3,   [3] The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights\u2019, UNESCO 29th General Conference, 11 November 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-con03b","title":"","text":"Human reproductive cloning is unnecessary. The development of in vitro fertilisation and the practice of sperm donation allows heterosexual couples to reproduce where one partner is sterile. Moreover, merely 300 babies are adopted each year in the United Kingdom. [1] It might be better for potential parents to give their love to existing babies rather than attempt to bring their own offspring into an already crowded world.  [1] Thompson, Joanna, \u2018Is Adoption A Better Way\u2019, CARE Centres Network,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-con01b","title":"","text":"Cloning will lead to a lack of diversity amongst the human population as it is creating genetic copies rather than increasing diversity by mixing genes. [1] The natural process of evolution will be halted, and as such humankind will be denied development, and may be rendered more susceptible to disease.  [1] ThinkQuest, Disadvantages of human cloning,  , accessed 08\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-con02a","title":"","text":"Clones will still be individuals  There is much more danger of eugenics associated with developments in gene therapy and genetic testing and screening, rather than human cloning. The notion of clones of Hitler is frankly preposterous. Psychologists have shown that nurture is at least as important as genes in determining personality. It would be impossible to produce another Hitler, or Elvis, or whomever, by cloning or any other ART. Clones (people with identical genes) would by no means be identical in every respect. You only need to look at identical twins (who are genetic clones of each other) to see how wrong that assumption is, and how different the personalities, preferences, and skills of people with identical genes can be. [1] The idea of breeding huge fighting forces is also confined to the realm of science fiction. The necessity of thousands of willing mothers, the nine month gestation process, and the many years rearing this child towards adulthood, means that cloning would hardly be an efficient technique for any mad dictator to raise an army. And there is no reason, in any case, to suppose that a clone would be any more willing or effective a soldier than any other human being - clones (like twins) are just as conscious and free as everyone else.  [1] Harris, John, \u2018\u201dGoodbye Dolly\u201d The ethics of human cloning\u2019, Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol. 23, 1997, pp.353-360,"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-con03a","title":"","text":"Cloning should be allowed for those who can\u2019t otherwise have a child  The desire to have one\u2019s own child and to nurture it is wholly natural. The longing for a child genetically related to oneself existed long before biotechnology, but it is only recently that medicine has been able to satisfy it. In vitro fertilisation remains an imperfect technology. Couples typically submit to four cycles of costly treatment before producing a child as the chances of having a child can be as low as 10%. [1] Evidently, the technique does not assist homosexual couples, couples where both partners lack gametes, or where the female partner suffers from a mitochondrial disease. Cloning would allow a child to be born to all these couples.  [1] Wildsen S., Human Cloning \u2013 role of the scientist, West Virginia University,  , accessed 08\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-con01a","title":"","text":"Will allow the elimination of diseases  Cloning is unlikely to be widespread so any dangers from any reduction in the diversity of the human gene pool will be so limited as to be virtually non-existent. The expense and time necessary for successful human cloning should mean that it will only be used to the benefit of the small minority of people who require the technology. The pleasure of procreation through sexual intercourse does not suggest that whole populations will prefer to reproduce asexually through cloning. The only significant lack of diversity which can be expected will be in women who suffer from a severe mitochondrial disease. They will be able to use cloning by nuclear transfer in order to avoid passing on the disease which is carried in their egg cells to any offspring. This elimination of harmful genetic traits from the gene pool is no different from the eradication of infectious disease, such as small pox, and should be welcomed. So against these very marginal worries there is potentially great good to be done through cloning. Currently already we have IVF and genetic screening which can prevent that babies with certain diseases are born. In 2000 the baby Adam Nash was born, genetically manipulated through IVF, as a genetic fit to cure his sister Molly from Fanconi anemia. [1] While this was not cloning it gives an idea what cloning could possibly cure. It could be a way of curing siblings from chronic diseases and also ensuring that the transplants (for example) will not be rejected due to genetic differences.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Designer baby\u2019 ethics fear, published 10\/04\/2000,  , accessed 08\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-hgfhwbhc-con02b","title":"","text":"Cloning will lead to eugenics, or the artificial manipulation and control of the characteristics of people. An American geneticist, Dr. Dan Brock, has already identified a trend towards \u2018new and benign eugenics\u2019 that is perpetrated by developments in biotechnology. This can particularly be seen on a small scale with \u2018designer babies\u2019. [1] When people are able to clone themselves they will be able to choose which type of person shall be born. This seems uncomfortably close to the Nazi concept of breeding a race of Aryan superhumans, whilst eliminating those individuals whose characteristics they considered unhealthy. The \u2018Boys from Brazil\u2019 scenario of clones of Hitler, the baby farms of \u2018Brave New World\u2019, or even the cloning or armies of identical and disposable soldiers, might soon be a very real prospect.  [1] BBC News, Designer baby row over US clinic, published 03\/02\/2009,  , accessed 08\/22\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro02b","title":"","text":"Of course all drugs can be abused but introducing one into the system full in the knowledge that it will be abused is an entirely different matter. On the basis of the balance of probabilities, the moment any government says that cannabis is safe to use and, more than that, beneficial to health then every pothead in that jurisdiction has an excuse.  The only way the War on Drugs can work is if prohibition is applied universally. We expect doctors to work within the law and the government, along with medical governing bodies, has a role in determining what it is appropriate to prescribe and what is not [i] .  There are no situations where society simply stands back and leaves it to individual clinicians to act without guidance. They act within a framework that gives primacy to clinical need but does not ignore the wider social implications. Society regulates when a doctor can rules that someone is incapable of work or needs surgery at the expense of the state. In this particular regard, governments feel that society is best served by not adding cannabis to the pharmaceutical melting pot.  [i] Comment. \u201cKent Doctor Richard Scott Warned Over Faith Discussion\u201d. BBC. 23 May 2011."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro02a","title":"","text":"All drugs can be used for a variety of purposes some appropriate some inappropriate that\u2019s a matter of choice, treatment should be based on medical reality  Any drug, legal or illegal, can be used sensibly or it can be abused. If society bases its decisions on the medical provision of drugs on the presumption of abuse the shelves of most drugstores would be empty. The idea that the burden of proof should be set at demonstrating that nothing else can achieve the same results is absurd \u2013 let\u2019s ban Codeine because Aspirin works just fine. Drugs that have similar effects are distinguished according to the speed, duration and efficacy of those effects, in addition to the drug\u2019s side-effects. Different individuals experience the pain-relieving effects of aspirin in different ways. A wider range of individuals may experience a longer lasting reduction in pain if taking codeine. Similarly, an even larger number of individuals respond positively to cannabis.  The reality is that we trust doctors to make judgments on what is a sensible course of treatment, not politicians and certainly not a hysterical media.  As the law currently stands, politicians are stopping medical professionals from making decisions in the best interest of their patients because nobody wants to be seen to blink first. California and Nebraska already blinked, as have Austria, Canada, Spain and Germany as well as other nations. A failure to recognize this fact is simple political cowardice [i] .  [i]"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro03b","title":"","text":"Ultimately, in most countries where this is even under discussion, politicians run away from this issue because there are no votes in it. The people don\u2019t want it and that view must be respected.  Drugs policy is, ultimately driven by a standard of what the people in a democratic nation consider appropriate; a couple of drinks after work on a Friday is okay, getting stoned on a regular basis isn\u2019t.  Governments have a responsibility to set out a moral code that is acceptable to the broadest possible spectrum of the society they represent. If they accept that cannabis can be used to alleviate suffering in patients then why not accept that it is okay to drink at work. Both substances have a similar pain relieving effect, both have similar negative effects. It is easy to envisage, on the basis of the proposition side argument given above, that an individual may claim that alcohol does more to address his various aches and pains than aspirin or codeine. Society works because there are limits."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cannabis has many medical properties, notably the alleviation of suffering in chronic diseases. It should therefore be freely available  Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for at least 5,000 years most frequently as an analgesic, that is to say it reduces pain. It also stimulates hunger and can be used as an anti-emetic to control nausea and vomiting. As the DEA Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young noted in a 1988 ruling [i] , there is no evidence of a fatality resulting from the misuse of cannabis. Indeed the Dutch government currently permits doctors regulated by its Ministry of Health and Welfare to prescribe cannabis to their patients. Further, the Dutch state has licensed a pharmaceutical firm to provide cannabis of a guaranteed level of purity to pharmacies and medical professionals. [ii]  There are accounts and studies of its successful application to treat the effects of chemotherapy as well as its palliative [iii] use in MS and AIDS [iv] . For governments to turn their backs on a perfectly useful drug simply to prove a point is confusing at best and petulant at worst.  [i] Docket No. 86-22. \u201cOPINION AND RECOMMENDED RULING, FINDINGS OF FACT, CONCLUSIONS OF LAW AND DECISION OF Administrative LAW JUDGE.\u201d FRANCIS L. YOUNG, Administrative Law Judge. 6 September 1988.  [ii] Bedrocan BV home page, 15 November 2011.   [iii] \u201cCannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants.\u201d Espacenet patent search. 07 October 2003.   [iv] \u201cCannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants.\u201d Patentstorm. 07 October 2003."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro01b","title":"","text":"Government has a role in establishing what is an acceptable level of behaviour within society. Full in the knowledge that some people will use any substance responsibly and others less so, governments make decisions to protect their citizens and to show a lead. It is the settled will of most people in most countries that cannabis is not a drug they consider acceptable for use in a modern society. Furthermore, there are plenty of other drugs that can be used for all of the uses Proposition has identified. Legalizing cannabis for medical use would send out the message that it is safe to use when all practical evidence suggests that the social, if not the medical, ramifications are anything but safe. Proposition need to demonstrate a medical use for cannabis that cannot be met by existing pharmaceuticals."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro03a","title":"","text":"For governments to refuse treatment on the basis of an unreasonable assertion is cruel and blindly ideological  The current legislation on drug use in most countries was delivered without canvassing medical opinion and under the influence of public hysteria and moral panic. Seemingly logical but flawed theories linking the use of \u201csoft\u201d drugs to later use of \u201charder\u201d varieties (cocain, amphetamins) have often been used both to justify and to promote drugs legislation. The apparent sense of these arguments belies the fact that they have been repeatedly disproven [i] .  Lurid, prurient portrayals of the catastrophic consequences of narcotics use in the mass media are frequently used to back up arguments that drugs- even cannabis- are so dangerous that even carefully controlled medical applications are unacceptably risky.  It is clearly the case that when any substance has a proven medical benefit it should be available for prescription. Legislation already exists in most countries to contain the possibility of misuse of prescribed drugs.  However, it is clearly the case that politicians are avoiding this issue not because there is medical doubt on the matter but because they are incapable of reaching a logical conclusion for fear of hysterical \u2013 and easy \u2013 headlines. To withhold treatment from patients who need it on the basis that a tabloid will run a \u2018Soft on Drugs\u2019 story the following morning is the height of irresponsibility.  [i] Degenhardt, L, et al. \u201cWhoare the new amphetamine users? A ten year prospective study of young Australians. Adiction, volume 102, 8, p1269-1279. August 2007."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-con03b","title":"","text":"Government policy on this issue has long been confused. When it is perfectly acceptable for politicians, celebrities and other public figures to admit that they have broken the law and face no sanction, it is time for the law to change. Virtually all of the societal problems caused by its usage are directly as a result of its illegality. None of those problems speak to its role in a medical setting.  When not under the threat of tabloid headlines, opinion leaders from across the political spectrum accept that this makes sense [i] . The difficulty is that policy makers only accept the fact after they\u2019re in office, not while they\u2019re facing election. The use of the word \u2018Former\u2019 in pronouncements on this subject is noticeable  [i] Lyn Nofziger, former Press Secretary to Ronald Reagan, wrote the following in the foreword to the 1999 book Marijuana RX: The Patients' Fight for Medicinal Pot, by Robert C. Randall and Alice M. O'Leary"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-con01b","title":"","text":"There is compelling evidence that people are more than capable of making the distinction between the use of a drug for recreational and medical use [i] . The long term effects of using alcohol or nicotine recreationally have been demonstrated to be fatal; the same cannot be said for cannabis. Further this is about using the drug in a medical setting under the supervision of medical professionals.  As Opposition has conceded, this is something that already happens. As societies, we condone the use of far more powerful drugs on a daily basis. This is a clear example of a situation where politics is ignoring reality out of expediency. This is not a proposal for vending machines to sell crack but for the medicinal use of a drug with a proven track record.  [i] Gary Langer. \u201cHigh Support for Medical Marijuana\u201d. ABC News. 18 January 2010."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-con02a","title":"","text":"By expanding the legal use of the drug, it simply makes the illegal, recreational use easier as there\u2019s a greater supply  If the drug were made available, it would need to be grown somewhere, stored somewhere and sold somewhere. Increased supervision of pharmacies and users would be required, in order to guard against the possibility that medical cannabis might be sold on for recreational purposes. Although other pharmaceuticals have narcotics effects, none has the marketability, or market share of cannabis. Many legal types of pharmaceuticals already form the basis of criminal empires and this move would exacerbate that.  Moreover, the increased visibility and mobility of cannabis within the economy will make it easier for determined criminals to hide or obscure the origins of cannabis produced illegally. Individual citizens will be less likely to consider cannabis use that they are victim to as being illegal. It will become harder and more expensive for the police to enforce restrictions on the use and production of cannabis for recreational purposes.  It has been well argued that \u201cdrugs are not a threat to society because they are illegal; they are illegal because they are a threat to society\u201d [i] . Legalization in any form will be misconstrued and the health effects will be damaging [ii] . Even if side proposition can demonstrate that the health effects of cannabis are negligible, the risk of incentivizing increased production of cannabis in foreign territories and increased trade and transfer of cannabis at home is simply too high for the state to accept.  [i] Charles D. Mabry, MD, FACS, Pine Bluff, AR. \u201cPhysicians and the War on Drugs: The Case Against Legalization\u201d. Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons. October 2001.  [ii] Hillary Rodham Clinton, JD, US Secretary of State and US Senator (D-NY) at the time of the quote, stated the following during an Oct. 11, 2007 town hall meeting at Plymouth State College"}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-con03a","title":"","text":"By promoting the use of soft drugs in any context, encourages young people down a slippery slope toward harder drugs  Part of the attraction of cannabis, especially among younger users is its appeal as a \u2018forbidden fruit\u2019. Removing that would mean that other, harder drugs would be sought out to fulfill the same need to rebel.  A government sanction on a drug with a proven tendency to effect memory and other neurological functions would still hold open the door to other, more dangerous, drugs as a form of rebellion. In this regard the continued ban on cannabis \u2013 and the relative tolerance of the breach of that ban \u2013 sends out a clear message of \u2018this far and no further\u2019.  Any signal that this narcotic is acceptable simply increases the stakes."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-con01a","title":"","text":"In most countries where there is an acceptance of the medical value of cannabis it is fairly easily available, this would simply condone its recreational use  At a time when governments, along with health professionals, are trying to restrict the use of legal drugs such as alcohol and nicotine, giving the use of cannabis the sanction of government approval would take health policy in a direction that most people do not wish to contemplate.  Effectively, such a change in policy would announce, \u2018We\u2019d rather you didn\u2019t drink or smoke but it\u2019s okay to get high\u2019.  In most nations where this discussion is even happening the personal use of mild narcotics is ignored by law enforcement. However, legalizing the use of drugs in any way says to the world at large, \u2018this isn\u2019t a problem, do what you like\u2019.  The production of drugs ruins lives and communities. Any attempt to fully legalise marijuana for medical use would only be effective in western liberal democracies. There is a high probability that it would incentivise increased production of the drug in states where it remains illegal. For the reasons given above, legitimatizing cannabis\u2019 use as a medicine would increase or entrench its use as a recreational drug Restrictions on cannabis production would place the market under the control of criminal gangs. As a result, cannabis growing would continue to be defined by organized violence, corruption, smuggling and adulteration of the drug itself.  Legitimatising cannabis use via state legislation ignores and conceals the human suffering caused by the production of drugs in both developed and developing states. .  Moreover, many organized crime networks prefer to grow and sell cannabis over other, more strictly regulated drugs. It remains highly likely that the legal market for cannabis that the state proposes to create would become a target for organisations attempting to launder the proceeds of crime, or pass off tainted marijuana as medical grade forms of the drug."}
+{"id":"training-health-ahghtrpcas-con02b","title":"","text":"Ultimately there is a clear difference between the medical use of a drug, the banning of which is both harming patients and is against the wishes of many societies and allowing a free-for-all. As a society we regulate the use of other products to ensure that they are not available to minors or open to abuse.  Clearly there would need to be regulations and, equally clearly, sometime those regulations would fail. However, that is true of all regulated product and the blanket ban isn\u2019t producing terribly impressive results at the moment.  There is compelling evidence of the palliative effects of cannabis as well as popular support for its medicinal use; good policy should not be bound by a reactionary response to the simple mention of the word. There are side-effects to the use of almost any drug but they are relatively benign in this instance compared to many alternatives."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-pro02b","title":"","text":"A refusal to purchase healthcare insurance can have an effect on interstate commerce, because in shrinking the risk pool of insured the premiums would incrementally rise. In 2007, healthcare expenditures amounted to $2.2 trillion, or $7,421 a person, and accounted for 16.2% of the gross domestic product. These statistics leave no doubt that regulating health insurance is synonymous with regulating interstate commerce.(10)  Not engaging in economic transactions is a form of commercial behaviour that Congress can regulate. The Supreme Court held that Congress could require that hotels and restaurants provide services to African-Americans. Their refusal to engage in commerce still was deemed to be within the scope of Congress's commerce clause power.(10)  The likelihood is that everyone will require medical care at some point. An uninsured person in a car accident will be taken to the emergency room for treatment. An uninsured person with a communicable disease will be treated; indeed, it is necessary for the health and welfare of the general population to provide treatment to individuals suffering from infectious diseases. Congress can ensure that there is an adequate fund to pay for everyone's medical needs."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-pro02a","title":"","text":"The mandate is not constitutional under the commerce clause  Many attorneys general have fought constitutionality of mandates. Since the passage of the legislation in March of 2010, many state governments, governors, and attorney generals have pressed forward with lawsuits centred on the idea that the individual mandate in the legislation is unconstitutional.(7) Underlying these legal challenges is a debate about the basis of the national Congress\u2019s lawmaking powers. In order for laws passed by Congress to be considered legitimate and enforceable, those laws must be based on a power conferred on congress by the Constitution. On those areas of law and public life where the Constitution is silent, legislative power rests not in the hands of Congress, but rather is \u201creserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\u201d(9)  It has been argued that the individual healthcare mandate is authorised by the Constitution's empowerment of Congress to \u201cregulate interstate commerce\u201d (known as the \u201ccommerce clause\u201d), however this is not true and the commerce clause does not authorize health insurance mandates. As the Congressional Research Service has written: \"Despite the breadth of powers that have been exercised under the Commerce Clause, it is unclear whether the clause would provide a solid constitutional foundation for legislation containing a requirement to have health insurance. Whether such a requirement would be constitutional under the Commerce Clause is perhaps the most challenging question posed by such a proposal, as it is a novel issue whether Congress may use this clause to require an individual to purchase a good or a service.\u201d(2) The most obvious reason for this is that an omission to buy health insurance can in no way be termed 'interstate commerce', as there is no activity or commerce going on. This is not in keeping with the commerce clause, unlike other previous federal healthcare laws.  There is no doubt that Congress can regulate an entire array of economic activities, large and small, inter- and intra-state. Thus, for example, there is no problem, Constitution-wise with having Congress regulate health care insurance purchase transactions. The problem with an individual insurance purchase mandate, however, is that it does not regulate any transactions at all; it regulates human beings, simply because they exist, and orders them to engage in certain types of economic transactions.(8)  While most health care insurers and health care providers may engage in interstate commerce and may be regulated accordingly under the Commerce Clause, it is a different matter to find a basis for imposing Commerce Clause related regulation on an individual citizen who chooses not to undertake a commercial transaction. The decision not to engage in affirmative conduct is arguably distinguishable from cases in which Commerce Clause regulatory authority was recognized over intra-state activity: growing wheat, for example, (Wickard v. Filmore) or, more recently, growing marijuana (Gonzales v. Raich).(6)  If Congress were to invoke its Commerce Clause authority to support legislation mandating individual health insurance coverage, such an action would have to contend with recent Supreme Court precedent limiting unfettered use of Commerce Clause authority to police individual behaviour that does not constitute interstate commerce: United States v. Lopez, invalidating the application of the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990 to individuals, and United States v. Morrison, invalidating certain portions of the Violence Against Women Act.  In the case of a mandate to purchase health insurance or face a tax or penalty, Congress would have to explain how not doing something \u2013 not buying insurance and not seeking health care services \u2013 implicated interstate commerce.(6) Therefore, it is clear that Congress is not empowered to regulate the choice not to buy healthcare, as it lacks constitutional authorisation to interfere in this aspect of individual Americans\u2019 private lives."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-pro03b","title":"","text":"The healthcare insurance can be unprecedented but still be constitutional as Erwin Chemerinsky argues: \u201cAnything that has never been done before is literally unprecedented, which means it lacks any precedent. So the question is, will the Supreme Court want to authorize this new extension of congressional power in light of the fact that it violates the first principles it affirmed in Lopez and Morrison? Or, to the contrary, will it want to take the opportunity reaffirm that these principles still apply, notwithstanding Raich, in a case with no further implications beyond the statute in question?\u201d(10)  Regarding the argument that the healthcare mandate will allow Congress to regulate everything and everyone, such hyperbole and apocalyptic predictions are familiar in this area. In 1918, in Hammer v. Dagenhart, the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional a federal law that prohibited the shipment in interstate commerce of goods made by child labour. The Court concluded its opinion by declaring: \"[I]f Congress can thus regulate matters entrusted to local authority by prohibition of the movement of commodities in interstate commerce, all freedom of commerce will be at an end, and the power of the states over local matters may be eliminated, and thus our system of government practically destroyed.\" For more than 70 years Congress has prohibited child labour and none of these dire predictions have come to pass. Nor would allowing Congress to mandate the purchase of health insurance mean that Congress could regulate who people invite to their homes for dinner or end our system of federalism.(10)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-pro01a","title":"","text":"Penalizing a non-act is unconstitutional  It is unconstitutional to require individuals to buy private insurance, and penalize them for not doing so (that is, penalizing their non-act, their omission to purchase insurance). As David B. Rivkin Jr. and Lee A. Casey argue: \u201c\u2026 Can Congress require every American to buy health insurance? In short, no. The Constitution assigns only limited, enumerated powers to Congress and none, including the power to regulate interstate commerce or to impose taxes, would support a federal mandate requiring anyone who is otherwise without health insurance to buy it.\u201d(1)  The Congressional Budget Office believes \u201ca mandate requiring all individuals to purchase health insurance would be an unprecedented form of federal action. The government has never required people to buy any good or service as a condition of lawful residence in the United States.\u201d(2) An individual mandate would have two features that, in combination, would make it unique. First, it imposes a duty on individuals due to them being members of society. Second, it requires the purchase of a specific service on pain of tax penalties if that product is not purchased. (2)  As noted by Sen. John Ensign, a Nevada Republican: \"Anything we have ever done, somebody actually had to have an action before we could tax or regulate it.\"(3) As Robert A. Levy and Michael F. Cannon of the CATO Institute argue: \u201cCongress' attempt to punish a non-act that harms no one is an intolerable affront to the Constitution, liberty, and personal autonomy. That shameful fact cannot be altered by calling it health-care reform.\u201d(4) The individual healthcare insurance mandate would, for the first time, mean the government setting uo a monopoly or a cartel with which every citizen of the US would be compelled- by a statutory power- to do business. This destroys any pretence of individual market freedom, individuals would be required to contribute money out of each and every pay check they earned to either a government entity which would be staffed and\/or controlled by political appointees or to a cartel made up of companies that would owe their continued existence on the cartel list to the acquiescence of political overseers. Either way, the reduction in individual autonomy and freedom over health care choices would be dramatically decreased and inevitably politicized. This has obvious worrying possibilities for corruption, the party in power would favour those who donate to the party.(5)  Enforcing the mandate may also intrude on Constitutional rights. Sherry Glied, Ph.D., Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has warned, \u201c[d]eveloping a system to promptly identify and penalize scofflaws [people who flout the law] will take effort and ingenuity, particularly in our diverse and mobile country. It may require a degree of intrusiveness and bureaucracy that some will find unpalatable.\u201d(6)This is likely to mean much more intrusive inspection, for example hospitals having to report to the government patients they have who don\u2019t have health insursnce..(6) This is why a majority of the states, and numerous organizations and individual persons, have filed actions in federal court challenging the constitutionality of the individual mandate, and several courts have already struck it down on constitutional grounds.(7)  For all these reasons it is clear that for Congress to try to penalize a non-act is an unprecedented and unconstitutional power grab, and so the individual mandate is unconstitutional."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-pro01b","title":"","text":"The federal government mandates positive activities all the time, and this is why several courts have also upheld the constitutionality of the individual mandate.(7)  Regarding the charge that the individual mandate penalizes a 'non-action', Stephanie Cutter, an adviser to President Barack Obama, has argued: \"Individuals who choose to go without health insurance are making an economic decision that affects all of us\u2014when people without insurance obtain health care they cannot pay for, those with insurance and taxpayers are often left to pick up the tab.\"(7) Thus these people are not engaging in a 'non-action' but rather in an economic choice which has negative implications for other Americans, something Congress has the constitutional power to regulate under the commerce clause and the constitution's provision that Congress should promote the general welfare."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-pro03a","title":"","text":"The individual mandate gives too much power to the Federal Government  The vertical separation of powers, under which the federal government possesses limited and enumerated powers, while the States wield general powers (including the right to operate their own police forces), is a key part of America's constitutional architecture. Far from being an 18th century affectation, these structural limitations on government powers were designed to protect individual liberty. In the Framers' view, limiting the ability of the federal government to exercise authority was core to ensuring that no single government entity would grow too powerful. This is because, under the Supremacy Clause, any constitutionally compliant federal legislation trumps exercises of individual state\u2019s powers. Therefore, an infinitely capacious Commerce Clause (which would be produced if the mandating of healthcare were to be allowed) would rob States of any remaining authority.(8)  When any choice or non-action which has economic impacts becomes termed as \u201ceconomic\u201d, every aspect of consumer behaviour, or, for that matter, any aspect of individual behaviour, would become an economic activity, and thus nothing would fall outside of Congress' power to regulate under the commerce clause.(8)  The individual health insurance mandate would set dangerous precedents for federal power. The Congressional Budget Office acknowledged the unprecedented nature of an individual mandate when assessing the Clinton health care reform proposal of 1993: \u201cA mandate requiring all individuals to purchase health insurance would be an unprecedented form of federal action. The government has never required people to buy any good or service as a condition of lawful residence in the United States. An individual mandate has two features that, in combination, make it unique. First, it would impose a duty on individuals as members of society. Second, it would require people to purchase a specific service that would have to be heavily regulated by the federal government.\"(2)  The 'commerce clause on steroids', as imagined by supporters of the healthcare mandate, would fundamentally warp America's constitutional architecture. Because every single decision by individual Americans, be it buying health insurance, cars, health club memberships or any other good or service, has some impact on the economy, it could be subject to regulation by Congress. Indeed, Congress would be able to dictate how individuals would dispose of every penny of whatever monies they have left after paying taxes, transforming Americans into virtual serfs.(8) For all these reasons the individual healthcare mandate would give too much power to the federal government, in ways which are antithetical to the Constitution as the Founders envisioned it and set it out (with restricted and separate powers), and so it should be deemed unconstitutional."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-con03b","title":"","text":"Mandatory health insurance is not analogous to car insurance. Car insurance requirements impose a condition on the voluntary activity of driving; a health insurance mandate imposes a condition on life itself.  States do not require non-drivers, including passengers in cars with potentially bad drivers, to buy auto insurance liability policies -- even though such a requirement undoubtedly would lower the auto insurance premiums for those who do drive. The auto insurance requirement is linked to driving and to the possibility that bad driving may cause injuries to others, including passengers in the driver's car, not to those who benefit from roads generally.(2) The primary purpose of the auto insurance mandate was to provide financial protection for people that a driver may harm, and not necessarily for the driver himself. And the auto insurance mandate is a quid pro quo for having the state issuing a privilege: in this case a driver\u2019s license.(6)  Regarding the claim that Medicare tax provides a justifying precedent for the individual healthcare mandate, it is worth noting that the architects of Medicare harboured grave doubts about its constitutionality, which was ultimately settled on the taxing power of the United States government. However, in contrast to an individual mandate, federal benefits are attached to Medicare taxes and there is a specific \u201ccontract\u201d involved between the current payment of taxes and future government benefits. No such relationship would exist with the individual health insurance mandate. Additionally, while one can \u201copt-out\u201d of receiving Social Security and Medicare benefits, although one must still pay Social Security and Medicare taxes, none of the individual mandate proposals provide for an \u201copt out\u201d, other than for yet undefined religious objections. Interestingly, a suit being led by former House Majority Leader Richard Armey is challenging a federal regulation that suggests that opting out of Medicare will put a person\u2019s Social Security benefits at risk.(6)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-con01b","title":"","text":"Insurance mandates are not a tax and therefore are outside of constitutional powers. Randy Barnett, a Georgetown University law professor, claims that health insurance mandates are not a tax, and therefore falls outside congressional power. \u201cYou're fining people for failing to enter a private insurance contract.\u201d(3)  Moreover, as Peter Urbanowicz and Dennis G. Smith argue: \u201cthe question of whether the compelled purchase of health insurance constitutes the 'taking' of private property under the Fifth Amendment. Given the novel nature of the individual health insurance mandate, a Fifth Amendment challenge can be expected. Requiring a citizen to devote a per-cent of his or her income for a purpose for which he or she otherwise might not choose based on individual circumstances could be considered an arbitrary and capricious \u201ctaking\u201d no matter how many hardship exemptions the federal government might dispense.\u201d(6)  Regarding the \u201cgeneral welfare\u201d arguments adduced by side opposition: The words 'general Welfare' show up in the first line of Article I, Section 8: 'The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States'. Significantly, Notice the Constitution does not say the 'general welfare of the citizens of the United States.' It says \"general Welfare of the United States.' This clause only gives the Congress the power to raise money to defend the country and pay for the day-to-day operations of the government. It says nothing at all about building bridges to nowhere, or paving bike paths, or spending money on any other kind of pork barrel project, including health care.(13)"}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-con02a","title":"","text":"The mandate is constitutional under the commerce clause  Congress has ample power and precedent through the Constitution\u2019s \u201cCommerce Clause\u201d to regulate just about any aspect of the national economy.  Health insurance is quintessentially an economic good. The only possible objection is that mandating its purchase is not the same as \u201cregulating\u201d its purchase, but a mandate is just a stronger form of regulation. Where a Congressional power exists, nothing in law says that \u201dstrong\u201d and potentially more intrusive forms of action are less supported than weaker ones.(11)  Critics of an individual mandate cite recent Supreme Court cases in which the Court has limited the commerce clause\u2019s power. However, those cases (Lopez and Morrison) involved regulation of non-economic activity. The individual mandate regulates the relationship between sellers and buyers of health care insurance. Moreover, the Court was concerned in Lopez and Morrison with efforts by Congress to intrude into areas that are properly regulated by state governments and thereby to upset the balance of power between the federal and state governments. By contrast, congressional regulation of the health care industry does not violate state prerogatives.  To be sure, much regulation of insurance occurs at the state level, but that is because Congress has chosen by statute to defer to state regulation. The Constitution does not prevent Congress from revoking its statutory grants to state governments.(12) Those who argue that this is unconstitutional maintain that those not purchasing health insurance, by definition, are not part of interstate commerce. There are numerous flaws with this argument.  First, Congress can regulate activities that themselves are not part of interstate commerce if they have a substantial effect on interstate commerce. For example, in Wickard v. Filburn, the Supreme Court held that Congress could regulate wheat that farmers grew for their own home consumption. More recently in Gonzales v. Raich, the Court ruled that Congress could prohibit cultivating and possessing small amounts of marijuana for personal medicinal use. Even though the individuals were not personally engaged in commerce, the matter still fit within the commerce power.(10)  Second, the decision to abstain from particular economic transactions is a form of commercial behaviour that Congress can regulate. The Supreme Court held that Congress could require that hotels and restaurants provide services to African-Americans. Their refusal to engage in commerce still was deemed to be within the scope of Congress's commerce clause power.(10) This is made more significant by the fact that the decision to remain uninsured can affect commerce- both within and between states- by raising health insurance premiums. This is because insurance premiums tend to rise in response to reductions in the size of the pool of individuals to whom financial risk can be distributed.(14)  Citizens who forego health insurance are forcing other Americans to cover their costs if they are sent to hospital for emergency treatment. They are also forcing others to pay higher insurance rates, now that insurance companies can no longer legally exclude those with pre-existing conditions.(15)  Third, the likelihood is that everyone will require medical care at some point. An uninsured person in a car accident will be taken to the emergency room for treatment. An uninsured person with a communicable disease will be treated. Congress can ensure that there is an adequate fund to pay for everyone's medical needs. In other words, the health care system is part of interstate commerce. Providing care for all unquestionably has a substantial economic effect. Congress, then, can use its authority under the necessary and proper clause to make sure that the system that it is creating is viable and capable of providing health care for all.(10)  Therefore the individual healthcare mandate is constitutional because it is authorized under the commerce clause of the constitution."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-con03a","title":"","text":"Mandatory health insurance is analogous to constitutional mandates  Federal mandates are a cornerstone of the American legal system and the everyday life of every American. As Ohio Attorney General Richard Cordray and Iowa's attorney general Tom Miller, argued in 2010: \"We live under mandates every day. Without them, society as we know it would disintegrate. Every criminal law tells us what we cannot do. And sometimes the law tells us what we must do. Congress can require young Americans to register for the draft to serve in the military, for example, or can require us all to pay taxes for programs like Social Security and Medicare. We can- and do- argue about what shape these laws should take, without claiming that our leaders are constitutionally barred from dealing with our most pressing problems.\"(16)  Car insurance is mandatory, so why not health insurance too? If the government requires that individuals buy car insurance, why should it not also be allowed to require that individuals buy health insurance? Some say that there is no mandate to buy car insurance because if you don't want to buy that car insurance, you simply don't have to drive. Yet, for the majority of families and workers, driving is a necessity and not a choice. So, the mandate on drivers to buy insurance is, therefore, directly analogous to a mandate on individuals to buy health insurance.  Medicare tax also sets an important justifying precedent for the individual healthcare mandate. The Medicare program imposes a payroll tax on Americans as a way to fund coverage of their hospital costs once they reach age 65. People cannot opt out of Medicare; it is an obligatory system of health care insurance for one's senior years. Similarly, Congress can use a payroll tax to implement a mandate for individuals to purchase health insurance before they reach age 65. Under the House bill, for example, people will pay a 2.5 percent tax on their income unless they have health care coverage.(12)  It is significant here that there is no fundamental right to go without insurance under the Constitution; no core constitutional rights are violated by the individual mandate. Under both liberal and conservative jurisprudence, the Constitution protects individual autonomy strongly only when \u201cfundamental rights\u201d are involved. There may be fundamental rights to decide about medical treatments, but having insurance does not require anyone to undergo treatment. It only requires them to have a means to pay for any treatment they might choose to receive, alongside treatment that they might not be able to consent to (by reason of infirmity), but that doctors and hospitals may be ethically obliged to provide.  The \u201cliberties\u201d that are modified by the individual mandate are purely economic and have none of the strong elements of personal or bodily integrity that are normally used to invoke Constitutional protection.  In short, there is no fundamental right to be uninsured, and so various arguments based on the Bill of Rights fall flat. The closest plausible argument is one based on a federal statute protecting religious liberty, but Congress is Constitutionally free to override one statute with another.(11) This means that the healthcare mandate is no different to the many other mandates the federal government imposes on the American people to support the general welfare, and as such should be upheld as constitutional."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-con01a","title":"","text":"The mandate falls under taxation and general welfare powers  An insurance mandate would be enforced through income tax laws, so even if a simple mandate were not a valid 'regulation,' it still could fall easily within Congress\u2019s plenary power to tax income. For instance, anyone purchasing insurance could be given an income tax credit, and those not purchasing could be assessed an income tax penalty.  The only possible constitutional restriction is an archaic provision saying that if Congress imposes anything that amounts to a 'head tax' or 'poll tax' (that is, taxing people simply as people rather than taxing their income), then it must do so uniformly (that is, the same amount per person). This technical restriction is easily avoided by using income tax laws.  Purists complain that taxes should be proportional to actual income and should not be used mainly to regulate economic behaviour, but our tax code, for better or worse, is riddled with such regulatory provisions and so they are clearly constitutional. (11) In many ways, the 'mandate' could be considered a tax, but a tax which people would not have to pay if they purchased health insurance. The House bill imposes a tax of 2.5% on adjusted gross income if a taxpayer is not part of a qualified health insurance program. The Senate bill imposes what is called an \u201cexcise tax\u201d, a tax on transactions or events, or a \u201cpenalty tax\u201d, a tax for failing to do something (e.g., filing your tax return promptly). The tax is levied for each month that an individual fails to pay premiums into a qualified health plan. Taxing uninsured people helps to pay for the costs of the new regulations. The tax gives uninsured people a choice. If they stay out of the risk pool, they effectively raise other people\u2019s insurance costs, and Congress taxes them to recoup some of the costs. If they join the risk pool, they do not have to pay the tax. A good analogy would be a tax on polluters who fail to install pollution-control equipment: they can pay the tax or install the equipment.(17)  Health insurance mandates incentivize behaviour like many other laws. At one time, the Supreme Court restricted the ability of Congress to use its taxing power to regulate people's activities. In the early part of the 20th Century, the Court drew a distinction between taxes designed to raise revenue, which were permissible, and taxes designed to regulate behaviour, which might not be permissible. However, this distinction was jettisoned by 1937, and the taxing power is now recognized as a broad congressional power.(12) Moreover, Congress has the power to make laws which promote the general welfare. As Democratic House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer argued in November of 2009: \u201cWell, in promoting the general welfare the Constitution obviously gives broad authority to Congress to effect that end. The end that we're trying to effect is to make health care affordable, so I think clearly this is within our constitutional responsibility.\" The words \"general Welfare\" show up in the first line of Article I, Section 8 of the US Constitution: \"The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States.\u201d(12)  The power to promote the general welfare becomes crucial when it is considered that it is impossible to create a national health insurance system and help the current 30 million uninsured is to mandate everyone to buy health insurance. You cannot have universal health insurance without a mandate. Every country in the world that has a universal health-insurance system either requires its citizens to buy health insurance, or includes its citizens in a default insurance programme automatically and taxes them for it (which is effectively the same thing). The reasons for this are simple, and have been covered hundreds of times since the current debate over universal health insurance began during the Democratic presidential primaries in late 2007. If citizens within a state are not obliged to participate in a healthcare scheme (whether privately of publicly organised), then many young and healthy people will bet on not needing insurance, and will decline to buy it. Such behaviour will alter the composition of the risk pool, such that it is made up of older, sicker people with higher medical costs, and thus premiums will rise. That in turn will cause more healthy people to leave the system. This is the phenomenon of \"adverse selection\". Ultimately you're left only with rich old sick people, and nobody else can afford insurance. This is known- somewhat histrionically- as an \u201cinsurance death spiral\u201d.  States that wish to pursue the goal of creating an affordable, universally available system of healthcare, must ensure that the majority of their citizens buy into such a scheme.(13) Because there is a compelling benefit to the \"general welfare\" in instituting a national welfare program, the federal government may rely on Constitutional authority to impose a health insurance mandate. If the States were left to do this, with some instituting a mandate and some not, many would be left uninsured and the risk pool would not be adequately spread. The difference in benefits to the country clearly justifies federal action to create this individual mandate under the Constitution."}
+{"id":"training-health-hghpghbus-con02b","title":"","text":"These arguments overlook the existence of two major cases \u2013 United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison \u2013 in which the Supreme Court has specifically rejected the notion that Congress can regulate non-commercial behaviour merely because, arguably, such behaviour can have an impact on Commerce. The Court's overarching reason for doing so was its compellingly articulated belief that the Commerce Clause is a limited grant of power and one that cannot be infinitely capacious. This reasoning is unassailable, and demonstrated that the individual mandate is not a reasonable application of the commerce clause.(8) Rather, this interpretation of the commerce clause could potentially America's constitutional structure. Every single decision made by individual Americans, be it buying health insurance, a car, health club memberships or any other good or service, has some impact on the economy. Such decisions could therefore be subject to regulation by Congress. Indeed, Congress would be able to determine how individuals would dispose of every penny of whatever monies they have left after paying taxes.  Meanwhile, the Supremacy Clause- which ensures that any constitutional federal legislation trumps exercises of state power- would all but guarantee that an infinitely capacious Commerce Clause would rob States of any remaining authority. This point was ably articulated by Justice Kennedy in his concurring opinion in Lopez.(8) Accordingly, there is a great deal at stake here. No matter how important the cause of health care reform might be, it is not consequential enough to destroy the very sinews of America\u2019s constitutional system."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is true that it is difficult to decide where to draw the line between legitimate and illegitimate performance enhancement. However we should continue to draw a line nonetheless. This line should be drawn at protecting athletes from harmful drugs and preserving the spirit of fair play and unaided competition between human beings in their peak of natural fitness.  The special diet and sport training equipment, which may seem very hard and exeptional, have been designed based on serious scientific research proved and tested to fit with long-term training of athletes. Hard practice to achieve the best performance with help of these professional methods is completely a different from taking steroids and growth hormones for immediate result."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro02a","title":"","text":"There is no distinction between \"natural\" and synthetic methods of performance enhancement  The natural\/unnatural distinction is untenable. Already athletes use all sorts of dietary supplements, exercises, equipment, clothing, training regimes, medical treatments, etc. to enhance their performance. There is nothing \u2018natural\u2019 about taking vitamin pills, wearing whole-body Lycra suits, having surgery on ligaments, spending every day in a gym pumping weights or running in shoes with spikes on the bottom. Diet, medicine, technology, and even just coaching already give an artificial advantage to those athletes who can afford the best of all these aids. Since there is no clear way to distinguish from legitimate and illegitimate artificial aids to performance, they should all be allowed. So taking these drugs is no more unnatural than what happens today.  A practical example of an unnatural aid is the Speedo worn in 2008 at the Beijing Olympics. FINA, the world governing body of swimming was concerned about the extraordinary statistics in Beijing where swimmers wearing the Speedo LZR Racer swimsuit won 90 per cent of all available medals and broke 23 world records. Since Speedo launched the suit in 2008, 108 world records have fallen (until February 2009) (1).  Simon Hart, Swimwear giant Speedo hit back at 'unfair advantage' claims, 02\/19\/2009,   ,accessed 15\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro03b","title":"","text":"Rich athletes from wealthier countries will always have access to the latest, highest quality performance enhancers. On the other side, athletes from poorer countries which do not have the same medical and scientific advances will not be able to keep up. They will always be at a disadvantage regardless of whether performance enhancing drugs are legal or not."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro01a","title":"","text":"Athletes should be free to take risks when training and competing  Freedom of choice: If athletes wish to take drugs in search of improved performances, let them do so. They harm nobody but themselves and should be treated as adults, capable of making rational decisions upon the basis of widely-available information.  Even if there are adverse health effects in the long-term, this is also true of tobacco, alcohol and boxing, which remain legal. We allow world class athletes to train for 23 hours a week (on average), adjust their diets and endanger themselves by pushing the boundaries of their body. We let them do it, because it is what they chose which is best for them. According to the NFL Player Association the average life expectancy of an NFL player is 58 years of age (1). Thus already we allow athletes to endanger their lives, give them the choice of a lifestyle. Why not also extend this moral precedent to drugs?  Judd Bissiotto, 15 Surprising facts about world athletes,   , accessed 05\/18\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro01b","title":"","text":"Simple analogy: If a person were to kill himself for the sake of entertaining the crowd, this act would still be considered illegal by the government and efforts to hinder and discourage it would be created.  An appropriate example is the one of dangers of alcohol and tobacco, which were not known until after they had become normalized in society. Once the dangers were known, the public were so used to it, that they wouldn\u2019t condone a ban by the State. If alcohol were introduced tomorrow it would be banned, as shown by the attitude towards narcotics and steroid use has shown. Governments have tried to reduce sales by having high levels of tax on tobacco and alcohol anyway. Moreover many states are restricting choice in tobacco and alcohol by introducing limited bans, such as on smoking in public places. The proposition cannot use the fact that tobacco and alcohol are legal as a defense of the use of drugs. This should be seen as an equally detrimental act and thus illegal."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro04b","title":"","text":"There will always be a black market for cheaper or for new untested drugs that will give an athlete an edge before others have a chance to try it. Legalization is therefore unlikely to result in large health benefits as the competitiveness of sport will always result in athletes being willing to take a risk."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro03a","title":"","text":"Controlling, rather than ignoring, performance enhancing substances will improve competitive standards in sport  The use of performance enhancing drugs is based on advances in science. When new drugs and therapies are found, athletes turn to them and as a result are much of the time ahead of the anti-doping organizations, which need to develop methods of athlete testing whenever a new drug that is meant to be untraceable is created. In 2008 it was a big shock when Riccardo Ricco (a cyclist) was caught using the performance-enhancing drug Mircera, which had been considered undetectable for a number of years.  The fact is that a ban of performance enhancing drugs enables mainly athletes from wealthy countries and teams that can afford the newest technology to go undetected, whilst others are disadvantaged (1). So because it gives an unfair advantage to the wealthy one who can pay for the undetectable drugs, we should legalize it.  Millard Baker, Riccardo Ricco Tests Positive  for Undetectable New Drug Mircera at 2008 Tour de France, 07\/18\/2008,  , accessed 05\/20\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro04a","title":"","text":"Improving safety standards in sport  It does not take a lot for chemists to produce performance enhancing drugs, the Scientific American reports: \u201cRogue scientists start with testosterone or its commercially available analogues and then make minor structural modifications to yield similarly active derivatives.\u201d The underground chemists make no effort to test their creations for effectiveness or safety, of course. Production of a simple new steroid compound would require \"lab equipment costing maybe $50,000 to $100,000,\". Depending on the number of chemical reactions needed for synthesis, \"some of them could be made in a week or two. Others might take six months to a year.\"(1) As a result of legalizing performance-enhancing drugs a backstreet industry can become regulated as a result there will be much more control and testing to ensure the health and safety of the athletes who take the drugs.  Steven Ashley, Doping by Design, Scientific American 01\/12\/2004,  , accessed 05\/19\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con03b","title":"","text":"Sport is dangerous. Today\u2019s athletes decide to endanger their lives by participating in sports all the time. They decide to participate in sports with the informed decision that they might get hurt as it is part of the sport. Performance enhancing drugs are no different.  In the USA every year there are nearly 300,000 sports-related traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). Athletes involved in sports such as football, hockey and boxing are at significant risk of TBI due to the high level of contact inherent in these sports. Head injuries are also extremely common in sports such as cycling, baseball, basketball and skateboarding. Many head injuries acquired, playing these sports, lead to permanent brain damage or worse. Yet we do not impose a law to ban athletes from participating in those sports. We trust their assessment of risk (1).  All about Traumatic Brain Injuries:  , accessed 05\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con01b","title":"","text":"Sport is also about the spectacle for spectators.  Sport has become a branch of the entertainment business and the public demands \u201chigher, faster, stronger\u201d from athletes. If drug-use allows world records to be continually broken, and makes American Football players bigger and more exciting to watch, why deny the public what they want, especially if the athletes want to give it to them?  The criterion that athletes should only be applying their \u2018natural abilities\u2019 runs into trouble. The highly advanced training technologies, health programs, sports drinks, use of such things as caffeine pills, and other energy boosters seem to defeat the notion that athletes are currently applying only their 'natural abilities'. Performance enhancing drugs would not go too far beyond the current circumstances for athletes."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con02a","title":"","text":"Permitting the use of performace enhancers would have a coercive effect on athletes who would otherwise avoid drug use  Once some people choose to use drugs to enhance their performance, other athletes have their freedom of choice infringed upon: if they want to succeed they have to take drugs too. Athletes are very driven individuals, who would go to great lengths to achieve their goals. The chance of a gold medal in two years\u2019 time may out-weigh the risks of serious health problems for the rest of their life. We should protect athletes from themselves and not allow anyone to take performance-enhancing drugs. An example of the pressure is cycling. The American Scientific magazine explains: \u201cGame theory highlights why it is rational for professional cyclists to dope: the drugs are extremely effective as well as difficult or impossible to detect; the payoffs for success are high; and as more riders use them, a \u201cclean\u201d rider may become so noncompetitive that he or she risks being cut from the team.\u201d (1)  Michael Shermer, The Dopping Dillema, 03\/31\/2008,  accessed 05\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con04a","title":"","text":"Protecting young and vulnerable athletes  Even if performance-enhancing drugs were only legalized for adults, the definition of this varies from country to country, something which would be problematic for sports that are global. Teenage athletes train alongside adult ones and share the same coaches, so many would succumb to the temptation and pressures to use drugs, if these were widely available and effectively endorsed by legalization. Not only are such young athletes unable to make a fully rational, informed choice about drug-taking, the health impacts upon growing bodies would be even worse than for adult users. It would also send a positive message about drug culture in general, making the use of \u201crecreational drugs\u201d with all their accompanying evils more widespread."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con03a","title":"","text":"Protecting the health of athletes  Laws should in general protect people from making uninformed decisions. Due to the potential severe consequences the ban has to be upheld. An analogy with the seatbelt can be used: the government forces people to use them, because of the possibility of severe injury in case we do not use it.  The use of performance-enhancing drugs is the opposite \u2013 use can lead to severe health problems.  Thus, if all people are treated as equals under law, then the law should equally protect athletes as the law does other would- be drug users.  Equality before law also means athletes can\u2019t be exempt from the moral standards we have for others. Firstly due to value of life and secondly because many times athletes themselves are not aware of the severe consequences of performance enhancing drugs.  BBC Drugs and Sports (GCSE Bitesize):  , accessed 05\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con01a","title":"","text":"Drugs will undermine the central philosophy of sport  The show and the celebration of human physical achievement is what makes sport enjoyable to the public. The reason people enjoy sport is because it is a demonstration of what other fellow human beings can achieve and what humans can achieve collectively, as a species.  A spectacle is designed to amaze. It doesn\u2019t need to be human achievement to be amazing (no one would call monster truck driving a sport). So, when humans start taking drugs to improve performance, it is no longer a sport, it is a spectacle, because there is no human physical achievement, but instead a chemical achievement.  It also becomes a celebration not of human physical achievement, but of human intellectual achievement, of who can design the best drugs. Even with fancy running shoes, we are still celebrating human achievement, which will not happen once you take it to the extreme of allowing drug use.  This doesn\u2019t benefit athletes in the long run. Athletes won\u2019t be celebrated but scientists will!"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con04b","title":"","text":"The temptation of youth to try illegal substances is not just a problem in sports. In all environments you will have age restrictions.  To say that we should uphold the ban for the sake of children is as if we would advocate a ban of alcohol for everyone, because some teenagers like to socialize with adults who are legally able to drink alcohol. There is always going to be an age restriction and it is the duty of institutions, trainers and athletes to uphold it, so that later in life as adults, athletes can make an informed decision."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con02b","title":"","text":"There is no such thing as a forced decision. Everyone has complete control over their own body and their own decisions. Everyone has an absolute right to possession of one\u2019s own body. If you own your body then you can choose what to do with it, and any exchange, such as money to an employer in exchange for use of your body (labour) is justified, because it was a voluntary exchange and you still possess yourself. If you choose to take drugs, you have not been forced into it no matter the peer pressure you may be under or that other having taken the drugs may make you uncompetitive."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro02b","title":"","text":"The proposition is wrong in assuming that increased media coverage will have the drastic effects it claims on changing public perceptions towards women\u2019s sport. The problem with lack of interest in women\u2019s sport is not caused by a lack of media coverage. It is because of deep-rooted social conceptions of gender roles and sport (as the prop have acknowledged). Sports like figure-skating and gymnastics have traditionally been viewed as female-appropriate whereas high-contact sports like football, rugby, American football or basketball are generally seen as male-appropriate. [1]  Crucially, the proposition are wrong in claiming that such social perceptions are easily changed. Simply providing more media coverage will not have the proposition\u2019s desired effects. In the United States increased participation by women in sport has not lead to changes in perceptions so it seems unlikely media coverage will.[2] This is what was observed when the newly formed Women\u2019s Soccer Association (WSA) in the United States which signed a lucrative TV-rights agreement in 1999. This proved to be overly ambitious for the WSA which, despite having a huge amount of air-time, failed to generate interest and viewer ratings were very low. Subsequently, the WSA collapsed in 2003 setting women\u2019s professional soccer in the USA back immensely. [3]  This is evidence that media coverage cannot change public perceptions in the way the proposition wants. Instead, increased funding to development programs for women\u2019s sport and, more importantly, time are what is needed. Over the last decades, women\u2019s sport has moved on from female-appropriate sports only, to sports like tennis, athletics and swimming that are now largely seen as gender-neutral. This is clear evidence that women\u2019s sport is heading in the right direction despite the fact that media coverage is low. It time, contact sports traditionally viewed as male-appropriate will also become normalised for women.  [1] Cavanaugh, Maureen and Crook, Hank: \u201cWhy Women\u2019s Sports Struggle to Gain Popularity\u201d, These Days Archive, KPBS, July 27, 2009.  [2] Hardin, Marie, and Greer, Jennifer D., \u2018The Influence of Gender-role Socialization, Media Use and Sports Participation on Perceptions of Gender-Appropriate Sports\u2019, Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol.32 No.2.  [3] Cavanaugh, Maureen and Crook, Hank: \u201cWhy Women\u2019s Sports Struggle to Gain Popularity\u201d, These Days Archive, KPBS, July 27, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Increased media coverage changes public perceptions towards gender roles and women\u2019s sport.  The male world-view which dominates sports media and conveys to the public that women\u2019s sport are inferior to men\u2019s reinforce traditional gender stereotypes and deter young girls from becoming active in sport. Gender perceptions have obviously come a long way in the last 100 years, but the media classification of women\u2019s sport as inferior to men\u2019s is severely slowing this progress in the field of sport.  Humans are social beings with esteem needs, and as social beings we like to be viewed in a positive light by our peers. This is best achieved on a general level by conforming to social expectations and norm. This also applies for societal conceptions of gender. The fact that the media deems women\u2019s sport to be of lesser importance which (as we have seen) conveys to the public this message, reinforces the notion that sport is not a worthwhile activity for women and girls. Instead, it is an activity more appropriate for men and boys. This kind of discourse has the effect of moulding gender identities both in terms of how men perceive women and how women perceive themselves. In this way, the lack of media coverage of women\u2019s sport fuels a self-affirming perception of gender which effectively denies many young girls a realistic choice of becoming engaged in sport as perceptions affect confidence in one\u2019s ability; as a result of this gender bias boys as young as six rate themselves as being much more competent in sports than girls do.[1]  By forcing the media to provide equal coverage of both men\u2019s and women\u2019s sport, we take an effective step in breaking these societal discourses and transforming gender perceptions. This is because increased coverage will make sport seem like a worthwhile activity for girls and women. As more women take part in sport, this has a further cyclical effect of re-affirming gender conceptions around sport which, in turn, induces further women to become engaged in sport. This is a desirable outcome from the government\u2019s perspective because sport has a positive impact on the health of those who are physically active. Those who are physically active are not only less likely to suffer from things like Coronary Heart Disease and cancer, but they have also been shown to lead more psychologically happy lives due to the endorphins released while exercising, and the joy of feeling physically fit.  [1] Jacobs, Janis E., and Eccles, Jacquelynne S., \u2018The Impact of Mopthers\u2019 Gender-Role Stereotypic Beliefs on Mothers\u2019 and Children\u2019s Ability Perceptions\u2019, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 63, No. 6, 1992, pp.932-944, p.934."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro03b","title":"","text":"The proposition themselves have mentioned three examples of female athletes that are excellent role models for young girls. The huge publicity received by female athletes at the Olympic Games alone, but also at Tennis Grand Slams indicates that there are already sufficient sporting role models for girls to admire. Of course more would be better but this should not come about through mandatory extra coverage.  If the proposition\u2019s concern lies in the lack of female role models in traditionally masculine sports like football, then the proposition are still going about this the wrong way. You cannot simply artificially create role models. Sporting heroes may be glorified by the media, but they are not made by them. For a sporting hero to be glorified, the athlete needs to prove himself or herself as exceptional in his or her field and distinguish him or herself. When relatively unknown athletes and sports teams do distinguish themselves, they receive due credit and glorification in the media. Examples include the victory of the USA Women\u2019s soccer team winning the world cup in 1999, and Ireland\u2019s remarkably successful campaign in the 2007 cricket world cup. Both were relatively minor sports with low fan bases and did receive media coverage for their achievements. This indicates that the status quo is sufficient for providing role models even in more niche sports. The proposition may complain that the media attention in such situations is always short-lived, but this is only natural. As we saw with the example of women\u2019s soccer in the USA, media coverage where demand remains limited is unsustainable."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro01a","title":"","text":"The sports world is unfairly dominated by a male-orientated world-view.  Sport is dominated by a male-orientated world view. This is the case in two respects:  In terms of the way sports media is run. Sports media are almost entirely run by men, who somewhat inevitably are more interested in men\u2019s sport.[1] In the news media for example only 27% of top management jobs were held by women.[2] In addition, women who enter the world of sports media are subjected to those male-orientated perceptions. For them to succeed as journalists they feel a need to cover men\u2019s sport. [3] These two factors explain why the gap between media coverage of men\u2019s and women\u2019s sport is not closing despite the increase in participation and interest in women\u2019s sport.  The media dictates what is \u201cnewsworthy\u201d. Public opinion is hugely influenced by the media. Stories, events or sports that receive a large amount of coverage give the impression to the public that they are important issues that are worthy of being reported on. Similarly, sports that are not covered appear to the public as being of lesser importance. This applies in the case of women\u2019s sport which in the male-dominated world of sport media will always be perceived as of lesser importance.  This male dominated world-view is unfair on female athletes. Sport is supposed to be a celebration of the human mind and body, and it is right that athletes that push themselves to the brink in search for glory receive due praise. The hugely skewed coverage of sport against women\u2019s sports caused by the male world-view in the media is hugely unfair on female athletes, as they do not get the deserved recognition their male counterparts receive.  [1] Turner, Georgina, \u201cFair play for women\u2019s sport\u201d, The Guardian, 24 January 2009.  [2] \u2018Global Report: Men Occupy Majority of Management Jobs in News Companies\u2019, International Women\u2019s Media Foundation.  [3] Creedon, Pamela J.: \u201cWomen, Sport, and Media Institutions: Issues in Sports Journalism and Marketing\u201d, taken from Media Sport, Wenner, Lawrence A. (ed), Routledge, 1998."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro01b","title":"","text":"The skew in media coverage is not down to personal preferences of sports journalists. If journalists simply reported on what interested them, media companies would not be very successful. Instead, they focus on reporting on sporting events that are more popular and are likely to attract more public attention. The large amount of media coverage of women\u2019s sport in the Olympic Games and Tennis Grand Slams is testimony to this point. It shows that sports journalists are not all subconsciously sexist as the proposition might suggest, they simply cover what they deem to be appropriate and of interest to the public. The Olympics and Wimbledon are sufficiently high-profile to warrant high coverage of the women\u2019s events. The national women\u2019s football league in the UK, however, does not.  Moreover, media coverage is not a matter of fairness as the proposition suggest. It is to do with popularity. If fairness was the main priority, then media would have to cover all stories no-matter what their significance to the general public, to the same level. This would simply be pointless and impractical."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro04b","title":"","text":"The unpopularity of the events sports media would be forced to cover would mean less money, not more money going into sports. This is because incentives for lucrative TV rights deals, sponsorships and advertising only exist where there is a high expectation of positive returns for the advertisers and media companies. For example, if Sky Sports feel there is not much scope in broadcasting every single women\u2019s football league match in the UK, it is unlikely to make a particularly lucrative offer. If anything it will detract from valuable air-time that could be used to show other more popular events that are seen as more profitable.  Moreover, it is not true that media coverage is necessary to incite government funding. For example, the British Government offered for the huge amount of funding for relatively unknown sports for the Beijing and London Olympics, not because they are popular [1], but because the government independently believed it was a worthwhile investment. The fact that such government schemes have succeeded in attracting young girls despite of the lack of media coverage is indicative of this.  [1] BBC News: \u201cFunding for Britain\u2019s Olympic sports extended to Rio 2016\u201d, BBC News, 12 August, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Increased media coverage creates more role models for young girls to engage in sport.  A more obvious problem with the limited coverage of women\u2019s sport is the distinct lack of sports role models available as sources of inspiration for girls. Having sports role models is crucial for children to attain the desire and motivation to partake in sport. Boys often want to be like Lionel Messi in football, or Lebron James in basketball. Boys can access such figureheads because they are world famous. Their sporting achievements and prowess are glorified in all forms of media and people can very easily watch them play their sport live on TV. The same does not exist for girls because female athletes receive nowhere near as much media attention as their male counterparts. Girls often can\u2019t even name any female sports stars so lack role models in sport.[1] Although it is true that children can have role models of either sex, the divide in the sports world between men\u2019s and women\u2019s sports means girls cannot aspire to compete alongside the likes of Usain Bolt or Michael Phelps.  The successes of British female athletes like Rebecca Adlington, Jessica Ennis and Victoria Pendleton, or the young Katie Ledecky from the USA in the recent Olympics have captured the hearts and imagination of a huge number of young girls across the UK and already, as local sports centres and athletics clubs have seen participation amongst girls soar during and after the London Olympics. This is no coincidence \u2013 it is because of the media attention and glorification female athletes receive. The Olympic Games are an example of what equal media coverage of men\u2019s and women\u2019s sport can achieve, The equal coverage of Grand Slam tennis and the subsequent glorification of the likes of Maria Sharapova and Serena Williams is another example. We must take action to provide the same sort of role models across all sporting events.  [1] \u2018Girls\u2019 attitudes explored\u2026 Role models\u2019, Girlguiding UK, 2012, p.14"}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Increased media coverage will lead to increased funding towards women\u2019s sport  Increased media coverage will lead to more money going into women\u2019s sport. This will happen for several reasons.  In the short-term, increased media coverage means more money from advertising and sponsorship, both through the media and directly sponsoring sporting events, clubs and athletes. Increased media involvement also generates revenue for sports in the form of TV and radio licenses (i.e. broadcasting rights). Importantly, as women\u2019s sport increases in popularity, so will the competitiveness to secure sponsorship deals and TV rights in those sports. [2] This will further push up the amount of funding going into women\u2019s sport.  The Government invests in social projects it deems to be worthwhile. As we have seen, the media has a huge influence in forming public opinion as to what constitutes a worthwhile activity. Thus, increased media coverage will create more demand for increased government funding in women\u2019s sport. This phenomenon was observed in the Government funding that went towards the British Olympic team. The increased popularity in the Olympics led to huge increases in funding for the Beijing and London Olympics. [1]  Increased Government funding is desirable because it leads to better facilities and coaching, increased public awareness, increased participation and, ultimately, in improved results on the sporting field (as was seen in both Beijing and London for team GB).  [1] UK Government, London 2012 Funding, accessed 7\/9\/2012.  [2] Cavanaugh, Maureen and Crook, Hank: \u201cWhy Women\u2019s Sports Struggle to Gain Popularity\u201d, These Days Archive, KPBS, July 27, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con03b","title":"","text":"The government can to a degree cover for any potential drop in funding from private sector sources. Focus can remain on developing grass-roots and sports at schools in order to incentivise new generations of athletes, so the harms mentioned by the opposition will by and large not occur. In time, popularity of women\u2019s sport will increase such that it will once again attract large lucrative TV rights deals and large investments from sponsors.  It must also be mentioned that the opposition to an extent present a false dichotomy with their argument. Increased coverage of women\u2019s sport need not take valuable air time away from more popular men\u2019s sport in the way the opposition claims. Matches can be scheduled so that they do not clash with each other, and more TV channels can be created (such as the BBC\u2019s red button service). Additionally, air-time is often packed trivial stories and programs other than popular men\u2019s sporting events. Examples from American TV include reports \u2018on supremely unhealthy hamburgers on sale at a minor league baseball parks or basketball star Shaquille O\u2019Neal\u2019s contest with a 93-year-old woman\u2019 [1]. Such programs could easily and painlessly be replaced with women\u2019s sporting news or live broadcasting.  [1] Deggans, Eric: \u201cContinued apathy by sports media toward women\u2019s sport a bigger problem than first meets the eye\u201d, National Sports Journalism Centre, June 8 2010."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con01b","title":"","text":"The media can and often is used as a tool for public policy. Examples of this include the broadcasting of public information campaigns against drink-driving or smoking or else bans on certain advertising such as smoking advertisements or sponsorship appearing on TV.[1] What\u2019s more the government has a huge influence in what it deems to be worthwhile news or television programs and documentaries. This is because of the existence of state controlled media organisations, like the BBC, and on a more subtle level, with the imposition on restrictions as to what can and cannot be published or broadcast.  The media coverage inequality between women and men\u2019s sport is a different issue to that made out by the opposition. Floods in Queensland Australia are more relevant to Australians than Europeans because they are more likely to have been affected by them. Women\u2019s sports, however, are potentially as relevant to people\u2019s lives as men\u2019s sports. The increased participation in women\u2019s sport indicates that media coverage is likely to be relevant to more and more people. Even if this was not the case women\u2019s sport should still get air time; with the internet and digital TV it is wrong to suggest that more coverage of women\u2019s sport will come at the expense of men\u2019s sports as there is enough airspace.  [1] \u2018Law ends UK tobacco sponsorship\u2019, BBC News, 31 July 2005."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con02a","title":"","text":"Women\u2019s sports do not provide the same economic incentives for media coverage as men\u2019s.  Media coverage is dependent on one crucial factor: financial incentive. The journalism industry is hugely competitive and media companies constantly have to compete with rivals for viewers and numbers of papers and magazines sold, often just in order to survive. [1] This is important for two reasons. Firstly because more sales obviously means more revenue, and secondly because the volume of sales or viewers attracts more money from advertisers and sponsors who want to maximise the exposure of their adverts to the general public. Therefore, for media companies to prosper, they must cover subjects that are most popular and likely to receive most attention by the public.  Given the difference in popularity between women and men\u2019s sport, media companies have to focus on men\u2019s sporting events as that will largely enable them to compete with rivals and secure greater revenue.  [1] Creedon, Pamela J.: \u201cWomen, Sport, and Media Institutions: Issues in Sports Journalism and Marketing\u201d, taken from Media Sport, Wenner, Lawrence A. (ed), Routledge, 1998."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con03a","title":"","text":"Equalising media coverage will cause a drop in funding for sport in general  The proposition have acknowledged that media coverage is a crucial source of revenue for sport in the form of sponsorship deals and TV rights. However, forcing media companies to provide equal coverage of men\u2019s and women\u2019s sport, inevitably leads to a thoroughly imperfect and inefficient market within the sports media industry. Sponsors and advertisers would not be as inclined to spend money on media coverage since they would deem that their advertising would reach fewer people and so have less of an impact. Moreover, sports newspapers and magazines are likely to suffer since the vast majority of readers are men interested in men\u2019s sports.  The consequences of an impaired sports media industry would have negative effects on both women\u2019s and men\u2019s sport because they will receive less funding. Let us examine how the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) is funded, as a case study. The overwhelming majority of the ECB\u2019s funds come from TV rights sales. In 2012 alone contracts were signed with Sky and ESPN worth a total of \u00a3385 million. [1] Forcing these media giants to show an equal amount of women\u2019s cricket as men\u2019s would be destructive simply because interest in women\u2019s cricket is nowhere near as high. Consequently, the ECB would see its TV rights value slashed and its income severely lowered.  A similar story to this described above would ensue with many other team sports like football and rugby where the men\u2019s sport has a huge fan base. The result would be hugely diminished funding for all facets of sport, most likely including women\u2019s. Consequently, all the benefits the proposition are trying to achieve with this motion would not be achieved, and if anything one would observe a decline in participation and standards of facilities and coaching. This is because the development, facilities and grass roots programs funded by organisations like the ECB and the Football Association (FA) are all funded from the same pool of money, whether the income has come from men\u2019s or women\u2019s sport. Crucially, this explains the proposition\u2019s identification of growing female participation in sport while media coverage remains low.  [1] Hoult, Nick: \u201cEngland and Wales Cricket Board to step up security in wke of new \u00a3125m Asian TV rights deal\u201d, The Telegraph, 17 May, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con01a","title":"","text":"Men\u2019s sports are more popular than women\u2019s and so should receive more media coverage.  The role of the media is not to be a tool for the implementation of social policy. It is instead to inform the public and provide entertainment. However, it would be na\u00efve and short-sighted to believe that the media should report and cover everything equally so as to perfectly inform the public. The nature of media coverage is such that there is a limited amount each media company can cover. There is a limit on air-time available to radio and TV stations and there is a limit to the number of pages newspapers can print. Media companies thus have to make a choice regarding what to report and to what extent. It makes sense for more coverage to be offered for stories and events that are deemed to be of greater importance by the general public (irrespective of its objective value). For example, news about local flooding in Queensland Australia may be hugely important for Australians, but considerably less so for people in Europe or the Americas. Similarly, a British victory at the World Schools Debating Championships would not be (by and large) seen as important as a British victory in the Football or Rugby World Cup. We would thus expect the media to cover each story according to its popularity. Given the considerably lower public interest in most women\u2019s sport compared to men\u2019s, it thus makes sense for men\u2019s to receive more media coverage. That coverage is based on popularity rather than media bias is shown by more than two thirds of media reports not in any way enhancing stereotypes, the media are therefore not specifically discriminating against women in sport.[1]  [1] \u2018Sports, Media and Stereotypes Women and Men in Sports and Media\u2019, Centre for Gender Equality, 2006, p.19."}
+{"id":"training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con02b","title":"","text":"The lack of financial incentive to provide media coverage of women\u2019s sporting event is not a reason to not go ahead with this motion. There is often no financial incentive to provide basic welfare needs or provide funding for the development of pharmaceuticals, but the government still pursues such endeavours. In such cases, extra financial incentives can be provided to private companies from the part of the government, or the government itself may be in charge of the scheme. In the case of sports media, state run media do not require a financial incentive to provide equal coverage, while private media companies could either be provided with benefits for covering women\u2019s sport and\/or disincentivised from not providing equal coverage by having sufficiently heavy fines in place."}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro02b","title":"","text":"The sole thing that one must remember when judging this problem is that individuals differ from one another. Even in the world of sports, although most of the athletes are hard-working, determined and ambitious people, they have different opinions, different personalities and different views over what success means. This is exactly why we cannot generalize the recipe for an ideal life. There is no \u201cone size fits all\u201d.  For some players, it\u2019s all about the competition, that thrill and excitement that you feel when playing a match, while for others the whole sporting environment is just a way of providing for their families, them not enjoying the sport per se, but rather the benefits is brings. As a result, it is of crucial importance to let people decide by their own if they want to participate in international competition. The majority will want to represent their countries, but some don\u2019t. What should be prioritized in this instance is the happiness of the individual, and as they know best in what makes them happy, we must let the athletes chose if they want to represent their countries on a national level or not. For example, Samuel Eto\u2019o refused to play for Cameroon in a friendly match because the Cameroonian Football Association didn\u2019t pay his fee for previous international matches. As a result, he prioritized his personal time over exhausting himself in matches that didn\u2019t bring him any sort of advantages. (1) His decision should be respected.  (1) Gama, Karla Villegas, \u201cSamuel Eto'o Refuses to Play for Cameroon National Team Again \u201c, Bleacher Reports August 27, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro02a","title":"","text":"Beneficial for the player  Undoubtedly, one of the most important things for a professional sportsperson is to have a long, healthy and fulfilling career. No matter what a sportspersons motivation is, whether it is the pleasure from winning or the money a player always needs to be in top form. Playing on the international level helps athletes improve themselves.  First of all, no matter of sport, the level of the sport is much more intense when it is international, as obviously, the best players are taking part in it. Santos vs Boca Juniors have always been very thrilling football matches, but none of them compare with the matches between Brazil and Argentina. If you, as an athlete, are forced to play in a much more competitive environment, then you have to bring your A-game to the pitch on every single occasion as the stakes are high every single time. In time, this improves skills and develops capabilities, as you are challenged on regular basis.  Second of all, when it comes to team sports a lot of scouts are watching internationals in the hopes of spotting new potential talents for big teams. This can be a very good opportunity for players to get noticed and to receive the credit they deserve. For example Luis Suarez transferred to Liverpool for \u00a322.8 million in January 2011 shortly after the 2010 world cup,(1) while Alex Furgeson noted on having bought Javier Hern\u00e1ndez \u201dIf we had waited until after the World Cup we would have had to pay maybe three times the price\u201d(2). If they fail to seize the opportunity, players are much more likely to remain unnoticed and unknown outside their own country. It is in their interest to be in the spotlight for the greatest amount of time, and there is no bigger stage than international competitions.  (1) Metro, \u2018Luis Suarez Liverpool transfer agreed after Ajax accept \u00a322.8m offer, 28 January 2011,   (2) Field, Dominic, \u2018Javier Hern\u00e1ndez lifts Manchester United spirits after week of turmoil\u2019, The Guardian, 25 October 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro03b","title":"","text":"It should not be dependent on one man or one woman to carry the weight of the nation upon their shoulders. Winning the world cup should not be about just whether an individual plays or not but about the team. Even in the Olympics one individual\u2019s performance makes little difference in most cases to the whole of the team.  Good results may lift a nation but it is wrong to suggest that this should mean that everyone who is called on to represent their nation should have to answer that call. It is up to the coaches and managers to make the best use of the men and women they do have.  Moreover if a country is relying on one individual then they are almost certainly putting too much pressure on them. Instead the country needs to focus on broadening the base of the team by finding more talent so that no one individual is irreplaceable. It should be remembered that individuals are far more often unable to take part in international competition as a result of injury or other reasons rather than a refusal to represent their country."}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro01a","title":"","text":"A moral duty to play for your country  It is clear that any individual, no matter his chosen area of expertise needs the appropriate environment to achieve his maximum potential. The people involved in professional sports are no exception. They need coaches to guide them, stadiums in which to practice, sponsorship and funding to allow participation at some competitions. Any person who succeeded in making a career in sports partly owes it to the society he grew up in that provided these facilities and opportunities. Let us not forget that especially in poor areas, most of the sports trainings are done \u201cpro bono\u201d by good Samaritans who want to lend a hand.  Therefore, as other people invested in their development, every sportsman has the moral duty to pass on that help, and also lend a helping hand towards those who weren\u2019t as privileged. Representing the nation is a part of this moral duty to repay that which the country has given. This improves the image of that country and allows it to get the recognition in deserves for bringing up such talented players. Cristiano Ronaldo is one of best paid soccer players in the world and mainly got to where he is due to his talent, determination and countless hours on the pitch. But he was also born in Portugal, where he took advantage of the entire football industry that exists there. If he had been born in Sri Lanka, his talent would have gone unnoticed."}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro01b","title":"","text":"There are no grounds on which to claim that these athletes have any sort of moral duty towards the society which raised him, as the society itself benefited from its investment and a moral duty should not arise from the accident of being born into a particular country.  The moral obligation, if it ever existed, is to the club and is fully fulfilled whether they stay at the club they were raised by or if they leave. If they stay, they will help the club win matches, championships and therefore money, which could in turn be used for the development for other young, talented players. If they leave, the club will receive a significant fee for the transfer, money which could again be used for the same purposes. Either way, they will bring significant advantages to the society that raised them, without having to play for the national team."}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro03a","title":"","text":"Benefits to the nation  It is not just the player or athlete who benefits from taking part in international competitions but the nation as well. Every nation wants to do well in international sporting completions and every national wants their nation to do well internationally. Every country wants all of their best sportspeople to take part so that they have as much success as possible. This is partially about prestige; Jamaica is perhaps best known worldwide at the moment as a result of the fame of Usain Bolt and other successful sprinters, if it was not known for this it might instead be known for its gang wars and murder which is not what a country wants people to think of when their country is mentioned. (1)  But it is also about the economy. Countries that do well in international competitions may get an economic boost as a result. Economists suggested that winning the World Cup could have a positive impact of between 0.25 and 0.5%, which if it is in the context of near zero growth can be a big impact. This is a result of the feel-good factor from the victory. And we must not forget that feel-good factor itself; wining international competitions, or even just individual events lifts the mood of the country.  And if a country is successful in a sport then that sport provides an opportunity to bring social benefits through social programs to reduce violence or campaigns such as that against racism.(2) Success is however something which is much more likely if a country is able to field its best athletes and players internationally.  (1) Observer Crime Reporter, \u2018Murders soar\u2019, Jamaica Observer, 24 September 2013,   (2) The Economist, \u2018Crime in Mexico: Out of sight, not out of mind\u2019, 19 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con03b","title":"","text":"The claim according to which players would willingly play badly in order to get thrown out from the team is not only false, but completely outrageous. There are several points which indicate this.  These are extremely popular and important competitions. In order to get to international level you need to have a very strong character, to value your team mates and cherish the fans. No such player would be willing to throw a match by playing badly. Doing so would hurt the team, fans and nation, and bring widespread criticism.  Throwing a game is also noticeable if there is a significant difference between domestic and international form. Being selected shows good form making it difficult to claim another reason for poor results. Moreover, if they are found out, they have a lot to lose, as their reputation would be destroyed. The Pakistani cricket team scandal involving corruption and match-fixing proves the risks players face when trying to get involved in backstage games and alter the result through poor performance. (1)This damages the athlete\u2019s career, their reputation (even if it is not corrupt) and their financial situation. No one will want someone known for unprofessional behaviour.  (1) Greenwood, Chris, \u201cBowlers Mohammed Asif and Mohammed Aamer received a year and six months respectively \u201d, Daily Mail, 4 November 2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con01b","title":"","text":"It is true that freedom is one of the core principles of society, but it is neither an absolute value, nor one which isn\u2019t legitimate to confine at some moments. This coercive measure isn\u2019t very time or energy intensive. In general, international competitions are pretty scarce, once every two or four years, and they last only for a couple of weeks. Therefore, the athletes have total freedom over their career, as coming to a championship once in a while won\u2019t affect it.  In addition, the sportsmen shouldn\u2019t be looking at this decision judging solely by their interests. The decision-making process should take more factors into consideration. In a significant number of cases, there is reason to believe that the players think only about themselves and don\u2019t think about the help they could give to their team and therefore to the nation. For example, the Cameroonian footballers refused to appear in a friendly against Algeria just because the Federation didn't pay the corresponding bonuses and appearance fees for two games (against Morocco and Sudan).(1) Such examples of selfish behaviour should be discouraged. They shouldn\u2019t prioritize a small sum of money, which they would\u2019ve eventually received, over the fans. Under this curtain of \u201cfreedom\u201d we are allowing them to be selfish and always put their needs first. A society where players would give from their own time in order to help achieve a greater goal is a more desirable one.  (1) Gama, Karla Villegas, \u201cSamuel Eto'o Refuses to Play for Cameroon National Team Again \u201c, Bleacher Reports, 27 August 2012"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con02a","title":"","text":"There is no need for compulsion  There is an old saying \u2018if it ain\u2019t broke don\u2019t fix it\u2019. In order for this proposal to be taken into consideration, a problem regarding the world of sports must be identified.  Fortunately for sports, it works like a charm. In a great many sports revenues are going up, television rights are being sold for higher prices than ever before and more and more children are enrolling in sporting activities. Despite the global economic slowdown, sports revenues worldwide should grow by about 3.7 percent to $145.3 billion by 2015, according to a research report.(1) The current system works and there is no need to change it.  Moreover, if we were to introduce this coercive measure, there would be numerous disadvantages without significant benefits. It would make no sense to create purposeless tensions between individuals and sporting federations. It is even more absurd considering that competitions and sporting events wouldn't benefit at all. This is because almost all top sportspeople accept the request to represent their country, and indeed see it as an honour and privilege.  Therefore, it would create no advantages regarding the level of the game or increase the spectacle.  (1) Stutchbury, Greg, \u201cSports Industry Expected To Continue Steady Growth Despite Economic Woes: Report\u201d , Huffington Post, 12 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con03a","title":"","text":"No guarantee of success  A man who performs a certain task out voluntarily is guaranteed to solve it better, faster and more efficiently than someone who is forced to do it against his will. Even if these players would come and participate in the training and matches, there is no guarantee that they will give 100%.  Any sportsperson who did not want to appear at the competition is not going to be motivated no matter what it was that meant they did not want to attend. This will be even more the case if the reason was one of fitness, tiredness or form.  The second reason which will add to the lack of dedication from these players is the frustration that they are forced to play against their will. If they cannot change the system, or appeal, then it can only lead to more irritation and indignation. Not a good frame of mind for an international competition. Discord in a team can only lead to failure, as shown by France\u2019s humiliating drop out of the 2010 world cup having not won a game despite having big international stars.(1)  When performance is affected by motivation then there is little coaches or managers can do except take them off the team. They will simply perform less well than more motivated athletes so that they don\u2019t need to take part, so fulfilling their original intent.  (1) Associated Press, \u2018Humiliation now complete for France at World Cup\u2019, ESPN, 22 June 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con01a","title":"","text":"Liberty  Liberty is the foundation stone of society. Every individual must be free to do as they choose and one part of freedom is the freedom to walk away from work when you are asked. Forcing sportspeople to represent their nation in international competition is would be a kind of unfree labour very similar to involuntary servitude, or to take a more recent example conscription. They would be forced to work without their consent and for a considerably less good reason than defence of the nation. By requiring sportspeople to represent their nations we are forcing individuals to take part in actions, which, in their view, don't bring them any benefit. This is clearly the case as they rejected participating in them in the first place.  We are also ignoring that those who do not wish to take part may have legitimate reasons for rejecting a call up. This may be a fear of industry or protesting against the policies of their sport\u2019s governing body. For example, Hilditch is one of three senior national team players who refused to participate in the Nations Cup, to protest Rugby Canada\u2019s pay-to-play system for women in non-World Cup years.(1)  The thing that is certain is that there is no one size fits all policy which would be generally embraced by all the sportsmen. We must let them decide which course of action best suits their interest. As we have embraced the individual freedom as a core principle of our society, we must let these people shape their lives however they want.  (1) Toronto Star, \u2018Canada players refuse \u201cpay-to-play\u201d\u2019, Scrum Queens, July 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con02b","title":"","text":"How well the finances of sports are doing has little relevance to the international game. Indeed it creates the potential problem that as club, or domestic level competition grows more lucrative so sportspeople may feel that they have less need of taking part internationally.  Even if there are currently few who reject a call up this is something that will vary from nation to nation, sport to sport, and time to time. Any national sporting association that faces a crisis that threatens to disrupt their capability of meeting international competition should have the ability to make it compulsory for their best players to represent their country. Thus when Cameroon\u2019s players engaged in strike action it was not just one player which the team could do without but the whole team who did so.(1)  Moreover, even if lower quality players can be substitutes the change would still influence the overall face of the competition and the team\u2019s chances. Having the best possible players, even if some are there by compulsion increases competition to be selected. This puts more pressure on everyone to perform. Every player who will come to the national team can be a valuable asset for it, either if he plays or if he \u201cwarms up\u201d the bench.  (1) Associated Press, \u2018Cameroon squad go on strike in row over appearance bonuses\u2019, theguardian.com, 15 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro02b","title":"","text":"The top sides field many overseas players because they think they are better than most home-grown ones. The fact that the England football team has done badly has much more to do with poor management and coaching than the large number of foreigners in the Premier League. It also is an indictment on the school programs in place and youth football as a whole. It has little to do with a lack of opportunity at club-level, for clubs will always look locally for cheap, ready-made talent. They are forced to look overseas because foreign-born players are proving to be better bets. Furthermore, these foreigners thereafter assist the few local-born players who have made the grade. Therefore, if you removed some of the best foreigners and replaced them with less good local players, it will actually weaken both club football and the national team."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro02a","title":"","text":"It will improve the quality of the national team  Reducing the number of foreign players would be good for the national team. Current rules mean that only a few domestic players get a chance to compete at the highest level, and the national side suffers as a result. So while, for example, English clubs with the ability and clout to sign foreign players have done very well in the Champions League recently, the English national team has performed badly. English youth are consistently overlooked for places in the best sides in favour of more talented, more experienced foreigners who offer short-term success. Limiting the number of foreigners would force clubs to give more local players a chance to develop, and subsequently improve the quality of the national side."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro03b","title":"","text":"Local loyalties went out of the game years ago \u2013 it isn\u2019t just overseas players who change clubs often in search of higher wages. Everyone agrees that when teams were only full of local boys the standard of play was worse. And strong local loyalties aren\u2019t always good \u2013 they used to spill over into hooliganism as the fans from rival clubs fought. More overseas players in football, many with different colour skins, have helped reduce nationalism and racism in society."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro05a","title":"","text":"The sport\u2019s governing body, FIFA, wishes to implement a \u2018six plus five\u2019 that would be enforced by each member association  The six-plus-five rule, first tabled by FIFA in 2008, would require all side to have six home-grown players in all starting elevens. As the sport\u2019s governing body, if the proposal was voted in by member states all state football associations would be forced to hand out penalties, whether financial or points, to teams that did not meet the criteria of the new rule. The rule purports to increase both the protection and development of local players in local environments, whilst also permitting the transfers of high-profile foreigners that have been attributed with the rise in prestige and profile of many of the European leagues and clubs."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is good for the development of home-grown players and therefore, the quality of domestic leagues  Limiting the number of overseas players will be good for home-grown sportsmen. At present only a tiny handful of the best native players will get a chance to play for top clubs due to their profit and success motives. This means that talented young players see no reason to work hard and develop their game, because it is so unlikely they will get a chance to play at the top level. And clubs don\u2019t have a reason to seek out local youngsters and train them, as it is easier to buy a fully trained player from abroad. Limiting the number of foreign players would create incentives for both players and clubs to make the most of their talents. As a result, domestic crowds would rise as quality would improve proportionally with the development of local talent."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Limiting the number of foreign players will weaken the quality of domestic football. Seeing many of the best footballers from around the world competing against each other every week raises the standard of the whole game. Fans want to see their team playing exciting football and winning games \u2013 they don\u2019t care whether the players are local boys or not. Youngsters are inspired by foreign heroes and work hard in order to follow in their footsteps, no matter where they were born."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro05b","title":"","text":"Sporting organizations, of which FIFA is merely a more powerful example, cannot and will not be permitted to introduce a rule that denies otherwise-qualified persons from maximizing their income by moving overseas. Furthermore, and regarding the six-plus-five criteria specifically, the five foreigner-limit applies only to those which are not home-grown, encouraging the bigger clubs to look abroad for younger talent to bring into their academies. Once in the academy, they will gain home-grown status and therefore not count as one of the five foreigners. Therefore, FIFA\u2019s proposal does not fix the problem but exacerbate the fears of exploitation."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro04b","title":"","text":"The youngsters from poor nations who excel in Europe do so because of their move, not irrespective of it. It is a fallacy to suggest that all players develop in a vacuum, that their ability is irrespective of their development opportunities. For the best youngers in poor and under-developed nations, being poached by the rich European clubs is a way out, a means to realising their obvious talent. Taking away that source risks wasting not only a precocious young talent but also denying him the opportunity to escape the cycle of poverty. Furthermore, it can be expected that the poached youngsters will give back to their host countries, in the form of national team appearances and domestic league endorsements, later in their careers."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro03a","title":"","text":"It will encourage fans to support their local clubs  A focus on domestic football and domestic footballers would encourage the public to get around their local sides. Therefore, this plan would be fruitful for club football and its relationship with the local community. Once the local team was a real source of local identity, with many home-grown players proud to wear the shirt of the club they grew up with. Now players have no local feeling and move often in search of higher wages or European experience. Loyalty is an undervalued trait in modern football. How can fans identify with a club full of overseas players who will be gone in a season or two, and who otherwise neglect to support local youth talent?"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Restrictions would prevent the poaching of the best youngsters from poor nations  This plan would be good for world football. At present poorer nations (e.g. in Africa or South America), or those where football isn\u2019t as well developed (e.g. Australia, the USA), lose all their best players at an early age to the rich European leagues. This weakens their own leagues and can lead to the public losing interest in football. Poor quality games and loss of public support for domestic clubs also means little money comes into the game from ticket sales, television or sponsorship, so nothing goes into grounds, training or youth systems. It is also hard to put a good national side together when the best players hardly ever spend any time in their own country."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-con03b","title":"","text":"There is already a problem with talented teenagers from Africa and other poorer countries being recruited by rich European clubs to train at their academies. This takes them far away from family and friends and ties them into long contracts they don\u2019t understand \u2013 some have called it a form of slavery. And if they get injured or turn out to be not quite good enough, then they can be thrown out without proper support. At the same time, poorer footballing countries are deprived of many of their most promising players, without even getting the transfer money paid when adult players move to a new club overseas. The FIFA plan is a step towards preventing such exploitation, the fact it doesn\u2019t solve the problem completely does not prevent it from being a good first step."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-con01b","title":"","text":"The six-plus-five plan is not banned under EU law. Although it would be illegal to stop clubs in Europe from employing as many overseas players as they wish, this is not what the plan proposes. It simply puts a limit of five on how many foreign players can start a game \u2013 so clubs can employ as many foreigners as they want, they just can\u2019t play more than five of them at the same time. Given the tactical use of reserves and the squad rotation common in modern football, clubs are likely to keep signing overseas players. But under FIFA\u2019s plan domestic players will still be given more of a chance than they are now. As the head of the Institute of European Affairs states: \"The key aim of the six-plus-five rule in the view of the experts is the creation and assurance of sporting competition. The six-plus-five rule does not impinge on the core area of the right to freedom of movement. The rule is merely a rule of the game declared in the general interest of sport in order to improve the sporting balance between clubs and associations\" [1]  [1] Times Online. (2009, February 26). Fifa's six-plus-five rule is not illegal, claims report. Retrieved May 10, 2011, from Times Online:"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-con02a","title":"","text":"Restrictions are unnecessary  This plan is unnecessary \u2013 Manchester United is one of the most successful club sides and often fields more locally-born players than its rivals. Most big clubs are working hard to build strong football academies to bring talented youngsters through. The logic is simple, home-grown youngsters can be developed much more cheaply and easily than foreigners. In any case, money will still remain vital to success \u2013 this plan would mean that the richest clubs will simply pay silly sums of money to buy up all the best local players. Therefore, competition within domestic leagues would not even up, it would simply lead to a re-shuffling of the best home-grown talent. Really the FIFA proposal is just an attack on English football clubs as they have been so successful recently. The issue wasn\u2019t raised previously when Italian and Spanish club sides dominated European competitions."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-con03a","title":"","text":"It doesn\u2019t solve the problem of protecting countries outside of Europe from losing players  In practice this plan will do nothing for football in countries outside Europe. Already many overseas players have dual nationality (which is especially easy to obtain for South American players wanting to play in Spain or Portugal). Other players are from countries (e.g. South Africa, Caribbean states) with labour agreements with the EU and can work freely in European countries. Both groups would be able to claim that they didn\u2019t count as overseas players under the FIFA plan, so little would change. One danger is that many good players will completely switch nationality in order to play overseas, and so not be qualified for their original country at all in future. And what FIFA plans to do about the many Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish footballers playing for English teams is very unclear. Would they be banned from playing in their own country?"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-con01a","title":"","text":"It is illegal under European Union law.  FIFA\u2019s plan is illegal under European Union rules: \u2018The implementation by FIFA of this proposal in the European Union would violate EU law. The Commission is not considering any change to allow FIFA to push forward this idea. FIFA is aware of this fact.\u2019 [1] . The rules say that you can\u2019t discriminate against people from other EU countries on the grounds of their nationality - exactly what the six-plus-five plan would do. And the EU has agreements in place allowing people from non-EU European countries like Switzerland and Norway to work freely in EU states, plus a lot of countries in Africa and the Caribbean as well. This means most of the overseas players currently with European clubs would be able to take FIFA to court if it tried to put its plan into practice. And if six-plus-five won\u2019t work in Europe, there is no point applying it elsewhere.  [1] BBC Sport. (2008, May 30). FIFA backs Blatter on quota plan. Retrieved May 10, 2011, from BBC Sport:"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwiropf-con02b","title":"","text":"Competition would actually improve if foreign players were less common. At the moment the richest clubs can buy up all the best global players and so dominate domestic competitions \u2013 often no more than two or three teams have a real chance of winning the big European leagues. This makes tournaments predictable and boring, while clubs become the playthings of billionaire owners. Even international club competitions like the European Champions League are now dominated by just a few teams \u2013 in 2008 three of the four semi-finalists and both finalists were English. Forcing clubs to develop home-grown talent would level the playing field, make money less vital, and give more teams a chance to compete for top honours. This would inadvertently drive players to get better, because there would be fewer short-term fixes available to a team\u2019s poor form."}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro02b","title":"","text":"On this level, we have two situations. On one hand, there are a lot of sports where women and men receive equal media coverage and monetary rewards starting from athletics, where at the world championships the gold medal winner is rewarded the same, no matter of sex(1) and ending with tennis, where for example at the US Open, one of the 4 biggest tennis tournaments of the year, both the male and female winners receive the same amount of money. On this level, we see that there is absolutely no discrimination whatsoever. (2)The fact that women play fewer sets is by no means a form of discrimination as we can see that, at the end of the day, they get the same amount of money and equal, if not more, publicity than the male tennis players.  On the other hand, there are sports, like soccer, basketball or cycling where women simply don\u2019t have the necessary physical requirements for example to shoot a goal from 40m away, thus making a female soccer match less thrilling than one played by males. Women will never have the possibility to win these competitions, thus there will be no monetary or media coverage advantages for them of competing in the same league as men. It is better for them to be the best at a smaller tournament than to be the last at a bigger one. For example, Caster Semenya who won gold in the women's 800 metres at the 2009 World Championships with a time of 1:55.45 in the final would not have even qualified for the men\u2019s final, in which the worst time was 1:47.80.(3)  (1) Jamaica Observer, August 07, 2013   (2) US Open Official Site 2013,   (3) Eric Vilain \u201cGender Testing for Athletes Remains a Tough Call\u201d, New York Times, June 18, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Preventing discrimination in sport  Assuming we would have two equally muscular and equally fast male and female athletes, the current system clearly discriminates the female athlete by not allowing her to compete in the male league. It is against the very nature of sports to treat differently two athletes who have the same strength, speed, agility, dexterity, mental focus, determination, ambition based purely on their type of chromosomes.  This is extremely important as most of the time the women\u2019s competition gets less attention from the public and sponsors, as seen in the cases of Women\u2019s National Basketball Association and National Women\u2019s Football Association. So, by forcing them to stay in those leagues, you are denying potentially successful athletes fame, pride and money. The Giro Rosa, one of the biggest women cycling competition, offers a prize money of 460 Euros, which is a mere thousandth of the Tour de France's 450,000 Euro top prize.(1)  (1) Barth Sarah \u201cWhy can\u2019t we have a women\u2019s Tour de France?\u201d, Road.cc ,July 14, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro03b","title":"","text":"First of all, sports are one of the most popular and promoted activities for young girls around the world, they receive advice to practice sports from a wide variety of sources: parents, friends, school teachers, etc. There isn\u2019t a lack of motivation on their part on this level, especially as there are a lot of female sporting competitions that get a lot of media coverage: volleyball, handball, swimming, ice skating, etc.  This measure will actually discourage teenage girls from practicing sports on a professional level. Due to the huge gap in physical strength most of the female athletes will only get defeated in these competitions with men. Seeing these so called \u201crole models\u201d getting beaten at, for example, every single soccer match reduces the chances of girls wanting to enrol in this type of activity as they will see the competition being too powerful, diminishing the possibilities of ever winning a competition. You need to show them that it is possible for them to win, and that\u2019s why you need Serena Williams to win so many Grand Slam Tournaments, that\u2019s why you need Alexandra do Nascimento to be named Best Female Handball Player of the Year and that\u2019s why you need to separate the sexes in sporting competitions.(1)  (1) Wikipedia, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Athletes should decide for themselves.  In sports it is crucial that the best person wins no matter of his or her sex. We should let the women decide if they are prepared enough to participate in men\u2019s events, and not take that decision for them by forcing them into set leagues. American skier Lindsey Vonn has won the women's World Cup four times. In November 2012, she asked to be allowed to compete in the men's event. The request was denied(1). If a female athlete can perform better than a male athlete in a certain discipline, she should be allowed to compete with, and beat, the male athlete. The examples of Danica Patrick, a \u201cNASCAR driver who won the 2008 Indy Japan 300 and finished 3rd in the 2009 Indy 500\u201d and Seena Hogan who holds multiple records in ultra cycling, which haven\u2019t been beaten by any man or women to this day(2), show us how women can improve a competition in a significant way. At the end of the day, it doesn\u2019t matter who wins, the very purpose of sports forces us to let them take the decision, as we cannot accurately suppose that women are worse than men at every single competition of every single sporting event as shown by the stated examples.  (1) The Associated Press, \u201cSkier Lindsey Vonn can't race against men in WCup\u201d November 3, 2012   (2) Esteban \u201c9 Female Athletes Who Competed Against Men\u201d, Total Pros Sports, October 28, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro01b","title":"","text":"First and foremost, it is very important to realize that the desire to take part in men\u2019s sporting competitions must be backed up by physical capabilities of women to be able to win against men. Unfortunately, if we look at statistics we realize how big the gap between the two sexes is: \u201cMichael Phelps is a full 26 seconds ahead of the women's world record holder in a 400m medley, the best female is more than 10% behind the best male - 12 minutes in a marathon (and 20 for most of the top women at the moment), more than 1 second in a 100m race, more than 1 meter in the long jump.\u201d (1) Thus, the states purpose of sports, that of \u201clet the best person win\u201d is already being achieved, as, sadly, in a wide majority of cases men, due to their physical attributes, do perform better.  Promoting performance is not the only purpose of sports; another should be promoting gender equality. This measure, due to the wide physical gap between the two sexes, would simply perpetuate ideas that women are not equal. It doesn\u2019t matter that there will be a few examples of women who managed to succeed, as these will be overshadowed by the significant majority of female athletes who won\u2019t. A world in which gender equality is promoted, but where not every competition is being won by the best athlete is more desirable than one in which discrimination is perpetuated but you make sure that \u201cthe best one wins\u201d.  (1) Sports Scientists, April 15, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Encouraging future female athletes  One of the best ways to have a healthy life, avoid obesity and learn crucial values like respect, teamwork and fair play is by practicing a sport. In order to incentivize women from around the world to get involved you need to give them role models; women who receive a lot of media coverage to whom they can look up to. Unfortunately, women\u2019s sports don\u2019t receive as much media coverage as men\u2019s sports because they are considered to be less spectacular and thrilling. By allowing certain women, who have the necessary skills to compete against men to get this coverage you will give young girls the necessary motivation to start practicing sports, thus bringing a massive social benefit to the society. This happens already to successful women who are lucky enough to compete with men, as shown by Danica Patrick, so why should we stop here?(1)  (1) White Rea, \u201cPatrick inspiration to young females\u201d MSN Sports, February 23, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con03b","title":"","text":"Firstly, passionate viewers of these violent sports are not watching them only for seeing blood and broken noses, but for the technical abilities and the strategic tactics in these sports. As a result, they tend to focus more on the speed and precision of one\u2019s uppercut than rather on the effects it has on the opponent\u2019s body, thus they will be able to ignore the violence towards women, as they currently do towards men.  Secondly, if indeed there is a part of the population who watches violent sports but is averse to watching if there is violence involving women, then they should feel nothing but excitement when a woman will win a boxing match for example against a man, overcoming this irrational stereotype.  This is because a lot of this hatred against violence against women even in a competitive situation is based on the idea that the woman is both powerless in front of the man and not willing to fight him; essentially a view that women should be subservient. Obviously, neither of these points stands when talking about professional sporting competitions."}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con01b","title":"","text":"If we were to look at the two possible outcomes we would see that allowing both males and females to compete against each other would actively decrease discrimination. This happens as, in this situation, we perceive the two sexes as being equal, able to compete against each other, both beginning the race from the same starting line, whereas the alternative would be to draw an imaginary barrier between the two sexes claiming that they are so far apart that competition between them would be futile. Those women who come on top on several occasions, such as Danica Patrick who has won NASCAR competitions (1) will show that all those stereotypes are wrong and that they should have been long forgotten. Of course there will be a lot of women who won\u2019t be able to win anything, but the entire spotlight and all the media coverage will be on the ones who will, so they\u2019ll be getting the lion\u2019s share of media attention. As a result, successful stories of women defeating men in their leagues will come as a megaphone for promoting gender equality in society.  (1) Esteban \u201c9 Female Athletes Who Competed Against Men\u201d, Total Pros Sports, October 28, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con02a","title":"","text":"There will be a negative effect on women\u2019s leagues  Unfortunately, in the Status Quo there are a lot of women sporting leagues which are completely overshadowed by men\u2019s, such as cycling, basketball or soccer. What is needed in order for them to grow is a lot of talented, gifted women athletes which will create the \u201cthrill\u201d needed to attract media coverage, which in turn attract sponsors. In time, as more and more young female athletes are drawn into these sports, slowly but surely they will grow and narrow the financial and coverage gap between them and men\u2019s leagues. But if women are allowed to compete in men\u2019s leagues the very best females in that sport, who are the bedrock for future development, will likely quit the women\u2019s leagues for the men\u2019s. Women already seem inclined to do this, American skier Lindsey Vonn has won the women's World Cup four times asked to be allowed to compete in the men's event.(1) As a result, the women\u2019s leagues will be stripped of their best competitors. Left on its own the level of competition will rise and will surely catch up with the men\u2019s leagues as far as money and media coverage is concerned. This is being proven by tennis, handball and athletics where there is as much money and fame for the female winners as there is for the male ones.  (1) The Associated Press, \u201cSkier Lindsey Vonn can't race against men in WCup\u201d November 3, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con04a","title":"","text":"This could simply swap inequalities around  Despite the fact that gender equality in sports often comes as an argument for applying this motion, it is rather the other way round. If indeed it is so important to let women compete in men\u2019s leagues, on what ground do we ban men from competing in women\u2019s leagues? If we look at it from the point of equality, it would be only normal that if women are equal to men, men are equal to women, and if females can move from one league to another, so should males. Either option we choose, there are negative consequences that follow.  On one hand, if men are not allowed to migrate from one league to another, this whole plan will have a boomerang effect as it won\u2019t resolve gender discrimination, it will only switch the discriminated gender. There is no basis on which males should be denied this advantage.  On the other hand, if we do allow them to compete in women\u2019s leagues, there won\u2019t be male and female leagues, there will be two male leagues, as unfortunately, just as women won\u2019t win many medals in the men\u2019s leagues so men are much more likely to win in the women\u2019s. As a result, female leagues would be destroyed if men are allowed to compete in them.  Therefore, due to the consequences brought by any of the options, this proposal is undoubtedly damaging for sports."}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con03a","title":"","text":"Destroying the pleasure of watching certain sports  In today\u2019s society, we have reached a point where a significant majority of the population is extremely sensitive towards domestic violence of any form, but particularly coming from a man directed towards a woman. Unfortunately, a wide variety of extremely popular sports are to a certain degree very violent such as: boxing, kickboxing, rugby, MMA or American football. Certain matches between a male and a female, no matter the winner will, cause a huge amount of visual discontent among viewers as no one wants to see a man knocking unconscious a woman with an uppercut. This would send a terrible message about violence against women and would be extremely unpopular and subject to large numbers of complaints. Subjecting women to such violence in these sports, even if the women in question puts up a good fight, will as a result of the sensitivity of many towards this kind of violence decrease the popularity and thrill of these otherwise extremely exciting sports."}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con01a","title":"","text":"Crimination would increase  From the very beginning, it is important to understand that many sports are based on the physical attributes of the individuals. Whoever has the biggest muscles, whoever is fastest, whoever lifts a bigger weight, he is the one who will be declared champion. When we look at the statistics, they reveal the massive gap between the athletic capacities of the two sexes for example \u201cThe women's speed world records are all about 90 percent of the men's speed world records, in both short, middle and long distances.\u201d(1). This only means, that although some women will win some sporting events, the vast majority of competition will still be won by men. As a result, more than ever, a message of female inferiority will be transmitted because in a direct competition between the sexes males will constantly win an element which was lacking in the past.  This is defining sport in men\u2019s terms not women\u2019s. It says sports are men\u2019s sports and relegates women\u2019s to a secondary status at the same time having men constantly winning against women will show that this definition needs to be challenged. This is extremely important and it will come in direct contradiction to our efforts as a society to promote gender equality and to diminish stereotypes. We shouldn\u2019t try to turn sports into a \u201cCompetition of the sexes\u201d.  (1) Meyer Robinson \u201cWe Thought Female Athletes Were Catching Up to Men, but They're Not\u201d, The Atlantic, Aug 9 2012"}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con04b","title":"","text":"On this level, it is obvious that letting men compete in women\u2019s leagues is a dreadful thing to do. On the other hand, there is absolutely no discrimination towards men on this level so there is no reason to open up women\u2019s leagues to men. The levels on which women are discriminated are the money they receive and the air time they get. Allowing them to migrate from one league to another is by no means an advantage in itself, but rather the means through which they can receive as many benefits as men do. Men already get those advantages so both sexes are treated equally on the point which is the root of discrimination.  There should still be this differentiation, as indeed a competition between men and women can be very biased in a lot of cases, but what is important is to let those women who can face men head-to-head to so."}
+{"id":"training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con02b","title":"","text":"On this point, it is relevant which of the two plans gives more incentive to young girls to enroll into sports thusly creating a wider pool of talent, which is necessary for women sport to grow. Firstly, as men\u2019s leagues are more televised, women who compete in those will get more fame and attention so inspire girls from all around the world compared to playing into an ignored, untelevised, ill-funded league. Secondly, as there will be female winners even in the male leagues, this will act as a further incentive for teenage girls to start practicing sports as there would be much more media attention for Serena Williams for example if she won the men\u2019s US Open than for winning the women\u2019s tournament.  Moreover, by having talented women competing in competitions which get a lot of media attention you would actually incentivize people to start watching women\u2019s leagues as well, as that is where those very talented female athletes came from. They will act as proof to the fact that women\u2019s leagues can be thrilling, thus increasing interest and media coverage. In time, due to the increase in the league\u2019s wealth and TV coverage, some females who started to compete in men\u2019s leagues may even come back."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Everybody knows umpires make mistakes; it happens often enough that fans and players all recognize it is part of the game. Nobody expects umpires to be perfect, but everyone wants umpires to strive for perfection. It\u2019s just like with players: everybody wants their favourite players to strive to play perfectly, but nobody actually expects them to be perfect. Thus, we can\u2019t sacrifice other elements of the game (discussed elsewhere in this debate) on the altar of perfection.  It is disingenuous to liken instant replay to eyeglasses or to mere tools to \u201csupplement\u201d umpires\u2019 skill. Instant replay becomes a substitute for\u2014not a supplement to\u2014umpires\u2019 skill. There is no skill involved in watching a slow-motion replay and determining whether a player was tagged; millions of fans do that each night from the comfort of their living rooms. We do not want the fundamental character of baseball to be changed by removing umpires from the equation, which is what happens every time instant replay is used."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro02a","title":"","text":"It\u2019s not possible to get every call right, so instant replay is a necessary supplement to umpires\u2019 skill  Umpires must make split-second judgments, often from bad angles and with many elements to watch simultaneously. Mistakes will happen. Even the official rules acknowledge this when it tells umpires, \u201cYou no doubt are going to make mistakes\u201d (Official Baseball Rules, Rule 9.05). [1] Some calls will have to be made from a significant distance away from where the umpire is located\u2014a commonly cited justification of MLB\u2019s adoption of instant replay on boundary calls. [2] Fans hold umpires to an exceptionally high standard; as former umpire Nestor Chylak put it, \u201cThey expect an umpire to be perfect on Opening Day and to improve as the season goes on.\u201d [3] But it is impossible for a human to attain perfection on his own, so we should provide him with the tools that will enable him to meet the exacting standards set out for him.  It is folly to withhold technology that is already available. Even MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, generally an opponent of instant replay, acknowledged \u201cthat the extraordinary technology that we now have merits the use of instant replay on a very limited basis\u201d when he announced its adoption on boundary calls. [4] Just as we would never countenance a rule prohibiting umpires from wearing eyeglasses to see calls better, we should also not tolerate a rule that essentially keeps umpires blind to a reality that everyone else\u2014reporters, coaches, and fans\u2014has access to. Well-respected Sports Illustrate columnist Joe Posnanski captured this point well: \u201cBaseball ... should institute replay because it\u2019s just not sustainable in today\u2019s technological world to make bad calls on the field. Those days are over.... You can\u2019t keep giving the fans at home better access to the truth than the home plate umpire.\u201d [5] Instant replay is a necessary tool to help umpires \u201csee\u201d better.  [1] Ibid .  [2] Ed Price, \u201cBaseball Brunch: Upon Further Review\u2026,\u201d AOL News, May 31, 2009,  .  [3] \u201cUmpire Quotes,\u201d Baseball Almanac,  .  [4] Jack Curry, \u201cBaseball to Use Replay Reviews on Homers,\u201d New York Times, Aug. 26, 2008,  .  [5] Joe Posnanski, \u201cMeals and Squeals,\u201d SI.com, July 27, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Both the arguments provided by the proposition are faulty.  First, the vast majority of umpires\u2019 calls might be correct, but that\u2019s because the vast majority of calls are completely uncontroversial. The question is what percentage of difficult calls do umpires get right. And it would appear that umpires do not stack up well. An ESPN study of close calls found that umpires get over 20 percent of them wrong. [1] More frequent use of instant replays might correct some of these calls, but it would do so at the expense of severely damaging umpires\u2019 credibility, which would impair their ability to do all the other important aspects of their job.  Second, in crucial moments, it\u2019s imperative for umpires to be especially attentive, and for them to make conclusive decisions. If umpires know that they don\u2019t have to get the call right because the cameras can save them, then they\u2019re more likely to get it wrong. And if umpires\u2019 decisions are not final, then what should be the most exciting moments in baseball games will be supplanted by monotonous waiting for umpires to review the footage.  [1] T.J. Quinn and Willie Weinbaum, \u201cStudy shows 1 in 5 close calls wrong,\u201d ESPN.com, Aug. 16, 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro05a","title":"","text":"With more accurate calls come more legitimate outcomes to games  There are times when umpires make incorrect calls that determine the outcomes of games or, worse, World Series championships (e.g., Don Denkinger and the 1985 World Series, mentioned above). These erroneous decisions lead to the team that deserved to win actually losing, and vice versa. In short, the results of the games are illegitimate. This is especially unfortunate when fans invest hours to watch a game (or hundreds of hours watching an entire season), only to see the wrong outcome\u2014which could have been entirely avoidable if umpires were allowed to review their decision."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Accurate calls should be the top priority, and instant replay helps provide them  The main goal of an umpire is to make accurate calls. Umpires are meant to ensure that a player who is out is called out, for example, and that a foul ball is ruled a foul ball. When an umpire makes an incorrect call, he is falling short of fulfilling his primary responsibility. As the official rules of Major League Baseball instruct umpires, \u201cThe first requisite is to get decisions correctly.... Umpire dignity is important but never as important as \u2018being right\u2019\u201d (Official Baseball Rules, Rule 9.05). [1]  Without a doubt, instant replay helps to improve the accuracy of calls. When a play can be reviewed after the fact, in slow-motion, from multiple angles, it\u2019s almost inevitable that the result will be a more accurate judgment. Instant replay serves as an additional tool for umpires, allowing closer examination of events. By providing umpires with an extra set of eyes, video cameras will better enable umps to fulfil their purpose.  [1] Major League Baseball, Official Baseball Rules,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Umpires have to balance several important considerations: ensuring impartiality (and the appearance of impartiality as well); avoiding unnecessary delays in the game; ensuring that all rules are followed; and to behave in a manner that compels respect from all parties. To argue that the umpire\u2019s job comes down to accurate calls is to oversimplify a very complicated role. As the official rules of Major League Baseball instruct umpires: \u201cWhen you enter a ball park your sole duty is to umpire a ball game as the representative of baseball.... Keep the game moving. A ball game is often helped by energetic and earnest work of the umpires\u201d (Official Baseball Rules, Rule 9.05). [1]  [1] Ibid ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro05b","title":"","text":"This debate is clearly highlighting a difference in philosophy about the role of the umpire. Proposition first says that umpires should not be a central part of the game (see Argument Four). Now Proposition says that a game\u2019s outcome is illegitimate if it was decided by a poor call by an umpire. This is the wrong way of looking at it. As long as the umpire tried his best to make an accurate judgment, then his call is \u201clegitimate,\u201d as is anything that flows from it. \u201cLegitimacy\u201d is not the same as \u201caccuracy.\u201d Indeed, the umpire\u2019s call might be the sole source of legitimacy. Proposition previously quoted legendary umpire Bill Klem, but remember two of Klem\u2019s other statements: \u201cGentlemen, he was out because I said he was out,\u201d and \u201cIt ain\u2019t nothin\u2019 till I call it.\u201d [1] There is no such thing as a \u201clegitimate\u201d outcome divorced from the context of an umpire\u2019s call.  [1] \u201cBill Klem,\u201d Baseball-Reference.com,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Baseball is not just about the players. It\u2019s about managers, coaches, fans, and umpires too. It is a rather narrow view to argue that baseball umpires should remain invisible. Umpires play a central role in every game. They make signals that are meant to attract attention. When a crucial play occurs in the bottom of the ninth inning, all eyes are on the umpire to see what the outcome will be. Bruce Froemming, who broke Klem\u2019s record for most MLB games umpired, had this rejoinder to Klem: \u201cOne of the really wrong theories about officiating is that a good official is one you never notice. The umpire who made that statement was probably a real poor official who tried to get his paycheck and hide behind his partners and stay out of trouble all his life. Control of the ballgame is the difference between umpires that show up for the players and the managers.\u201d [1] Rather than denying umpires\u2019 central role, we should acknowledge it.  Joyce\u2019s blown call\u2014and the sorrow he felt afterward\u2014are as memorable, and as part of the culture of baseball, as any celebration of a perfect game. Joyce\u2019s post-game press conference might not go in the record books, but it will remain as much a part of baseball history as Galarraga\u2019s achievement would have. It is pure assertion to argue that that is not what baseball is about or what fans want to see.  [1] \u201cUmpire Quotes,\u201d Baseball Almanac,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Instant replay will actually enhance umpires\u2019 stature  Instant replay will lead fans, managers, and players to hold umpires in higher regard. This will occur in two ways.  First, the vast majority of umpires\u2019 calls are accurate. Statistical analyses have shown that well over 99 percent of calls are accurate, [1] but this is not always appreciated by spectators. Instant replay will often confirm umpires\u2019 calls, which will call to the public\u2019s attention just how often umpires get it right.  Second, in cases where umpires\u2019 incorrect judgments could have very bad consequences\u2014for example, in the case of Armando Galarraga\u2019s ruined perfect game, or in deciding the outcome of a crucial game\u2014instant replay will allow a reversal. This will spare the umpire much guilt and shame. Umpire Tim McClelland, who was involved in questionable calls during the 2009 playoffs, said as much about his experience and those of Jim Joyce, the umpire who blew Galarraga\u2019s perfect game: \u201cAfter watching what I went through in the playoffs last year and then what Jim's going through, I think more and more umpires are coming around to [increased use of replay].\u201d [2]  Former umpire Don Denkinger expressed a similar sentiment. He blew a call in Game 6 of the 1985 World Series, and probably changed the outcome of the entire season. \u201cI had 30 great years ... and I had one call that\u2019s all anybody ever wants to talk about. It\u2019s not right,\u201d he said, adding that he now supports instant replay. [3]  [1] Gil Imber, \u201cStats Prove MLB Umpires Call 99.5 Percent of Plays Correctly,\u201d Bleacher Report, Oct. 26, 2011,  .  [2] Paul White, \u201cExpanding instant replay not an easy call to make for MLB,\u201d USA Today, June 12, 2010,  .  [3] ESPN.com News Services, \u201cDenkinger supports replay in baseball,\u201d ESPN.com, June 3, 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Instant replay will place the focus of the game where it belongs\u2014on the players, not the umpires  Umpires are supposed to facilitate a smooth game. When they are the center of attention, it is usually because something has gone wrong. Legendary Hall of Fame umpire Bill Klem accurately stated, \u201cThe best umpired game is the game in which the fans cannot recall the umpires who worked it.\u201d [1] The game is supposed to be decided by the feats of the players on the field, not the fallibility of the men in blue. Instant replay will help make this happen.  With instant replay, we would not have had Jim Joyce, the umpire who blew Galarraga\u2019s perfect game, holding a tearful press conference apologizing for his missed call. Instead, we would have had images of Galarraga celebrating his historical achievement with his teammates. The latter, not the former, is what baseball is supposed to be about, and what fans want to see. Instant replay will ensure that baseball revolves around the players, rather than the officials.  [1] \u201cBill Klem,\u201d Baseball-Reference.com,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con03b","title":"","text":"Baseball looks a lot like the game played 100 years ago. But it also looks very different in many crucial ways. Minorities can now play. The height of the mound has been changed. Night games are now played, with the help of lights. Technology\u2014from the material of bats to the shape of gloves to the design of cleats\u2014has evolved. Even the composition of baseballs is different. If all these things can change without eliciting much objection, then why would instant replay violate a tradition? And even if it did, it\u2019s not clear that that tradition is a valuable one (as opposed to a neutral one or even a downright undesirable one). [1]  [1] ZombieMonta, \u201cWhy baseball purists are dead wrong about instant replay,\u201d Inhistoric, Sept. 5, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con01b","title":"","text":"Baseball is indeed a slow sport, but instant replay will simply replace\u2014rather than add to\u2014other aspects that contribute to its snail-like pace.  First, every time there is a controversial play where the umpire might have made a bad call, a player or the manager will come out and argue with the umpire. This arguing takes up about as much time as a video review would. But with a video review, there would be no arguing; everyone would know the umpires got it right.  Second, when an umpire is not certain about his call, he often will confer with the other umpires in a collective attempt for them to arrive at the correct decision. This, too, takes time, and this, too, can be replaced with instant replay, which has the added virtue of being more accurate.  Third, not very many plays will require instant replay, so even if there is a dilatory effect, it will be relatively small.  Finally, if baseball\u2019s pace is such a concern, then MLB should first pursue a host of other steps to speed the game\u2014time limits for pitchers, batters, arguments, seventh-inning stretches, between-inning warm-ups, etc."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con02a","title":"","text":"Instant replay will take the human element out of baseball  Baseball, like all sports, \u201cis the pursuit of transcending imperfection.\u201d [1] It is not supposed to be executed with robotic perfection; it is supposed to involve human beings all trying their best to do the best they can.  Fallible umpire calls are part of the drama of baseball. Many people enjoy the excitement that comes with the fallibility of umpire's calls. This sub-plot in baseball in unique and should be preserved.  Indeed, fooling the ump is a time-honored part of the game. [2] It is not cheating; no rule is broken when one pretends to have been hit by a pitch to try to dupe the umpire. It is a colourful, even skilful way to work within the imperfect, very human parameters that the sport.  [1] Mark Coatney, \u201cThe Greatness and Perfection of Missing the Call,\u201d Daily Beast, June 2, 2010,  .  [2] Tom Krasovic, \u201cDusty Baker Defends Umpires Amid Calls for Expanded Instant Replay,\u201d AOL News, Oct. 9, 2010,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con05a","title":"","text":"Instant replay might be deceptive or inconclusive  Not all video reviews will lead to an accurate ruling. Sometimes, camera angles could give a tricky, incorrect impression. Or they could shed little light on what actually happened. In these cases, instant replay will afford the appearance of certainty when the reality is much more complicated. In addition, all of the harms of inaccurate calls that Proposition is trying to solve will continue to exist."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con04a","title":"","text":"Many plays don\u2019t lend themselves to video review  There are two types of plays that defy instant replay. The first is one that would belong to a longer sequence of events, called \u201ccontinuation plays.\u201d Often, when an umpire makes a call, the ball is still in play, and more plays might follow. A commentator offers this scenario: \u201cFor example, if the umpire calls a ball foul and replay shows it was fair and the decision is overturned by replay, how do you handle the base runners?\u201d [1] There\u2019s just no easy way for video replay to be used in continuation plays.  [1] Don Hunsberger, \u201cLet\u2019s bring meaningful instant replay to baseball,\u201d Daily Commercial, June 6, 2010,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con03a","title":"","text":"Tradition demands that this instant replay not be used  One of the beautiful aspects of baseball is how little it has changed over the years. Just as it was a century ago, you have nine players on the field, batters swinging wooden bats, and umpires dressed in dark colors rendering the decisions. Maintaining tradition honors baseball\u2019s long history. It also helps to promote comparability over time; the feats of today can be held side-by-side with those of 80 years ago. Moreover, it protects baseball against fads and other calls for change that might be popular at a particular moment, but could prove to be disastrous if implemented."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con05b","title":"","text":"Even if instant replay will not result in 100% accuracy, it will improve the chance that any individual reviewed call will be made correctly. In the status quo, umpires make their calls as if they\u2019re certain, so projecting false certainty really should not be a major concern for the Opposition. What video review will do is ensure that the umpire can be at least as confident about his call as the managers, coaches, and millions of viewers watching at home"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con01a","title":"","text":"Instant replay will take too long  We already see it with boundary calls: The umpires need to go to the review station, then they need to watch the footage of the play several times, then they need to weigh whether the footage is convincing enough to meet the requisite burden of proof, and then they need to return to the field and signal their decision. In the meantime, tens of thousands of fans are sitting in the stands waiting, millions of people are watching at home, the pitcher is becoming less limber, and any momentum to the game is completely lost. It\u2019s often noted that baseball is a slow sport. \u201cBaseball has no clock,\u201d the saying goes. [1] Instant replay will slow down an already-slow game.  [1] William Deresiewicz, \u201cMetaphors We Play By,\u201d American Scholar, June 6, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con04b","title":"","text":"If a play is part of a longer sequence of events, then don\u2019t use video review for that play. Only permit it for when the ball is dead or play stops immediately upon the conclusion of the play. Continuation plays can easily be placed outside the scope of instant replay.  Also, there\u2019s no such thing as \u201cnormative\u201d calls on a play. If an umpire deems a \u201cphantom tag\u201d sufficient for an out, he is making an incorrect call. The rules do not allow for phantom tags. If instant replay puts an end to this practice, so much the better."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con02b","title":"","text":"Proposition is not arguing for all calls to be made via instant replay. Balls and strikes, for example, are best left to umpires because they are regarded as more subjective, and because there is no video equipment that consistently renders results that are widely viewed as accurate.  Besides, the human element that really matters is that of the players. The umpires\u2019 human element might be substituted for making sure that the players\u2019 human element is what decides the game. The point of the baseball game is for players to win or lose the game, not for umpires to win or lose the game. A baseball game played by robots but umpired by people would have lost its \u201chuman element,\u201d but the same certainly would not be said about a baseball game played by humans and officiated by robots (or even just human beings who occasionally consult video footage and interpret it in their human minds)."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro02b","title":"","text":"It would still require a large initial outlay of cash in order to equip all stadiums with the technology and train officials in using it. Also, the technology would need to be constantly re-designed and re-developed so that it could keep up with technological advances; this would be extremely expensive and endless, but necessary to keep technology up-to-date, relevant and fit for purpose. Some people suggest that the money would be better spent improving existing official options, such as improving refereeing academies."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Technology is available  GLT technology is readily available and could be quickly implemented. Hawkeye, used in tennis and cricket, would serve the GLT purpose very well. Though eventually dismissed, it was suggested that GPS technology could measure whether players are offside or not. Cameras are already set up for television with enough angles to make decisions; it would be simple to set up monitors pitch-side so that officials could watch replayed footage. Currently, viewers watching at home are able to make much more informed decisions than match officials."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro03b","title":"","text":"Challenges in tennis and cricket are limited to three per side \u2013 here the number of challenges are potentially unlimited and GLT could be invoked whenever a team senses the possibility of gaining an advantage. Without limitations, the game could be endlessly stopped while officials turn to technology to confirm their decisions.  Football is a continuous game, with a natural ebb and flow, which the interruptions caused by GLT would disrupt."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro01a","title":"","text":"The introduction of technology is inevitable  Football is moving into the twenty-first century, yet the refusal to embrace GLT is completely out-dated. Nowhere in FIFA policy does it state that referees cannot use the influence of technology. In FIFAs disciplinary code (2009), Article 72 states that: 1) \"During matches, disciplinary decisions are taken by the referee\", and 2) \"These decisions are final\"1. The referee already \"acts on the advice of the assistant referees regarding incidents that he has not seen\" and can change decisions based on advice2. All referees also have an earpiece (introduced in 2006) linking the two assistant refs and the fourth official, which already demonstrates technology's successful impact in football. GLT is simply the next step.  1 FIFA Disciplinary Code 2009 edition, FIFA, December 2008, p.41, (accessed 24\/05\/11)  2 Laws of the Game 2010\/11, FIFA, p.22, (accessed 24\/05\/11)"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Football has operated successfully for over 100 years without GLT. Two assistant referees were introduced in 1891, 28 years after the rules of association football were coined; a fourth official was introduced in 1991; and FIFA recently introduced two additional assistant referees in Europa League games. Football has demonstrated that it is willing and capable to adjust to the demands of wider exposure without having to resort to GLT."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro04b","title":"","text":"Take, for example, Sunderland\u2019s freak victory at Liverpool in October 2009, the so called \u2018Beachball incident\u2019 where a winning goal was deflected off a large red beach ball, it may well have gone in anyway but it undoubtedly distracted the keeper.1 GLT and instant replays would not have resolved the controversy, as the ambiguity was legal; the law did not have a clear position on the incident. GLT would have been useless here; it is only as useful as the laws and humans behind it.  In March 2010 FIFA president Sepp Blatter argued added: \"No matter which technology is applied, at the end of the day a decision will have to be taken by a human being. This being the case, why remove the responsibility from the referee to give it to someone else?\u201d2  Decisions would still be at the discretion of the person watching the video (a second referee, of sorts), who must interpret what he or she sees in a limited space of time.  1 \u2018Freak goal was wrongly allowed\u2019, BBC Sport, 18th October 2009, accessed 25\/05\/11  2 Blatter: Goal-line technology would have wrecked football and been too expensive, Mirrorfootball, 11th March 2010, accessed 24\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro03a","title":"","text":"GLT is used across a range of other sports  Technology has been proven to work across a wide range of sports from tennis, cricket and rugby. A survey of its implementation in the 2011 Australian Open demonstrates the impact that guaranteeing correct decisions had on several games.1 It has become a natural aid to sport. GLT would only be used on a goal decision, much like tennis uses challenges only once a rally has stopped. Football is no more fluid a sport than any of the others. If a debatable goal were scored, play would stop anyway while one team celebrates and the other protests to the officials. 1 Kelvin Goodchild, Hawk-eye: Big Impact at Crucial Moments, TennisLife Magazine, 29th January 2011, (accessed 25\/05\/11)"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Technology is more reliable than human judgement  Goals are the ultimate measure of success in football; technology would reduce the risk of teams losing matches unfairly due to controversial decisions (see FIFA World Cup Quarter Final 2010 England v Germany). There is no reason to expose referees to criticism, threats and derision when we have the means to help them. GLT is a tool meant to assist referees in their decisions, not undermine them.  Howard Webb has added his voice to the pro-technology debate: \"anything that makes my job easier, that makes me more credible, I've an open mind to. We are still using human opinion in those decisions and maybe on a matter of fact like the goal-line some technology might be the way forward. I personally prefer it when there is no debate about the referees. It's a difficult position, [to judge over the line]. It's at speed, and it ain't easy. Sometimes I feel in a less than privileged position by not having the opportunity [to use technology] but that's where we are. It's for other people to decide where that argument goes.\"1  Currently, referees are condemned for making honest mistakes when they have not done anything deliberately wrong. There will always be human error when subjective decisions must be made; this cannot be eradicated but we have a responsibility to minimise the risk. GLT may not change many games but its focus is about consistency and quality assurance. 1: Ian Ladyman, Howard Webb calls for goalline technology as World Cup final referee returns to Barclays Premier League duty, MailOnline, 10th September 2010, (accessed 24\/05\/11)"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con03b","title":"","text":"Supporters love the game, not the soap opera. As Howard Webb articulated, \"Controversy is not the reason why I watch football but we need to be careful not to change what draws millions to football. I still keep an open mind of the future. It's a tricky thing to do.\"1We must progress on terms of reason, not tradition.  1 Ian Ladyman, Howard Webb calls for goalline technology as World Cup final referee returns to Barclays Premier League duty, MailOnline, 10th September 2010, (accessed 24\/05\/11)"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con01b","title":"","text":"GLT would not be used to assess any and every incident in a match; it would only be invoked to support a referee when a goal-line decision was particularly difficult to judge from a distance. The referees would exercise due diligence in referring to it, and it is likely that many games would pass without it being necessary."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con02a","title":"","text":"The cost would not match FIFA's aim of opening football to the world  Only professional clubs and national federations have the resources to install the technology in stadiums. This would further increase the gap that is emerging between local clubs and high-revenue leagues such as the Premier League, La Liga, the Bundesliga and Serie A.  Further, currently amateur teams playing on Sundays play the same game, with the same rules and ethos, as the professionals. With GLT, many argue that this would no longer be the case. In a press conference in March 2010, FIFA president Sepp Blatter wrote: \"One of the main objectives of FIFA is to protect the universality of the game of association football... If you are coaching a group of teenagers in any small town around the world, they will be playing with the same rules as the professional players they see on TV.\"1  For example, the FA Cup has 4 or 5 qualifying rounds consisting of amateur and semi-professional knock-out phases because the Premier League teams with GLT capability are introduced. This could mean that games are run according to different rules at different stages of the same competition (and, indeed, possible even the same round if some clubs draw Premier League teams and others are small-club affairs).  1 Blatter: Goal-line technology would have wrecked football and been too expensive, Mirrorfootball, 11th March 2010, accessed 24\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con04a","title":"","text":"The cost of GLT is unjustified for a relatively rare scenario  In order for a goal to stand, the ball must completely cross the line; to have a situation where this is in doubt is very rare. Introducing GLT would be to completely change the nature of football for the least significant occurrence.  These incidents tend to balance out over the season. Teams do not win leagues or are not relegated because of one isolated incident in one game; they win because of skill, strength and tactics, over the course of 90 minutes for a game, and a whole season for a league."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con03a","title":"","text":"Controversy and debate are a part of the game  Controversy will always be a part of the game; because laws must be interpreted by an individual, fouls will always be called on the basis of opinion, even if that is someone re-watching the incident on a monitor. If fans accepted mistakes as exactly that, they would cease to matter; the authority of the referee would be absolute and the game would move on without undue mention. GLT is unnecessary.  Sepp Blatter famously argued that \"Fans love to debate any given incident in a game. It is part of the human nature of our sport\"1. Supporters love to hate the referee; it provides them with a scapegoat for defeat. With GLT, the authority of referees would be irrevocably diminished. They would become merely cogs in a mechanic process of decision making. If we come to rely on cameras to govern the game, the passion is drained from it.  1 Ian Ladyman, Howard Webb calls for goalline technology as World Cup final referee returns to Barclays Premier League duty, MailOnline, 10th September 2010, (accessed 24\/05\/11)"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con01a","title":"","text":"The dynamics of football as a game are very different from other sports which currently use technology  In other sports there is just one question: was the ball in or out? Was the player safe or out? In football, the issue would not be that simple. Not only would the GLT-operative have to consider whether the ball was wholly over the line or not, but they would also have to look at the build up to ensure that the goal was legitimate. Was there a foul? An offside? As in the notorious case of the 2010 World Cup Qualifier Play-off France v Ireland, was there a handball? This would not only be extremely time-consuming and thus detract from the spectacle of the game, but could also be potentially endless. In cricket or tennis this delay is more natural as matches are expected to take several hours; one of the hallmarks of football is it\u2019s frenetic pace. Challenges could not be limited in an attempt to prevent this, because if a team were to run out and a blatant wrong decision were noticed they would be in the same position as they are now; GLT would have achieved nothing."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con04b","title":"","text":"The frequency of use is not the point of GLT. It is a back-up system, a support infrastructure, whose purpose is to help minimise inconsistencies and serve justice when called upon. The cost is a small price to pay for the transformative effect it could have upon the one game where it matters. Early in the 2009\/10 season Crystal Palace had a goal ruled out against Bristol City after it had actually gone in the net and bounced out.1 They lost two points because neither the referee nor the assistant referee saw the ball go in the net, and if Palace had not beaten Sheffield Wednesday on the final day of the season, they would have been relegated because of it. Given Palaces' dire financial situation, this would almost certainly have resulted in the club being liquidated. Just because it is rare, that does not mean it is not valuable.  1 Palace denied replay over \u2018goal\u2019, BBC Sport, 27th August 2009, accessed 25\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwigltf-con02b","title":"","text":"it is a fallacy to say that if GLT cannot be applied to all levels of football it should not be applied at all. Nobody is suggesting that GLT be set up for all games down to grassroots level. Compromise is necessary in order to encourage reform within in a game whose stance on technology is anachronistic.  Also, other sports have only implemented technology in the professional sphere. They recognise that there is a massive amount of money and emotion invested in the professional game, and fairness is deserved as a reward.  If both teams know the rules, they can both play the game according to the same standard; GLT would not make teams play with different rules, it would just mean that some games are better equipped."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro02b","title":"","text":"Under the BCS, every single game is important as losing the BCS is often catastrophic when it comes to qualification for any of the subsequent Bowls. As such, the playoffs mean that regular season games become less relevant as winning and losing only has an effect on seed and qualification becomes a lot easier. Further, BCS builds up the need for an undefeated season for certain teams to be able to qualify.  As such teams are more likely to give everything to every single match during the regular season under BCS, unlike in some leagues where a clear winner will emerge very early on and not have to play nearly at 100% capacity in order to win the conference overall. [1]  [1] Klosterman, Chuck. \u201cNo college football playoff, please.\u201d ESPN. 01\/02\/2007"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Playoffs Offer More Suspense  Within the playoff system every game during the playoffs is a knockout. As such, every single game in the playoffs carries the potential risk of excluding the losing team from the remainder of that season\u2019s games. This works incredibly well to build up tension, because favourites have lost to teams that were believed to be a lot worse. With history supporting this idea all players and fans are likely to feel tension during the playoff games which directly contributes to the enjoyment of a game. Further, given the prevalence of late game comebacks in American football, due the ever present threat of an interception, it means that fans are still likely to enjoy games even when their team is likely to lose going into the later quarters.  Further, the playoff system still significantly incentivises good work during the regular season. The top ranked team would face the lowest ranked team in the first round and gain home field advantage for being the higher seed. It is beneficial for both sides because under BCS, the second team has no guarantee that it would even be included and the former team would not be guaranteed home field advantage. [1]  [1] \u201cWetzel\u2019s playoff plan.\u201d Yahoo Sports. 7\/12\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro03b","title":"","text":"The Bowl system results in a few incredibly important matches for players. As such, offensive coordinators for teams bring out every single trick that they have in the book to win them.  Every player involved in the Bowl system goes all out to win these events because they are the only televised matches that most players will ever see. Given that that is true, Bowls have a reputation for being some of the most exciting and spectacular matches of the year. The viewing audience for Bowls is disproportionately high because of this.  As such, the exposure for teams participating in Bowls is significantly higher and would be lowered if the resolution were to pass, the inevitable result of lower viewing figures for the individual matchups. [1]  [1] Klosterman, Chuck. \u201cNo college football playoff, please.\u201d ESPN. 01\/02\/2007"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Banning Playoffs Offer Greater Fairness  The BCS system unfairly discriminates against 45 of the 120 teams that participate in college football. Given that some of these teams participate in non-BCS leagues they can perform incredibly well and still not get into the BCS. Further, the BCS system is flawed beyond this given that both Boise State and Utah were deemed unsuitable for the competition despite the fact that they went undefeated in the seasons before their rejection. The winner of the BCS is meant to be the best collegiate football team in the country. However, if undefeated teams are unable to compete it makes the system incredibly unfair, and reduces the legitimacy of the BCS title itself, undermining the value of the competition overall.  Finally, as noted football analyst Michael Shull notes, due to flaws in the computer algorithms used to allocated BCS places, some teams that do well for a single season as an outlier or due to a positive change for the team do not get into the cup. This potentially means that the same teams consistently get into the cup and gain $17 million in revenue regardless of whether they win or lose. As such this system ensures that those who do get selected just get richer and better and thus become more likely to be picked by the computer system in the future. [1]  [1] Shull, Michael. \u201cBCS No More: Football Needs Playoffs to eliminate the BS.\u201d College Sports Fans."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro01b","title":"","text":"The practice of having multiple \u201cBowls\u201d creates a system where more teams \u201cWin\u201d at the end of the season. Whilst college football is serious, it is understood that college teams\u2019 players participate in collegiate events in order to gain the skills and experience that will enable them to join NFL teams. As such, the participation of talented youngsters in college football is dependent on collegiate tournaments being seen as fair, impartial and meritocratic tests of players\u2019 and teams\u2019 skill. Confidence in the meritocratic nature of the system is not enough to guarantee the interest of the best players, however. Returns on the investment of time and effort and opportunity that players engage in must be high. The odds of gaining recognition as a good player within the collegiate system must outweigh the risk of losing out on the chance to participate in high profile games.  In a situation where playoffs are introduced, only one team stands victorious at the end, the others lose and are inevitably forgotten about. This is incredibly discouraging for those players who do lose, and might cause them to drop out of football in the future, which significantly harms the NFL\u2019s pool later on, impacting significantly on the national pastime. Deterred by the risk of sinking into obscurity, junior players may avoid participating in college teams altogether.  Further, the concept of playoffs often results in weaker teams defeating ones who have had a much better regular season. Ultimately this is less fair, as the side which consistently performs well should be awarded more accolades than a side that gets lucky during a game which happens to have been assigned a greater weighting within the BCS\u2019s algorithms. Again, when there is an upset, the harm to the losing team is often greater than the benefit to a winning team that is likely to lose in the next round of the contest. [1]  [1] Davis, Michael. Kane, Time. \u201cWould a college football playoff be fair?\u201d Real Clear Politics. 12\/11\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Playoffs Lead To More Exposure  The issue with the BCS system, as mentioned above, is that teams selected by an often broken and biased BCS mechanism receive more money and exposure than more talented, harder working institutions, making them more likely to be selected by the same mechanism in the future. Standout teams that only perform that well for a season are able to get significantly more exposure under the proposition model.  Due to the very high profile nature of playoff games- as well as the fact that there would simply be more playoff games with palpably fair and meritocratic outcomes later in the playoffs- more people will watch college football. Specifically, including more teams in a playoff based competition will mean that more fans get their favourites in to the playoffs and as such more people watch. Secondly, the increased number of matches\u2019 means that it is more likely that fans will be able to catch another match if they cannot watch one. Finally, should an upset happen, the amount of interest generated in the subsequent match is incredibly great and generates significantly more exposure for both teams participating. [1]  [1] Sanderson, Matthew. \u201cThe conservative case for college football reform.\u201d The Hill. 06\/01\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-con03b","title":"","text":"There is an impetus for playoffs among fans, with 63% saying that playoffs similar to those used in college basketball should be implemented.  Further, given that the games would have implications for the national championships they would not suffer a loss in attendance given that right now the \u201cBowl\u201d games are viewed by most fans as being meaningless exercises. Given that most view these games as meaningless and simply go for the camaraderie and the pageantry they feel, it seems logical that in playoff games that have ramifications for a legitimate championship they are more likely to go. Fans already do this for college basketball which has sixty extra games and doesn\u2019t even happen during a time when people are off from work for the Christmas and New Year break. [1]  [1] Starin, Harvey. \u201cThere is nothing wrong with college football playoffs.\u201d Sun Sentinel. 01\/07\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-con01b","title":"","text":"The existence of the Bowls is simply a way for the BCS businessmen to earn large amounts of money. Under the status quo, the BCS businessmen get a share of all revenues generated from each Bowl. Further, the money is also then divided further, with the television network that covers the game taking some of the revenue. Further, given the games aren\u2019t played on home turf, instead on a stadium that is hired for that day\u2019s play, money is lost on travel.  By comparison, under the proposition, if high seeded teams win consistently, they would play at home, not lose money to the BCS officials and thus gain significantly extra levels of revenue just by running business in-house. [1]  [1] \u201cWetzel\u2019s playoff plan.\u201d Yahoo Sports. 7\/12\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-con02a","title":"","text":"Playoffs Result in More Injuries and Hurt Academics  The toll on the bodies of players in American football is much greater than that of other sports, primarily due to the high frequency of physical impacts in the sport. To be able to get through a season, players often need to play through more minor injuries and thus need fairly long rest periods between games. However, playoffs would all be run within a small window of time, meaning the accumulation of injuries would be greater and thus players would be more likely to risk much more serious injuries just to be in the championship game.  The quality of the championship game would suffer significantly because of this, but also players might riddle themselves with long term injuries that they could come to forget in the future.  Alternatively, players with an interest in their long-term careers would be likely to pull out of the bowl system altogether.  Further, football players often have to take a lot of time away from classes in order to play football games under the status quo. A lot of the time players catch this work back up in the holiday. However, this would be impossible under the new system as the entire Christmas holiday would be potentially lost to playoffs. [1]  [1] Scripps Howard News Service. \u201cFlorida president to push playoff plan at SEC meetings.\u201d ESPN. 29\/05\/2007"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-con03a","title":"","text":"Playoffs Would Not Benefit Fans  College football fans tend to have lower budgets than those of NFL fans. Specifically because there are many more colleges and owing to the lower number of fans per game, there usually aren\u2019t deals on travel. As such travel between grounds is expensive. Given that playoffs result in more games being played it is apparent that supporters of the various teams will incur more cost. Further, if their team loses where they might have instead won a lesser competition, the supporters will likely be less happy than they are now. As well as this, when a team does win in the playoffs, the people watching that team face a very high burst of costs should they want to continue to support that team.  Further, if the fans do have to stay at home they will as a result be subjected to watching a game with a half filled stadium with no real atmosphere. [1]  [1] Purdy Mark. \u201cCollege football playoff sounds great but is a bad idea.\u201d Mercury news. 8\/01\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-con01a","title":"","text":"Playoffs Would Earn Less money  BCS makes consistent money for the Universities and colleges that partake in the system. The issue is that, should a playoff system be implemented, it is likely that these institutions would seek to undermine it in order to simply revert back to the old system. Should they withdraw their teams, the overall skill ceiling of college football would lower significantly.  The fact that playoffs would occur during the Christmas period also means that owing to the cold weather at the time, the number of fans that would be drawn to the stadiums to pay money would be significantly lower than in regular season. The \u201cBowls\u201d system makes sense because the only one near the Christmas period is the national championship which is considered high profile enough to draw a crowd. [1]  [1] Purdy Mark. \u201cCollege football playoff sounds great but is a bad idea.\u201d Mercury news. 8\/01\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwipclaf-con02b","title":"","text":"As at least 18 year olds, college football players know the risks of injury that college football might entail and should they choose to continue playing it is their right to do so. If they get injured they have consented and are not harming anyone else. Further, the teams that get through the playoffs are most likely to be the teams that have won the most games. Generally in football, the teams that do win the most games have suffered the fewest injuries on the dint of them being very strong at protecting their running backs and quarterbacks.  Academically, football players are mandated to attend a minimum number of classes and often are better at attending classes than many other students. As such, playoffs would be fine, especially considering they come during the holiday period where often students are home with their families and not working anyway. [1]  [1] Schad, Joe. \u201cAuburn coach Tuberville calls for playoff system.\u201d ESPN 05\/10\/2006"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is not a good in itself to make modern Olympics resemble the ancient events as much as possible. Ancient Games, for instance, only allowed men to compete, and many of the sports involved today did not exist then. Progress is generally considered a good thing, and the purpose and meaning of the Olympics has progressed since then. This does not mean that art and culture have no place, and indeed there are cultural festivities surrounding every Olympic event. But modern Olympics have an identity of their own, and the question of whether chess belongs to it is a different one."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro02a","title":"","text":"Introducing chess would preserve the spirit of the ancient Olympic Games  When the IOC spokeswoman Emmanuelle Moreau stated that \u201cmind sports, by their nature, cannot be part of the program\u201d6, she contradicted Olympic history. The Ancient Greek Panhellenic Games (forerunners of the modern Olympic Games) indeed emphasised musical, theatrical and painting competitions.7 Even the modern Olympic Games had non-physical competitions such as painting, design and poetry between 1912 and 1952.8 Through chess, the cultural and mental aspect now lost in the Olympic Games is protected. The limits of human capability can be investigated from a new, intellectual, angle. This would allow the Games to celebrate, as intended, human potential in its entirety.  [6] Haire, Meaghan. \u201cShould Chess Be an Olympic Sport?\u201d TIME, 5 August 2008.   [7] \"Pythian Games.\" Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Inc., 2013.   [8] Conway, Richard. \u201cThe Curious History of Olympic Art Competitions\u201d, Huffington Post, 26 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro03b","title":"","text":"The benefits of chess should be promoted in their right context: a competition exclusively about chess can emphasise these aspects. The Olympics\u2019 motto, on the other hand, is \u201cFaster, higher, stronger\u201d11: chess is very much in the periphery of its message. Such an event is incapable of emphasising all of chess\u2019 merits without a serious and controversial transformation. It is even unlikely to gather more viewers for chess when it competes with other sports, closer to the Olympics\u2019 purpose.  [11] \u201cOpening Ceremony\u201d, International Olympics Committee, 2002."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro01a","title":"","text":"Chess ought to qualify as an Olympic sport  Chess is not a predominantly physical sport, yet neither are shooting and curling (which, in fact, has been nicknamed \u201cchess on ice\u201d5). The opposition may respond that the determining factor in these is still physical, such as speed and precision. However, chess too requires precise calculation in short periods of time. There is no relevant distinction to be drawn between the human brain and other organs: both can be trained and strained, and doing so should be equally rewarded.  More importantly, taekwondo is a further example of what may be called a mind sport. As in chess, both participants have the same set of moves which can be combined in a near infinite number of ways: it thus becomes a battle of intellect and strategy rather than strength. The body merely becomes the vessel through which to compete, precisely as a chess board. Although the vessels are different, the fundamental activity is the same, and thus if taekwondo is valid as an Olympic sport, so should chess be.  [5] Tomlinson, Brett. \u201cChess on ice\u201d, Princeton Alumni Weekly, 28 January 2009."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro01b","title":"","text":"The fact that the body is the vessel in shooting, curling and taekwondo is more relevant than this argument suggests. It means that the final determining factors are physical ones, such as speed, control, and precision. In chess, although stamina is involved, it could never be sufficient to win a game. The determining factors are intellectual, such as the mind\u2019s precision in calculating many moves into the future. The brain is an organ: but we do not call anything that tires our brain a sport."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro04b","title":"","text":"Chess is not as appealing to an ignorant observer as other sports, by virtue of not being physical. Most people can relate to the impressive nature of Olympic gymnastics or a goal-scoring back-flip, even without knowing the rules or the complex strategies involved. This is not the case for chess: it requires a more patient and informed audience. Even if it is viewer friendly for its strong fan base, it is unlikely to gather more support in the Olympics, where many other more established sports are also at their most available."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro03a","title":"","text":"Chess is proven to have great cognitive benefits: increasing its support is objectively good  The sports in the Olympics promote good values: they display attributes and disciplines that we want to encourage in society and children in particular. Chess is no different from this. Numerous studies have shown that chess has large cognitive benefits, strengthening a wide range of skills: problem-solving, decision-making, memory, mathematics, logic, and creative thinking.9, 10 These are skills we want to actively promote, and thus if including chess in the Olympics would increase its support, we should do so.  Making chess an Olympic sport would make it more accessible to people who would otherwise not watch it. It would also incentivise young enthusiasts to become more involved in the hope of participating in such a recognised competition. Bringing chess to a highly recognised event would doubtless increase support, and thus have an objectively positive impact on society.  [9] Dr Dauvergne, Peter. \u201cThe Case for Chess as a Tool to Develop Our Children\u2019s Minds\u201d, University of Sydney, July 2000.   [10] Dr Ferguson, Robert. \u201cChess in Education: Research Summary\u201d, for the BMCC Chess in Education, \u201cA Wise Move\u201d Conference."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-pro04a","title":"","text":"Chess is highly popular and should be represented  Chess is among the sports with the greatest number of federations and of active participants worldwide.12 Its large fan base, however, is completely unrepresented in the world\u2019s largest sports competition.  Chess, furthermore, is highly viewer friendly, so its popularity would only flourish from its representation. It is possible to broadcast any game online, for all to watch at home. Games also often feature high commentary action explaining and analysing the players\u2019 strategies, to make them approachable and exciting to the public. Furthermore, it could take the shape of a team sport in the Olympics, leaving greater space for tactics and discouraging draws, once again making it more appealing for a broad audience.  [12] \u201cFIDE \u2013 World Chess Federation\u201d, FIDE, 8 April 2009."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con03b","title":"","text":"The Olympic does not hold precedence as a justification for including a given sport. They do not have fixed guidelines, and they include sports on a case by case basis. Therefore, it seems unlikely that this would force the IOC to accept other mind games. Bridge and poker, for instance, rely on an element of chance, which chess does not. This is a criterion that impacts their appropriateness for assessing human potential, and a ground on which other mind sports ought not to be included.  Furthermore, it may well be true that the Olympics cannot continue expanding due to lack of space, and the inability of most countries to host such large events. However, chess is one of the examples where the least space and infrastructure is required. This is an argument for not having infinite sports, but it provides no reason to exclude chess from a finite selection."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con01b","title":"","text":"Attempts to separate chess from other sports merely misunderstand the discipline. There is much more than this to chess: it requires precision, speed, stamina, and commitment. Unlike many other games the element of chance does not exist. Furthermore, chess has an infinite number of variations, so it provides a timeless platform on which to measure human ability. It would cohere perfectly with Olympic goals and values."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con02a","title":"","text":"Chess cannot ensure fair play  Even if we were to accept all other reasons for including chess in the Olympic Games, it is actually not implementable. The Olympics have strict regulations against any form of cheating in their sports14, and have thus required chess competitions to be subject to drug tests before they can be considered. However, cheating in chess goes far beyond doping. There have been abundant chess scandals where players used computer programmes to aid them throughout the game. As technology develops, it is likely that these will become even harder to detect.  Furthermore, another form of cheating that is impossible to prevent is collusion. Players can meet beforehand and agree to draw games for their mutual advantage15. Both of these kinds of cheating are impossible to regulate, and thus chess cannot compatible with the Olympics\u2019 zero-tolerance regulations.  [14] \u201cFactsheet: The fight against doping and promotion of athletes\u2019 health\u201d, International Olympic Committee. January 2013.   [15] Everding, Gerry. \u201cCheating in world chess championships is nothing new, study suggests\u201d, Newsroom, Washington University in St. Louis, 9 October 2006."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con04a","title":"","text":"Chess-specific competitions create a better event for chess players than the Olympics  It would not benefit chess to become a part of the Olympics. In the status quo, the World Chess Federation organises a Chess Olympiad every second year, clashing with the Olympic Games. If the motion passed, the Chess Olympiad and many other chess competitions would, if not disappear, at least lose much of their prestige and popularity.  This is harmful for the chess community. Although chess-specific tournaments are less renown internationally than the Olympics, they have a high status within its fan base. In the Olympics, chess would become meshed with other sports with which it shares nothing. Having to compete for viewers with other sports\u2019 Olympic tradition, it would be unlikely to amass great support. Thus, chess would risk both losing its own successful competitive events, and failing to obtain an equally high status in the Olympics."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con03a","title":"","text":"Opening up the Olympics for borderline sports is bad in itself  Opening up the Olympics for chess leads to a dangerous slippery slope. After this concession it becomes extremely difficult to draw the line for bridge, poker, or even videogames. This is problematic, because in the status quo there are many sports that are universally recognised as such (unlike those mentioned above), and yet have to be excluded from the Olympics due to lack of space. These include bandy, baseball, bowling, cricket, netball, rugby, softball and rugby. All of these already have massive support internationally and form a coherent category. As a result of this lack of space some sports are sometimes replaced, for example at the moment wrestling is not certain to take place at the 2020 Olympics with baseball and squash vying to take its place.16  Chess, bridge, and similar games, on the other hand, have a very different nature. It makes more sense for the future of both categories to draw a distinction between conventional sports on one hand, and mind games on the other. That way, as many players as possible can participate in a top level competition, with more space in the Olympics for physical sports, and competitions such as the World Mind Sports Games dedicated to mind games.17  [16] AP \u201cWrestling, baseball-softball, squash make 2020 Olympics short list\u201d, CBS, 29 May 2013,   [17] \u201cHistory\u201d, International Mind Sports Association."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con01a","title":"","text":"Chess lacks the necessary physical activity  Sports are about the perfection of our bodies, and therefore the competitive aspect of sport should relate directly to that perfection. In the Fundamental Principles of Olympism in the Olympic Charter the first is \u201ccombining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind\u201d.13 Although we value the mental battle between athletes, we find that kind of exertion secondary, and not the core of sport which is the physical aspect. Chess consists only of the mind and to a lesser extent the will. It does not matter how well you can move the pieces from one square to the other. Therefore, chess celebrates a different aspect of the human condition than the Olympics and sports as a whole do: it cannot be an Olympic sport.  [13] \u201cFundamental Principles of Olympism\u201d, Olympic Charter, 8 July 2011,  p.10"}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con04b","title":"","text":"All other Olympic sports have their own competitions. Even if the Olympiad was to fade out due to clashes, other prestigious competitions will doubtless remain as in any other sport.  Being recognised as an Olympic sport would be a great gain for the chess community. Exposure creates attention and support: for example, chess had its first boom in Norway after Magnus Carlsen became internationally recognised18. Being part of the Olympics will show people the benefits of chess and provide a higher platform towards which amateurs can strive.  [18] \u201cNorway makes its international chess move\u201d, News & Events, Norway: The Official Site in the UK, 3 September 2010."}
+{"id":"training-sport-ohwico-con02b","title":"","text":"It has consistently proven impossible to prevent doping in any Olympic sport. Despite many scandals we still have cycling, for example, in the Olympics. It will too get harder to prevent this, as drugs develop at a similar rate to technology to be more easily concealed. This is therefore no reason to exclude chess: we should merely take steps towards stricter controls and sanctions in the discipline."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro02b","title":"","text":"In its bid for hosting the World Cup, the Qatar chairman Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani Al-Thani said the stadiums would have \"zero carbon cooling equipment utilising solar technology to ensure the temperature is no higher than 27 degrees Celsius, ensuring optimum playing conditions and a comfortable environment for fans. This same environmentally friendly, carbon-neutral technology will ensure training sites, fan fest and fan zones are also cool and comfortable.\"(1)  This type of technology will ensure that the fans are protected from the intense summer heat at all times. It is true that they won\u2019t spend most of the time in stadiums, but where they will spend most of the time are fan zones. In those areas bars, restaurants and shops will be installed, thus creating an environment where fans will be encouraged to spend large quantities of time.  It would be only reasonable to assume that in that $200 billion that Qatar will invest a significant part of it will be apportioned to assuring the well-being of the supporters. Even if the Qataris won\u2019t be able to build artificial cooling-spots for everyone, the fans themselves will want to search for spots which will protect them from the sun, like hotels, pools or cafes.  As a result, due to the capacities of the organizers and the inner disposition of humans to shelter themselves from harmful environments, there are no reasons to worry about the health of the fans.  (1)\u201d Qatar 2022 World Cup Bid Reveals New Stadium Plans and Cooling Technologies\u201d, World Football Insider, April 28, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro02a","title":"","text":"A sporting event in the heat of a desert summer will not be a pleasant experience for the fans  One of the most important parts of the game is the fans. They are the ones who watch the sport, they are the ones to which football owes its popularity. Not only are they the ones who pay for the sport they are also a vital part of any competition. Without the choreographies made by the supporters and the impressive cheering, football becomes nothing more than a silent, mediocre sport. As a result, we must take into consideration how well these hundreds of thousands of supporters from all over the world who will come to Qatar feel during the World Cup.  Let us not forget, that they will spend most of the time outside the stadia; on the streets, in the gruelling heat, or they will be forced indoors. Unfortunately, for many of them this experience will be overshadowed by the constant heat-caused discomfort when engaging in the kind of socialising and watching matches at outdoor screens that usually creates the atmosphere of the cup. It is even more worrying when you take into consideration the fact that supporters of all ages and health conditions come here, some of them will be exposing themselves to heat related risks. Heatstroke can potentially cause death. Taking this into consideration, UEFA\u2019s 54 member associations have already backed a switch, while Europe's leading clubs have said they are \"open\" to the possibility of a winter World Cup in Qatar.(1)  The 2022 World Cup in Qatar must switch to winter, according to FIFA\u2019s own medical chief. Michel D'Hooghe, the chairman of the FIFA\u2019s medical committee, will advise that the risks posed to supporters by extreme heat are too great. \"I am sure the Qataris have the technical skill to organise a tournament where teams could play and train in a stable, acceptable temperature, but it's about the fans. They will need to travel from venue to venue and I think it's not a good idea for them to do that in temperatures of 47C or more.\"(2)  (1) Richard Conway \u201cQatar faces no threat to its right to host 2022 World Cup\u201d , BBC, 3 October 2013   (2) \u201c2022 World Cup in Qatar must be played in winter\u201d, BBC, 16 September 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is clear that Qatar will get more recognition, fame and respect from the international community if it proves itself able to solve a range of problems which were considered to be too difficult for anyone to handle.  In the past, all the other countries that hosted the World Cup were engaged in all sorts of social campaigns designed to solve multiple problems, and the Qataris will be no exception. But if they want to set themselves apart from the others they must prove they are able to solve even more difficult problems, such as their ferocious heat. Once they manage to solve this by introducing state-of-the-yard technologies, they will differentiate themselves from previous hosts and receive more respect.  Another reason why Qataris will receive more respect is because they will open the road for organizing sporting events in places which were previously considered to be ineligible. They will be the ones who will spur the development of the technology necessary to ensure the optimal temperature for this event, a technology which could be used in the future. As a result, they won\u2019t just be the first Arab country which organized the World Cup, but the nation which blazed a path to enable Arab countries to host major sporting events in the summer."}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Heat will damage player's health  In order to fully understand the implications of this motion, one must see what participating in the FIFA World Cup means to a football player.  First of all, it means an intense and sustained physical effort for a significant amount of time. Do not forget that the Cup itself lasts for a couple of weeks, and there are plenty of weeks of training before it in order to get the players in the best shape possible. This means they are exposed to a lot of physical stress and have to play or train no matter of the weather conditions or temperature.  Secondly, with temperatures ranging from 35C to 40C during the summer it would be torture to force the players to train and play in those conditions. Former France, Fulham, Manchester United and Everton striker Louis Saha told BBC Sport he thought it was impossible for players to handle the Middle Eastern country's extremely high summer temperatures. (1) \"I was in Qatar recently and it was 48C,\" he said. \"Believe me, it is impossible to have a proper game down there.\" It is not only the players who get hurt, but also the game itself, as you cannot expect the same show from fatigued, light-headed and exhausted players.  Most of all, FIFA\u2019s top priority should always be the protection of player\u2019s health, as, at the end of the day, despite money, show or spectators, no one should risk their life or be obliged to work in unsafe conditions. Studies show the immense risks of heat-related illnesses and their potentially deadly outcome.(2) Being aware of these issues, FIFA\u2019s vice-president Jim Boyce, from Northern Ireland, is prepared to back a decision in principle to move the World Cup to the winter.(1)  (1) Richard Conway \u201cQatar faces no threat to its right to host 2022 World Cup\u201d , BBC, 3 October 2013   (2) Erik Brady \u201cHeat-related illness still deadly problem for athletes\u201d, USA Today, 8\/15\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Qatar\u2019s successful bid to host the World Cup marked a historic moment for the country and brought huge responsibilities to the organizing committee. Qatar will be the first Arab nation to host this event, this meaning that they are under a lot of pressure to prove to the world that they have the necessary skills and capabilities to do this job. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that they will not let anything derail this event, let alone something as easily to control as temperature. It promised revolutionary air-cooling technology to counter the summer heat in its bid; this has been reiterated in a statement that they are prepared to host the tournament at anytime.(1)  Moreover, the small country\u2019s officials guaranteed that the system, which will harness the power of the sun's rays to provide a cool environment for players and fans by converting solar energy into electricity, will be able to reduce temperatures from 45 to 25 degrees Celsius. As a result, there should be no worries regarding this aspect, as the Qataris won\u2019t risk anything to stain the image of this event in which they will invest about $200 billion(2).  Having analyzed the preparations which have been planned for this event, Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore is adamant the 2022 World Cup should go ahead in Qatar in the summer.(3)  (1) Richard Conway \u201cQatar faces no threat to its right to host 2022 World Cup\u201d , BBC, 3 October 2013   (2) Nick Schwartz \u201d Qatar will spend $200 billion on the 2022 World Cup\u201d , USA Today, July 9, 2011   (3)\u201d Qatar World Cup: Richard Scudamore wants summer event\u201d , BBC, 15 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Moving to the winter would benefit Qatar  There a lot of advantages for you as a country if you are selected to organize a World Cup, a European Cup or any kind of major sport event. They range from fame and international recognition to money and influence in the administrative bodies. Therefore, it is in Qatar\u2019s interest that this event goes as smoothly as possible in order to prove its organizing capabilities and thus allowing them to increase its chance for hosting any kind of future sporting event. By hosting the event in summer, Qatar is exposing itself a lot of unnecessary risk \u2013 and probable bad publicity.  The most obvious is someone getting injured or even worse, dying during the World Cup. This would be extremely problematic especially if we are talking about a football player participating in the event. It would not only stain Qatar\u2019s image because it happened during the World Cup organized there, but it would also destroy any credibility that it has as an organiser of events after so many assurances that the heat will not be a problem.  Moreover if the cup were to be held in winter, some of the billions that would be used to build such complex systems of air conditioning could be used to serve other purposes. The Qataris could invest it in better publicity, more social campaigns such as discouraging racism in sports or many other areas. In that way, not only they would receive the recognition for being the organizers of the World Cup, but they would get extra credit from the international community for being involved in the social benefits of sports for example.  In conclusion, the Qataris do have the administrative support for a change of schedule, as even Sepp Blatter, FIFA\u2019s President has recognised \u201cAfter many discussions, deliberations and critical review of the entire matter, I came to the conclusion that playing the World Cup in the heat of Qatar's summer was simply not a responsible thing to do\u201d and they should take advantage of this situation.  (1) Owen Gibson\u201d World Cup 2022: Sepp Blatter paves way for winter tournament in Qatar\u201d The Guardian, 3 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con03b","title":"","text":"The November and December 2022 slot favoured by Blatter and his secretary general, J\u00e9r\u00f4me Valcke, remains \u201cthe most likely option because it avoids a clash with the Winter Olympics and takes in two international breaks so would cause marginally less disruption.\u201d(1) That time-frame is the most likely to be chosen as the alternate date for the World Cup, so there would be no clash with the Winter Olympics and the ICC.  As far as the national championships are concerned, there should be no worries there. If indeed the World Cup is played in November-December, then the national federations would just have to enter the winter break a bit earlier than it was scheduled. This would of course mean that the championships would last a bit longer in summer, but this shouldn\u2019t be considered a problem. The summers in most of the countries around the globe are less harsh than Qatar\u2019s, so the players wouldn\u2019t have any problems with this. If we were to talk about countries from the Middle East and regions alike, they could play games more often during the year, start the whole championship earlier or a combination of the two. Karl-Heinz Rummenigge, the chairman of the European Club Association, which represents the top teams, clearly thinks it would not pose too much of a problem to his clubs having said \u201cIt is probably better to play it in winter.\u201d(2)  In the end, there are a lot of possibilities to juggle around this sort of situations and have both a great World cup and successful national championship, while maintaining a spotless relationship with the ICC.  (1) Owen Gibson \u201c World Cup 2022: Sepp Blatter paves way for winter tournament in Qatar\u201d, The Guardian, 3 October 2013   (2) \u201cQatar World Cup 2022: Top clubs 'open' to winter tournament\u201d, BBC, 10 September 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con01b","title":"","text":"It is sad that all these bidders invested millions of dollars from taxpayer\u2019s money in trying to create the most appealing bid for hosting the World Cup and they weren\u2019t selected, but that constituted no reason to make unjustified demands.  In was clear from the very beginning that the date of the event wasn\u2019t pinned down and there existed a possibility of changing it. A FIFA spokeswoman said \"As part of the bidding documents all bidders, including the FA Australia, accepted that the format and dates of the staging of the FIFA World Cup and FIFA Confederations Cup, though initially expected to be in June\/July, remains subject to the final decision of the FIFA Organising Committee.\"(1) Because every single one of the bidding countries knew about this possibility, they were all exposed to the same risks and thus they were all subjected to the same criteria. As a result, the bidding race was an equal and fair competition which the Qataris rightfully won.  (1) Owen Gibson \u201c FIFA tells Australia to forget about \u00a325m World Cup bid compensation\u201d The Guardian, 17 September 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con02a","title":"","text":"A winter cup would harm media revenue  At the beginning of each year, every media company, especially the big ones, try and make a plan to see which of the sporting events, they should cover in order to maximize their ratings. As the broadcasting rights of these types of events cost hundreds of millions of dollars, this is a very sensitive issue.  One of the most important factors when deciding which events to and not to broadcast is the date in which it takes place. Every media company wants to create a system in which it has continuity of sporting events in their grid, by televising competitions throughout the year, and not just in some periods. By doing this, the channel becomes known for its sports coverage resulting in increased ratings.  This proposal of changing the World Cup date is at least problematic, as the televising-rights have already been sold. American TV network Fox, which paid \u00a3265m for rights to 2018 and 2022(2) World Cup for North America, \u201cis understood to be concerned over the commercial implications of any move that would see any clash with the NFL season, let alone the Super Bowl\u201d.(1) James Murdoch, the son of 21st Century Fox Inc. Chairman Rupert Murdoch, and other network executives told FIFA that \u201cmoving the competition by several months from its usual June start to the winter would clash with National Football League games\u201d.(3)  Unfortunately for FIFA, this could create a precedent for future events, as there will always be doubt whether the date of the events will be changed or not after the televising rights are sold. This lack of trust will translate into a lower price which media companies are willing to pay for broadcasting FIFA\u2019s competitions. Because we are talking about huge amounts, it will have a harmful impact upon FIFA\u2019s competitions beyond 2022.  Let us not forget that FIFA is involved in campaigns against racism, discrimination and many others which help raise awareness and ameliorate a wide variety of problems. Therefore, a drop in funds will translate not only into worse football competitions, but also damage these campaigns which would likely be the first place for the cuts axe to fall.  (1) Richard Conway \u201cQatar faces no threat to its right to host 2022 World Cup\u201d , BBC, 3 October 2013   (2) Robin Scott-Elliot \u201cWorld Cup Q&A: How did the 2014 tournament in Qatar end up as a winter of discontent?\u201d, Independent, 03 October 2013   (3) Tariq Panja \u201cFox Said to Oppose FIFA Plan to Shift 2022 Soccer World Cup\u201d, Bloomberg, Sep 17 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con03a","title":"","text":"It would Interfere with other competitions  One of the biggest downsides that this shift of dates would have is the creation of a clash if schedules all around the sports world, fuelling tensions and controversies. No matter in which month the Cup would be played, purposeless conflicts would emerge from this.  Among other potential conflicts if the organizers decide to move it in winter, this being the most endorsed proposal, then there could be a conflict with the Winter Olympics. The International Olympic Committee has warned FIFA against creating a clash with that year's Olympic Winter Games.(1) It would be only in FIFA\u2019s advantage to maintain an open and respectful relation with the IOC. Such a move would create some tensions which could be detrimental for the world of sports.  If, however, the officials decide to move it in anytime during the year, this would create conflicts with the national championships. This could have a tremendous impact upon them, as the World Cup is a long competition. If you add the pre-preparations and the exhaustion that players feel at the end of it, you realize of its impact upon national championships.  This is very important as it will create purposeless conflicts between national federations and FIFA. This will happen due to the lose-lose situation that the federations will be put in. They either end the season abruptly for the world cup, resulting in an extended season (ironically) pushing some games into the summer heat or continue with it as it is. This would be also problematic, as top teams which have players who are also in national teams would be extremely disadvantaged by the sudden loss of their most valuable assets. As a result, conflicts will be created even between football clubs and national teams, as the clubs might refuse to let certain players go to play at the World Cup.  No matter the situation, the shift will bring a lot of disadvantages to FIFA and its partners. The best solution is to leave it in summer where it doesn\u2019t interfere with any other sporting competitions.  (1) \u201cFIFA confirm winter World Cup talks\u201d, ESPN, September 23, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con01a","title":"","text":"Moving now would be unfair to the other bidders  Qatar beat bids from Australia, South Korea, the U.S. and Japan to win the right to stage the 2022 World Cup. Moving it to another date other than the one they all had to include in their bidding offers would be unfair towards the losers of that bidding process.  When submitting their bids to FIFA for hosting the World Cup, every nation has to consider a lot of factors in order to decide the budget, the venues, etc. One of the biggest and most important factors is of course the date of the World Cup. Each country had to take into consideration the events that happened in that respective time frame in their area, how long it would take to build the facilities, the organizing staff\u2019s availability and many other factors. As a result others bidding offers would have been different if the event were to take place in winter, instead of summer. The FFA chairman, Frank Lowy broke cover to call on the world game's ruling body to promise that \"just and fair compensation should be paid to those nations that invested many millions, and national prestige, in bidding for a summer event if the tournament is shifted to Qatar's winter\".(1) As the race was extremely close, any change in the parameters that determined the winner could have a significant impact on the outcome of the race. Football League chairman Greg Clarke, who was part of England's 2018 bid delegation three years ago when Qatar won the vote for 2022, said \u201cFIFA should run the vote again rather than switch the tournament to the winter\u201d.(2)  Undoubtedly, it is fairness and equality that must be prioritized in deciding the winner of such a big event, which would bring a lot of social and economic benefits to the winner. As a result, there mustn\u2019t be any room for error, but changing the date of the World Cup creates exactly such a problem and looks like favouritism.  (1) Owen Gibson \u201cFIFA tells Australia to forget about \u00a325m World Cup bid compensation\u201d The Guardian, 17 September 2013   (2) Richard Conway \u201cQatar faces no threat to its right to host 2022 World Cup\u201d , BBC, 3 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con02b","title":"","text":"It is true that the change of dates might constitute a problem for media companies, but there are a few points due to which this change wouldn\u2019t be unfair towards them.  First of all, it was clear from the beginning that the dates could change and that the final decision belonged to the FIFA Organising Committee. As a result, this risk should\u2019ve been taken into consideration when deciding the offer.  Secondly, ratings are ratings. Media companies\u2019 main concern is attracting more and more people to watch their program so that they can ask for higher prices for companies who want to advertise on their channel. As a result, it doesn\u2019t matter that the World Cup takes place in winter or summer, as the broadcasters that are showing the world cup will have the same increase in ratings. They will still be drawing viewers from other channels so as far as they are concerned, the effects should be similar.  Finally, even if these highly unlikely harmful effects do exist, the normal response would be to renegotiate the broadcasting-rights with all the media channels and reorganize the auction. In that way, all the broadcasters could take into consideration the price they would pay for a winter World Cup and so they won\u2019t be exposed to these downsides caused by the date change."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro02b","title":"","text":"Teaching just evolution does not prevent teacher encouraging students to analyse how well evolution fits with the facts the students have learned. Similarly there can still be critical discourse in the classroom; analysing a fossil to decide what kind of animal it was and what its various parts of its anatomy were for would be just as rewarding for students. Moreover analysing on a smaller scale would mean having all the available evidence whereas students could never be expected to study all the evidence on creationism and evolution."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro02a","title":"","text":"Teaching creationism as well as evolution gives students freedom to choose  This bill that opens the door to creationism is really about changing the way that teaching is done to make it more critical and analytical. This is an improvement in scientific education as it will help ensure that science is about critical, constructive discourse rather than just imbibing \u2018facts\u2019. [1] This bill aims to \u201cinform students about scientific evidence and to help students develop critical thinking skills necessary to becoming intelligent, productive, and scientifically informed citizens\u201d. [2] How can students be critical and learn to analyse if there is only one theory available to them through which to look at and analyse those facts? That would not be education, it would be indoctrination. [3]  [1] Zimmer, Robin, \u2018Critical Thinking, Analysis Foster Good Science\u2019, The Tennessean, 11 March 2011,   [2] Dunn, \u2018House Bill 368 An Act to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 49, Chapter 6, Part 10, relative to teaching scientific subjects in elementary schools\u2019\u2019, State of Tennessee,   [3] \u2018New Tennessee law: encouraging creationism or academic freedom\u2019, Public Radio International, 23 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro03b","title":"","text":"In practice allowing room for other theories is a \u201cpermission slip for teachers to bring creationism, climate-change denial and other non-science into science classrooms\u201d. The singling out of these subjects in the bill shows that it is not about impartiality and objectivity in science. [1] Instead it is promoting a kind of science denial allowing anyone with some quack theory to demand to be allowed to teach it regardless of the evidence.  [1] Thompson, Helen, \u2018Tennessee \u2018monkey bill\u2019 becomes law\u2019, nature, 11 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro01a","title":"","text":"Freedom of speech should apply to teachers as much as anyone else  Freedom of speech and expression are protected by the first amendment to the US constitution [1] and teachers are entitled to freedom of speech and their academic freedom as much as anyone else. If a science teacher does not believe that the evidence supports evolution then why should s\/he have to teach evolution as fact rather than just as one of several competing theories? The Tennessee bill protects freedom of expression by freeing teachers to include whatever other angles on controversies such as evolution or climate change as they wish.  [1] Legal Information Institute, \u2018First Amendment: An overview\u2019, Cornell University Law School, 19 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is not a freedom of speech issue. Teachers are already free to express their own views during their own free time. When teaching in a school however they are limited by the demands of what is necessary to teach their pupils. Freedom of speech does not give teachers qualified in one subject the wherewithal to teach their class a different subject which is effectively what teaching creationism means. Creationism should remain in religion classes and evolution should remain in science classes. Teachers are employed by the state in order to teach children facts, not spread personal ideology. It is therefore best to seperate facts and ideas into seperate subjects."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro03a","title":"","text":"The bill does not exclude evolution just allows room for other theories  What this bill allows is for the facts to be taught and then seen through the lens of various theories. The bill requires that the schools within the state remain within the state science curriculum. It \u201cprotects the teaching of scientific information, and shall not be construed to promote any religious or non-religious doctrine\u201d. [1] Evolution will therefore still have to be taught and won\u2019t be replaced wholesale by any other theory. The result therefore is that this Tennessee law opens up academic enquiry and science rather than shutting it down as opponents claim.  [1] Dunn, \u2018House Bill 368 An Act to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 49, Chapter 6, Part 10, relative to teaching scientific subjects in elementary schools\u2019\u2019, State of Tennessee,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con03b","title":"","text":"First the \u2018don\u2019t say gay\u2019 bill has not been passed as it was dropped by its republican sponsor Joey Hensley. [1] That this bill is directed at only a few subjects does not mean that it is not about academic freedom and freedom of speech. The bill is simply targeting and highlighting areas where the assembly believes free speech is lacking and alternative views need to be presented.  [1] \u2018Tennessee \u2018Don\u2019t Say Gay\u2019 Bill To Get Axed\u2019, Huffington Post, 1 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con01b","title":"","text":"It is never too early to teach students to question ideas and theories no matter how well grounded they may claim to be. Students are capable of realiseing that there is a difference between the theories that interpret the facts and the facts themselves so educating in the facts will not be more difficult. The result will be classes that are much more engaged in the subject because they have more input in the teaching, this can only be good for science education."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con02a","title":"","text":"Children should have the freedom not to be misled  Part of freedom of speech is the freedom to get accurate information. The students in school have this right not to be misled by their teachers [1] so teachers should have to concentrate on providing facts and evidence and what has been scientifically proven. Eugenie C. Scott of the National Center for Science Education argues \u201cTelling students that evolution and climate change are scientifically controversial is miseducating them\u201d because there is no controversy among scientists. [2] The law as it stands may attempt to sound balanced but preventing \u201cdiscrimination for or against religion or non-religion\u201d [3] opens the door to any theory seeking to explain the evidence no matter how flawed. This would be directly counter to the objective teaching the bill claims to promote. If there is to be objectivity schools must stick to the evidence and what it shows; evolution. The teachers may of course encourage the students to come up with their own interpretations of the evidence but should not be attempting to force their own views upon the students.  [1] Zabarenko, Deborah, \u2018Tennessee teacher law could boost creationism, climate denial\u2019, Reuters, 13 April 2012,   [2] Strauss, Valerie, \u2018Tennessee back to the future with new anti-evolution law\u2019, Post Local, 11 April 2012,   [3] Dunn, \u2018House Bill 368 An Act to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 49, Chapter 6, Part 10, relative to teaching scientific subjects in elementary schools\u2019\u2019, State of Tennessee,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con04a","title":"","text":"As it is not science creationism should not even be covered by the Tennessee law  As creationism does not fit the definition of \"science\", it is not even addressed by the law cited in the introduction to this discussion. The act specifically allows to discuss \"scientific strengths and scientific weaknesses of existing scientific theories\". It is a very false conclusion that because evolution is both scientific and a hypothesis, any other hypothesis must be scientific as well.  Creationism is lacking the key point of anything that could even remotely be called science, namely testability and falsifiability. Evolution posesses this property: There may one day be actual evidence that the theory is incorrect, such as a modern human fossil being found in a layer of soil that dates back aeons. Given enough such incidents, one could reasonably claim that evolution has been disproved and that there must be a better model to approximate reality. This is what commonly happens in the world of science. As a prominent example one may cite our views on atoms: They have been refined from \"they are tiny multi-symmetrical grains\" to the detailled analysis of sub-atomic particles we see today. This took innumerable steps, and yet we know for sure that our theories will never be accurate enough to describe reality.  However, such a process is impossible with creationism, as it is based on a belief. In theory, it could very well be true - God could have created C14 signatures in such a way that they would appear billions of years old to a modern researcher, and we could never know. This may be applied to each and every other aspect of research on the foundations of our universe. But excactly because we can never know, creationism can never be subjected to scientific analysis, and thus cannot qualify as scientific or science. It can only be subject to belief: You may well chose to believe that the creation happened excactly as described in the bible, as an omnipotent being would surely have the power to defy the laws of physics and just 'make things be'. Thus, in theory, any contradictory evidence such as the C14 signatures may be dismissed based on belief in an omnipotent being, whose non-existance may never be disproved either due to the laws of logic.  For this reason, creation may never be falsified, cannot be called a scientific theory and is not addressed by the law cited above. Hence, its discussion should not be supported by the state."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con03a","title":"","text":"Tennessee is not seeking to protect freedom of speech  While supporters of this bill justify it based upon \u2018academic freedom\u2019 this is clearly not a motivating factor for the Tennessee legislature. At almost the same time a bill that prevents teachers discussing homosexuality was passed through the state\u2019s education committee, if freedom of speech has been a concern this would never have even been brought up. [1] Moreover if the bill was about freedom of speech there would be no need to highlight particular controversies or particularly pick out science as an area requiring more discussion and dissent. Students could learn much more about competing interpretations of historical events, competing ideas in geography such as alternative theories about how oil is created, [2] even the English language is not totally settled as new meanings are created and new words added.  [1] Selwyn, Casey, \u2018Teaching creationism in US schools\u2019, Free Speech Debate, 2 May 2012,   [2] Glasby, Geoffrey P., \u2018Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview\u2019, Resource Geology, vol.56, no.1, 2006, pp.85-98,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con01a","title":"","text":"Teachers should not have freedom to teach whatever they wish as fact  There is a difference between a demand for freedom to teach what you like and freedom of speech. Freedom of speech does not apply in the classroom; students are not allowed to stand up and discuss whatever issues they want and neither should the teacher. Both have to stick to a syllabus that ensures that the children are taught the basics of each subject so that the student can move on to more advanced instruction.  Ultimately for students to be able to exercise their right to freedom of speech they need to have a well-rounded education that provides a grounding of knowledge and how to analyse that knowledge. The student is then perfectly free to challenge this teaching and exercise their freedom of expression and explore many more ideas and dismiss evolution if they wish.  Essentially this bill is encouraging criticism of science at too early a stage, in elementary or even secondary school teachers are still teaching what science is, what it is for and how it works and it does not help to \u2018muddy the waters\u2019. [1]  [1] \u2018New Tennessee law: encouraging creationism or academic freedom\u2019, Public Radio International, 23 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con04b","title":"","text":"We cannot yet fully test evolution either; we can't recreate evolution in the lab. Creationism provides a valid critique and so should be taught alongside."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con02b","title":"","text":"It is unquestioningly taking the \u2018consensus\u2019 view on issues like evolution and climate change that is misleading children. Teaching only the one viewpoint misleads children into thinking that the issue is fact and settled so denying the ongoing controversies in each of these areas. [1]  [1] Zabarenko, Deborah, \u2018Tennessee teacher law could boost creationism, climate denial\u2019, Reuters, 13 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s fairly predictable that in a country such as Pakistan where the overwhelming majority come from one religious tradition that there will be a higher percentage of those people to be offended and, conversely, that a majority of suspects are likely to come from other groups."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Inevitably protects entrenched interest groups (Church in Crucible, Muslims in Pakistan)  In the event of two different perceptions of what constitutes harm, there is a tendency for that of the larger group to be seen as normative and, therefore, correct. This is shown to be the case in the example given here but also in other instances from the Salem witch trials to the fatwa on Salman Rushdie [i] ; the fact that there was an authorising body \u2013 in the shape of an orthodox religious body \u2013 the allegation itself acquires the force of that orthodoxy.  It is rare for minority beliefs to have much success and almost unknown for secularists to do so. Several cases in North America brought in an effort to protect the religious rights of Wiccans, for example, yielded little as they lacked the force of religious orthodoxy [ii] .  In states where there is either great homogeneity of belief or there is a theological element in the courts or political system, this has tended to be even more the case. This is particularly true of states that identify themselves officially with one religion, and especially so in the case of Islamic states [iii] .  [i] The Guardian. Looking back at Salman Rushdie\u2019s The Satanic Verses. 14 September 2012.  [ii] Religioustolerance.org. Wiccan education and anti-defamation groups.  [iii] Viewpoint. The Blasphemy syndrome. 12 October 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"The right to free speech is not a license to express any opinion regardless of the context. It\u2019s equivalent of standing in a Museum and shouting, \u201cFire\u201d. It is in these environments that caution is required.  Allowing free speech is one thing, allowing speech likely to cause harm is another is quite a different. There is a crucial difference between public and private space. Where offensive remarks are made in the public space then the blasphemer has knowingly put themselves and others in danger and - citing such principals as civic responsibility and the social contract, governments would have both a responsibility and a duty to use their legal powers."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Based on allegation rather than proof (cf. Sorcery, witchcraft, etc.)  Blasphemy, by its nature, is \u2018all in the eye of the beholder\u2019. It is impossible, in most cases, to determine whether there was intent on the part of the accused and as a result it is difficult to codify in legislation. Equally, unless the law takes a particular theological position, one person\u2019s blasphemous slur is another\u2019s sacred profession.  It relies on the predicate that the person alleging blasphemy was offended or felt their faith was under attack.  Of course these offences are very real and may at times be possible to codify but they cannot be applied universally because the perceptions they necessitate are not universal.  As a result, as in the case given above, allegation and proof must be deemed to be the same thing - to be accused is to be found guilty [i] . Acts of blasphemy cannot rest on intuited human norms \u2013 I do not wish to be harmed in this way therefore you do not wish it either \u2013 because those involved have a different understanding of the harm.  In the light of this there may be many remedies for blasphemy but legislation in general and criminal sanctions in particular cannot be appropriate.  [i] The Economic Times. Rajiv Jayaram. Blasphemy law represents coercive nature of Pakistan towards minorities. 27 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is perfectly possible in many circumstances to demonstrate intent before a blasphemous comment is made. Waving a banner making derogatory remarks about the founder of a religion or burning an emblem of the faith outside a place of worship could easily be said to demonstrate an intent to harm.  Moreover many cases come down to one person\u2019s word against another\u2019s."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"People have a right to blaspheme  In the laws that come the closest in framework to blasphemy \u2013 libel, slander defamation and a range of incitement laws \u2013 there is a requirement to prove harm. This level of proof is not set at the level of being offended or believing that a problem may ensue, and certainly not at the level of just disagreeing with a statement. If there is no proof of harm then the principle of free speech stands, usually termed as a \u2018justifiable comment\u2019 in defamation defences. It is entirely possible to respect the rights of others to hold an opinion and, as in this case, disagree with that opinion [i] .  For anything other than that as the only logical basis for discussing blasphemy, it would be necessary to demonstrate a causal link to actual or probable harm \u2013 usually this proof requires either financial or physical harm to be involved [ii] .  In the case of blasphemy, such harm cannot be demonstrated. There is also an interesting point of whether God can be said to have been harmed and whether it is possible for a third party, other than the state, to act as a result of harm having been caused to another.  As a result, since harm cannot be proven and neither, in most cases, as we have seen in the previous argument, can intent be proven, it is difficult to see how blasphemy is anything other than free speech. It is far easier for other social groups \u2013 sexual and political minorities, people of disabilities and others \u2013 to prove both harm and intent of statements and actions but lack the legal protection given to religious organisations through blasphemy laws.  [i] See principle seven of the Free Speech Debate principles .  [ii] Wikipedia. Defamation."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con03b","title":"","text":"This is the truly the argument of rogues. Where a mob seeks to gather to deliver their own brand of very immediate justice would be against the law and should be dealt with as such. For governments to argue such an approach is a complete abdication of responsibility. It is also incredibly na\u00efve to suppose that the niceties of treaties would be observed in the Pashtun Valley or the Gaza strip."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con01b","title":"","text":"If any state were to try and protect their citizens against all offence, it would have to ban everything. It is difficult to see how such a process could work \u2013 one that would allow Saudi men to be offended by the sight of a woman driver and, at the same time, those of a more liberal nature to be offended by them not driving. A test of legislation should be whether it can be universalised, where offence can be taken in both directions that is not, and cannot, be the case. As a result it is clear that legislation is an inappropriate tool to use in regards to blasphemy. The issue is not disagreeing with the particular piece of legislation but with the idea that legislation in this area should be introduced at all. Moreover the examples of limitations on the media used are not good parallel\u2019s to blasphemy as blasphemy may be either unintentional or else be on the spur of the moment which is not the case with the media."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con02a","title":"","text":"Blasphemy is comparable to legislation banning hate speech  Not only can remarks or images be labelled as inappropriate but, in extreme cases governments ban organisations, meeting and demonstrations. Where speech is deemed to be prejudiced or inflammatory the state intervenes to prevent either offence or possible violence. In all of the situations covered by blasphemy laws, the first of those would apply and, as has been seen on so many occasions, the latter is not uncommon. The experience of the \u201cAnti-Islam video\u201d prompted civil unrest around the world [i] costing nations money in terms of lost work and increased police time.  Both governments and individuals have the right to be protected against such outpourings of outrage. It seems only sensible for governments to prevent such difficulties where they can. In this light a legislative code that bans blasphemy is useful in the maintenance of social order and cohesion in many countries. It is a given in most countries that the government has a duty to protect citizens against statements or actions that they have a reasonable basis for believing are likely to cause social unrest. Blasphemy is just another example on that list.  [i] Al Jazeera. Timeline: Protests over anti-Islam video. 21 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con03a","title":"","text":"If the courts did not handle these issues, the mob likely would.  Where a grave offence is caused to many people and the state proves to be impotent in addressing it, it is not uncommon for vigilantes to take matters into their own hands.  Surely it is preferable to have such situations handled by the courts and under the rule of law. Proposition gave the example of the Salman Rushdie affair, where Ayatollah Khomeni issued a global fatwah on the author following the publication of the Satanic Verses. How much more preferable would it have been for that process to have been handled by means of diplomacy [i] , extradition and trial than a decade\u2019s worth of civil and international discourse. The Arab league and others have called for an international treaty to this effect, as the issue of blasphemy committed in one nation causing offence in another comes increasingly to the fore in an internet age, it seems an effective approach.  In an increasingly Global world with the possibility for inflammatory remarks to travel the world in a matter of seconds, leaving only their context behind, it is time for governments to have a serious conversation about an international framework - to make sure that justice stays in the courts rather than the streets.  [i] Globalpost. Daniel DeFraia. Muslim nations push for international blasphemy law. 25 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con01a","title":"","text":"Blasphemy causes offence to groups and individuals  Not agreeing with a law does not provide carte blanche to ignore it. The reality is that large numbers of people in many countries and religious traditions find blasphemy offensive and upsetting. If, as prop argues this crime causes no harm, then they presumably accept that it can have no physical benefit to the blasphemer. So why do it? We place limitations on violence, sex and expletives in movies, on TVs and in publications, not because they cause a provable harm but because some find them offensive [i] . These actions, along with blasphemy, are collectively classed as criminal libels as they require the state to act rather than an injured party. We further create public order offences in relation to racial abuse, which, like blasphemy, may not be premeditated [ii] . Those in breach of such limits face a punishment.  If we are happy to impose widely held norms of behaviour in public fora such as entertainment \u2013 or in regard to public behaviour - then why not acknowledge similar issues in the case of spiritual beliefs. If, for example, the overwhelming majority of the population find attacks on the prophet Mohammed offensive then why not legislate on that basis?  [i] The News Manual. Chapter 71: Blasphemy, obscenity and sedition.  [ii] Brian Farmer. The Independent. Comic Frankie Boyle sues Daily Mirror for libel. 15 October 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con02b","title":"","text":"There are clear differences between racist, sexist or homophobic language and blasphemy. Hate speech legislation exists to protect minorities against being abused. A blasphemy ban, by contrast, simply perpetuates the influence of already powerful interest groups. Equally, to develop ops theory of sudden vigilante groups springing up to seek out the blasphemer \u2013 hate speech legislation seeks to protect the likely victim of a violent crime, according to Opposition, blasphemy legislation would seek to support the perpetrators."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro02b","title":"","text":"Corporations represent the collective labour, goals, capital and ideas of a vast number of people. Far from representing a \u201cperson\u201d who is accorded undue influence and significance by politicians, corporations are crucial in allowing major contributors to national economies to have a say in the affairs of the states that govern their activities.  It has already been established that corporations- even profit-led corporations- are capable of operating under complex regimes of objectives and goals. Not all corporations bow to the profit motive solely and exclusively. Suppose- following the Bradly Smith article quoted above- that a corporation faced the prospect of downsizing unless it could access a lucrative government subsidy. Loss of jobs would anger the company\u2019s workers union. The corporation would have every incentive to use its influence to affect the decisions of the politicians responsible for distributing the subsidy. Moreover, in expressing an opinion on the matter, the corporation would be reflecting the views not only of its shareholders, but also of its workers and their union, it suppliers, its creditors.  Corporations can have an insight into the economic processes driving particular states that politicians may lack. Corporations concentrate very specific skills, skills that may not be reflected in a civil service, and are often based placed to provide opinions on- for example- trade relations with foreign states or the educational and research projects that a government should invest in. Individual students and scientists are unlikely to be able to muster this much influence.  Corporate entities represent a number of objectives, each supported by a large number of natural individuals. Even if a business corporation is sometimes at odds with its workers, those workers would still agree that they have an interest in the success of that corporation. Politicians do not court the support of corporations because they are wealthy or powerful as \u201cindividuals\u201d, but because they contain significant numbers of voters with comparable views, concerns and aspirations."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Corporate influence distracts politicians from the needs of their constituents.  The content of public speech is informed as much by the ideas and convictions of individuals engaged in free expression as it is by the concurrent acts of expression engaged in by other individuals. Free speech is a product of society and the processes driving the development and growth of society.  The environment in which free speech is currently exercised is characterised by pervasive acts of expression \u2013 television commercials, billboards, spam email and advertisements on social media sites. Each of these forms of media is aimed at influencing opinions and behaviours. Active engagement with a book or a movie is often a prerequisite if an individual is to be influenced by its content.. The audience for the content contained in an advert does not necessarily choose to engage with its message.  As a result of this, adverts are uniquely placed to bring issues and perspectives to the attention of individuals who might otherwise have been unaware of them. Advertising is a powerful political tool. For this reason the manner in which political causes can be advertised and the amount of funding spent on those adverts is, almost without exception, strictly regulated in most liberal democracies. Commercial content carried by for-profit organisations such as newspapers and television channels is expensive. The prominence of a message is affected by the amount of money that can be spent on increasing its length, rebroadcasting it and showing it to new audiences. When it comes to political speech, spending money is the best way to increase the efficacy and persuasiveness of a message.  Irrespective of the qualities of a particular campaign, the qualifications of its candidates or the evidence underlying its policy proposals, its effectiveness will still be measured in the amount of money that it is able to spend on advertising. Legal restrictions on political spending are intended to prevent political speech from becoming a battle of budget rather than ideas \u2013 campaign finance laws are designed to protect the integrity, quality and efficacy of speech.  In the USA the Bi-partisan Campaign Reform Act achieved this goal by preventing corporations from funding \u201celectioneering communications\u201d within 30 days of a caucus or 60 days of a general election. \u201cElectioneering communications\u201d were defined by the acts as publications that named a federal candidate (a candidate for a presidential election, for example). The Act prevented interest groups indirectly affiliated with particular candidates from spending money to support a candidates\u2019 message. Although there are limits on the income that a politician can directly receive from donors, different rules apply to organisations that are not directly affiliated with that politician. And although a politician may receive criticism for receiving corporate money, corporations can contribute to causes indirectly, by providing funds of issue groups."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro01a","title":"","text":"Corporates that attempt to address social issues damage political discourse.  Corporate personhood is a challenging concept for liberal democracies. On the one hand, the legal fiction that underlies personhood enables groups of citizens to quickly and efficiently join forces to make collective grievances heard and to use weight of numbers to match the influence of wealthier individuals. However, corporations, particularly in the business context, can also be large and unaccountable organisations.  This proposition must address two issues. First, whether acts of free expression engaged in by corporations generally should benefit from the same protection as acts of expression engaged in by individuals. Second, whether there should be more scrutiny of the membership and objectives of corporations \u2013 or whether corporations should receive rights conditional on their activities.  If we follow the reasoning in the Citizens United case, which radically changed the interpretation of corporate speech rights in American law, it is clear that acts of corporate speech should benefit from a high standard of protection. Corporations can take the form of churches, trades unions or political campaigning groups [1] . The fiction of personhood allows these organisations to operate more freely, ignoring many of the bureaucratic burdens associated with partnership organisations. It also allows citizens to found non-profit making groups, such as PACs, without the risk of being made liable for the debts that those groups generate.  Profit-led corporations may be used to publish examples of free expression, without necessarily wishing to influence or misuse the ideas expressed. The publishers of political science textbooks, of annotated editions of Kapital and of Capitalism and Freedom are still profit-led businesses. In short, free speech in liberal democracies cannot be exercised effectively without the ability to disseminate speech among a large audience, and without the ability to co-operate with others in order to do so. For this reason, where a corporation is permitted to engage in free expression, the contents of its acts of expression should not be subject to restrictions that differ radically from those applied to individual acts of expression.  But what about the second issue? Natural persons are allowed- as a general rule- a broad right to free expression. This right is subject to certain caveats, but there is always a presumption that expression should be free and subject to as few limitations as possible. Should corporations benefit from the same presumption? No. The proposition side suggests that corporations\u2019 access to constitutional free speech rights should depend on their goals, objectives and membership.  Corporations, unlike natural persons, are inflexible in their motives and influences. Free speech is preferable to conflict because it acts as a conduit for compromise, but before compromise can take place it must be possible for the participants and audience in a discussion or an exchange of views to be influenced by their opponents\u2019 arguments. Profit-led corporations owe a very specific duty to their shareholders- the individual who support and constitute the corporation. Under the corporate-laws of almost all liberal democracies, business corporations must act in their interests, and this invariably means generating profit and increasing the value of the equity that each shareholder has in the business [2] . Because this duty is a legal one, and failure to uphold it can be cause to remove corporate decision makers (directors and executives) from their jobs and even to bring them to trial.  This behavioural imperative is absolute. Were a business corporation to announce that it would no longer operate with profit as its core priority, it would collapse [3] . Even if this process might not be inevitable in the real world, it still informs corporate culture to a significant degree. Natural persons are flexible and pragmatic; at the very least they have the potential to be so. Profit-led corporations are not. Free speech rights exercised by a profit-led corporation will always be exercised in the service of the profit motive.  [1] Citizens United v Federal Election Commission. Supreme Court of the United States, 21 January 2010. 558 US  [2] Bakan, J. \u201cThe Corporation\u201d, Free Press, 2004  [3] \u201cKay needs to replace \u2018shareholder value\u2019 with \u2018corporate value\u2019.\u201d Professor Simon Deakin. Financial times, 20 March 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro01b","title":"","text":"The proposition side have resurrected an old legal mechanism that was of limited use in order to defend an inaccurate and polarising interpretation of corporate rights.  The proposition argues that the actions and behaviour of profit making business corporations will always be guided by the profit motive and that, for this reason, corporations will never be able to contribute to the accommodations and compromises that free speech is used to foster. In plainer terms, side proposition see corporations as being inherently deceptive and untrustworthy.  The proposition side have failed to consider that it is possible for corporations to function within free markets, and to participate fully in capitalist democracies, without being bound to a single minded pursuit of profit.  Corporations have now recognised that the growth and maintenance of profits in the long term can often best be served by under-emphasising profit in the short term. Corporations have become increasingly conscious of the effects that their activities have on the societies that they operate in. Ostensibly profitable actions that undermine the cohesiveness of communities, make enemies of politicians or, ultimately, create less stable market conditions will not contribute to the long-term health of the corporation. Indeed, long term planning and long term impact is more important to corporations as they exist in perpetuity. Unlike natural persons, corporations will never die.  The profit motive is no longer the primary driving force behind corporate activity. There is little need for the state to take drastic steps to curtail corporations\u2019 freedoms , because the behavioural imperative that the proposition side objects to is no longer the central priority of businesses operating in liberal democracies.  Another way to address this problem is to adopt the perspective of NPR columnist Bradley Smith. Smith correctly observes that states, including the USA, may grant rights to individuals and that those rights may be exercised under certain circumstances that the state prescribes. An individual can, for example, exercise a right to receive income support, or can obtain a right to drive a car by passing a driving test. Similarly, corporate persons have been granted a certain body of rights by the state [1] . The individuals that band together as a corporation have the right to limit their liability for the corporations losses; to have the corporation treated as a single person and to benefit (in the US at least) from similar rights to due process and freedom from discrimination.  Simply because a corporation is granted certain rights by the state that improve the efficiency of its operations and the financial position of its members, this does not mean that it should lose its right to speak freely.  In a liberal democracy, rights are not traded, hedged and swapped by states and citizens. Nor do constitutional rights exist in a hierarchy. Rights are incommensurate, because they can be applied in a wide variety of ways to defend a wide variety of causes. The right to speech are persuasion must always remain flexible because different audiences and different groups respond to different arguments. There is nothing dishonest in a company choosing the most persuasive manner of speech that it can find in order to defend its own interests.  [1] \u201cCorporations are people, too\u201d. National Public Radio online, 10 September 2009."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con01b","title":"","text":"The value placed upon the right to free expression reflects its ability to enable the articulation of new, compelling and beneficial ideas, alongside damaging forms of speech. In liberal democratic societies, the potential inherent in free speech has always preserved it against limitation by legislation and- to a great extent- by social norms. A natural (as opposed to legal) person who makes statements that are openly offensive, or are inaccurate or misleading may also be able to articulate profound and useful ideas and observations. This is also true for certain groups formed by association \u2013 such as political parties.  However, corporations as they are popularly understood- as business entities- are constrained by law only to act in a certain way. In the United States, the individuals responsible for deciding on the actions of a corporation do so on the explicit understanding that they owe a particular duty to the individuals who make up that corporation. This legal duty takes the form of an obligation to run the business to maximise the value of the shares [1] in the business that each of its constituent investors holds. This duty has done a lot to promote investment in new businesses and to keep the reputation of established firms intact. It ensures that confidence in corporations is not undermined by speculation that they might be pursuing the wrong goals and it allows incompetent directors to be removed from their positions before they can harm investors' interests. However, this law also makes it necessary to limit the other rights that corporate persons might have access to.  The Unitarian commentator Tom Stites puts the situation bluntly. \u201cCorporations express the collective investment goals of shareholders... Fiduciary responsibility confines all but closely held corporations to this singular goal. By shutting off other values to focus solely on pursuit of profit... corporations are by their nature immoral...\u201d [2] In other words, the boards of directors of large corporations, in most circumstances will only be able to pursue a profit motive.  The type of personhood that money-making corporations utilise under American law is a personhood that comes complete with a very specific personality and set of goals. A corporate person that is formed by a collective of shareholders, each of whom have invested in the assets held by this individual, will be bound to engage profit motivated behaviour when it acts [3] . Executives and employees of the corporation, will find their jobs at risk if they choose to forgo profit-led behaviour in favour of directing a corporation to take actions informed by different social and economic principles.  An individual's right to free speech cannot not be abrogated in a broad fashion by a liberal government, in part because he is, to borrow an archaic phrase, \u201cthe captain of his own soul\u201d \u2013 an individual with free will, able to be influenced by argument and to develop new ideas and perspectives upon the subject of his speech. A profit making corporation, however, is obliged to follow a single set of behavioural imperatives. If it is not attempting to maximise its profits, it will seek to protect the value of its interests and the efficiency of its operations. Where it is able to speak freely, a corporation will always use its right to expression for predictable ends. It is easy to envision scenarios in which corporate bodies will use the right to free speech to spread false or inaccurate information or to distort open debate if there was profit to be gained or protected.  Human behaviour is diverse and the ideas that we express can be altered by reason and the influence of argument. Through legal measures that were intended to protect shareholders investment in profit-making corporations, corporate behaviour has become limited, closed minded and immune to persuasive debate.  [1] Mills v Mills (1938) CLR 150  [2] \u201cHow corporations became \u2018persons\u2019\u201d. uuworld.org, 01 May 2003.   [3] Bakan, J. \u201cThe Corporation\u201d, Free Press, 2004"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con02a","title":"","text":"Limiting the rights of corporate persons would harm a wide range of organisations and limit the freedom of natural persons.  Public speech and exchanges of ideas lie at the root of political and social decision making in liberal democracies. Without a guarantee that expression will remain free and protected from government interference, the other rights discussed in the first amendment to the United States constitution would become impossible to exercise. The discussion and pursuit of religious ideas would be obstructed. The ability to challenge the actions and decisions of an incumbent government would be put at risk too [1] . Even the reporting of verifiably true information about the affairs of the state and its citizens- freedom of the press- would become hazardous without the toleration for inaccuracies and the concept of public interest that principled freedom of speech gives rise to.  In order for a right to be meaningful, however, it must be possible to exercise that right effectively. A right to free movement would be meaningless if the government that guaranteed it was unable to keep its citizens safe within their communities. Similarly, free speech in liberal democracies cannot be exercised effectively without the ability to disseminate speech among a large audience, and without the ability to co-operate with others in order to do so. Isolated oratory and passing on news by word-of-mouth are not effective ways of handling information.  Corporate entities have emerged as the most effective method of pooling individual resources in order to take full advantage of the benefits and freedoms of free speech and dialogue [2] . As the columnist George Will observes, in the USA \u201cnewspapers, magazines, broadcasting entities, online journalism operations- and most religious institutions- are corporate entities.\u201d [3] The proposition side advocates depriving these bodies of many of their rights, simply because they benefit from a legal fiction that- itself- is designed to make co-operation and resources sharing among like-minded individuals- natural persons- more effective.  The difficulties presented by corporate campaigning would allow the state to restrain the publication of almost any coherent, publicly distributed form of speech that was critical of politicians or their parties. The legal scholar Eugene Volokh has noted that Jim McGovern's People's Rights Amendment, which most closely resembles the proposition's mechanism, would give legislators fiat to restrict the content of newspapers by defining it as \u201ccorporate\u201d speech that did not benefit from the same set of rights as the expressed opinions of natural persons. This is a wider application of the rule that brought Citizens United and the BCRA before the supreme court [4] . As set out in the introductory case study, the BCRA allowed the Federal Election Commission to claim that a movie (produced by a right-wing PAC) critical of democratic presidential hopeful Hilary Clinton represented a misuse of private funds that could potentially give an unfair advantage to Clinton's opponents.  Under the sections of the BCRA that were struck down in 2012, and under the new laws that proposition wish to create, it would be possible for legislative bodies and the judiciary to target any and all forms of political communication produced by corporate entities without having to consider the objectives of those communications. In plainer terms, the state's power to ban and censor free speech would not be limited to statements made to lobby an electorate or to campaign in favour of a particular politician or policy.  Citizens who wished to avoid being caught up in this law would be obliged to share resources via archaic legal structures such as partnerships and co-operative agreements. Assemblies of citizens could be exposed to a great deal of financial risk in such a situation. Each member of a partnership would be forced to bear the debts and legal liabilities of the entire partnership. In addition, agreements concluded by the partnership would require the consent of every partner. This is a minor inconvenience when a partnership consists of two or three people, but it would be an impossible demand to fulfil for an organisation such as the communications giant ComCast, which has a share volume of 10.5 million (as of May 2012).  [1] \u201cTaking a Scythe to the Bill of Rights\u201d. Will, G F. The Washington Post, 05 May 2012.   [2] \u201cInfant and corporate rights\u201d. The Economist, 07 May 2012.   [3] \u201cTaking a Scythe to the Bill of Rights\u201d. Will, G F. The Washington Post, 05 May 2012.   [4] \u201cThe \u2018People\u2019s Rights Amendment\u2019 and the media\u201d. Volokh, E. The Volokh Conspiracy, 26 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con01a","title":"","text":"Uses of free speech motivated by personal gain should still be protected.  The primary objection of the supporters of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act to the decision taken in the Citizens United case seems to be that the objective of some corporations is usually the maximisation of the profits that their shareholders\u2019 or owners receive [1] . Other considerations, we are told, take second place in the hierarchy of needs that corporations create for themselves [2] . Opponents of the Act and critics of the supreme court decision on Citizens United have attempt to claim that, because corporations\u2019 behaviour is profit-led, corporate entities will use an unrestricted right to free speech to lie, cheat and manipulate the public [3] with the intention of boosting their returns. In other words, corporations will not use a right to free speech with the responsible aim of advocating for social change, but to enhance their own position as businesses or membership organisations.  In the sections of the amendments to the United States constitution that deal with the free speech rights of groups of individuals, no distinction is made between businesses, political parties, unions, or any other sort of gathering of citizens with similar interests and aims. As far as the core principles of the legal and governmental culture of the US are concerned [4] , all of these organisations are \u201ccorporate\u201d.  The first amendment to the US constitution states that \u201cCongress shall make no law respecting an establishment or religion, or prohibiting the free exercise therefore; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition to government for redress of grievances.\u201d [5]  The right to peaceably assemble draws no distinction between peaceful assembly for political purposes and peaceful assembly for other reasons. Discrimination of this type would only have served to undermine the wide range of freedoms that the Bill of Rights guaranteed. After all, people obtain power through acting collectively. Any limit on the forms that collective action can take is also a limit on the ability of groups within society to respond to powerful actors by leveraging strength of numbers. \u201cCorporation\u201d- despite its contemporary connotations- remains a very broad and generic term. Even a large corporation is still directed by the approval and consent of its members. Restrictions on corporate speech represent of violation of the individual\u2019s right to free speech  Irrespective of the content of what an individual has to say, of the statements that he makes in both the public and the private spheres, liberal democratic constitutions (not just the US constitution) impose very few restrictions on that individual\u2019s right to speak. An individual that makes baseless statements that harm the social standing and reputation of an individual may be subject to civil proceedings, but is extremely rare for individuals to be censored or criminalised merely for expressing ideas or opinions. Even if the individual is lying, advocating extreme political ideologies or acting in his own interests while claiming to serve those of others, legal responses to his behaviour will be relatively limited and costly to deploy.  Corporations, as noted above, are often driven by acquisitive and self-interested objectives. Individuals are just as capable of being motivated by monetary gain, and are just as capable of concealing this motive as corporations. However objectionable the use of free speech by natural persons has been in the past, states have always encountered significant protest and dissent when they have attempted to control the content of individual expression. As discussed in a previous debatepedia article [6] , the possibility that an individual, natural or legal, might abuse free speech, or might be driven solely by profit, does not cancel out that individual's free speech rights.  [1] \u201cTown by town, Vermont tackles corporate personhood\u201d. The Guardian, 05 March 2012.   [2] \u201cHow corporations became \u2018persons\u2019\u201d. uuworld.org, 01 May 2003.   [3] \u201cPeculiar people\u201d. The Economist, 24 March 2011.   [4] Citizens United v Federal Election Commission. Supreme Court of the United States, 21 January 2010. 558 US 50.   [5] The Constitution of the United States of America, First Amendment.   [6] \u201cConstitutional Rights of the Corporate Person\u201d. Yale Law Journal. (1982) 91 Yale LJ 1641"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con02b","title":"","text":"The People\u2019s Rights Amendment is a proposed amendment to the United States constitution that attempts to address corporations\u2019 increased freedom to engage in political campaigning. Referring to the First Amendment, section 2 of the PRA states \u201cThe word people, person or citizen as used in this constitution do not include corporations, limited liability companies or other corporate entities established by the laws of any State the United States or any foreign state.\u201d [1]  The US Supreme Court justified striking down the BCRA by stating that \u201cif the first amendment has any force, it prohibits congress from fining or jailing citizens, or associations of citizens, for simply engaging in political speech.\u201d [2] However, the BCRA was never intended to limit US citizens' right to engage in effective and public political speech. The First Amendment to the constitution was not overridden by the BCRA. Newspapers remain effectively exempt from the powers granted to the FEC by the BCRA for this very reason, and, paraphrasing Justice Stevens\u2019 opinion in Citizens United, it remains possible for the Supreme Court to challenge any attempt to legislate against freedom of the press \u2013 but such action has not yet been taken [3] .  Although ordinary citizens rely on corporate structures and company law to make the process of gathering and publishing publicly relevant information easier, corporate structures are also used to fulfil goals that are not related to the interests of the general public. Information released \u201cin the public interest\u201d is intended to be engaged with in a critical fashion. Voters receive information- even if it is biased- on the understanding that it represents an earnest commentary on the strengths and weaknesses and candidates' policies. Voters receive information during elections on the understanding that it relates directly to their interests and their welfare \u2013 to how they should vote.  The communications targeted by the BCRA, and by the proposition mechanism are those that seek to serve the interests of profit-led businesses by distorting political debate. The large raw materials business Pacific Lumber engaged in an abuse of direct democracy proceedings in Humboldt county, California, when it attempted to use a ballot initiative to remove the county's district attorney from office [4] . The attorney had brought a public suit [5] against Pacific Lumber after incompetent tree felling practices had caused flooding in the area. In plainer language, the corporation tried to use Humboldt County's electoral system to extricate itself from a court case brought by a state official. Such a bold and blatant move should not have been available to Pacific Lumber in the first place.  Balloting against Humboldt County's incumbent sheriff was conducted in a manner intended to mislead the public. The purpose underlying Pacific Lumber's actions was kept concealed from the citizens approached by the business's poll operatives. This runs contrary to the ideological objectives of ordinary political campaigning. Even inflexible ideologues that choose to hit the campaign trail will be acting to try and convince their audience that the normative content of their message has value and relevance for society as a whole. A campaign co-ordinated by a profit-led corporation will be geared only to serve the interests of that corporation.  Electioneering communications sponsored by corporations damage free speech by failing to contain any normative reasoning or content. They do not represent an honestly expressed view of the direction that society should take, of the policies that should be deployed to address flaws in society.  Far from limiting ordinary citizens\u2019 access to the free speech protections that are a feature of liberal democracies, the proposition side are simply attempting to address an aspect of the on-going debate over the how best to protect the quality and vibrancy of free speech. It has always been necessary to ensure that free expression does not become a licence to exploit the credulous, but it is also important for democratic states to allow heterodox and unpopular ideas to be discussed as freely as those that receive widespread social approval. In this instance, legislation that was intended to achieve this objective in the USA has been exploited by corporations to use free expression to forward their own- very narrow- interests, usually under the guise of protecting others' essential freedoms and economic interests.  In cases such as this, where the marketplace of ideas has undergone a market failure, where legislation is being applied to scenarios that fall outside of the range of problems it was originally created to address, it is appropriate to reconsider the limits and purpose of freedom of expression. New legislation- including any proposed replacement for the BCRA- must take a case-specific approach to free speech issues due to the wide range of organisations that choose to define themselves as corporations. As discussed in the proposition side's substantive argument, the law must accord speech rights to corporations based on their stated goals, priorities and the groups whose interests they serve.  [1] \u201cProposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to clarify the authority of Congress and the States to regulate corporations\u2026\u201d Joint resolution, United States House of Representatives.   [2] Citizens United v Federal Election Commission. Supreme Court of the United States, 21 January 2010. 558 US 50.   [3] Citizens United v Federal Election Commission. Supreme Court of the United States, 21 January 2010. 558 US 50.   [4] \u201cHumboldt DA fights to keep job\u201d. San Francisco Chronicle, 28 February 2004.   [5] \u201cHumboldt County D.A. sues logging firm, alleging fraudulent practices\u201d. Los Angeles Times, 26 February 2003."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro02b","title":"","text":"Mehanna clearly expressed sympathy with enemies of the US. His actions since his return from Yemen put the lie to the idea that he wished to pursue legal training and suggest a rather more explicitly jihadi purpose. He has published documentation that explicitly encourages Jihad in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen where, as he knew, the US and her troops would be the target of that holy war. As proposition has pointed out, we live in an age where the musings of an individual can be broadcast a great deal further than an eighteenth century pamphlet. His publications gave not only practical suggestions for the participation of others but also a moral justification and all from inside \u2018the Great Satan\u2019 \u2013 the actions of fifth columnists and traitors through the ages."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro02a","title":"","text":"Innocent until proven Muslim  Judging people by their actions rather than what they may or may not have been thinking is a fairly fundamental tenet of liberty and seems to have been thrown aside with casual disregard in this case [i] . There needs to have been a goal in place for this to meaningfully be described as a conspiracy, there was not; and demonstrably not a goal of murdering Americans overseas, which he didn\u2019t even mention.  Instead the court has conflated expressing an opinion about national policy \u2013 an entirely legitimate activity according to both the first amendment (\u201cCongress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.\u201d) [ii] and both statute and case law. As Carol Rose, executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Massachusetts, declared: \u201cIt\u2019s official. There is a Muslim exception to the First Amendment.\u201d [iii]  A huge amount of the commentary on this verdict, and the subsequent sentence, has focused on the belief that Mehanna was found guilty because of his religion [iv] [v] [vi] . Whatever the case serious concern has been expressed by jurors, Islamic groups and civil liberties organisations.  Tarek Mehanna did not justify, take part in, orchestrate, fund, supply, encourage or plan an attack on US personnel. There is no case to answer.  [i] This has not just been the case in the US. Attempts to mark online comment as seditious is a global phenomenon. Here\u2019s an example from India .  [ii] \u2018Amendment I\u2019, Cornell University Law School,   [iii] Vennochi, Joan, \u2018Tarek Mehanna case puts First Amendment on trial\u2019, The Boston Globe, 19 April 2012,   [iv] Truth Dig. Chris Hedges. First They Came For The Muslims. 16 April 2012.  [v] Information Clearing House. Roqayah Chamseddin. And Then They Came For The Muslims. April 15 2012.  [vi] The Huffington Post. Rachel Levinson-Waldman. The Narrowing of Tarek Mehanna\u2019s Liberties has Consequences for Us All. 15 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro03b","title":"","text":"None of those mentioned have travelled to Yemen in pursuit of training, presumably to be followed by participation in, the Jihad. They have not posted online 37 ways to be involved in one. They haven\u2019t identified themselves as being more supportive of Muslims, regardless of their nationality, than of their fellow countrymen in general, and those in uniform in particular. The cases are quite different."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro01a","title":"","text":"One man\u2019s freedom fighter is another\u2019s terrorist.  Nobody is suggesting that Mehanna planted a bomb \u2013 or even attempted to. His crime, if it deserves such a word is to hold an opinion and to have expressed it. That opinion was that current American military policy in the Muslim world is wrong and to suggest that those living there should be opposition to the major powers of the age attempting to impose their will, through force of arms, on a people in a different country.  Such an opinion is not only shared by many \u2013 if not a majority \u2013 of commentators in the West but could easily have been voiced by Washington, Jefferson or Adams [i] . There are two fundamental differences between Mehanna and the Founding Fathers: firstly they went further and called for violent opposition, secondly they were wealthy and white. It may be tempting to argue, \u201cBut wait, they were also Americans\u201d \u2013 no they weren\u2019t they were subjects of the British Crown. One might be tempted to argue that they were born in North America, fine but Mehanna is a faithful son of Islam \u2013 like Washington, simply defending his birth right.  Rather than recognising the similarities [ii] a court, sitting not that far from Concorde, site of the first battle of the American Revolutionary War, decided to tear up the Declaration of Independence, or at least its spirit and imprison a young man for the ideas in his head. Although the analogy with America\u2019s fight for independence from Britain may seem far-fetched, it provided the core of Mehanna\u2019s speech [iii] at his sentencing hearing although, apparently, too little affect.  [i] To take one example, here\u2019s a review of American Insurgents, American Patriots. Found here .  [ii] Daily Mail (AP). Al Qaeda Terrorist from Wealthy Boston suburb given standing ovation by family as he starts 18-year prison sentence. 13 April 2012.  [iii] Mehanna, Tarek, \u2018Tarek\u2019s powerful sentencing statement\u2019, 12 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro01b","title":"","text":"Prop\u2019s argument is an intellectual sleight of hand. Ignoring the fact that the Founding Fathers and Islamic extremists are fighting for diametrically opposed goals (a reactionary theocracy versus a revolutionary democracy) they are doing so in a different world. A world where information and perception are tools of war and where the structure of the nation-state has changed so dramatically that the expectations of citizens of a particular nation are wholly different from those of the late seventeen-hundreds [i] . The simple reality is that Mehanna sided with people who would, quite happily, murder his neighbors \u2013 regardless of their views on US foreign policy.  [i] Fox News Website. Mark Dubowitz. The Real Terror War is on the Internet. 16 March 2010."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro03a","title":"","text":"This is no different than political comment, etc.  Scholars, commentators and satirists [i] have pointed out the hypocrisy of current US strategy in the Islamic world. They have also pointed out that the only rational response to overwhelming American military superiority in terms of hardware is the kind of warfare being undertaken by insurgents from Bagdad to Kabul. None of them are in prison.  Mainstream politicians have called for an immediate withdrawal of American troops and the claims emanating from the right of the Republican Party that doing so \u2018gives succour to America\u2019s enemies\u2019 now sounds as shrill as they do bizarre. Yet none of them are in prison.  Ministers of God, political activists and intellectuals have raised the issue of the loss of life among civilians in the Muslim world and the questionable justification of those losses on the grounds of national security. And yet they remain at liberty.  America\u2019s allies around the world have questioned the continued presence of US troops in the region and, in many cases, withdrawn their own - and\u2013if removing troops from the fight is not aiding the enemy, it would be difficult to imagine what might be. Despite this, leaders of these nations are honoured guests when they visit the Whitehouse.  There may well be those on the American Right who would happily imprison all of these groups but the reality is that they remain at large. For the sake of consistency, if nothing else, Tarek Mehanna should join them [ii] .  [i] The Christian Science Monitor. Sahar Aziz. Punishing Muslims for free speech only helps Al Qaeda. 19 April 2012.  [ii] The Guardian. Ross Caoputi. Tarek Mehanna: Punished for speaking truth to power. 16 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con03b","title":"","text":"It is an interesting argument to suggest that the suppression of Mehanna\u2019s rights is okay because it has not been as sweeping as the generalised internment of Japanese Americans or the insanity of the McCarthy trials. Op is basically arguing, \u201cLook, it could have been far more brutal, so count yourselves lucky.\u201d One cannot help but suspect that comes as very small consolation to Mehanna in his prison cell. We should remember that the United States is not at war as was the case in World War II, congress has not declared war since 1945, nor even is the United States in a struggle with a peer competitor as during World War II rather it is at most fighting a disparate band of terrorists, hardly a thread that justifies such large violations of rights. [i]  [i] Bailey, Ronald, \u2018How Scared of Terrorism Should You Be?\u2019, reason.com, 6 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con01b","title":"","text":"Warfare hasn\u2019t changed because it is now a battle between creeds \u2013 that has often been the case in the past. The asymmetric warfare to which op refers is a direct result of the military hegemony of the US. To confuse criticism of taking a military approach \u2013 that bombs are not the answer in a battle of ideas \u2013 with material support for the other side hands them a victory. It\u2019s worth remembering that the US won the battle of ideas with the Soviet Union by demonstrating its virtues, as the body count increases in the foray with Islam, attitudes are hardening on both sides as we see the worst of both.  To take the one example given by Op, 39 ways to participate in Jihad \u2013 and this was at the heart of the prosecution. Google the term and you\u2019ll come up with 590,000 returns, including full English translations and comment from respected scholars and journalists [i] .  It is impossible to protect the principles of liberty and democracy by locking people up for expressing their opinions. As the UK\u2019s former Lord Chief Justice Woolf, pointed out, it is inconceivable that terrorist acts could pose a danger to nation states comparable to WWII and yet the response of many governments has been to go further in the removal of basic rights than was the case during that conflict.  [i] The New York Review of Books. David Cole. 39 ways to Limit Freedom of Speech. 19 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con02a","title":"","text":"\u2018Providing support\u2019 must be considered to relate to implied moral support and justification  There is far more to aiding an enemy of the state than supplying them with armaments or funding. Propagandists and other saboteurs of the mind [i] have always been seen as a very real threat to national security, especially in times of war. To present the actions of Tarek Mehanna as anything other than endorsing and giving encouragement to those seeking to harm US personnel overseas takes an unusually determined form of niaivity.  He may have stopped short of posting instructions for bomb making online but he expressly stated that Muslims should resist the invasion of their lands by non-Muslim invaders. Proposition has been strangely silent on how, exactly, that could be done without the use of an AK47 or an IED.  Mehanna\u2019s remarks are clearly a call to take up arms against US troops, presumably with the intention of killing them. That is, by definition, to be part of a conspiracy, along with his readers, to kill US citizens overseas \u2013 the crime with which he was charged and convicted.  [i] Lawfare. Benjamin Wittes. Peter Margulies Responds to David Cole. 21 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con03a","title":"","text":"Views of free speech in time of war (Japanese internment, American Communist party, etc.)  Nations act to defend themselves in times of war. Frequently those actions do not represent the highest ideals against which that nation may wish to be judged but they are an unpleasant reality of survival. It is demonstrably true that there have been Jihadi cells in western nations and that Western troops are at risk from their allies and enemies in Afghanistan and elsewhere. Stopping them before they act seems vastly preferable to the deaths of dozens or hundreds of civilians and military personnel.  America\u2019s actions against Japanese civilians in WWII or Communist sympathizers during the Cold War may fall short of the ideals one might hope for but they ensured the survival of those ideals against the threats posed firstly by Nazism and then by Communism. In the face of Islamofascism, the response of governments in the West has been comparatively restrained when set alongside those earlier periods.  However, where there is a demonstrable threat to a nations civilian or military personnel, it would be a dereliction of duty not to take action. Mehanna\u2019s conviction and imprisonment was a relatively modest act considering the threat \u2013 and far more humane than what has been meted out in return by those he supported against US and other citizens overseas \u2013 without the niceties of due process or the outrage of the liberal press."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con01a","title":"","text":"Differing nature of war (not essays against king or country but about creeds)  In an unusual show of unity, most analysts are agreed that the wars of the 21st century will be markedly different from those that went before [i] . Clashes will be between civilisations and global perspectives fought with comparatively scant regard to national boundaries. Within this framework, the groups identified, broadly, as \u2018Islam\u2019 and \u2018the West\u2019 [ii] seem to be lining up as the two main players \u2013 although this seems to be by default in the case of the West. In this regard, at least, Bush jr. was absolutely spot on with his \u2018with us or against us\u2019 assessment of the nature of modern conflict.  Tarek Mehanna\u2019s publications aren\u2019t idle musings on political philosophy, they are practical suggestions about how his readers can involve themselves in a war against the US and its allies \u2013 advice given in his translation of 39 Ways to Participate in Jihad - a war between a sexist, reactionary, mediaeval theocratic mindset and those peoples who seek to defend the liberal and democratic principles of the Enlightenment. One of the reasons highlighted by the prosecution was that Mehanna and others like him don\u2019t need to recruit a regiment or resource a battalion. The Terrorist atrocities that have shaken the world in recent years, 9.11, 7.7, Madrid and the rest, have involved in total a few dozen people. One inspirational individual, as the judge in this case noted, is quite capable of creating bloodshed and murder with a very small following.  Mehanna was and remains in no doubt about what side he is on. Prop\u2019s only argument seems to be that he wasn\u2019t a very effective agent. In response to which; firstly, thank God and, secondly, it would be an odd way to fight a war to wait until a massacre was committed before doing anything about it.  [i] Neumayer, Eric and Pl\u00fcmper, Thomas (2009) International terrorism and the clash of  civilizations. British journal of political science, 39 (4). pp. 711-734.  [ii] Although politicians have been at pains to stress that the battle with Islam per se many scholars have used the terms. This view was codified in Samuel P. Huntington\u2019s book Clash of Civilisation in 1993. An article that preceded its publication (Foreign Affairs. Samuel Huntington. Clash of Civilizations? Summer 1993) can be found here ."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con02b","title":"","text":"Tarek Mehanna was engaged in promoting a political viewpoint that may not be shared by many but is certainly shared by some. Among them other American citizens [i] . When did promoting a viewpoint in the land of free speech become a crime? While we may not like that a U.S. citizen sympathises with the objective of removing US soldiers from Afghanistan and believes this enough that he considers that military resistance may be necessary to get the Americans out it is not the case that this moral support provides physical support for such attacks, and it is unlikely that he would even have provided inspiration. Mehanna was lynched, he was a scapegoat created out of the paranoia created partly by events and partly by the actions of a US administration with a point to prove.  [i] Guardian. Ibid."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro02b","title":"","text":"Quite different claims are made about the origin of the authority of the other thinkers prop mentions. Their authority derives from the contents of their works whereas that of the prophets derives from a supreme being. To question their words is, therefore, to question the power and judgement of the supreme being to establish that authority in the first place. As a result, it is not \u2018special pleading\u2019 but an entirely different premise underpinning the ideas that are being profaned. Any attack on that authority starts to undermine the whole religion and its beliefs which is different from secular authors where their works are simply the starting point of a discourse.  It should also not surprise us that politicians act when a religious group is attacked but not as a result misrepresentation of scientific data; religions are large interest groups who may effect a future election. It is the politician\u2019s job to decide whether he needs to take action to placate that group."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro02a","title":"","text":"Special pleading  Why are religious creeds given special license to block others freedom of expression? We live in a world of laws, supported by evidence on the basis of what can be perceived in the world around us. This applies in the fields of politics, law, science and others. Only when it comes to religion (and, possibly national identity) do we tolerate arguments made on the basis of unproven belief. There is of course a role for fantasy in life but protests as a result of people pointing out that it is fantasy seems to be taking things a little far.  Nobody appears to be suggesting that the film Innocence of Muslims was anything more than a badly made, ill-conceived, puerile bit of adolescent vitriol. By any reasonable scale it pales into insignificance compared with, for example, blowing up embassies or issuing death threats against foreign nationals [i] .  Were politicians to take action to urge the blocking of free speech on the rather more significant reasons for offence of misrepresentation of scientific data, libel, corruption of legal evidence or the, absolutely routine, misrepresentation of a political position, as President Obama did when calling Google, [ii] they would be written off as a lunatic. However, dress the idea up in a cassock and everyone seems to think that there is a meaningful issue to be discussed. There is no definable difference between saying something inaccurate or (in this case) impolitic about Nero, Plato, Sejong, Al\u2019Khwarizmi or any other historical figure than about Christ, Mohammed or Moses other than the fact that the followers of the last three are more likely to resort to violence. Since when did that become a moral argument?  [i] Bermuda Sun. Obama on Religion. 28 September 2012.  [ii] Greenwald, Glenn, \u2018Conservatives, Democrats and the convenience of denouncing free speech\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 16 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro03b","title":"","text":"The fact that religious thought tends to be subverted to defend the status quo is hardly a compelling argument as the same can be said for almost all forms of thought. There is a natural backlash from vested interests against any innovation and religion should not be blamed for having this same tendency. We should however not rule out the need to take a moral approach to some things for example; using stem cells might have huge medical benefits but it still needs to be considered whether it is morally right."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro01a","title":"","text":"A one way street  Religion is at the heart of people\u2019s identities and is based upon belief rather than reason so it is not surprising that religious groups sometimes take offence both quickly and easily. While political ideologies, or in certain scientific theories, may be believed as feverently religion by some with these beliefs come an acceptance that there are contrary opinions and a need to reason to persuade. This leaves open the possibility that they can be persuaded through reason that they are wrong. The stakes involved are very different, an eternity in Hell versus losing the next election. A political believer can afford to be malleable in a way a religious believer cant.  Increasingly religious groups offense seems to lead to threats of, or actual, violence [i] , the concerted apologies of elected representatives around the world and a total loss of any sense of proportion. If something is offensive to Christians or Muslims then, apparently, other considerations have to take a back seat. Whether it\u2019s Christian homophobia in the Deep South or Islamic Xenophobia in the Middle East, offensiveness is a line that cannot be crossed.  Or, at least, it cannot be crossed in one direction.  For a group of creeds that are so quick to take offence, those religious groups that are the first to call foul seem happy enough to dole it out in the other direction. Even the basic tenets of the major faiths, say the eternal reality of Hell for non-believers [ii] , could be seen as offensive by those judged worth of being tortured for all eternity simply for getting on with their lives.  The very predicate of extreme faith \u2013 that everybody else lacks a moral compass and is going to suffer tortures for eternity as a result \u2013 is fairly offensive \u2013 and palpably untrue [iii] - by any standard. Once the discussion moves on to specifics, the insults become more pointed; perverts, fornicators, sinners and murderers (homosexuals, unmarried couples, divorcees and anyone involved with abortion, respectively). Their wrath isn\u2019t limited to individuals, entire nations can be written off as corrupt and evil and damned to an eternity of suffering in the blink of an eye and for little apparent reason. In fact no reason, per se, at all.  If offensive statements are to be prohibited, then surely it should be a general rule. Many secularists find it offensive that theists of all stripes assume that there can be no morality without divine instruction, so that could be the first set of offensive comments to go, closely followed by religious opinions on what people should do in the privacy of their own bedrooms and the doctrines of salvation by faith.  Any other position would be too inconsistent to be worth much consideration.  [i] Religion, Violence, Crime and Mass Suicide. Vexen Crabtree. 31 August 2009.  [ii] Catechism of the Roman Catholic Church. Paragraphs 1033 \u2013 1037.  [iii] The Daily Telegraph. Atheists \u2018just as ethical as churchgoers\u2019. 9 February 2010."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is a massive over-generalisation to suggest a link between those who take offence from blasphemous or sacrilegious statements and violence [i] . Furthermore within the predicates of religious thought an offence against god has to be of a magnitude different from one against a temporal power \u2013 to question that basic fact is to question religions being religious; it\u2019s nonsensical. Most religions claim a total, but self-supporting, basis for their concept of truth. It is all true or none of it is; it\u2019s nonsensical to believe in an omniscient being who is only one view among many.  However, contrasting those traditions with the European Enlightenment tradition \u2013 and, apparently, criticising them for not sharing its values is not only contrary but hypocritical \u2013 the basis of the offence is the conflict between the two traditions.  [i] Greenboro News and Record. Anti-abortion violence negate pro-life goals. 11 October 1998."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro03a","title":"","text":"Stifling progress and the right of others  The particular subjects areas often chosen by theists to find offensive make for an interesting list;  Freedom of expression,  The rule of law,  Scientific progress,  Medical progress,  Artistic expression  To name but a few. There are remarkably few areas of human progress and development \u2013 intellectual or societal \u2013 that have not caused \u2018offence\u2019 in some religious community somewhere. The best known is of course the Catholic Church\u2019s forcing Galileo to recant his research in the 17th century. There is no need to seek out obscure fanatics for this purpose, mainstream religious figures seem to genuinely believe that the equality of women is still a difficult issue. To take just one example, in 2012 the supposedly moderate and progressive Anglican Communion is still unsure as to whether the ability to be a senior manager should be determined on the basis of somebody\u2019s gender [i] . With the exception of a handful that are in thrall to religious dominance, every nation state, company, charity, university and scholarly discipline has resolved this question and found itself better as a result. Most religions haven\u2019t even started the process. Now that\u2019s offensive.  [i] BBC Website. Trevor Timpson. Women bishops: Anglicans still unsure over new wording. 17 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con03b","title":"","text":"It certainly doesn\u2019t prove the point, it does however highlight one. As a result of religious teaching the majority of people have, at different points in history, been certain that;  The Earth was flat,  The Earth, or even a particular point on the earth, was the centre of the universe,  The Earth is less than six thousand years old,  Certain races were not human [i]  Women were created inferior to men  If ever evidence were needed that the majority are frequently and alarmingly wrong, then religion provides it in abundance.  [i] For example the Christian concept of Polygenism \u2013 the notion that the white races were descended from Adam and others not \u2013 has had several outings during history. Among other things it has been used to justify slavery, apartheid and imperialism."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con01b","title":"","text":"Who is to judge when an expression has a \u2018point\u2019? In the cases cited by Opposition, the \u2018point\u2019, however inexpertly made, seems to have been to demonstrate the many flaws and contradictions within the Koran. To suggest that demonstrating that one of the world\u2019s major religions \u2013 with one and a half billion followers and several states framing their legal system on the basis of its dictates \u2013 is riddled with contradictions and that its modern manifestation bears little resemblance to the original protestations of the prophet hardly seems pointless. Indeed much of the offence that was taken seems to have been caused by the very fact that the film did have a point."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con02a","title":"","text":"Realpolitik  Freedom of expression should be exercised with care. Everyone who exercises this right has to remember that there are consequences of their actions. The Innocence of Muslims is a good example of this. Dropping explosive comments or artworks into situations [i] that are already fraught with historical tension \u2013 sectarian divisions in Europe, religious tensions in the Middle East, the interwoven politico-religious stresses of the United States \u2013 should not be done without very good cause. Those who chose to exercise their freedom of expression in this case are at least partially responsible for the protests, and any injuries, that resulted.  It should be recognised that there need to be curbs on the offensive use of freedom of expression in order to prevent the consequences that may result from such expression. National interests dictate that states should take into account religious sensitivities in order to avoid unnecessary conflict.  [i] The Guardian Film Blog. Peter Bradshaw. Innocence of Muslims: a dark demonstration of the power of film. 17 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con03a","title":"","text":"The interests of the majority  Although it may not prove the issue, it is certainly worth being aware of the fact that when referring to \u201ctheists\u201d, proposition is talking about the overwhelming majority of the world\u2019s population and then attempting to portray a small, fundamentalist minority as typical. Even talking mostly secular China into account \u2013 where determining religious affiliation is fantastically complicated \u2013 fewer than one seventh of the population of the planet profess no religious faith. A probable, although unproven, majority take their religion for granted but see it as no obstacle to free speech.  There is no need to indulge in majoritarian assumptions to accept the basic principal that the opinions of the overwhelming majority are at least worth treating with some respect. After all, with odds of 7:1 against, even the most hardened, fire-breathing of secularists would have to concede that they might have a point. For the rest of humanity, simple experience suggests that avoiding religious groups offending each other is a sensible way of avoiding wars [i] . So whether it\u2019s an odds game for secularists or just altruistic self-interest for others not causing offence would seem to be the more sensible option.  [i] Wikpedia. Religious wars."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con01a","title":"","text":"Why cause offence to no purpose?  The important issue here is the outcome. In most imaginable instances the person or group causing the offence has nothing to gain. If people of faith find things offensive in a way that a comparable devotee of Marx or Adam Smith does not, why cause that offence? We don\u2019t wander around pointing out that people are ugly or fat \u2013 not because it isn\u2019t true but because there is no reason to cause offence except in extreme circumstances [i] .  The Innocence of Muslims film is a perfect example; what was its point? As a conversion tool it seems utterly useless. It is hardly setting out detailed theological arguments, it doesn\u2019t seem to be trying to make a point. It\u2019s only apparent function seems to be to cause hurt and offence [ii] .  The idea that causing offence to some purpose may be an unavoidable bi-product of life would be one thing but in many cases there appears to be an intention to offend and if this is the case then it should be stopped.  Even where there is another purpose in mind, why not avoid causing offence wherever possible. In no other area of life would we comment of act in a way that may cause offence unless there was great need. If the creators of Innocence of Muslims wanted to point out failings in Islam then they could have had a reasoned documentary considering and weighing up evidence like Thomas Holland\u2019s book \u2018In the Shadow of the Sword\u2019. [iii] Freedom of expression is not there to allow anyone to offend whoever they please.  Religious sensibilities should have a block on free expression in the same way other sensibilities do \u2013 in the usual course of events, they\u2019re taken into account. Without great cause nobody would criticize troops at a veteran\u2019s event or deliver a broadside against young people at a gathering of students. In the same way, should religious sensibilities, in and of themselves, be a block to freedom of speech? Yes. All other things being equal, should religious sensibilities be respected? Yes, of course.  [i] BBC material hosted on Youtube. Conversation between Jonathan Miller and Daniel Dennett. The Atheist Tapes.  [ii] Omid Safi. Religion News. What would Mohammed do? 12 September 2012.  [iii] Holland, Tom, In the Shadow of the Sword, Little Brown, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con02b","title":"","text":"Realpolitik is not a reason to compromise our ideals. Comments and artworks about \u201cexplosive situations\u201d are a fundamental part of free expression. Opposition seems to be labouring under the misapprehension that free-expression is okay, so long as nobody minds. If nobody objects to it, there\u2019s no need to have a right to do it. In short we wither accept freedom of expression or not; if there is freedom of expression then we must be consistent and defend the freedom for everyone."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro02b","title":"","text":"The Opposition is perfectly happy to be attacked for making life easier for people with disabilities by taking down barriers that separate them from the wider population. There a parts of any community that prefer to do things in a certain way, however governments rarely commit to guaranteeing all preferences, instead they guarantee a basic level of service provision and then offer choice where possible and affordable. This is true in education and welfare right through to national defense \u2013 militaries, except the US, tend to specialise and rely on allies for other operations."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Braille should be offered the same protection as minority languages.  The issue of the protection of minority languages is a difficult one for most governments as it is usually argued that most speakers of such languages also make use of the dominant language and, where they don\u2019t, they should learn for their own good. For example French speakers in Canada must also learn English. [i] However, there are senses and experiences that are uniquely held within a community and expressed within those languages. In many ways Braille functions in similar ways, a shared experience between those who read it, a bond between users and, for the most part, denied to outsiders. By its nature, it is tactile and speaks in a way that is not true of audiobooks prepared for a wider market. In purely practical terms there is relatively little difference between reading speeds in Braille and listening to audiobooks (about 130 against 150 wpm). [ii] Learning Braille also has immense practical benefits, not least of which is being employable, 90% of those who are braille literate are employed compared to 33% of blind people who are braille illiterate. [iii]  It seems simply strange to insist that those who have already lost one form of access to the wider world \u2013 indeed the method most widely used in that world \u2013 should be denied another simply because it is deemed to be cheaper, easier or \u2018better for them\u2019. Indeed such an action is deeply redolent of the debate over minority languages. Although not all of the blind community prefers to use Braille, many of them do and that would seem sufficient reason to respect it as an important way in which they interact with the world, and receive and impart ideas \u2013 the twin pillars of free speech [iv] .  [i] Burnaby, Barbara J., \u2018Language Policy\u2019, The Canadian Encyclopedia, 1996,   [ii] Reading Braille. RIDB Crenwick Centre.  [iii] Ouellette, Matthew David, \u2018Low Cost, Compact Braille Printing Head For Use in Handheld Braille Transcribing Device\u2019, Mechanical Engineering Master's Theses. Paper 41. p.2   [iv] Guidelines on the use of minority languages in the broadcast media. Minority Rights Group International."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is not a case of insisting that there are other or better options; there are other or better options. Equally, there is no need to \u2018predict\u2019 the death of the physical book; it is dying. Increasingly specialist publishers, such as Dorchester Publishing which focuses on paperbacks, [i] will only produce e-books as it cuts out the actual cost of printing and, therefore, the opportunity cost of remaindered copies.  [i] Trachtenberg, Jeffrey A., Mass Paperback Publisher Goes All Digital\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 6 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Free speech is as much about being able to receive the ideas of others as it is about expressing one\u2019s own.  We know from the work of educational psychologists that different people acquire knowledge in different ways. For example, some sighted language learners learn more effectively visually, other aurally. The evidence mentioned in the introduction suggests that this is no less true for blind students with those without access to Braille scoring less well in exams than those with it.  This becomes an issue of free speech when by compelling people to acquire information in a certain way means that they either have less access to that information or less chance of effectively digesting it. For those for whom are proficient Braille is their preferred medium, [i] despite there being alternatives for communication [ii] , it is their only medium for text, and is useful for using computers which may use a braille display. [iii]  However, even if this were just a matter of preference, it would be odd not to treat this as a free speech issue; allowing people access to information in a way that is not only possible but comfortable and convenient is at the heart of most forms of information distribution. A majority of people receive their news online but newspapers still exist because some people prefer them. It would be possible for readers to access information via microfiche but would be so inconvenient that it is rarely used.  It surely makes sense to see new delivery systems for information as an opportunity to expand, not reduce, the methods available for both imparting and receiving information.  [i] \u2018Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking and Technology Did You Know?\u2019, University of Washington, 2000,   [ii] Deafblinduk.org.uk. Types of Communication.  [iii] Singh, Reeta, \u2018Blind Handicapped Vs. Technology: How do Blind People use Computers?\u2019, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Vol. 3, Issue 4, April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro01b","title":"","text":"Free speech may well be about the ability to receive ideas as well as express them but in neither case is it about how those ideas are expressed or received. To suggest that a state that refuses to provide a movie studio to any of its citizens who requests one is somehow suppressing their right of free expression would clearly be ridiculous. The state has a duty to guarantee the right, not the methodology."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro03a","title":"","text":"The attacks on Braille are part of a wider move against the physical book.  The death of the book has been predicted with virtually every technological innovation and yet, it remains one of the most widespread and recognised means of communication in the world, with physical book sales representing about 80% of total book sales [i] . There are many reasons for this, its communicability, its physicality, it history and associations. Whatever the reasons for its enduring success, it remains one of the great design achievements of humanity as a species, comfortably alongside the wheel, the screw and cash.  Whatever the reason for this enduring success, it has it and the latest set of doomsayers may well go the way of the rest. Perhaps the greatest reason for its enduring success is that the book is silent. The reader gives voice to characters and charts their own way through fiction or selects their own phrases for emphasis in non-fiction.  There is nobody \u2013 actor or director \u2013 between the reader and the author.  If that applies to the printed word it applies equally or more to Braille. It is notable that the decline in braille literacy has led to a decline in poetry and literature output by the blind community. [ii] In turn, it is surely part of the author\u2019s right to speak freely that they speak directly to their reader.  [i] Ebooks Popularity is Rewriting Sales History. Carol Memmet. 5 September 2011. USA Today.  [ii] Ouellette, Matthew David, \u2018Low Cost, Compact Braille Printing Head For Use in Handheld Braille Transcribing Device\u2019, Mechanical Engineering Master's Theses. Paper 41. p.2"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con03b","title":"","text":"All of that may well be true, however it does not make the two approaches mutually exclusive. Demonstrating that digital is good does not make analogue bad. Attacks on libraries have been driven more by austerity cuts, that are forcing 20% of the staff at Library and Archives Canada to go, [i] and the situation is similar in other countries such as the UK, [ii] than by the diminishing popularity of the book in particular or libraries in general. Indeed, the book has never been more popular as the ranks of those who like digital formats have been swelled by the digital natives of the Internet age.  [i] CBC News, \u2018Federal libraries, archives shutting down\u2019, CBC, 2 May 2012,   [ii] Hall, James, \u2018Scale of library cut-backs revealed\u2019, The Telegraph, 16 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con01b","title":"","text":"The suggestion that seven million dollars is an excessive expenditure on a resource for 836,000 is extortionate is simply nonsense. That\u2019s a little over eight dollars a head, hardly likely to break the bank. To say that a government is not discouraging the use of something by making it harder to access is simply untrue. Of course if a resource is harder or more expensive to access, people will be discouraged from using it."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con02a","title":"","text":"If the information is accessible in another format, it is wrong to claim that this is an issue of free speech.  To argue that this is a matter of the infringement of the right to free speech is not only wrong but offensive to those who have had that right genuinely curtailed. A stifling of free speech is about cutting off people\u2019s access to ideas, denying them the right to take those ideas and present them to others. The slow, natural death of Braille does not do that. Fewer than one in ten blind children now learn Braille [i] . Those who wish to continue to use Braille can do so just as those who prefer to write a letter rather than send an email can do so. Both groups however, accept that it is likely to become more expensive and exclude them from the rest of society as others adapt and new technologies become the norm.  The information and ideas are there, they are available in a format that is available, even if it is not the format of absolute preference. The technology is available, many prefer it, those who don\u2019t are free not to use it.  [i] \u201cThe Death of Braille\u201d \u2013 Appropriate or Ominous? Neatorama.com. 26 February 2010."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con03a","title":"","text":"Readers of all kinds are adapting to books being produced in new formats, publishers need to respond to this decline.  The current shift in publishing is unlike any other that has gone before, e-books are not like the TV, the Record player or the radio as all of these could only reproduce books in heavily edited form. The change is shown by ebook sales having outperformed printed book sales on amazon in the UK for the first time. [i] Against braille it is audio formats that are the biggest threat, the tape machine, the Walkman, the CD, Mp3, Mp4 and so on. All of these can reproduce books, unedited, in a format that allows the listener to proceed at their own pace, jump back and forwards and so on \u2013 just as a book does.  Earlier technologies had problems with quality, and each in turn was initially expensive. As they became more commonplace, quality improved and the price fell. Both of these have now coincided to create technologies that allow the listener the ultimate convenience.  Returning to the example given in the introduction, the CNIB library. Canada is a big country and Braille books are cumbersome. How much easier to email someone an MPEG, which they can have within seconds.  The digital age offers huge benefits to all but none more so than to those with sensory impairments. Its possibilities really are only bounded by our imagination.  [i] Malik, Shiv, \u2018Kindle ebooksales have overtaken Amazon print sales, says book seller\u2019, The Guardian, 6 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con01a","title":"","text":"It is not a case of insisting that there are other or better options; there are other or better options. Equally, there is no need to \u2018predict\u2019 the death of the physical book; it is dying. Increasingly specialist publishers, such as Dorchester Publishing  The introduction makes reference to the seventy-two volume \u2018pocket\u2019 dictionary. It\u2019s an excellent example. [i] With printed text, many previously cumbersome physical books \u2013 the Complete OED, the Encyclopaedia Britannica and others \u2013 are now only available in digital format. [ii]  Nobody is suggesting banning Braille or even discouraging it, simply following the possibilities offered by technology for easier, cheaper and more portable formats. [iii]  If there were a huge market for Braille it would survive but clearly enough people are happy with other formats for it to require subsidy and support. This means, inevitably, that the taxpayer will end up footing the bill despite there being cheaper alternatives that are increasingly popular.  As with any technological change \u2013 or any major societal change for that matter \u2013 there are those who will find that change easy and others who will find it more difficult. For those who find it impossible \u2013 such as deaf and blind students \u2013 clearly other alternatives need to be provided but it seems sensible to look to the technologies of the future to fulfil those needs rather than those of the past.  [i] Engelhart, Katie, \u2018The importance of Braille literacy\u2019, Free Speech Debate, 6 July 2012,   [ii] Britannica Editors, \u2018Britannica\u2019s Digital Milestones\u2019, Encyclopaedia Britannica Blog, 13 March 2012,   [iii] Listening To Braille. Rachel Aviv. New York Times. 30 December 2009"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con02b","title":"","text":"This is a little reminiscent of Anatole France\u2019s comment that \u201cThe law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal their bread.\u201d [i] Those who feel uncomfortable with a method of delivery are less likely to use it and are therefore excluded, in part at least, from information delivered in that format. To further exclude a group who are already denied some graphical representations of information another form of delivery does exclude them and limit their ability to speak freely as they are denied the information that is its root.  Additionally, oppositions argument only works were there is real action to take up new technologies rather than letting Braille die off without investing in replacement technologies, which has been seen in several jurisdictions including India [ii] .  [i] McBride, Nicholas J., \u2018The Importance of Law\u2019, in Letters to a Law Student, 2010,   [ii] Government turns blind eye to Braille Press. Rohit, P.S. The Times of India. 4 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro02b","title":"","text":"It all boils down to personal action. People who act embarrassingly in parties should not be surprised that they can be filmed. Likewise, the \u2018Star Wars kid\u2019 left the copy of a video in his high school\u2019s film studio where it was found by other teenagers. Even people who become victims of revenge porn at the very beginning were not acting according with good judgement because they themselves organised sexual acts to be filmed or photographed and then given to other people, whom they could have not even known well. Expressing bad judgement does not incur responsibilities on other people and companies to provide you with rights, when other people are doing nothing illegal by re-posting your public material or your public actions.  Moreover, in cases of potential violation of laws, legislation can still be enacted without any kind of Right to be forgotten - California has passed a law combatting revenge porn [9]. It might not be perfect but that is because the issue is pretty novel and in time we\u2019ll learn to deal with it better."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro02a","title":"","text":"People need protection against harmful information posted by others  People cannot control information that others post about them, for instance embarrassing photos from parties. Even if the original source came from people themselves, they cannot delete this information if it has been shared by other people on their social media channels. For example, Ghyslain Raza\u2019s video of himself goofing around with a golf stick pretending to be in Star Wars, was uploaded by his classmates without his consent [6]. While the video went viral without Ghyslain being able to delete all of its appearances at different sites, he himself suffered merciless bullying online and in real life [7].  There even are people who exploit people\u2019s inability to delete embarrassing content relating to them online. \u2018Revenge porn\u2019, which is uploading private material of sexual nature of ex-partners online in an effort to humiliate them, is especially hard to delete and prosecute [8]. Since embarrassing information can end up online without a person\u2019s consent and is very difficult to delete using current policy measures, the right to be forgotten is the only way to help these people."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is not true that people cannot manage consequences from their action online. It might only seem so but that is because the issues around personal data have emerged relatively recently, so we are still learning to deal with them. Individuals are learning how to manage their personal data online responsibly to make sure such humiliating situations do not occur. There are resources and programmes on how to talk to children about using the internet and other digital devices, including sexting, responsibly [11]. The same way, there are and should be calls for the society to be considerate towards victims of personal data abuse and be less abusive online."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is unfair for people to suffer for silly past mistakes  People make silly mistakes, especially when they are young. The age from which you can join Facebook is 13 and pretty much anyone can post videos to Youtube, run a blog or post comments. It is then no surprise that people can leave unflattering information about themselves that at that moment they considered to be worth posting. However, this is just a one-sided representation of a person, because many good things cannot be well represented online, e.g. nobody posts a video of oneself working hard.  Nevertheless, this one-sided representation can have very damaging consequences to a person. For instance, a well-known case is of Stacy Snyder who was refused a teaching certificate by her university because of a picture of her as a drunken pirate on myspace.com, and not because she was a bad student [4]. More importantly, current measures to delete information might not be enough, as digital information stays in internet archives, social media archives (such as profileengine.com), or can just be reposted by people on other sites and their own social media pages. Given this and the fact that these are not who people truly are, it is unfair to deny them the right to erase things that damage their reputation."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro01b","title":"","text":"People put up all those unflattering things about themselves online without being forced to. Those are true, even if not full, representations of them. But that one-sided representation is exactly how the person wanted to be seen. They always have an option of showcasing a better image of themselves (through photos, videos, blogs, etc.) online, but nobody owes them the right to undo something they themselves freely shared. It might be a mistake they realise later on, but mistakes do not create a right to erase everything about that mistake. Nothing in real worlds works like that \u2013 you might have made a mistake by getting to drunk at a company Christmas party, but you can't insist on co-workers pretending that never happened and not telling anyone.  Moreover, there is plenty of information about how to act on the internet [5]. So we should not grant such a right to someone who did not learn how to act on the internet - they'll have to learn the hard way."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro03a","title":"","text":"People suffer disproportional consequences on the internet  The internet magnifies the problem of embarrassing personal data and makes it very hard for people to manage the consequences. In real life, though we suffer consequences for our embarrassing behaviour (or behaviour others think is embarrassing), we can manage it easier, e.g. by talking to the people involved or as a final resort moving. The internet means the humiliating material is rapidly exposed to millions of people around the world, meaning that people can face humiliation anywhere without an ability to manage it.  There are even cases of young people taking their lives after bullying and cyber-bullying that followed information about them being posted online. The most famous case is that of teenager Amanda Todd, who committed suicide after half-nude photos were posted online \u2013 she could not escape ridicule even after she moved schools, because photos remained online [10]. Because real life actions are not enough to manage consequences of humiliating personal data, new ways suitable for the digital sphere have to be created, and that way is the right to be forgotten."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con03b","title":"","text":"People\u2019s digital footprint, though it might be indicative of who a person is, is not a perfect representation of them or of their entire character. People act differently on the internet behind a screen, and sometimes some anonymity, than in real life because they feel free of social norms. But in real life social norms exist and people adhere to them, meaning that their internet activity cannot be directly linked to their real life actions. Finally, we cannot expect people to constantly leave personal data on the internet, which means we cannot get a consistent view of a person\u2019s character or their personal development. E.g. someone\u2019s leaving a racist comment 10 years ago does not mean they are still racist now. All this is not just useless for the judicial process; it can actually harm justice by giving false representations of people, which will lead to unfair convictions (or unfair acquittals). For instance, the defence in the famous Trayvon Martin case used digital photos of Trayvon smoking weed or posing as a gangster to present him as a thug and a threat, even though these photos were typical of how young people present themselves, and had no connection to the actual crime [12]."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con01b","title":"","text":"The internet is different from reality since the magnitude of consequences you might suffer is much greater. While there might be a school laughing at you over something in real life, on the internet it might be the whole world. We accept ridicule and embarrassment in real life not just because it happens, but also because the effect is not so overwhelming in the majority of cases. People get bored of the news and stop talking, while in the digital era new people can always find you and laugh at you \u2013 memories fade, photos and videos online do not. So internet is different from the real life and requires new rules.  Moreover, the right to be forgotten is not applicable to the real life not because of a principle, but because we cannot enforce it. We can\u2019t delete people\u2019s memories. But we can delete information online."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con02a","title":"","text":"This right relieves people of the need to act responsibility online  Having a right to be forgotten means that people can be less responsible about what they share and how they act on the internet. Knowing that they can always remove all trace of what they did relieves people of the necessity to consider the consequences of what they are doing online. This is especially true for young adults: they often post unflattering information, such as pictures of them drunk or half-nude, or write offensive comments for the pay-out of immediate popularity in their peer group. However, what also prevents them from doing this is thinking about how that might affect them in the future. When they know that after some time they can delete their digital trace completely there is nothing preventing them from acting irresponsibly in hope of popularity. Such irresponsible behaviour then puts a burden on the state to fix the mess by applying and overseeing the right to be forgotten."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con03a","title":"","text":"What seems like irrelevant information now might serve justice in the future  People\u2019s digital footprint, though of no public interest at the moment, might be useful in the future. It is a common practice in courts to investigate a person\u2019s character or motives to check for their probability of committing a crime. Photos, videos, comments and blogs can shed light on these issues should the person be investigated under law. For instance, racist or sexist youtube comments might be of use in a trial where a defendant denies his\/her actions were a result of racial or gender hatred; blogs, photos and videos a person posts and shares, and their internet searches can serve to assess what the person is like. Digital footprints can be used not only to sentence people, but also to prove their innocence. Given that discerning people\u2019s motives and a character is a vital part of the legal process that is also very elusive, having access to their online behaviour is very useful. Digital information thus can be a useful tool to bring about justice and the right to be forgotten would forgo this opportunity as people could just delete everything about themselves."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con01a","title":"","text":"The internet does not need additional rights to those in the real world  The right to be forgotten is premised on the idea that internet requires additional rights beyond those in the real world. Offline there is no right to demand that people do not to talk about or show photos of your embarrassing moments. Provided that there is no privacy breach, once something is out in public, you cannot take it back. There is no rule enabling you to be forgotten in real life, even if things you have done harm you. Why then do rules have to be different for the internet?  In 21st century the internet has become an integral part of our lives and of human communication that it is in fact just another reality for us. We do the same things there as we do in real life \u2013 socialise, engage in our hobbies etc. The only difference is that the internet provides us with greater opportunities, such as reaching more people, but that does not change the principle that human interaction online is pretty much the same as offline. If there is no right to be forgotten in real life, there should not be one in the digital one."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con02b","title":"","text":"We expect people to want to use the right to be forgotten mostly when the information on the web is actually hurting them. That means that, in the most common scenario, people would face negative consequences before they can use the right, otherwise why bother one-self with engaging the legal system? However a lack of responsibility is not a charge that can be levied at everyone, often they just could not foresee the consequences. Being responsible is premised on the idea that you know the results of your actions. When you do not and cannot know them \u2013 because maybe that photo will be a problem in 10 years \u2013 no amount of thinking about an issue is going to make it better."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro02b","title":"","text":"What exactly is the public interest? It is difficult to define in law as Britain is finding in its enquiry into phone hacking, [1] and individuals disagree. [2] Journalists in particular are likely to be much happier about the idea than the rest of the public because it defends their interest to have a broad interpretation. It should not have been up to either Kamm or Haaretz to define what the public interest is. There are some things that have to be left to the state.  [1] Sabbagh, Dan, \u2018Clarification of the \u2018public interest\u2019 defence is badly needed\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 8 April 2012.  [2] Elliott, Chris, \u2018What do you think \u2018public interest\u2019 means?\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 15 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The public have a right to know what is committed in their name  \u201cThere were aspects of IDF operations which I thought should be brought to the attention of the public.\u201d [1] Kamm is correct; in any state, but especially in a democracy like Israel, the military is there to protect the state and its people. It is paid for by the people through their taxes. The military is composed of the people through conscription. And as a result what it does is in the name of the people. The accountability of the instruments of the state, including the military, is at the core of what it means to be a democracy. It is therefore essential that the people know what it is doing in their name. Many democracies have laws giving a \u201cright to know\u201d for example the United State\u2019s Freedom of Information Act and First Amendment right of access. [2]  It is therefore in the public interest to expose activities that may be detrimental to the state. In this case the military was exposed doing something it has been specifically ordered not to do by the courts so exposing a military that was disobeying civilian authority.  [1] Collins, Liat, \u2018My Word: Questions and secrets\u2019, Jerusalem Post, 5 November 2011.  [2] Papandrea, Mary-Rose, \u2018Under Attack: The Public\u2019s Right to Know and the War on Terror\u2019, Boston College Third World Law Journal, Vol.25, Issue 1, pp.35-80."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Yes the military has to be accountable but this does not mean that it is directly accountable to the people. Instead the military is accountable to the civilian leadership of the country who is then in turn accountable to the people. The people designate their politicians; their head of state and government as well as minister of defence to control the most senior members of the military. [1] This means that while the military must be transparent it is only necessary for it to be transparent to the civilian government which is at the top of the chain of command not to the people as a whole.  [1] Feaver, Peter D., Armed Servants Agency, Oversight, and Civil-Military Relations, Harvard University Press, 2005, p.5."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is right that illegal acts by the state be exposed  Anat Kamm was correct when she said \u201cI kept thinking that history tends to forgive people who expose war crimes.\u201d [1]  Maj.-Gen. Yair Naveh was documented as saying \u201cThis is an arrest operation\u2026 But in case [the soldiers] identify one of the senior leaders of the Islamic Jihad, Walid Obeid, Ziad Malaisha, Adham Yunis, they have permission to open fire in accordance with their appraisal of the situation during the operation.\u201d [2] As attorney Michael Sfard states \"In other words, the use of words referring to arrest when in fact there is no real intention of carrying out an arrest, but the reference is to assassination.\" [3] This was despite a supreme court ruling in 2006 that militants must be detained. [4] Kamm may be incorrect when considering this action a war crime as Israel was not at war at the time however assassination is clearly illegal under international law. [5]  The press has four roles in a democracy; holding power to account, highlighting issues that need attention, educating citizens, and connecting people to create civil society. [6] In this particular case all of the first three roles were clearly being performed.  [1] Lutvitch, Vered, \u2018Kam: History forgives those who expose war crimes\u2019, Ynet News.com, 12 April 2010.  [2] Izenberg, Dan, \u2018Stamp of approval from attorney-general\u2019, Jerusalem Post, 13 April 2010.  [3] Blau, Uri, \u2018License to kill\u2019, Haaretz, 27 November 2008.  [4] Guarnieri, Mya, \u2018The killing of Zuhair al-Qaissi exposes Israel\u2019s attitude to its supreme court\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 14 March 2012.  [5] Wachtel, Howard A., \u2018Targeting Osama Bin Ladin: Examining the Legality of Assassination as a tool of U.S. Foreign Policy\u2019, Duke Law Journal, Vol.55, No.677, 2005, p.677.  [6] Hume, Ellen, \u2018Freedom of the Press\u2019, Issues of Democracy, December 2005."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro01b","title":"","text":"While it may be a journalist\u2019s job and duty to call the government to account this is not the duty of a soldier who is supposed to be following orders. The soldier\u2019s duty in such a situation would have been to report up the chain of command. As the Judge in the case concluded: \"There is no need to steal thousands of classified documents in order to bring 'aspects of IDF operations to the public's attention,' or investigate 'war crimes.' Any independent body given those documents, even by someone like the defendant, has no (security) clearance to afford it the review of such military secrets\u2026 There was also no need to give a reporter thousands of sensitive documents without discretion.\" [1]  [1] Lutvitch, Vered, \u2018Kam: History forgives those who expose war crimes\u2019, Ynet News.com, 12 April 2010."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro03a","title":"","text":"The military can only be held to account if there is transparency  States have militaries to protect themselves creating a paradox that \u201cThe very institution created to protect the polity is given sufficient power to become a threat to the polity.\u201d [1] The Military is a powerful institution even in a stable democracy like Israel, it needs to be held to account because it is the institution within a state that has most capability to use force if it wishes. An unaccountable military is a military that is much more likely to engage in coups and other anti-democratic actions. Israel is an unusual case in the west in that it has allowed the boundaries separating government, military and society to become blurred leading to worries of military influence on policy. [2] None the less most of the time we can trust the government to hold the military to account however the only sure guarantee is for everyone to have access to all information that have a very low risk of resulting in lives lost; designs of weapon systems, current deployments or planning for current and future missions.  This transparency should of course be from the top down with the military giving out this information freely as the military is in a position to know what information is still current and may result in lives being lost. However if the military refuses to be transparent on crimes committed then there is a need for individuals to provide that transparency themselves. Cases like Anat Kamm\u2019s which punish attempts by soldiers to call their superiors to account are therefore damaging as it shows that the officers will not be brought to justice but the leaker will be punished. [3] This actively encourages the military to believe it is above the law and is not accountable to the people.  [1] Peter Feaver quoted in Norton, Augustus Richard, and Alfoneh, Ali, \u2018The Study of Civil-Military Relations and Civil-Society in the Middle East and North Africa\u2019, in Carsten Jensen (ed.), Developments in Civil-Military relations in the Middle East, pp.7-28, p.7  [2] Weinraub, Alan, \u2018The evolution of istaeli civil-military relations: domestic enablers and the quest for security\u2019, Naval Postgraduate College, December 2009.  [3] Reider, Dimi, \u2018In Israel, Press Freedom is under attack\u2019, The New York Times, 31 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con03b","title":"","text":"If individuals are never allowed to take action themselves then we are leaving everything up to the state and the military; two institutions that in cases like this have every reason to attempt to suppress the truth. When the state will not take responsibility for its actions then it is right that others should force it to account for its actions and the only way this can be done is through revealing the wrongs the state has done."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con01b","title":"","text":"This might be a valid argument if the leaked military secrets really were putting lives in danger, but this is not the case in this particular instance. In Israel there is a military censor which newspapers submit articles that might affect national security to and that censor takes out anything it believes to be harmful to state security. [1] All the materials that were published by Haaretz went first through Haaretz\u2019s editors and then this military censor [2] so if there really were any military secrets published that could have put lives in danger the censors were negligent in their job.  [1] Sobelman, Batsheva, \u2018Q&A Censorship in Israel: \u2018A unique model\u2019\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 3 May 2010.  [2] Reider, Dimi, \u2018In Israel, Press Freedom is under attack\u2019, The New York Times, 31 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con02a","title":"","text":"National security should come before freedom of information  The Security of the Nation comes before other considerations such as the freedom of information. This is especially true in a nation such as Israel which is surrounded by enemies who will take advantage of any information that they can use to damage Israel. Israel\u2019s security situation is aptly described by Yitzhak Rabin as one of \u201cdormant war\u201d that every few years becomes an active conflict. [1] When the state\u2019s survival is potentially at stake as is the case in Israel then individual rights such as freedom of expression and freedom of information have to be subordinated to the greater collective rights of the nation.  [1] Dahan, Michael, \u2018National Security and Democracy on the Internet in Israel\u2019, C. Ess and F. Sudweeks (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology \u201998. University of Sydney Australia, 189-192."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con03a","title":"","text":"Individuals do not have the right to decide what information should be publicly available.  No individual is empowered to decide for themselves what information should be publicly available and certainly not a 23 year old student. A conscript like Kamm will have little idea of the context, whether operations have taken place, or even often what the information they are leaking means. Without all the facts of each case they are in no position to judge if a particular document is in the public interest. They therefore won\u2019t know the consequences of the information they are leaking which in a military situation could mean lives being lost. This is why militaries have systems for declassifying information; so that when it is done it does not cause any harm.  As Sarah Honig writing in the Jerusalem Post argues \u201cWe could kiss our entire national defense good-bye if each and every soldier would do likewise with no guideline but his\/her own youthful hubris.\u201d [1]  [1] Honig, Sarah, \u2018Another Tack: Loose lips sink ships\u2019, JPost.com, 23 April 2010."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con01a","title":"","text":"Leaking military secrets puts lives in danger  The right to life is the most fundamental right of all. No one should have the right to leak information that might result in someone losing their life. As the documents that Kamm collected included details of IDF deployments and plans for military operations [1] the leaking of this information could clearly have provided terrorists such as Hezbollah or Hamas the opportunity to kill Israeli soldiers. Moreover while the information she gave to Haaretz reporter Uri Blau may not have all been published Kamm herself admitted that she had lost one of the CD\u2019s she copied. [2]  [1] Edelman, Ofra, \u2018Tel Aviv court accepts plea bargain in Anat Kamm espionage case\u2019, Haaretz, 6 February 2011.  [2] Lutvitch, Vered, \u2018Kam: History forgives those who expose war crimes\u2019, Ynet News.com, 12 April 2010."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con02b","title":"","text":"Anat Kamm did not leak information that could ever result in the destruction of the Israeli state. Her lawyer argued \"It was never her intention to harm the security of the state\u201d and this was accepted by the Israeli state as shown by the plea bargain in which it dropped the charge having the intention to harm the security of the state. [1] If the state\u2019s survival was not at stake then the right to freedom of information clearly applies.  [1] Edelman, Ofra, \u2018Tel Aviv court accepts plea bargain in Anat Kamm espionage case\u2019, Haaretz, 6 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is difficult to see how discourse and free inquiry are a basic right when it comes to history. This is not an area which is going to affect people\u2019s lives and liberty if they cannot read about every possible opinion on the subject exactly because what is in the past is in the past and does not impact on people\u2019s day to day lives. Very few people are interested in speaking out against their own history that they grew up learning even if it does not tell the whole truth."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro02a","title":"","text":"Prohibition of a subject damages discourse and free enquiry  History is not something that it is worth sacrificing freedom of speech and expression for. Every individual should be free to voice their own views and this includes on areas that are important to the state such as its formation and national heros. In these areas there can be no compelling reason for keeping secrets or discouraging open inquiry and scholarship, there are no national security interests at stake, for most countries the individuals involved are dead. Therefore the only thing being affected are individuals posthumous reputations and the state should not be protecting individuals reputations. Someone\u2019s reputation should stand on all of their deeds and acts based upon fact not just a cherry picked and idealised image set forth by the state.  The foundation of Islam is potentially an example of this. Some scholars such as Tom Holland have attempted to show that the Arab Empire gave birth to Islam rather than the other way around as it is traditionally understood. [1] Possible revisions of the early history of Islam are extremely controversial but in light of the conflicts in the Middle East and what is sometimes described as a Clash of Civilizations between the West and Islam it is important that the period be studied. [2] Holland suggests that the Prophet may have been much more influenced by Christianity and Judaism than is recognised by Islam; [3] if there were such links might unearthing them not help to heal divides today?  [1] Holland, Tom, In the Shadow of the Sword, Little Brown, 2012, p.40 (ftnote 53)   [2] Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations, The Free Press 2002, pp.209-218  [3] Holland, p.49 (ftnote74)"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro03b","title":"","text":"This is equally an argument for treating national heroes and history with the respect it deserves. Attacking these ideas is attacking the very foundation of the nation state. Of course the national identity is not going to disappear from undermining Atat\u00fcrk as the national community is built on more than just Atat\u00fcrk but each attack helps undermine the whole structure and must therefore be stopped."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro01a","title":"","text":"Countries must be willing to accept the darker sides to their past  No country is whiter than white, and often the creation of a country is a bloody event that involves mistakes, tragedy\u2019s and outright massacres. While it is wrong to cover up and not apologise when mistakes are made or horrifying acts are committed the results of this action are likely to have consequences. These events may well be a sour point with neighbouring countries or even just those who feel that the country is not being honest about its past.  Turkey is an excellent example of this. Almost everyone would agree that Atat\u00fcrk was a great leader and most would not consider that his habits make any difference to this. Nor are they likely to judge Turkey on the basis of the foibles of a long dead leader. However during the period just before Atat\u00fcrk became president the Armenian Genocide occurred (1915-23) which stains Turkey\u2019s foreign relations to this day, France has supported a law criminalising its denial, [1] the US congress has several times had bills proposed highlighting the genocide [2] and so damaging Turkey\u2019s relations with the U.S. [3] and of course helping to freeze relations with Armenia itself. [4]  [1] Montjoye, Clementine de, \u2018France\u2019s Armenian genocide law\u2019, Free Speech Debate, 29 June 2012,   [2] United States Senate, S.Res.399 - Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution, OpenCongress for the 112th United States Congress, 19th March 2012,   [3] Kinzer, Stephen, \u2018Genocide vote harms US-Turkey ties\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 5 March 2010,   [4] SA\u011eIR, CEL\u0130L, \u2018Hopes dim for normalization of Turkish-Armenian relations\u2019, Today\u2019s Zaman, 7 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro01b","title":"","text":"A great many states see no need to particularly acknowledge the darker side of their past and founding; the United States still lionises the manifest destiny and the conquest of the west despite the genocide of the Native Americans who still live there. And there is no reason why they should. Some other nations may disagree with the past portrayed by that state and they can present their own competing version if they wish."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro04b","title":"","text":"The purpose of history as a subject in Schools and in Universities is very different. The role of history in School is simply to teach about where we come from, to learn about the origins of the nation and why it is organised the way it is organised. History needs to be taught as it binds the nation together by creating a shared sense of identity. [1]  [1] Dilek, Dursun, \u2018History in the Turkish elementary school: perceptions and pedagogy\u2019, University of Warwick, January 1999, p.79,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro03a","title":"","text":"History shapes attitudes  History is important because of the way it shapes attitudes and identities. Nationalism scholar Benedict Anderson has dubbed nations \u2018imagined communities\u2019 because \u201cmembers of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion.\u201d This is the case with all large scale communities. \u201cthe nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship\u201d a fraternity for which members are willing to kill and die. [1] This very willingness makes nationalism potentially dangerous and so it is much better to take a much more measured approach seeing the bad as well as the good.  Yet because the nation is an imagined community so it is possible for that imagining to be altered as is needed. Turkey will not cease being the Turkish nation simply because views of Atat\u00fcrk change as a result of some believing him to be a \u2018drunken debaucher\u2019. Other countries have come to accept negative parts of their history with little consequence for their conception of the nation such as the UK\u2019s acceptance that imperialism was in large part negative it simply creates a more nuanced view of the past.  [1] Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities, Verso, London 2006, pp.6-7"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro04a","title":"","text":"Makes history more useful, more human, and more interesting  While the state may like to whitewash history to produce its own \u2018national history\u2019 that sticks to one grand narrative that is about the state this is not history as it really is. While a national history full of patriotism may be good for instilling a love of the nation it is not much use at teaching anything else. In particular it is damaging to any attempt to teach analysis and the use of sources through history. History is for the most part not useful in and of itself, [1] there are for example very few jobs directly working with history. Rather teaching of history emphasises \u2018transferrable skills\u2019 such as Critical Analysis, Reasoning and Argument [2] all of which are suppressed if focused on one officially approved narrative.  Moreover having the darker side of a nation\u2019s past both makes history more interesting and more believable and so making it more likely that those being taught it will relate to it. Making the past look whiter than white simply makes it seem out of touch with reality. It makes for a poor teacher as history needs to \u2018teach by example\u2019 and if that example is not a complex character that can be related to it has little relation to every day experience. [3]  [1] Stearns, Peter N., \u2018Why Study History?\u2019, American Historical Association, 1998,   [2] \u2018What skills will a History degree from Cambridge give me?\u2019, University of Cambridge,   [3] Stearns, Peter N., \u2018Why Study History?\u2019, American Historical Association, 1998,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con03b","title":"","text":"While a country is entitled to promote its own national story, its own interpretation of events and create its own national heroes however it is not entitled to suppress historical events and so blot things out of history by preventing any competing ideas about that history. Most people learn their history through the state education system rather than through scholar\u2019s history books so having competing narratives is not a threat to the state\u2019s interpretation.  Role models are not undermined by having some minor faults."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con01b","title":"","text":"Simple \u2018disrespect\u2019 is not sufficient reason to limit freedom of speech and freedom of academic enquiry. Those who find it disrespectful need not watch or read that which is written that they find disrespectful but more importantly they should be open minded enough to be able to reconsider their previous views. No matter the subject if it has strongly held views about it then holding up a different prism to that subject is going to be considered disrespectful as it is challenging those deeply held beliefs. Yet if we can\u2019t challenge and test those beliefs then there is no opportunity for change and progress. Ultimately then preventing inquiry due to \u2018disrespect\u2019 holds back societies development."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con02a","title":"","text":"Damages the country\u2019s reputation  Rightly or wrongly countries are judged in part based upon the past; In Europe Germany is regularly judged on the basis of the Nazi\u2019s [1] and in Asia Japan on the basis of its atrocities in World War II. [2] Any nation would be sensible to want to avoid such vilification on the basis of actions taken by one\u2019s ancestors and the further back the less sense such vilification makes sense. Digging up past wrongs for the sake of digging is wrong simply because of the souring effect it can have on the present. If there are dark areas of the past that have been forgotten then it is best to leave them forgotten than rather than risk creating new enmities between nations. Although not an exact parallel rather similar would be the creation of the Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda. The Belgian colonial powers divided the population into several distinct groups where no divide had previously existed. The population was then divided through a census and identity card system introduced in 1933-4 which set individuals ethnicity. This was the root of one of the worst genocides of the twentieth century; [3] essentially through creating an enmity where none previously existed, something that could equally be done by digging up the past rather than inventing a past.  [1] Lowen, Mark, \u2018Debt-laden Greeks give vent to anti-German feelings\u2019, BBC News, 27 February 2012,   [2] Komine, Ayako, and Hosokawa, Naoko, \u2018The Japanese New History Textbook controversy\u2019, Free Speech Debate, 13 July 2012,   [3] Magnarella, Paul J., \u2018Explaining Rwanda\u2019s 1994 Genocide\u2019, Human Rights & Human Welfare, Vol.2, No.1, Winter 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con03a","title":"","text":"Countries are entitled to make what they will of their past.  Past leaders are dead and if they have become heroes it has already been accepted that accounts of that figure may not be entirely accurate as with any myths and legends \u2013 and indeed many country\u2019s heroes are myths such as King Arthur. Where they are not as in the case of Atat\u00fcrk the man is mythologised in order to help show the unity of the nation and provide an example, an ideal if you will, for those who follow.  Insulting this hero by deliberately publicising their dark side is therefore damaging not just for the state but for those who believe in the in the role model that the hero provides. In a country like Turkey where the focus of history teaching is on political citizenship education based upon national history everyone in Turkey learns about Atat\u00fcrk. The aim is to educate pupils \u201cAs future citizens who respect the principles and reforms of Atat\u00fcrk and democracy; who care for their families, country and the nation; who are aware of their responsibilities towards the Republic of Turkey; who work for promoting their families, country and the nation.\u201d [1] So any attack will be damaging one of the role models for Turks young and old. [2]  [1] Dilek, Dursun, \u2018History in the Turkish elementary school: perceptions and pedagogy\u2019, University of Warwick, January 1999, p.79,   [2] Do\u011fan, Yonca Poyraz, \u2018Heated debates demystify myths surrounding Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk\u2019, Today\u2019s Zaman, 16 November 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con01a","title":"","text":"Disrespectful  Few nations go so far as to deify their national heroes or the formation of the state but none the less it is disrespectful to attack these ideas and many people are likely to be offended. This is indeed the case with the film Mustafa about Atat\u00fcrk one doctor referring to the poster advertising the film asks \"Why is he shown like that, in front of a steppe? His head is down as if he is apologizing for something... I find it disrespectful\". Professors Orhan Kural and Ahmet Ercan argue \u201cThe content of the film and its interpretation of its topics damage the republic and Atat\u00fcrk. Damaging such values can lead to the breakup of Turkey and to the loss of national pride.\u201d [1] This is because any attack on Atat\u00fcrk is equally an attack on the values of the republic he created, some of which such as secularism are already under attack. It is both wrong to offend so many people and unwise, as is the case with the attack on Atat\u00fcrk, to attack the foundations of the ideology that helps to prevent intolerance. [2]  [1] Do\u011fan, Yonca Poyraz, \u2018Heated debates demystify myths surrounding Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk\u2019, Today\u2019s Zaman, 16 November 2008,   [2] Malashenko, Alexey, and Shlykov, Pavel, \u2018\u201dAnti-Kemalist\u201d Revolution: Where is Turkey Going?\u2019, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 22 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con02b","title":"","text":"This gives all the more reason to act pre-emptively by allowing free and open scholarship and critical analysis of the past. If a nation will not take a long hard look at its own past eventually someone else will and they are just as likely to uncover any skeletons in the closet as a national historian is. If however the government is open to new ideas then they can quickly say sorry, possibly pay some form of reparation and prevent any creation of enmity that will occur through denials. Japan is an excellent example of this; China and Korea are still calling for the Japanese emperor to apologise for atrocities during imperialism. [1]  [1] Kyodo, \u2018Japanese Emperor must apologize for colonial rule: S. Korean president\u2019, The Japan Times, 15 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro02b","title":"","text":"It seems unlikely that there would be a rush to offer corrections where it was to the advantage of an individual or organisation, so let us not pretend this is the noble pursuit of truth at any cost. Where a major mistake is made by a news outlet, its competitors are usually only too happy to point the fact out, vastly magnifying the redress compared to the original mistake, as shown by the example cited by the proposition with the BBC attacking inaccuracies in a Daily Telegraph article [i] . Where it is a minor error, it\u2019s questionable as to whether a right to reply actually helps or simply fuels speculation on the basis that the aggrieved party seems to be squabbling over the details. Alternatively, where a mistake is genuinely defamatory then it is a criminal matter and should be settled in the courts rather than in a grubby fix-up between the parties.  [i] The examiner.com. Ryan Witt. Fox News makes three large factual, graphical errors over the last week (Video). 15 December 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro02a","title":"","text":"There is a sense of natural justice that corrections should come in this form rather than a tiny note.  In many countries corrections or clarifications in newspapers are buried away in the depths of the middle pages and are unlikely to be spotted by anyone other than the most ardent reader. Not only does this defy natural justice but having the correction prominent hits a newspaper for making mistakes as it loses space for a story that would attract both readers and advertisers.  It\u2019s not unreasonable to expect journalists to get the information right first time \u2013 that is, after all, their job. Building an entire case on the basis of a misunderstanding, as the Daily Telegraph did recently on the basis of misinterpreting data for fish stocks, [i] can be incredibly misleading and when the correction to it is impossible to find, that misunderstanding remains in the mind of the readers. Once that is multiplied by blog entries comments to others and so on, the retraction would need to be a sizable news story in its own right to correct the misunderstanding.  Where mistakes are made and repeated from wire services or promoted as gospel in local \u2013 often poorly resourced \u2013 newspapers, the impact on someone\u2019s reputation can be considerable. It\u2019s only fair that their megaphone correcting it should be just as large as that used in the first place.  [i] BBC Website (commenting on a Daily Telegraph article). Hannah Barnes and Richard Knight. North Sea Cod: Is it true there are only 100 left? 30 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro03b","title":"","text":"The issue of credibility is an important one. If a story that was broadly true can be picked to death by the PR and Legal departments of companies, then it places a real burden on the future of investigative and campaigning journalism. One minor mistake, plastered across the front page, will inevitably encourage readers to question the story more generally as it appears to suggest that both points of view have equal merit. A broadly true story of an industrial giant polluting the environment or a bank indulging in corruption is not negated by getting a single fact wrong. The company, of course, will use any detail to challenge the whole story, risking the reputation of the publication in the process. This may ultimately mean that journalists are simply much more cautious and so will not publish any stories that will likely bring about a response in the form of a reply from the target of the article."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is only fair where something inaccurate has been said to allow for a correction.  [i] The right of reply goes a long way in balancing the playing field \u2013 especially for private citizens who may not be able to afford recourse to the law. It is also simpler and quicker than protracted arguments in court. Finally it respects the readership as a group accepting that they are capable of making a decision over whose version of events is more likely to be accurate \u2013 the journalist or the respondent.  It\u2019s a grownup approach to publishing, it acknowledges that newspapers don\u2019t get everything right and embraces the idea that the goal is to convey accurate information \u2013 admittedly belatedly.  It\u2019s inevitable that mistakes will be made in a world where newspapers are endlessly running up against deadlines and it is only possible to check so much as a result.  Instead of entering into protracted disputes or ignoring the rights of the injured party this allows for the readership to make the final decision [ii] . This can be true of either private individuals or public figures [iii] where, all too often, the issue is not the legal minutiae or exact phraseology of the article but the more general verdict of the court of public opinion.  [i] There is also a legally enforced right of reply in Korea, the Philippines, Finland and Brazil among others. By way of example, the full text of the Brazilian law (translated into English) is given here .  [ii] Journalism.co.uk. Matthew Gooding. Newspapers should print an obligatory right of reply says Max Mosley. 22 January 2010.  [iii] A good example of a case that became so complicated the original offence was lost in the haze would be this one . It is far from atypical."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Prop correctly identifies conveying information as a key role of the media \u2013 there are others; informed and impartial comment and, critically, a relevant news agenda. It is hard to see how chasing a story off the front page to make room for the right of reply fulfills these other requirements. Equally, where there is dispute, surely the courts are best placed to resolve it \u2013 driving the middle path between two inaccuracies is a pretty poor route to truth."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro03a","title":"","text":"In an age of declining journalistic standards, forcing editors to get their facts right is a good start.  In response to an ever faster news agenda, produced by ever more pressured journalists, sloppiness may be seen as inevitable [i] . As a result, anything that is unlikely to result in legal action may be given a bye. In most situations, that sets the bar way too high. The mere mention of a private citizen in a negative light in a local paper may not be the stuff of national press attention and is unlikely to get far in the courts but can affect that persons standing in their community and with their neighbours in a profound way.  Anything that pushes reporters and editors to go that extra step to check their facts before they go to print seems like a sensible preventative measure [ii] . This could help prevent newspapers citing \u2018experts\u2019 who are not actually expert, a Forbes columnist found that he could portray himself as expert on all sorts of things and get his comments in articles for even very reputable media organisations such as the New York Times without even the most basic of background checks. [iii] The knowledge that they may lose both space and credibility in the next edition would seem to be a rather neat way of achieving that goal.  [i] The Huffington Post. Jeff Sorensen. 24 Hour News Killed Journalism 20 August 2012.  [ii] Article 19. Right of Reply.  [iii] Forbes. David Their. How this guy lied his way into MSNBC, ABC News, the New York Times and more. 18 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con03b","title":"","text":"The notion that the print media has lost its power since the emergence of the Internet is simply untrue. Not only are they still a major source of news for many \u2013 they are particularly a source of news for other news-makers. Blogs and other exclusively online sites rarely \u2018break\u2019 stories \u2013 with the exception of those that act in the same way as regular print editions such as the Huffington Post. Identifying those news outlets that are large enough to be registered companies is really not beyond the wit on humankind equally, imposing the regulations on those already covered by libel legislation would seem fairly obvious."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con01b","title":"","text":"The on-going agglomeration of news and opinion is a wider and deeper issue than tackling factual inaccuracies and one that needs to be resolved in other ways. Frequently, that\u2019s the very point to be addressed by the courts \u2013 whether a statement is legitimate comment or is being masqueraded as fact [i] . The right of reply is not presented as a cure all for the media as a whole but it is a useful way of getting the basics right before addressing the higher-level concerns that often stem from these fundamental errors.  [i] The \u2018fact or opinion\u2019 distinction is crucial to cases of defamation it basics are set out here ."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con02a","title":"","text":"This undermines actual parity by creating a false sense of the right to reply.  A right to reply would be no more of a fig leaf than voluntary self-regulation that has so bedevilled the media in so many countries. Responsible journalists and publications are already involved in the process where it is useful and others would use it as an excuse to avoid real regulation.  It is comparatively rare for the damage to be done at the level of factual data but signing up to making those corrections (indeed the requirement to give equal parity would allow papers to make a great song and dance about the fact) would mask the real story that opinions and comment are what really trash reputations \u2013 along with the half-facts and insinuations mentioned in the previous argument.  Different countries tackle press regulation in different ways. In some the threat to freedom of speech comes from over-regulation, in others from an over-mighty press drowning out dissent. The right of reply seems to answer neither concern \u2013 the paper will always have the last word as it can respond to the response or simply press its case more subtly. A right of reply hides that fact and creates a false sense of parity between the two."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con03a","title":"","text":"This solution \u2013 if it is one - is now out of date.  We are happy to concede that in the glacial world of academic journals, the right of reply mostly works. Two experts clarifying exactly what was said by whom and being appraised by an equally expert readership can make sense of this process through article, response, and counter response. That\u2019s why it already happens.  In the world of political, economic and scientific monthlies and weeklies, the idea would make sense some of the time. This is why it already happens some of the time.  In the cut and thrust of daily newspapers with rolling news on their websites and newsblogs from most of their contributors and journalists it ceases to make any sense whatsoever. So it is not surprising they don\u2019t do it. In the developed world, the days of people reading the same paper in the same way every day are mostly gone [i] , news comes from a variety of stories with readers often following one story through different outlets rather than digesting many stories from one. Where should a correction be posted? Just on the first site to mention it or on all the ones that subsequently pick it up. Does this cover blogs or just outlets that also have a printed edition \u2013 and if not, why not? This is an answer to a question nobody is asking.  [i] The Canadian Journalism Project. Belinda Alzner. A quick look at news mediums (sic) and international development. 24 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con01a","title":"","text":"What is a fact \u2013 there are few circumstances where this would be of significance.  The line between factual inaccuracy and opinion is pretty slim. What about \u201cFar right politician\u201d statement or comment? The difficulty is that most publications work on the basis that there is a narrative that is already understood in order to function. It\u2019s simply impossible to give the full backstory to everything that goes into print [i] .  The only way to avoid newspapers being constantly full of replies to irrelevant data would be to give a far broader right of reply to the opinions presented or the conclusions draw \u2013 the actions where journalism really has its power. Many newspapers already do this out of professional courteousy and respect for the truth, for example the guardian has a \u2018Response\u2019 column in its Comment is free section. [ii] The scandal sheets which offer no such facility seem to have only the most tangential reliance on evidence at the best of times so it is unclear how such a law would affect them as they would be likely to resort to assertion even more than they currently do.  The idea of a right of reply is fine in theory but, in reality, it is difficult to see how it would have any real impact on the day to day working of the press. This concern comes before any consideration of how it would work in relation to the more pervasive media of broadcast and online news outlets \u2013 or is this punishment to be reserved as the last nail in the coffin of the printed press?  [i] Article III. Jun Bautista. A Right of Reply\u201d Law Violates Press Freedom. 9 February 2009.  [ii] The Guardian, Response"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con02b","title":"","text":"Opposition seem to be arguing, \u2018This is difficult, let\u2019s do nothing\u2019 \u2013 the rallying call of apathy down the ages. There may well be grounds for a wider right of reply \u2013 indeed as most news outlets increasingly favour their online presence many of their practical arguments of the past fall away. The disadvantage of regulation is that it empowers government in relation to the press, litigation favours the wealthy. A right of reply favours the readers as the final arbiter."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro02b","title":"","text":"The head of no large corporation has complete control of their operations. The head of the BBC almost certainly does not know all the policies and everything that is happening in the BBC\u2019s Persian language division. While the head of the company is ultimately responsible it is unrealistic to believe that they will have such day to day control as everyone seems to believe Murdoch had. Murdoch himself explains \u201cthe News of the  World is less than 1% of our company. I employ 53,000 people around the world\u201d and points out that in such a big organisation he has to rely on senior managers. [1] This very lack of control is itself a good thing; it ensures that there is decentralisation with most control at the local level with the individual editors of newspapers and programmes.  [1] Culture, Media and Sport Committee, \u2018News International and Phone-hacking\u2019, House of Commons, Eleventh Report of the Session 2010-12, Vol.1, 1 May 2012, p.64"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro02a","title":"","text":"Lack of control  Rupert Murdoch has an immense empire and if we believe his testimony obviously did not have as much control over his publications, or take as much responsibility for them, as he should have done. Murdoch himself has claimed \u201csomeone took charge of a cover-up we were victim to and I regret that.\" This was a cover up within the News of the World and News International that kept Murdoch out of the loop and misinformed on phone hacking, showing that he was unable to keep control over his businesses when he was the one with ultimate responsibility for the actions of that company. [1] The commons culture committee concluded that Murdoch was essentially negligent \"at all relevant times Rupert Murdoch did not take steps to become fully informed about phone-hacking, he turned a blind eye and exhibited wilful blindness to what was going on in his companies and publications.\" [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Leveson Inquiry: Murdoch admits missing hacking \u2018cover-up\u2019, 26 April 2012.  [2] Culture, Media and Sport Committee, \u2018News International and Phone-hacking\u2019, House of Commons, Eleventh Report of the Session 2010-12, Vol.1, 1 May 2012, p.70"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro03b","title":"","text":"News organisations cannot be completely transparent if they are to do their job properly and News International is no exception. Such organisations cannot for example reveal their sources as this may sometimes put their sources at risk and would mean that others would not come forward. As part of this news companies need to keep secret how they obtained information. While an attempt by a newspaper to cover up crimes is regrettable this one newspapers actions should not tar the whole company and its other papers."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro01a","title":"","text":"Murdoch is morally unfit to run a powerful media company.  Those running media corporations should be morally upright people who control their media companies in the public interest as these are organisations that potentially have a lot of influence through their control of information. This is however not at all how Rupert Murdoch ran News Corp or his newspapers.  Murdoch has been running his empire in pursuit of power and to advance a right wing agenda. [1] His influence was such that even naturally left wing parties such as New Labour under Tony Blair stuck to right wing or wing orthodoxies in order to keep the support of the Murdoch press. [2] Murdoch was therefore pushing narrow interests rather than the public interest. Murdoch\u2019s News Corporation has shown their lack of moral scruples not just by engaging in industrial scale hacking but also by its determination to use its contacts to close down investigations by parliament or the police as well as being willing to destroy evidence and lie when giving evidence. Tom Watson MP has gone so far as to accuse Murdoch of being \u201cthe first mafia boss in history who didn\u2019t know he was running a criminal enterprise\u201d. [3]  The attitude of the person at the top towards how their company and its staff should conduct themselves informs how they do conduct themselves and engage in their business. It is the owners and the management that create the corporate culture which in Murdoch tabloids meant profits at all costs and doing anything to get a story. [4]  [1] Puttnam, David, \u2018News Corporation has sought to undermine elected governments\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 28 April 2012.  [2] Holehouse, Matthew, \u2018The Blairs and the Murdochs: a special relationship\u2019, The Telegraph, 22 February 2012.  [3] The Economist, \u2018Stringfellows: A British MP\u2019s long-awaited account of investigating the Murdoch empire\u2019, 28 April 2012.  [4] Grayson, David, \u2018Phone hacking: what corporate responsibility could have done to stop it\u2019, Guardian Professional, 25 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is unfair to blame the culture in a newspaper, only one among many in Murdoch\u2019s empire, on Rupert Murdoch. With hundreds of publications to control Murdoch would never be able to set corporate culture for every paper. Nor is it correct to accuse Murdoch of running his papers in pursuit of power rather than profit; Murdoch has been unusual in succeeding in recent years in still making profits from selling news. Murdoch is clearly willing to sometimes make losses, as at the Times which loses \u00a342million a year, but this is not because it maximises his power but because it has international prestige as tabloids don\u2019t. [1]  [1] Northedge, Richard, \u2018Will Murdoch quit Britain?\u2019 Prospect, 20 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro03a","title":"","text":"There was a lack of transparency in News Corp  The Media\u2019s role is to increase transparency and bring others to account. Murdoch himself in his testimony to Leveson said \"If we're a transparent society, a transparent democracy, let's have it out there\" yet he has been exactly the opposite in terms of accountability and transparency. [1] The House of Commons Select Committee on Culture, Media and Sport has published a report in which it concludes that the culture of the publication, News of the World, was \u201cthroughout, until it was too late, was to cover up rather than seek out wrongdoing and discipline the perpetrators, as they also professed they would do after the criminal convictions.\u201d [2] The strategy was to blame individuals and when such a containment strategy failed to shut down the News of the World so as to protect top bosses. [3] News International was clearly not living up to high standards of transparency.  [1] Porter, Henry, \u2018We are rid of Murdoch and that is worth celebrating\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 28 April 2012.  [2] Culture, Media and Sport Committee, \u2018News International and Phone-hacking\u2019, House of Commons, Eleventh Report of the Session 2010-12, Vol.1, 1 May 2012, p.84  [3] Culture, Media and Sport Committee, \u2018News International and Phone-hacking\u2019, House of Commons, Eleventh Report of the Session 2010-12, Vol.1, 1 May 2012, p.67"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con03b","title":"","text":"We should not take Rupert Murdoch\u2019s word for it that he does not seek to influence politicians and does not influence the editorial line of his newspapers. Andrew Neil, a former editor of the Sunday times argues Murdoch \"had a quiet, remorseless, sometimes threatening way of laying down the parameters within which you were expected to operate ... stray too far too often from his general outlook and you will be looking for a new job.\" [1] This may not be complete control of the editorial line but it is certainly influencing it.  [1] B arr, Robert, \u2018Praise, scepticism for Murdoch in UK newspapers\u2019, Associated Press, 26 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con01b","title":"","text":"The Sun and the News of the World sold newspapers through sensationalism and sex, not content that was in the public interest. As such Murdoch\u2019s success at selling newspapers should not have any bearing on whether he is a fit person to be in charge of a media corporation."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con02a","title":"","text":"Having powerful media companies shields them from interference by governments.  An independent media is vital for democracy as it is a necessary check on over powerful politicians and government. The \u2018fourth estate\u2019 has a vital oversight function over government ensuring that elected representatives uphold their oath of office and really represent those who elected them. [1] In order for the press to be able to remain independent and able to carry out this function it needs to have powerful backers itself. Murdoch is one such backer. Multinational companies with large holdings spread across numerous countries can much easier resist government pressure than national or local newspapers without such backing as they can continue attacking a government regardless of the pressure an individual government puts upon it as the owners. Murdoch by making politicians dance to his tune was doing exactly what the press is supposed to do; preventing governments from being too powerful by appearing to have some power to bring the government down if necessary. If this translated into too much influence this was the fault of politicians not Mr Murdoch. [2]  [1] Center for Democracy and Governance Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support, and Research, \u2018The Role of Media in Democracy: A Strategic Approach\u2019, U.S. Agency for International Development, June 1999, p.3  [2] Wolff, Michael, \u2018Rupert Murdoch before the Leveson inquiry\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 23 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con03a","title":"","text":"Murdoch does not seek to influence politics.  It is a myth that Rupert Murdoch influences politics or seeks to get his way with powerful politicians. As Murdoch himself said in the Leverson Inquiry \"I've never asked a prime minister for anything.\u201d Instead it is politicians who go out of their way to impress people in the press. Even when it comes to the editorial lines of his newspapers Murdoch did not always influence them, he controlled the Sun but not the stance of the Times. [1]  [1] Holton, Kate and Prodhan, Georgina, \u2018Murdoch denies playing puppet master to British elite\u2019, Reuters, 25 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con01a","title":"","text":"Murdoch is effective at selling news  The first criteria for fitness to control a media company should be the ability to bring people the kind of content that they want to consume at a price they are willing to pay. Murdoch is undoubtedly good at this. When he took over the Sun in 1969 the sun was selling just over a million copies a day but by 1976 circulation was up to 3.7 million. [1] Murdoch has been very successful at selling newspapers, a declining industry, and has been supportive of both down market tabloids and quality broadsheets. That the News of the World up to its closure and The Sun have remained Britain\u2019s most popular newspapers shows Murdoch is an effective media proprietor and fit to bring news to the people. If he was not customers would vote with their money.  [1] \u2018The newspaper industry\u2019, Monopolies and Mergers Commission, 1985, p.5"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con02b","title":"","text":"Just as with any method of control there need to be checks and balances on the media itself in order to ensure that the media remains honest. As Lord Justice Leveson put it in his opening remarks \u201cThe press provides an essential check on all aspects of public life. That is why any failure within the media affects all of us. At the heart of this Inquiry, therefore, may be one simple question: who guards the guardians?\u201d [1] Murdoch has presided over a media company and newspapers that have not remained honest and have been too close to the politicians they are meant to be holding in check.  [1] \u2018Background\u2019, The Leveson Inquiry."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is certainly true that restrictions on religious freedoms create internal conflict. It is however much more tenuous to argue this translates onto the international stage in such a way that countries need to tailor their foreign policy to respond to it.  If we go through the list of countries mentioned as states of concern in 1999 how many of their conflicts are the result of religious intolerance? Disagreements with China are over trade and general human rights and the same with Burma. With North Korea the conflict is a civil war that is a remnant of the cold war not a religious divide within Korea. The US did not invade Iraq because the Shiite or Christians were being persecuted but because of WMD officially or other reasons such as oil and democracy. In Iran similarly nuclear weapons are at the heat of the conflict and religious intolerance only enters into worries that these weapons may be used to destroy Israel. In Sudan the state was as brutal to Muslims in Darfur [1] as the Christians in the South and it was the former conflict that generated most attention from the west. In the Kosovo conflict there was certainly a religious element as that was part of the reason for Serbia attacking the Kosovars but it was more general human rights concerns that prompted NATO intervention \u2013 if Serbia had only been denying the right to practice Islam there would have been no intervention.  This leaves the Taliban and Saudi Arabia with the conflict as a result of 9\/11 where religious intolerance can be said to be the primary cause. Should general policy hinge on religious tolerance based upon one conflict?  [1] See our debate on Darfur: Berman, Daniel, \u2018This House believes that the US should have done more for Darfur\u2019, Debatabase, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Restrictions on religious freedom creates conflict  While there are often worries about allowing too much religious freedom in pluralistic countries and concern about the extremist agitation this sometimes allows in practice restricting religious freedoms leads to much more conflict than openness and tolerance. Brian J. Grimm and Roger Finke show that from 2000 to 2007 of 143 countries with populations over 2 million 123 countries (86%) have documented cases of people being physically abused or displaced because of religious persecution. With more than 10,000 affected in 25 countries. [1] This is because countries with higher levels of government favouritism of religion have a much higher level of social hostilities. [2] It is notable that the propensity for civil war is very high where there is very little religious freedom, for example Afghanistan or Mali, and similarly terrorist groups predominantly come from the same countries. [3] While conflict in other countries may not be considered a problem for other countries in practice when a country falls into civil war, as Libya did in 2011 and Syria in 2012, they become the major foreign policy issues requiring reaction even from powers that are distant from the conflict.  [1] Schirrmacher, \u2018One of the most important Publications on the Topic of religious Freedom\u2019, International Journal of Religious Freedom.  [2] \u2018Rising Tide of Restrictions on Religion\u2019, The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 20 September 2012,    [3] Schirrmacher, \u2018One of the most important Publications on the Topic of religious Freedom\u2019, International Journal of Religious Freedom"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Religious pluralism is part of more general pluralism and tolerance. Where one occurs so it is likely that other forms of tolerance will also occur with the most religiously tolerant states being pluralistic democracies. The reason democratic peace has gained in popularity is the difficulty of finding conflicts where two democracies have fought each other. This is less difficult when considering two religiously tolerant societies. One difficulty would be working out when a society is tolerant when the UK and Argentina fought over the Falklands Argentina was certainly not a democracy but was it particularly intolerant? [1]  It is notable that Europe\u2019s most tolerant period of history prior to the second half of the 20th century was the late 18th century when the enlightenment spread religious tolerance as far as Russia [2] but the French Revolution\u2019s declaration \u201cNo one should be disturbed for his opinions, even in religion, provided that their manifestation does not trouble public order as established by law\u201d certainly did not usher in an era of peace. [3]  Finally while the spread of democracy can explain the increase in interstate peace in the modern era it does not have a long history through which it can fall down. However religious tolerance has often been a norm before the idea of an exclusive god came along; Buddhism merged with Shinto and Daoism in Japan and China, the Roman empire regularly added gods from its conquests, and some of the world\u2019s greatest conquerors such as Akbar in India have been open to all religions.  [1] \u2018Religious intolerance in Argentina\u2019, Report presented to the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief on the occasion of his visit to Argentina, 6 April 2001  [2] Corwin, Julie, \u2018Russia: Catherine The Great\u2019s Lessons On Religious Tolerance\u2019, Radio Free Europe, 30 August 2006  [3] Hunt, Lynn, \u2018The enlightenment and the origins of religious toleration\u2019, Burgerhart Lectures, Nummer 4, 2011, p.9"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is religiously intolerant states that pose most threat  There is a strong correlation between states that are religiously intolerant and those that are a threat to other states and the international order. In 1999 Burma, China, Iran, Iraq, and Sudan were designated as countries of particular concern with regards to religious freedom. Also the Taliban and Serbia were also included and Saudi Arabia and North Korea were countries where \u201creligious freedoms may be suppressed\u201d. [1] All of these are countries are countries which over the next decade were to one way or another become major security concerns and several of them involved in conflicts with the United States and other countries. As William Inboden notes \u201cThose actors with the most egregious religious-freedom violations are remarkably consonant with those that pose a potential threat to the United States and its interests... Stated simply: There is not a single nation in the world that both respects religious freedom and poses a security threat to the United States.\u201d [2] Religious freedom therefore should be much higher up the priority list in terms of foreign policy.  [1] Statement, Robert A. Seiple, Ambassador-at-Large for International Freedom, to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, regarding religious freedom, U.S. Department of State, 6 October 1999, (near the end)  [2] Inboden, William, \u2018Religious Freedom and National Security\u2019, Policy Review, No.175, 2 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro01b","title":"","text":"These countries are not specifically religiously intolerant they are simply intolerant full stop. Usually it is not religion that is particularly singled out for intolerance but all possible forms of organised opposition. This is the case in Burma where monks lead marches against the Junta but the political opposition was treated in the same way with beatings and arrests, it was the act of opposition the regime was opposed to not its religious affiliation. In China today it is the organisation that matters \u2013 the state is concerned with large organisations like the Catholic Church or Fulan Gong but is happy for its citizens to be Christian, atheist, or Confucian so long as they are not part of a large organisation. [1] With dictatorial regimes the primary concern is the survival of the regime, organised religion is a threat to this, so religion is suppressed and instead a personality cult manufactured. This is only not the case when the existing dominant religion can be coopted to buttress the state which often leads to repression of religious minorities because they become the ones that are a threat.  [1] Gardam, Tim, \u2018Christians in China: Is the country in spiritual crisis?\u2019, BBC News, 12 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Religious pluralism creates a more tolerant and peaceful society  Democratic peace theory is the proposition that democratic states do not fight interstate wars against each other. And so far the empirical evidence is strong. [1] It has been suggested that \u2018democratic peace\u2019 is really liberal peace that relies less on simply having democracy (although that is likely to be a part) but upon liberal values such as rule of law, human rights, and free markets. [2] Inboden argues that this should include religious freedom creating a \u2018religious-freedom peace\u2019. [3] Essentially states that share these liberal values will be unwilling to go to war with each other precisely because they are tolerant of difference; if they are tolerant of difference internally then external tolerance with other countries that are tolerant even if they as a majority are a totally different religion. Tolerance means that religion can no longer be a point of anything more serious than diplomatic conflict.  [1] Ray, James Lee, \u2018Does Democracy Cause Peace?\u2019, Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 1998.  [2] Richmond, Oliver P, \u2018Understanding the Liberal Peace\u2019, University of St Andrews, p.1  [3] Inboden, William, \u2018Religious Freedom and National Security\u2019, Policy Review, No.175, 2 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con03b","title":"","text":"It is not about the worth of promoting one thing rather than another. Resources are finite and no country can promote all its values, everywhere, and all the time. Choices need to be made and priorities in foreign policy set. That focus should be on promoting religious freedom. Promoting political rights has often resulted in regimes becoming less cooperative even when the policy is a success. For example the transition in Egypt has changed the country from being a key ally of the United States to a nation that is increasingly Islamist and potentially a threat to another key ally, Israel. Now 77% of Egyptians say \"The peace treaty with Israel is no longer useful and should be dissolved.\" [1]  [1] Rogin, Josh, \u2018New Poll: Egyptians turning toward Iran, want nuclear weapons\u2019, The Cable Foreign Policy, 19 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con01b","title":"","text":"That other nations foreign policies are not motivated either by religion or freedom of religion does not mean that ours should not be. Moreover our policy does not need to be motivated by religious freedom for us to recognise it as a worthwhile objective. The motivation for reaching the objective would be national security as is the case elsewhere. It would simply be based on the recognition that our security is best secured by having other countries that are equally tolerant towards all faiths with the attendant peaceful relations and cooperation this brings in their international relations."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con02a","title":"","text":"Promoting religious freedom exacerbates conflict  Once a pluralistic religiously free society is created there may be less conflict, but how do we get to that stage? Promoting religious freedom itself creates diplomatic conflict between states because domestic religion is considered to be an area where states are sovereign so dislike interference. [1]  Promoting religious tolerance is not as well received by the people as the promotion of political rights. This is because often the dominant religion is favoured while minorities are those who are not tolerated. Countries trying to promote religious freedom are therefore not likely to find as much support from civil society as would be the case when advocating that citizens be allowed to vote in free and fair elections. The country promoting this freedom is pushing an agenda that is often contrary to centuries of ingrained habits and prejudices. It should not be surprising that even as the Arab spring was occurring there were attacks on Coptic churches, [2] while the communities may have been united by a desire for political change in the form of the overthrow of Mubarak such unity will only come very slowly when it comes to religious divides.  [1] Philpott, Dan, \"Sovereignty\", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2010 Edition)  [2] Abiyzeud, Rania, \u2018After the Egyptian Revolution: The Wars of Religion\u2019, Time, 10 March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con03a","title":"","text":"Concentrating on religious freedom is too narrow, instead human rights in general should be considered  Of course religious freedom must be respected and democratic nations must try to encourage it but this is simply a part of much more general promotion of human rights rather than a priority in and of itself. It would be hypocritical to be highlighting the plight of the Copts in Egypt while ignoring gender equality in Saudi Arabia or the lack of political freedoms in Belarus. [1] All of these things are a part of the same agenda of encouraging human rights.  Moreover why should promoting religious freedom in Saudi Arabia be placed above promoting gender rights or political rights? Are the Shiites of the country somehow more worthy than the women? Currently the promotion of religious freedom is within human rights, so for example The Office of International Religious Freedom in the State Department is a part of the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. [2] Having religious freedom within promotion of human rights is the right approach to take as it means whichever human rights are most at risk can be promoted and aided in any given country and it encourages the linking of religious freedom with other freedoms. Egyptians may not be very receptive to religious freedom but obviously are to political freedom so religious freedom needs to be linked as a part of having political freedom.  [1] Chapman, Annabelle, \u2018When doing nothing is free expression\u2019, FreeSpeechDebate, 10 February 2012  [2] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, \u2018Religious Freedom\u2019, U.S. Department of State"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con01a","title":"","text":"Religion does not motivate foreign policy  Religion is very rarely a motivation in foreign policy, it is unusual for it even to be a supporting factor and this is true even of countries that are domestically very religious. Instead foreign policy is primarily motivated by realist concerns about what is best for the country\u2019s security (so preventing conflict, trying to make sure you have allies abroad etc), and its power in the form of a healthy economy.  Nations do promote their own values in areas such as human rights but this is because they believe the end point of these values is beneficial \u2013 democracies believe that if other states become democracies not only will they not fight but there will be more trade and it will be economically good all round. It is notable that when these kind of issues conflict with security and issues of power then human rights don\u2019t affect policy. This has been particularly notable recently in conflicts in Libya and Syria, there is just as much humanitarian cause for intervention in Syria as there was in Libya [1] yet because Syria is \u2018complex\u2019 and other countries like Russia have opposing interests there will not be any intervention almost no matter how much killing by Syria\u2019s Bashar al Assad. [2]  With religion an even more marginal influence in foreign policy than broad human rights concerns for most nations it is difficult to see why a nation should make religious freedom a priority.  [1] Crowley, Michael, \u2018The Obama Doctrine: Syria vs. Libya Intervention\u2019, Time, 1 June 2012  [2] Rogin, Josh, \u2018NATO chief: Intervention just won\u2019t work in Syria\u2019, The Cable Foreign Policy, 29 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con02b","title":"","text":"An objective being difficult does not mean it is not worthwhile pursuing it. In the case of Egypt it may now be a democracy but it is certainly not a tolerant society \u2013 it would therefore be wrong for supporters to say job done and stop supporting change. Yes there will be times when a dominant group objects to having to present their religious case in a free market place of ideas and so resort to violence but without such tolerance the country in question will never be a truly stable country that works for the benefit of all its citizens and plays a constructive role in global politics."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro02b","title":"","text":"The problem with this approach is twofold; firstly it means that because of an implicit threat of force the majority have had their rights subordinated to the preferences of a minority. Regardless of the context of how this happens, this kind of precedent is always the first step on the road to tyranny. Secondly it is a recipe for social stagnation; if the state acts to prevent anyone from encountering views that they disagree with or might find disturbing then their view will never change and the state will find itself forever trapped in a paradigm of conflict and stagnation."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro02a","title":"","text":"India has a specific need to main social cohesion  India\u2019s post-independence history is one of partition along religious grounds with Pakistan and then open warfare with that state over territory. There is still a large Muslim minority in India and there are deep underlying social tensions within the country on this basis, along with frosty relations with a nuclear-capable Pakistan.  In this context, India\u2019s leaders have a special reason to pay attention to the sensibilities of their minority populations. If allowing the publication of The Satanic Verses would result in social unrest then on the balance of harms it is a rational choice to make a limited restriction on freedom of speech rather than see potential millions having their property and lives threatened."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro01a","title":"","text":"People have a right to choose their cultural values  Society has a right to choose and structure its values as it sees fit and there is no reason why the Western construction of values is right or should take priority over any other.  In Muslim countries faith may be a more important aspect of life that it might be in Western countries and it is entirely legitimate that those societies might choose to value protecting the dignity of their faith over absolute freedom of speech."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro01b","title":"","text":"\u2018Freedom of speech\u2019 is not so much a \u2018cultural value\u2019 so much as it is a vehicle for communicating and exploring different cultural values."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-con01b","title":"","text":"Freedom of Speech is but one right amongst many, including freedom of religion, and they are not intrinsically ranked against each other. The right of people to have and hold religious views without having those views demonised or insulted is a right that might easily be considered just as important.  Moreover the West is often hypocritical with how it defines the right to free speech \u2013 Western countries often restrict incitement to violence or speech which is insulting to individuals, or even just when that speech is against the national interest (such as with official secrets).  If it is legitimate to use state institutions such as the courts to protect individuals from insults, why is it illegitimate to use state institutions to protect religions from insults?"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-con01a","title":"","text":"Freedom of Speech is a Universal Right  Freedom of speech and expression exists in any modern list of human rights. It is a fundamental right that is necessary for any society to function properly and for individuals to achieve happiness and fulfilment in their lives.  \u2018Hurt and outrage\u2019 are false harms \u2013 nobody suffers any damage from being exposed to an opposing view other than what they choose to suffer based on how close-minded they are. On the contrary, everybody has a chance to benefit when they are exposed to a foreign view or opinion, whether it be by changing their own view or being able to re-affirm their existing view in a new way."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Punishing the users of these extremist websites will not force these extremists to confront their views either. Punishing them is likely to create a victim mentality, a belief that the state is out to get them because of their beliefs not because of any particular act they may have committed. This is similarly likely to confirm them in their resentments and cause more radicalisation."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The internet is an echo chamber that will confirm extremists in their views if not stopped  The internet may be a free for all where all ideas and viewpoints can be found but that does not mean that all users view all these views. Instead the internet acts as an echo chamber that encourages people to believe their own views are correct and so get more extreme rather than challenging them. Eli Pariser author of a book called The Filter Bubble argues that the internet forces us to consume a very narrow range of views as search engines have been personalised with the intention of letting users find what they like so two people searching for the same thing on google can get very different results, for example when googling \u2018BP\u2019 during the oil spill one person might be directed to information about the spill and its environmental consequences while another might get just investment information. [1] When this kind of filtering is added to people constantly interacting with extremists and on websites praise and incite terrorism it is clear that users of these sites will get caught in a confirmation bias and conformation bias tends to lead to people becoming more polarised. [2] It is therefore the right policy to punish users of extremist websites before they become too radicalised as it is only a very short step from believing an attack is praiseworthy to carrying out similar attacks.  [1] Gross, Doug, \u2018What the Internet is hiding from you\u2019, CNN, 19 May 2011.  [2] Lord, C., Ross, L., and Lepper, M., \u2018Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence\u2019. JPSP, 1979, no.37, pp.2098-2109. Summary from faculty.babson.edu."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The proposition is assuming that we know what effect visiting extremist websites will have, we don\u2019t. For some regularly visiting websites that promote violence may end up sickening them and encouraging them to re-evaluate their views rather than further radicalising them. The best way to prevent heinous terrorist acts is not to lock people up on minor offenses but to amass evidence of the much larger offences they are planning and convict them for those offenses rather than a law that will catch many innocents as well as the guilty."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro01a","title":"","text":"There needs to be a deterrent against those thinking of visiting extremist websites  National security concerns around terrorism mean that it is necessary to have a deterrent that will help prevent the recruitment of terrorists. Terrorism is one of the biggest threats to western countries today and this is potentially an effective way of dealing with it.  Traditional military responses to terrorism do not work due to terrorists\u2019 underground nature and decentralised cell structure that operates throughout the world. It is even questionable whether \u2018al Qaeda\u2019 as a group exists at all except as an identity for those wanting to attack the west to operate under. Efforts against terrorism therefore need to be aimed at preventing radicalisation and stopping individuals rather than attempting to destroy the whole group known as al Qaeda. This law not only deters people from becoming extremists through making them think twice about visiting extremist websites but it also helps to deter promoters of extremism through denying them an audience. [1]  If punishing users of extremist websites prevents even a few people who would otherwise have visited these websites from doing so and setting out on a part of radicalisation that leads to terrorism then it will have been a success.  [1] Kroenig, Matthew and Pavel, Barry, \u2018How to Deter Terrorism\u2019, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.35, No.2, Spring 2012, pp.21-36, p.25."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is no evidence that a deterrent like this works, we will never know who might have been radicalised but was not because they were deterred from visiting extremist websites. However if those visiting these websites really are terrorists then a spell in prison is not going to deter them. Moreover this is not a good way of preventing radicalisation as it does not get to the key issues. Instead of prosecuting those who visit extremist websites they must be shown how those views are wrong, something that can only be done through debate and discussion, [1] locking them up will not do this.  [1] Rothschild, Nathalie, \u2018How can debate challenge extremism?\u2019, guardian.co.uk."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Link between visiting extremist websites and being radicalised  Regardless of whether as Sarkozy claims Mohammed Merah would himself have been stopped earlier had this law been in place at the time this law will catch some terrorists in the future and stop them before they can do large amounts of harm. Punishing users of extremist websites will mean that the government can stop those who are on a path to radicalisation through their access to the internet and as a result this will help neutralise a key tool used by extremists to radicalise others.  There have already been examples of people being inspired to carry out violent jihad through material online such as Roshonara Choudhry who after watching some of Anwar Al Awlaki\u2019s sermons online attempted to murder Labour MP Stephen Timms. [1] This kind of legislation would mean that he could be punished for the lesser crime thereby preventing him from being able to engage in much more damaging criminal activities. Simply put if extremists are behind bars they are not engaging in terrorist attacks that could kill many people.  [1] Dodd, Vikram, \u2018YouTube urged to delete radical cleric\u2019s sermons\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 28 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con03b","title":"","text":"Many of the worries raised about who might be charged under such laws are irrelevant, judges and juries will be able to tell when someone is a journalist or intelligence official who does not have any criminal intent. Others who are visiting these extremist sites based upon ideology and yet are never going to engage in terrorist attacks themselves may well still provide financial or other support to those who do commit more violent acts. [1] A primary aim of the law is \u201cto forbid and prevent conduct that unjustifiably and inexcusably inflicts or threatens substantial harm to individual or public interests\u201d [2] something that this does by through preventing more major crimes by prosecuting for a minor crime. We should also remember that the punishment need not be disproportionate as it could simply mean restricting the guilty party\u2019s internet access rather than prison.  [1] Kroenig, Matthew and Pavel, Barry, \u2018How to Deter Terrorism\u2019, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.35, No.2, Spring 2012, pp.21-36, p.24.  [2] Duff, Antony, \"Theories of Criminal Law\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con01b","title":"","text":"Criminalisation will prevent radicalisation by stopping users accessing the most extreme content. Sites such as YouTube and Facebook already police themselves and are unlikely to allow extremist materials to remain online for extended periods in the face of public pressure. [1] It is for extremist websites where public pressure can have no effect that needs the law to step in by punishing those who are regularly visiting those sites and being radicalised by them.  [1] Google, \u2018Our approach to free expression and controversial content\u2019, googleblog, 9 March 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con02a","title":"","text":"Criminalisation creates more problems than it solves  A law that punishes users of extremist websites would create a whole host of practical problems. Most obviously how are the authorities to monitor who are visiting extremist websites without a large expansion of a surveillance society that already exists? [1] There would need to be large scale monitoring of what websites everyone visits or at least the ability for governments to get records from internet service providers, potentially a grave breach of individual\u2019s right to privacy.  Laws are only effective if those who are subject to the law have some idea of what that law means and what they should not be doing. [2] A good law should define what exactly the criminality is and this law would almost certainly have many problems with definitions. What makes someone a regular or habitual visitor? A few visits too many sites, hundreds of visits, regular visits once a week? There will also be challenges working out which websites should be considered extremist and even then how is a user to know that a website they visit is considered an \u2018extremist\u2019 website? Any type of warning would be counterproductive as no one would ever be caught and extremists would keep changing websites. This would create a climate of fear on the internet due to ambiguity about what is acceptable and what might result in being thrown into prison. While itself a terrible infringement of freedom of expression at least blocking access to some websites has the advantage of showing what the state considers unacceptable.  [1] Ball, Kirstie et al., \u2018A Report on the Surveillance Society\u2019, Surveillance Studies Network, September 2006, p.1.  [2] Robinson, Paul, \u2018The Role of Deterrence in the Formulation of Criminal Law Rules: At Its Worst When Doing Its Best\u2019, Scholarship at Penn Law, Paper 51, p.31."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con04a","title":"","text":"Freedom of expression is a fundamental human right.  Freedom of expression is a fundamental human right that is recognised universally as is shown by its inclusion in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [1] This however should not just be taken as the freedom to have an opinion but also as the freedom to \u201cseek and receive\u2026 information and ideas through any media\u201d, being cut off from information that a person is seeking is as much an infringement of human rights as preventing them from voicing their opinion. [2] People are denied their voice as much by not having access to information as by not being allowed to speak because access to information is fundamental in the process of being able to form those opinions. Learning and opinion forming cannot exist within a vacuum access to information that enables this. This freedom includes the freedom to access extremist websites as often as you wish without being punished for this action, we cannot prejudge what opinion will be formed from access to this information let alone what actions may result from that opinion.  [1] The General Assembly of the United Nations, \u2018Article 19\u2019, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948.  [2] Best, Michael L., \u2018Can the Internet be a Human Right?\u2019 Human Rights and Human Welfare, Vol.4 2004, p.24"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con03a","title":"","text":"There is a lack of proportionality in punishing users of extremist websites  It is a basic principle of fairness that punishment should fit the crime. [1] In this case the crime is visiting a website, something that in itself may cause no harm at all so why should there be punishment? At best such a law would be punishing on the basis of future harm the accused would otherwise cause if not punished while at worst it would be an arbitrary punishment for people who would never have committed any harm at all.  Not everyone who visits extremist websites is themselves an extremist or is going to be radicalised even after regular visits. Moreover not every person with extremist views is either themselves violent or intending to promote violence. Finally there are a large number of people who regularly visit extremist websites with the purpose of monitoring them; these may be members of the police, the intelligence services, those simply wanting to understand the other and journalists attempting to keep up with extremist trends. What such a law would be doing would be criminalising curiosity.  [1] Hirsch, Andrew Vvon, \u2018Proportionality in the Philosophy of Punishment\u2019, Crime and Justice, Vol.16 (1992), pp.55-98."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con01a","title":"","text":"Criminalisation will not stop radicalisation  How will criminalising visiting extremist websites prevent radicalisation? Those who know about the law will simply look for the same material that they used to find on extremist websites elsewhere on the internet either through social networks such as Facebook and twitter, where for example Muhammad al-Arefe a Saudi cleric who has issued a fatwa endorsing violence against non-Muslims has over a million followers, [1] or other immense sites such as youtube. Radicalisation over the internet will therefore not be stopped by punishing users of certain websites.  Indeed such punishment of users of extremist websites may well end up creating more radical extremists than it prevents. Merah himself when talking to police negotiators before his death told them that it was being sent to prison for 18 months for driving without a licence that provoked his outrage against France and path to murder. This law would be putting more young men in prison and therefore potentially radicalising them through giving them something to be angry about, the opportunity to meet real extremists and demonstrating why the extremists believe the west should be attacked. [2]  [1] Kessler, Oren, \u2018Saudi clerics use social media to spread hate\u2019, Jerusalem Post, 10 May 2012.  [2] Lando, Barry, \u2018New Laws Pushed by Nicolas Sarkozy After Toulouse Massacre Go Too Far\u2019, The Daily Beast, 24 March 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con04b","title":"","text":"Freedom of expression carries with it duties and responsibilities which mean that this freedom may be subject to restrictions or penalties as the European Convention on Human Rights recognises. [1] In this case there is a national security interest and potentially a public safety interest to punish those who are accessing damaging information. Freedom of expression does not therefore apply to extremist websites that are inciting people to engage in acts of terrorism.  [1] Council of Europe, \u2018Article 10\u2019, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con02b","title":"","text":"This \u2018climate of fear\u2019 would only apply to those who know that what they are looking for is wrong. For these people if it does create a climate of fear then this is beneficial as it helps to create deterrence. Government would only be monitoring those it already suspects of extremism so ordinarily law abiding citizens need not be worried about surveillance as it will not affect them."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Money cannot be considered a form of symbolic expression the same way burning a flag is. Money only magnifies a certain idea, by giving it a greater platform. It is not a constitutive part of speech, or speech in itself. If someone burns a flag in political protest the point she\u2019s making does not become more powerful or popular by burning additional flags, nor does her influence become directly proportional to the amount of flags she burns. The symbolic gesture of a donation and the endorsement that comes with it does not also require the right to spend unlimited sums of money to express one\u2019s support."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Money as \u201csymbolic expression\u201d.  Not only is money instrumental to effective political communication, the expenditure of money in support of a campaign or cause is also, in itself, a form of political expression. The gesture of donating money expresses one\u2019s allegiance to and endorsement of a candidate\u2019s or organization\u2019s stance on the issues that form the political discourse of the society we live in. It is a basic way of political engagement. It is also one which is most readily available to any citizen. Therefore, donating money is a speech act which needs to be protected, in the same way burning a flag is considered to be a gesture of \u201csymbolic expression\u201d which is protected by the First Amendment [1] .  [1] Eugene Voloch, \u201cFlag Buring and Free Speech\u201d, Wall Street Journal 2009."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Money gives a megaphone to one point of view. That view then gains more notoriety by spending more money to advance and promote it, by using mass media to bring it to the attention of a broader group of people, by hiring advocates to persuade a broader audience, by creating hype around an issue or candidate, with financial resources. Figuring out what came first, the money or the popularity these candidates gained; is a chicken or egg dilemma. Money and popularity are part of a self-reinforcing cycle"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Money is intrinsic to political speech.  In Buckley, the Justices declared: \u201cvirtually every means of communicating ideas in today's mass society requires the expenditure of money. The distribution of the humblest handbill or leaflet entails printing, paper, and circulation costs. Speeches and rallies generally necessitate hiring a hall and publicizing the event. The electorate's increasing dependence on television, radio, and other mass media for news and information has made these expensive modes of communication indispensable instruments of effective political speech.\u201d [1] In the 2008 election, presidential candidates spent 1.7 billion dollars on their campaigns [2] . This helps to show that nowadays, the effective communication of political ideas cannot be achieved without the expenditure of money. Therefore, one cannot protect political speech and at the same time place restrictions on the main resource which makes it possible, there is little point in freedom to elucidate ideas without the ability to spread those ideas. Spending money has become an inextricable component of political communication.  [1] U.S. Supreme Court BUCKLEY v. VALEO, 424 U.S. 1 (1976).   [2] Jonathan D. Saland, \u201cSpending Dobuled as Obama Led First Billion Dollar Race in 2008\u201d, Bloomberg 2008."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Something can be an appendage to a right. But it does not mean the government has an obligation to afford it the same protections as the right itself. Effective communication of political ideals also requires access to airways, printing presses, campaign staff, etc. But the government has no obligation to treat access to these as a Constitutional, inviolable right, on par with one\u2019s freedom to say what she pleases.  An expression of an opinion is protected strictly by the letter of the law. However, the Citizen's United decision effectively expands this protection to two new entities: 1) non-person and 2) act of spending. Rather than reinterpreting current legislation that protects free speech, new laws ought to be created seeking to protect these two entities from committing to political expressions. And, this has to be exercised through the legislative branch rather than judicial.  With the Citizen's United decision, the judicial branch is effectively writing new legislation that is 1) recognizing corporate entities to have same political expression rights as citizens\/individuals and 2) redefining the act of spending to be the same as an expression of an opinion as well as an act of demonstrating an expression of an opinion."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Money as a metric of support for political ideas.  Money is actually a very effective way of gauging the success of the ideas presented to the electorate, it shows the best political ideas and personalities in the through the market. It is often argued that politicians who spend a lot of money win elections. However, when this hypothesis was scientifically tested, it turned out that in fact successful and popular candidates merely attracted more money, the same way they attract more volunteers, more endorsers, and more votes [1] . Therefore, money, like an endorsement, is just a demonstrative way of throwing one\u2019s weight behind a candidate one agrees with. Viewed in this context, money is not some sinister device for unpopular ideas to rise to the top against the will of the majority, but, like an endorsement, a form of speech supporting those ideas which are already popular enough to attract it.  [1] Steven D. Levitt \u201cUsing Repeat Challengers to Estimate the effect of Campaign Spending on Election Outcomes to the U.S. House\u201d. The Journal of Political Economy, Volume 102, Issue 4, August 1994, pp. 777-798."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con03b","title":"","text":"This point of view assumes an inherent virtue of middle of the road, status quo ideas, and picks winners and losers before the debate even gets a chance to occur. It presupposes that certain ideas automatically deserve less \u2018airtime\u2019 than others because at the moment they happen to be unpopular. Every great idea which moved the debate forward and modernized the world, from the abolition of slavery to universal suffrage, started as a fringe, unpopular idea at one time. Unpopular ideas, whether they turn out to be good or bad, might need a financial boost to join the debate that may establish their value. They cannot simply be pre-emptively deemed unworthy before even being scrutinized in the marketplace of ideas."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con01b","title":"","text":"Money is a fungible resource and can fulfil different roles depending on the context in which it is used. It can be exchanged for almost anything and should be treated differently according to the circumstances in which it is used. It can be exchanged food, housing, weapons, medicine, services, hired hands. More conventional examples of property, such as real estate, or a car, have no equally fungible characteristic. When it is used to advance political debate, money becomes inherent to political speech. Therefore, in the context of campaign contributions and expenditures money deserves the protections of the First Amendment."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con02a","title":"","text":"Unlimited political contributions undermine fair democratic representation.  Allowing for unlimited political contributions under the protection of the First Amendment distorts one of the most fundamental democratic tenets, the principle of fair representation \u2013 \u201cone person, one vote.\u201d [1] The Supreme Court has in the past also recognized this principle to mean more than the right to cast one vote which is counted equally. In Reynolds v Sims the Court held that \u201cfull and effective participation by all citizens in state government requires\u2026 that each citizen has an equally effective voice in the election of members of the state legislature\u201d. [2] Such an \u201cequally effective voice\u201d is undermined by one individual or organization being able to influence the votes of thousands or hundreds of thousands through the deployment of financial resources which the average voter does not possess. This undermines the fair scheme of representation that is fundamental to a veritable democracy.  [1] John Rawls, Political Liberalism, Chapter 12: \u201cMaintaining the Fair Value of Political Liberties\u201d  [2] Reynolds v Sims, U.S. Supreme Court, 1964."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con03a","title":"","text":"Money stifles, it does not advance debate.  We protect speech under almost all circumstances and cherish its freedom as a tenet of democracy because it enhances debate and better decision-making. We believe that in the free marketplace of ideas, where everyone is given an equal opportunity to advance competing points of view, based on ever more complete information, voters will be better informed to make the right choice for themselves in the voting booth. But money, unlike speech, does not have the intrinsic property of enhancing a debate. At best, it can be a facilitator for the debate, without having communicative value of its own. But at worst, instead of enhancing the democratic debate, it distorts it, by giving certain ideas disproportionate influence, based not on the value and strength of their arguments, but on the spending power of their supporters. A clear example is the U.S. Tea Party movement, which has not enriched the debate in American politics. It has made it acrimonious, divisive, and radicalized. The Tea Party has empowered the fringes of American extremism. One has to wonder if these ideas would have done so well on their own, without having been bankrolled by millionaires like Rupert Murdoch and the Koch brothers [1] . It may also be used to stifle the other side; it is notable that in the 2012 presidential campaign more than 80% of adverts were negative so not attempting to inform voters. [2] For this reason, not only does money not fulfil the role which earns speech its expansive protections, it actively works against it. Money should be tightly controlled, not equated to speech and given limitless protection.  [1] Frank Rich, \u201cThe Billionaires Bankrolling the Tea Party\u201d, New York Times 2010.   [2] \u201cMad Money: TV ads in the 2012 presidential campaign\u201d, Washington Post, 14 November 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con01a","title":"","text":"Money is property.  In his concurring opinion in Nixon v Shrink Missouri Government Pack, Justice John Paul Stevens said: \u201cMoney is property; it is not speech. Speech has the power to inspire volunteers to perform a multitude of tasks on a campaign trail, on a battleground, or even on a football field. Money, meanwhile, has the power to pay hired labourers to perform the same tasks. It does not follow, however, that the First Amendment provides the same measure of protection to the use of money to accomplish such goals as it provides to the use of ideas to achieve the same results.\u201d [1] In other words, simply because money and speech can be means to the same end, it does not automatically mean they deserve the same level of protection. The freedom to use one\u2019s property as she sees fit is different from allowing someone to say what she pleases.  [1] Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC, U.S. Supreme Court 2000"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con02b","title":"","text":"Taken to its logical conclusion, such an argument can have anti-democratic implications. Perhaps the government should also cap the amount of time someone can volunteer to a political campaign or in support of a political cause. Other members of the electorate might have greater time or financial constraints which may not permit them to dedicate equal amounts of time influencing the votes of their fellow citizens. And if one advocate is superior in eloquence, persuasion, or charisma to others, should she not be permitted to use her talents in support of her cause or candidate, because her voice is essentially \u201cmore effective\u201d, to paraphrase the Court? Such an outcome-focused approach to the definition of fair representation ends up infringing on citizens\u2019 fundamental right to pursue the advancement of their interests within the democratic debate."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro02b","title":"","text":"There are already laws in place to respond to the fabrication of evidence in support of a news report. Libel laws already prevent newspapers from making attacks based on untruths or even ones that are true but are not in the public interest.  There is no doubt that times are tough for the British Press \u2013 as they are for newspapers around the world \u2013 but the overwhelming majority of journalists and publications have responded to that by diversifying the platforms they use for delivering the news. In addition to which they have embraced a 24-hour approach to delivering the news and, for many, the print platform is now seen as a \u2018legacy project\u2019.  To constrain and obstruct the hard work and harder principles of the overwhelming majority of journalists because of the actions of a desperate few would really throw the baby out with the bath water."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The British tabloid press isn\u2019t so much free as in freefall. Tabloid journalism in the UK has always been reckless and arrogant in pursuit of the trivial, but as advertising revenue dwindles that trend looks set to get worse  The media increasingly resembles one of the drug addicts it is usually so keen to condemn. As competition over dwindling advertising revenue becomes increasingly bitter, papers become ever more desperate for the next hit story \u2013normally represented by celebrity gossip or a minor scandal. Such content has nothing to do with bold investigative journalism and everything to do with muck-racking for salacious stories and- when that doesn\u2019t work- simply fabricating them.  Creating the impression that Millie Dowler was still alive was simply the most grotesque of a series of activities that put sales way ahead of truth."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro03b","title":"","text":"t is entirely fair to say that the way we approach and share information has changed beyond recognition in the last thirty years. There have been innumerable efforts made to control high-speed information networks and all have failed.  To hobble journalists with constraining regulation is as impractical as it is reckless at a time when they are no longer competing with a handful of their peers, but also a wider network of information exchange between semi-professional bloggers and capricious groups such as Anonymous and 4chan\/b, who spread lies and discord disguised as \u201centertainment\u201d.  It is surely better that stories should be put together by trained and acreddited journalists and published through businesses that are bound by libel and other laws than to have them drip out through social media, as was seen with the Ryan Giggs affair over super-injunctions. Introducing regulation would be self-defeating simply because of this fact [i] .  [i] Lucy Buckland. \u201c'It went from thrilling to seedy... I was a fool to risk everything': Natasha Giggs confesses her regrets over Ryan affair\u201d. Daily Mail. 23 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro01a","title":"","text":"The British tabloid press has proved singularly incapable of regulating \u2013 or for that matter restraining \u2013 itself.  The phone hacking scandal is simply a new low in the recent, tawdry life of the tabloid press. As the Leveson Inquiry is discovering, the use of private detectives, bribing police officers, and trailing the children of celebrities all seem to be common tricks not just for the News of the World but for tabloid journalism as an industry.  Indeed, the journalist who broke the story for the Guardian admitted to the Levenson inquiry that he had hacked a phone on one occasion. Despite the protestation of the Guardian\u2019s editors [i] that \u201c99 percent\u201d of journalists wouldn\u2019t know how to hack a phone, such practices and a culture that invades privacy seems commonplace.  [i] Statement by Alan Rusbridger to the Leveson Inquiry."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is part of the nature of journalism that it tends to say and reveal things that many people would rather remained unsaid and concealed. On the subject of working with police officers, papers have held the feet of police officers to the fire over many investigations including the Stephen Lawrence murder.  It is further worth bearing in mind that the collusion of senior members of the Metropolitan police with tabloid journalists was revealed not by a police investigation but by an investigative reporter.  Police and politicians may like their incompetence or corruption to take place behind closed doors, but that is the very reason for fostering and protecting a vigorous and interventionist press that is willing to bend the rules to find the truth."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro03a","title":"","text":"There have to be limits to the permissible levels of intrusion into people\u2019s lives, in an increasingly connected world people- celebrities or not- have never been more conscious of this simple fact.  In an age when any fool with a cell phone and a twitter account can snap a topless pop star on the beach, tabloid hacks are under greater pressure than ever to go the extra mile. There is little reason to doubt that they will. Privacy is already one of the dominant legal issues of our age that looks likely to become ever more the case.  Against that background, when a flat out lie can be broadcast around the world in seconds, clearly a different legal and regulatory framework is needed from the old days of print where an apology was actually relevant \u2013 however begrudgingly given."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con03b","title":"","text":"The idea that stopping journalists rummaging through the bins of private citizens in pursuit of credit card statements on the off-chance they might have done something unusual is hardly likely to bring down the entire edifice of freedom and democracy.  Indeed, there is a clear democratic mandate for the robust protection of privacy- informed by the basic equality that underlies rule-of-law- derived from the revulsion that most people feel at the actions of certain parts of the press. As in any profession- including law, medicine and politics- practitioners are allowed discretion on the understanding that they won\u2019t abuse it.  In this instance, the discretion leant to the political class has been routinely and systematically abused over a period of decades, to little benefit. All of the examples that Opposition has been able to cite have been the result of old-fashioned, dogged investigation and courageous writing and editorship.  If regulation gets journalists away from the addiction to celebrity, away from the easy sells of sex and venality and back into the better traditions of the trade, it may serve to revive the entire newspaper industry."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con01b","title":"","text":"We should remember that the original defence of the NoW was that phone hacking had been carried out by just \u2018one rogue reporter\u2019 [i] and that defence has crumbled at every stage. It quickly became clear that others at the paper were involved, then that others in the group and now, apparently, that the practice was fairly commonplace at other papers.  Had this been just one bad apple then the idea that no new regulation was really needed for the otherwise good and noble folk of medialand might stand. As evidence- and a string of arrests among the News of the World\u2019s senior staff- has demonstrated, flaunting of the law, of basic ethical standards and of simple honesty was rife at the news of the world, and is likely to have been used frequently in the newsrooms of the NoW\u2019s rivals.  [i] Huffington Post. \u201cJulian Pike, News Of The World Solicitor, Says He Knew That Phone Hacking Was Widespread In 2009\u201d. 11 January 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con02a","title":"","text":"Who does the regulating? All of the obvious bodies \u2013 police, parliament and so on \u2013 haven\u2019t exactly shown themselves to be whiter than white in the last year or so.  Newspapers are at least accountable to their readers and it is worth noting that exactly the kinds of stories now under the spotlight are the ones that prove the most popular. Further they already work within a legal framework and are accountable to the courts when they break laws governing libel, privacy or theft of information.  When we look at the possible candidates for overseeing the media, the line-up is fairly unimpressive and all have an obvious self-interest: MP\u2019s expenses scandal was revealed by journalists, corruption and incompetence (as well as racism previously) at the Metropolitan Police was uncovered by journalists. That would only leave them accountable to the courts, which they already are, or a regulatory body comprising other papers and the public, which they already are."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con03a","title":"","text":"All of those involved in the phone hacking cases broke laws. Existing laws. They can be prosecuted under existing frameworks and cases are already being pursued. There is no need for another set of controls  We should be very cautious when giving politicians- in particular- the power to control what is said about them. Whatever Lord Leveson suggests, chances are those decisions will need to go before parliament.  The actions of the British media may frequently be distasteful and those who read the so-called \u2018quality\u2019 press may find the obsession of the tabloid press with matters that mostly seem trivial and tawdry offensive. However, the liberty that- almost incidentally- allows tabloid newspapers to produce populist pablum, enables broadsheets to maintain an excoriating and forensic oversight of the political class as a whole. The recent Parliamentary expenses scandal would be unthinkable in many countries: analysis undertaken by the press as a whole demonstrating a culture of corruption across the entire political class, not only breathtaking in its extent but also a clear mark of just how far politicians had moved from the realities of day-to-day life for people who actually pay for their own house.  In this regard, journalistic license is the price of liberty."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con01a","title":"","text":"The overwhelming majority of journalists would not know \u2013 and wouldn\u2019t want to know \u2013 how to hack a phone and it is unfair to restrict them because a few do  Introducing regulation on the basis that a handful of journalists have broken laws that already exist \u2013 and were caught doing so by other journalists \u2013 seems odd, to say the least.  There is little doubt that there was something extremely murky going on at the News of the World but it is worth remembering that the paper has since been shut down.  To any observer this looks an awful lot like politicians using the excuse of one newspaper\u2019s poor conduct- which, it is worth repeating, has been shuttered- to attempt to regulate the rest. One of the popular suggestions at the moment is that no journalist should be able to print a story about a politician without getting their permission first. Such a rule would strike at the very heart of a free press."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con02b","title":"","text":"It is, of course, a matter for Lord Leveson and his inquiry to make recommendations on what the final regulatory framework should be. However the idea that newspapers are already accountable in an appropriate manner simply doesn\u2019t stand up to scrutiny. There is, if nothing else, compelling popular support [i] on such a scale that, apparently the readers of the newspapers in question are uncertain as to whether they are up to the job themselves.  There has also been an undercurrent in the press which amounts to \u201cwell people bought it so it\u2019s their fault really\u201d, which also doesn\u2019t stand up to analysis. Readers of newspapers should surely be allowed to assume that the journalists who gather their news- and style themselves as professionals- act both legally and ethically. It is not the job of readers to double check the facts and activities behind a story.  [i] BBC Website. \u201cPoll suggests public want much tighter press controls\u201d. 14 December 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro02b","title":"","text":"It seems unlikely that it will become any less iconic after publication. Indeed the very fact that it has been published is likely to be hailed as a great victory. Neo-Nazis in Germany and elsewhere will not present this as the result of the elapse of copyright and a measured response by the state. As in any comparable situation, it will be presented as a victory. To take one example, when fascist leaders are interviewed on television or invited to speak in university debates, those actions are presented to their followers as proof of how seriously they are now being taken by the mainstream. None of those followers will be aware that their leader was roundly thrashed, because they didn\u2019t watch the interview and didn\u2019t attend the debate. Similarly the book will be waved, unopened at rallies to demonstrate to the faithful that progress is being made."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro02a","title":"","text":"Banning the book would have simply increased its role as an iconic symbol.  Extreme parties frequently thrive when they are able to present themselves as being suppressed by a supposed elite. Their ability to portray themselves as being unfairly silenced by a capricious elite has long been used to attract support by parties on the far-right in Europe and elsewhere. For example the far right National Democratic Party went to court to get its newsletter delivered by the postal service. [i] Indeed, given the weakness of many of the arguments they make, silencing them has frequently been far more self-defeating than opening up their beliefs to scrutiny [ii] .  As long as Mein Kampf remained unavailable it acquired the inevitable allure of the unattainable. The book could be presented as having a status far beyond what it is \u2013 the ill thought-out and self-indulgent ramblings of a bad writer.  At the moment the book is not, per se, banned, it\u2019s just that the owners of the copyright haven\u2019t allowed publication until now. As a result, come 2016, there would have needed to be an intervention in the normal flow of events to prevent its subsequent publication; Munich\u2019s Institute for Contemporary History had already said it would publish the book. [iii] This would have given the impression that mainstream German society was in some way afraid of the book or its contents and given credence to the suggestions of extremists that there is no effective response to their arguments. By publishing the book in this manner, the state removes both the allure of the hidden icon for devotees and any commercial interest for other publishers. Added to which, those prepared to plough through it (even Mussolini said that it was boring) will at least be rewarded with historical insights from leading scholars.  [i] Reuters, \u2018German far right in legal battle over free speech\u2019, Yahoo News, 29 June 2012,   [ii] Bavaria to publish \u2018unattractive\u2019 new edition of Mein Kampf. Tony Paterson. The Independent. 26 April 2012.  [iii] Relax News, \u2018\u2019Mein Kampf\u2019 to see its first post-WWII publication in Germany\u2019, The Independent, 6 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro03b","title":"","text":"Presenting Mein Kampf as a text for critical discussion gives the impression, at least, that those who supported its arguments and those who decried them were somehow on an equal footing. Having the massed ranks of German academia comment on it is likely to add to its credibility rather than detracting from it as it will suggest that the ideas are worthy of analysis. Treating the text in such a way would be akin to teaching theories of a flat earth in Geography. No child is likely to get through their school career without some discussion of WWII, proposition has failed to demonstrate what, exactly, this would add to that situation."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro01a","title":"","text":"It was not the powerful arguments that are made in Mein Kampf that led to the atrocities of Nazi Germany, mostly because there are none.  The content of the book is not grounds for supressing its publication or use and so, all other things being equal, there should be a presumption in favour of publication. There is an entirely understandable interest in the publication of the book in a country where it is so notorious. It\u2019s important to bear in mind that this is not a bomb making manual and most experts feel that the arguments are weak to the point of absurdity [i] \u2013 and the commentary will serve to enforce that point. The content of the book, in and of itself, were not therefore grounds for continued suppression of the text.  Generally speaking, it seems a relatively sensible rule of thumb that if there is no direct harm that can be shown as a result of publication and there is sufficient interest to merit doing so then it would normally be published [ii] . By doing so ahead of the end of the copyright, the state will prevent commercial publishers making a profit and this should dampen down the impact of its arrival.  It is standard to take such a presumption in favour of publication in many other circumstances, even where some groups may find doing so offensive \u2013 the Satanic Verses being a case in point. [iii]  There is no doubt that the book also has an iconic significance but that might also be said of Das Kapital and, more explicitly, the works of Lenin and Mao but they remain in print for both scholarly and popular consumption.  It seems sensible to treat Mein Kampf as just another book. If this were a recently discovered autobiography by another significant historical figure, it would almost certainly be published - even if it wasn\u2019t very good.  [i] Mein Kampf: Bavaria plans first German edition since WWII. BBC Website. 25 April 2012.  [ii] Viewpoint: Let Germans read Mein Kampf. Stephen J Kramer. BBC News. 10 May 2012.  [iii] Devji, Faisal, \u2018Does Salman Rushdie exist?\u2019, Free Speech Debate, 13 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is no such thing as a \u2018presumption in favour of publication\u2019. Publishers don\u2019t publish books all the time \u2013 and absolutely nobody cries free speech. Proposition have said it themselves, the arguments aren\u2019t persuasive. However, having it published at all would have given the work a degree of credibility it doesn\u2019t deserve, having it published with the authority of the state will redouble that. Many of the neo-Nazis who see it as iconic would, in all probability, never have got as far as actually reading the book \u2013 let alone any commentary \u2013 but they will see a book written by Hitler from the print of the state of Bavaria."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro03a","title":"","text":"The ban achieved no practical impact in the Internet age as it was not global.  If there were not already easy access to the book through the Internet [i] , then it might be possible to argue that there was some practical purpose to be served by continuing its suppression. However, when any disaffected teenager can gain easy access to the text while sitting alone in their bedroom, it seems foolish that it cannot also be examined in the cooler light of their history class.  The issue is not access to the text; it\u2019s not even really about ownership of the book \u2013 both of which are already possible \u2013 but rather about how the book is treated. Not publishing or using the book up until now has simply maintained a situation that was put in place after WWII, which in some ways served a purpose, of saying there was no particular reason for a change at any particular time during that process. However, as the seventieth anniversary of the end of the war comes into view, it seems reasonable that the book should be treated as exactly what it is; an interesting historical artefact, to be examined as one might any other.  [i] For example through Project Gutenberg, here ."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con03b","title":"","text":"All of which goes to show how ridiculous bans are in practice as a political tool. When neo-Nazis arrive at rallies with an assortment of black geometric shapes on a white background surrounded by red, nobody stands around trying to figure out what the reference might be. In the same way banning publication of the book doesn\u2019t expunge it from history, everyone still knows it was written, who write it, and broadly what it\u2019s about. It is the symbolism behind the icon, rather than the artifact itself, that caries the significance. As a result banning the artifact achieves little."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con01b","title":"","text":"If the publication of other versions is \u2018inevitable\u2019 then it makes sense for those versions to be framed within the narrative set by a version grounded in scholarship and critical discourse. Indeed the very process of allowing people to understand that different versions of the same text can fulfill radically different roles is welcome development in its own right. It is also likely that by the time copyright runs out, people\u2019s curiosity will have been largely sated by the official version."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con02a","title":"","text":"Money for blood.  If Mein Kampf were presented by a contemporary writer to a contemporary publisher, nobody would go near it; simply because nobody would buy it. There is virtually no market for books of its kind, of which it is a poor example, and even those who might be interested in what it has to say tend not to be known for their book buying enthusiasm.  The overwhelming reason why this would be bought is either out of morbid curiosity or the desire, on the part of neo-Nazis to own an icon. Even one of the editors of the version to be published, Edith Raim, has said \"Our book won't find any buyers in the Neo-Nazi scene. It's going to be a solid scientific work\". [i] No doubt both will happen. Selling the book will result in profits from both groups \u2013 particularly the latter for whom possession of the physical thing itself is likely to be more important. Those sales will result in profits and it seems distasteful that any profit should be made \u2013 either by the state of Bavaria or subsequent publishers of other versions. This wouldn\u2019t be published on the basis of the book itself, the only thing that is driving those profits is the historical role of Hitler, his notoriety and his atrocities.  [i] Evans, Stephen, \u2018Mein Kampf: Bavaria plans first German publication since WWII\u2019, BBC News, 25 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con03a","title":"","text":"Publication is inconsistent with other legislation.  Publication of the book provides another symbol for European neo-Nazis who present a very real threat. The Swastika and Nazi salute remain banned in Germany and other jurisdictions; this should be added to that list. [i]  If Mein Kampf were one of a kind, there might be an argument in favour of treating it in the manner suggested by Proposition. However, the reality is that it isn\u2019t. All sorts of Nazi imagery remain banned and not just in Germany and not just because others find them offensive. They are banned because they serve as rallying points for some of the most dangerous elements in society who, in turn, pose a very real and immediate threat to the physical well-being of groups ranging from immigrant to Jews to homosexuals.  The real issue of consistency, if the Swastika is banned, then why not add Mein Kampf to the list? At the time of the prohibition of these other images, there was no need to do so as it was unavailable as a result of copyright. It is not unreasonable to suppose that, had that not been the case, it would have been banned at the time. All additional legislation would do now is to rectify an historical oversight.  [i] Evans, Stephen, \u2018Mein Kampf: Bavaria plans first German publication since WWII\u2019, BBC News, 25 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con01a","title":"","text":"Without appropriate legislation, neo-Nazi groups will publish their own version as a propaganda tool.  One of the principle reasons for the production of this text was that \u201cOnce anyone is free to publish Hitler\u2019s work, now-Nazis will inevitably churn out editions favourable to the Nazi leader.\u201d [i]  This decision to publish does absolutely nothing to change that \u201cinevitable\u201d fact. The state of Bavaria has done nothing to restrict other publications but have simply produced an \u2018authorized version\u2019 which does nothing more but give credibility to others. This will still leave the possibility of \u201ccharlatans and neo-Nazis appropriating this infamous book for themselves\u201d. [ii] It will allow a narrative to emerge on which is the better publication \u2013 should it be interpreted as we see it today or should it be understood within the setting of Hitler\u2019s own time; is it possible to approach the text itself without sharing the perspective of those original readers in the twenties, and so on.  Presumably the Bavarian state has taken this approach because it does not want to be accused of stifling debate on this subject. Which is odd because it\u2019s been doing so for nearly seventy years. The compromise of having the official versions and allowing alternatives is, perhaps, the worst possible outcome, allowing the neo-fascist versions the veneer of respectability of being \u2018alternatives\u2019 rather than simply being flat-out wrong.  [i] Hitler\u2019s \u201cMein Kampf\u201d to be published in Germany for the first time since WWII. Alexander Nazaryan. New York Daily News. April 24 2012.  [ii] AP, \u2018Historians hope to publish Hitler\u2019s \u2018Mein Kampf\u2019, USA Today, 5th February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con02b","title":"","text":"The point is that it isn\u2019t being presented to a contemporary publisher by a contemporary author. As with all texts, it is of its time and forms its own part of the historical record. It\u2019s entirely likely that if The Canterbury Tales were presented by a contemporary author, publishers wouldn\u2019t be fighting over it. However, within its context it is one of the founding documents of world literature. Moreover as Stephan Kramer, the General Secretary of Germany's Central Council of Jews points out publishing \"A historically critical edition\u2026 prevent[s] neo-Nazis profiting from it.\" [i]  [i] Paterson, Tony, \u2018German Jews want \u2018Mein Kampf\u2019 reprinted\u2019, The Independent, 10 August 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro02b","title":"","text":"A democracy, like any state, owes its first duty to its citizens, and its national interest is therefore in selling this equipment to help business at home. While it is convenient, perhaps even morally right at times, to stand publicly for the universality of democratic principles, such stands should not be taken at the expense of national security or influence. It should certainly not be considered an obligation. Sweeping policies like this will alienate valuable allies and make it more difficult for democracies to deal with the undemocratic world. With regard to domestic freedoms, states have long held different standards of action when dealing with their own citizens than those of other states, and that has never served to erode domestic freedoms."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro02a","title":"","text":"Democratic states have an obligation to not bolster repression abroad  It is common for Western democracies to make sweeping statements about the universality of certain rights, and that their system of government is the one that should be most sought after in the world, that democracy is the only legitimate form of government. As when Obama in Cairo proclaimed \u201cThese are not just American ideas; they are human rights. And that is why we will support them everywhere.\u201d [1] They claim to work in the United Nations and other organizations toward the improvement of rights in other countries and clamour about the need for building governments accountability around the world, using their liberal-democratic paradigm as the model. Yet at the same time democratic governments and companies sell technologies to non-democratic allies that are used to systematically abuse the rights of citizens and to entrench the power of those avowedly illegitimate regimes. These hypocrisies read as a litany of shame. A telling example is the Blair government in the United Kingdom selling weapons to an oppressive regime in Indonesia for the sake of political expediency even after proclaiming an \u2018ethical foreign policy\u2019. [2]  Even if democracies do not feel it is a defensible position to actively seek to subvert all non-democratic states, and that non-democracies should be considered semi-legitimate on the basis of nations\u2019 right to self-determination, they should still feel morally obliged not to abet those regimes by providing the very tools of oppression on which they rely. [3] To continue dealing in these technologies serves only to make democratic countries\u2019 statements hollow, and the rights they claim to uphold seem less absolute, a risk in itself to freedoms within democracies. Respect for rights begins at home, and actively eroding them elsewhere reduces respect for them by home governments.  [1] Obama, Barack, \u201cRemarks by the President on a new beginning\u201d, Office of the Press Secretary, 4 June 2009,   [2] Burrows, G. \u201cNo-Nonsense Guide to the Arms Trade\u201d. New Internationalist. 2002,   [3] Elgin, B. \u201cHouse Bill May Ban US Surveillance Gear Sales\u201d. Bloomberg. 9 December 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro03b","title":"","text":"Corporations are bound to obey the laws of the societies in which they are based, but they are not so constrained in their foreign dealings, in which they are bound instead by foreign laws that are often much more lax. The nature of the international landscape, with its many incompatible and overlapping forms of government and regulatory frameworks, demands that corporations be flexible in order to survive. The constraints put upon the manufacturers of surveillance equipment put forward by this policy will make them less competitive in the international market, which is often the primary market for these businesses. Furthermore, if they feel constrained they may pull up stakes and move their operations abroad to a more accommodating jurisdiction. This would serve to harm domestic jobs and undermine the ability of democratic states to maintain their edge over others in essential surveillance technology development."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro01a","title":"","text":"Advanced surveillance technology prevents dissidents from being able to organize and sue for freedom  High-tech surveillance technology has given repressive governments and police states a new lease on life. Now more than ever they can intrude into every aspect of people\u2019s lives, ensuring that dissent is cowed for fear of the ever present threat of the security services. The vision of Orwell\u2019s 1984 has become a living nightmare for people all over the world. Their power has made it extremely difficult for movements for reform, government accountability, and democracy, which have foundered when faced with these sophisticated security apparatuses (Valentino-Devries, 2011). [1] By dominating the flow of information states have the power to keep their people in check and prevent them from ever posing a threat to their repressive status quo. Thus China blocks access to the internet and to other forms of communications in Tibet to \u201censure the absolute security of Tibet\u2019s ideological and cultural realm\u201d. It cuts the Tibetan people off from outside world so as to prevent any rerun of the instability that occurred in 2008, which China blamed on the influence of the Dalai Lama from outside. [2]  Only external help in alleviating this censorship could allow activists to organize effectively and perhaps to one day bring about genuine reform and justice to their societies. The surveillance equipment on which these regimes rely is often only available from firms and governments in the democratic world where, by and large, technology is generally far more advanced than in the non-democratic world. Without access to these technologies, the regimes would be far more hard-pressed to keep rigid tabs on their citizens, allowing for the seeds of dissent to take root. Only then can the forces clamouring for democracy hope to be able to organise networks of activists, and to have their views considered by the state.  [1] Valentino-Devries, J. \u201cUS Firm Acknowledges Syria Uses its Gear to Block Web\u201d. Wall Street Journal. 29 October 2011,   [2] Human Rights Watch, \u201cChina: Attempts to Seal Off Tibet from Outside Information\u201d, 13 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro01b","title":"","text":"Security services have managed to watch over and infiltrate the efforts of dissidents all through history. The visibility and tactics is all that has changed. The internet was never going to just be an arena that helps dissidents in authoritarian regimes but as with other technological advances, such as the telephone both increases communication and provides methods of monitoring that communication. If non-democratic states were to lose access to Western technology, they would either procure comparable replacements from other non-democracies, or they would pursue more traditional forms of surveillance, ones that tend to be more invasive and physically threatening."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro04b","title":"","text":"Is a minor ban really a good signal? The chances are the government will ignore it and those who it is meant to encourage will never hear about it. In the event that the regimes it is aimed at do take not far from weakening them, this policy serves only to alienate them. The lack of respect the policy is clearly aimed to show will galvanize the leaderships in undemocratic regimes to cut off various ties with democratic states, limiting the flow of ideas and democratic principles that natural adhere to activities like international trade. The result is non-democracies will be less willing to talk about reform in the international community because they see their very form of government as under threat by foreign agents seeking to discredit them. Ultimately, a boost in Western moral does little to promote democracy and human rights while a negative signal will result in regimes being more suspicious and obstinate."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro03a","title":"","text":"The right of Western businesses to sell their services abroad can be curtailed when their actions stand counter to the interests of their home governments  Corporations are private entities that have the right to sell their services and to deal with agents foreign and domestic, including governments. However, this right can be limited when those actions are oppositional to the aims of the home state in which they are incorporated. The sale of surveillance technology to undemocratic regimes stands against the avowed aims of democracies and against their strategic interests in bolstering democracy abroad and maintaining a reputation for fair dealing. For this reason it is perfectly legitimate for governments to ban the corporations within their borders from selling dangerous technologies to foreign governments. Such is already the case with many kinds of strategic technology, especially weapons technology. [1] The EU, for example, bans a range of arms sales to various oppressive states on these grounds, [2] China in particular is an example where it would potentially be very lucrative to overturn the ban. [3] Corporations benefit from the protection of democratic states, as they provide bases of operations that shield their right to property and ensure stability and the rule of law. If corporations wish to benefit from these provisions they must be willing to accept the instructions of the states that house them regarding what can and cannot be sold to foreign powers.  [1] Elgin, B. \u201cHouse Bill May Ban US Surveillance Gear Sales\u201d. Bloomberg. 9 December 2012.   [2] Banks, M. \u201cSenior MEP Calls for Freeze on Arms Sale to North Africa\u201d. The Parliament.com. 7 July 2011.   [3] See the debatabase debate \u2018This House believes the European Union should lift its ban on member states selling arms to China\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro04a","title":"","text":"This ban would have a powerful signalling effect expressing disapproval of non-democracies' system of government  A ban on the sale of surveillance technology to non-democracies serves ultimately as a statement of disapproval. It shows that the undemocratic regimes cannot be trusted with the ability to spy on their people. This signal has several effects. An example of this international shaming affecting is the international bans on the use of landmines. Various states created a framework, the Ottawa Convention, [1] in which their condemnation pressured nearly every other state, including authoritarian regimes, to follow suit. [2] Domestically it serves to bolster people\u2019s faith in the system of rights they value highly and enshrine in law. They can point to this ban as an example of their government\u2019s desire to make a better world and not to increase repression for the sake of power or profit. In the undemocratic states themselves, the regime leaders will be faced with a significant public relations blow as they come under criticism. This serves to embolden and empower holders of dissenting opinions and to spark pro-democratic discourse. In the international community it makes an emphatic value judgement on the merit of certain systems of government, namely the superiority of democracy and government accountability to the people, principles most non-democracies still pay some form of lip-service to. Overall, this policy boosts the credibility of democracy, while undermining the influence of undemocratic states.  [1] See the debatabase debate \u2018This House (as the USA) would sign the Ottawa convention banning landmines\u2019,   [2] Wexler, L. \u201cThe International Deployment of Shame, Second-Best Responses, And Norm Entrepreneurship: The Campaign to Ban Landmine and the landmine Ban Treaty\u201d. Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law. 2003."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con03b","title":"","text":"Banning the sale of surveillance technology does not mean democracies are declaring all undemocratic regimes illegitimate. Rather, they are simply not allowing their technology to aid in the repression of people, which is the only use to which that technology is put in practice. Reform sometimes demands a firm hand, and while some regimes will be riled by what they perceive as an insult, the greater chance for dissidents to develop networks and voices is worth the cost."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con01b","title":"","text":"Real politick is not the only consideration democracies should entertain when they engage in international relations. Indeed, the Western powers have sought since World War II to develop a system of international justice that recognizes the primacy of peoples\u2019 rights irrespective of where they are born. This principle is constantly compromised as democracies jockey for influence with undemocratic regimes, bolstering those regimes and their repressive norms in the process. In order to be consistent, and to serve the true interests of justice, democracies must not aid undemocratic governments in the repression of their people."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con02a","title":"","text":"It is hypocritical for democratic governments to utilize surveillance technology to watch their own people while denying that technology to others  It is a fatal conceit to consider democracies somehow above the influence of using their surveillance technology to curtail the freedoms of their own citizens. The biggest customers of Western surveillance technology companies are wealthy democracies. The United Kingdom, for example, has one of the most-watched populations in the world, with a saturation of CCTV cameras far in excess of any dictatorship. [1] The PATRIOT Act in America, also, has given the federal government enormous scope for domestic spying. These powers are no less simply because the government is composed in part of elected officials. The security establishment is appointed, not elected, and their servicemen are promoted from within. It is base hypocrisy to pretend that the security systems are inherently more just when employed in democratic states than in undemocratic ones. They are used for the same purpose, to ensure that the state is protected and the status quo maintained. Democracies have no moral basis on which to base this policy.  [1] BBC News. \u201cBritain is \u2018Surveillance Society\u2019\u201d. 2 November 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con04a","title":"","text":"The inability to use advanced technologies merely forces non-democracies to utilize more unsavoury methods to achieve their aims  If it is the aim of an undemocratic regime to use advanced surveillance technology to gather intelligence on, and ultimately crush, dissent it will find other means of doing so. Their calculus of survival is not changed, only their available methods. Their first port of call will be the more advanced non-democracies that might be able to supply comparable surveillance equipment. China\u2019s military and surveillance technology is fast catching up to that of the West, and makes an appealing alternative source for equipment. [1] The only difference is that the Chinese have no compunction at all about how the technology is used, meaning worse outcomes for pro-democracy groups who run afoul of them. When this strategy fails regimes can turn to the tried and tested models of past decades, using physical force and other less technological modes of coercion to cow dissent. Again, this form of repression is quite effective, but it is also much more painful to those on the receiving end. Given the options, democracies supplying surveillance technology may be the best option for dissidents in undemocratic countries.  [1] Walton, G. \u201cChina\u2019s Golden Shield: Corporations and the Development of Surveillance Technology in the People\u2019s Republic of China\u201d. International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development. 2001."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con03a","title":"","text":"This ban will alienate non-democracies from discourse and stifle reform efforts  When a state is declared illegitimate in the eyes of a large part of the international community, its natural reaction is one of upset and anger. A ban on the sale of surveillance technology to non-democracies would be seen as a brutal slap in the face to many regimes that consider themselves, and are often considered by their people, to be the legitimate government of their country. The ban will result in further tension between non-democracies and democracies, breaking down communication channels. Democracies are best able to effect change in regimes when they seek to engage them constructively, to galvanize them to make gradual connections to the development of civil society and to loosen restrictions on freedoms, such as reducing domestic spying. The ban makes it clear that the ultimate aim of democracies is to effectively overthrow the existing governments of non-democracies in favour of systems more like their own. The outcome of this conclusion is far less willingness on the part of these regimes to discuss reform, and makes it more likely that they will demonize pro-democracy activists within their borders as agents of foreign powers seeking to subvert and conquer them. This particular narrative has been used to great effect by many regimes throughout history, including North Korea and Zimbabwe, Justice Minister Patrick Chinamasa for example denounced a travel and arms sales ban as attempting to \u201cundermine the inclusive government\u201d. [1] By treating non-democracies as responsible actors democracies do much more in effectively furthering their own aims.  [1] BBC News, \u201cZimbabwean minister denounces EU\u201d, 14 September 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con01a","title":"","text":"Presuming democracy is the only legitimate or worthwhile form of government is both inaccurate and unproductive  As much as the more liberal citizenry of many of the world\u2019s democracies wish to believe otherwise, democracy as a system of government is not the only game in town. In fact, the growth of the strong-state\/state-capitalism approach to government has gained much traction in developing countries that witness the incredible rise of China, which will before long be the world\u2019s largest economy, flourish under an undemocratic model. [1] Chinas ruling communist party have legitimacy as a result of its performance and its historical role reunifying the country. [2] Democracies pretending they are the only meaningful or legitimate states only serve to antagonize their non-democratic neighbours. Such antagonism is doubly damaging, considering that all states, democracies included, rely on alliances and deals with other states to guarantee their security and prosperity. This has meant that through history democracies have had to deal with non-democracies as equal partners on the international stage, and this fact is no different today. States cannot always pick and choose their allies, and democracies best serve their citizens by furthering their genuine interests on the world stage. This policy serves as a wedge between democracies and their undemocratic allies that will only weaken their relations to the detriment of both. When the matter comes to surveillance technology, Western states\u2019 unwillingness to share an important technology they are willing to use themselves causes tension between these states. Non-democracies have just as much right to security that surveillance technology can provide as the more advanced states that develop those technologies.  [1] Acemoglu, D. and Robinson, J. \u201cIs State Capitalism Winning?\u201d. Project Syndicate. 31 December 2012.   [2] Li, Eric X, \u201cThe Life of the Party\u201d, Foreign Affairs, January\/February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con04b","title":"","text":"Oppressive regimes have turned to the use of advanced surveillance technology in response to activists\u2019 learning to evade more conventional methods of surveillance, and by moving their organizations online. Western surveillance technology has filled a niche that was once open for dissidents. By placing this ban, even if the regimes turn back to old methods, they will still be hampered in the crushing of dissent. Furthermore, no regime has the resources or power to have physical surveillance as pervasive as the technology denied them would allow. Electronic surveillance therefore can cast a much broader net that would allow the government to repress many more people who would not be subject to more labour intensive physical surveillance."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con02b","title":"","text":"While Western states are willing to use surveillance technology to restrict their citizens, they do so always with a democratic mandate. That is the key difference. Democracies use surveillance technology to provide their people with the safety and security they demand, a security over which the people always have the veto of the ballot box. The non-democracy is not checked by any such power, and thus its use of surveillance technology faces no constraint."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro02b","title":"","text":"It matters if celebrities have double standards when they present themselves as being whiter than white. Equally, as Prop points out, there are already laws on defamation, libel, slander, defamation, trespass and surveillance. It is difficult to see what the register would add to these. One of the points that Leveson has routinely ignored is that all of the issues that prompted the inquiry are already illegal; hence the arrest of the journalists and executives involved [i] .  [i] BBCwebsite. Journalist arrested in computer hacking probe. 29 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro02a","title":"","text":"Redressing the balance  Such a register would, presumably still allow reporting when there was a genuine public interest \u2013 just as is the case for any other member of the public [i] . Presumably in such a circumstance, judicial approval could be sought \u2013 a process considerably quicker and easier than grinding an apology out of a magazine or newspaper; let alone winning a libel case.  Putting the burden on publications to demonstrate that something was news rather than gossip would be of huge benefit not only to celebrities themselves but to those long-suffering consumers of British news who, whilst hating it, have had to plough through this dross as it makes its way from the pages of magazines into the public consciousness [ii] .  So what if celebrities have double-standards? So do most people, none of who would appreciate that fact being pointed out on the front pages of the media.  [i] The Telegraph. Matthew Holehouse. \u201cLeveson Inquiry: Judge suggests a \u2018celebrity privacy registry\u2019\u201d. 18 January 2012.  [ii] The Guardian. Sam Delaney. \u201cWill the Leveson inquiry kill celebrity magazines?\u201d 26 December 2011."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro03b","title":"","text":"If this is going to come down to professional judgement on what is and isn\u2019t news then editors of successful magazines and newspapers would seem to have rather more relevant experience than a High Court judge. One of the ironies of the whole process has been that the one group who took no responsibility for the various crimes of newspapers are the people who bought them; papers follow the whims of their readers, whether the middle class like it or not."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro01a","title":"","text":"A right to privacy \u2013 even if you are famous  Just because somebody chooses to be an actor, singer or an entertainer of any kind does not mean that they lose their right to a private life. In the context of the UK (the Scope of the Leveson Enquiry) it\u2019s worth mentioning that this right is guaranteed under both the Human Rights Act of 1998, which in turn is predicated on the European Convention of Human Rights [i] .  The people who are having their private lives splayed over the tabloids and gossip magazines are not politicians or judges taking bribes, they are not police officers beating up suspects, they are not teachers offering grades in exchange for sexual favours or any other area of sensible journalistic investigation. They are people who happen to work in the entertainment industries and their lives are being interrupted for the sake of prurience and curiosity that has nothing to do with a meaningful news agenda.  If, as some of those mentioned in the introduction suggest, the worst that happens as a result of such a register is that celebrity magazines vanish, then the proposition is quite relaxed about that.  [i] Article 8 of the ECHR and the UK HRA (1998). Outlined here ."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro01b","title":"","text":"Article eight only applies to public bodies so, for the most part, the media are not affected. However, to tackle the more general point \u2013 celebrity, by its nature requires some surrender of privacy; presumably those who would sign such a register would still want the \u2018good\u2019 publicity but want approval over the \u2018bad\u2019 stuff. Once you start giving anyone copy approval over a supposedly free press, you might as shut it down. It has simply ceased to be free at that point."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro03a","title":"","text":"Making editor\u2019s think twice  A paparazzo\u2019s shot of a second or third rate celeb doing something stupid, or something perfectly sensible but just not in makeup \u2013 or clothes \u2013 makes for an easy page lead. Anything that makes editors pause and consider whether they have something that might actually pass for news might do a great deal to pull large chunks of the British media \u2013 along with the readers they claim to serve \u2013 out of the gutter.  In recent decades anything with \u2018celebrity\u2019 associations has been considered news as a sought of kneejerk reaction by editors. Even in the \u2018quality\u2019 press there\u2019s still plenty of coverage of vacuous, self-absorbed, talentless individuals who are famous, mostly, for being famous.  The defence of many editors is that these individuals deliberately court the attention they receive, which is, no doubt, true. However, whether it\u2019s a good idea to give it to them is something that ought to give editors pause for thought given the deforming impact it has on young people\u2019s sense of ambition [i] . Anything that means that such a productive golden goose is just one signature away from being killed, might be enough to make them ask whether it is really worth it.  Nobody is suggesting that this will transform the media overnight but readers moving away from publications that focussed exclusively on celebrity gossip to publications that, while containing some, also have much more news and analysis of real world events and issues certainly couldn\u2019t hurt levels of social and political engagement. The best way to encourage engagement is through education, which the media can provide.  [i] The Telegraph. Lucy Cockcroft. \u201cCult of Celebrity \u2018is harming children\u201d. 14 March 2008."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con03b","title":"","text":"It would seem to be entirely up to the media if they chose to seek an interview with a celebrity about their latest movie \u2013 that is, after all, part of most actors\u2019 job descriptions and part of the media\u2019s duty to inform. That hardly seems relevant to whether it\u2019s possible to publish a picture of them shouting at their kids."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con01b","title":"","text":"The response as simple as the point: Leveson wasn\u2019t asked to create a regulatory framework for the Internet. The web is the papers\u2019 problem, not Leveson\u2019s."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con02a","title":"","text":"It would allow for an entirely false image to be created  If celebrities were, in fact simply hard-working entertainment professionals who finished rehearsals and then returned to their private lives then the idea of protecting that privacy might make sense. The reality is that it just isn\u2019t so. It is routine for celebrities to use their status to express opinions on political or social matters on which they have no expertise whatsoever \u2013 and expect the media to cover it. Whether it\u2019s the modest but routine endorsing of political parties in the build-up to elections [i] to Paul McCartney on animal rights to Matt Damon on virtually everything \u2013 why are we listening to their opinions rather than, say, a professor of economics or ethics?  Equally, they expect coverage \u2013 and to be taken seriously \u2013 when announcing that the latest movie, or book or album is a masterpiece despite the panning it\u2019s receiving from the critics.  It\u2019s also questionable as to whether pop singer or movie star would count as quite the right career choice for someone looking for a quiet life [ii] .  It would be interesting to see how many would sign-up to Leveson\u2019s proposed list if it was a blanket ban on publicity. No coverage of charity events that happened to get a celeb along, no interviews with actors on economics or pop musicians on ethics.  [i] The Independent. Matilda Battersby and Thomas Mendelsohn. A who\u2019s who of celebrity political endorsements.\u201d 4 May 2010.  [ii] The Guardian. Owen Bowcott. \u201cMedia interest in celebrities\u2019 lives is legitimate, European court rules.\u201d 7 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con04a","title":"","text":"It sets a very dangerous precedent for controlling the output of the media \u2013 who is a celebrity?  What and who else should the media not be allowed to cover. By the same logic as banning the coverage of the private lives of those celebs that make a living out of publicity, why not the financial lives of those bankers who make their living out of money? There\u2019s no doubt that it caused embarrassment and inconvenience to those concerned and the collapse of banks could have been reported perfectly well without mentioning the tens of millions made by their directors and traders.  When does someone become a celebrity and when do they cease to be. If a politician appears on \u201cI\u2019m a celebrity\u2026\u201d or \u201cCelebrity Big Brother\u201d, do they cease to be a politician?  Are the Hamiltons public figures or celebrities? Is Portillo? Is Galloway? Nadine Dorries is the latest sitting member of Parliament to take part in a reality TV show; in this case I'm a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here. [i] When actors become members of parliament is their previous life covered.  Perhaps most obviously if a comedian like Jimmy Carr whose material is often political turns out not to be paying his taxes what happens? [ii]  There are several differences between telling newspapers what they can and can\u2019t cover in advance and establishing a regulatory framework for when they overstep the mark. An important one of those differences is that Leveson was asked to investigate the latter and not the former.  [i] Mulholland, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne, \u2018Nadine Dorries to go ahead with TV show after learning of Tory suspension\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 9 November 2012,   [ii] The Guardian. Rupert Sawyer. \u201cPoor Jimmy Carr. Being a celebrity shouldn\u2019t be taxing.\u201d 22 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con01a","title":"","text":"It simply won\u2019t work in an internet age  Whatever one thinks about the morality of this idea \u2013 and Opposition believes it is an attack on free expression \u2013 the simple and compelling fact is that it won\u2019t work. The super-injunctions [i] fiasco demonstrated that keeping information silent in an internet age is simply impossible when there is a keen public interest.  Whether Prop likes it or not, the public is interested in celebrity news, requiring newspapers to ignore what is happening in the blogosphere is asking them not to do their job. It would mean that the only people on the planet who couldn\u2019t tweet celebrity gossip would be those hired to do so.  This is important because it\u2019s effectively impossible to sue a blog or a twitter account so they can publish any old nonsense. The press by contrast are subject to the law and, as a result, rumours remain the stuff of fantasy until they appear in the media. Without that arbiter between truth and fantasy, a curious public might as well believe what some fantasist has posted on their website.  [i] Useful background on super-injunctions as the history leading up to them is here on the BBC site."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con04b","title":"","text":"There is a clear and demonstrable difference between the public right to know that their savings have been lost but the person who lost them walked off with \u00a340m and seeing a picture that suggests an actress has put on five pounds. The first actually affects the real lives of real people, the second really doesn\u2019t. As for blurred definitions, the NUJ\u2019s own definition of a journalist would seem to work \u2013 wherever the person receives the majority of their earnings."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Their song may have gone on to discuss political themes but its basis was an appeal to Mary to rid Russia of Putin. All the rest was trappings after that initial statement \u2013 a sort of protracted \u201cbecause\u201d. It is quite routine for prayers to start with an appeal to diving authority before addressing secular themes just as this did; it was a mockery of a prayer and, therefore, profane."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"The focus of their song was one of political dissent rather than religion  Pussy Riot\u2019s protest was politically focussed, the response seems politically driven and now they are prisoners. The name and chorus of the song performed was Virgin Mary, Chase Putin Out. [i] It is very hard to see what would be a better definition of the phrase \u2018political prisoner\u2019. Where any punishment required for this act \u2013 and Proposition contends that there was not \u2013 then it was at most a mild public order offence. Amnesty International and the overwhelming majority of the International media have reached that conclusion.  The very fact that this has become a cause celebre shows the extent to which those who able to step back from the situation recognise this for what it is; a clear abuse of presidential power given the thinnest sheen of respectability by a compliant church.  Such religious content as was contained in the protest fairly obviously relates to the setting and is not the main content of the song. It\u2019s a fairly straightforward artistic device. It does, however, raise the question that if the intent of this song was to be blasphemous \u2013 a necessary component of proving it to be so \u2013 then why did they do such a bad job of it and spend so much their time going on about politics; it would suggest somewhat incompetent activists.  [i] Elder, Miriam, \u2018Pussy Riot trial: prosecutors call for three-year jail term\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 7 August 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is not just the hierarchy of the Church that have objected to the bands actions. There have also been popular protests from regular churchgoers who have been offended by Pussy Riot\u2019s actions. Strangely this fact rarely gets more than a line \u2013 and often not even that \u2013 in the Western press. [i] This is not therefore a case of the Church \u2018propping up\u2019 the state rather it is speaking out for the outrage that many of its members feel.  [i] BBC Website. Pussy Riot members jailed for two years for hooliganism. 17 August 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"The blasphemy charge looks suspiciously convenient for Putin  There seems to be little doubt in any one\u2019s mind that Putin and his regime were the focus of the protest. It is, equally, no secret that Putin has a fairly brutal attitude towards political dissent; he has expelled even allies in parliament for criticism [i] , uses force to crush unsanctioned protests, [ii] and locks up potential opponents. [iii] Locking up Pussy Riot in order to stop their opposition therefore fits in with Putin\u2019s previous actions against his opposition and seems likely to be the desired result. In the light of that, it seems an extraordinary coincidence that what he would have wanted is exactly what happened. Putin himself said after they were sentenced \"We have red lines beyond which starts the destruction of the moral foundations of our society\u2026 If people cross this line they should be made responsible in line with the law.\" [iv]  Putin\u2019s record is not one that suggests that he is happy to step back and allow events to take their course in the hope that what he wants to happen just chances to come along \u2013 quite the reverse. Suggesting that this is a happy coincidence for Putin would be a little like suggesting that the decision to have term limits for the presidency, just not for Putin, was just the happy outcome of an impartial process. [v] If this was just the Church and the courts happening to favour the interests of an over-mighty president, then Putin must be the luckiest man alive.  [i] Vasilyeva, Nataliya, \u2018Anti-Putin lawmaker ousted in Russia; who's next?\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 14 September 2012  [ii] Heritage, Timothy, \u2018Vladimir Putin using force to crush protests, Russian opposition fears\u2019, National Post, 6 March 2012  [iii] Parfitt, Tom, \u2018Mikhail Khodorkovsky sentenced to 14 years in prison\u2019, The Guardian, 30 December 2010  [iv] Stott, Michael, \u2018Pussy Riot got what they deserved: Putin\u2019, Reuters, 25 October 2012  [v] Boudreaux, Richard, \u2018Putin Accepts Term Limits in Principle, but Not for Him\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 11 April 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"What is extraordinary is that despite the liberal outrage of much of the Western press, the Russian court system has delivered an appropriate verdict. There can be little doubt that their actions showed a fantastic level of disrespect for the Church, this is the closest relevant charge. Rulings may be convenient or not for leaders of all political persuasions \u2013 neither proves bias within the courts."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"History of the Orthodox Church and the Russian state  The Russian Orthodox Church has long been happy to prop up whichever strongman happens to be running the Kremlin, this was particularly the case in the time of the Tsars but was even the case under the Communists for all their supposed Atheism. [i] It certainly would not come as any surprise to Kremlin-watchers that, as Putin\u2019s government shreds the last vestiges of democratic credibility in favour of the strong-arm tactics of earlier Russian leaders \u2013 Tsarist and Communist \u2013 that the Church would be only too happy to help out with such difficulties as this as the Church and Putin are particularly close.  The fact is that the long arm of the presidential office now reaches into all parts of Russian public life, including religious life, for example the FSB has harassed other Christian sects and proselytizing has been banned. [ii] The intrusion of the state has been demonstrated far more effectively by the response to the protest than could ever have been achieved through such an event on its own. Although that reality may be powerfully ironic, it does little to help these political prisoners held at presidential whim and nothing more than hollow and self-serving justification from the courts.  [i] Miner, Steven Merritt, Stalin\u2019s Holy War, The University of North Carolina Press, April 2003  [ii] Levy, Clifford J., \u2018At Expense of All Others, Putin Picks a Church\u2019, The New York Times, 24 April 2008"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con03b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s a parody of a prayer; nobody has ever denied that. If that\u2019s the form of protest to be used, where better than a church? No property was damaged although some feathers may have been ruffled \u2013 but fair enough. Protesting the increasingly totalitarian rule of one of the world\u2019s most powerful nations would seem to justify a fairly minor disturbance on a Sunday morning."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con01b","title":"","text":"Firstly protesting in a Church clearly has served to draw maximum attention to the issue and so they appear to have been proven right to have done so. Secondly, it is the severity of the sentence that is the issue here, Tatchell\u2019s actions were described by the magistrate as \u201ca minor public order offence\u201d and he was given a fine of under \u00a320."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con02a","title":"","text":"Intention  Perhaps more damning than the fact that the protest did cause offence or the fact that it was always likely to was the fact that it was clearly intended to do. At no point can the members of Pussy Riot been under the illusion that no offence would be caused; quite the reverse, they were counting on it. Counting not only on the outcry in the domestic media but also on the impact that would have on the international media in an effort to give themselves some cover.  While the charge of \u2018hooliganism\u2019 might seem laughable this does meet the Russian definition \u201cThe flagrant violation of public order expressed by a clear disrespect for society.\u201d [i] It is clear they did this in terms of their intrusion to areas reserved for priests, by manifestly contradicting common church rules, expressing their disrespect and using swear words, [ii] it is clear that profanity is a much greater offence within a church than outside even if it is a word used in \u2018everyday speech\u2019. [iii]  It is important to be clear that this is not Solzhenitsyn, because of the way this was staged it was intended from the outset to do nothing more than grab headlines. There is no denying that there are real political divisions in Moscow and that there are many people with very real issues with Putin\u2019s style of leadership, it is difficult to see how this publicity grabbing stunt does anything to help that cause.  [i] Taylor, Adam, \u2018Why Russian Punks Pussy Riot Aren't Heroes\u2019, Business Insider, 16 August 2012  [ii] Whitmore, Brian, \u2018Pussy Riot: The Punk Band That Isn't And The Concert That Wasn't\u2019, Radio Free Europe, 30 July 2012  [iii] Fraser, Giles, \u2018Pussy Riot's crime was violating the sacred. That's what got Jesus in court\u2019, The Guardian, 10 August 2010"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con03a","title":"","text":"Why use the form of a prayer and mention the Virgin in a political protest?  The members of Pussy Riot themselves seem to admit that the protest was at least in part religious, Sparrow, one of the members told the Guardian \"It was just a prayer. A very special prayer\u201d. [i] When combined with the setting in the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour shows the intent. It would, in theory, be possible to imagine a protest in such a setting that did not cause offence \u2013 or at least sought to minimise it. However, the religious overtones and references seem designed purely to inflame it. They served no purpose in making the case about Putin\u2019s policies but seem calculated to offend the congregation and clergy and, given the setting, the Orthodox Church as a whole.  However, a quiet and dignified protest, while making the political point more powerfully and without offence would not have served the main purpose here; publicity through maximizing offence as a result of deliberate blasphemy.  To intend blasphemy, to commit blasphemy, in the full and wilful knowledge that it is blasphemous and then claim it is political dissent is offensive not only to the religious but to those who have genuinely suffered as a result of their political dissent [ii] .  [i] Cadwalladr, Carole, \u2018Pussy Riot: will Vladimir Putin regret taking on Russia's cool women punks?\u2019, The Observer, 29 July 2012  [ii] Daily Mail. Mark Dooley. \u201cAm I the only person who thinks that pussy riot should have been jailed?\u201d 24 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con01a","title":"","text":"If it was a purely political statement, then why stage it in a church?  There is no shortage of possible venues to stage a protest such as this one. A busy supermarket, a train station, a park, the middle of the street \u2013 all of them would have fulfilled the requirement for lots of people with attentions to be attracted. Since it was dubbed not a live concert the location would have been totally interchangeable. [i] Holding it in a church \u2013 in front of the high alter during mass \u2013 was calculated to cause maximum effect, maximum shock and maximum publicity. Causing intended offence during a religious ceremony is about as close to the definition of blasphemy as it would be possible to get.  Vladimir Putin has shrugged off challenges from much more serious critics than an attention-seeking group of musicians. This very act was calculated to cause the greatest possible offence to people of faith. Such a protest in St Peter\u2019s in the same situation would have caused great offence even if the protest had been about Berlusconi. When British gay rights activist Peter Tatchell interrupted the Archbishop of Canterbury\u2019s Easter service some years ago, he was widely thought of as having done his cause more harm than good because it offended so many and was subsequently convicted [ii] . This is no different, it was blasphemous and, under Russian law, there are punishments for blasphemy.  [i] Whitmore, Brian, \u2018Pussy Riot: The Punk Band That Isn't And The Concert That Wasn't\u2019, Radio Free Europe, 30 July 2012  [ii] BBC News Website. Tatchell fined \u00a318.60 for pulpit protest."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con02b","title":"","text":"The protest was certainly intended to be noticed \u2013 there\u2019s little point in protesting something if it isn\u2019t. The very fact that they were willing to risk imprisonment suggests that this was something more than a media stunt. It\u2019s also difficult to see how this is different from earlier generations of artists who have protested tyranny \u2013 the only significant difference seems to be that this tyrant gets on rather better with leaders of the West."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is an excellent reason why as much information as possible should be publically and internationally available [i] . China\u2019s entry into the Korean war was justified on grounds of national security at the time and that line has been doggedly followed since. Truman thought it was \u201ca bald attempt to blackmail the UN\u201d [ii] at the time and the opinion of many has not changed since. The US and Korea have had to face some of their demons about the war since; why not China? It is also difficult to see what this has to do with the foundational myths of the Chinese state, which go back thousands of years, or even the Communist party which come from the long march and the second world war. And if indeed it is a \u2018myth\u2019 then is there not a duty to show that this historical record is wrong? National identity should be built on the basis of facts not manufactured mythologies.  [i] Eurozine. Danuta Glondys, Arne Ruth. Breaking the Bonds of National Mythology. 14 March 2011.  [ii] China intervenes (October \u2013 December 1950). Korean War. Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro02a","title":"","text":"Foundational Myths  Nations come from somewhere, or at least we tend to believe they do [i] . The fact that these foundational myths are usually either partially or completely untrue is mostly irrelevant. These myths \u2013 be they of glorious revolutions or long histories reaching back into antiquity are projections of the modern nation. However, they are only the most obvious example of national mythologies, we project our current-day identities onto all sorts of more recent histories as well. To take one fairly flippant example of this, ask a national of any country involved on the victorious side in WWII and ask them who won the war.  States have an interest in perpetuating these myths, not for particular or personal motives but because they add to a sense of national identity and the homogeneity of the whole. To that extent they are, quite literally, a matter of national security they confer and justify the notion of the nation as an entity or the concept of the nation state as a possibility. As national historian Spyridon Lambros said \u201cnext to military power, the pen of the historian is the most powerful weapon of national ambitions.\u201d [ii]  [i] Tambini, D. Ethnic and Racial studies, Vol 24 No. 2 March 2001 pp. 195 \u2013 217. Post-national citizenship.  [ii] Berger, Stefan, \u2018History and national identity: why they should remain divorced\u2019, History & Policy, December 2007"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro03b","title":"","text":"In such instances, clearly nations will pursue their national interest but, just to take Prop\u2019s example, the ICJ [i] spends most of its time dealing with disputes about maritime law, mostly ownership issues. They work on the basis of investigation and fact. Suppressing information would clearly only be an attempt to reduce the information available so as to prevent an unbiased judgement. To take the Senkaku\/Daioyu example yes the China\u2019s may have some documents conceding Japanese sovereignty but that does not end the dispute. Nor would losing the case in such a dispute be a real threat to the national security of either side; the territory and resources would be nice to have but are not vital for either\u2019s economy or security. So Proposition has yet to give an example of where there would be a clear issue of national security \u2013 or even national interest in hiding history.  [i] International Criminal Court of Justice website. Contentious Cases"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro01a","title":"","text":"Protecting the past  There is a simple case of natural justice in protecting the decisions and reputations of those who have served the state and can no longer speak for themselves [i] . The same applies to events, for better or worse political or military disputes that were settled fifty or a hundred years ago are best left like that, settled.  All nations have moments in their histories that are unlikely to reflect that country at its best but we judge our own nations and others on a balance of the broad sweep of history rather than the grubby minutiae of particular events.  By its nature the historical record will always be incomplete \u2013 silent on motivations of those involved or the particularities of individual decisions as we can never know everything and not all decision making processes are recorded. We already know the overall outcomes of, for example, wars or elections. It would be impossible to change those results by discovering that they were not handled as one might have wished. Neither is their much to be gained in despoiling the characters of those involved \u2013 national psyches need their heroes and villains, making either of them more human in both senses of the phrase adds little and could distract much. For example do we really need to know that Churchill opposed the Nuremburg trials instead favouring execution without trial for senior Nazi leaders? Does it diminish Churchill\u2019s greatness or undermine the results of the Nuremburg trials? No. [ii]  [i] BBC News Website. Secret papers face faster release. 29 January 2009.  [ii] Cobain, Ian, \u2018Britain favoured execution over Nuremberg trials for Nazi leaders\u2019, The Guardian, 26 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is rarely anything to do with protecting the past in these decisions. It is all to do with the present and either manufacturing an image of a previous decision or covering up corruption or incompetence on the part of the party, faction or individual that happens to be in charge at the time. What Proposition so cheerily describes as \u2018grubby minutiae\u2019 would be more generally referred to as \u2018facts\u2019, proposition seems to think that history shouldn\u2019t let these \u2018grubby minutiae\u2019 get in the way of a good story. If proposition is correct in its view that \u201cIt would be impossible to change those results\u201d then there is no reason why historians should not be free to investigate and reinterpret the record as to how these results were arrived at."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro03a","title":"","text":"Predicting and protecting the future nation  In a much more practical sense historical data may well breach national security. They may well be instances, such as in the case given in the introduction, where governments may even be unaware that there were issues of national security involved until they are brought to light. Data that was not significant fifty years ago may become of great significance later on.  To take a simple, hypothetical example. Laws relating to the ownership of the sea are relatively obscure and often based on ancient negotiations or treaties that are mostly about something else. They frequently involve custom and precedent and, for the most part, nobody really makes a fuss about the exact details. Until, of course, someone finds an oil field underneath that stretch of ocean or the fish supplies of a neighboring area become depleted [i] . At his point, the exact details of those negotiations and treaties become a source of great interest. Thus for example documents relating the Senkaku\/Daioyu islets may have been uncontentious and irrelevant in the 1950 may now be of vital importance in an international dispute between China and Japan over the islands. [ii] [iii]  In a scenario such as this, there may well be vital national issues that were not predicted at the time of the negotiation or ratification of a treaty. Disputes of this nature \u2013 justifying industrial scale claims to mineral and fishing rights on the basis of historical claims are likely to boom over the next few years in relation to the poles as the icecaps recede [iv] .  [i] There are islands around the world under disputed ownership for this reason. Senkaku \/Diaoyu (China\/Japan) and Dokdo\/Takeshima (Japan\/Korea)are two obvious examples.  [ii] Lee, Joyman, \u2018Senkaku\/Diaoyu: Islands of Conflict\u2019, History Today, Vol. 61 no.5, 2011  [iii] Gertz, Bill, \u2018China-Japan tensions\u2019, The Washington Times, 15 September 2010  [iv] Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. Captain Paul Watson. The Birth of a New Manchuria. 25 January 2008."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con03b","title":"","text":"By definition, we don\u2019t know what is suppressed by governments; who knows, maybe there are aliens at Roswell, Presley is alive and well and Nixon shot Kennedy. However, unofficial leaks as well as official reclassifications of secret data always excite interest, so it seems reasonable to assume that there is some information that remains classified with good reason. However old information such as military ciphers, designs for armaments and discussions that suggests more than usual levels of incompetence of mendacity among the political classes, they are likely to remain secret \u2013 for the excellent reason that confidence in the entire system depends on it. For better or worse, that process tends to be called national security."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con01b","title":"","text":"Opposition is living in a fantasy world. They forget that people do not always have rational responses to history, while the outcome of the event in question may not be changed revealing awkward truths could have unpleasant results, so for example if the Chinese government were to suddenly accept responsibility for the killing of millions during the great leap forward riots or even revolution could very well occur. Governments regularly suppress information on the basis of national security and their citizens accept that as a reality. Indeed most accept it as a benefit.  It seems likely that the only reason Dr Xu\u2019s case has achieved notoriety is that he studied in the west (Oxford) for ten years. The same is true of Dr. Gao Zhan (Syracuese) and Dr. Li Shaomin (Princeton) \u2013 the other two high-profile academic detainees. It does rather suggest that the spotlight on their cases has less to do with a genuine concern with free speech and more to do with having friends in the West who don\u2019t think their associates should be treated under the same rules as other Chinese citizens. Western nations have their own rules on secrecy which can be used to prosecute those who break them. [i] It is hypocrisy to deny China the right to do the same.  [i] \u2018Official Secrets Act 1989\u2019, legislation.gov.uk, 11 May 1989,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con02a","title":"","text":"Popular history  Who owns a nation\u2019s history? The current government? Those living today? Scholars?  There\u2019s not really a satisfying answer as every group is interested in and uses different parts of history. It doesn\u2019t sit happily into the usual structures, a defeated power may not get to write the history but it certainly has an interest in it. Within a relatively short period of time the nation that featured in historical events has ceased to exist regardless of what happens with borders and names. China may be the best example of all here; which nation is being protected. The China of the revolution? Of the Korean War? Of the Cultural Revolution? Of the Economic reforms of the seventies or the Economic super power of today? What about the Imperial China? Which dynasty? For any nation, the question can be asked, which class, which race, which generation, gender, political creed and so on have a claim to the collective history of the nation. [i]  History must therefore be in the open so that everyone can investigate it and can build their own historical narratives. Secrecy by the government is an attempt to claim ownership of shared events that cannot be owned. As history is an essential part of the creation of an identity government attempts at ownership are a direct attack on an individual\u2019s right to decide their own identity.  [i] Berger, Stefan, \u2018History and national identity: why they should remain divorced\u2019, History & Policy, December 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con03a","title":"","text":"\u2018It will come out eventually\u2019  Journalism is sometimes called the first draft of history. That does, of course, raise the issue of who writes the final draft. On the basis that historians still argue about the events of centuries and millennia ago, the notion of a final draft may be absurd; however conclusions will be drawn at some point. Politicians trying to hold back historical judgement is a little like trying to hold back the tide, even if the facts are not all available the void will be filled with speculation to explain the gap.  Ultimately information will emerge and will be assessed. The question seems to be when that should take place. Those states that make use of a \u2018thirty year rule\u2019 or something similar to protect particular documents such as cabinet minutes do so to allow the free exchange of ideas in the present. [i] Such a length of time seems sufficient to let politicians and civil servants operate without endlessly focussing on their legacies.  However, beyond that trying to control the assessment of history seems to be an exercise in futility. Even the deepest, darkest secrets tend to be extrapolated when they\u2019re not demonstrated. Imprisoning historians and banning things only tends to confirm the view that they were right and there is something damning being hidden. Ultimately, it\u2019s self-defeating.  [i] BBC News, \u2018Secret papers face faster release\u2019, 29 January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con01a","title":"","text":"Open expression  If ever there were a situation where free expression should be assumed, this is surely it. Where no harm can come of knowing something (Prop appears to accept this by saying the outcome can\u2019t be changed) what possible reason could there be suppressing the information? [i] The only possible reason would seem to be that it is more convenient for that small group of people, those currently both living and powerful, that the true details of past events not emerge.  If this is the case then the other arguments for free speech come into play, particularly its role in holding the powerful to account.  Either way, proposition loses; if it\u2019s just the minutiae of bygone times, then why not release it, if it\u2019s the stuff of modern day political discourse then the failure to publish it is tantamount to tyranny. To take oppositions own example will learning that Churchill wanted Hitler\u2019s lieutenants executed without trial will this really affect people\u2019s opinions of Churchill? It seems unlikely, many would have similar opinions in the same situation and will be able to understand Churchill\u2019s position.  [i] This principle \u2013 that all things being equal there should be a presumption in favour of publication \u2013 has been argued in different ways in different countries. A useful example is the US Supreme Court Ruling in the matter of the New York Times vs The United States."}
+{"id":"training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con02b","title":"","text":"Ownership of the past, for the purposes of this debate, would seem all too evident. Governments determine what information is legitimate to publish both domestically and internationally and do so in the interests of the state. The recent outcry from Western governments about the Wikileaks publication of diplomatic cables dating back to the mid-sixties suggests that Western governments take a somewhat different attitude when it is their historical national security being broadcast. The ongoing detention of Bradley Manning in solitary confinement further suggests that they take a rather more supra-judicial approach than the Chinese [i] .  [i] One of many sites to notice this double standard between the West commenting on other nations\u2019 dissidents and dealing with its own is: Lankaweb. Hameed Abdul Karim. If Bradley Manning were Chinese... 16 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Raising taxes for individuals with income over $250,000 will have a hugely detrimental outcome. This is because a huge number of small businesses are legally taxed as individuals. Raising taxes may be manageable for wealthy individuals, but small firms will be crushed by such huge tax increases proposed by Obama. The effects of this will be hard felt across the country, since small firms employ half of all private sector employees in the USA. [1] These small companies will see their investing and spending power vastly reduced and will lead to thousands of redundancies that will ensure the American economy remains stagnant! Low taxes are the key to economic growth, not high taxes and government spending.  [1] US Small Business Administration, FAQs,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro02a","title":"","text":"A progressive tax policy and a cut in military spending are what America needs.  To pay for his government programs, Obama supports a progressive tax system, with higher taxes for the rich, and lower taxes for the middle class. The need for such a system of taxing the rich to pay for government services has grown since 1980, when income gains between the rich and the poor began to diverge at a faster pace. [1] Recent data shows this trend continuing: in 2011 the wealthiest Americans got richer while median income fell by 4%. [2] Despite these trends, the top marginal tax rate is at nearly an all-time low! [3]  Increasing tax on individuals who earn more than $250,000 and even more for multi-millionaires because the marginal utility of wealth is lower for the super-rich than it is for the poorer. In other words, a millionaire is not particularly worse off if he or she is worth $10 million instead of $15 million. $5 million when spent on welfare programs such as pensions, education, healthcare or housing produces vastly greater utility. We thus see how a progressive tax system ensures a more efficient management of wealth across the economy.  Obama proposes to rake in more government revenue by raising the top marginal tax rate and instituting the Buffet Rule (a stipulation in President Obama\u2019s plan which would apply a minimum tax rate of 30% to individuals making over $1 million per year). Crucially, Obama plans to continue to cut taxes for the middle classes in order to increase their purchasing power and stimulate the economy. [5]  As the 2012 presidential election approaches, President Obama\u2019s long-term focus has been primarily on decreasing the federal debt, estimated at about $15 trillion. Specifically, Obama\u2019s plan, detailed on his website, targets tax loopholes for households with annual incomes over $250,000, via efforts such as the Buffet Rule, while simultaneously reducing taxes for middle-class families and small business owners. [6] In September, President Obama revealed a plan to reduce the deficit by about $3.2 trillion in the next ten years. [7] This will be achieved through an increase in taxation of the nation\u2019s wealthiest, and cuts in spending to the armed forces \u2013 as Obama plans to end American involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan.  [1] Centre on Budget and Policy Priorities: \u201cA Guide to Statistics on Historical Trends in Income Inequality\u201d, March 5 2012,   [2] Nocera, Joe: \u201cRomney and the Forbes 400\u201d, The New York Times, September 24 2012,   [3] Tax Policy Centre,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012  [4] The White House,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012  [5] Politifact: \u201cBarack Obama said he\u2019s cut taxes for \u2018middle-class families, small businesses\u2019\u201d,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012  [6] Barack Obama Website,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012  [7] The White House,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro01a","title":"","text":"An active, \u201cbig\u201d federal government is best for the American people  President Obama believes in an activist government\u2019s role in improving society. Without public intervention, private markets will not sufficiently address inequality or several other public needs, such as environmental preservation and public transportation. Financial returns from investments in such areas are often insufficient to incentivise private sector investment. However such schemes generate high levels of welfare benefits that are desirable from a societal perspective.  Obama\u2019s economic policy draws on Keynesian economic theory, which is the belief that a mixed economy of public and private enterprise, bolstered by a strong welfare state, can jumpstart the economy. In order to create public enterprise, the government needs to spend, either by building a deficit or from tax revenue.[1] This is the policy he has pursued in his first term with a successful stimulus of $787 billion.[2]  Obama\u2019s tax policy boils down to the empirical belief that taxing the rich will help the economy grow, because the revenue can be used on important government programs that can spur growth, and the philosophical argument that the American economy should be more equal and that the U.S. government can and should do more to directly address inequality. It should therefore not be a surprise that Obama wants the Bush era tax cuts for the richest reversed arguing \"I just believe that anybody making over $250,000 should go back to the income tax rates we were paying under Bill Clinton.\"[3]  [1] Blinder, Alan S., \u201cKeynesian Economics\u201d, The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, 2nd Ed., 2008, Library of Economics and Liberty,   [2] Grunwald, Michael, \u201cThink Again: Obama\u2019s New Deal\u201d, Foreign Policy, Sept\/Oct 2012,   [3] Bendery, Jennifer, \u201cObama Calls For One-Year Extension Of Bush-Era Tax Cuts For First $250,000 Of Income\u201d, Huffington Post, 9th July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Government spending of the level advocated by Obama will only lead to a handicapped economy riddled with inefficiencies.  The figures alone suggest that the Keynesian theory of increased spending stimulates growth and reduces unemployment is a myth. Despite trillions of dollars of spending from Obama, the US economy is stagnant and unemployment is higher than it was in 2008. [1] This happens for two reasons. First and foremost because high spending levels must be funded by high taxation levels that stifle individuals\u2019 purchasing power and the private sector as a whole. Secondly, government spending generally causes higher inflation, meaning that the net effect of government spending in real terms is negligible, and only makes the system more inefficient! [2]  [1] Powell, Jim: \u201cWhy Government Spending Is Bad For Our Economy\u201d, Forbes, 10\/13\/2011,   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con01b","title":"","text":"The private sector has indeed been the source of much innovation that has led to improvements in standards of living. However the problem with relying solely on the private sector for social welfare, is that it can only improve the lives of those who can pay for it! It may well be the case that healthcare is better under the private sector, but if only the top 60% (say) of the country can afford it, there is a big problem! Moreover, as has already been mentioned, there is often insufficient financial incentive for the private sector to invest in certain areas, like pharmaceutical development or green energy research. Here, the government must step in and in the interest of public welfare provide the investment needed.  High level-taxation on wealthy individuals may be hard on them, but ultimately is desirable. Ethically speaking, we need to balance the harm of a millionaire losing a small portion of his or her wealth, with the enormous social good that can arise if that wealth was spent on social welfare programs. An extent of \u201credistribution\u201d of wealth is thus fair and just."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con02a","title":"","text":"Tax cuts and spending cuts are necessary for growth.  With a national unemployment rate of 8.1% as of September 2012 [1], the United States economy has not recovered from the global financial crisis of 2008 and the recession that followed it. Governor Mitt Romney\u2019s plan to cut taxes would lessen the burden on American citizens, and spur businesses and entrepreneurs to create more jobs.  Governor Romney advocates a Reagan-esque devotion to laissez-faire economics, arguing that with substantial tax cuts and limited regulation on private businesses, the economy will naturally grow. Mr Romney states on his website that he would reduce government spending from its current level, around $33,000 per household, to around $25,000, while maintaining individual tax rates but decreasing rates for private corporations. [2]  Regarding government programs, Governor Romney opposes President Obama\u2019s spending, vowing to repeal Mr Obama\u2019s healthcare act, saving the country around $95 billion, according to his website. He also has advocated cutting spending on social programs by 5 % (without touching national security spending) and pulling funding from the National Endowment of the Arts and Humanities, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and the Legal Services Corporation. Furthermore, he plans to save up to $100 million by reducing foreign aid.  The budget deficit will be reduced despite the proposed tax-cuts. This is because tax cuts will have a positive effect on growth, while the spending cuts and clamp down on loopholes and inefficiencies will also help cut the deficit.  Overall, Mitt Romney\u2019s economic policies boil down to taxing less and spending less, allowing the free market to work uninhibited. As with Obama, Romney\u2019s position on this issue reflects his broader beliefs about the problems facing America. His plan to eliminate Title X Family Planning funding, for example, draws quite publicly from his opposition to abortion rights. While, also like Obama, his main concern is lowering the national deficit and paying back the national debt, the ways he would go about it are very different from those of his opponent, and realistically would benefit very different types of Americans.  [1] Google Public Data,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012  [2] Mitt Romney Website,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con01a","title":"","text":"A minimalist state enables a fairer and more competitive economy.  Romney believes the best way to improve society is not to spend huge amounts of taxpayer dollars on inefficient government programs, but rather to tax citizens less and allow free-market innovation to improve the quality of life in America. Low taxes are necessary to stimulate innovation and the growth of business because people and businesses are self-interested; they will only invest when they believe they will get the profits from their investment and lowering taxes mean that they will get more of the profit from their investment.[1] At the same time government is a poor manager of the economy because small numbers of people cannot calculate all the effects of central planning and the impact it will have on individuals choices, essentially the market is simply too complex for the government to master so the best option is to reduce government interference as much as possible.[2] For this reason, Romney\u2019s policy preference of lower taxes is coupled with a proposal to cut spending on a wide range of social programs.  Romney also outright rejects the idea of \u201credistribution\u201d of wealth [3], believing it is unfair to those who have worked hard to build businesses and establish their own well-being. The protection of private property is central to the American political system, and taking from one group of citizens to give to another violates the right of private property. [4] In addition to being unfair, it is impractical, as it creates a disincentive for business people to further increase their wealth by working and investing in businesses that would grow the economy and create more jobs.[5]  [1] Thurow, Lester C., \u201cProfits\u201d, The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, 2nd Ed., 2008, Library of Economics and Liberty,   [2] \"Friedrich August Hayek.\" The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. 2nd ed., 2008. Library of Economics and Liberty.   [3] Becker, Kyle: \u201cMitt Romney: We believe in free markets and free people, not wealth \u201credistribution\u201d\u201d, Independent Journal Review, September 19 2012,   [4] Dorn, James A.: \u201cEnding Tax Socialism\u201d September 16 1996,  , accessed 8\/10\/2012  [5] Li, Wenli & Satre, Pierre-Daniel: \u201cGrowth Effects of Progressive Taxes\u201d, US Federal Reserve, November 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con02b","title":"","text":"Deregulating the market is precisely what is not required at the moment. The financial crisis of 2008 caused by irresponsible banking has shown that more than ever, regulation is necessary to ensure that corporations act responsibly and recognise the significance of social good, not just financial profit.  Cutting Medicare will lead to huge numbers of people no longer having access to affordable healthcare. Romney talks of this scenario as if a market without Medicare would be better because people would be able to choose one of the more competitive, more efficient private insurance companies for their health care. Once more however, this is only applicable for those who can afford such a choice! Not providing a safety net and preventing millions of people from attaining treatment for illnesses or chronic conditions is a huge failing from the part of the government.  Lastly, it is not true that cutting spending and taxes reduces the budget deficit. This was exactly the policy tried by George W. Bush and only led to a widening of the budget deficit and an increase of the total federal debt. By contrast, Obama\u2019s plan of cutting inefficiencies and increasing tax on the country\u2019s wealthiest has already been tried and tested under President Clinton and it resulted in a budget surplus."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is the world of difference between establishing basic rights and interfering in matters that are best agreed at a community or state level. That is the reason why the states collectively agree to constitutional amendments that can be considered to affect all citizens.  However, different communities regulate themselves in different ways depending on both practical needs and the principles they consider to be important. Having the opinions of city-dwellers, who have never got closer to rural life than a nineteenth landscape in a gallery instruct farming communities that they cannot work the land to save a rare frog is absurd.  Trying to establish policies such as a minimum wage or the details of environmental protection at a federal level simply makes no sense, as the implications of these things vary wildly between different areas of the country.  Equally local attitudes towards issues such as religion, marriage, sexuality, pornography and other issues of personal conscience differ between communities and the federal government has no more business banning prayer in Tennessee than it would have mandating it in New York. These are matters for the states and sometimes for individual communities.  The nation was founded on the principle that individual states should agree, where possible, on matters of great import but are otherwise free to go their separate ways.  In addition to which, pretending that the hands of politicians and bureaucrats are free of blood in any of these matters is simply untrue \u2013 more than untrue, it is absurd.  If the markets are driven by profit- a gross generalisation - then politics is driven by the hunger for power and the campaign funds that deliver it. Business at least has the good grace to earn, and risk, its own money whereas government feels free to use other peoples for whatever is likely to buy the most votes. Likewise business makes its money by providing products and services that people need or want. Government, by contrast, uses other people\u2019s money to enforce decisions regardless of whether they are wanted or needed by anyone.  Ultimately it is the initiative and industry of working Americans that has provided the funds for the great wars against oppression as well as the ingenuity to solve environmental and other technical solutions to the problems faced by humankind.  Pharmaceutical companies produce medicines \u2013 not the DHHS; engineering companies produce clean energy solutions \u2013 not the EPA; farmers put food on families\u2019 tables \u2013 not the Department of Agriculture."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-pro02a","title":"","text":"Government was required to drive through major changes such as drives for equality within society, universal education, and preservation of the environment. Mostly in the teeth of big business  Nobody would deny the role that remarkable individuals have played in the major social changes of history. They have, however, ultimately required the actions of government. Many of these have been achieved despite, rather than because of, the interests of business. Critically they have tended to be to the benefit of the weak, the vulnerable and the neglected.  Governments have been responsible for social reforms ranging from the abolition of slavery and child labor to the removal of conditions in factories and on farms that lead to injury and death, in addition to minimum wage regulations that meant that families could feed themselves. By contrast, the market was quite happy with cheap cotton sown by nimble young fingers.  In turn profit was given preference over any notion of job security or the right to a family life, the market was quite happy to see water poisoned and the air polluted \u2013 and in many cases is still happy with it. The logic of the market panders to slave-labor wages to migrant workers or exporting jobs where migrants are not available. Either way it costs the jobs of American citizens, pandering to racism and impoverishing workers at home and abroad. Although the prophets of the market suggest that the only thing standing between the average American and a suburban home - with a pool, 4x4 and an overflowing college-fund is the government, the reality could not be further from the truth.  The simple reality of the market is this: the profit motive that drives the system is the difference between the price of labor, plant and materials on one hand and the price that can be charged on the other. It makes sense to find the workers who demand the lowest wages, suppliers who can provide the cheapest materials and communities desperate enough to sell their air, water and family time. Whether those are at home or abroad. The market, by its nature has no compassion, no patriotism and no loyalty.  The only organization that can act as a restraint on that is, in the final reckoning, government which has legislative power to ensure that standards are maintained. It is easy to point to individual acts that have been beneficial but the reality is that the untrammeled market without government oversight has had a depressing tendency to chase the easiest buck, ditch the weakest, exploit where it can, pollute at will, corrupt where necessary and bend, break or ignore the rules.  It requires government as the agent of what the people consider acceptable to constrain the profit motive."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-pro03b","title":"","text":"The primary difficulty with governments retaining surpluses is that the government has no proprietary right to the funds in its coffers. The taxpayer effectively subsidizes the government, on the understanding that it will undertake functions necessary for the defence, continued operation and normative improvement of the state and society.  Clearly defense has to be one of the core functions of government and there are a few others, such as maintaining law and order. For government to say that the only way of securing its own finances is running a small surplus in its current account budget is palpably not true when there is astonishing waste in government expenditure, which is in turn already bloated and intervenes into areas of public life where it simply does not belong.  In terms of using government expenditure as a tool to respond to recessions, there may well be a role in terms of how government uses its own purchasing power and it makes sense that should be used for domestic purchasing wherever possible, however there is little to be gained by government creating imaginary jobs undertaking roles that simply don\u2019t produce anything.  Instead the most useful role that government can play during a recession is not expanding its own size and, therefore, the final cost to the taxpayer, but reducing it. Cutting the size of government reduces the tax burden on business and individuals and cuts back on regulatory pressure. Both actions free up money for expenditure which creates real jobs in the real economy, producing real wealth, in turn spent on real products, which in turn create jobs. This beneficial cycle is the basis of economics, creating imaginary jobs simply takes skills out of the real economy and reduces the pressure on individuals to take jobs that they might not see as ideal.  The most sensible response to a government surplus is not to hoard it on the basis that it might come in useful at some undefined point in the future but to give it back to the people who earned it in the first place. Doing so means that it is spent in the real economy, creating real wealth and real jobs and thereby avoiding the prospect of recession in the first place.  Ultimately it comes down to a simple divide as to whether you believe governments or people are better at spending money. The evidence of waste and incompetence in government expenditure is compelling and it seems an absurd solution to governments mismanaging the money they already have to give them more."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-pro01a","title":"","text":"Ultimately government has a responsible to provide a level playing field to ensure that everybody gets a far start in life and can at least survive throughout it  Government, especially in a developed nation and even more so in the wealthiest nation in the world, should be able to ensure that children are not hungry, the mentally ill are not living on the streets, borders are policed, veterans don\u2019t live in squalor, the population can read, crime is controlled, the elderly don\u2019t freeze to death and a million other markers of a civilized society.  This is particularly true of children but most people need a helping hand at one time or another in life. However, the obscenity of children destined to fail before their lives have even started- condemned to schools that offer no hope and communities that offer no safety- would be disturbing anywhere in the world.  In a nation that prides itself as having the highest standard of living on the planet- and is unquestionably the richest and most powerful- levels of poverty and despair that are seen nowhere else in the developed world are simply obscene. By every measure, infant mortality, life expectancy, educational standards, child poverty, percentage of incarcerated adults, homicides per thousand deaths and many more, America lags considerably behind Japan, Canada, Western Europe, Australia and the rest of the developed world [i] .  All of the indicators mentioned above have been adversely affect during the thirty year obsession with pushing the government back in the name of handing unfettered control over to big business and the vicissitudes of the market.  Americans pay lower taxes than Western Europe and get, as a result, a much worse return on their money [ii] .  [i] Newsweeks Interactive Graphic of the World\u2019s Best Countries. Hosted on the Daily Beast and elsewhere.  [ii] Jeffrey Sachs. \"The Case for Bigger Government.\" Time. January 8th, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-pro01b","title":"","text":"No country can pay its bills or increase the prosperity of its citizens if it is wasting money on unnecessary programmes. The principle problem with government funding is that it is not addressing any of the problems that Proposition raises. In many countries, The ideology of state intervention is has made government ever larger, building ever more excessive and bloated bureaucratic empires with fiefdoms and sinecures for every busybody and apparatchik more interested in monitoring change than making it, and more concerned with process than people.  It is not uncommon \u2013 indeed it is not even unusual - for private sector organisations to shed ten percent of their workforce when the judge themselves to have become uncompetitive, unprofitable or administratively unwieldy. Both the governments of France and Canada have done that in recent years and yet maintain high standards of government support [i] .  For average public sector wages to be out stripping those of the private sector (who ultimately pay them) is ridiculous. It becomes more worrying when preferential health and pension plans \u2013 where the public sector outstrips the private by nearly four to one are taken into account [ii] .  There is no question that it would be great if everybody could earn more, have more lucrative and more secure pensions, the world would be a nicer place. However, to penalise those who are making the money to subsidise those who aren\u2019t simply makes no sense.  Typically a government\u2019s solution to an issue like child poverty is to establish a commission to discuss it \u2013 when it reports several years later it informs the waiting nation who paid for it that the solution might well be if their parents had a job. Most people could have figured this out in two minutes and at no cost [iii] .  [i] \"Big government: Stop!\" The Economist. January 21st, 2010  [ii] Dan Arnall. ABC News. Working in America: Public vs. Private Sector. 18 February 2011.  [iii] Michael Cloud. \u201cWhy Not Big Government. Five Iron Laws.\u201d The Centre for Small Government."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-pro03a","title":"","text":"Big government can provide the stimulus the economy needs in the bad years as long as surpluses are not squandered during the boom years  Government expenditure is the single biggest tool in times of economic difficulty. Those that are the quickest to complain about taxation and regulation during the good times are also the fastest to rush for a bailout during the lean times. Likewise, those that call for tax cuts in a boom also tend to be the first to criticize a deficit or public expenditure during a recession.  There is in all of this one simple economic reality: the government acts as the banker of last resort.  This only works, as Keynes understood, if the government holds on to reserves in the good years so that it can spend them in the tough ones to stimulate jobs and growth. On the other hand, where surpluses are blown on tax cuts- or expensive wars for that matter- then will be nothing left in the bank and government cannot fulfill its most useful role of using its own financial clout to balance the economy over the course of a financial cycle.  So-called small government Conservatives have been consistently profligate in recent history and have tended to leave fiscally cautious liberals to pick up the pieces. The party of small government never seems to find itself short of billions of dollars for expensive white elephants like the SDI missile shield or asserting American military power overseas in pursuit of yet another doomed cause \u2013 whether that\u2019s\u2019 propping up Latin American dictators or settling familial grudge matches in the Middle East.  The military adventurism of the Reagan presidency as well as those of both Bush senior and junior were conducted not just at the cost of domestic social stability, but also fiscal security.  Instead of preserving a budget surplus from the Clinton presidency, the Bush administration spent it recklessly \u2013 not, as is widely declared, on the War Against Terror \u2013 on tax cuts for the wealthiest in society. As a result Bush, his cabinet and his backers robbed the country of the possibility of reserves when the economy was in a less positive situation.  As far as the War On Terror is concerned, the total cost of two international wars, $1.283tn, stands in stark contrast to the relatively cheap police-style operation that actually caught Osama Bin Laden. It is also worth noting that of that huge sum an entire 2%, according to the Congressional Research service, has been spent homeland security \u2013 anti-terror surveillance and enforcement within the USA\u2019s borders [i] .  So called \u2018Big Government\u2019, withholding surpluses for a rainy day, provides financial security for American businesses and workers. So-called \u2018small-government\u2019 presidents spend trillions of dollars on free money to the super-rich and on military adventurism in other countries and, apparently, in space.  [i] Amy Belasco. \u201cThe Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9\/11\u201d. Congressional Research Service. March 29 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-con03b","title":"","text":"The myth of the greater efficiency in the private sector is one of the enduring fallacies of the politics of the right. Even the slightest glance at those areas where governments routinely outsource capital projects- defense procurement, major infrastructural projects and IT projects- there is astonishing inefficiency and it seems questionable as to how the public sector could be any less efficient.  It is an innate aspect of private companies that they need to make a profit, which is by nature an inefficiency, in that it takes resources out of any system. It is a strange thing that those who most passionately support the efficiency and effectiveness of the private sector become meek when it comes to the most important elements of public life- defense of the nation, policing the streets, educating the young. Equally when the astonishing levels of inefficiency and, frequently, incompetence that exist within the private sector come to light in the collapse of companies, be those banks or auto-giants, apparently it becomes fine for state to intervene to pick up the pieces and put things back together again.  It is equally wrong to suggest that the lack of culpability of senior managers has an impact on efficiency: the ultimate senior manager of a public service is a minister- either elected or appointed by someone who is- and is therefore accountable at the ballot box for the services provided. By contrast senior managers, in the shape of boards of directors, in the private sector seem relaxed about paying themselves huge salaries and bonuses even when their companies are running huge losses and shedding jobs: this scarcely suggests a high level of personal responsibility for success or failure."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-con01b","title":"","text":"Were the theory put forward true, and that is debatable, it would require tax cuts to benefit the lowest paid individuals and the smallest companies. However the political reality is that it never does. Poor people and small companies do indeed spend money which has a stimulating effect on the economy, but spending only stimulates the economy if it is spent in the right way. It is not possible to guarantee that the funds that flow into a state\u2019s economy as a result of tax cuts will benefit that economy exclusively. Most forms of good and commodity now exist within a global market; manufacturing and production have become concentrated within states such as China. Useful and productive business activity will always require that a proportion of a business\u2019s funds be spent overseas.  The advantage of government funding is that it can be directed into the weakest areas of the domestic economy, with a degree of dynamism and control that the markets will never be able to achieve. However, recent history has suggested that tax cuts have tended to be directed to the wealthy and to large corporations who are under no obligation to spend or invest either domestically or immediately.  There is little benefit to any economy in allowing wealthy individual and organizations to further expand stagnant wealth or to invest in high end products bought internationally.  There is also a matter of scale, government has a capacity for borrowing against its own security of wealth that is simply not matched by any private individual or corporation. Equally government is uniquely placed to undertake infrastructural investment such as house building projects which directly supports sectors that are otherwise the hardest hit during times or economic downturn.  Even where tax cuts are directed or fall evenly across all income ranges there is still no control over the areas of probable expenditure and are also unlikely to stimulate sectors such as construction.  Most importantly tax cuts have no direct benefit for the unemployed which, of course, the creation of jobs by government itself does."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-con02a","title":"","text":"Excessive regulation on the private sector puts burdens on free enterprise both in terms of administration and cost. By doing so it reduces consumer choice and acts as a drag on innovation and growth  Government regulation assumes not only irresponsible companies but also stupid consumers. Although, realistically, very little regulation has any direct impact on the consumer but tends to involve time-consuming paperwork demonstrating compliance so that some civil servant can tick a box to prove that something that was already being done can be shown to have been be done.  The effect of this tends to fall hardest on smaller businesses that don\u2019t have large financial or legal departments. As a result it not only takes up valuable time that could be spent developing the business itself but more importantly acts to discourage people from starting in the first place. This is particularly so when it\u2019s considered that many people who start up a new company do so after many years of working for someone else within the same sector. As a result they see the pressure that needless and time-consuming regulation puts upon that company."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-con03a","title":"","text":"Government has a tendency to be inefficient as it has no need to compete in an open marketplace, and jobs in state institutions are safe because of the guarantees both of the tax base and government\u2019s greater borrowing capacity.  Governments both as a whole and in terms of individual employees have a tendency towards astonishing inefficiency, because state institutions are not subject to any meaningful competitive pressures. Indeed, many government employees earn as much or more than those in comparable jobs in the private sector, have preferential pension and benefit plans, lower hours and longer vacations. It is of course unsurprising that anyone in possession of such a job would be reluctant to give it up but also suggests a lower level of competition for keeping it. In the private sector such preferential returns would suggest that a worker would be likely to work longer hours to keep them.  Equally, because senior managers are not spending their own money and rarely have their salaries indexed to efficiency and effectiveness- in a way that is automatic for most companies- there is little pressure to find cost and operational efficiencies. As a result it is usually cheaper and more effective for services to be provided by the private sector wherever possible and appropriate. Although there are some areas which must be managed by the public sector, such as elections and the criminal justice system, it is difficult to see the benefits in other areas."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-con01a","title":"","text":"Reducing the size of government and, therefore, the amount it takes in tax frees up money which consumers can spend on goods or for companies to expand: Both create jobs  Government costs money. That\u2019s an indisputable fact. So that raises the question of whether that\u2019s the best way of spending it. It is clear that money could be spent in other ways and so if this is the choice there is an opportunity cost in that decision as there is in any other.  There is compelling evidence that reducing the government\u2019s take of total GDP stimulates the economy through freeing up funds to create jobs especially in manufacturing.  There is compelling evidence [i] that reducing the tax burden and unleashing the dynamism of the market by cutting regulation has a far greater effect than government massaging unemployment figures by expanding its own employment base. Indeed it also appears to be the case that the relatively high level of government salaries in fact just puts greater pressure on employers in the private sector to compete the resulting wage inflation has a dampening effect on the economy as a whole at a time when it can least afford it.  It\u2019s further worth noting that jobs created during a recession tend to morph into permanent positions thereby building in an ever-continuing expansion in the size of the state unless it is periodically and deliberately culled.  Conversely the investment directly into the private sector creates wealth producing jobs that are paid at a level that is sustainable and is responsive to the health of the wider economy.  [i] Alesina, Ardagna, Perotti, Schiantarelli. \u201cFiscal Policy, Profits and Investments\u201d. National Bureau of Economic Research. 1999"}
+{"id":"training-economy-eptppppgh-con02b","title":"","text":"This again is a myth routinely put forward by the right. Governments already distinguish between regulations that should apply to all companies and those, more onerous ones, that apply to larger companies only. There are certain standards in terms of health and safety of foodstuffs, products and so forth. However, there is clearly a different role when it comes to regulating larger companies such as banks, insurance companies and major employers.  There are particular sectors that require more regulation than others but the bulk of regulation is there to protect both staff and customers and it is part of the reality of doing business.  The idea that regulation harms small business is simply absurd as they benefit from the regulation of larger businesses who may be either their suppliers or customers are also regulated.  Equally start-up companies benefit from the fact that regulation evens up the playing field with more established competitors. If nobody is allowed to cut corners or perform other mildly criminal acts it is clearly an advantage to the new starters."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is nonsense to compare aid with the west\u2019s actions during the nineteenth century. Yes the west with aid sometimes wants to encourage its own values but this is a long way from forcing those values on the other state. The IMF may demand certain changes and liberalisation but regardless of how much India needed the help it could have said no."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro02a","title":"","text":"\u201cWhite Man\u2019s Burden\u201d  Aid is simply a continuation of the \u201cwhite man\u2019s burden\u201d and is therefore demeaning to the countries where it is meant to help. It implies that western countries have to provide money to those who are less \u2018developed\u2019 in order to develop them. This sounds very similar to westerners having to go out into the world in order to civilize the other countries and civilizations around the world. This similarity is made even closer when western aid has strings and institutions like the IMF impose \u2018liberalisation\u2019 of markets as it did for India at the end of the 1980s. [1] Far from providing help it is imposing western ideas and values on others.  [1] Weinraub, Bernard, \u2018Economic Crisis Forcing Once Self-Reliant India to Seek Aid\u2019, The New York Times, 29 June 1991"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is likely true that people on the ground sometimes see aid as \u2018free money\u2019. But the existence of corruption shows a need for greater accountability and more pressure from donors to ensure that occurs rather than less. Leaving a country because of corruption would simply show unwillingness to tackle one of the major issues that need to be tackled in order to ensure development.  Development aid is sometimes spent on implementing schemes that may be the result of a new idea that may not work that becomes a \u2018fad\u2019. But to object to this is to object to innovation; new ideas must be tried out on the ground before the development community knows for sure they won\u2019t work. Development thinking is moving towards just handing out cash rather than subsidies; will this work? We don\u2019t know, but won\u2019t know for sure until it is tried more comprehensively than it has been so far. [1]  [1] See Helling, Alex, \u2018This House would give cash to the poor to reduce poverty\u2019, Debatabase, 24 January 2013"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Too many strings  India is a booming economy with GDP growth of 7% over most of the last twenty years, and it is likely to overtake the UK economy within a decade. [1] As a result development aid today to India is small by comparison to what India itself can and does spend on its poorest citizens. The UK gives just \u00a3280 million per year, less than 0.04% of India\u2019s GDP [2] and only enough to provide \u00a31 per year for every one of India\u2019s poorest.  This foreign aid is therefore not essential for poverty reduction in India. Indeed China has been the country most successful at reducing poverty and it has done it through economic growth not large amounts of development aid. [3] Aid money should therefore go to countries that really do need the money for development rather than those who are already succeeding at financing it themselves.  [1] Gilligan, Andrew, \u2018India tells Britain: We don\u2019t want your aid\u2019, The Telegraph, 4 February 2012  [2] Ghosh, Jayati, \u2018Yes: Should rich countries stop sending development aid to India?\u2019, BMJ, Vol.346, No. 7891, pp.1-42, p.20  [3] Data and Research, \u2018New Estimates Reveal Drop In Extreme Poverty 2005-2010\u2019, The World Bank, 29 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro01b","title":"","text":"The geography of poverty has changed; in 1990 94% of those in poverty lived in \u2018low income countries\u2019 today that is down to 28%. The rest live in \u2018middle income countries\u2019 that are often fast growing and able to provide much of their own poverty reduction funding. [1] Should all money go to those few countries that are still classed as \u2018low income\u2019? Instead it must be recognised that the impact of aid is on individuals not the nation as a whole. Aid that builds a school and provides for teachers will have little impact on the whole of the nation but a large impact on those who are able to attend school where they would not have had the chance before.  [1] Ravillion, Martin, \u2018Should we care equally about poor people wherever they may live?\u2019, 8 November 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro03a","title":"","text":"The west does not know best  It is clear that the donor countries do not know how best to spend the money they give as aid. Instead they want their money spent on the latest development fad whether this is the privatisation of basic services, microcredit, conditional cash, or particular infrastructure projects. [1]  Development can also be misspent as a result of corruption and a lack of oversight, for example the UK suspended its aid to Uganda as a result of indications it was being misused by the Ugandan government and not \u201cgoing towards helping the poorest people lift themselves out of poverty\u201d. [2] The Lords Economic Affairs select committee explained why this is the case; \u201caid is essentially seen by those entrusted with it as \"free money\", whose loss will go unnoticed by the giver and whose appropriation is nothing like as morally reprehensible as appropriating local tax revenue\u201d. [3]  [1] Ghosh, Jayati, \u2018Yes: Should rich countries stop sending development aid to India?\u2019, BMJ, Vol.346, No. 7891, pp.1-42, p.20  [2] Tran, Mark, and Ford, Liz, \u2018UK suspends aid to Uganda as concern grows over misuse of funds\u2019, The Guardian global development, 16 November 2012  [3] Economic Affairs Select Committee, \u2018Chapter 4: The Impact of Aid\u2019, Parliament.uk, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con03b","title":"","text":"Clearly it is good where aid makes a difference to someone\u2019s life but we are not advocating ending aid. That aid would instead be spent in a poorer country that is more in need than India. The country that is more in need clearly needs more aid to provide that infrastructure that helps multiply the value of aid. It is therefore clearly the place where more funding should go."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con01b","title":"","text":"It does not make sense that India should receive aid simply because it still has poor people. Aid is used to help when the government cannot provide for its own people and India clearly already provides the vast majority of help for its own people and will provide more and more as the economy grows. The absolute numbers make very little difference because aid at current levels will never pull all 1.4 billion out of poverty at once. The government of India is improving he conditions of its poor so aid should be used somewhere where the government is less capable."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con02a","title":"","text":"India cannot end poverty on its own  Clearly if India could end poverty within the country it would do so, however at the moment it cannot. If those in India who are not poor (considering this to mean earn more than $13 a day, the US poverty line) were to give 100% of their income above this level to those who live on less than $1.25 per day they would still not eliminate poverty in the country. \u201cIndeed, appropriating all of the incomes of those living in India above the US poverty line would cover only a modest fraction of the country\u2019s aggregate poverty gap.\u201d So India does not yet have the domestic capacity to eliminate poverty on its own. [1]  [1] Ravillion, Martin, \u2018Should we care equally about poor people wherever they may live?\u2019, 8 November 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con05a","title":"","text":"The money makes no difference  India is a booming economy with GDP growth of 7% over most of the last twenty years, and it is likely to overtake the UK economy within a decade. [1] As a result development aid today to India is small by comparison to what India itself can and does spend on its poorest citizens. The UK gives just \u00a3280 million per year, less than 0.04% of India\u2019s GDP [2] and only enough to provide \u00a31 per year for every one of India\u2019s poorest.  This foreign aid is therefore not essential for poverty reduction in India. Indeed China has been the country most successful at reducing poverty and it has done it through economic growth not large amounts of development aid. [3] Aid money should therefore go to countries that really do need the money for development rather than those who are already succeeding at financing it themselves.  [1] Gilligan, Andrew, \u2018India tells Britain: We don\u2019t want your aid\u2019, The Telegraph, 4 February 2012  [2] Ghosh, Jayati, \u2018Yes: Should rich countries stop sending development aid to India?\u2019, BMJ, Vol.346, No. 7891, pp.1-42, p.20  [3] Data and Research, \u2018New Estimates Reveal Drop In Extreme Poverty 2005-2010\u2019, The World Bank, 29 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con04a","title":"","text":"Pressure from international donors is essential  Currently the culture of giving in India is not mature enough to enable India to fight poverty on its own. Aid to India therefore provides more than one role. It does not just provide the money and supplies that the poorest need, it also encourages India to do more. When aid is needed to put primary children into school as a result of the mere 3% of national income spent on education it encourages the Indian government and people to spend more on alleviating their own compatriot\u2019s poverty. [1]  [1] Agrawal, Nisha, \u2018India needs to do more for its people but cutting foreign aid now won\u2019t help \u2013 Oxfam\u2019, Alertnet, 13 November 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con03a","title":"","text":"Development aid still makes a difference  Clearly someone earning $1 a day in India is as worthy of aid as someone earning the same amount in Burkina Faso. Equally the same amount of development aid can still make a similar amount of difference to the individuals it is targeted. It may potentially make even more of a difference in the richer country because that country has the infrastructure to ensure that the aid is sustainable and effective. [1] For example an aid program may help poor farmers to grow more food but that aid is much more sustainable and valuable if there is a road network so that they can sell some of their produce. In India UK aid has helped 1.2 million children go to school in the past 10 years [2] and this investment is potentially made more effective by India having universities these children could go on to attend if they wish.  [1] Economic Affairs Select Committee, \u2018Chapter 4: The Impact of Aid\u2019, Parliament.uk, 2012  [2] Agrawal, Nisha, \u2018No: Should rich countries stop sending development aid to India?\u2019, BMJ, Vol.346, No. 7891, pp.1-42, p.21"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con01a","title":"","text":"India still has the most people in poverty  Aid should go to those who need it most around the world regardless of which country they live in. India still has the largest concentration of people in poverty in the world, according to the world bank there are \u201c240 million rural poor and 72 million urban poor\u201d. [1] So still almost a quarter of the world\u2019s 1.4billion people in poverty. [2] With so many of the world\u2019s poor people it is clear that India should be receiving a significant portion of the world\u2019s development aid to end their poverty.  [1] Poverty Reduction & Equity, \u2018India: Achievements and Challenges in Reducing Poverty\u2019, The World Bank, 2011  [2] Poverty Reduction & Equity, \u2018Overview\u2019, The World Bank, August 2008"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con04b","title":"","text":"The opposite is true; aid results in less Indian spending on poverty not more. In a few rare cases there may be sufficient media coverage of an aid program to shame the government into action but most of the time if others are spending that simply means the Indian government will save its own money. This was the assessment of House of Lords Economic Affairs Select Committee when it said \u201cBritish development aid to the poorest Indian states may provide a perverse incentive to the Indian government to use less of its own revenue to alleviate poverty.\u201d [1]  [1] Economic Affairs Select Committee, \u2018Abstract\u2019, Parliament.uk, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwssd-con02b","title":"","text":"Clearly this is taking a double standard; India cannot immediately eliminate poverty using only its domestic capacity, but the aid from other nations at the current level cannot currently do this either. India can be reducing poverty and as the economy grows will eventually be able to eliminate poverty entirely."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro02b","title":"","text":"The public sector being paid extra is something that is acceptable and necessary within society. Workers within the public sector often fulfill roles in jobs that are public goods. Such jobs provide a positive externality for the rest of society, but would be underprovided by the free market. For example, education would likely be underprovided, particularly for the poorest, by the free market but provides a significant benefit to the public because of the long term benefits an educated populace provides. [I1] In healthcare the example of the United States shows that private providers will never provide to those who are unable to afford it with nearly 50million people without health insurance. [1]  Although the average pay received by government employees tends to be higher, the peak earnings potential of a government position is significantly lower than that of other professions. Workers who chose to build long term careers within the public sector forgo a significant amount of money, and assume a heavier workload, in order to serve the needs of society and play a part in furthering its aspirations. As such, and owing to the fact that the people who do these jobs often provide economic benefit beyond what their pay would encompass in the private sector, it makes sense that they be paid more in the public sector. This is because their work benefits the people of the state and as such the state as a whole benefits significantly more from their work. [2]  [1] Christie, Les, \u201cNumber of people without health insurance climbs\u201d, CNNmoney, 13 September 2011,   [2] \u201cAS Market Failure.\u201d Tutor2u."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining Leads to an Overpaid Public Sector  The public sector is often significantly overpaid. The workers within the public sectors of Western liberal democracies often get paid more than people of equal education and experience who are employed in the private sector. In the United States there is a salary premium of 10-20 percent in the public sector. This means that there is likely a waste of resources as these people are being paid more than they should be by the government. [1]  The reason this happens is that collective bargaining means that workers can often, through the simple idea that they can communicate with the government and have a hand in the decision making process, make their demands much more easily.  Further, governments in particular are vulnerable during negotiations with unions, due their need to maintain both their political credibility and the cost effectiveness of the services they provide. This is significantly different to private enterprise where public opinion of the company is often significantly less relevant. As such, public sector workers can earn significantly more than their equally skilled counterparts in the private sector. This is problematic because it leads to a drain of workers and ideas from the private sector to the public. This is, in and of itself, problematic because the public sector, due to being shackled to the needs of public opinion often take fewer risks than the private sector and as such results in fewer innovations than work in the private sector.  [1] Biggs, Andrew G. \u201cWhy Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker Is Right About Collective Bargaining.\u201d US News. 25\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro03b","title":"","text":"Collective bargaining might hurt the democratic process due to its political nature, but the alternative is worse. Without collective bargaining it is incredibly difficult for public sector workers to get across their ideas of what their pay should be to their employers. This leads to worse consequences because public sector workers who feel underpaid or overworked will often move to the private sector for better job opportunities in the future as well as a better collective bargaining position. Further, those public sector workers that do stay will be unhappy in their positions and will likely do a worse job at work.  Given that this is true and the fact that public sector workers often choose to do their jobs out of a sense of duty or love for the profession, it is fair that the taxpayers should be placed in a position where they are required to trust the public sector and the politicians to work out deals that end up being in favour of the entire state, not just a small minority. [1]  [1] Bloomberg, Michael. \u201cLimit Pay, Not Unions.\u201d New York Times. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro01a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining is Not a Right  Whilst the freedom of association exists under the state and it is true that people should be allowed to communicate with one another and form groups to forward their personal and political interests, it is not true that the freedom of association automatically grants access to the decision making process.  Unions in this instance are problematic because whilst other groups do not have access to special privileges, unions are able to exert a significant and disproportionate amount of influence over the political process through the use of collective bargaining mechanisms. This argument applies to private unions as well, although to a lesser extent, and the banning of collective bargaining for private unions would be principally sound. In the case of unions in the private sector they can cause large amounts of disruption which has a large knock on impact on the economy giving leverage over politicians for whom the economy and jobs are always important issues. For example unions in transport in the private sector are just as disruptive as in the public sector. Even more minor businesses can be significant due to being in supply or logistics chains that are vital for important parts of the economy. [1] The access to the decision making process that unions are granted goes above and beyond the rights that we award to all other groups and as such this right, if it can be called one at all, can easily be taken away as it is the removal of an inequality within our system.  Further, even if collective bargaining were to be considered a \u201cright,\u201d the government can curtail the rights of individuals and groups of people should it feel the harm to all of society is great enough. We see this with the limits that we put on free speech such that we may prevent the incitement of racial hatred. [2]  [1] Shepardson, David, \u201cGM, Ford warn rail strike could cripple auto industry\u201d, The Detroit News, 30 November 2011,   [2] Denholm, David \u201cGuess What: There is no \u2018right\u2019 to collective bargaining.\u201d LabourUnionReport.com 21\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Collective bargaining is considered a right because of the great benefit that it provides. Specifically, whilst freedom of association might not allow people to be privy to the negotiation process, when a large enough group of people form together and make a statement regarding their opinion, it is profitable for those in power to listen to them.  Collective bargaining in this situation is a logical extension of that. Given that public sector workers are intrinsic to the continued success of the state, it thus makes sense that the state gives them a platform to make their views in a clear and ordered fashion, such that the state can take them into account easily. [1]  Further, the knowledge that such a right exists causes unions to act in a way which is more predictable. Specifically, a right to unionise with reduce the likelihood that state employees will engage in strike action. Under existing union law, groups of employees are able to compel a state employer to hear their demands, and to engage in negotiations. Indeed, they may be obliged to do so before they commence strike action. If the resolution were to pass, associations of state employees would be compelled to use strikes as a method of initiating negotiation. Under the status quo, strikes are used as a tactic of last resort against an intractable opponent or as a demonstration of the support that a union official\u2019s bargaining position commands amongst the Union\u2019s rank-and-file members.  [1] Bloomberg, Michael. \u201cLimit Pay, Not Unions.\u201d New York Times. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining Hurts the Democratic Process  The bargain between normal unions and private enterprise involves all parties being brought to the table and talking about the issues that they might have. However, the public sector represents the benefits of taxpayers, the politicians and the unions. The power that unions exercises means that negotiations can happen without the consent or involvement of the public sector\u2019s stakeholders, the public.  Even though power in a democracy is usually devolved to the politicians for this purpose, given the highly politicised nature of union negotiations, government office-holders who supervise union negotiations may act inconsistently with the mandate that the electorate have given them. This is because public unions often command a very large block of voters and can threaten politicians with this block of voters readily. This is not the same as a private business where officials aren\u2019t elected by their workers. As such, collective bargaining rights for public union undermine the ability of taxpayers to dictate where their money is being spent significantly. [1]  [1] \u201cUnion Bargaining Just A Dream For Many Gov Workers.\u201d Oregan Herald. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-pro04a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining is Needed to Voice Opinion  The bargain between normal unions and private enterprise involves all parties being brought to the table and talking about the issues that they might have. However, the public sector represents the benefits of taxpayers, the politicians and the unions. The power that unions exercises means that negotiations can happen without the consent or involvement of the public sector\u2019s stakeholders, the public.  Even though power in a democracy is usually devolved to the politicians for this purpose, given the highly politicised nature of union negotiations, government office-holders who supervise union negotiations may act inconsistently with the mandate that the electorate have given them. This is because public unions often command a very large block of voters and can threaten politicians with this block of voters readily. This is not the same as a private business where officials aren\u2019t elected by their workers. As such, collective bargaining rights for public union undermine the ability of taxpayers to dictate where their money is being spent significantly. [1]  [1] \u201cUnion Bargaining Just A Dream For Many Gov Workers.\u201d Oregan Herald. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-con03b","title":"","text":"The opposition argument here is simply a case against natural monopolies. In many Western Liberal democracies, advances in technology have enabled natural monopolies on telecoms and public transport to be broken down. A wide range of necessary public services- such as telecoms and power generation- now function as part of a competitive market. As such, it is feasible that the state could simply deal with this problem by breaking down other natural monopolies in the same way.  Even if the state acts as a monopolist in some industries, public sector workers often have transferrable skills which mean they can move to other industries without that much trouble. For example, a public prosecutor will have acquired professional skills that enable a relatively quick transition into private or commercial civil practice. [1]  [1] \u201cIdentifying the Transferable skills of a Teacher.\u201d North Central College."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-con01b","title":"","text":"Even if collective bargaining leads to a workforce that is better able to communicate their ideas, it also leads to a situation as mentioned within the proposition arguments that results in unions having significantly more power over their wages and the government than in other situations. This is problematic because it leads to consequences where other unions feel that they should have the same powers as public unions and can hence lead to volatility in the private sector as a result.  Further, given that often the negotiators that work for public unions are often aware of the political power of the public workers, negotiations with public unions often lead to strike action due to the fact that it is likely that the public will be sympathetic to the public workers. As such, allowing public workers to bargain collectively leads to situations that are often much worse for the public.  Further, a lot of opposition\u2019s problems with a lack of collective bargaining can simply be dealt with through implementing a more sensitive and understanding feedback process among workers. If a worker for example raises an issue which might affect a large number of workers, it should be fairly simple for public companies to take polls of workers to understand the gravity of the problem. [1]  [1] Rabin, Jack, and Dodd, Don, \u201cState and Local Government Administration\u201d, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc 1985, p390"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-con02a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining is Especially Necessary in the Case of Natural Monopolies  Many public industries exist as public industries because they are natural monopolies. For example, rail travel, which is often public in Western Liberal democracies, is a sector in which it makes no sense to build multiple railway lines across the country, each for a different company, when one would simply be more efficient. A similar case can be made for things such as public utilities. As such, these sectors often only have a single, often public company working in that sector.  In the case where there is a monopolist, the workers in the sector often have no other employers that they can reasonably find that require their skills, so for example, teachers are very well qualified to teach, however, are possibly not as qualified to deal with other areas and as such will find difficulty moving to another profession. As such, the monopolist in this area has the power to set wages without losing a significant number of employees. Further, in many of these industries strike action will not be used, for example because teachers have a vocational, almost fiduciary relationship with their students and don\u2019t wish to see them lose out due to a strike. [1]  [1] \u201cMonopoly Power.\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-con04a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining is a Right.  Collective bargaining is a right. If the state allows freedom of association, individuals will gather together and exchange their ideas and views as a natural consequence of this freedom. Further, free association and free expression allows groups to then select a representative to express their ideas in a way that the individuals in the group might not be able to. In preventing people from using this part of their right to assembly, we weaken the entire concept of the right to assembly. The point of the right to assembly is to allow the best possible representation for individuals. When a group of individuals are prevented from enjoying this right then it leads to those individuals feeling isolated from the rest of society who are able to enjoy this right.  This is particularly problematic in the case of public sector workers as the state that is isolating them also happens to be their employer. This hurts the way that people in the public sector view the state that ideally is meant to represent them above all as they actively contribute to the well being of the state. [1]  [1] Bloomberg, Michael. \u201cLimit Pay, Not Unions.\u201d New York Times. 27\/02\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-con01a","title":"","text":"Collective Bargaining is Needed to Voice Opinion  Collective bargaining is needed by people in any job. Within any firm there exist feedback structures that enable workers to communicate with managers and executive decision makers. However, there are some issues which affect workers significantly, but run against the principles of profit, or in this case the overall public good that the state seeks to serve.  In this situation, a collection of workers are required. This is primarily because if suggested changes go against public interest then a single worker requesting such a change is likely to be rejected. However, it is the indirect benefit to public interest through a workforce that is treated better that must also be considered. But indirect benefit can only truly occur if there are a large number of workers where said indirect benefit can accrue.  Specifically, indirect benefit includes the happiness of the workforce and thus the creation of a harder working workforce, as well as the prevention of brain drain of the workforce to other professions. When a single person is unhappy for example, the effect is minimal, however if this effect can be proved for a large number of people then an adjustment must be made.  In order for these ideas to be expressed, workers can either engage in a collective bargaining process with their employer, or take more drastic action such as strikes or protests to raise awareness of the problem. Given that the alternate option is vastly more disruptive, it seems prudent to allow people to do collectively bargain. [1]  [1] \u201cImportance of Collective Bargaining.\u201d Industrial relations."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwacbr-con04b","title":"","text":"As discussed in the first proposition side argument, we can curtail the rights of individuals if we see that those rights lead to a large negative consequence for the state. In this situation proposition is happy to let some public sector workers feel slightly disenfranchised if it leads to fewer strikes and a situation where public sector workers are not paid too much, then the net benefit to society is such that the slight loss in terms of consistency of rights is worth taking instead. [1]  [1] Davey, Monica, \u201cWisconsin Senate Limits Bargaining by Public Workers\u201d, The New York Times, 9 March 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro02b","title":"","text":"If school is so expensive, than shouldn't the government be subsidizing school costs instead of forcing parents to send kids to school when they can't afford the books and clothes? It is also unfair to assume that parents on welfare on neglectful and do not value education. Supporting meal programs in schools and subsidizing other costs are much more likely to draw children than forcing parents to send children to school when the kids are hungry and embarrassed1. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, \"The School Breakfast Program\",[Accessed July 21, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Parents on welfare are more likely to need the incentives to take on the costs of sending children to school.  Parents on welfare benefits are the most likely to need the extra inducements. They generally tend to be less educated and oftentimes be less appreciative of the long-term value of education. In the late 90's, 42% of people on welfare had less than a high school education, and another 42% had finished high school, but had not attended college in the US. Therefore they need the additional and more tangible, financial reasons to send their children to school. Children living in poverty in the US are 6.8 times more likely to have experienced child abuse and neglect1. While attendance might not be a sufficient condition for academic success, it is certainly a necessary one, and the very first step toward it. Some parents might be tempted to look at the short-term costs and benefits. Sending a child to school might be an opportunity cost for the parents as lost labor inside or outside the homes (especially in the third world) the household, or as an actual cost, as paying for things like supplies, uniforms or transportation can be expensive. Around the world there are an estimated 158 million working children, who often need to work to contribute to their family's livelihood2. In the UK it is estimated that sending a child to public school costs up to 1,200 pounds a year. If they lose money by not sending children to school, this would tilt the cost-benefits balance in favor of school attendance. 1 Duncan, Greg and Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (2000), \"Family Poverty, Welfare Reform, and Child Development\", Child Development, [Accessed July 21, 2011] 2  [Accessed July 13, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The purpose of welfare is not to better society per se; it is to support those who have fallen into bad times and need extra help. Expecting people to render a service in exchange for help is demeaning and it undermines the purpose of welfare which is to help people get back on their feet versus tell them what they have to do to be considered beneficial to society."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The policy has been effective in the past  The main goal of this program is increasing school enrollment overall. If it was too much to expect from families, then the program would have failed in the cases that it was instituted. However, the opposite has been the case. 12.4 million families in Brazil are enrolled in a program called Bolsa Familia where children\u2019s attendance in school is rewarded with $12 a month per child. The number of Brazilians with incomes below $440 a month has decreased by 8% year since 2003, and 1\/6 of the poverty reduction in the country is attributed to this program [1] . Additionally it is much less expensive than other programs, costing only about .5% of the country\u2019s GDP [2] . Considering that this program has been affordable and successful in both reducing poverty and increasing school enrollment it is worth using as an incentive in more programs around the world.  [1] 'How to get children out of jobs and into school', The Economist, 29 July 2010,   [2] 'How to get children out of jobs and into school', The Economist\u200b, 29 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro01b","title":"","text":"But the program in Brazil is biased towards rural communities versus cities. In the two largest cities in only 10% of families are enrolled versus 41% in the rural areas of Brazil [1] . To consider the program effective it needs to work equally with all members of the poor, which it does not.  [1] 'How to get children out of jobs and into school', The Economist\u200b, 29 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Just because students attend school does not mean that they are going to receive a quality education. The best educated children are those whose parents are involved heavily in their school, helping them with their homework, and pushing them to excel1. Without involved parents, students can become just as easily discouraged. There really need to be programs to involve parents more in school, and provide good mentors and role models for students who don't have them. Schools also need to be improved. Just sending kids to school doesn't mean that they are going to learn and be determined to better themselves. Additionally particularly in the third world if children don't have good schools and qualified teachers, then what is the point of going to school? 1 Chavkin, Nancy, and Williams, David (1989), \"Low-Income Parents' Attitudes toward Parent Involvemet in Education\", Social Welfare, [Accessed July 21, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro03a","title":"","text":"It is morally acceptable to make welfare conditional.  When society has to step in and provide for those who've proved themselves unable to provide for themselves that should reasonably create certain expectations on the part of those being helped. In almost every aspect of life, money is given in return for a product, service or behavior. It is the same with welfare payments; money in exchange for children being put in school. We expect parents to do a good job in their role as parents. Ensuring that their children attend school is a crucial part of parental responsibility. Children on welfare in the US are 2 times more likely to drop out of school, however studies have shown that children who are part of early childhood education are more likely to finish school and remain independent of welfare1. Thus, when a parent is a welfare recipient, it is entirely reasonable to make it conditional on sending their kids to school. If tax payers' dollars are being spent on those who cannot provide for themselves, there needs to be a societal return. One of the greatest complaints about welfare is that people work hard for the money that they earn, which is then handed to others with no direct benefit to society. If children of people on welfare are in school it increases the likelihood that they will finish high school, maybe get a scholarship and go to college, and have the necessary tools to contribute to the work force and better society.  1 Heckman, James (2000), \"Invest in the Very Young\", Ounce of Prevention and the University of Chicago, [Accessed July 25, 2011]. and Duncan, Greg and Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (2000), \"Family Poverty, Welfare Reform, and Child Development\", Child Development, [Accessed July 21, 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Requiring school attendance allows welfare to be the hand-up that it is meant to be, and keep children out of crime.  In the US, girls who grow up in families receiving welfare handouts are 3 times more likely to receive welfare themselves within three years of having their first child than girls who's families were never on welfare1. Children living in poverty were 2 times more likely to have grade repetition and drop out of high school and 3.1 times more likely to have children out of wedlock as teenagers2. They are 2.2 times more likely to experience violent crimes. Children of welfare recipients are more likely to end up on welfare themselves. Welfare should be a hand up, not a handout that leads to dependency on the state. It is the latter if we are only leading people to fall into the same trap as their parents. Education is the way to break the vicious cycle. Through education, children will acquire the skills and qualifications they need in order to obtain gainful employment once they reach adulthood, and overcome their condition. In the developing world, primary education has proven to reduce AIDS incidences, improve health, increase productivity and contribute to economic growth3. School can empower children, and give them guidance and hope that they may not receive at home. Getting kids in school is the first step to equipping them with the skills to better their situations, and if encouraged by their parents they might consider scholarships to college or vocational school. The program does not guarantee this for all, but it is likely more effective than the leaving parents with no incentive to push their children. Benefits are supposed to promote the welfare of both parents and children. One of the best ways to ensure that welfare payments are actually benefiting children is to make sure they're going to school. This is simply providing parents with an extra incentive to do the right thing for their children and become more vested in their kids' education. 1 Family Facts, \"A Closer Look at Welfare\", [Accessed July 21, 2011]. 2 Duncan , Greg and Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (2000), \"Family Poverty, Welfare Reform, and Child Development\", Child Development, [Accessed July 21, 2011] 3http World Bank, \"Facts about Primary Education\",[Accessed July 21, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con03b","title":"","text":"Yet if kids aren't going to school anyway it doesn't matter if the schools are inadequate. Getting kids in schools is the first step to improving the education situation and the dropout rate. As long as we look at the education system in the US and around the world as dismal and overwhelming, nothing will change."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con01b","title":"","text":"There is nothing that says the two are mutually exclusive. Linking welfare to school attendance could be instituted next to other reforms that overall would create greater incentives for children to do well in school."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con02a","title":"","text":"Connecting welfare to failure of parents is unfair.  This policy requires that parents be held accountable and punished for the actions of their children. It suggests that their failure in instilling good values is because they care less than middle-class, educated parents. That is a broad and stereotypical assumption. Such parents, many of whom are single mothers, find it harder to instill good values in their children because they live in corrupt environments, surrounded by negative influences[1]. They should be aided and supported, not punished for an alleged failure. Just encouraging putting children in schools does not recognize the larger problems. Some families cannot control their children, who would rather make money than go to school. And caps on the number of children these programs can apply to, as is the case in Brazil, creates problems as well for the families[2]. People are doing their best, but the environment is difficult. Providing safer and more low income housing could be a solution versus punishing people for what is sometimes out of their control. 1 Cawthorne, Alexandra (2008), \"The Straight Facts on Women in Poverty\", Center for American Progress, [Accessed July 21, 2011]. 2"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con04a","title":"","text":"It is unjust to make welfare conditional  Welfare should not be used as a tool of social engineering. These are people who cannot provide even basic necessities for their families. Asking them to take on obligations by threatening to take away their food is not requiring them to be responsible, it's extortion. It is not treating them as stakeholders and equal partners in a discussion about benefits and responsibilities, but trying to condition them into doing what the rest of society thinks is good for them and their families. There is a difference between an incentive and coercion. An incentive functions on the premise that the person targeted is able to refuse it. These people have no meaningful choice between 'the incentive' or going hungry. This policy does not respect people's basic dignity. There is no condition attached to healthcare and Medicaid that says people have to eat healthily or stop smoking, so why should welfare be conditional? Allowing them and their children to go without food if they refuse is callous. Making welfare conditional is taking advantage of people's situation and telling them what they need to do to be considered valuable to society; it is inherently wrong. It impedes on people's rights to free choice and demeans them as worthless."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con03a","title":"","text":"School does not an education make  School attendance is not a positive outcome in and of itself. It should be encouraged only if it is conducive to learning and acquiring the meaningful education needed to break out of the poverty trap. Blaming the poverty cycle on kids failing to attend school ignores the fact that schools are failing children. Public schools are often overcrowded, with poor facilities and lacking the resources necessary to teach children with challenging backgrounds. In 2011, 80% of America's schools could be considered failing according to Arne Duncan who is the secretary of education1. Schools in developing countries often lack qualified teachers, and can suffer from very high staff absenteeism rates2. A more effective school system would result in fewer kids dropping out, not the other way around. Additionally, involved parents are integral to effective education3. Simply blackmailing them with money to do the right thing will not work. In fact, you might actually experience backlash from parents and kids, who'll see school as a burdensome requirement that is met just so you can keep the electricity on. Throwing kids into school where they do not have confidence, support, and the necessary facilities is not productive. 1 Dillon , Sam (2011), \"Most Public Schools May Miss Targets, Education Secretary Says\", New York Times, [Accessed July 21, 2011]. 2 World Bank, \"Facts about Primary Education\",[Accessed July 21, 2011]. 3 Chavkin , Nancy, and Williams, David (1989), \"Low-Income Parents' Attitudes toward Parent Involvemet in Education\", Social Welfare, [Accessed July 21, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con01a","title":"","text":"There should be rewards for success in school, versus punishment for failure to attend.  This problem could be addressed by subsidizing school supplies or rewarding good attendance records with additional cash. Cutting benefits will only hurt the children we are trying to help, with their families deprived of the resources to feed them or care for them. Free breakfast programs in the US feed 10.1 million children every day1. Providing meals, mentors, programs that support and help students are ways to help them get along better in schools. There are already 14 million children in the US that go hungry, and 600 million children worldwide that are living on less than a dollar a day2. Why punish those families that have trouble putting their kids in school, which only hurts those children more? There should be rewards for good grades, and reduction to the cost of school and above all programs so that children don't have to sit in school hungry and confused. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, \"The School Breakfast Program\",[Accessed July 21, 2011]. 2 Feeding America (2010), \"Hunger in America: Key Facts\", [Accessed July 21, 2011]. and UNICEF, \"Goal: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger\", [Accessed July 21, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con04b","title":"","text":"It is perfectly just to ask people to adjust behavior in exchange for funds. In fact, if the tax payers' dollars were being poured into an unchanging situation that would be unfair and unproductive. For a long time the US, and countries around the world, have struggled with making welfare a program that can lift people up. Connecting it to schools can help children."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeeghbpw-con02b","title":"","text":"If families have incentives to send their children to school, and raise their children with a value of education, stressing the need for them to go to school they are more likely to finish high school and lift themselves out of these environments. The reason why some children would rather work then go to school is because they have been raised in an atmosphere that does not stress education and the necessity to finish high school. This type of program would push parents to change their children's values as they grow up. Additionally, a child's sense of duty to their family because of welfare payments being connected to their school attendance would give them further reason not to drop out, even if they do not like or value school."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro02b","title":"","text":"One needs to differentiate between mature, developed, but indebted economies like the US, the UK, and developing, cash-rich economies like the BRICs. Their share of the world economy might be increasing, but they would be better served investing their money in infrastructure and development, not in the IMF. Only then they might be on par with the developed nations and comparing quotas might become appropriate."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro02a","title":"","text":"Under representation of emerging economies  Claims that power within the IMF is distributed according to the reality of the members\u2019 weight in the global financial system are inaccurate. The IMF reflects the financial system as it was 50 years ago and has done little to acknowledge the growth of countries like Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRICs), which have far fewer votes than their economic heft merits, while Western countries like Belgium are actually overrepresented [1] . Significant reforms to the voting quotas need to be implemented in order to create an IMF that is true to the reality of the world financial system.  [1] -- \u201cWanted: a French Revolution\u201d. The Economist. June 30, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro03b","title":"","text":"That is an argument for reforming the economic foundations and philosophy of the IMF, not necessarily its governance. One cannot simply conflate the leadership of Western nations with neoliberal policies. Keynesianism is also a western economic doctrine. Maybe the IMF should be encouraged to adopt it in some cases."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro01a","title":"","text":"Unbalanced decision making  The decisions taken by the IMF have a deep impact on the entire global financial system and on developing countries in particular, whose economies are especially sensitive to global changes. Yet, the Western, developed countries have the greatest sway in the decision-making process, with developing countries having little influence over the process. It creates an unjust financial world order, where rich and powerful countries call the shots and smaller, poorer ones bear the consequences [1] .  [1] Foot, Rosemary; Mcfarlane Neil; Mastadundo Michael. US Hegemony in International Organizations. Oxford Publishing Online, November 2003."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro01b","title":"","text":"The primary function of the IMF has now become that of a lender of last resort [1] . It keeps governments that are on the cusps of a default, solvent. Membership in the IMF is optional, as is borrowing from the fund. Countries only have to do what the IMF tells them when they take its money. Western countries get to have more sway because they bring in the greatest financial contributions to the Fund. It\u2019s not unfair, therefore, for them to be allowed to place conditions on how their money will be used by those who choose to borrow it.  [1] Bihide Amar; Phelps Edmund. \u201cMore Harm than Good\u201d. The Daily Beast. July 11, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro04b","title":"","text":"You don\u2019t need to experience food shortages to understand the importance of food. The IMF position, however, is that financial stability is a precursor for long-term growth and prosperity. Therefore, in the short term, balancing budgets might take precedence over any other legitimate concerns countries might have, like subsidising farming to maintain low food prices."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro03a","title":"","text":"Neoliberal foreign policy  Western dominance leads to economic policies and loan conditions rooted in neoliberal economic principles, like austerity measures, which overemphasize cutting public spending. These often actually end up badly hurting developing economies, increasing inequalities and poverty (Malawi is a prominent example) [1] . Argentina\u2019s economic collapse attests to that [2] .  [1] Hari, Johann. \u201cIt\u2019s not just Dominique Strauss-Kahn. The IMF itself should be on trial\u201d. The Independent. June 3, 2011.   [2] -- \u201cEconomic debacle in Argentina: The IMF strikes again\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro04a","title":"","text":"IMF-led policies' Impact on access to food and healthcare  Since Western countries do not suffer from food shortages, they do not understand how vital food and access to healthcare is for survival in the developing world. The IMF treats food and healthcare in its policies just like any other commodity on the market, sometimes with disastrous humanitarian consequences [1] .  [1] Oxfam. \u201cDeath on the Doorstep of the Summit\u201d. Oxfam Briefing Paper. 2002"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con03b","title":"","text":"Member countries can not unilaterally increase their quotas8. So even if a country, like the BRICs became rich enough to afford buying a bigger share, it would be in the interest of Western nations to block such a move to retain the power under the status quo.  Western countries are still, rightfully, dominant players. But they hold disproportionate sway over the Fund. Important decisions within the IMF require an 85% supermajority of the total voting quota. The US alone holds 17%, while EU members hold 32% [1] . Effectively, the US is the only country in the world with veto rights at the IMF. Even if all the other countries were in agreement over a certain proposal, the US could unilaterally block it. That is a clear example of just how dominated the IMF is by the West.  [1] Wikipedia. \u201cIMF Article. Memers\u2019 quotas and voting powers\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con01b","title":"","text":"As vocal as developing countries have been about the need for a change in leadership at the IMF, they have often failed to come up with viable alternatives to European candidates and recently, when given the opportunity, they failed to rally around Christine Lagarde\u2019s (the new MD) only serious competitor: Mexico\u2019s Agust\u00edn Carstens3."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con02a","title":"","text":"Capitalism and a guiding principle of IMF policy making  Capitalism as guiding principle: At its core, the IMF is a capitalist, financial institution, not an exercise in proportional representation and democracy, and it has to function on that premise. Drastic changes in the quota systems that would see the West ceding control of the institution, would not be based on the reality of the financial system, but on a political desire to make the institution more representative. Such a move would hurt its efficiency."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con04a","title":"","text":"Gradual and abrupt change  To paint the IMF as western dominated and unresponsive to shifts in the global financial order is inaccurate. The IMF is gradually accommodating the growing stance of emerging economies like China through reforms to its quota system [1] . Also, among the countries with the 10 biggest quotas are Japan (no 2), China, Saudi Arabia and Russia8. The reality is that Western economies still represent the biggest players in the world financial system and any change in their leadership of the IMF should come gradually, with the potential change in status within the world economy. There is no reason why they should abruptly relinquish leadership of the Fund.  [1] Arnott, Sarah. \u201cEmerging Economies Battle for More Voting Rights at the IMF\u201d. The Independent. September 28, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con03a","title":"","text":"Western states as large scale shareholders  Western countries are the biggest contributors to the IMF. They bring in the most money and, until recently, have rarely required loans from the institution themselves. In any business, the biggest shareholders get to have the most say in the decision-making process. The IMF should not be different."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con01a","title":"","text":"The role of managing director  For its entire existence, the managing director of the IMF has always been European. This has created considerable discontent within the developing world, with developing countries feeling disenfranchised and, therefore, less likely to trust and cooperate with the Fund [1] .  [1] Musoko, Chipo. \u201cWhy IMF boss will not come from the Continent\u201d. All Africa. May 23, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con04b","title":"","text":"Precisely because Europe is now the IMF\u2019s biggest client, its MD should not come from Europe. Questions about the independence a European in such a position are already being raised, with some pointing to the fact that the fund has been much more generous with the European PIGS than with any of its previous clients. A non-European MD would maintain the Fund\u2019s credibility and integrity [1] .  [1] -- \u201cTime For a Change: While a euro-zone finance minister, even a talented one, should not lead the IMF\u201d. The Economist. May 26, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con02b","title":"","text":"Unbridled capitalism is not a viable response. A balance has to be struck between economic interests and political imperatives. The IMF is also a political institution, not a private bank. Its money comes from countries, and therefore the IMF should be accountable to its member states that pay for its very existence. That means a more representative balance of power within the governance of the institution."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro02b","title":"","text":"There remains a danger of not learning from past mistakes. Forced evictions are unlawful, and have minimal benefits in terms of human development [1] . Evictions only show the natural path of the lawless nature of capitalism. Within capitalism, public space becomes privatised over time in order to enable the creation, and circulation, of profits.  Cities are social spaces, and therefore need to be designed for, and around, people not profits. Evictions dispossess of their land, livelihoods, and homes; while the city is redesigned for investors, the elite, and footloose companies. Social development and security needs to be seen as the natural path of development.  Further, comparatively, the context of African cities differs to that of Europe and the US.  [1] For more information see further readings: United Nations Human Development Reports."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are a natural path of development.  Forced evictions have occurred globally across time, they show the natural progression of development. Cases across Europe and the USA show evictions were a feature of cities and urbanisation in the past. London experienced numerous \u2018slum clearances\u2019 from the 18th to the 20th Century, one such clearance was the building of the Metropolitan railway to the City which destroyed the slums around Farringdon and forced relocation of 5-50,000 people from 1860-4. [1] Firstly, as modernisation theory shows transition occurs as society progresses from \u2018traditional\u2019 to an \u2018age of mass consumption\u2019. Evictions often occur where inhabitants may not have the legal titles to occupy land. Evictions enable the transition from communities who occupy land based on traditional laws and beliefs to the emergence of a refined legal system.  Secondly, development can only progress once new land becomes available - investment requires space. Therefore space has to be cleared for the city to be re-planned and new investments made. New investments can ensure African cities become sites of prosperity and continue to attract investors.  [1] Temple, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are not solutions as those displaced will simply build new shanty towns so it will not stop rapid growth. They fail to tackle underlying issues across African cities - such as the lack of access to adequate housing, services, and bad governance."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro05a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions pave the road for African cities to set a trend towards Eco-Cities.  A key character of global cities are the global connections made. Whether financial, economic, political, or cultural - global cities become a fundamental hub providing key resources. Forced evictions provide space in overcrowded, unorganised, cities whereby new architecture and districts can be built, and new trends set. Forced evictions provide spaces for new financial districts and beautiful cities to emerge across Africa.  Recently plans have been set to implement 'Eco' projects across African cities. Proposed projects include the Konza Techno City, Nairobi; Eko Atlantic, Lagos; HOPE, Ghana; and Kampala Tower, Kampala, as part of the Venus Project."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are necessary to change perceptions.  Western media and institutions often present an image of 'Africa' which fails to understand the reality, and continues to position 'Africa' as the 'other', 'unknown', and in need of assistance. Cities across Africa are an opportunity to change this idea of Africa. Forced evictions enable local, and national, governments to redesign African cities. Taking the case of South Africa forced evictions, in cities, have been central in promoting its new image.  In 2010, South Africa hosted the FIFA World Cup. Stadiums were built in Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban and provided the international community an opportunity to see the beauty of South Africa and confirm its ability to deliver as a BRIC country. Evictions occurred to create an aesthetic city, for the greater good. The evictions were only a small cost in the broader scale, whereby a better city would be built for all to enjoy, employment created, and tourists attracted [1] .  [1] Although accurate figures of the number of evictions carried out, and\/or number of residents displaced, are unavailable, cases have been reported where around 20,000 people could have been evicted in one settlement. See further readings: Werth, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro01b","title":"","text":"It remains questionable whether the FIFA World Cup has been a success for South Africa, and for the majority of South Africa's citizens. The costs of forced evictions have outweighed the benefits in the international arena. The publicised nature of evictions across South Africa, in the build up to FIFA 2010, highlighted a negative image of urban planning in Africa and the unresolved issues of equality and rights. Forced evictions have resulted in the loss of architectural heritage for new builds, homelessness, and the publication of communities living without freedom to rights.  The Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign is a clear example. The social movement gained momentum to expose the undemocratic world poor communities live in and fight evictions. The communities were relocated into 'Tin Can Towns' and 'Transit Camps'. [1] The negativity raised will have future repercussions.  [1] For more information see further readings: Smith (2010) and War on Want (2013)."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro05b","title":"","text":"Since 2000, over 2mn experienced forced evictions in Nigeria [1] . Recent plans to implement the Eko Atlantic project along Lagos\u2019 coastline has been designed with an intention for reducing emissions, protecting the vulnerability of Victoria Island to climate change, and promoting sustainable development. However, an exclusive landscape has been planned - targeting commuters, financial industries, and tourists. The need to include quotas for providing adequate housing or public services has been neglected. Furthermore, the designs present the construction of exclusive open spaces. Informal workers, such as street traders, will become unwelcome, destroying livelihoods.  [1] COHRE, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro04b","title":"","text":"The idea of promoting a \u2018slum-free\u2019 environment is often used to justify evictions. However, for just urban planning, alternative methods need to be used. On the one hand, cases show how slum upgrading can be achieved through community organisations and the provision of tenure security. Organisations such as Abahlali BaseMjondolo and Muungano wa Wanavijiji are positive examples.  On another hand, the Master Plan\u2019s [1] , justifying evictions, are wrong. Exclusive spaces are created as the new developments cater to elites and the right to health becomes accessible by a minority. Additionally, slums persist as forced evictions have a different agenda. Slum-dwellers are merely relocated to new settlements, with poor sanitation, inaccessible, and insecure.  Furthermore, in the case of Kenya\u2019s 2030 Vision, a number of cases indicate tensions are emerging. Rights over land, and therefore who receives compensation, are contested. Slum dwellers are given little warning on when the eviction will occur. Displacement resulted as residents were unable to afford new builds and not granted a new build.  [1] See further readings."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are a means to control rapid urbanisation and gain global city status.  Africa is undergoing rapid urbanisation of 3.5% per year (by comparison China\u2019s is only2.3%). [1] With the rising number of \u2018Megacities\u2019 [2] across Africa, the government need to introduce methods to control the sprawling nature of cities and create a sense of order.  Mega, and Million, cities have become a representation of Africa\u2019s urban future. Urbanisation in Africa is occurring much faster than the governments are able to cope with. As Mike Davis (2007) suggests African nations showcase a new type of city - a city of slums, decay, and prevailing revolution. The government need to take more control to effectively build future cities and define the path of urbanisation.  [1] Worldstat info, 2013  [2] \u2018Megacities\u2019 are defined as cities with over 10 million inhabitants (Wikipedia, 2013)."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions will create cities without slums in the long-run.  Slums and informal settlements need upgrading; and the percentage of slums remains highest in Sub-Saharan Africa [1] where slums can be up to 72% of the urban population. [2] Slums are unhealthy spaces - spaces where disease festers, there is limited access to sanitation and services, and overcrowding presents a squalid environment. Forced evictions are an effective urban planning tool to build healthier cities. Residents need to be evicted to enable infrastructure to be built (i.e. roads, lighting, sewage), and services constructed (i.e. hospitals and schools). Evictions enable a healthier environment and homes to be built in the process of redevelopment, beneficial for inhabitants in the long-run.  This has been the motive of Kenya Vision 2030 [3] which aims to provide access to adequate housing and a secure environment for urban dwellers. In upgrading slums, such as Kibera, the first stage required relocating residents in Kibera to multiple sites (i.e. Soweto East).  [1] Fox, 2013.  [2] Tibaijuka, 2004  [3] Kenya Vision 2030, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con03b","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are following, and imposing, the law. A heavy hand is need for rights to be granted to all in the future. A majority of informal settlements are also illegal, future cities in Africa need to be built on a sense of legality and law."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con01b","title":"","text":"Slums and informal settlements are constraining African cities from becoming global players. Space needs to be cleared and new investors attracted, which will bring positive development. As a result of Johannesburg\u2019s global status, Johannesburg\u2019s Stock Exchange has continued to grow and improve [1] . Exchange Square, in Johannesburg, shows what African cities need to become. To become integrated into the global-economy city space, and priorities, need to be redesigned.  [1] See Johannesburg Stock Exchange (2011), whereby classified as first for regulation of security exchanges."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con02a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are political land grabbing.  Politics justifies, and legitimises, forced evictions. Previous cases across African cities [1] show how ethnicity, race, and political party preferences, are heavily embedded in the process. Inhabitants may have legal rights to occupy land - however, as in the case of the 1990 Muoroto demolition in Kenya [2] , \u2018legal rights\u2019 were trumped by ethnic tribalism and inter-party competition.  Further, a majority of African cities are built informally, therefore what can be defined as illegal? Forced evictions will fail where entire cities are built on a state of informality.  [1] Examples include: Zimbabwe (Operation Murambatsvina), Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, Nigeria, Ghana.  [2] See further readings: Klopp, 2008; and Ocheje, 2007."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con05a","title":"","text":"The housing crisis is unresolved by forced evictions.  Across African cities there is a housing crisis - whereby there is a mismatch between housing demand and supply. Kigali, capital of Rwanda, for example needs to build half a million new homes. [1] As evictions continue the crisis is being exacerbated. Evictions displace individuals by destroying homes; are forcing lives\u2019 to be rebuilt; and cause a rise in homelessness. In addition, in cases whereby resettlement housing is provided issues emerge. The new locations of resettlement show the crisis is unresolved. Residents are rehoused into unsanitary areas, areas far from employment opportunities, and on undesired land. Slums, and informal settlements, will continue to re-emerge in new locations as solutions are not being provided. Residents are forced out of central locations without being provided with an effective, affordable, alternative replacement.  Alternatives need to be introduced and considered.  [1] Agutamba, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con04a","title":"","text":"Denying individuals rights to the city commons.  Forced evictions create an exclusive city. The process of evictions means individuals are targeted, and criminalised, particularly the poor. The right to the city - to use the city, live in the city, and build the city - is denied to the poor and criminalised. Such denials have implications for the livelihood strategies of the poor.  For example, in the case of Johannesburg, South Africa, informal street traders have been evicted from using open, public space within the city centre. Such spaces are their means of employment, and as Abahlali Base Mjondolo show, the evictions represent a denial of legal and human rights [1] .  [1] Abahlali Base Mjondolo are a movement of shack-dwellers based in Durban and operating across South Africa. Updated articles are provided."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con03a","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are inhumane, and make state violence an increasing reality in African cities.  Forced evictions are unjust and reflect a threat to human rights. By carrying out such events, the state has become a key actor enforcing violence, fear and insecurity to those whom remain in need of protection [1] . In Luanda, Angola, where 18 mass evictions have been noted between 2002-2006 by the Human Rights Watch [2] , individuals have been killed and imprisoned in the process. Intimidation by the state and government officials becomes a dangerous norm; and inhabitants are not treated as humans.  [1] Amnesty International Campaign.  [2] Human Rights Watch, 2007."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con05b","title":"","text":"Forced evictions are needed to resolve the crisis. The crisis is emerging not out of a mismatch between supply and demand, but rather a lack of space and the inefficient use of space available. Plans need to be followed for housing to meet need, and evictions ensure such ambitions can be achieved. Evictions provide space to build housing effectively.  Take the newly proposed Kigali City Plan 2040 [1] . 34,000 affordable homes will be built, in estates, for different socioeconomic groups. Space and organised planning - based on evictions - are essential to achieve this.  [1] See further readings: Nuwagira, 2013; and Kigali City Plan 2040."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con01a","title":"","text":"African cities should not aim for \u2018global city\u2019 status.  There is debate as to the extent to which Africa is experiencing rapid urbanisation. Data shows that across several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, in reality, urbanisation is slowing or static [1] . A process of counter-urbanisation is occurring as a result of return migration and fictitious data. The political discourse of Africa\u2019s rapid urbanisation and Megacities promotes unjustified dangerous intervention, such as forced evictions.  African cities are unique, and need to promote an alternative image to define their status. A different brand and image of global city status is required, rather than following the current definition. The current definition fails to recognise the diversity of what cities do. The definition of global cities introduces a criteria to follow, and forces conformity in cities worldwide. Mega cities are not negative but have been constructed as being so. There remains a danger of following a path towards 'worlding' cities: who is included and invited to participate in it?  [1] Potts, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con04b","title":"","text":"Evictions show the government are recognising residents as holding rights and entitlements - rights to live in a safe environment, rights to a home, and rights to sanitary conditions. The Millenium Development Goals will be met as a result of such policies - ensuring environmental sustainability, reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, and combating diseases [1] .  [1] UN MDGs, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfihb-con02b","title":"","text":"Within cities land grabbing is a myth. A number of cases shown as political land-grabbing and rent-seeking are misrepresented, and misunderstood. Difficulties remain in defining what is a land grab and the extent of which the state, and politics, are involved in land speculations.  The media coverage of evictions in Mogadishu showcase the myth and hyperbole surrounding African politics and evictions. The government are entitled to reclaim land and reform it for public use [1] .  [1] See BBC News (2013) for full debate, whereby Mohammed Yusuf, an Official at Mogadishu City, defends the eviction."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-pro02b","title":"","text":"The change to remittances may or may not benefit the countries themselves. It is likely that remittances will go directly to individuals. Rwanda may have managed to persuade Rwandans in foreign countries to put money into its sovereign wealth fund but this will often not be an option or individuals will not want to give to their government rather than their families. Most of the time the government will be less well off."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-pro02a","title":"","text":"Provides autonomy for developing countries  Rwanda has been trying to increase the size of remittances in order to increase its autonomy. The President Paul Kagame has said \u201caid is never enough and we need to complement it with homegrown schemes to accelerate growth.\u201d He wants \u201ca higher level of direct ownership in the nation\u2019s projects\u201d and wants it because western donors had suspended aid. [1] A change to remittances would reduce this vulnerability; it would be much more difficult for \u2018donors\u2019 to suspend the tax breaks they provide for remittances to individual countries than it is to cut aid. Indeed remittances are noticeably stable with money still being sent home during recessions and can even be countercyclical as migrants will send more if they know things are bad back home. [2] This then takes the issue out of the hands of the politicians and puts it into the hands of the people.  [1] Procost, Claire, \u2018Rwanda seeks diaspora investment to cut reliance on foreign aid\u2019, global development guardian.co.uk, 11 October 2012  [2] Ratha, Dilip, \u2018Remittances: Funds for the Folks Back Home\u2019, International Monetary Fund"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-pro03b","title":"","text":"Remittances are of course an excellent way of reducing poverty for those who receive them; more broadly however they are unlikely to be successful. Money sent back as remittances are unlikely to be used to target the development needs of the nation so it will not be creating the basis of sustainable growth in the future."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-pro01a","title":"","text":"Remittances creates freedom of choice for individuals  Changing from ODA to Remittances is good for freedom of choice in two ways.  First tax breaks and other incentives will mean that migrants have more money. It will clearly be up to the migrant to decide if they want to or can afford to send their money home; they can decide how much they want to send, when they want to end it, how they want to send it etc. At the other end it will be up to the individual recipient to decide how they want to spend the money received.  Secondly it is good for the freedom of choice of the taxpayer. At the moment they are having their choice taken away from them as they have their own money being spent by the government on someone else; foreign countries. The individual taxpayer sees none of the benefit of this money and often they don\u2019t like paying so much aid, 59% of Americans support cutting aid. [1]  [1] Newport, Frank, and Saad, Lydia, \u2018Americans Oppose Cuts in Education, Social Security, Defense\u2019, Gallup Politics, 26 January 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-pro01b","title":"","text":"This creates freedom of choice for the donor, but at the same time takes it away from the recipient. Recipients, whether governments or NGOs, will no longer have the money to spend. They will no longer be able to target that funding towards those areas that need it most instead the money will bypass them."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-pro03a","title":"","text":"Remittances reduce poverty  There has been a lot of concern that aid, particularly from governments and international organisations, does not always help reduce poverty; it might simply create dependence, or it prevents local enterprise. Dambisa Moyo points out that \u201cBetween 1970 and 1998, when aid flows to Africa were at their peak, poverty in Africa rose from 11% to a staggering 66%\u201d. [1] Remittances on the other hand can be very beneficial; they provide the money needed to start enterprises, and they are showing that the community is not dependent as its members have taken the initiative to go and find work.  Remittances have a statistically significant impact on reducing poverty. In 2005 the World Bank suggested that a 10% increase in per capita international remittances will lead to a 3.5% decline in the share of people living in poverty. [2] Governments should therefore change from the method that is failing to one that is more successful at reducing poverty.  [1] Edemariam, Aida, \u2018Everybody knows it doesn\u2019t work\u2019, The Guardian, 19 February 2009  [2] Adams, Richard H., Pagem John, \u2018Do International Migration and Remittances Reduce Poverty in Developing Countries?\u2019, World Development, Vol.33 No.10, 2005, pp.1645-1669, p.1660"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-con03b","title":"","text":"While developed countries may be making it more financially attractive to come to them to work and send back remittances in practice they are unlikely to actually allow more immigrants into their countries.  Secondly the brain drain is not all negative for the countries concerned; migrants may return home with new skills, and considerably more money to invest and create new businesses. It is also likely that many of those who go abroad would not have found jobs at home, particularly if highly skilled as the developing country has few jobs available for people with their skills, so would have been a drain rather than a benefit to the economy no matter their skill level. It should also be remembered that the costs of educating these skilled workers will be paid all the faster due to increases in remittances \u2013 a study of Ghanaian migrants found that the cost of education of emigrants was paid 5.6 times over by remittances. [1]  [1] Economics focus, \u2018Drain or gain\u2019, The Economist, 26 May 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-con01b","title":"","text":"Of course not all aid is ending, it will simply fall to aid agencies and charities to provide for the very poorest rather than governments. These aid agencies will no longer need to help out those who are getting remittances so will have more to spend on the poorest. There may even be an increase in individual donations in rich countries to provide aid when individuals realise their tax dollars are no longer being spend on aid so they may feel the responsibility to do something themselves, something that giving through the government shields us from."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-con02a","title":"","text":"Remittances won\u2019t be focused on development work  Official development aid is spent on projects that will help encourage long term growth for poor countries, for example building schools and hospitals. These benefit the education and health of the recipient country. Remittances on the other hand are most likely to be spent on day to day needs such as food and clothing. [1] The money may also be spent on schooling and health but it would be on the individual level rather than infrastructure so does not increase the overall capacity of the country.  [1] Julca, Alex, \u2018Can remittances support development finance in developing countries?\u2019 un.org, 2012, p.8"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-con03a","title":"","text":"Encourages a brain drain  Any change from aid to remittances is going to create a brain drain because it will encourage working abroad. If developed countries governments are going to provide tax breaks or top up money for remittances then it becomes more attractive to work abroad and send back remittances because they can earn and send back more.  The brain drain is the migration of skilled workers from developing countries to more developed countries. This happens because the more skilled the worker the more in demand their skills are and the more likely they are to know about and have the ability to move to work elsewhere. This is a concerns developing countries because it means their investment in the future; through education often benefits developed countries rather than themselves. Africa for example lost 60,000 professionals between 1985 and 1990. [1] In total Africa has lost a third of its human capital. This loss of human capital will mean that the countries affected do not have the capacity to take advantage of the increase in remittances by building new businesses.  [1] Oyelere, Ruth Uwaifo, \u2018Brain Drain, Waste or Gain? What We Know About The Kenyan Case\u2019, Journal of Global Initiatives, Vol.2 No.2, 2007, pp.113-129, pp.113-114"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-con01a","title":"","text":"Money won\u2019t go to where it is needed most.  Aid goes where it is needed, remittances don\u2019t. Development aid is able to be focused on those who need it most, the poorest, those who are unable to grow their own crops etc. Sub-Saharan Africa gets $28bln in ODA or 20.9% of aid [1] whereas only $60bln or 11.5% of remittances goes to Africa. [2] Clearly therefore Africa would be proportionally losing out. It is notable that it is middle income countries that get most remittances, the per capital level of remittances received tends to increase until that country has an income of about $2200 before falling back. [3]  There would be a similar problem with directing aid within nations. Remittances will go to the family of the person who is sending the money regardless of whether they really need this extra money. It is likely that many of the very poorest will be those who do not have family members who have been able to migrate for work and send back money, these people would be left in a much worse position without ODA.  [1] \u2018Development: Aid to developing countries falls because of global recession\u2019, OECD  [2] \u2018African Migrants Could Save US$4 Billion Annually On Remittance Fees, Finds World Bank\u2019, The World Bank, 28 January 2013  [3] Julca, Alex, \u2018Can remittances support development finance in developing countries?\u2019 un.org, 2012, p.11"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeghwrar-con02b","title":"","text":"This is to ignore the influence of remittances on the market. Of course ODA may build a school, but it is just as likely to make something that the donor country believes the recipient needs when it does not in fact need that investment. Money being sent home and then invested in an individual\u2019s information will help signal to the market that there is greater need for educational facilities and so someone will build a school when there is enough demand."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-pro02b","title":"","text":"Employers\u2019 reluctance to hire older staff and attempts to remove aging staff from payrolls can both be addressed more efficiently via the free market.  It is true that employer-provided pension plans are beginning to falter under the burden of an increasingly long-lived work force. However, this only serves to illustrate the flaws in employee benefit schemes of this type.  The state should not attempt to prop up a method of social welfare provision that is clearly ill suited to current trends in the labour market. Long term employment with particular firms, and especially jobs-for-life, are dwindling.  If individual workers were incentivised or obliged to obtain their own health insurance, and to set up their own pension plans, the burden of doing so would be shifted away from employers. Demand and consumer preference would dictate the price at which these services were delivered, reducing the overall cost of obtaining health insurance or paying into a pension pot.  Employers would no longer be required to assess potential employees in terms of the sums of money they are likely to draw from health insurance and pension funds. Businesses could once again focus on selecting new employees by merit.  Under the status quo, the increasing inaccessibility of employer-led pension schemes has left young adults stranded in a pension market where lack of demand has led to individual retirement plans becoming massively over-priced. Under the resolution, although the financial burden presented by a corporate pension scheme would be more predictable, it would still impact massively on businesses\u2019 profits and artificially restrict the size of the pensions market.  Rather than bear the transaction costs inherent in continual renegotiation of pension schemes and employee benefit plans, rather than accept that worries about healthcare and pension liabilities will cause employers to avoid employing older people, side proposition should trust that the market will be as competent at providing fairly priced pensions as it is at providing fairly priced commodities."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-pro02a","title":"","text":"Maintaining access to pension and healthcare plans  Creating a mandatory retirement age ensures that businesses will be able to maintain employees\u2019 pension plans and healthcare schemes.  In many liberal democracies that operate without centralised, government sponsored welfare systems, the support provided by employers\u2019 insurance systems is the only means of obtaining hospital care or a retirement income for a large number of working age individuals.  Many firms also offer so-called defined benefit pension plans to their workers. Pensions of this type guarantee that a worker will receive a certain, regular level of income on retirement \u2013 an amount calculated according to a fixed formula that takes account of an employee\u2019s salary and the length of their service with a company.  As the Ford motor company attempted to do in 2010, many firms will attempt to remove older employees who show no desire to retire of their own volition. The older an employee is at the point of retirement, the more money- under a defined benefit plan- a firm will have to pay out in the form of pension contributions.  Further, as individuals age they will represent more of a risk in terms of healthcare liabilities. As an individual ages, the likelihood that she will develop chronic diseases such as cancer increases. The greater the aggregate age of a company\u2019s workforce, the more likely it is that the company will, at some point, have to cover the costs of treating a serious illness.  Two specific harms result from this situation. First, employers will become reluctant to hire older individuals, aware of the increased risk that their productivity may be affected by an illness that will be treated at their firm\u2019s expense. Second, as employees age, their retirement settlements will constitute an ever increasing burden on their employer. Life spans across the western world are collectively increasing. The longer an employee remains in work, the larger their pension, the greater the liability they represent to a business.  As a consequence, between the cost of maintaining a previous generation\u2019s pension settlements and the cost of treating the afflictions of longer-lived workers, it is highly likely that some employee support schemes will collapse. Other schemes, as has occurred in many UK businesses, will be closed off to new employees. Either way, the obstacle presented by an aging workforce will deny a younger generation the chance to benefit from schemes and subsidies that their employer provided to their fathers and grandfathers."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-pro01a","title":"","text":"Dismantling gerontocracies  A mandatory retirement age creates increased opportunities for younger workers, especially in higher ranking jobs.  There is no need to apply a universal retirement age will across every sector of the economy. Different retirement ages can reflect the differing demands of particular jobs. The job performance of fighter pilots or surgeons may suffer as a result of the creeping debility uniformly associated with aging \u2013 a process known as senescence. Individuals in these occupations are usually compelled to retire earlier than the general population.  However, there is one factor that justifies both collective adjustment of existing mandatory retirement ages, and the imposition of mandatory retirement ages on jobs that do not become significantly harder or riskier as workers age. The absence of mandatory retirement may create gerontocracies \u2013 businesses that promote employees according to their seniority. The leadership of gerontocratic businesses and organisations are usually dominated by older individuals [i] .  Where retirement ages are high, or a culture of absolute deference to seniority is entrenched- as in Japan- a gerontocracy can emerge. An aging class of executives and directors can engage in patrimonial practices that ensure only other, older workers are able to access senior management positions. This has the effect of suppressing pay rates among younger employees and discouraging innovation and independent thought [ii] . After all, why would a young employee engage in the extra labour and learning necessary to solve intractable problems or develop new products if they will gain no recognition for their efforts?  Requiring skilled or semi-skilled workers to retire at a particular age will also assist in reducing unemployment figures among the young. Retirees will vacate jobs for individuals who are approaching an age where financial independence and building a family become significant life-objectives. This approach is also economically efficient \u2013 it makes more sense for the state to pay out on a larger number of pensions- supported by private pension schemes- than to support the young unemployed. If young adults miss opportunities to build careers for themselves, or to become established in a particular trade, the costs associated with joining the labour force begin to rise. Skill sets decay or become outmoded; lack of personal funds reduces workers\u2019 mobility. Thus, it can prove costly for the state to facilitate entry into the labour market for the chronically unemployed. The resolution is necessary for the long-term health of the workforce as a whole.  [i] \u201cPoorer, yes. But by how much?\u201d The Economist, 09 January 2003.   [ii] \u201cCorporate governance in Japan: Bring it on.\u201d The Economist, 29 May 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is justifiable, in the interests of public safety and the reputation of key professions, to compel individuals to retire from jobs that are dependent on high levels of physical or mental health. However, proposition\u2019s attempt to depart from the status quo is deeply flawed. The proposition side seem to be presenting an argument in favour of a better regulated wage market and a better constructed corpus of employment law. Neither of these flaws in the status quo would be adequately addressed by the resolution. Moreover, forcibly excluding older individuals from the labour market could harm productivity of the state\u2019s economy by increasing the time and cost of training new workers, and reducing the breadth of skills and expertise available to employers.  Japan is frequently cited as an example of the harm that a \u201cseniority-wage system\u201d can do to both corporate accountability and innovation. The flaws of this approach to remuneration are not causally linked to the age of the individuals that a firm chooses to employ, but to a widespread refusal to assess their productivity and suitability for promotion according to other criteria. As a report published in the Economist notes, the Japanese gerontocracy \u201chas few legal underpinnings; rather, it has to do with culture and tradition. A few business leaders have condemned it, but\u2026 politicians have largely kept [silent].\u201d [i]  A full merit based system of pay and promotion would allow older employees to continue to participate, without having to permanently bar them from the workforce. This approach would resemble the status quo to a degree. Employees would be sought according their ability to fulfil the specific needs of the employer; irrespective of their age, the ability of an employee to successfully and efficiently carry out tasks assigned to her would be basic the indicator used to make decisions on pay and promotion.  Even where age and seniority assume a wider, more ingrained cultural significance, as in Italy and Japan, it would be grossly disproportionate to address an apparent bias in favour of promoting senior citizens by excluding them from the workforce entirely.  [i] \u201cCorporate governance in Japan: Bring it on.\u201d The Economist, 29 May 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-con03b","title":"","text":"It is equally na\u00efve to assume that professional education can only be delivered effectively by an age-based hierarchy.  A more dynamic approach to the division of labour within the professions could eliminate an overreliance on seniority-led training and professional development.  For example, both the UK and the USA draw members of their respective judiciaries from the ranks of lawyers and barristers. These individuals receive relatively little formal training, with the state relying on legal professionals\u2019 prolonged contact and interaction with other judges to provide aspirant members of the judiciary with an understanding of their role and duties. Consequently, barristers and advocates may practice for decades before they are regarded as having accumulated sufficient experience to take up a place on the bench. This reduces the total number of judges able to oversee cases and, consequently, reduces the number of cases that a court system can process.  Many European jurisdictions, by contrast, do not require judges to have practiced as lawyers. Instead, specific training is offered to law students considering a career in the judiciary, in a similar fashion to the specialised training offered to medical students. Focussed education of this type, delivered by academic institutions, produces a more consistent, predictable standard of legal reasoning across the judiciary. It also enable judges to begin sitting at a younger age, ensuring that there are more judges available within the court system, thereby allowing more cases to be heard. Danute Jociene, Lithuania\u2019s judicial representative in the European Court of Human Rights was only 33 years old when appointed. Rosalie Silberman Abella, the youngest justice of the Canadian Supreme Court was 59 years old when she was admitted to the superior bench."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-con01b","title":"","text":"As stated in side proposition\u2019s first argument, the age at which retirement becomes mandatory can be flexible. The state will always be able to raise or lower the retirement age in response to demographic factors, such as the rate at which diseases of senescence begin to appear in the general population. Spain [i] and France [ii] have already passed laws raising the age at which individuals can qualify for a state pension. Proposition side\u2019s arguments do not run contrary to this type of action.  If the general fitness, wellbeing and life expectancy of the population increases, the age of retirement can be raised in response. An increase in the retirement age can be made relative to a population\u2019s average lifespan.  If an adult\u2019s working life is extended, then the amount of time that they spend paying tax will also be extended. This increase in tax income will offset some of the financial burden associated with an increasingly long-lived population. Moreover, as opposition point out, advances in treatments for diseases linked to senescence have effectively reduced the amount of time that individuals reaching the ends of their lives will spend as dependents.  The late entry into the labour market of many young adults can be blamed on an ill-advised attempt by the UK and other European states, to use universities to deliver courses unsuited to being taught in a free-form academic context. Many subjects, especially those based on engineering, mechanics and construction require immediate engagement with real-world Apprenticeships and training schemes that emphasise placements within industry and hands-on teaching of core skills will do more to address the needs of the young adult work force than current forms of post-eighteen education. Concerns raised by both state and industry about late entry into the work force can be adequately addressed by bringing the world of work into the classroom at a much earlier stage.  [i] \u201cSpain to raise retirement age to 67.\u201d The New York Times, 27 January 2011.   [ii] \u201cPension rallies hit French cities.\u201d BBC News online, 7 September 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-con02a","title":"","text":"Maintain the diversity of the labour market  Compelling retirement at a set age reduces the diversity of the labour market. The advantages of employing older workers are increasingly being recognised. Higher levels of experience, training and education make for a more adept, reliable employee and lower training costs. Loyalty is increasingly becoming a characteristic of older workers; a well-known study conducted by Warwick University in 1989 observed the effect of staffing a branch of a large British retailer exclusively with individuals aged fifty or over. The study\u2019s supervisors noted that staff turnover at the store was six times lower than- accounting for statistical controls- than the study\u2019s chosen comparator. Profits, meanwhile, increased by 18% and the store staff were found to have a much wider skill base than average. [i]  These trends are a marked contrast to the behaviours that are coming to dominate the rest of the working age population. Indeed, given the increasing uptake of university degrees and other forms of higher education, it is now the case that many young Europeans are entering the labour market later than their parents and grandparents. This imbalance at the entry point to the labour market is easily corrected by avoiding any form of compulsory retirement age. However, the resolution would inhibit this process of automatic adjustment, restricting the age range from which new workers can be drawn and restricting the total pool of workers available to the economy.  It cannot be denied that there are advantages to employing younger workers. However, businesses will function more efficiently if they are able to choose, on an open labour market free of artificial restriction, the right hire for the right job. Under certain circumstances, this may mean a young graduate, familiar with information technology and with greater geographic flexibility. Under other circumstances, it may mean seeking out a more experience, older worker and making arrangements to allow for part time working while he cares for grandchildren, addresses reduced mobility or simply enjoys the freedom that comes with being able to afford to work less. Both classes of employee are suited to differing tasks and needs within contemporary businesses.  [i] \u201cB&Q, Ireland: Comprehensive approach\u2019, Eurofound, 28 March 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-con03a","title":"","text":"Professional roles and professional knowledge  It is na\u00efve to assume- as side proposition do in their opening argument- that standards of innovation, knowledge and insight will improve within a business simply because it is compelled to hire younger workers. This is especially true of the professions \u2013 jobs and businesses that service pressing social needs tightly regulate the knowledge and conduct of their members and, typically, require them to continually maintain, revise and update their knowledge and skills.  In many professional roles expertise and mastery of the skills underlying the job itself take an unavoidably long time to achieve. Judges in the UK have to have held legal qualifications for five to seven years, [i] consulting physicians for which it takes twelve years to get the relevant qualifications and training, [ii] architects and master craftsmen are all as much a product of experience and practice as they are education and investment. Implicit in the cost advantage of hiring a young professional is the knowledge that they will have to work under the supervision and tutelage of older colleagues for most of their lives. Professionals are also a product of knowledge sharing and mentorship.  Put simply, arbitrarily using age to exclude older professionals from their fields of expertise will have a material impact upon the training and development of younger professionals. Western liberal democracies\u2019 professional classes are based partly on communitarian principles of a carefully curated shared culture. Removing senior practitioners in law, medicine and civil administration severs a link with the collective knowledge of that professional culture \u2013 a link that cannot easily be replicated in the classroom environment.  [i] \u201cBecoming a Judge\u201d, Judiciary of England and Wales,   [ii] \u201cThe length of training involved in becoming a doctor\u201d, Medical Careers,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-con01a","title":"","text":"Western workers are remaining healthier for longer  The populations of almost all wealthy western liberal democracies are aging. Quite simply, individual citizens are living longer. Throughout the EU the number of individuals of working age is likely to drop from the 2010 figure of 305m to 286m in 2030. Concurrently, the number of EU citizens aged over 65 will rise to 142m [i] . Compelling retirement simply increases the economic burden that pensioners place on the state. An aging population increases the ratio of dependent individuals to working individuals within a state. A mandatory retirement age is an arbitrary and unnecessary measure which exacerbates this problem.  The resolution also fails to take account of the fact that life expectancies throughout most of the western world are rising. The life expectancy of a 65 year old American male is now 17.52 years. The life expectancy of a 70 Japanese female has reached 19 years [ii] . Advances and health care and improvements in living standards have extended the average male life span in some areas of the world to 83. As citizens grow ever older, their dependence on their families and on the state for medical care and economic support grows too. Although this observation might seem to go against side opposition\u2019s case, it should be pointed out that the same advances in medical care that extend our life spans also extend our productive lives. [iii]  We may live longer, but improvements in diagnosis and treatment for diseases of aging mean that we stay can healthier for longer. This being the case, mandatory retirement would only serve to expropriate the labour of otherwise active, productive members of society. It would create a class of financial dependents (\u201cyoung\u201d retirees in their sixties), with no means of securing themselves against the physical and medical dependence that characterises senescence.  Increasing the age at which retirement becomes mandatory will not adequately offset these dual phenomena. As has been seen in Greece, Spain and France, an attempt to alter an entrenched retirement age- even if it is not linked to mandatory retirement- can provoke substantial opposition among youth and labour movements [iv] . These groups are likely to see such a move as a direct political attack, and will respond accordingly. Secondly, demographers\u2019 predictions about the future habits, health and behaviour of a population are infamously broad and inaccurate.  In short, an upward trend in human life spans correlates strongly with a downward trend in the frequency and immediacy with which older people are affected by diseases of aging. Citizens of western liberal democracies are staying healthier for longer. Requiring these otherwise productive, engaged individuals to withdraw from the work force would burden the pension system with a disproportionate number of financial dependents.  [i] \u201cSpecial report: Pensions.\u201d The Economist, 7 April 2011.   [ii] \u201cSpecial report: Pensions.\u201d The Economist, 7 April 2011.   [iii] \u201cActive and Healthy Aging \u2013 A Long-term View up to 2050\u201d, Miriam Leis, and Govert Gijsbers, European Foresight Platform, 31 January 2011,  pp.11-12  [iv] \u201cFrance burns as strike descends into violence.\u201d The Independent, 20 October 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epeshwimra-con02b","title":"","text":"Diversity within the labour market is less important than inclusiveness. States are less likely to implement schemes that will allow individuals from disadvantaged socio economic backgrounds to obtain expensive forms of vocational or higher education if those individuals will be prevented from putting their skills to use by an obstructive gerontocracy.  The existence of subsidised university places, school vouchers and government sponsored internships and apprenticeships depend on economic demand for skilled workers. Without a mandatory retirement age providing a predictable degree of attrition within a workforce, there is no guarantee that socially inclusive education policies will increase the number of young adults entering the workplace. Correspondingly, it will become increasingly unlikely that governments will be willing to continue funding inclusive education. Why should the state continue to subsidise the teaching of skills that will go unused and eventually atrophy?  Older workers are more likely to have built up pension plans, and to have substantial personal savings. It is also more probable that they will have met their mortgage liabilities (that is, they will be in full possession of their own homes) and paid off any student debt that they have incurred. In general, older workers will suffer little if they are compelled to leave the workforce at a certain age. We can contrast this situation with that of younger workers who, if they are excluded for the work place due to a lack of demand for fresh labour, will be unable to build up the assets and capital that will provide them with a safety net and a comfortable standard of living later in life.  The efficient operation of businesses must be balanced against the financial freedom and quality of life of a state\u2019s citizens."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro02b","title":"","text":"Nobel Laureate economist Paul Krugman. Argued in 2004 that: \u201cSocial Security is a government program that works, a demonstration that a modest amount of taxing and spending can make people's lives better and more secure. And that's why the right wants to destroy it.\" [1] The problem with Social Security is not that it does not work, nor that it fails the poor. Rather, as Krugman notes, social security uses limited taxation to implement a clear and successful vision of social justice. As a consequence, the social security system has been repeatedly attacked by right wing and libertarian politicians. Such attacks are not motivated by the merits or failure of the social security system itself, but by political ambition and a desire to forcefully implement alternative normative schema within society.  Privatizing Social Security would require costly new government bureaucracies. From the standpoint of the system as a whole, privatization would add enormous administrative burdens \u2013 and costs. The government would need to establish and track many small accounts, perhaps as many accounts as there are taxpaying workers\u2014157 million in 2010. [2] Often these accounts would be too small so that profit making firms would be unwilling to take them on. There would need to be thousands of workers to manage these accounts. In contrast, today\u2019s Social Security has minimal administrative costs amounting to less than 1 per cent of annual revenues. [3]  It is also unlikely that individuals will be able to invest successfully on their own, although they may believe they can, leading to a great number of retirees actually being worse off after privatization.  [1] Paul Krugman. \"Inventing a crisis.\" New York Times. 7 December 2004.   [2] Wihbey, John, \u20182011 Annual Report by the Social Security Board of Trustees\u2019, Journalist\u2019s Resource, 9 June 2011,   [3] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro02a","title":"","text":"Privatising social security will increase the amount of money that reitrees can draw on  Private accounts would provide retirees with a higher rate of return on investments. [1] Privatization would give investment decisions to account holders. This does not mean that Social Security money for the under 55\u2019s would go to Wall Street.. This could be left to the individual's discretion. Potentially this could include government funds. But with government\u2019s record of mismanagement, and a $14 trillion deficit, it seems unlikely that many people would join that choice. [2]  As Andrew Roth argues, \"Democrats will say supporters of personal accounts will allow people's fragile retirement plans to be subjected to the whims of the stock market, but that's just more demagoguery. First, personal accounts would be voluntary. If you like the current system (the one that [can be raided by] politicians), you can stay put and be subjected to decreasingly low returns as Social Security goes bankrupt. But if you want your money protected from politicians and have the opportunity to invest in the same financial assets that politicians invest in their own retirement plans (most are well-diversified long term funds), then you should have that option.\" [3  Social Security privatization would actually help the economically marginalised in two ways. Firstly, by ending the harm social security currently does; Those at the poverty level need every cent just to survive. Even those in the lower-middle class don\u2019t money to put into a wealth-generating retirement account. They have to rely on social security income to pay the bills when they reach retirement. Unfortunately, current social security pay-outs are at or below the poverty level. The money earned in benefits based on a retiree\u2019s contributions during their working life is less than the return on a passbook savings account. [4]  Secondly, these same groups would be amongst the biggest 'winners' from privatization. By providing a much higher rate of return, privatization would raise the incomes of those elderly retirees who are most in need.  The current system contains many inequities that leave the poor at a disadvantage. For instance, the low-income elderly are most likely to be dependent on Social Security benefits for most or all of their retirement income. But despite a progressive benefit structure, Social Security benefits are inadequate for the elderly poor's retirement needs. [5]  Privatizing Social Security would improve individual liberty. Privatization would give all Americans the opportunity to participate in the economy through investments. Everyone would become capitalists and stock owners reducing the division of labour and capital and restoring the ownership that was the initial foundation of the American dream. [6]  Moreover, privatized accounts would be transferable within families, which current Social Security accounts are not. These privatized accounts would be personal assets, much like a house or a 401k account. On death, privatised social security accounts could pass to an individual\u2019s heirs. With the current system, this cannot be done. Workers who have spent their lives paying withholding taxes are, in effect, denied a proprietary claim over money that, by rights, belongs to them. [7]  This would make privatization a progressive move. Because the wealthy generally live longer than the poor, they receive a higher total of Social Security payments over the course of their lifetimes. This would be evened out if remaining benefits could be passed on. [8] Privatizing Social Security increases personal choice and gives people control over what they paid and thus are entitled to. Overall, therefore, privatizing Social Security would increase the amount of money that marginalised retirees receive and would give all retirees more freedom to invest and distribute social security payments.  [1] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996.   [2] Roth, Andrew. \"Privatize Social Security? Hell Yeah!\". Club for Growth.21 September 21 2010.   [3] Roth, Andrew. \"Privatize Social Security? Hell Yeah!\". Club for Growth.21 September 21 2010.   [4] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996.   [5] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996.   [6] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996.   [7] Roth, Andrew. \"Privatize Social Security? Hell Yeah!\". Club for Growth.21 September 21 2010.   [8] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro03b","title":"","text":"Social Security is not in crisis and there is no need for privatization. Social Security is completely solvent today, and will be into the future because it has a dedicated income stream that covers its costs and consistently generates a surplus, which today is $2.5 trillion.  Proposition\u2019s dire prediction of the collapse of social security\u2019s financial situation is misleading. The Social Security surplus will grow to approximately $4.3 trillion in 2023, and that reserves will be sufficient to pay full benefits through to 2037. Even after this it would still be able to pay 78%. Moreover, there are plenty of ways to reform Social Security to make it more fiscally sound without privatizing it, including simply raising taxes to fund it better. [1]  Furthermore the problem that affects social security of falling numbers of contributors to each retiree will also affect private pensions, at least in the short to medium term, just in a different way. If all younger pensioners went over to just paying for their own future retirement who is to pay for current retirees or those who are shortly to retire. These people will still need to have their pensions paid for. They will not have time to save up a personal pension and so will be relying on current workers \u2013 but such workers will not want to pay more when they are explicitly just paying for someone else as they are already paying for themselves separately.  [1] Roosevelt, James.\"Social Security at 75: Crisis Is More Myth Than Fact.\" Huffington Post. 11 August 11 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro01a","title":"","text":"Privatising social security would improve economic growth  Privatizing social security would enable investment of savings. Commentator Alex Schibuola argues that: \"If Social Security were privatized, people would deposit their income with a bank. People actually save resources that businesses can invest. We, as true savers, get more resources in the future.\" [1] As a result private accounts would also increase investments, jobs and wages. Michael Tanner of the think tank the Cato Institute argues: \"Social Security drains capital from the poorest areas of the country, leaving less money available for new investment and job creation. Privatization would increase national savings and provide a new pool of capital for investment that would be particularly beneficial to the poor.\" [2]  Currently Social Security represents a net loss for taxpayers and beneficiaries. Social Security, although key to the restructuring the of USA\u2019s social contract following the great depression, represents a bad deal for the post-war American economy. Moreover, this deal has gotten worse over time. 'Baby boomers' are projected to lose roughly 5 cents of every dollar they earn to the OASI program in taxes net of benefits. Young adults who came of age in the early 1990s and today's children are on course to lose over 7 cents of every dollar they earn in net taxes. If OASI taxes were to be raised immediately by the amount needed to pay for OASI benefits on an on-going basis, baby boomers would forfeit 6 cents of every dollar they earn in net OASI taxes. For those born later it would be 10 cents. [3]  Change could be implemented gradually. Andrew Roth argues: \u201cWhile Americans in retirement or approaching retirement would probably stay in the current system [if Social Security were to be privatized], younger workers should have the option to invest a portion of their money in financial assets other than U.S. Treasuries. These accounts would be the ultimate \"lock box\" - they would prevent politicians in Washington from raiding the Trust Fund. The truth is that taxpayers bail out politicians every year thanks to Social Security. Congress and the White House spend more money than they have, so they steal money from Social Security to help pay for it. That needs to stop and there is no responsible way of doing that except with personal accounts.\u201d [4] This would make social security much more sustainable as there would no longer be the risk of the money being spent elsewhere.  Put simply, privatizing Social Security would actually boost economic growth and lead to better-protected investments by beneficiaries, benefiting not only themselves but the nation at large. Thus Social Security should be privatized.  [1] Schibuola, Alex. \"Time to Privatize? The Economics of Social Security.\" Open Markets. 16 November 2010.   [2] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996.   [3] Kotlikoff, Lawrence. \"Privatizing social security the right way\". Testimony to the Committee on Ways and Means. 3 June 3 1998.   [4] Roth, Andrew. \"Privatize Social Security? Hell Yeah!\". Club for Growth.21 September 21 2010.  ?"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro01b","title":"","text":"Privatizing Social Security would harm economic growth, not help it. Privatization during the current economic crisis would have been disaster, and so doing it now is a risk for any upcoming or future crisis. Privatization in the midst of the greatest economic downturn since the Great Depression would have caused households to have lost even more of their assets, had their investments been invested in the U.S. stock market or in funds exposed to complicated and high risk financial instruments.  Privatizing social security might therefore increase economic growth in the boom times but this would be at the expense of sharper downturns. Proposition\u2019s argument implicitly assumes that the money at the moment does not improve economic growth. On the contrary the government is regularly investing the money in much the same way as private business would \u2013 and often on much more long term projects such as infrastructure that fit better with a long term saving than the way that banks invest."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro03a","title":"","text":"The social security system is unsustainable in the status quo  Social Security is in Crisis. Social Security in the United States, as in most western liberal democracies, is a pay-as-you-go system and has always been so. As such, it is an intergenerational wealth transfer. The solvency of the system therefore relies on favourable demographics; particularly birth rate and longevity. In the United States the birth rate when Social Security was created was 2.3 children per woman but had risen to 3.0 by 1950. Today it is 2.06. The average life expectancy in 1935 was 63 and today it is 75. While this may be representative of an improvement in quality-of-life for many Americans, these demographic changes also indicate the increasing burden that social security systems are being put under. [1]  As a result of changing demographic factors, the number of workers paying Social Security payroll taxes has gone from 16 for every retiree in 1950 to just 3.3 in 1997. This ration will continue to decline to just 2 to 1 by 2025. This has meant the tax has been increased thirty times in sixty-two years to compensate. Originally it was just 2 percent on a maximum taxable income of $300, now it is 12.4 percent of a maximum income of $65,400. This will have to be raised to 18 percent to pay for all promised current benefits, and if Medicare is included the tax will have to go to nearly 28 percent. [2]  Social Security is an unsuitable approach to protecting the welfare of a retiring workforce. The social security system as it stands is unsustainable, and will place an excessive tax burden on the current working population of the USA, who will be expected to pay for the impending retirement of almost 70 million members of the \u201cbaby boomer\u201d generation. This crisis is likely to begin in 2016 when- according to experts- more money will be paid out by the federal government in social security benefits than it will receive in payroll taxes. [3]  In many ways Social Security has now just become a giant ponzi scheme. As the Cato Institute has argued: \u201cJust like Ponzi's plan, Social Security does not make any real investments -- it just takes money from later 'investors' or taxpayers, to pay benefits to the scheme\u2019s earlier, now retired, entrants. Like Ponzi, Social Security will not be able to recruit new \"investors\" fast enough to continue paying promised benefits to previous investors. Because each year there are fewer young workers relative to the number of retirees, Social Security will eventually collapse, just like Ponzi's scheme.\u201d [4]  Faced with this impending crisis, privatizing is at worst the best of the 'bad' options. It provides an opportunity to make the system sustainable and to make it fair to all generations by having everyone pay for their own retirement rather than someone else\u2019s. [5]  [1] Crane, Edward. \"The Case for Privatizing America's Social Security System.\" CATO Institute. 10 December 1997.   [2] Crane, Edward. \"The Case for Privatizing America's Social Security System.\" CATO Institute. 10 December 1997.   [3] San Diego Union Tribune. \"Privatizing Social Security Still a Good Idea.\" San Diego Union Tribune.   [4] Cato Institute. \u201cWhy is Social Security often called a Ponzi scheme?\u201d. Cato Institute. 11 May 1999.  ;  [5] Kotlikoff, Lawrence. \"Privatizing social security the right way\". Testimony to the Committee on Ways and Means. 3 June 3 1998."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con03b","title":"","text":"The American people do not oppose privatization -in fact, most support it. A 2010 poll showed overwhelming support for personal accounts. Republican voters support it 65-21, but even Democrat voters like it, 50-36. [1] A poll commissioned by the Cato Institute through the prestigious Public Opinion Strategies polling company showed that 69 percent of Americans favored switching from the pay-as-you-go system to a fully funded, individually capitalized system. Only 11 percent said they opposed the idea. [2] A 1994 Luntz Research poll found that 82 percent of American adults under the age of 35 favored having at least a portion of their payroll taxes invested instead in stocks and bonds. In fact, among the so-called Generation Xers in America, by a margin of two-to-one they think they are more likely to encounter a UFO in their lifetime than they are to ever receive a single Social Security check.  Even more remarkable, perhaps, was a poll taken in 1997 by White House pollster Mark Penn for the Democratic Leadership Council, a group of moderate Democrats with whom President Clinton was affiliated prior to his election. That poll found that 73 percent of Democrats favor being allowed to invest some or all their payroll tax in private accounts. [3] Moreover, the 'alternatives liks raising taxes and reducing benefits are merely kicking the problem further down the road but it will still become a problem at some point. At the same time either raising taxes or reducing benefits would be unfair \u2013 raising taxes because it would mean today\u2019s generation of workers paying more than their parents for the same benefit and cutting benefits because it would mean that retirees would be getting less out than they were promised.'  The alternatives would also be particularly devastating for the poor. Individuals who are hired pay the cost of the so-called employer's share of the payroll tax through reduced wages. Therefore, an increase in the payroll tax would result in less money in workers' going to workers. It is also important to remember that the payroll tax is an extremely regressive tax. Likewise a reduction in benefits would disproportionately hurt the poor since they are more likely than the wealthy to be dependent on Social Security benefits. [4]  [1] Roth, Andrew. \"Privatize Social Security? Hell Yeah!\". Club for Growth.21 September 21 2010.   [2] Crane, Edward. \"The Case for Privatizing America's Social Security System.\" CATO Institute. 10 December 1997.   [3] Crane, Edward. \"The Case for Privatizing America's Social Security System.\" CATO Institute. 10 December 1997.   [4] Tanner, Michael. \"Privatizing Social Security: A Big Boost for the Poor.\" CATO. 26 July 1996."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con01b","title":"","text":"Most of these arguments can be undercut by noting that the privatization of Social Security accounts would be voluntary, and thus anyone who believed the argument that the government invests better would be free to leave their account as it is, unchanged.  Those who believe they can do a better job of investing and managing their money on their own should be given the freedom to do so. In this respect it is important to remember the origin of the money in these accounts: it has been paid in by the individuals themselves. As James Roosevelt (CEO of the health insurance firm Tufts Health Plan) notes: \" Those \u2018baby boomers\u2019 who are going to bust Social Security when they retire? They have been paying into the system for more than 40 years, generating the large surplus the program has accumulated. Much of the money that baby boomers are and will be drawing on from Social Security, is, and will be, their own.\u201d [1] As it is their money which they have paid in in the first place, members of the baby boomer generation should have a right to choose how they invest \u2013it. If that means choosing to go private and pursue riskier investments, so be it. The money paid out by the social security system belongs to those who paid it in, and the government should not deprive taxpayers from exercising free choice over the uses to which their money is put. Moreover, none of the other arguments adduced by side opposition do anything to address the ways in which Social Security currently harms the poor, the redressing of which alone justifies privatizing Social Security.  [1] Roosevelt, James.\"Social Security at 75: Crisis Is More Myth Than Fact.\" Huffington Post. 11 August 11 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con02a","title":"","text":"Privatising the social security system would harm economic growth  Creating private accounts could have an impact on economic growth, which in turn would hit social security's future finances. Economic growth could be hit as privatizing Social Security will increase federal deficits and as a result debt significantly, while increasing the likelihood that national savings will decline which will happen as baby boomers retire anyway and draw down their savings.  An analysis by the Centre on Budget and Policy Priorities shows that the proposed privatization by Obama would add $1 trillion in new federal debt in its first decade of implementation, and a further $3.5 trillion in the following decade. [1] Because households change their saving and spending levels in response to economic conditions privatization is actually more likely to reduce than increase national savings. This is because households that consider the new accounts to constitute meaningful increases in their retirement wealth might well reduce their other saving. Diamond and Orszag argue, 'If anything, our impression is that diverting a portion of the current Social Security surplus into individual accounts could reduce national saving.' That, in turn, would further weaken economic growth and our capacity to pay for the retirement of the baby boomers.\" [2]  The deficit, and as a result national debt, would increase because trillions of dollars which had previously been paying for current retirees would be taken out of the system to be invested privately. Those who are already retired will however still need to draw a pension so the government would need to borrow the money to be able to pay for these pensions. [3]  Contrary to side proposition\u2019s assertions, privatization also would not increase capital available for investment. Proponents of privatization claim that the flow of dollars into private accounts and then into the equity markets will stimulate the economy. However, as the social security system underwent the transition into private ownership, each dollar invested in a financial instrument via the proprietary freedoms afforded to account holders, would result in the government borrowing a dollar to cover pay outs to those currently drawing from the social security system.  Thus, the supposed benefit of a privatised social security system is entirely eliminated by increased government borrowing, as the net impact on the capital available for investment is zero. [4]  While four fifths of tax dollars for social security is spent immediately the final fifth purchases Treasury securities through trust funds. Privatization would hasten depletion of these funds. President Bush proposed diverting up to 4 percentage points of payroll tax to create the private accounts but with payroll currently 12.4% this would still be significantly more than the one fifth that is currently left over so depleting reserves. Funds now being set aside to build up the Trust Funds to provide for retiring baby boomers would be being used instead to pay for the privatization accounts. The Trust Funds would be exhausted much sooner than the thirty-eight to forty-eight years projected if nothing is done. In such a short time frame, the investments in the personal accounts will not be nearly large enough to provide an adequate cushion. [5]  [1] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005.   [2] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005.   [3] Spitzer, Elliot. \"Can we finally kill this terrible idea?\" Slate. 4 February 2009.   [4] Spitzer, Elliot. \"Can we finally kill this terrible idea?\" Slate. 4 February 2009.   [5] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con03a","title":"","text":"The problems with the social security are systemic, not inherent  Social security is currently solvent and will be into the future due to its dedicated income stream that consistently generates a surplus, which today is $2.5 trillion. This surplus will even grow to approximately $4.3 trillion in 2023, It is only after 2037 when there will begin to be a deficit.(11)  Side opposition will concede that there is a long-run financing problem, but it is a problem of modest size. There would only need to be revenues equal to 0.54% of GDP to extend the life of the social security trust fund into the 22nd century, with no change in benefits. This is only about one-quarter of the revenue lost each year because of President Bush's tax cuts. [1]  Budget shortfalls- of the sort that side proposition\u2019s case is based on- Nobel Laureate economist Paul Krugman argues: \" has much more to do with tax cuts - cuts that Mr. Bush nonetheless insists on making permanent - than it does with Social Security. But since the politics of privatization depend on convincing the public that there is a Social Security crisis, the privatizers have done their best to invent one.\" [2]  Krugman goes on to argue against the twisted logic of privatization: \u201cMy favorite example of their three-card-monte logic goes like this: first, they insist that the Social Security system's current surplus and the trust fund it has been accumulating with that surplus are meaningless. Social Security, they say, isn't really an independent entity - it's just part of the federal government\u2026 the same people who claim that Social Security isn't an independent entity when it runs surpluses also insist that late next decade, when the benefit payments start to exceed the payroll tax receipts, this will represent a crisis - you see, Social Security has its own dedicated financing, and therefore must stand on its own. There's no honest way anyone can hold both these positions, but very little about the privatizers' position is honest. They come to bury Social Security, not to save it. They aren't sincerely concerned about the possibility that the system will someday fail; they're disturbed by the system's historic success.\u201d [3]  There are many other ways to improve and reform Social Security without privatizing it. Robert L. Clark, an economist at North Carolina State University who specializes in aging issues, formerly served as a chairman of a national panel on Social Security's financial status; he has said that future options for Social Security are clear: \"You either raise taxes or you cut benefits. There are lots of ways to do both.\" These alternatives are also backed by the American people. The American people, despite voting for Republicans, have said over and over in polls that they would pay more in taxes to save entitlements such as Social Security. [4] Therefore Social Security is not fundamentally unsound, and alternative reforms should be made without privatizations.  [1] Paul Krugman. \"Inventing a crisis.\" New York Times. 7 December 2004.   [2] Paul Krugman. \"Inventing a crisis.\" New York Times. 7 December 2004.   [3] Paul Krugman. \"Inventing a crisis.\" New York Times. 7 December 2004.   [4] Dick, Stephen. \"Op-Ed: Yes, leave Social Security alone.\" CNHI News Service. 19 November 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con01a","title":"","text":"Privatising social security will harm retirees  As Greg Anrig and Bernard Wasow of the non-partisan think tank the Century Foundation argue: \"Privatization advocates like to stress the appeal of 'individual choice' and 'personal control,' while assuming in their forecasts that everyone\u2019s accounts will match the overall performance of the stock market. But\u2026 research by Princeton University economist Burton G. Malkiel found that even professional money managers over time significantly underperformed indexes of the entire market.\u201d [1] Most people don\u2019t have the knowledge to manage their own investments. A Securities and Exchange Commission report showed the extent of financial illiteracy for example half of adults don\u2019t know what a stock market is, half don\u2019t understand the purpose of diversifying investments and 45% believe it provides \u201ca guarantee that [their] portfolio won\u2019t suffer if the stock market falls\u201d [2] Including all the management costs it is safe to say that growth from individual accounts will be lower than the market average.  The private sector is therefore in no better a position to make investment decisions than the state. Privatised accounts would bring their own problems. They are vulnerable to market downturns. Despite crashes the long term return from shares has always been positive. But this does not help those that hit retirement age during a period when the stock market is down. With private pensions people would be relying on luck that they retire at the right time or happened to pick winning stocks. [3]  The economist Paul Krugman has pointed out, privatizers make incredible assumptions about the likely performance of the market in order to be able to justify their claim that private accounts would outdo the current system. The price-earnings ratio would need to be around 70 to 1 by 2050. This is unrealistic and would be an immense bubble as a P\/E ratio of 20 to 1 is considered more normal today. [4]  If returns are low then there the added worry that privatized social security may not beat inflation. This would mean that retiree\u2019s pensions become worth less and less. At the moment Social Security payouts are indexed to wages, which historically have exceeded inflation so providing protection. Privatizing social security would have a big impact on those who want to remain in the system through falling tax revenues. Implementing private accounts will take 4 per-cent of the 12.4 per-cent taken from each worker\u2019s annual pay out of the collective fund. Thus, almost a 3rd of the revenue generated by social security taxes will be removed. Drastic benefit cuts or increased taxes will have to occur even sooner, which is a recipe for disaster. [5]  It is for reasons such as these that privatization of similar social security systems has disappointed elsewhere, as Anrig and Wasow argue: \"Advocates of privatization often cite other countries, such as Chile and the United Kingdom, where the governments pushed workers into personal investment accounts to reduce the long-term obligations of their Social Security systems, as models for the United States to emulate. But the sobering experiences in those countries actually provide strong arguments against privatization. A report last year from the World Bank, once an enthusiastic privatization proponent, expressed disappointment that in Chile, and in most other Latin American countries that followed in its footsteps, \u201cmore than half of all workers [are excluded] from even a semblance of a safety net during their old age.\u201d\u201d [6] Therefore privatizing Social Security would actually harm retirees and undermine the entire system, and so Social Security should not be privatized.  [1] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005.   [2] Office of Investor Education and Assistance Securities and Exchange Commission, \u2018The Facts on Saving and Investing\u2019, April 1999,  pp.16-19  [3] Spitzer, Elliot. \"Can we finally kill this terrible idea?\" Slate. 4 February 2009.   [4] Spitzer, Elliot. \"Can we finally kill this terrible idea?\" Slate. 4 February 2009.   [5] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005.   [6] Anrig, Greg and Wasow, Bernard. \"Twelve reasons why privatizing social security is a bad idea\". The Century Foundation. 14 February 2005."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con02b","title":"","text":"Privatization would increase national savings and provide a new pool of capital for investment that would be particularly beneficial to the poor. As it stands, Social Security is a net loss maker for the American taxpayer, and this situation will only continue to get worse unless privatization is enacted: those born after the baby boom will forfeit 10 cents of every dollar they earn in payments towards the up keep of the Social Security system.  By contrast, under privatization people would actually save resources that businesses can invest. As Alan Greenspan has pointed out, the economic benefits of privatization of Social Security are potentially enormous. In Chile, as Dr. Pi\u00f1era has noted, there has been real economic growth of 7 percent a year over the past decade, energized by a savings rate in excess of 20 percent. [1]  Martin Feldstein, a Harvard economist, formerly Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisors under President Reagan, estimated that the present value to the U.S. economy of investing the future cash flow of payroll taxes in real assets would be on the order of $10 to $20 trillion. That would mean a permanent, significant boost to economic growth. [2]  [1] Crane, Edward. \"The Case for Privatizing America's Social Security System.\" CATO Institute. 10 December 1997.   [2] Crane, Edward. \"The Case for Privatizing America's Social Security System.\" CATO Institute. 10 December 1997."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro02b","title":"","text":"While it is of course socially desirable that everyone be able to find gainful employment and pursue happiness, this is not accomplished even remotely by the existence of a minimum wage. In fact, it denies more people the ability to pursue happiness because the minimum wage forces unemployment up as it becomes more expensive to hire workers. The choice to work should belong to the individual, whether his decisions have an effect on the wages of others or not. Individuals can only have control of their destinies when they are not limited in the range of their potential actions, which must include the right to sell their labor at whatever rate they find acceptable, be it at some arbitrary minimum or lower."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The minimum wage provides a baseline minimum allowing people to embark freely in the pursuit of happiness  Without a minimum wage, the lowest paid members of society are relegated to effective serfdom, and their decisions of these members often force others to follow suit, accepting similarly low wages. There is no real freedom of choice for people at this lowest level of the social structure, since they must accept whatever wage is offered in order to feed themselves and their families. Their poverty and desperation for work makes it much more difficult for them to act collectively to bargain for better wages. The minimum wage frees people from this bondage and guarantees them resources with which to make meaningful choices. [1] Without resources there can be no true choice, as all choices would be coerced by necessity. Because people\u2019s choices are intrinsically interconnected, and wages tend to reflect the prevailing pressures of demand and supply, when an individual makes the choice to work for less than anyone else, he necessarily lowers the wage that others can ask, leading to a downward spiral of wages as workers undercut one another, each competing to prove he is worth the least. A minimum wage ensures workers do not harm each other through self-destructive wage competition. [2] What the minimum wage does to alleviate these problems is that it gives individuals the ability to pursue the good life, something that has become a global ideal. People want to be happy, and find that only way to obtain the resources necessary to attain comfort and security is through employment. Fundamentally, the minimum wage grants the freedom not to be exploited, giving individuals the freedom to control their own destinies.  [1] Waltman, The Politics of the Minimum Wage, 2000  [2] Hillman, Public Finance and Public Policy: Responsibilities and Limitations of Government, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Employers are not stupid. Many do see the value of higher paid workers and appreciate their harder work and dedication. That is exactly why a minimum wage is unnecessary; firms in pursuit of their own self-interest will pay workers competitive wages. Furthermore, social welfare payments will not decrease with the advent of a minimum wage since while some workers will not require income supplements from the state, the higher numbers of unemployed workers will look to the state exclusively as their source of income, raising the cost to the state and the taxpayer."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The minimum wage aids in the propagation of social justice and the fair treatment of workers  Businesses operating in a free market are concerned principally with their bottom lines. In order to increase profits, firms will seek to exploit workers, to lower wages as far as possible. This exploitation will continue indefinitely, unless the state intervenes. The state does so by implementing a minimum wage. The lowest paid workers tend to be less educated, less skilled, and less organized than higher-paid employees. This makes them the easiest to manipulate and the easiest to replace. [1] In order to stop this outright exploitation of the most vulnerable members of society, the power of wage setting must fall to some extent within the purview of the state. Certainly, it is far better for state, which has citizens\u2019 best interest at heart, to weigh in on the issue of setting wages than businesses, which tend not to care about their workers\u2019 welfare or have competing interests. Furthermore, a minimum wage sends a social signal of valuation; it affirms that all people have worth, cannot be exploited, and are owed by dint of their humanity a certain level of treatment in the workforce, i.e. a minimum wage. This is important as a means to assist the self-empowerment of the poorest members of society, by encouraging them to value themselves. Also, the minimum wage aids in promoting social justice and equality by lowering wage disparities. [2] Citizens of more equal societies tend to have more in common and can share more in the construction of societal goals and aims. This form of social justice is certainly preferable to the class divisions propagated in the absence of a minimum wage, in which a part of society is relegated to permanent wage slavery.  [1] Filion, EPI\u2019s Minimum Wage Issue Guide, 2009  [2] Waltman, The Politics of the Minimum Wage, 2000"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is no social justice in denying people the ability to work. The minimum wage serves to benefit insiders who are employed and harm outsiders who do not have jobs and cannot get them due to the dearth of jobs created by the wage laws. [1] The state may have the best interests of its citizens at heart when it institutes a minimum wage, but it accomplishes little when it leaves more of its citizens without work, and thus dependent upon the state for survival.  [1] Dorn, Minimum Wage Socialism, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro04b","title":"","text":"The incentive to enter the illicit market is actually higher when there is a minimum wage. While the relative advantage of entering the black market might be diminished for some who can enter the legitimate workforce and find employment, the higher numbers of people now unemployed would find it necessary either to seek welfare payments from the government or find alternative employment. Such employment could be readily found in the illegal market."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Higher wages boost economic growth  Employees work harder when they are paid more, but employers can often be more concerned with the short-term bottom line and will not treat workers in the lowest echelons of their firms with much consideration, viewing them instead as disposable and replaceable economic units. [1] Mandating a minimum wage can thus benefit firms, even if they do not recognize it, by making workers more productive and also fostering a general work ethic. [2] As workers feel more valued in the economic system, the more likely they are to work loyally and diligently for their employers. Furthermore, better pay means more disposable income in the hands of employees, which leads to greater demand by them for goods and services. This demand-induced economic growth is a very important part of economic growth. The more people are able to spend, the more money flows into the economy, leading to more business and higher employment. Without the minimum wage, a downward spiral of spending can ensue, proving deleterious to firms and the economy generally. Additionally, the minimum wage decreases expensive social welfare payments, since workers no longer need as many supplements to their wages from the state in order to make up for the shortfall created by too-low wages.  [1] Freeman, Minimum Wages \u2013 Again!, 1994  [2] Filion, EPI\u2019s Minimum Wage Issue Guide, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro04a","title":"","text":"The minimum wage encourages people to join the workforce rather than pursuing income through illegal channels  When wages are extremely low the incentive to enter alternative markets is increased. This is particularly harmful in the case of illegal markets, such as those for drugs or prostitution. [1] When there is little to be gained from obtaining a legitimate job, no matter how plentiful they might be in the absence of a minimum wage, they would be undesirable by comparison to potentially highly lucrative black market opportunities. The minimum wage is essential for keeping the opportunity cost of entering the black market sufficiently high that people opt always to enter the mainstream, legal market. Furthermore, when the possibility of work in the legitimate market exists, even if work is harder to find due to a minimum wage, the very possibility of getting such a job will serve as a disincentive to pursuing illegal employment.  [1] Kallem, Youth Crime and the Minimum Wage, 2004"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con03b","title":"","text":"While economies may bounce back somewhat less quickly from downturns if wages are prevented from falling beneath a set minimum, it is a worthwhile sacrifice for the sake of preventing the exploitation of workers. The minimum wage is particularly important to uphold in times of recession, since increased unemployment encourages employers to slash wages unmercifully. Such reductions can severely harm individuals and families that often suffer from reductions in real wealth as a result of recessions. Furthermore, in the case of competitiveness, companies do not make their decisions of where to locate based solely on prevailing wage rates. Rather, they value educated, socially stable populations. A minimum wage ensures that working individuals have the resources to provide for the necessities of their families and tends to promote social stability and contentment by engendering feelings of social buy-in that are absent in the presence of exploitation and meager wages. [1] Furthermore, it is not clear that the minimum wage has a significantly detrimental impact on employment. [2]  [1] Waltman, The Politics of the Minimum Wage, 2000  [2] Allegretto et al, Do Minimum Wages Really Reduce Teen Employment?, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con01b","title":"","text":"The state has an obligation to protect people from making bad decisions. Just as it tries to protect people from the harms of drugs by making them illegal, the state protects people from exploitation by setting wages at a baseline minimum. Everyone deserves a living wage, but they will not get this if there is no minimum wage. Businesses ruthlessly seeking to increase profit margins will always seek to reduce wages. This behavior is particularly harmful to those who receive the lowest wages. Upholding the right to work for any wage does not give people on the lowest wages a real choice, since it means people must work for what they are given, resulting in terrible exploitation. [1] Clearly, the minimum wage is a necessary safeguard for the protection of the weak and the vulnerable, and to guard people from unconscionable choices that an absolute right to work would force. Furthermore, the right to work does not mean much if an individual can only find employment in jobs which pay so lowly that they cannot support themselves. Thus, there is little difference between being employed below the minimum wage and being unemployed at the minimum wage. When employed, a person is no longer on unemployment statistics and the government has less pressure to act. When unemployed, they have the incentive and time to campaign for government action.  [1] Waltman, The Politics of the Minimum Wage, 2000"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con02a","title":"","text":"Individuals gain a sense of dignity from employment, as well as develop human capital, that can be denied them by a minimum wage  The ability to provide for oneself, to not be dependent on handouts, either from the state in the form of welfare or from citizens\u2019 charity, provides individuals with a sense of psychological fulfillment. Having a job is key to many people\u2019s self worth, and most capitalist-based societies place great store in an individual\u2019s employment. Because the minimum wage denies some people the right to work, it necessarily leaves some people unable to gain that sense of fulfillment. [1] When people are unemployed for long stretches of time, they often become discouraged, leaving the workforce entirely. When this happens in communities, people often lose understanding of work entirely. This has occurred in parts of the United States, for example, where a cycle of poverty created by a lack of job opportunities has generated a culture of dependence on the state for welfare handouts. This occurrence, particularly in inner cities has a seriously corrosive effect on society. People who do not work and are not motivated to work have no buy-in with society. This results in crime and social disorder. Furthermore, the minimum wage harms new entrants to the workforce who do not have work experience and thus may be willing to work for less than the prevailing rate. This was once prevalent in many countries, often taking the form of apprenticeship systems. When a minimum wage is enforced, it becomes more difficult for young and inexperienced workers to find employment, as they are comparatively less desirable than more experienced workers who could be employed for the same wage. [2] The result is that young people do not have the opportunity to develop their human capital for the future, permanently disadvantaging them in the workforce. The minimum wage takes workers\u2019 dignity and denies them valuable development for the future.  [1] Dorn, Minimum Wage Socialism, 2010  [2] Butler, Scrap the Minimum Wage, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con04a","title":"","text":"The free market tends to treat workers fairly  In the absence of a minimum wage the free market will not tend toward the exploitation of workers. Rather, wages will reflect the economic situation of a country, guaranteeing that employment will be at the highest possible rate, and not be hampered by an artificial minimum. Some incomes may fall, but overall employment will rise, increasing the general prosperity of the country. [1] Employers understand that high pay promotes hard work. Businesses will not simply slash wages in the absence of a minimum wage, but will rather compete with one another to coax the best and most dedicated workers into their employ. This extends even into the lowest and least-skilled lines of work, as although workers may be largely interchangeable in terms of skill, they are distinct in their level of dedication and honesty. There is thus a premium at all levels of a business to hire workers at competitive wages. Furthermore, employers also take into account that there is a social safety net in virtually every Western country that prevents unemployed workers from starving or losing the barest standard of living. For this reason, wages can never fall below the level of welfare payments, as individuals will necessarily withhold their labor if they can receive the same or better benefit from not working at all than from being employed. Clearly, businesses will seek to employ the best workers and will thus offer competitive wages.  [1] Newmark and Wascher, Minimum Wages, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con03a","title":"","text":"The minimum wage is little more than a political tool that ultimately harms the overall economy by raising the unemployment rate and driving businesses elsewhere  Politicians have transformed the minimum wage into an indicator of social development. Governments often cite their raising of the minimum wage as an example of their commitment to fostering social justice and equality. This is all nonsense. The minimum wage is nothing more than a useful, simple tool that politicians can exploit without addressing underlying social and economic ills in society. [1] During times of economic expansion wages are generally rising as new businesses are formed and existing firms take on more capacity and workers. During such times, raising the minimum wage has no effect other than being a useful political move. In times of economic contraction, firms close and lay off workers and unemployment rates rise. In such times, the minimum wage hampers the market from clearing, keeping more people out of work than necessary. For markets to function efficiently, wages must be allowed to fluctuate freely, equilibrating with demand for labor and reflecting the macroeconomic situation. Minimum wages tend to lock in wages at pre-recession levels making countries less competitive and less quick to recover when economic downturns occur. Furthermore, minimum wages can often make countries unattractive for businesses to invest in, as the cost of hiring workers can serve as a serious disincentive. For this reason, businesses tend to locate in countries with no minimum wage laws, such as Germany, or where they are comparably low. In order to stay competitive, to bolster economic dynamism and gain global competitiveness, countries should treat labor like the commodity it is and allow the labor market to self-correct, and not institute minimum wage laws.  [1] Dorn, Minimum Wage Socialism, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con01a","title":"","text":"The minimum wage restricts an individual\u2019s fundamental right to work  Individuals are autonomous beings, capable of making decisions for themselves. This includes the ability to make a value judgment about the value of one\u2019s time and ability. If an individual wishes to sell his labor for a certain price, then he should not be restricted from doing so by the state. A minimum wage is in effect the government saying it can place an appropriate value on an individual, but an individual cannot value himself, which is an absurdity as the individual, who knows himself better than the state ever could, has a better grasp of the value of his own labor. At the most basic level, people should have their right to choice maximized, not circumscribed by arbitrary government impositions. When the state denies individuals the right to choose to work for low wages, it fails in its duty of protection, taking from individuals the right to work while giving them nothing in return other than the chimerical gift of a decent wage, should they ever be able to find a job. [1] Clearly, the minimum wage is an assault on the right to free choice.  [1] Butler, Scrap the Minimum Wage, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con04b","title":"","text":"Businesses are concerned with their bottom line. They will pay workers as little as possible in order to maximize profits. Certainly in some businesses employers require highly skilled workers for which they will be willing to pay competitive wages. However, the people who most require worker protection, those on minimum wage, are generally unskilled and interchangeable with a large body of potential employees. For this reason there is little impetus to pay workers at the lowest echelons of firms anything but the lowest possible wages. Even if some firms are willing to offer comparatively higher wages to entice honest and diligent non-skilled workers, the overall wage schedule will be depressed as far as is economically possible."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con02b","title":"","text":"An individual can maintain little dignity when he is subjected to outright exploitation from employers who are unconcerned about their welfare and who have no incentive to pay them anything but the lowest possible wages. A minimum wage ensures that people who find employment can feel real self-worth. Furthermore, if people do indeed only feel self-fulfilled when they are employed, people will be all the more likely to accept poor working conditions and low wages for sake of their self-image. Also, young workers do have means of gaining experience, such as through unpaid internship programs. The minimum wage serves to protect workers of all ages and skill-levels, as no one deserves to be exploited."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-pro02b","title":"","text":"There are some assumptions made in the construction of this argument. First of all, you can\u2019t hide the risk from the economic community. There is no guarantee that when issuing Eurobonds, the interest rates will drop. This is happening for two main reasons.  Firstly, according to the proposition model, the bonds will still be issued at a national level, showing investors if the money is going to Spain, Italy or Germany, France. While these should in theory have the same interest rates will investors really buy Eurobonds where the money is destined for Greece if not getting much interest? Perception still matters to the markets; will Greece and Germany really suddenly be perceived in the same way.  Secondly, even if the European Union decides to borrow money as a whole, its image is not a good one. Everybody knows the major problems that the union is facing right now so it is possible that concerns about the stability of the Euro as a whole will mean Eurobonds drive interest rates up, not down. Greece was still downgraded after its first bailout from CCC to C by the Fitch Financial Service even if the money were backed up by the ECB, being backed by the whole zone did not change the local fundamentals. [1]  [1] AP\/AFP, \u2018Greek Credit Downgraded Even With Bailout\u2019, Voice of America, 21 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-pro02a","title":"","text":"Eurobonds even up interest rates within the Union  Introducing Eurobonds will lower interest rates for bonds issued by national governments so making the loans affordable. The most recent example of this problem is the need of recapitalization of banks in Cyprus. Although government debt and interest rates were not the direct problem if the government had been able to borrow at low interest rates to recapitalize its own banks then it would have not needed a bailout from the rest of the Eurozone. [1] In order to avoid these kinds of solutions and put people back to work in countries like Portugal, Italy or Spain, national governments need a bigger demand for their bonds so that interest rates go down.  Right now, sovereign-bonds are not affordable for the government as their interest rates are extremely high. Greece has an interest rate of 9.01%, Portugal 6.23%, and Italy and Spain near 4.30%. [2] If we choose to bundle the bonds together we will obtain a single interest rate that will lower the price of bonds and permit countries to borrow more, the price would be closer to Germany\u2019s than Greece\u2019s as the Eurozone as a whole is not more risky than other big economies. More than that, the markets won\u2019t be worry anymore of the possible default of countries like Greece; as the bonds are backed up by the ECB and indirectly by other countries in the union, the debtors will know that their loans will be repaid because in the last resort more financially solvent countries take on the burden. When the risk of default is eliminated, the demand for government bonds will rise and the interest rates will go down. It is estimated that Italy could save up to 4% of its GDP [3] and Portugal would see annual repayments fall by 15bn euros, or 8% of its GDP. [4]  [1] Soros, George, \u2018How to save the European Union\u2019, theguardian.com, 9 April 2013,   [2] Bloomberg, \u2018Rates & Bonds\u2019, accessed 15 October 2013,   [3] Soros, George, \u2018How to save the European Union\u2019, theguardian.com, 9 April 2013,   [4] Soros, George, \u2018How to save the European Union\u2019, theguardian.com, 9 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-pro03b","title":"","text":"The problem with long-term regulations is not that they do not exist but rather the fact that they are not imposed. There is no need for further control and regulation when the European Union already has a mechanism that will prevent economic crisis if it is stuck to. The Maastricht Treaty clearly states that countries in the European Union shall not have a government deficit that exceeds 3% of the GDP and the government debt was limited to be no larger than 60% of the GDP. [1] These measures should be enough to prevent any country in the union to collapse. The major problem was that the Maastricht Treaty was not respected by the member states and little or no sanctions were imposed to ensure compliance. Even comparatively stable countries have deficits above 3%, France had a deficit of 4.8% in last year. [2] The simple solution would be keeping the regulation of the already existing treaty and sanction countries that exceed their deficits and not impose new rules.  [1] Euro economics, \u2018Maastricht Treaty\u2019,   [2] The World Factbook, \u2018Budget surplus (+) or Deficit (-)\u2019, cia.gov, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-pro01a","title":"","text":"Eurobonds help European integration  One of the most important European Union principles is solidarity and mutual respect among European citizens [1] and this can only be achieved by more integration and stronger connections between states. The economic crisis has clearly shown that more integration is necessary if Europe is to prevent suffering and economic hardship.  From the economic perspective, unemployment rates reached disastrous levels in 2012 with Greece at 24,3% and Spain 25%. [2] There is a lack of leadership and connection between countries in the European Union that is not allowing them to help one-another and solve the economic crisis.  From the political point of view the result of this is that extremist parties are on the rise with the best example of Golden Dawn in Greece. [3] While in 1996 and 2009 the party didn\u2019t win any seats in the Greek Parliament, after the crisis hit in June 2012 they won 18 seats. [4] In time of distress, the logical solution is not that every country should fight for itself but rather the willingness to invest and integrate more in the union to provide a solution for all.  Eurobonds provides the integration that will help prevent these problems, it will both halt the current crisis of government debts because governments will have lower interest repayments and not have the threat of default, and it will show solidarity between members. This in turn will help any future integration as showing that Europe cares for those in difficulty will make everyone more willing to invest in the project.  [1] Europa, \u2018The founding principles of the Union\u2019, Europa.eu,   [2] Eurostat, \u2018Unemployment rate, 2001-2012 (%)\u2019, European Commission, 27 June 2013,   [3] \u2018Golden Dawn party\u2019, The Guardian,   [4] Henley, Jon, and Davies, Lizzy, \u2018Greece\u2019s far-right Golden Dawn party maintains share of vote\u2019, theguardian.com, 18 June 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-pro01b","title":"","text":"Integration cannot happen on the hoof. The euro crisis and the political and social distress in the European Union have created negative sentiments when talking about the Union. The European citizens do not want these kinds of measures and there is a general sentiment of euro skepticism. Countries like Germany are no longer interested in paying for Greek mistakes and Angela Merkel is strongly opposing the idea of Eurobonds, saying that Germany might leave the union. [1] Clearly this is not the time to be forcing through more integration against the will of the people.  More than that extremist parties are on the rise. An anti-Muslim, anti-immigration and anti-integration party, France\u2019s National Front has come out top in a poll of how French people will vote European Union Parliament elections. [2] In contrary to the false connection between poor economy and extremism, it comes in hand the fact that the National Front reached the runoff in the 2002 French presidential elections. [3] In conclusion, people are not willing to invest more in the union but rather wanted to take a step back from integration even before the crisis.  [1] Cgh, \u2018The Coming EU Summit Clash: Merkel Vows \u2018No Euro Bonds as Long as I Live\u2019, Spiegel Online, 27 June 2012,   [2] Mahony, Honor, \u2018France\u2019s National Front tops EU election survey\u2019, euobserver.com, 9 October 2013,   [3] Oakley, Robin, and Bitterman, Jim, \u2018Le Pen upset causes major shock\u2019, CNN World, 21 April 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-pro03a","title":"","text":"The long term benefits of Eurobonds  The European Union should not only focus on the present but also try to find a permanent solution in resolving and preventing economic crisis. The solution that is implemented right now through the European Stability Mechanism is a temporary one and has no power in preventing further crisis. First of all, the failure of the European Union to agree on banks bailout is a good example. [1] As economic affairs commissioner Olli Rehn admitted the bailout negotiations have been \"a long and difficult process\" [2] because of the many institutions and ministers that have a say in making the decision. More than that, it sometimes takes weeks and even months until Germany and other leaders in the union can convince national parliaments to give money in order for us to be able to help those in need.  Issuing bonds as a union of countries will provide more control to the ECB that will be able to approve or deny a loan \u2013 one option would be that after a certain limit countries would have to borrow on their own. [3] This will prevent countries from borrowing and spending irrationally like Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy did in the past. The unsustainable economic approach can be easily seen in the fact that public sector wages in Greece rose 50% between 1999 and 2007 - far faster than in most other Eurozone countries. [4] Clearly Greece could make the choice to go separately to the market to fund this kind of spending but it would be unlikely to do so.  [1] Spiegel, Peter, \u2018EU fails to agree on bank bailout rules\u2019, The Financial Times, 22 June 2013,   [2] Fox, Benjamin, \u2018Ministers finalise \u20ac10 billion Cyprus bailout\u2019, euobserver.com, 13 April 2013,   [3] Plumer, Brad, \u2018Can \u201cEurobonds\u201d fix Europe?\u2019, The Washington Post, 29 May 2012,   [4] BBC News, \u2018Eurozone crisis explained\u2019, 27 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-con03b","title":"","text":"There is a common responsibility in the European Union for helping countries that are hit harder by economic crises than the others. If Eurobonds create winners and losers, the same thing can be said about the economic crisis. Germany was one of the winners and therefore has the duty to help the others. The Eurozone crisis has created a bigger demand for German bonds and lowered the interest rate they have to pay. Germany has such low interest rates because Spain, Italy and Greece are incapable of sustaining their debt, it is therefore a safe haven for people who want to buy government bonds. It is estimated that Germany gained 41 billion euros [1] in \u2018profit\u2019 from these lower interest rates as a result of the crisis and therefore has the ability and the moral duty to help countries that are worse-off. More than that, every prudent creditor has a profligate debtor. French and German banks could risk loosing a few hundred millions each if Greece defaults, the creditor accepted the risk when they lent the money. [2] We should remember that the core of the economic success of countries such as Germany has been the Euro helping to increase exports; these exports were what Greeks were buying with the credit they were getting from foreign banks.  [1] SPIEGEL\/cro, \u2018Profiteering: Crisis Has Saved Germany 40 Billion Euros\u2019, Spiegel Online, 19 August 2013,   [2] Slater, Steve, and Laurent, Lionel, \u2018Analysis: Greek debt shadow looms over European banks\u2019, Reuters, 20 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-con01b","title":"","text":"Sometimes, a leap of faith is what needs to be taken in order to fix such big problems. First of all the willingness of the union to do more in helping countries that having difficulties will improve its image both in these countries and abroad because it will show the EU sticking to its core principles. Even if we agree that Eurobonds might be a risky idea, something needs to be done to fix the economy. We have clearly seen how bailouts do not work and are not providing a permanent solution. The Eurozone is likely to decide on a third bailout for Greece in November 2013 and little proof that this will make the situation better for the Greeks. [1] Furthermore, the temporary solution of bailouts is taken without the consent of the electorate so the problem of a democratic deficit exists in both cases. Acting now to end the crisis will mean a possible end to such sticking plasters being applied without democratic consent. The EU will then be able to concentrate on demonstrating the advantages of the solution it has taken.  [1] Strupczwski, Jan, \u2018Decision on third Greek bailout set for November: officials\u2019, Reuters, 5 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-con02a","title":"","text":"Eurobonds create moral hazard  The policy proposed will shift responsibility for bad economic decisions and create moral hazard due to the lack of accountability. If the European Union decides to introduce bonds with the same interest rate for all countries, everyone in the union will have to suffer for the mistakes made by Ireland, Greece, Spain, Italy or Portugal (or any other state that may make them in the future). The burden will be shifted to the whole union in the form of higher interest rates for the prudent and countries that made mistakes in the past will pay no price for their economic instability and poor decision-making. This situation will happen if the Eurobonds indeed function as they are planned to and the interest rates will be kept low by comparison to the current rates for Greece, Italy etc. More than that, this situation will lead to what economist call the moral hazard. Moral hazard appears where a person, institution or national government in this case is not made responsible for past actions and so does not change their ways in response; insulating someone from the consequences of their actions takes the learning out of their actions. If countries in distress are not made responsible for their irrational spending made in the past (not just governments but also having trade deficits, banks too willing to lend etc.), there is no reason why these countries should alter their approach to the economy. Accountability to the market is what will resolve the economic crisis and prevent another. This can only be done without Eurobonds."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-con03a","title":"","text":"Eurobonds would create problems for Germany  The situation that is implemented in the Status Quo, with the Economic Stability Mechanism trying to save countries in collapse will no longer be an option after introducing Eurobonds. Previous arguments have explained how interest rates will not be lowered enough to make countries stable again but another problem is that they will inhibit any chance of a plan B.  First of all, Germany has low interest rates for its government bonds and had it this way in the last few years through the crisis. [1] This is allows them to take loans cheaply helping to sustain their manufacturing industry and government spending, and allowing Germany to finance bailouts. If Germany's borrowing costs rose to the Eurozone average, it could cost Berlin an extra \u20ac50bn a year in repayments \u2013 almost 2% of its GDP. [2] This will clearly impact on Berlin\u2019s ability and willingness to contribute to the European Stability Mechanism with the knock on effect that if despite Eurobonds another bailout is needed it may not be possible to raise the funds to actually carry out that bailout.  Secondly, the Eurobonds create obvious winners and losers; Germany and other prudent nations such as Austria and Finland, as well as the slightly more profligate France will have to suffer the consequences of the economic crisis caused by other countries in the union; Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal. With higher interest rates they will need to engage in their own austerity campaigns to compensate which will affect economic growth and create discontent. Why should we punish Germany for the wrongdoing of other states?  [1] Bloomberg, \u2018Rates & Bonds\u2019, accessed 15 October 2013,   [2] Inman, Philip, \u2018Eurobonds: an essential guide\u2019, theguardian.com, 24 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-con01a","title":"","text":"Eurobonds create a long term burden  Introducing Eurobonds will increase the burden for the European Union as a whole and change the responsibility in the long-term. Right now, countries are willing to help one-another and the best example is the European Stability Mechanism, a program designed to help countries in distress with major economic potential. [1] This is happening because the European Union is not fully responsible for the mistakes of the countries in the Eurozone. Of course, Eurobonds is just taking a step further but it also promotes a bigger burden for the union. Such a long term burden should not be decided and imposed in a time of crisis. If we let the European Union and the ECB decide to back national loans and approve Eurobonds it will effectively be imposed upon the people. The idea is not popular with many national electorates and such a decision will have to be taken without their consent. Germany is the clearest example, in a ZDF television poll, 79% said that they are opposing the idea of Eurobonds. [2] The real problem is that this is a one way street, it would be very difficult to reverse course as interest rates would immediately shoot up again thus immediately recreating the crisis if there were such an attempt. Any attempt at imposition without a clear democratic mandate throughout the union could seriously damage the EU by creating a popular backlash.  [1] European Stability Mechanism, \u2018About the ESM\u2019, esm.europa.eu,   [2] AP, \u2018Poll: Germans strongly against eurobonds\u2019, Bloomberg Businessweek, 25 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epecfhwie-con02b","title":"","text":"Moral hazard is not going to happen in the European Union because alongside the benefits of the Eurobonds comes the control from the European Central Bank or other measures imposed by the rest of the members. This is already happening in the status quo, where countries are forced to impose austerity measures in order to receive bailout founds. [1] Under the model proposed where the ECB can control the lending ability of any country in the union, by allowing the loan or denying it at a certain limit. Countries will most certainly be held accountable if they fail to pay back their loans by not giving them access to further bond issuing. Eurobonds are not a tap governments can use for spending recklessly.  [1] Garofalo, Pat, \u2018Greek Austerity, the Sequel\u2019, U.S.News, 9 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro02b","title":"","text":"The Brexit can\u2019t have it both ways that it will both deregulate promoting the free market and enable an industrial policy that allows subsidies. In practice unshackling the economy means damaging workers\u2019 rights that are protected by EU legislation of which the Working Time Directive is just the best known. Leaving would also damage just those sectors the Brexit side says it will help; finance needs access to Europe, as do many other creative industries."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro02a","title":"","text":"We need to unshackle the economy  The UK needs to unshackle the economy from the restrictions the EU places upon it. EU bureaucracy and red tape holds back Britain\u2019s service industries. Regulations on employment rights, hiring, and firing restrict the supply of workers pushing up costs to businesses. To take one example Britain is facing a curry crisis; curry houses are closing due to an inability to secure skilled chefs from the Indian subcontinent. [1] Being able to set the UK\u2019s own migration system would enable the UK to hire people with the skills we need.  [1] Robinson, Nick, \u2018Who will cook your Indian curry?\u2019, BBC News, 26 May 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro03b","title":"","text":"Most of the claimed \u00a3350 million per week either is accounted for by the British rebate, \u00a34.8billion in 2015 [1] \u2013 which never actually leaves the UK \u2013 or is money the EU spends in the UK. The \u00a3120 million remainder is however buys access to the EU\u2019s market. Norway pays \u20ac340 million per year \u2013 about \u00a363 million per week if it had a comparable population to the UK \u2013 to get access to the EU market but does not have any chance to influence that market. [2]  [1] 94.4million per week, HM Treasury, \u2018European Union Finances 2015: statement on the 2015 EU Budget and measures to counter fraud and financial mismanagement\u2019, gov.uk, December 2015,   [2] Solberg, Erna, \u2018The \u2018Norwegian model\u2019 would be a poor alternative to EU membership for the UK\u2019, LSE, 19th April 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro01a","title":"","text":"Leaving would take back power to control the economy  Voting to leave would take back the power over the British economy that the European Union currently has and give it back to the sovereign British Parliament. EU common fisheries and agriculture (CAP) policies control how many fish we can catch and what is commercially farmable. If the UK were to leave the British government would be once more able to shape an industrial policy; for example under EU rules it did not have the power to save Port Talbot as it is not allowed to provide subsidies to support the failing plant. [1]  [1] Rankin, Jennifer, \u2018EU sets tone as it cracks down on subsidies for struggling steelworks\u2019, theguardian.com, 20 January 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro01b","title":"","text":"British government policy has been against state intervention in industry for decades. Rather since the Thatcher government the free market has been considered to know best and so companies or factories that make a loss should be allowed to go bust."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro04b","title":"","text":"The UK is already insulated from the Euro crisis by not being a member of the Eurozone. With the pound sterling the UK is no more exposed in the EU than it would be outside of the EU. Finance is globally interconnected. Leaving the EU will make no difference to this. The UK has already negotiated, in 2015, a deal which ensures that the UK will not be liable for any bailouts in the Eurozone. [1] However Britain could cause such a Eurozone crisis, by leaving as the UK leaving would have an impact on the EU economies just as it would on the UK\u2019s own.  [1] BBC News, \u2018UK \u2018strikes deal\u2019 over Greek bailout\u2019, 16 July 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro03a","title":"","text":"There will be \u00a3350 million more to spend a week  Through leaving the EU Britain will no longer send \u00a3350million per week to Europe so can spend it at home. [1] Of course much of this sum comes back to the UK but the UK will gain greater control over how and where the money is spent. Thus for example some money comes back in the form of CAP. We would however be able to decide how this money is used on farming rather than being dictated to by the EU or take the money out of farming all together. Even taking in to account money that comes back to the UK, and the rebate, the UK still sends \u00a3120million per week to Europe. [2] Money which would be freed up to spend on helping the NHS or building more affordable houses upon leaving.  [1] \u2018A vote to remain is the riskier option\u2019, Vote Leave,   [2] Ashworth-Hayes, Sam, \u2018UK doesn\u2019t sent EU \u00a3350m a week or \u00a355m a day\u2019, infacts.org, 25 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro04a","title":"","text":"A step away from a failing Eurozone  The Euro is failing as has been demonstrated by the years\u2019 long slow motion crisis involving Greece and other peripheral countries Ireland, Spain, and Portugal. The chancellor George Osborne has in the past said that a Eurozone recession is the biggest economic risk to the UK. [1] This is still true. The UK will be safer taking a step away from integration with Europe by leaving the EU.  [1] Chan, Szu Ping, \u2018Eurozone recession is biggest risk to UK, says George Osborne\u2019, The Telegraph, 10 October 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con03b","title":"","text":"While it is almost certain that there will be a brief short term shock caused by uncertainty no one knows for sure what will happen in the long term. A Britain that is out of Europe will be better able to run its economy to encourage growth so will likely do better than it does under the status quo."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con01b","title":"","text":"Britain can have free trade without all the baggage of political decisions being made in Brussels. Just as the EU accounts for a high portion of UK trade so the UK is a high proportion of EU trade; around 16% of EU exports go to the UK, [1] so the EU would want to have a deal with the UK to allow this trade to continue.  [1] Portes, J., \u2018After Brexit: how important would UK trade be to the EU?\u2019, National Institute of Economic and Social Research, 2 November 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con02a","title":"","text":"Britain is needed to create a more business friendly Europe  The UK is a leader among the countries in the EU that is in favour of greater deregulation, privatisation, and free trade. As such the UK has been a strong positive influence on the EU in favour of these things. In the same way the UK played a strong role in encouraging the EU\u2019s expansion to create a bigger market. The UK needs to remain in the EU to ensure the organisation flourishes. Prime Minister Cameron\u2019s deal with Europe prior to the referendum for example included a promise by the EU to engage in \u201clowering administrative burdens and compliance costs on economic operators, especially small and medium enterprises, and repealing unnecessary legislation\u201d something that benefits not just the UK but the EU as a whole. [1]  [1] Reuters, \u2018Full text of EU's special status deal for Britain\u2019, 19 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con04a","title":"","text":"Leaving may increase British unemployment  Alongside this likely shock to the economy will most likely be a loss in jobs as a result in a loss in trade. Some big employers, such as many car makers, are located in the UK in large part as a result of the access to the EU market. It is estimated that three million UK jobs are linked to trade with the EU. [1] Estimates of the number of jobs lost vary considerably; the CBI has suggested 950,000 [2] while the Treasury thinks 500,000. [3] The number may turn out to be less but clearly a large number of livelihoods will be damaged.  [1] Ashworth-Hayes, Sam, \u2018Will 3 million jobs be lost if we quit EU?\u2019, infacts.org, 15 March 2016,   [2] Kollewe, Julia, \u2018 Brexit could cost \u00a3100bn and nearly 1m jobs, CBI warns\u2019, theguardian.com, 21 March 2016,   [3] HM Treasury, \u2018Britain to enter recession with 500,000 UK jobs lost if it left EU, new Treasury analysis shows\u2019, gov.uk, 23 May 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con03a","title":"","text":"Leaving will cause a shock to the British economy  The UK leaving the EU would likely be damaging not just to the British economy but globally with the G7 saying it would be \u201ca further serious risk to growth.\u201d [1] The damage to the UK economy would come for several reasons. First there would be uncertainty about what comes next; no one is quite sure what kind of deal the UK will get with the EU, or what will happen to EU migrants in the UK. Additionally businesses that trade with the EU will have uncertainty over that trading relationship and the UK will be a less favourable investment prospect because it is no longer a bridge to 500milion EU consumers. The treasury has estimated that GDP will be lower by 6.2% by 2030 as a result so many people will be considerably worse off. [2]  [1] Asthana, Anushka, \u2018Brexit would pose \u2018serious risk\u2019 to global growth, say G7 leaders\u2019, theguardian.co.uk, 27 May 2015,   [2] HM Treasury, \u2018HM Treasury analysis shows leaving EU would cost British households \u00a34,300 per year\u2019, gov.uk, 18 April 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con01a","title":"","text":"Economic growth comes with closer integration with your neighbours  Economic integration with neighbours is the best way to economic growth. Neighbouring countries are almost always the countries a nation trades most with; in the UK\u2019s case the EU accounts for 44.6% of exports and 53.2% of imports. [1] It is therefore in the UK\u2019s interest to increase integration to encourage this trade. Throughout the world the trend is towards regional integration rather than away from it with regional organisations from Mercosur in South America to ASEAN in South East Asia encouraging integration.  [1] Office for National Statistics, \u2018How important is the European Union to UK trade and investment?\u2019, 26 June 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con04b","title":"","text":"There is considerable churn in the jobs market already; with 3.7 million jobs lost a year already but simply being replaced by new jobs. [1] Leaving the EU would therefore make little difference.  [1] Bourne, Ryan, \u2018The EU Jobs Myth\u2019, Institute of Economic Affairs, March 2015,  p.9."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con02b","title":"","text":"There is no guarantee that the EU will actually implement anything in the agreement with David Cameron. The wording is clear enough but with no specifics about how or when the administrative burden will be lowered. Yes the UK may be fighting to create a more business friendly Europe but more important however is the way that the EU increases the regulatory burden on the UK. This regulatory burden can be much easier done away with by leaving the EU than by negotiating reductions with the rest of the Union."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro02b","title":"","text":"Education is a crossover point; migrating for education may be about a sense of belonging but it is also an opportunity. A conservative culture that does not educate young women is not providing them with an opportunity that is available elsewhere."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro02a","title":"","text":"Intellectual women migrants outnumber intellectual men migrants  The need of belonging is greater for women than for men \u2013 Bardo and Bardo found that they miss home much more (5). On the other hand, unequal and discriminatory norms can be strong drivers of intellectual female migration (1). More young women than men now migrate for education and, in several European countries today, highly skilled migrant women outnumber highly skilled migrant men (1). Between 2000 and 2011, the number of tertiary-educated migrant women in OECD countries rose by 80%, which exceeded the 60% increase in the number of tertiary-educated migrant men. In Africa for example, the average emigration rates of tertiary-educated women are considerably higher than those of tertiary-educated men (27.7% for women and 17.1% for men)."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro03b","title":"","text":"Intellectual migrants do not necessarily discard a traditional value to replace it with a corresponding western value. For example, they seldom renounce their religion in favor of a western one (3).  A weaker sense of nationalism does not have to mean greater internationalism. Instead there may be greater ties to traditional culture, to a region or village. There may be fewer ties to nation, but throughout much of the developing world religion has a far greater adherence than in the west. Thus with a couple of exceptions (Communist states such as China and North Korea) it is more developed countries that are mostly non religious.(12)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro05a","title":"","text":"The inferiority complex within older generations in the developing countries affects intellectuals\u2019 sense of belonging while in their countries  An inferiority complex still exists among the older generations in the developing countries as regards the western technical know-how and organisation. A persisting attitude to place more confidence in the experts and specialists belonging to the developed countries than the educated nationals of the country (3) could foster a feeling of underestimation amongst intellectuals while in their countries, and becomes an additional driver of the continuous intellectual migration."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro01a","title":"","text":"Some intellectual migrants already feel a certain degree of alienation towards their national culture before leaving their country  Intellectuals need stimulation, organisation, freedom, and recognition (3) that they usually struggle to find in their countries of origin. Some intellectuals from developing countries already feel a certain degree of alienation towards their national culture before leaving their own country (3). This may be a result of government policy; a lack of intellectual freedom, or because of a generally conservative culture. Thus, they experience a strong lack of intellectual belonging despite the arising economic opportunities resulting from their countries\u2019 investments.  Family ties also play a strong role in aggravating or mitigating alienation. This is why it is the young, who don\u2019t have dependents themselves, who are often the likeliest to migrate."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro01b","title":"","text":"If there is really no freedom then these migrants will be asylum seekers and refugees not true intellectual migrants by choice.  Even if there is some alienation from their own native culture these migrants are still travelling to a much more alien culture. This being the case it seems unlikely that alienation is the main cause. Rather they are travelling to a culture that is more alien because they believe there are better opportunities there."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro05b","title":"","text":"It seems hardly likely that feeling undervalued for their skills is a main reason for moving. When moving abroad many will instead encounter racism and concern about increasing numbers of migrants which would at least balance against being undervalued at home. They go instead because the \u2018value\u2019 of their skills is monetary \u2013 therefore about opportunities \u2013 not in terms of reputation and confidence or belonging."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro04b","title":"","text":"If these young intellectuals really are politically conscious then they should desire to stay in their native country and change its system of government. It is the intellectuals who are needed to create, and then grow a democracy so that it represents the whole spectrum of opinion within the country and respects intellectual freedoms."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro03a","title":"","text":"Intellectual migrants are more impregnated by ideas of internationalism and universalism  The concept of nationalism as developed in Europe during the 19th century did not undergo the same evolution in the developing countries. Intellectuals do not identify themselves with their countries the way Europeans do. They are more impregnated by ideas of internationalism and universalism than the western nationalist \u2013 for example Mohsin Hamid argues our views of liberal values should be extended beyond nation states with their often unnatural borders. Thus, if they stay abroad after having adhered to the western way of life, they consider themselves part of the great human lot, value free movement as a basic human right, and do not necessarily suffer from complexes of disloyalty towards their home country (3)."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-pro04a","title":"","text":"Most young intellectuals from developing countries are politically conscious and want to be \"actors\" in policy making  Young intellectuals from developing countries are to a very large extent politically conscious and active. They want to be \"actors\" and not \"spectators\" in policy making, all the more so when their specialism is impacted by government policy. Those who grow up in an autocratic, or not very democratic state are likely to want to go where they can use their voice. Even in many democracies intellectuals often largely liberal views both for government and teaching are not readily approved by the conservative regimes of their countries where usually the older generation is in power and constitutes a barrier against their progress."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-con03b","title":"","text":"Making a start in encouraging entrepreneurship and gender identity is not likely to be enough to make a county attractive when compared against countries that are much further down the path. According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2016 Tunisia is still in the bottom quartile of the rankings on gender equality.(15)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-con01b","title":"","text":"Most job vacancies in African countries ask for a university degree even if a degree is ultimately not the most important attribute for the job. (13) So the opportunities are there for those who would be considered to be intellectuals, it is everyone else for whom opportunities in their native land are lacking."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-con02a","title":"","text":"Many migrants come from countries with strong sense of belonging  Many migrants come from countries with strong sense of belonging, national identities, and political consciousness. For instance, they are European migrants, and in 2016, they were 19.3 million residing in a different EU Member State from the one where they were born (7). With migration an issue even from countries with strong national identities it is clear that that identity is not the major driver of movement."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-con03a","title":"","text":"Many developing countries support entrepreneurship and gender equality  In many developing countries, entrepreneurship is supported to create jobs and dynamic work conditions, and women are empowered and politically represented reducing any concerns of feeling as if they don\u2019t belong.  For example in Tunisia, many initiatives are being introduced to promote the entrepreneurship ecosystem including angel investing and attempts to reduce administrative barriers (9). Moreover, regarding gender equality, Tunisia\u2019s Parliament has approved an amendment ensuring that women have greater representation in local politics. This amendment includes a proposal for gender parity in electoral law. (10)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-con01a","title":"","text":"Developing countries have high unemployment rates and need to invest in job creation  Developing countries invest in education and job creation because they have high unemployment rates (6). They need to address the lack of opportunities in order to improve their economy and reduce migration. This is as much the case for those at graduate level as for those who have less of an education. Africa\u2019s 668 universities produce almost 10 million graduates a year, but only half find work.(14) It should therefore be no surprise that many migrate overseas for opportunities."}
+{"id":"training-economy-eigsim-con02b","title":"","text":"A strong national identity does not necessarily result in a strong sense of belonging. That national identity may have precluded other senses of belonging such as religion, or even close community ties and interactions."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro02b","title":"","text":"Hosting can have a significant cost \u2013 the 1976 Montreal games left the city vastly in debt which it did not finish paying off until 2006 [1] . Venues may be under-used after the events, with the 2004 Athens games seeing a large number of venues as unused \u201cwhite elephants\u201d after the event [2] .  [1] Davenport, 2004  [2] Smith, Helena, \u2018Athens 2004 Olympics: what happened after the athletes went home\u2019, The Guardian, 9 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro02a","title":"","text":"Economic benefits  While hosting a major sporting event is relatively expensive (although Cape Town and Johannesburg already have a number of appropriate venues for some of the events already), hosting major sporting events creates major economic benefits. London got a \u00a310bn economic boost from hosting the 2012 Olympics [1] . This may be higher \u2013 many of these benefits are difficult to calculate; how much of a tourism boost is a result of a successful games? Barcelona however just like London had a large boost of tourism following the 1992 Barcelona Games [2] . It raises awareness of the city, and the country, and what it offers as a tourist destination.  [1] Flanders, Stephanie, \u2018London 2012 Olympics \u2018have boosted UK economy by \u00a39.9bn\u2019\u2019, BBC News, 19 July 2013,   [2] Davenport, Coral, \u2018A post-Olympic hurdle for Greece: the whopping bill\u2019, CSMonitor, 1 September 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro03b","title":"","text":"The Athens games did not create such a buzz. Many seats were empty in the games. This was in part a result of the poor performance of the host nation as Greece underperformed for an Olympic host nation, not entering the top ten of the medals table (in a games when South Africa only won one gold medal, that of their men\u2019s 4x100m freestyle relay swimming team). Clearly this is a risk any host nation would take; the feel good factor comes from the national team doing well, not simply hosting the games."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro01a","title":"","text":"Showcase for a nation and continent  A key reason why countries host the Olympic games is in order to boost their image abroad \u2013 China held the 2008 Games in Beijing as part of an exercise in national promotion [1] .  This would also be an opportunity to change the perceptions of Africa amongst some elements in the outside world, from an inaccurate picture of a \u201cthird world\u201d continent with no features other than poverty and violence to a more accurate depiction of a continent which, while having challenges, is having economic growth and advancing human development. South Africa is the best nation to showcase the development of Africa; it is Africa\u2019s biggest economy and one of its most developed.  [1] Rabkin, April, \u2018Olympic Games all about China, Chinese\u2019, SFGate, 1 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro01b","title":"","text":"South Africa has held events before, such as the World Cup \u2013 did that change perceptions of Africa? A well run games can change perceptions among those who visit but it can also damage perceptions. The South African world cup also involved slum clearance as part of a campaign of \u201cbeatification\u201d, such actions hardly showcase a nation at its best. [1]  Due to its unique history, an event in South Africa may not have a halo effect for the entire continent. A games in one city will not affect other countries, or people\u2019s perceptions of other African countries.  [1] McDougall, Dan, \u2018Slum clearance, South Africa-style\u2019, The Sunday Times, 25 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro03a","title":"","text":"National \u201cfeel-good factor\u201d  Hosting very large sporting events is a great way to advertise a nation, and create a national feel-good factor. When London hosted the games in 2012, a successful event with a successful home team, there was a significant national \u201cfeel good factor\u201d [1] . This can bring the benefit of bringing a nation together; particularly important for multi-ethnic countries such as South Africa, it will bring all ethnicities together in a shared experience helping to justify the label of \u2018rainbow nation\u2019. As Sports Minister Fikile Mbalula argues \u201cSport is said to be a national religion in South Africa. In recent years it transcends race, class, language and geographical location.\u201d [2]  [1] Hart, Simon, \u2018Feelgood factor at London\u2019s Anniversary Games next weekend as a new start for drug-tainted athletics\u2019, The Telegraph, 20 July 2013,   [2] Mabalula, Fikile, \u2018South Africa: Remarks By the Minister of Sport and Recreation, Honourable Mr Fikile Mbalula At the National Press Club Briefing On the 2013 Afcon At the Csir International Convention Centre\u2019, AllAfrica, 16 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-con03b","title":"","text":"Football is also Brazil\u2019s national sport, and Brazil was similarly placed (22nd) in the medal table in 2012. The Olympics need not be hosted just by the countries that are most competitive in the games."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-con01b","title":"","text":"Some Olympic events are held outside the main city. The football tournament uses venues across other cities (in the London 2012 games, Coventry, Cardiff and Manchester were amongst the cities hosting matches), and, being landlocked, Johannesburg would have to host the sailing at another venue. Sailing being held in another city is not unusual, in 2012 the sailing was held in Weymouth and in 2008 in Qingdao.  Training camps are typically held across the whole nation, too.  The national morale boost typically permeates far wider than just the host city, including the impact in favour of a more sporting culture in the country."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-con02a","title":"","text":"Cost of hosting  The Olympic games is an expensive thing to host. The 2012 games in London cost nearly \u00a39bn [1] . This cost largely falls on the taxpayer. These large events are notoriously difficult to budget accurately, the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics having gone vastly over budget with suggestions that it could cost up to $50 billion [2] .  It is too expensive to host for rich countries as it is \u2013 South Africa has a large problem with wealth inequality as it is, and is below the world average GDP per capita [3] . Although it is unlikely to reach such expense the $50 billion for the Sochi Olympics is twice the yearly South African health budget of ZAR 232.5bn. [4] South Africa would be better served using the money to combat HIV and poverty.  [1] Gibson, Owen, \u2018London 2012 Olympics will cost a total of \u00a38.921bn, says minister\u2019, The Guardian, 23 October 2012,   [2] Kollmeyer, Barbara, \u2018Russia\u2019s in-perspective price tag for four-times-overbudget Sochi Olympics: 18 Oprahs\u2019, Marketwatch, 27 November 2013,   [3] The World Bank, \u2018GDP per capital, PPP (current international $)\u2019, date.worldbank.org, accessed 24 January 2014,   [4] \u2018Budget 2013\u2019, PWC, 27 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-con03a","title":"","text":"The Olympics are not South Africa\u2019s \u2018national sport\u2019  South Africa in part hosted the World Cup because football is the national sport of the country. Sports Minister Fikile Mabalula has declared \u201cIn African popularity, the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) surpasses even that of a multi-sports event like the All Africa Games.\u201d [1] While there is football in the Olympics other sports that South Africans support such as Rugby are not represented. In the 2012 Olympics South Africa was well down the medal table at 23rd. [2] While it makes sense to make a big investment for intangible benefits for a sport the country loves it makes less sense for the Olympics.  [1] Mabalula, 2013,   [2] \u2018Medal Table\u2019, BBC Sport, 13 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-con01a","title":"","text":"Hosting only affects one city and one country  Unlike a World Cup, which spreads the benefits more evenly, an Olympic games is focused on one city, generally one which is a major international city. It was expected prior to the games that 90% of economic benefits to the UK of the 2012 games would go to London [1] .  It is dubious that there would be such big benefits for the continent. South Africa is seen by some in the outside world as somewhat aloof from the rest of Africa due to its particular history, its history of apartheid being rather different from the normal course of African decolonisation. It is doubtful that the 2010 World Cup boosted perceptions of the entire continent.  [1] Grobel, William, \u2018What are the London 2012 Olympics worth?\u2019, Brand Valuation News, April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epsosghbsas-con02b","title":"","text":"Everything costs money. While the costs are significant, the money spent will regenerate parts of cities, create an image of the host country as a place for business, and create a long lasting legacy through the venues and infrastructure built.  While South Africa is not rich as the UK, Greece or Australia, its GDP per capita is around that of Brazil, which is hosting the 2016 Games."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro02b","title":"","text":"The number of people defrauding the system is very small (only 0.007% of the total cost of the benefit system). The majority of people on benefits are seeking work. They will be hindered in so doing, because instead of applying for work, attending interviews and developing relevant skills they will be forced to attend their workfare scheme. Thus, people will remain on benefits for longer, costing the government more in the long term."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro02a","title":"","text":"Workfare will eliminate scroungers, who are a financial drain on the system  Making the unemployed work for their welfare benefits calls the bluff of those claiming benefit but not really looking for jobs. Such scroungers include the incurably lazy, those who are defrauding the taxpayer by claiming welfare while holding down a paying job, and those who are working in the black economy. Furthermore, workfare schemes require applicants also search for work whilst completing the scheme1. Moving from a traditional something-for-nothing welfare scheme to a workfare system stops all these individuals from being a burden on the state, cutting welfare rolls very rapidly and allowing the government to concentrate upon assisting the truly needy.  1: Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). Now She's Done It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from Slate"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro03b","title":"","text":"Workfares have low standards that produce poor and potentially unsafe products. Individuals forced into workfare schemes lack incentives to work to a high standard, and may be actively disaffected. The work they do is therefore unlikely to benefit anyone much and raises a number of safety issues: would you drive across a bridge built by workfare labour? Would you trust your aged parent or pre-school child to a workfare carer? Would you trust them with any job that required the handling of money? Given these constraints, it is clear that the government may be unable to find enough worthwhile things for their forced labourers to do."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro01a","title":"","text":"Workfare provides skills to allow the unemployed to work their way out of poverty  Workfares offer the unemployed opportunities to develop skills to work their way out of poverty. Productive work raises the expectations of those involved by increasing their self-respect and provides them with more confidence in their abilities. It also develops skills associated with work, such as time keeping, taking and giving instructions, working in a team, accepting responsibility and prioritising. Such skills may seem mundane but they are very valuable to employers and their absence among the long-term unemployed is a key reason why they find it so hard to gain jobs. Individuals who are currently working are also more attractive to potential employers than those who are unemployed, especially the long-term unemployed. The evidence suggests Workfare is a success; studies of Workfare in Maryland found that 75 per cent of those who left welfare had earnings within 2.5 years1 .1: Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). Now She's Done It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from Slate"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro01b","title":"","text":"Workfare schemes are of little use if there are no jobs out there for people to do\u2013 something which is an issue of wider economic management. Often the skills which employers are really demanding are literacy, numeracy and familiarity with modern information technology, which menial make-work tasks are unlikely to provide the unemployed with. Far better to invest in proper education and training schemes instead. Even if such skills might be developed through workfare schemes, will forcing people into such work really mean they get the benefits? Most of the long-term unemployed are older, made redundant from declining industries; they do not lack skills but suffer instead from ageist prejudices among employers. Finally, if the \u2018workfare\u2019 jobs that unemployed people are being forced into are real jobs that need doing, then they should simply be employed to do them in the normal way (either by the state or by private companies)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro04b","title":"","text":"Workfare does not break the dependency culture. People do not seek unemployment and dependency on the state. No one voluntarily seeks to live on the very low income provided by state benefits, instead people become unemployed through no fault of their own; workfare stigmatises them as lazy and needing to be forced into work by state coercion. The schemes ignore the talents and ambitions of those involved, typically using them for menial tasks and manual labour that teach them no useful skills"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro03a","title":"","text":"Workfare schemes benefit society  Society also benefits from the work done by those on workfare schemes: These might include environmental improvement in local communities, service to assist the elderly and disabled, and work for charities or local authorities. In many cases the labour they provide would not have been available in any other way, so the addition they make to everyone's quality of life is a welcome bonus to the scheme. Furthermore, a 2011 study in Denmark found a 'strong and significant crime reducing effect of the workfare policy.'1  1: Fallesen, P., Geerdsen, L., Imai, S., & Tranaes, T. (2011, March 1). The Effect of Workfare Policy on Crime. Retrieved July 19, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro04a","title":"","text":"Workfare breaks the dependency culture  Making the unemployed work for their welfare money positively breaks the dependency culture. Receiving unemployment benefit for doing nothing makes individuals too reliant on the state and encourages apathy and laziness; this is particularly true of the long-term unemployed and of those who have never had a paying job since leaving school. As President Clinton said regarding welfare reform, 'the goal is to break the culture of poverty and dependence'. Tying welfare money to productive work challenges these something-for-nothing assumptions and shows that the state has a right to ask for something in return for the generosity of its taxpayers. In New York, workfare pays slightly less than the minimum wage, preserving the incentive for the unemployed to use workfare as a stepping stone into a better-paid, long-term job1.  1: Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). Now She's Done It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from Slate"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con03b","title":"","text":"Workfare projects can be designed so as not to displace low-paid jobs: Often workfare schemes are limited to non-profit organisations deliberately in order to avoid a negative impact upon the local job market. In any case, many workers on very low pay only do such work for a relatively short time before finding better jobs elsewhere, so this is not a rigid sector of the labour force, liable to be destroyed by workfare."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con01b","title":"","text":"Workfare schemes are an investment in people. Spending money on workfare schemes is an investment in people, who gain the opportunity to lift themselves out of poverty, and the economy, which benefits from a better supply of labour. Although such schemes might cost more per person than just handing out dole money for doing nothing, their ability to deter fraudulent claimants makes them cheaper overall. Their success in moving the unemployed into real jobs also benefits the government and the wider economy, through taxation and increased consumer spending."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con02a","title":"","text":"Workfare does not help people get jobs  Workfare schemes are of little use if there are no jobs out there for people to do. The evidence suggests that \u2018the vast majority of unemployment \u2013 over 9-10ths \u2013 has nothing to do with people not wanting work, and everything to do with a lack of demand for labour\u20191. As such, with few jobs on offer, it is of little use to demand welfare recipients come in for work, rather than search harder and deeper for the few jobs that are available. Regardless, often the skills which employers are really demanding are specialised and at a high level, which menial make-work tasks are unlikely to provide the unemployed with. It would be far better to invest in proper education and training schemes instead. In 2003, 60 per cent of New York\u2019s welfare recipients did not have high school diplomas; if they want this majority to find jobs, they should be paying for them to go back to school, not clean streets2.  1 Dillow , C. (2010, November 8). Small Truths, Big Errors. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from Stumbling and Mumbling  2 New York Times. (2003, April 15). The Mayor's Mistake on Workfare. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from The New York Times"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con04a","title":"","text":"Workfare schemes limit the opportunities to look for work  Putting the unemployed into workfare schemes actually limits their opportunities to look for work, by making them show up for make-work schemes when they could be job hunting. Even if the numbers of those claiming unemployment benefit are reduced by the threat of such a scheme, that does not necessarily remove them from welfare rolls \u2013 they may, for example, be pushed into claiming other benefits, such as disability allowances. Others may prefer to turn to crime for income rather than be forced into workfare projects that don\u2019t pay enough to be an attractive option. The evidence of the Workfare program in Argentina suggests that the policy has little positive effect on finding jobs for participants; \u2018for a large fraction of participants, the program generated dependency and did not increase their human capital\u20191.  1 Ronconi, L., Sanguinetti, J., Fachelli, S., Casazza, V., & Franceschelli, I. (2006, June).Poverty and Employability Effects of Workfare Programs in Argentina. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from PEP"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con03a","title":"","text":"Workfare will damage the existing labour market  Workfare harms those already in employment but on very low pay, because their menial jobs are the kind of labour that workfare projects will provide. Why should a local authority pay people to pick up litter or lay paving, if workfare teams can be made to do it for much less? If low-paid jobs are displaced, the ultimate result may be higher unemployment. In New York, public employee unions actively opposed Workfare specifically because they feared it would put public employees out of work1. Even if workfare projects are limited to labour for charities and non-profit groups, they discourage active citizenship and volunteerism as the state is assuming responsibility for these initiatives.  1 Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). Now She's Done It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from Slate"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con01a","title":"","text":"Workfare is more expensive than traditional benefits  Workfare is actually a more expensive option than traditional unemployment benefit. The jobless are ultimately given at least the same amount of taxpayers' money but the state also has to pay the costs of setting up the schemes, paying for materials, the wages of supervisors, transport and childcare costs, etc. In a recession, when the numbers of the unemployed rise substantially, the costs of workfare schemes could be prohibitive and lead to the collapse of the policy. Furthermore, even if the state wanted to, they couldn't enrol everyone\u2013 \u2018given that most people who lose a job find another within six months, there\u2019s no point dragging people into these schemes who will find work anyway given a little more time\u20191.  1 Saunders , P. (2011, July 1). Those who can work must not be paid to sit at home.Retrieved July 19, 2011, from The Australian"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con04b","title":"","text":"Workfare allows people to demonstrate both to themselves and others that a day at work will not always result in failure. This greatly benefits the self-esteem of many, who have become trapped in unemployment because their past experiences (perhaps beginning with unsuccessful schooldays) have lead them to believe that they cannot be useful and successful when doing a day at work. Workfare demonstrates that to be false by allowing them to work in a job where they can see the results of their labour, and not lose out (indeed, gain benefits) as a result."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con02b","title":"","text":"Workfare does help people to get jobs by increasing the perception amongst employers that the unemployed nevertheless have the potential to be productive citizens \u2013 they\u2019re willing and able to work, and have gained skills from being in a working environment. This counters one of the key barriers to employment, which is the prioritisation of younger generations who have not been tarred with the brush of having had to claim benefits. Furthermore, many schemes allow welfare recipients to satisfy work requirements by counting class rime, work-study jobs and internships \u2013 therefore, if education is what is felt to be missing, Workfare does not discourage participants from going back to school1.  1 New York Times. (2003, April 15). The Mayor's Mistake on Workfare. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from The New York Times"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-pro02b","title":"","text":"The free market doesn\u2019t invest in fundamental research this is research to understand fundamental principles as it does not have a commercial purpose and may never result in a commercial product, ultimately, fundamental research is the key enabler of innovation. Private companies don\u2019t invest in fundamental research, because by its nature it is open ended and very expensive and as a result may never pay back the investment.  One example is the invention of the laser: the foundations were laid by theoretical physicists like Albert Einstein. This theoretical work wasn\u2019t done with the purpose to invent something like a laser, but to probe deeper into the fundamentals of reality. The first actual existing lasers emerged only 40 years later, and only then did corporations begin to be interested. More examples are Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), a military research lab, and CERN, the operator of the world\u2019s largest particle accelerator. Between them, they serendipitously invented the key technologies of the internet, something that no one could have foreseen.  Governments have both the resources and the patience to invest in open-ended and long-term projects like this, whereas for corporations, this would have been too risky to be a sensible business decision."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The free market best ensures innovation  Companies in the free market not only compete on price, the also compete on innovation. This is because innovation allows companies to \u2018leapfrog the competition\u2019 by either driving their competitors out of the market by suddenly being able to provide a similar good for a fraction of the cost, or by creating a completely new market for a good or service. In the latter case, the company can expect to reap monopoly-profits for a while until the competition catches up. The corollary of this is that this innovation literally destroys older, more inefficient businesses in a process called \u2018creative destruction\u2019 (Capitalism, socialism and democracy, 2008).  Currently well-known examples of this are Apples\u2019 iPad, which created a market for tablet computers that didn\u2019t exist before, Microsoft\u2019s capturing of the PC-software market or Google\u2019s search engine, which made the competition irrelevant overnight.  These monopolies are, by their nature, temporary: the benefits of creating a new market are so large, that companies structurally and continuously dedicate resources to \u2018out-innovate\u2019 the current monopolies and create a new temporary monopoly for themselves. In this way, innovation becomes the key driver of every business (The Free Market Innovation Machine, 2004)."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The procedural justice of free exchange is important, but is presumes that humans are born with equal talents and in equally enabling environments. This is obviously not true: people can be born to parents with high or low socio-economic status and the talents they are born with, like IQ, are normally distributed.  Suppose you\u2019re born with high talents but to parents with a low socio-economic status. That means your parents do not have enough income to spend on your education: their money is all spent on the basic necessities like food and housing. Since you don\u2019t get the education you need to further develop your talents, you will also likely remain stuck in the same socio-economic class, as will your children, and their children. At the same time, the children of rich parents get more opportunities: even when they\u2019re moderately talented, their parents can invest in maximally developing their talents or even give them a large endowment to live from.  An example of this lack of \u2018social mobility\u2019 is the United States, where parental income is an important predictor of a child\u2019s future (Upper Bound, 2010). This is not just a gross and unfair inequality: it is also an infringement upon the liberty of the individual, who, in a free market, is effectively and structurally constrained to develop his or her own talents."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The free market is the most efficient way to match supply and demand  In a free market, goods are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged solely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers. The aggregate \u2018market price\u2019 is the result of all individual transactions and contains important information for both buyers and sellers. When there is more demand than supply, prices rise (because buyers have to \u2018outbid\u2019 each other), making it attractive for new producers to enter the market and thus adding supply. When there is more supply than demand, prices fall, causing some sellers to leave the market since their production costs are higher than the price at which they can sell. Thus, in the long run, markets settle on an \u2018equilibrium price\u2019 where demand and supply are exactly equal.  Examples of the free market actually working are all around us: take the supply of the pen and paper used to take notes on. If the price is too high at one store, anyone would move to another store where it\u2019s cheaper. Therefore, sellers have an incentive to provide the best quality at the lowest price. [1]  Central planning can never be as efficient as myriads of individually planning buyers and sellers in reaching this equilibrium. For example, a central planner who sets a price floor will likely create excess supply in that specific market. This has happened in the European Union, where the EU set a price floor on dairy products. The result were the well-known \u2018butter mountains\u2019 and \u2018milk lakes\u2019.  [1] It is of course slightly more complicated as there are multiple layers of supply and demand. There is a free market in the sale of pen and paper from stores to consumers. The stores themselves are also in a free market when it comes to sourcing the pen and paper from wholesellers or the producers. The producers are then also in a free market to source the materials to make the pens. The price at the retailer therefore has a floor below which someone will make a loss due to the cost of the production."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-pro01b","title":"","text":"It might be that under theoretical conditions, free markets match up supply and demand in the long run, but as the famous economist John Maynard Keynes said: \u201cin the long run we are all dead\u201d. Even if a stable equilibrium is theoretically possible, in practice, it almost never happens, with high fluctuations in price, shortages and excesses as a consequence (A Tract on Monetary Reform, 2000).  An example of a market never reaching equilibrium is the so-called, empirically observed, \u2018Pork Cycle\u2019. When prices for pork meat are high, producers flock to the market. Since it takes a while, anywhere from months to over a year, to raise pigs before slaughter, prices will continue to rise and producers continue to join \u2013 until suddenly, the new supply reaches maturity and there is a sudden excess of pork meat on the market. This excess will then last for a longer period, since many producers are \u2018locked in\u2019, waiting for their pigs to mature. The same dynamics operate in the market for skilled labour, since getting the required vocational training also takes time.  Even if equilibrium is reached, the outcome isn\u2019t necessarily fair. An example is the Irish Great Famine: due to circumstance and bad policy, potato supply in Ireland dropped dramatically. This caused prices to rise beyond the budget of the average Irish citizen, but England could still pay the higher price. The perverse result was that even during the Great Famine, Ireland was actually still a net exporter of food (The Great Irish Famine, 1996)."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-pro03a","title":"","text":"The free market is morally superior because it operates on liberty  Liberty is one of the highest values human beings strive for. Liberty means that individuals \u2018own\u2019 themselves: individuals only decide for themselves what to do with their minds and bodies during their lifetime. Private property is an extension of this, because private property comes about by undertaking an activity with one\u2019s own body or mind: when I pluck apples from a wild apple tree, they become my property through me using my own body to do the plucking. Similarly, free exchange is an extension of this, because it only comes about if both parties perceive the exchange to be beneficial to them: I will only sell the apples I plucked if I get more value in exchange than the value that continued possession of the apples gives me.  Free markets are the only system of allocating goods and wealth in society that relies on these basic notions of liberty to operate. If someone becomes rich in a free market, then that came about through free exchange: this person has provided so many goods and services of value to other people, that they gave him or her great wealth in return.  Compare this to the government redistributing wealth: that would require the government appropriating part of someone\u2019s income via taxes. That income is private property. Appropriating private property, not voluntary exchange, amounts to theft, which means that taxes are a form of theft and therefore a significant harm to individual liberty. Free markets don\u2019t harm liberty like this, which is why they are morally superior."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-con03b","title":"","text":"The notion that labour alienates might have looked true in Marx\u2019s days, but nowadays, employers have learnt that if they want to get the most from their workforce, they need to make their jobs meaningful. Employers can do this by offering work that fits an employee\u2019s \u2018intrinsic motivation\u2019 (Intrinsic motivation at work, 2009), and by designing the work process in such a way that it facilitates \u2018flow\u2019 (Beyond boredom and anxiety, 2000). Interestingly, these days, companies actually compete for labour by making their work environment more meaningful, as for example Google\u2019s \u2018Life at Google\u2019-page shows (Life at Google).  As to the idea of allowing a market in organs: if people willingly and knowingly choose to sell their organs, what is wrong with it?  Also, consider the status quo: demand is still there, but the prohibition effectively lowers supply, leading to a significant number of deaths every year for lack of donor organs. Why is that morally more justifiable?"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-con01b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s not true that all markets naturally lead to a concentration of power. Whenever concentration of market power, even leading up to a monopoly, does happen, this is caused by the underlying cost structure of the industry, whereby a company experiences increasing returns to scale and relatively high fixed costs. This means it is most efficient for the first entrant in a market to become as big as possible, as fast as possible. An example of such a natural monopoly used to be the markets for utilities: when the distributing networks for water or energy weren\u2019t built yet, the first company to expand would gain a natural monopoly.  Given that a natural monopoly is a consequence of the underlying cost structure of the industry, there is not much one can do to change it. Basically, one can choose between a private unregulated monopoly, private monopoly regulated by the state, and government monopoly (Capitalism and Freedom, 2002). Of these, the private monopoly is best. A government monopoly would not just be a monopoly, but would also have the force of law to back it \u2013 the result would be the most direct form of regulatory capture, where the business interest takes over the public interest of the government agency."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-con02a","title":"","text":"The free market fails in providing public and common goods  A \u2018common good\u2019 is a resource which has finite but replenishable supply but which is by its nature \u2018non-excludable\u2019 (meaning it\u2019s hard to exclude individuals from using the resource). One example is the stock of fish in the sea. If all fishermen would refrain from overfishing, the fish population would have time to restore itself. But each individual fisherman has an incentive to capture and sell as much as possible. Since in a free market, there is no government coordinating supply and demand, each fisherman acts on their individual incentives. The result is rapid, irreversible depletion of the common good (Tragedy of the commons, 1968).  A \u2018public good\u2019 is a resource which is also \u2018non-excludable\u2019 but is also \u2018non-rivalrous\u2019, that is a good whose consumption by one consumer still allows simultaneous consumption by other consumers. One example of this is the air we breathe: every breath I take does not prevent you from taking a breath, nor can I feasibly exclude you from breathing. Other examples of public goods are schools, roads and national defense. Public goods suffer from the \u2018free rider\u2019 problem: once the good is produced, no one has an incentive to pay for the good. Since the good is non-excludable, no one can prevent someone from using it. This also leads to what economists call \u2018negative externalities\u2019: industries can freely pollute the air we breathe and not bear the costs for it. The issues of climate change are a direct example of this: corporations aren\u2019t forced to pay for the negative externality of emitting greenhouse gases, and so continue doing it."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-con03a","title":"","text":"The free market degrades human dignity  The free market views the human body and the human mind as a mere instrument: the only value an individual being has is the value it can sell its labour (whether it be manual or mental work) for on the market. Workers don\u2019t work because they want to produce something they themselves find inherently valuable; they work to earn a living. And given that most people are not entrepreneurs or business owners, this means that most people will spend the most of their waking day labouring for goals set to them by others, in partial processes subdivided and defined for them by others, all to create products and services which are only valuable to others, not to themselves (Alienation, 1977).  This commodification of the human body and mind can go so far that humans actually start selling themselves: free market proponents propose to legalize the selling of one\u2019s own organs. When humans start selling themselves, they perceive no value in themselves anymore \u2013 all they see in themselves is an instrument to satisfy other people\u2019s desires, a product to be packaged and sold.  This becomes even more pronounced when we take into account that the free market exacerbates inequality: if someone is born into a poor family and can\u2019t get out of it, it might seem the only way to get out of it, is to sell oneself. Thus, the proposal to legalize the selling of one\u2019s own organs amounts to an \u2018unconscionable choice\u2019: a choice which is, given the circumstances, unreasonable to ask of someone."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-con01a","title":"","text":"The free market naturally leads to concentration of power in the hands of corporations  Many global markets are dominated by a few big firms: look, for example, to the markets in fast food, dominated by McDonald\u2019s, or the market for drilling and selling oil, dominated by Exxon, Shell and BP. This concentration of market power is natural outcome of free markets, this is because of economies of scale \u2013 a production line can produce each individual unit faster and more cheaply than if products were made individually. Also partly because the transaction costs of markets are too high (i.e. the costs of negotiating, monitoring and managing all the exchange relations necessary for production and distribution of the good or service involved), corporations have an incentive to structurally organize themselves into large firms (The Nature of the Firm, 1937). This also creates barriers to entry; while an individual may be able to manufacture an individual unit it is much more difficult to set up a whole factory from scratch in order to compete, there is then little possibility of competitors entering the market as a result of price rises.  Being so large gives them an unfair advantage towards both their suppliers and their consumers. Large firms can collude to form oligopolies. This generates more profit for the firms involved, but raises prices above the market clearing price for consumers as the firms agree not to undercut each other, this may also be informal simply raising prices by reducing the amount of choice or supply.  Vis-\u00e0-vis their suppliers, these firms gain an equally unfair bargaining advantage. A prime example is the market for (low skilled) labour: with a surplus of (low skilled) labour, each individual worker either has to accept a very low wage or be replaced by someone who does want to work for that low wage. This unequal bargaining power keeps the price for labour very low, so low that workers have no surplus budget to invest in themselves to be able gain skills, negotiate better jobs and thereby lift themselves out of poverty."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epegppphw-con02b","title":"","text":"A free market can only operate when some basic conditions have been met. One of these is the condition that exchange of private property is possible. It\u2019s important to realize that private property is both a normative concept but also a legal reality: in everyday life, private property exists because there are contracts and title deeds that prove that something is my private property.  This legal dimension of private property is key to realizing how the government can make free markets work even for common and public goods. The key is to create private property rights that are rivalrous and excludable, and enforce them accordingly. It is these private property rights that are traded, not necessarily the good itself (The Private Production of Public Goods, 1970).  For the public good of roads, the private property right the government can create is the right to operate a toll booth on that road. For the common good of fisheries, the government can create conditional exploitation rights to private actors, and for carbon dioxide emitting industries, the government can create limited, tradable emissions rights. The most well-known example of government created private property rights is intellectual property: even though listening to music is non-rivalrous and with the internet, relatively non-excludable, the government\u2019s enforcement of intellectual property allows a business like iTunes to survive and thrive."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Fears about national security are greatly overblown, and are often simply an attempt to justify protectionist measures. Very few companies pose a national security risk, and those that do are covered by existing regulations \u2013 so that, for example, the USA could veto Dubai Port World\u2019s bid to take over American ports. Most SWFs do not seek full control of companies they invest in, so they are not in a position to manipulate their assets for political gain, even if they wished to. [1] In reality, countries set up SWFs for economic reasons and they represent a major national investment, the value of which would be expensively destroyed if they once tried to abuse their position. Nor are there any actual examples of a country trying to exert political influence through its sovereign wealth fund. Overall, tying a wide variety of states into the international economic and financial system is beneficial, as it gives them a stake in the peace which the global economy needs for prosperity and so makes them less likely to pursue aggressive foreign policies. Conversely, alienating the governments of other states by designating them as dangerous predators who cannot be allowed to invest in our companies is a sure way to create enemies.  [1] Rose, Paul, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds: Active or Passive Investors?\u2019, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro02a","title":"","text":"SWFs can harm national security  Sovereign wealth funds raise worrying issues about national security. Unlike mutual funds or private equity groups, which seek only to maximise their investors\u2019 returns, SWFs must be regarded as political entities. Rather than passively holding their assets, they may seek to use their purchases to gain access to natural resources, advanced technologies, including those crucial to our defence, or other strategic sectors. [1] For example Gulf states are using their SWFs to invest in food and natural resources from Latin America. [2] They may engage in economic nationalism, shutting factories in western countries to give an unfair advantage to their own industries [3] . While it has not yet happened they may even attempt economic blackmail, threatening to turn off the lights through their control of energy companies and utilities if governments do not fall in with their foreign policy aims. Allowing countries such as China, Russia and various Gulf states to buy up western companies at will is potentially very dangerous. Even if we regard these states as friendly at the moment, there is no guarantee that they will stay that way, especially as none of them share our political values.  [1] Lyons, Gerard, \u2018State Capitalism: The rise of sovereign wealth funds\u2019, 2007, p.14   [2] Pearson, Samantha, \u2018Sovereign wealth funds: Foreign cash has its drawbacks\u2019, 2011,   [3] Balin, Bryan J., \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds: A Critical Analysis\u2019, 2008, p.4,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Transparency is a good thing, but it would be unfair to single out sovereign wealth funds for special punishment over this issue. Hedge funds and private equity groups are even less transparent than SWFs, and their influence in the global economy is much greater. [1] Some countries (e.g. Norway) already operate very transparent investment strategies. Many have agreed to the Santiago Principles which encourage transparency and disclosure of financial information. [2] It is likely that other countries will come over time to follow their lead voluntarily, as it is in the interest of their own citizens to see that the state is managing their money in an efficiently and honestly.  [1] Avenda\u00f1o, Rolando, and Santiso, Javier, \u2018Are Sovereign Wealth Funds\u2019 Investments Politically Biased? A Comparison with Mutual Funds\u2019, 2009, p.9.   [2] Ibid"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro05a","title":"","text":"Sovereign wealth funds must be regulated  A number of possible models of regulation have been suggested for sovereign wealth funds. Some, such as Gilson and Milhaupt, have argued that state-owned investment vehicles that buy shares abroad should not be allowed voting rights in that stock. [1] Others would put a cap on SWF investments, so that they cannot take a stake of more than, say 20% in any business without government approval within the country the SWF is investing in [2] \u2013 meaning that they can only be passive investors. Both these proposals would ensure that they are unable to abuse a dominant position while still allowing countries to benefit from cross-border investment in a globalised economy. At the same time such rules would prevent any broader protectionist backlash so the Sovereign Wealth Funds themselves could welcome the regulation.  [1] Gibson, Ronald J., and Milhaupt, Curtis J., \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds and Corporate Governance: A Minimal Solution to the New Mercantilism\u2019, 2009.   [2] Garten, Jeffrey, \u2018We need rules for sovereign funds, 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sovereign wealth funds can undermine economic independence  Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) have become very important players in the global economy. The already exceed the assets controlled by hedge funds and will surpass the stock of global foreign exchange reserves. [1] They are now so big that their activities can shift markets, such as Norway\u2019s Government Pension Fund did when short selling Iceland\u2019s banks, leading to panic and instability when they sell assets suddenly. [2] Their purchases can mean that companies owned by other states can end up dominating the economies of smaller countries, undermining their own sovereignty and economic independence. It is also worrying that many SWFs are controlled by undemocratic states which have a questionable commitment to capitalism; should we allow such states to exercise so much power over our economies?  [1] Lipsky, John, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds: Their Role and Significance\u2019, 2008,   [2] The Economist, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds Asset-backed insecurity\u2019, 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Sovereign wealth funds are not new and they are still only a tiny part of the global financial system. They represent only about 2% of global traded securities, and are dwarfed by other financial actors such as mutual funds, or private equity groups and hedge funds. [1] What is more, in comparison with these other players in the global financial system, SWFs are long-term investors looking many years, even decades into the future. This means that they are likely to bring calm, rather than irrational volatility to markets, as they will not be rushed into dumping assets based on a few months of bad data.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds Asset-backed insecurity\u2019, 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro05b","title":"","text":"Regulations already exist to prevent foreign investments that might compromise national security. [1] Other than this it would be unfair to discriminate against certain classes of investors. Wealth-creating capitalism relies upon investors seeking to maximise the value of their investments. Without voting rights or the possibility of exercising majority control of a company, SWFs would be unable to ensure that managers were working hard on their behalf, allocating resources efficiently and being held accountable for their decisions.  [1] Gibson, Ronald J., and Milhaupt, Curtis J., \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds and Corporate Governance: A Minimal Solution to the New Mercantilism\u2019, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro04b","title":"","text":"While it may be true that the state is often a bad manager of assets and businesses in this case the state is not usually involved in the management of the assets. This is being done through the wealth fund which is often in large part run by people whose background is in finance rather than in government. This use of external independent asset managers in itself should be enough to ease worries over state control. [1] Because SWFs don\u2019t seek to have control over the majority of the businesses they invest in discredited government economic planning is not an issue. [2] Indeed SWFs are operating much more like private companies than state owned enterprises.  [1] Mezzacapo, Simone, \u2018The so-called \u201cSovereign Wealth Funds\u201d: regulatory issues, financial stability and prudential supervision\u2019, 2009, p.46.   [2] Rose, Paul, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds: Active or Passive Investors?\u2019, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Sovereign Wealth funds are not transparent  Sovereign wealth funds suffer from an almost total lack of transparency. Most countries maintain secrecy about the size of their funds and the extent of their holdings, their accountability to government, their investment strategies and their approach to risk management. Without knowing these things, it is impossible to gauge whether political or economic objectives will dominate the SWFs\u2019 behaviour, or indeed whether they will make safe and responsible shareholders in any business \u2013 secrecy breeds corruption. For these reasons, Jeffrey Garten of Yale has argued that SWFs should be obliged to publish independently audited accounts twice a year. He has also pointed out that many countries operating SWFs protect their domestic economy from foreign competition and investment. We should demand reciprocity, so that countries seeking investments abroad must open up their own economies fully before they are allowed to hold significant assets elsewhere. [1]  [1] Garten, Jeffrey, \u2018We need rules for sovereign funds, 2007."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-pro04a","title":"","text":"State ownership is not a good way of controlling funds  The ownership of important businesses by sovereign wealth funds runs counter to the economic policy pursued by almost every government over the past 25 years. In the 1970s many states owned nationalised industries as part of an attempt at socialist economic planning that has now been discredited. State ownership distorted incentives, interfered with management and produced decades of underinvestment, poor service to consumers, and national economic failure with the most extreme example being the Soviet Union itself. Since the 1980s countries everywhere have followed the example of Thatcher\u2019s Britain and privatised their industries, freeing them to compete efficiently and to generate more wealth and jobs than they had ever done in state hands. Going back to state ownership of business is a dangerous backward step, especially as it is now foreign governments that are doing the nationalising."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con03b","title":"","text":"Fears about the unrestrained influence of sovereign wealth funds will likely stimulate wider protectionism anyway if effective regulation is not introduced. Protectionist politicians may exploit fears of foreigners to restrict any kind of foreign investment, and seek to build up national champions as a defensive measure. This risks losing all the economic benefits of globalisation, such as opportunities to unwind financial imbalances and to spread expertise, while directing capital to areas where it can have the greatest impact. Better to regulate SWFs now for fear of a greater backlash later."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con01b","title":"","text":"In many cases sovereign wealth funds are not even good for the states that own them. Almost all are emerging economies with limited financial expertise available to them, and they are not equipped to invest the money wisely. This has led to SWFs paying inflated prices for dodgy western companies, whose share price has subsequently collapsed, resulting in the loss of billions of dollars of national wealth for example China Investment Corporation lost $500million on Blackstone, Qatar Investment Authority may have lost as much as $2billion in its attempt to buy Sainsburys. [1] Surely it would be better to invest the money at home, or even return it to their people in the form of lower taxes.  [1] The Economist, \u2018The rise of state capitalism\u2019, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con02a","title":"","text":"SWFs can help the financial system in times of trouble  Sovereign wealth funds should be credited with coming to the rescue of the global financial system during the turmoil of 2008. With their long-term horizons for a return on their investments they have been willing to provide billions of dollars in new capital to distressed companies, at a time when other sources of funding have headed for the door. [1] Their money has allowed firms to continue trading and so safeguarded jobs at a time of great uncertainty. It has also helped prevent complete collapse of global equities prices, on which many people, through their pension funds, depend for a secure future. Moreover unlike some other types of funds such as hedge funds SWFs have an interest in keeping the global economy stable and reducing the impact of any downturns as their own country is bound to be affected by global economic conditions so responsible investment practices are encouraged. SWFs therefore \u201ccan play a shock-absorbing role in global financial markets\u201d. [2]  [1] Beck, Roland, and Fidora, Michael, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds \u2013 Before and Since the Crisis\u2019, 2009, p.363.   [2] Lipsky, John, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds: Their Role and Significance\u2019, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con04a","title":"","text":"SWFs should be welcomed for the benefits they bring rather than ostracized for doing what others do.  Developed countries are guilty of a great deal of hypocrisy in their attitude to the sovereign wealth funds of emerging economies. In the past their own companies were used as instruments of state power, for example BP\u2019s origins lie in Britain\u2019s attempt to dominate Iran\u2019s (at the time known as Persia) oil wealth. [1] The developed world is always willing to buy assets on the cheap, as shown by American banks buying up Asian banks during the Asian Financial crisis at the end of the 1990s. [2] Recently SWFs have proved willing to channel a great deal of investment into poorer states, particularly in Africa, their investments have already surpassed the IMF and World bank\u2019s, [3] boosting their economies and assisting their long-term development through the provision of infrastructure such as roads and ports. This is a much more equal relationship than that promoted by the west, with its manipulation of aid and loans to maintain political influence in former colonies.  [1] BP, \u2018Our history\u2019.   [2] The Economist, \u2018The rise of state capitalism\u2019, 2008.   [3] Cilliers, Jakkie, \u2018Africa and the future\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con03a","title":"","text":"Restricting SWFs is protectionism  Restricting the activities of sovereign wealth funds is a form of protectionism, which is itself likely to stimulate further demands for barriers against globalisation. Western countries oppose protectionism when it is from other countries preventing western companies investing so it would be hypocritical to want protectionism against those same countries buying the firms that want so much to invest in emerging markets. [1] It should be remembered that almost 40% of SWF assets are controlled by SWFs from advanced industrialised states. [2] As a result SWF investments abroad contribute to greater economic openness around the world. By exposing emerging economies and authoritarian states to developed world standards of transparency, meritocracy and corporate social responsibility, they will help to spread liberal values and raise standards. They will also give many more nations a stake in international prosperity through trade, encouraging cooperation rather than confrontation in foreign policy, and giving a boost to liberalising trade deals at the WTO. Finally as with all protectionism there is the risk that the SWFs will pull out their wealth and not invest as a result of protectionism resulting in lost jobs or jobs that would otherwise be created going somewhere more hospitable to SWFs. [3]  [1] The Economist, \u2018The rise of state capitalism\u2019, 2008.   [2] Drezner, Daniel W., \u2018BRIC by BRIC: The emergent regime for sovereign wealth funds\u2019, 2008, p.5.   [3] Ibid, p10"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con01a","title":"","text":"SWFs represent good economic management by countries with surpluses  Sovereign wealth funds are highly beneficial for states with large financial surpluses. Traditionally they have been run by resource-rich countries which wish to diversify their assets to smooth out the impact of fluctuations in commodity prices on their economies and revenues. The fund can then be drawn down then prices are low. [1] Indeed 30 of 38 SWFs in 2008 were established for such a stabilization role. [2] By holding investments abroad, oil-rich countries such as Qatar and Norway have also built up valuable national reserves against the day when their fossil fuels eventually run out. Kiribati, a pacific island country, put aside wealth from mining guano from fertilizer. Now the guano is all mined but the $400million fund boosts the island\u2019s GDP by a sixth. [3] In any case, allowing all the income from natural resources into your domestic economy is well known to lead to wasteful investments and higher inflation \u2013 better to manage the revenues responsibly by using them to create wealth for the future. More recently many Asian countries with big current account surpluses and massive government reserves have sought higher returns than they could get through more traditional investment in US Treasury bonds. Again, this is a responsible strategy pursued by states seeking to do their best for their citizens.  [1] Ziemba, Rachel, \u2018Where are the sovereign wealth funds?\u2019, 2008,   [2] Lipsky, John, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds: Their Role and Significance\u2019, 2008.   [3] The Economist, \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds Asset-backed insecurity\u2019, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con04b","title":"","text":"The amounts sovereign wealth funds invest in the poorest countries is tiny compared to their overall portfolio. In 2008 the head of the World Bank Robert Zollick was attempting to persuade sovereign wealth funds to invest just 1% of their assets in Africa. [1] Investment by SWFs in Africa is not all good. Sovereign wealth funds are guilty of bad behaviour in the developing world. Some government-backed firms from China and the Arab world (not all of the SWFs) have provided capital to maintain some of Africa\u2019s worst rulers in power, in exchange for the opportunity to gain access to the natural resources of their misruled states. Sudan for example has sold 400,000 hectares to the United Arab Emirates. [2] This has allowed dictators to ignore the conditions (e.g. for political freedoms and economic reforms) attached to funding offered by western aid donors and international institutions such as the World Bank. It also contrasts sharply with the behaviour of western companies, who are led to act more responsibly by pressures from their own governments, investors and media.  [1] Stilwell Amy, and Chopra, Geetanjali S., \u2018Sovereign Wealth Funds Should Invest in Africa, Zoellick Says\u2019, 2008.   [2] The Economist, \u2018Buying farmland abroad, Outsourcing\u2019s third wave\u2019, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghwarasw-con02b","title":"","text":"Sovereign Wealth Funds could potentially help the financial system but they will only do so if it is in the national interest of their country to do so. It is this political dimension that is the reason for more regulation. Moreover regulation of SWFs will not prevent these funds from helping the global financial system. They will still be free to invest. Moreover it does not reduce the incentives for them to do so either, regulation will make no difference to a state\u2019s motivations in a time of crisis \u2013 the national interest will remain key."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro02b","title":"","text":"This price-lowering effect is most likely to be felt in those industries where the majority of the costs are in wages; these industries are likely to be service based industries. Individuals, especially poorer individuals, rarely buy services, so the effect on the poorest is likely to be limited."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro02a","title":"","text":"This will distribute wealth more evenly  As a result of having to pay important directors and employees a lower wage, businesses will be able to produce their goods and services for a lower cost, and sell therefore sell them for a lower price. This will lead to a more equitable distribution of wealth, as the poorest will become relatively richer, as prices will fall. This will also be true for small businesses, which will be able to obtain cheaper legal and financial advice and business consultancy, and are therefore more likely to succeed. Sports provide a good example of this. In major league baseball salaries for the players more than doubled in real terms between 1992 and 2002 while ticket prices rose 50%. As players wages take more than 50% of teams revenues a cap would mean a significant cut in costs that could be passed on to the consumer.1  1 Michael J. Haupert, \"The Economic History of Major League Baseball\", EH.net Encyclopedia, December 3rd 2007"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is equally likely that money is a significant motivator in productivity, and that limiting wages will therefore harm productivity."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro05a","title":"","text":"Equality is in and of itself a good thing  Firstly, it limits social tension that may arise due to public dissatisfaction with high wages; see the attacks on the famous banker Sir Fred Goodwin in the UK1. Secondly, people may feel that society recognizes them as being more equal, increasing the perceived self-worth of many, avoiding feelings of inferiority and worry about their social worth, and making them feel closer to other people. See, for example, Sweden, which has the lowest Gini Coefficient (indicating low levels of inequality) in the world, and also some of the highest levels of GDP per capita, life expectancy and literacy rates, and low levels of crime and obesity2. Furthermore, a Forbes report suggests Sweden is one of the happiest countries in the world (along with Denmark, Finland and Norway, 3 other countries with a low Gini Coefficient)3.  1 BBC News Website, 25th March 2009 2 CIA World Factbook, 20th July 2011 3 Forbes , \"The World's Happiest Countries\", July 14th 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Systems for implementation  This system would be best implemented by imposing a mandatory 100% tax on all personal income over $150,000, and all bonuses over $30,000. This means that some revenue could still be raised from this if people did continue to pay large salaries and bonuses, although they are unlikely to do so. Furthermore, it would be best implemented through international cooperation, to limit the opportunity of one country to be able to offer higher salaries and poach talented individuals. Countries may agree to this as it prevents a 'race to the top' in salaries, where companies have to offer more and more money to attract the best people."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Some evasion of this is inevitable; figures show $2 trillion of unreported income in the US in 20081. Furthermore, international cooperation is unlikely, as each country has a strong incentive to renege on agreements to attract more talented people to their country.  1 E . Feige, \"America's Underground Economy: Measuring the Size, Growth and Determinants of Income Tax Evasion in the U.S\", January 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro05b","title":"","text":"Social tensions are greatly exaggerated, and only actually felt when a specific crisis and against a very specific figurehead (in the case of Fred Goodwin, an entirely isolated example, the large amounts of media coverage he received for his role in the banking crisis). Furthermore, feelings of inferiority are typically reasoned away by people, who explain other's greater income in terms of their willingness to work hard, or being lucky. The feeling of superiority over others can be considered a motivator that encourages some people to work (See Opposition Argument One below). Finally, Sweden may be disanalogous as an example as they (and other Scandinavian countries) have a strong collectivist spirit that may be lacking in other countries."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro04b","title":"","text":"It is likely that foreign demand will displace national demand for properties, especially in key city areas (such as New York or London). Furthermore, having a nice house is one of the strongest incentives to have a job and be a productive tax-paying member of society; loss of this incentive may decrease a society's output level and tax revenue."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro03a","title":"","text":"This will enable people to better choose their jobs  When wages are better standardized across professions, people are less likely to feel socially pressured into seeking out a higher paid job. As such, they are more likely to choose their job on the basis of other factors, such as how much they enjoy the job, or how ethical the working practices of a company are. This will lead to happier, and hence more productive, employees."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-pro04a","title":"","text":"This will limit the control of the rich over key scarce resources  Some resources \u2013most notably housing \u2013 are very important to large numbers of people, and owning them gives people a great deal of happiness. This policy will limit richer people owning several properties while others live in rented accommodation or smaller houses, as price competition for such properties will be less intense, and poorer people will be better able to compete through savings. Estimates in 2005 suggested there were 6.8million second homes in the USA1.This is a good thing, as it is likely that a person (or family) values their first property more than another person values their second property, known as the law of diminishing marginal returns. This is perhaps the best example of the ways in which inequality leads to worse outcomes for society.  1 E . Belsky, \u201cMultiple-Home Ownership and the Income Elasticity of Housing Demand\u201d, October 2006"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con03b","title":"","text":"There is still significant social prestige to being a doctor that will motivate people to take up the role; the same will be true for other high-paid jobs where there is a lot of training, such as lawyers. This prestige is often a key part of the reason people do the job in the first place; many doctors are paid far less than people working in business or financial services at similar levels of seniority. Finally, the unpleasant jobs mentioned typically are done for a salary well below the cap proposed, and they still have adequate people."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con01b","title":"","text":"The effect of high salaries on levels of labor supply is likely to be marginal. People work in part due to the significant social pressure of having a job and advancing themselves comparatively against others. This motivation will still exist, as there will still be rewards to advancing your career; a salary closer to the salary cap, and the added responsibility and social (or business) standing such advancement provides. While there may be fewer people willing to work 18 hour days, 6 days a week, this work is being done because it is valuable \u2013 so the firm will need to employ more people to do it, and the work is spread over a larger number of people, possibly even increasing employment"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con02a","title":"","text":"This motion will lead to people leaving the country, and will limit the intake of skilled workers  Many industries, especially at the highest paying end, rely on people of various nationalities. This is especially true in places seen to be financial centers of the world, such as New York, London and Tokyo \u2013 for example, 175,000 professional or managerial roles were given to immigrants in the UK in 20041. When a policy such as this is instigated, many people will leave to other countries that do not have such a limit, especially if they are initially from another country. Furthermore, it will be difficult for a country to attract talent while this policy is in effect, as the significant difficulty moving country involves, such as leaving friends and family behind, cannot be compensated for by a higher income.  1 John Salt and Jane Millar, Office of National Statistics \u201cForeign Labour in the United Kingdom: current patterns and trends\u201d, October 2006"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con04a","title":"","text":"High salaries incentivize people to take risks and undertake research  Many entrepreneurs are driven by profit. This is the reason that people take out large loans from banks, often with their home as security, and use it to set up a business; the hope of profit and a better life. Without that incentive, the risk has a far lower reward, and therefore will appear to be not worth it. Entrepreneurs not only give others jobs, but stimulate the economy with new ideas and business practices that can spill over into other areas of the economy. Even within businesses that are already established, this policy will be problematic. For example, why would researchers at a pharmaceutical company try to develop a new drug if they realize they can't financially benefit from it? GlaxoSmithKline spent over $6bn dollars on research in 2010 alone1. This policy could limit such research into the type of technology (or medicine) that advances society.  1 FierceBiotech , \"GlaxoSmithKline: The World's Biggest R+D Spenders\", March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con03a","title":"","text":"High salaries incentivize people to do difficult or unpleasant jobs  Some jobs are extremely difficult or unpleasant. Consider a doctor, who trains for many years, often unpaid, in order to do their job \u2013 and the average doctor\u2019s salary in the USA is close to the proposed cap, and surpasses it with merely 5 years experience1. Or consider a sewage worker or firefighter, whose job is one that many people would not want to do. High salaries are a good way of encouraging people to do these jobs; limiting the ability to pay high salaries will mean that some vital roles may be less appealing, and the job will not be done.  1 Payscale , \u201cSalary for People with Jobs as Physicians\/Doctors\u201d, July 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con01a","title":"","text":"High salaries incentivize people to work hard  People respond to incentives, and one of the most direct incentives is a financial one. Higher salaries encourage people to deploy their labor. This benefits society by increasing tax revenues that can be spent on redistributive policies; for example, consider the much maligned investment banking profession. It is not uncommon for investment bankers to work 14 to 18 hour days, and to work at weekends; it is unlikely they would do this without the incentive of high salaries and bonuses, at least in the long run. The taxation on financial service providers (that rely on such hard work) and the workers themselves is significant; in 2010 in the UK, it was 11.2% of total tax receipts1. Furthermore, the deployment of labor may lead to more supporting workers being needed and therefore job creation.  1 PWC , \"The Total Tax Contribution of UK Financial Services\", December 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con04b","title":"","text":"Under this policy, companies will not be able to spend their profits on inflating their salaries, and so are more likely to have a long-term outlook to the company. The best way to advance long-term interests is through research; it is possible that all their excess profit will be spent on this. While entrepreneurs may be driven by profit, the salary proposed is sufficiently high that it can be aspired to; most entrepreneurs will still be motivated by it, as they seldom already have a job that already pays so much."}
+{"id":"training-economy-befhwimsc-con02b","title":"","text":"The significant difficulty of moving country, such as leaving behind friends and family, and leaving behind an area (or even language) you know well, are likely to limit emigration. As for immigration, the skill set is typically already within the country; if not, this policy may encourage a focus on an educational system to ensure it is. Finally, if the argumentation about equality leading to a better and happier society is correct, this in itself will attract immigrants to high-paying jobs."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro02b","title":"","text":"The single biggest impact the US government, or any government, can have on the economy is what it does with its own money. By creating jobs through public expenditure it stimulates local economies and creates growth.  Proponents of the baby boomer crisis theory also ignore one very significant fact \u2013 these people did not cause a financial crisis before they started working in the late sixties. It also seems unlikely that all of them will stop work as life expectancies are now much longer than in the middle of the last century and a majority can be expected to remain economically active."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Paying off national debt via austerity measures would free-up money used for interest payments  The first of the baby boomers start retiring in 2011 and, as a result, qualify for Medicare. There are 78 million people in this generation and all of the statistics suggest that they are likely to live significantly longer than previous retiring generations [i] . As a result the US has some very big bills coming in the next few years and a decreasing base of those working and paying tax revenue to pay them.  This is really not the time to be wasting money on interest for deficits built up to support programmes that are unnecessary. Paying down the debt frees up tax revenue for much needed support, both financial and medical, for seniors as they retire.  [i] Laurence J. Kotlikoff and Scott Burns. \u201cThe Coming Generational Storm.\u201d MIT Press 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro03b","title":"","text":"The only ways to control the deficit, other than stimulating growth and the tax revenues it produces, would be either to cut services or to increase taxes. Both actions would harm the longer term objective of stimulating growth as they both take cash out of the real economy.  By contrast, focusing on domestic spending to restart the economy will produce long term stability; whether through stimulus packages or other methods.  The idea that there is no need to run at a deficit during a time of recession is absurd. In the light of the financial challenges currently faced by the US, but also in the longer term, it is vital that the government has the ability to run its expenses at a deficit to act as a stimulus.  The reality is that it is in the interests of everyone, not just Americans, for the US government to be able to spend relatively freely. Surpluses are nice but they are a luxury the world\u2019s financial engine can rarely afford."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Governments need to live within their means  Ultimately the US Government has to pay its bill just like everyone else. Ultimately maintaining a permanent deficit harms the economy creating both inflationary pressures and effecting interest rates.  However, these pressures are not the main source of concern. Although deficits in times of plenty are a grave concern, during a recession most economist agree that deficits may be necessary. However, the US is no longer \u2018mostly in debt to itself\u2019 as has been the case in the past. [i]  Increasingly, its debt is owned by the major Asian economies; especially China. The implications should conflict arise between the two are severe as China, effectively has the capacity to bankrupt the US and the dollar at a time of its own choosing.  [i] John W. Schoen. \u201cJust who Owns the US National Debt?\u201d MSNBC 3 April 2007"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is incredibly unlikely that China would ever call in its debts as any damage done to the dollar would be fairly insignificant compared to the impact on China\u2019s own economy and currency.  America can afford to service its debts and doing so is a major stimulus to the global economy. Nobody has an interest in breaking the dollar, as doing so would cause a run on every bank in the world \u2013 including the Bank of China. China holds reserves roughly equivalent to M1 \u2013 cash in circulation in the US (although it\u2019s worth nothing this represents about four percent of the actual dollars in the world) and so a massive release of dollar-denominated assets would hurt the dollar greatly. The results would see the price of oil, and most other commodities, skyrocket as they are priced in dollars and would bring the entire global financial system to a halt. China has no interest in either of these things happening."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Many of the reasons for operating a debt have now been eliminated  At the end of the Clinton presidency the government was running at a healthy surplus following the longest sustained period of growth in US history. Bush Chose to spend that on tax cuts and two extremely expensive wars (the War in Iraq was the mostly costly war, in relative terms, in US history except for WWII). Obama was landed with the problems that Bush created, but has chosen to extend spending rather than control the deficit.As The country is no longer at war, there is no real reason to be running at a deficit.  Alan Greenspan, and many others, have pointed out that the impact of continued deficits is likely to be higher interest rates \u2013 at a time when the country can ill afford them \u2013 which will hurt the economy. [i]  [i] Mark Gongloff. \u201cGreenspan Warns Against Deficits\u201d. CNN. 26 February 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-con03b","title":"","text":"If China moves to recall the trillion dollars or so that they are owed because they no longer trust US debt, or even just to offload it, the effect on the average American would be devastating. The benefits in increased exports would be more than compromised by increased costs for basic goods and services. Inflationary pressures would become severe and interest rates \u2013 one of the Fed\u2019s primary tools in fighting the recession \u2013 would be forced to rise to combat it.  It simply makes no sense to run the risk of the sort of collapse that would ensue if the government loses the ability to borrow because of a lack of confidence."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-con01b","title":"","text":"This may well have been the case when a AAA credit rating could simply be taken for granted but it is no longer the case. Standard and Poor has down-graded America\u2019s credit rating [i] and China looks set to follow suit [ii] .  A lower rating means paying higher interest on government borrowing. This is new territory for the US; an economy that has no experience of anything other than top ratings. Suddenly all that money from China doesn\u2019t look so cheap and the engine of the world economy is running in to trouble. It\u2019s time to stop being reliant on other people\u2019s money.  [i] Robert Peston. \u201cUS Loses AAA Credit Rating After S&P Downgrade\u201d. BBC. 6 August 2011.  [ii] Peter Beaumont. \u201cChinese Ratings Agency Threatens US With New Debt Downgrade.\u201d The Guardian. 12 November 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-con02a","title":"","text":"A recession is not the point at whcih debts should be paid back. The state should focus on job creation strategies  It would be the height of irresponsibility for the US government to even think about giving anything a higher economic priority than the creation of jobs at a time when unemployment is running at 9.1%.  It is essential that the federal government uses its economic muscle to get Americans working again rather than settling fairly obscure points of economic theory.  Taking money out of the system will cost jobs and hurt business, it will also lead to redundancies in the public sector. Ultimately it would be self-defeating. Admittedly, the Bush regime should have been running the economy at a surplus but it didn\u2019t and that is the reality that the current government needs to deal with."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-con03a","title":"","text":"The US should focus on divising ways in which to pay the medicare and medicaid bills faced by its population  The realities facing the US government are that it has two separate sets of bills to pay. On one hand there are those to central banks and overseas investors. The others are to its own citizens who have been giving the government their tax dollars over the course of a working lifetime on the understanding that they would recoup that money in healthcare and other benefits at a later stage.  The priority has to be domestic expenditure."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-con01a","title":"","text":"Nobody is going to risk financial instability in the US by calling in the principle sum on the loans that it has taken out  There really is no problem with the Federal Government running at a deficit virtually permanently \u2013 as it has for most of its history. There is no threat of a default as this would require any lender to commit financial suicide as a result.  The deficit allows the most powerful economic actor on earth to act as a stimulus to those in smaller roles. Paying down the debt reduces money supply and, ultimately, contracts the economy. By relying on the savings of nations like China, through bonds and other instruments, the US is furthering its traditional role of being the primary engine of global economic growth. [i]  [i] Rich Millar. \u201cDemocrats Rubin, Schwarz Clash on Spending Versus Deficit Cuts\u201d. Bloomberg. 11 June 2007."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epfthwpebd-con02b","title":"","text":"At some point the US needs to come to terms with its debts and a gradual collapse of confidence in the US\u2019s ability to pay its debts will not help the American economy or anyone else\u2019s. With a declining tax base \u2013 both as a result of unemployment and an increasing burden of economic inactivity through retirement, the government will increasingly have to demonstrate that it is \u2018good for the money\u2019 rather than just assuming that something will turn up.  Despite hundreds of billions poured into the economy since the start of Obama\u2019s time in office, the economy remains stagnant. As a result it\u2019s time for the government to demonstrate that it can use austerity as well as largesse to solve the problem."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-pro02b","title":"","text":"The social problems that have taken root in America result from a number of converging causes. While many individuals may desperately want to contribute to the debate surrounding these problems, attributing the declining performance of the American economy highly visible social divisions is misleading and unproductive.  The division between rich and poor as well as the low taxes on the rich exist because a lower tax burden on the rich promotes innovation within economies. Specifically, it is often the rich that engage in enterprise, be it through their own businesses or as part of large corporations. The lower tax burden on the rich makes taking risks in order to develop new technology more profitable for the people making those risks.  Promotion of enterprise and risk during recessions should be a priority for American policy makers, because it is often new products that drive economic growth by creating new markets which drive demand and also by increasing productivity. As such, an increase on the tax burden for the rich in the American economy is problematic because it hurts this method of recovery. It should also be mentioned that simply lowering the tax burden on the poor is likely to be impossible at this time without significantly increasing a U.S. deficit that has already been downgraded by credit rating agencies. In allowing the deficit to increase further the U.S. would have to pay back significantly more in the future owing to higher interest. This approach to fiscal policy has been heavily criticised by the chairman of Forbes Inc. Steve Forbes.4  As such, it is opposition\u2019s opinion that whilst such a change might address issues of social cohesion in the U.S, the cost to the economy from doing so is too great. Further, social cohesion could easily be encouraged through other, less economically harmful measures such as tightening up regulation on banking. Doing so helps the economy and plays against the \u201cGreedy bankers\u201d rhetoric that proposition mentions."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Jobs Act Redresses the Balance Between the Wealthy and the Middle Class  One of the more divisive problems in America is the increasing inequality between the wealthy and members of other classes. The harms that could, and have resulted from this extend to the Occupy Protests in the tail end of 2011, as well as riots With the rich consistently seeming to get richer despite the poor economic climate, many of the less rich within the American economy feel that the state is playing against them, conferring advantages on those best able to lobby politicians and make large election campaign donations. This is problematic when it is state mechanisms that will enable American\u2019s who lack access to costly universities to better educate and train themselves, thus making them more employable thus allowing them to help push the American economy out of recession.  A popular consensus has emerged amongst America\u2019s middle class, which portrays the recession as an event triggered by the rich, with rhetoric regarding \u201cGreedy Bankers\u201d playing into the public discourse on the ineffectiveness of state regulation of large financial institutions.  The American Jobs Act redresses the balance between the wealthy top tier of American society and its middle and working classes. In doing so, it helps to alter the perception of the rich and their contributions to society.  The burdens currently confronted by America\u2019s middle class are addressed in a number of ways. Firstly, payroll tax, a pay-as-you-earn tax that is withheld from employee\u2019s wages, will be significantly reduced. As such, any families with a large number of working members will be subjected to a much lower tax burden. This would provide a tax cut of around $1,500 to a typical American family.2  Given also the higher tax burden placed on the rich with this tax, and the system that results is likely to be skewed more strongly in favour of working Americans. Further, changes in the taxation system will also be able to sure up any loopholes that have been exploited by the rich to avoid taxes.  Finally, the jobs act redresses problems where the largest subsidies go to things such as charitable giving and mortgage interest \u2013 presumably things which are paid by people who need subsidies the least. Caps will be placed on such tax breaks under the act and as such, money will be more likely to go to people who need it more \u2013 the poor or unemployed.  In bringing about these changes, better economic circumstances are created for the poor and the balance between rich and poor is likely to become smaller.3"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-pro03b","title":"","text":"The American Jobs Act may be projected to create a lot of jobs. However, this comes following tax cuts and a fiscal stimulus package in 2009. In the past these measures to help the economy failed, with unemployment remaining stagnant at around 25 million despite the efforts by the government in 2009.  The reason this occurred in 2009 is that despite the stimulus package there was a strong degree of uncertainty within the economy. As such, even though consumers and producers were facing a lower tax burden it became apparent that neither group was willing to take big risks in a highly uncertain economic environment. The possibility of recession was all too apparent, and this affected both business and consumer confidence.  Given the Eurozone crisis at the moment, the situation in 2011 is very similar, with much of the world economy waiting on the outcome in Europe to see whether recession or recovery awaits. Such a climate is not conducive to risk taking on the part of firms. Hiring extra workers, for example, might be a profitable activity, however, it also entails significant risk as the firm has to be able to guarantee that it will get more out of the worker than it ends up paying.  The current state of world markets is not conducive to a stimulus package and it would simply be better to wait out the Eurozone crisis and then deal with the coming problems in an environment that is more confident and that is populated by actors equipped with greater understanding of the direction of the world and American economies.6"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-pro01a","title":"","text":"The American Jobs Act Will Help the Long Term Unemployed  The long term unemployed in America are important to the economic recovery. Whilst those who are temporarily unemployed will eventually come back into employment and start contributing to the economy, they will often be offset by those losing work. For the U.S. economy to gain headway, spare capacity must be created in the economy for those who have not been employed for a long period of time. Should the U.S. be able to harness these workers and create extra employment capacity to keep them in employment, then the U.S. economy will see a boost as the number of people gaining work will outnumber those losing work to a more significant level than seen ordinarily in an economic recovery.  The American Jobs Act helps in this area by creating what is known as a \u201cBridge to Work\u201d program which capitalises on initiatives that many states have put into place in order to deal with long term unemployment. Specifically these programmes help those without jobs take temporary or voluntary work whilst they also pursue on the job training in order to make them more employable in the long run. There is also a $4000 tax credit for employers that hire long-term unemployed workers. Further, prohibitions on discrimination based on length of unemployment will also come into place. As such the American Jobs Act is likely to stimulate the economy through the creation of a bigger and better trained work force.1"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-pro01b","title":"","text":"Whilst long term unemployment is an issue within America, it is not an issue to be focused on during a time of economic recovery and potential recession again. In a recession there are significantly more people who suffer from temporary unemployment because businesses that are unable to survive the hardships of the recession often shut down.  This means following a recession there are a large number of skilled workers in the work force who lack jobs. As recovery gains pace, these workers are re-employed at a greater rate than other workers are made redundant. Given that these people are already skilled and can already make a very significant contribution to the economy, it seems illogical that a bill intended to promote economic recovery should focus on the long-term unemployed at all. Presumably, most people who suffer from long term unemployment will take a few years to acquire the skills needed to meaningfully contribute to the economy. At this point, the economy will likely already be out of recession. This is indicated by the fact that in the latest recovery period, long term unemployment rose presumably because the extra employment capacity in the economy was just being retaken by those who were temporarily unemployed.2  It is more beneficial that the state concentrates entirely on bringing the country out of recession and recovery and into a period of sustainable growth more quickly. Under these circumstances, the state will have more resources to divert to the long term unemployed, as fewer people will require help due to temporary unemployment. The state can then focus on assisting these individuals, so that when the next recession comes state services will be ready to ease the damage."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-pro03a","title":"","text":"The American Jobs Act Helps Small Business and Creates Jobs  The American Jobs Act helps small businesses and is also set to significantly increase the number of jobs available to people. Small enterprise is particularly important in the creation of jobs because these businesses tend to be start-up businesses. Many start-ups are entrepreneurial in character, and succeed or fail on their ability to identify and exploit new markets. Increasing investment in new and emergency markets spurs the creation of additional jobs within those markets. Thanks to the cuts in payroll tax contained in the Jobs Act, many small businesses will stand to benefit by gaining some of the money paid to the government back. The President\u2019s plan will also eliminate payroll taxes entirely if firms add new workers or increase the wages of their current workers. As such, there will be significant incentives for small businesses to hire more workers.\u00ad1  Cuts to payroll taxes, combined with the other changes planned by the bill, are estimated to create 100,000 jobs a month for the next year, accompanied by a projected 1.25% increase in GDP. Moody\u2019s Analytics is even more optimistic about the likely benefits to the American economy should the act pass, predicting growth rates at 2% and claiming that 1.9 million jobs will be created as a result.5"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-con03b","title":"","text":"Whilst successful individuals may be confronted with an increased tax bill, the American Jobs Act also significantly reduces taxes on businesses. This is especially important with respect to innovative risk as it is businesses, not individuals, which bear the main brunt of risk following innovation.  As such, it is reasonable to assume that the effect of higher tax on the rich will often be negated, with respect to innovation by the lower tax on businesses.1"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-con01b","title":"","text":"Even if the American jobs act is not deficit neutral, it will have a significant effect in the future, through spending more in the present to speed the American recovery period and prevent a double dip recession. During the boom period it will be significantly easier to pay any increased deficit back. Further, even if the American credit rating is to be downgraded further, changes in the credit rating are played to be more significant than they actually are. The Japanese for example have had their credit rating downgraded by Moody\u2019s to Aa3, however, bond interest in Japan is 2% at its highest levels on long term Japanese bonds whereas it is 3% in the U.S.7  The change in the credit rating of Japan did very little to increase interest on its bonds. The reason is that investors still believe that Japan is a stable market despite its deficit which amounts to 233% of annual economic output. As such, even if the credit rating of the U.S. does get downgraded it is likely to do little in terms of increasing U.S. bond repayments over time. Further, financing the American Jobs Act through a greater deficit could be seen by many rating agencies as a fiscally responsible move and as such would not lead to them downgrading the rating at all.8"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-con02a","title":"","text":"The American Jobs Act Encourages Risk Without Infrastructure or Results in Inaction By  The American Jobs Act is problematic because one of the main causes of the recession was excessive risk taking in certain businesses. This reckless behaviour was the result of poor regulatory infrastructure \u2013 the state and independent agencies were doing too little to monitor banks\u2019 conduct. Whilst some spending from the act is going on the improvement of infrastructure in the form of better checks and balances on businesses such as banks which are critical to the economy, the majority of the spending is instead going on tax breaks. Whilst taking risk and encouraging risk is generally a good thing in recessions, the way in which money is put at risk must be controlled. If it is not controlled well enough then there is a significant chance that such spending could simply lead to another recession because of another crisis in another financial sector.9  Alternatively, businesses may opt to place a greater focus on debt repayments. This is what occurred during the Japanese crisis of the 90s. Companies might act in this way because they fear taking risks in such an unpredictable climate. If this is the case then the economic stimulus that the Act is meant to provide simply will not occur in the way that is intended, and much money that could have been spent on infrastructure will be wasted elsewhere.9"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-con03a","title":"","text":"The American Jobs Act Will Not Help Successful Businesses  While the American Jobs Act gives help to small businesses it does nothing to help proven companies that already have a record of success as is shown by their size. Indeed these companies may even be hit by the revenue raising side of the act. It is often the wealthy- both businesses and individuals- that engage in enterprise and risky expansions into new markets. A lower tax burden on the rich makes taking risks in order to develop new technology more profitable and more appealing.  Promoting private enterprise and risk taking is a key strategy in resolving recessions. It is often new products that drive economic growth by creating new markets, which drive demand. An increase in the tax burden of America\u2019s wealthiest citizens and corporations is problematic. It impedes this growth and innovation-led recovery strategies.  It is important to note that the risk the American economy needs to promote is risk that is well regulated and, further, is risk in non-critical and emerging industries. As such this point is distinct from the second point of opposition and must be presented as so, otherwise, it risks a misunderstanding with judges.10"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-con01a","title":"","text":"The American Jobs Act is Not Deficit Neutral  One of the issues with the American Jobs Act is that while it is claimed that it will be deficit neutral this may not actually be the case as the costs are front loaded whereas the revenue is not. The Congressional Budget Office estimates it will be neutral by 2021 but will increase the deficit by $288 billion in 2012,11 meaning there is a lot of scope for mistakes in the revenue increases or even higher interest rates than expected meaning it contributes to the deficit. If it contributes significantly to the deficit then the economic benefit that the jobs act might create could simply be subsumed in greater repayments on bonds in the future by the U.S.  As such, any spending under the jobs act will have to be recouped elsewhere in the American system under taxation. Logically speaking, whilst extra government spending could potentially be more efficient, such sweeping changes that are claimed to cause such a significant amount of benefit to the American economy are almost certain to require extra governmental spending.  This case is enhanced by the fact that, when addressing the affordability of the act, Obama and his administration\u2019s officials are vague about how the act will be financed. The act states \u201cTo ensure that the American Jobs Act is fully paid for, the President will call on the Joint Committee to come up with additional deficit reductions necessary to pay for the Act and still meet its deficit target. The President will, in the coming days, release a detailed plan that will show how we can do that while achieving the additional deficit reduction necessary to meet the President\u2019s broader goal of stabilizing our debt as a share of the economy.\u201d  If this is true, the financing of the act is dependent on a super committee finding the funding available somewhere in the American budget. If they are to significantly increase taxes they will likely find it difficult to pass such action, given how likely Republicans are to resist such an action. As such, implementing this Act is likely to end up cutting into the deficit significantly more.9"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epehwpaja-con02b","title":"","text":"Whilst the jobs act does not fully cover infrastructure, more acts can be drafted in order to deal with this problem. Further, the financial sector is likely to now be significantly more wary of the problems that initially caused the recession. This is because the collapse of Lehman and the Sub Prime crisis as well as the following recession significantly hurt their businesses. As such, especially so soon after the global banking crisis, such companies are going to be more careful about taking unnecessary risks. Whilst this attitude might decay over time, by the time it has decayed enough that action must be taken, it is likely that America will be out of recession.  Further, it is believed that right now, the general health of the corporate sector is sound. This means that whilst there is the possibility that businesses will opt not to use tax breaks to increase wages and pay debt, it is fairly unlikely. Even if another recession hits, the current strength of the corporate sector is such that it is likely to be able to weather the storm and as such, CEOs are likely to wish to spend windfall that they do get in order to get ahead of the competition for the next boom phase.9"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro02b","title":"","text":"For countries that are dependent on their resources and lack developed industries, free trade does not promote efficiency. Free trade makes them overly dependent on their resources, which other countries are coming in and buying. This is because their domestic industries cannot compete with those of the developed world, so they have difficulty fostering sectors besides raw goods. They are forced to rely on supplying materials, rather than being able to build innovative industries. That does not offer efficiency, it just suppresses economies. For example Nigeria is dependent on oil for 95% of foreign exchange earnings and 80% of their budget money1. Trading oil is not making it a more diversified, sophisticated economy. 1 CIA World Fact Book, \"Nigeria\", CIA,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro02a","title":"","text":"Free trade promotes global efficiency through specialization.  Operating at maximum productivity is one of the most important aspects of an efficient economy. The right resources and technology must be combined to produce the right amount of goods to be sold for the right price. Therefore all markets should strive for highest efficiency. In order to maximize efficiency in the international economy, countries need to utilize their comparative advantage. This means producing what you are best at making, compared to other countries. If Mary is the best carpenter and lawyer in the US, but makes more money being a lawyer, she should devote more of her time to law and pay someone for her carpentry needs. Mary has an absolute advantage in law and carpentry, but someone else has a comparative advantage in carpentry1. Comparatively it makes more sense for someone else to do the carpentry, and for Mary to be the lawyer. It is the same in the international economy. Countries can be more efficient and productive if they produce what they are best at based on their domestic resources and populations, and trade for other goods. This promotes efficiency and lower prices. Free trade enhances this. The Doha round that is currently being debated in the World Trade Organization would reduce trade barriers and promote free trade, economies of scale, and efficient production of goods. It is estimated that the Doha round would increase the global GDP by $150 billion alone just by promoting free trade2. Free trade leads to specialization and efficient production, which ultimately would increase the size of the global economy and the individual economies in it. 1 Library of Economics and Liberty, \"Comparative Advantage\",  2 Meltzer, Joshua (2011), \"The Future of Trade\", Foreign Policy Magazine,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro03b","title":"","text":"Therefore, there is no empirical evidence that proves that poverty is reduced. If countries removed all agricultural subsidies domestic production would decrease and world food prices would increase. Poor countries that import food will suffer from increased food prices due to trade liberalization. 45 of the least-developed countries on earth imported more food than they exported in 1999, so there are many countries that could be severely harmed by increasing food prices1.  1 Panagariya, Arvind (2003), \"Think Again: International Trade\", Foreign Policy Magazine,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro01a","title":"","text":"Free trade creates substantial cooperative relationships between trading partners.  There has long been a debate as to whether aid or trade is more effective in promoting development and cooperative relationships. Being interlocked through trading relationships decreases the likelihood of war. If you are engaged in a mutually beneficial relationship with other countries, then there is no incentive to jeopardize this relationship through aggression. It leads to more cooperative relationships because trading partners have incentives to consider the concerns of their trade partners since their economic health is at stake. This promotes peace, which is universal good. In 1996, Thomas Friedman famously pointed out that no two countries with a McDonalds\u2014a sign of western liberal economic policies\u2014have ever gone to war together.1 Academic studies have shown that this is specifically a result of free trade. In 2006 Solomon Polachek of SUNY Binghamton and Carlos Seiglie of Rutgers found that the last 30 years have shown that economic freedom is 50 times more likely to reduce violence between countries than democracy2. Erik Gartzke of Columbia University rated countries\u2019 economic freedom on a scale of 1 (least free) to 10 (most free). He analyzed military conflicts between 1816 and 2000 and found that countries with a 2 or less on the economic freedom scale were 14 times more likely to be involved in armed conflicts than those with an 8 or higher2. Aside from war, free trade also solidifies countries\u2019 alliances. For example, the US wants to begin a free trade relationship with South Korea to create a concrete partnership that will ultimately lead to greater cooperation3. Free trade promotes global connections and peace and therefore is a beneficial force.  1 Thomas Friedman, \u201cForeign Affairs Big Mac,\u201d New York Times, December 8, 1996  2  (page)\/2  3"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro01b","title":"","text":"Free trade is the economic policy that many liberal countries\u2014who are less likely to go to war with each other\u2014have chosen. It\u2019s not the policy that makes them liberal. These studies show such a strong correlation, because the countries that have chosen free trade are largely a huge block of countries that already get along, particularly the EU countries and the US. These countries already have the productive relationships necessary for peace. And history has shown that those relationships can be fostered without resorting to free trade. For example, for many years after World War II, Japan protected many national industries, but it was a peaceful country with a productive relationship with the West. Therefore, the costs of free trade are not necessary to achieve that benefit since it can be fostered under different conditions.  1 Paul W. Kuznets, \u201cAn East Asian Model of Economic Development: Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea,\u201d Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 35, no. 3 (April 1988)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro04b","title":"","text":"Although free trade may promote innovation and growth, because of issues like dumping (where rich countries sell their products very cheaply in poorer countries and make it impossible for local industry to compete), or jobs being exported to places where labor is cheaper, free trade has significant costs and does not necessarily foster benefits for all. It is necessary to grow infant industries and create jobs, and free trade hurts both."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro03a","title":"","text":"Free trade reduces poverty.  Free trade reduces poverty for two reasons. First, it creates direct \"pull up\" as Columbia economist, Jagdish Bhagwati calls it because it creates demand for a country's good and industry and thus employs the poor and expands jobs1. Additionally it creates more revenue for government that can be directly targeted towards anti-poverty programs. Independent research Xavier Sala-i-Martin at Columbia University estimates that poverty has been reduced by 50 million people in the developing world during the era of free trade, since 19871. Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan have been liberalizing trade for the past 40 years and have not suffered from one-dollar-per-day poverty in the last 20 years1. If agricultural subsidies were removed from developed countries, food would become more expensive as there would be fewer producers, and poor farmers would have a better shot at competing and making a living. Free trade promotes the necessary monetary flow and demand for goods to increase jobs and sustainably grow an economy to reduce poverty. Prices are lower, more products are available, and the poor are able to achieve a higher standard of living.  1 Panagariya, Arvind (2003), \"Think Again: International Trade\", Foreign Policy Magazine,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-pro04a","title":"","text":"Free trade promotes growth in all countries.  Through global competition, specialization, and access to technology, free trade and openness allow countries to grow faster\u2014India and China started in the 1980s with restrictive trade policies, but as they have liberalized they have also improved their growth enormously1. The International Trade Commission estimates that a free trade agreement between just Colombia and the US would increase the US GDP by $2.5 billion2. When industries have to compete with competition around the world, they are pushed towards innovation and efficiency. Entrepreneurs are more productive if they have to compete. Free trade increases access to technology which also increases overall development. Because of free trade, prices are lower for everyone. Trade offers benefits to both developed and developing nations by encouraging competition, efficiency, lower prices, and opening up new markets to tap into.  1 Panagariya , Arvind (2003), \u201cThink Again: International Trade\u201d, Foreign Policy Magazine  2 White House (2010), \u201cBenefits of US-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con03b","title":"","text":"Even with tariffs the steel industry in losing jobs. Nothing can save steel. It simply does not operate as effectively as other global steel industries. Further, protectionism helps a small group of workers, the rest of American industry that is dependent on steel for their operation is hurt by high prices and inefficient production1. Protectionism puts the good of the few above the rest. Additionally, the WTO was created to ensure that dumping does not happen. The problem with infant industry is it's hard to determine when to start the transition away from protectionism, and often it never develops fully. For example, Brazil protected its computer industry and it never was able to compete even past the infant industry stage2.  1 Lindsey, Brink and Griswold, Daniel T. (1999), \"Steel Quotas Will Harm US\", CATO Institute,  2 Luzio, Eduardo and Greenstein, Shane (1995), \"Measuring the Performance of a Protected Infant Industry: The Case of Brazilian Microcomputers\", Review of Economics and Statistics,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con01b","title":"","text":"Marian Tupy of the Center for Global Liberty and Propensity states, \"In the history of the world, no country has ever suffered military defeat, or capitulated to sanctions, due to the inability to produce a domestically producible product\"1. Globalization also means there are many partners to trade with, so even if a country is at war there are plenty of options of other countries from which to buy necessary products. 1 The Industrial College of the Armed Forces (2008), \"Industry Study\", National Defense University,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con02a","title":"","text":"Free trade hurts the world's poor  Free trade creates demand for extremely cheap products produced by poor people in terrible conditions in third world countries. In Indonesia, there are people working in sweatshops for 60 cents an hour1. It is estimated that there are 158 million child workers around the world2. Free trade creates demand for the products produced by this modern day form of child and adult slavery. The governments of the countries where this takes place do nothing to improve the working conditions. Sweatshops are produced by free trade and demand for cheap goods, and the way that workers are treated is inherently wrong. Therefore free trade is not a force for global betterment, but instead hurts the cause of the poor and their standard of living.  1 Krugman, Paul (1997), \"In Praise of Cheap Labor\", Slate.com,  2 UNICEF, \"Child Labor\","}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con04a","title":"","text":"Implementing true free trade is unfeasible because it is unreasonable  An increasing number of countries are looking to bilateral Free Trade Agreements that will help them specifically. They are not directly open to free trade with all countries. These FTAs are undermining the position of the World Trade Organization which is meant to push countries towards economic liberalization1. Countries have no reason to start trading freely with everyone, if they already have FTAs with the most beneficial trading partners. The Doha round seeks to reduce trade barriers in industry and agriculture has been going on for ten years, but there is still no agreement. Disputes are becoming more common when it comes to trade. In 2009, there was a dispute over the US putting tariffs on Chinese tires that has created tension in the trade relationship between those two countries2. Considering that the WTO countries have been debating the Doha round for ten years, it is unreasonable to think that countries are going to adopt free trade policies with the whole world. It is much more likely they will concede to bilateral free trade agreements that specifically help themselves. Since it is unlikely for free trade to become a universal policy it is not beneficial for all countries.  1 Meltzer, Joshua (2011), \"The Future of Trade\", Foreign Policy Magazine,  2 Bradsher, Keith (2009), \"China-US Trade Dispute Has Broad Implications\", ."}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con03a","title":"","text":"It is just to protect industry and jobs.  When countries dump their products in other markets without barriers, they undercut the ability for local industries to compete. If those local industries try to compete, large foreign or multinational companies can use extremely low predatory pricing to make it impossible for the smaller industries to break into the market. The fully developed industries in rich countries are almost impossible for poorer, still developing economies to compete with. If they are not given the chance and have to compete with large international industries from the beginning, domestic industry in poor countries will have a hard time. The overall economic development of the country will thus be inhibited1. Additionally, competition can cost jobs, as industries become less profitable and labor is outsourced, so there is reason to retain protectionism as countries put their economic health first. For example, America has long protected its steel industry, as in 2002 when it adopted a controversial 40% tariff, because it was thought that competition put 600,000 jobs at risk2. Since 1977, 350,000 steel jobs have been shed, so these tariffs are justified3. Countries should put their economies and jobs first and therefore protectionism is warranted.  1 Suranovic, Steven, \"The Infant Industry Argument and Dynamic Comparative Advantage\", International Economics,  2  \"> Flanders, Lauren (2002), \"Unfair Trade\", CommonDreams.org,  3 Wypijewski, JoAnn (2002), \"Whose Steel?\", The Nation,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con01a","title":"","text":"Free trade jeopardizes countries' security.  If a country goes to war with one of its trading partners, it needs to have the capacity to produce all of the necessary tools for war domestically, and not depend on other countries for supplies and parts. Additionally there is fear that disease-causing agents and bioterrorism can enter countries through the trade of poorly inspected food1. For reasons of national security it makes sense to retain the capacity to produce what is necessary to win a war and to protect the domestic population. This is one of the reasons why countries\u2014such as the US1\u2014like to protect their agricultural industry. Free trade is a threat to global security. For countries to stay safe, they need to retain some protectionism in their international trade policy.  1 George W. Bush, \u201cHomeland Security Presidential Directive 9: Defense of United States Agriculture and Food,\u201d U.S. Department of Homeland Security, accessed July 15, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con04b","title":"","text":"Opening up in FTAs is the first step towards liberalization in the larger sense and opening up to all free trade, so it should not be considered a failure. Additionally, free trade needs to balance international and domestic goals so coming to an agreement is difficult, but the WTO has been successful in the past. The current problems with the Doha round do not spell the end to the WTO or free trade1. 1 Meltzer, Joshua (2011), \"The Future of Trade\", Foreign Policy Magazine,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-feghbgft-con02b","title":"","text":"Sweatshops are unfortunate, but free trade can benefit from cheap labor without relying on exploiting workers. Economically, cheap labor is a step in the right direction for poor countries and their people. Making 60 cents an hour in a factory that exports goods is better than 30 cents an hour working in the field, trying to feed a family in Indonesia1. Paul Krugman explains that sweatshops allow the poor to get jobs, and manufacturing development has a ripple effect on the rest of the economy and its development. Taiwan and South Korea, and even the US, went through this type of industrial development and it is better than the alternative, which is failed farming or dependence on aid1. If workers are being exploited\u2014which is different from being paid low wages that are actually good by the standards of the country\u2014then that should be regulated by governments, but that in no way infringes upon free trade.  1 Krugman , Paul (1997), \u201cIn Praise of Cheap Labor\u201d, Slate.com"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro02b","title":"","text":"Guaranteeing a temporary job for young people is a temporary solution. Having a job for a short period of time will not guarantee more permanent employment. Britain\u2019s Mandatory Work Activity scheme does some of this proposal by having very short term unpaid job placements however a study has shown that having this placement had zero benefit when it comes to getting a job. [1] Even if it did impact on those who took part in the scheme it is no help if it does not increase the number of permanent jobs as there will be the same number of young people in the same small pool. A more long term solution is necessary. This would require more jobs, and more training to ensure that skills fit the jobs that are available.  [1] Malik, Shiv, \u2018Mandatory work scheme does not improve job chances, research finds\u2019, 13 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro02a","title":"","text":"This policy is necessary to avoid a lost generation  Rising youth unemployment can be considered an international timebomb. Young people are the next generation of workers and consumers in the economy. When they are unemployed, the situation can be alarming. This is because of the importance of getting a job early on so as to avoid becoming long term unemployed. The UN Secretary general, Ban Ki-Moon, has called for stronger policies involving young people [1] . The ILO has warned that youth unemployment can lead to apathy towards government and political instability [2] . The lack of experience in work may cause a lost generation.  This must be averted, and the EU is one of the best placed to do this. The temporary work scheme would encourage business to change their attitude and hire more young workers. Having to hire young people, even for a short time, would help break negative stereotypes and often the employers would then offer longer term work. This would help to fill the 2million unfilled vacancies that exist in the EU with young people. [3]  [1] Youth Business International, \u2018Global Youth Unemployment: a ticking timebomb\u2019, The Guardian, 27 March 2013,   [2] Youth Business International, \u2018Global Youth Unemployment: a ticking timebomb\u2019, The Guardian, 27 March 2013,   [3] European Commission, \u2018Youth Unemployment\u2019, ec.europa.eu, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro03b","title":"","text":"While there is a benefit to diversity it does not have to be obtained by employing younger people but instead by having racial and gender diversity.  Companies have the right to choose their own recruitment practices. It is up to them, and them alone, who they choose to recruit. If they believe in such benefits and that they outweigh any other priorities then they will already be recruiting young people. That they are not doing so shows that businesses do not believe the benefits are as high as they are made out to be. Government should not be compelling business to employ people government should only be interfering with business in order to create a level playing field between companies."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro01a","title":"","text":"The EU should guarantee youth a job in order to equal their chances.  The EU member states should rely more on public employment services, which should be focused on finding jobs for young people. With government funding, they can work with the private sector to offer decent temporary jobs to young people. This model is common in the Nordic states [1] and other countries, such as Austria, Germany and Switzerland also have similar programs.  Youth unemployment is already far higher than for older people. Less than a third of under 25s who were looking for a job in 2010 found one in 2011 [2] \u2013 this may be due to ageist discrimination against young people, and employers seeking people with experience.  People over 25 are also considered as a high risk group. They have little experience so the employer is taking a risk in employing them. There is also a desire for stability; those who already have a family are unlikely to want large changes so employers feel they can bet on them for the long term.  If the problem is a lack of experience then this proposal solves the problem. Giving younger people a temporary job and the experience that goes with it will help give everyone an equal chance at getting a job, irrespective of age. Therefore, the EU should step in and help provide jobs for younger people.  [1] International Labour Office, \u2018Youth guarantees: a response to the youth unemployment crisis?\u2019, International Labour Organization, 2012   [2] European Commission, \u2018Youth employment\u2019, ec.europa.eu, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro01b","title":"","text":"Age \u2018discrimination\u2019 runs both ways. Many companies operate policies of age discrimination against older workers. Older employees are often likely to have more out of date skills. According to a survey of businesses, the reasons for not hiring older workers are their lack of flexibility and unwillingness to learn new techniques, lack of foreign languages, little knowledge of technology and a dislike of change [1] . Those who are nearing the end of their career and are just as likely to be unable to find a news job because of these problems and are therefore likely to find themselves forced into early retirement.  When this happens these people will no longer be counted among the statistics for unemployment so much older unemployment is hidden. If a \u2018lack\u2019 of experience is a good reason for the government to provide a job then having the \u2018wrong\u2019 experience should be just as good a reason. Focusing just on youth would be wrong.  [1] Daskalova, Nadezhda, \u2018Company attitudes towards employing older workers\u2019, EWCO, 10 July 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro04b","title":"","text":"These placements will only be for six months. This combined with the intent not to make the program too expensive means that the benefit will be limited in terms of the fiscal boost provided. Those who are getting a salary only for six months are not likely to feel rich from getting that money so will probably try to save any they can.  Also, these roles would be most likely to be unskilled. The benefit in terms of investment would therefore not be particularly great. Yes the young people involved are getting experience but this is different from providing them with technical skills that make them competitive in a global marketplace."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro03a","title":"","text":"Increased workforce diversity  While we often think of workplace diversity as being about having people from all over the world and both men and women a good age balance is necessary too. By bringing in this policy, younger workers will be in the same workplaces as older employees, and vice versa, making for more workplace diverse. Employees will learn from those with more experience, in addition to the other advantages of a more diverse workforce. [1] One of these is more engagement and engaged workers perform 20% better and are less likely to leave. [2] Another is that young people will contribute new and innovative ways of thinking, with different viewpoints pushing the business forward. [3] Finally a company needs to have all ages in the business to ensure that there are people with experience when older workers retire.  Diversity is also crucial for the appearance of a business. The kind of company that attracts a broader pool of individuals means a greater range of talented candidates to choose from. Businesses who create more diverse workplaces perform better.  [1] Dutta, Pallab, \u2018Importance of Workplace Diversity\u2019, the Houston Chronicle, accessed 30\/09\/13,   [2] Anand, Dr. Rohini, \u2018How Diversity and Inclusion Drive Employee Engagement\u2019, DiversityInc, accessed 30\/09\/13,   [3] Ingram, David, \u2018Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity in Workplace, The Houston Chronicle, accessed 30\/09\/13,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-pro04a","title":"","text":"This policy is good for EU economies.  If the government is employing people then it is going to be boosting the economy. Providing a fiscal boost by spending money is one of the most accepted ways of boosting the economy. In this case spending money on temporary workers is good in several ways.  First it is a fiscal boost to the economy. The government will be paying the temporary workers. These workers will have more money to spend and will probably mostly spend it rather than saving. This in turn boosts demand for other goods and services so meaning there needs to be more output with the result that some jobs will be made permanent. There is therefore a positive feedback loop.  The second way in which this helps the economy is that it is investment. It is investment because the government is paying for young people to gain experience and for companies to be training these temporary workers. The result of this is a more skilled workforce who in the long term will be more productive.  There is a final possible benefit. With government paying for workers they are effectively subsidizing firms. Even if they are new trainees the young temporary workers will be providing output for companies at next to no cost. This then makes that firm more competitive against its global competitors."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-con03b","title":"","text":"Training is indeed the answer but it makes sense for this to be done on the job rather than simply in lecture theatres. Where there are skills gaps these gaps should be filled by encouraging and paying for temporary jobs to help fill those roles. In this way the young people involved will gain the skills for an area of the economy where there are vacancies."}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-con01b","title":"","text":"Businesses are already regulated in who they can hire and on what terms\u2013 for that reason there are child labour, minimum wage and anti-discrimination laws. These kind of regulations come both from national governments and the European Union. Governments have always had this right.  This policy is therefore not damaging freedom of choice any more than many other regulations. It will most likely not be necessary to make taking on the temporary jobs compulsory because the government is paying for it and how many companies will turn down something that is essentially a subsidy?"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-con02a","title":"","text":"This policy would only serve to discriminate against unemployed people older than 25  Even though there are large numbers of young people unemployed, they only make up around a fifth of the total unemployed population. 26.654 million men and women were unemployed in July 2013 in European Union. Only 5.560 million of them are young people. [1]  The result then is clearly going to be discriminatory against those who are not among the young. This would simply mean that more qualified, equally unemployed people would be passed over due to their age.  It should be remembered that the youth will be more capable of bouncing back when the recession finally ends and there are jobs available. They are more flexible, they have more of the skills necessary for modern work such as knowledge of computers, and they are more willing to retrain to get a job. The result is that when the jobs are available they will be the ones who are able to find work. Older people on the other hand will find it much harder to find another job without government help even when the economy picks up.  Young people can wait to get their careers off to a start. Older workers can\u2019t.  [1] Eurostat, \u2018Unemployment statistics\u2019, epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu, modified 30 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-con03a","title":"","text":"The policy is not a long term solution.  Job guarantees for young people may place them in employment for some time at a low cost, but does not offer a permanent solution. The Swedish job guarantee scheme has been criticised for this reason [1] . They will not create a solution based on skills, qualifications and economic growth because employers have little incentive to train up workers who are only temporary. If the company is not looking to expand there will be little point in wasting resources on someone they are not going to take on over the long term.  Training has to be the solution to youth unemployment. The government should be training young people to fill the gaps that do exist in the market place such as care workers. When young people have skills that are in demand then they will be able to get full time employment without having to rely on temporary employment schemes to \u2018make work\u2019 for them to do.  [1] Eurofound, \u2018 Youth Guarantee: Experiences from Finland and Sweden\u2019, Eurofound.europa.eu, EF\/12\/42\/EN, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-con01a","title":"","text":"Temporary employment for youth acts against freedom of choice for businesses  In a free market the core concept is freedom of choice. The consumer chooses what they want to buy. And by the same measure there needs to be freedom of choice for employers. They need to be able to decide what products to make, how to market them, and who to employ. Companies should be looking for those who are best qualified for the job rather than satisfying a government quota to provide temporary contracts to young people.  Even if the government is paying for this employee they are still utilising the resources of businesses. Businesses will often have limited space so having some of that space taken up by mandated temporary workers is not the most productive use that the company could be making of that space.  It is clear that this would be a \u2018make work\u2019 scheme because there are already only around two million vacancies, compared to five and a half million unemployed under 25s, in the entire European Union [1] . Moreover that these vacancies exist shows that the real problem is with matching jobs and workers with the right skills. This is best done by training not temporary, probably unskilled, employment.  [1] European Commission, \u2018Youth Unemployment\u2019, ec.europa.eu, 2013,   Eurostat, \u2018Unemployment statistics\u2019, epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu, modified 30 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-bepeechbem-con02b","title":"","text":"It should not be assumed that today\u2019s unemployed youth will be the target for recruiters in the future. In four or five years\u2019 time there will be more graduates from high schools and universities looking for work and those companies that want to employ young people will look to them rather than people who have been out of work for several years. The result then will be a generation who have never worked and never picked up the skills for a job and may never get the opportunity to do so without government help. Older people who are unemployed at least have the skills they have learned in the workplace and a past record to fall back on."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"If those who are unemployed were the right people to be doing those jobs, they already would be. Employers want to maximise their bottom line and will hire the best workers they can find. Forcing them to take on lower skilled and less able employees reduces competitiveness and causes inefficiencies.  \"The bell curve for worker productivity can be divided into roughly four groups. People in the top 16% who produce the most (superior), people between 84% and 51% who produce more than average, people between 50% and 17% who produce less than average, and people in the bottom 16%.\"1 Having to hire people from the lower 16% will cost businesses a fortune in lost productivity.  1 Dr. Wendell Williams, \"The Incredible Cost of Bad Hire\" October 11th, 2001"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"There should be a legally mandated ceiling on weekly working hours, because it creates employment.  According to the CIA World Factbook, non-industrialised countries have an average of 30% unemployment and industrialised nations have somewhere between 4-12% unemployment1. Underemployment is considered to be even higher, though precise figures are by their very nature impossible to acquire. By capping the working hours of those in employment, the unemployed stand an increased chance of entering the workforce.  With no option but to hire more staff, businesses will have no choice but to hire the currently out of work to fulfil their labour requirements. This is economically beneficial, as the costs of long term unemployment to an economy are enormous. In industrialised countries the unemployed are already being paid via taxes, with this change there can be at least some productivity from them.  1 \"World unemployment figures by country\" The Cia World Factbook, July 12th, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Business will replace workers not with other workers, but with machines, especially in the age of robotics and other automated mass production methodologies. Businesses will replace the lost manpower not with more manpower, but with machines wherever possible. \"Automation has eliminated some 10 million jobs, mostly in manufacturing\" (between 1994 and 2004)1  The actual effect will be to boost productivity AND increase unemployment for the economy that implements it.  The other alternative business can choose is to outsource labour to a country which doesn't have the same stringent standards, which also increases unemployment in the economy with a cap on worker hours. In such a case, the employment, production and business all leave the capped area.  1 Gregory M. Lamb \"Automation streamlines services and high-tech, but at what cost?\" USA Today 30th August 2004"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"There must be a maximum amount of performance that people are capable of, given rest and reward. To work people too long is to waste their potential.  Human beings require downtime in the form of sleep and rest in order to maintain their peak functioning. Long working hours cut into this rest and sleep time and therefore reduce their effectiveness as workers. A cap on the amount of work that people do per week allows for proper rest periods. Tired workers are prone to making mistakes, one of the mistakes they can make is to think they can skip necessary sleep with no ill effects. \"While some people may like to believe that they can train their bodies to not require as much sleep as they once did this belief is false\"1  A mandatory cap on the hours they work removes the decision from them and avoids this problem.  1 Sarah Ledoux \u2013 \u201cThe effects of sleep deprivation on brain and behaviour\u201d Biology 202 Bryn Mawr College 01\/03\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"While people do indeed need proper rest and downtime in order to perform to their maximum potential, exactly how much rest they need changes from individual to individual. A \"one size fits all\" approach through legislation will necessarily mean that some people who could work quite comfortably with no ill effects will be prevented from doing so.  The choice to work or not rightly belongs to them, as does even their decision to risk their health. It might be worth it to someone to take a chance on sleep deprivation in order to earn more pay."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Workers already have protection from over work. They have the ability to say \"no\" and they also have the ability to find themselves other, less lengthy employment.  The fact that jobs with long hours exist is proof that people are happy with the situation. A survey of people opting out of the European working time directive shows that 1 in 4 workers opt out of a limit to their working hours.  \"The survey also demonstrates that working hours have not substantially changed since the introduction of the new rules because of the large-scale use of the opt-out clause.\"  Not only that but workers can already claim for work related injuries, stress and maltreatment via the tribunals and courts, so a deterrent already exists for businesses to overwork their employees.  1 Liza Morgan \"Little option But To Opt Out under Working hour Rules\""}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Introducing a cap on working hours would reduce unemployment.  One of the most fundamental principles of economics is that of supply and demand. By artificially reducing the supply (of hours) then demand must increase for other labour, ceteris paribus.  The only question once that is realised is what limit should there be on working hours to ensure full employment. (Or employment at maximum practical capacity.) The purpose of the economy is to serve people, and having a large percentage of people excluded when there is an easy and obvious fix is to fail in the economies mission."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro04a","title":"","text":"A maximum working week provides protection for workers.  In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in article 23 \u201cEveryone has the right to work\u2026 to just and favourable conditions of work\u201d and article 24 \u201cEveryone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay\u201d1 both relate to a fundamental freedom from being forced to work too hard. Working for too many hours per week can affect health, wellbeing and productivity over the medium to longer term. In extremis, as we can see in the \u201ckaroshi\u201d phenomenon in Japan, people can work themselves to an early grave.2  Even in less extreme examples, we can see health issues affecting productivity and causing medical problems which require paying to treat. The WHO estimates that work related stress costs $300bn p.a. in the US, to take one example.3  It goes without saying that all this avoidable stress and medical trouble needs paying for. That the businesses themselves manage to push those costs onto wider society or the state doesn\u2019t make those costs go anywhere from the point of view of an economy as a whole. Therefore a maximum working week prevents business from externalising costs to others.  1 United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con03b","title":"","text":"It isn't actually being suggested that we reduce the total amount of work done. What is being suggested is that we have some of the unemployed be allowed to get access to the labour that is required via limiting the hours existing workers can put in. GDP growth can still be achieved as the amount of work remains unchanged.  In fact, as more of the population become involved in the workforce a lot of other problems and costs will disappear from the economy and society that imposes a maximum working week.\" two economists argue that a drop of two percentage points in unemployment would mean a 9% decline in burglary, 14% in rape and robbery and 30% in assault.\"1  1 Prof. Rudolph Winter-Ebmer \"\"Identifying the Effect of Unemployment on Crime\" CEPR Discussion paper, 2001"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con01b","title":"","text":"That's right, even more jobs would be created by hiring people to check on procedures, workplaces and hours worked. When there are literally millions of displaced potential workers and all the social and economic problems unemployment can cause this is no bad thing.  Not only that but there are already policing of business operations present in all advanced economies, this function could be simply added to the list of things to check for by those agencies. New employment within existing organisations is therefore created, so there is a doubling effect from this policy."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con02a","title":"","text":"The market already limits worker hours when left to its own devices, no intrusion is required.  Long hours which reduce worker effectiveness already make a business less competitive. The invisible hand will remove those businesses which exploit their workers, or who don't take into account employee motivation and what they need to get maximum productivity far more effectively as they are beaten in the marketplace by those companies which do take those things into account.  Improvements in worker conditions always come first from the private sector seeking to maximise profits. This has been true as far back as the industrial revolution."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con04a","title":"","text":"Small and mid sized businesses cannot afford the extra costs involved in complying with such a policy.  Each new worker has certain fixed costs associated with their employment. Tax, insurance, training, office space, record keeping, background checks, sickness, disciplinary as well as necessary equipment, the actual cost of hiring them and advertising for them and other benefits (usually this adds up to 1.25-1.4x base salary per worker.1  1 Joe Hadzima \"How Much Does an Employee Cost?\" Boston Business Journal (reprinted for MIT 2005)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con03a","title":"","text":"There should be no legally mandated ceiling on weekly working hours as it limits economic growth.  The transaction, hiring and human resource costs of forcing businesses to take on more workers mean that productivity is reduced and resources are wasted. While GDP might rise because of these actions, GDP will rise due to a fallacy of the \"labour theory of value\"1 kind. Effort isn't in and of itself productive, though it will add to many measures of GDP. Currently displaced workers would be better served inventing new products and services for the economy they are in.  1 Mick Brooks \"An Introduction to The Labour Theory Of Value Part One\" Marxist.com 15th Oct 2002"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con01a","title":"","text":"Policing such a policy creates its own set of problems for the society and costs for the economy  Complying with any regulation has a cost attached, and so does policing that regulation in order to make it effective. How would anyone know who was working where and for how long without either a very accepting populace or a very draconian state?  At best there will be ignored regulations - 14-16% of the economy is already avoiding legal responsibilities1 and with employers dissuaded from taking risks that are larger than they would otherwise be, a working week cap has the effect of making the \"shadow\" economy even more attractive to businesses.  1 Friedrich Schneider with DominikEnste, \"The Growth of the Underground Economy\" IMF Paper 2002"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con04b","title":"","text":"Only some SME will be affected, and those on such a knife edge financially would probably not have lasted long in the face of competition in any event. Such enterprises are really being subsidised by taking advantage of their workers at the expense of those workers health."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beegshbtsb-con02b","title":"","text":"Given the market is already moving in such a direction, there is no need to wait for the slow whittling away of the less optimal when it can be done right away by legislation. This will give a huge head start compared to any economy which uses the market mechanism and make any economy who takes this road advance in terms of productivity."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro02b","title":"","text":"Unfortunately housing upgrade programs do not always equate to reductions in disease. The vital components including the need for improved community sanitation, access to services - including water and health-care are often ignored. Ananya Roy (2009) shows how the informal nature of India\u2019s state constricts effective planning, and is continuing to ensure slums are kept off the map - limiting access to services."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro02a","title":"","text":"Upgrading housing: tackling the disease burden  Slum upgrading involves in-situ investment to improve informal settlements; and integrate slums into the city. Two forms of slum upgrading may be classified: the provision of basic services (i.e. housing and sanitation) and the provision of secure land tenure.  The burden of disease is higher in slums due to inadequate sanitation, overcrowding, and a lack of ventilation. Diseases and infections - including diarrhoea, cholera, malaria, TB, and tropical diseases, remain prevalent throughout due to stagnant water and a lack of services. Research indicates higher rates of child and elderly mortality in Nairobi\u2019s slums, in comparison to the rest of the population (Kyobutungi et al, 2008). Improving housing does not just mean building but also ensuring planning standards are followed to create sufficient living space and facilities to reduce the ill-health disadvantage."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro06a","title":"","text":"There are schemes to finance homebuilding  Affordability is a key challenge for slum-dwellers to enter the housing sector - challenges range from being able to access capital required to buy property, to the volatile prices in Africa\u2019s property market. Improving housing in slums enables dwellers a choice to exit and move up the property ladder. Different approaches have emerged of how provide a means to access finance and generate property markets.  First, housing micro-finance schemes are presenting a flexible means to access credit [1] . Second, cooperative loans, such as Nigeria\u2019s FMBN (Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria) are acting to increase homeownership by providing a secondary mortgage market for low-income families and make finance available. The aim is to ensure repayments are equal to rent costs paid.  [1] See further readings: Riecke, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro03b","title":"","text":"To tackle gender discrepancies an engendered strategy is required on land, not only housing.  For example, Gulyani and Connors (2002) illustrate the Kalingalinga slum upgrading project in Zambia resulted in negative effects for women. Following investment in slum upgrading the proportion of female-headed households declined with a rise in the proportion of renters and relocations. Slum upgrading raised living costs to women, and without legal land rights female-headed households were forced to relocate and resettle."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro05a","title":"","text":"Ensuring supply = demand  A key issue ensuring the growth of slums is the demand for housing is failing to be met. Investment is required to supply housing.  Taking the case of Social Housing programs provided by PAHF (Pan-African Housing Fund) demand is being met by providing affordable houses. 41.5mn US$ has been confirmed by PAHF, of which will be dedicated to fulfil the need for houses. Investments are focusing on urban areas across Sub-Saharan Africa, and are operating through partnerships [1] . If slums are ever to be halted there need to be many more such projects ensuring the supply of houses outstrips demand.  [1] See further readings: PHATISA, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cost-effective planning for \u2018Slum Cities\u2019  We live in a planet of slums (Davis, 2006), and slums remain a key, and growing, characteristic of contemporary African cities. Slums articulate the infrastructural deficit across African cities - investments are needed.  Slums are a key urban challenge; and need to be tackled, removed, and replaced. \u201cSlums represent the worst of urban poverty and inequality\u201d (Annan, 2003:v).  Slums represent an increasing concern. They are often in unstable environments so are at high risk of being affected by climate change which will further increase costs unless effective strategies are implemented today. Providing safe and secure housing provides a means to tackle articulated problems. Planning will organise the structure of housing communities, follow laws to provide adequate toilets for the population, and enable space for service provision - whether hospitals, police, or schools. Investing in housing will help alleviate chaos; and implement ordered planning for \u2018Cities Without Slums\u2019 [1] .  [1] The \u2018Cities Without Slums\u2019 Campaign was developed in 1999 by the Cities Alliance; and subsequently included in the MDG."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro01b","title":"","text":"Are slums really a key challenge? Estimations on the problem of slums may vary depending on which definition is used. Second, the language of the \u2018slum\u2019 matters when analysing and applying solutions (Gilbert, 2007; Jones, 2011). The emotions and stigmatic connotations attached to \u2018slum\u2019 enables dangerous aesthetic intervention.  Working towards a \u2018city without slums\u2019 neglects how and why slums have occurred and suggests governments can apply quick solutions to rid the problem. National aims to remove \u2018slums\u2019 has forced governments to focus on the physical problem - infrastructure and housing deficits - rather than understanding who lives in slums and solutions are needed for the dwellers. There remains a need to understand slums as a space of African urbanism. Slums will be cyclically reinforced unless aspects of power, poverty, and politics, are considered."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro05b","title":"","text":"Slums are not simply an articulation of inadequate supply of, and a hyper-demand for, housing. Alternatively, slums emerge through deterioration, crime, globalisation, and poverty. Therefore provision of housing does not provide the means for all solutions and may themselves again deteriorate into slums. Slums are heterogeneous; therefore their emergence is far from a universal causality.  Secondly, it remains debatable as to whether the needs of informal settlement dwellers are met through housing schemes, such as PAHF. In previous cases, such as in South Africa\u2019s NUSP [1] , inhabitants have been forced to relocate, causing disruptions to livelihoods. Finally, emphasis needs to be placed on building \u2018homes\u2019, not \u2018houses\u2019.  [1] See further readings: NUSP, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro06b","title":"","text":"Finance markets being promoted are introducing risk when insurance, and safety-nets, remain minimal. Investments in housing finance schemes needs to raise questions. Firstly, who organises micro-finance schemes? The idea of positive social capital within the community needs reflection; participation in microfinance is not democratic or available to all (see Jones and Dallimore, 2009).  Second, the provision of loans, and finance, raises concern over future repayment and whether the housing bubble proposed will remain stable. Employment within the informal sector means income is volatile and unpredictable - can housing payments be adapted to irregular income realities when profits are desired?  Incorporating slum dwellers into a financial-market will not remove slums and may simply get the dwellers into debt."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro04b","title":"","text":"History and tradition is reflected in the building styles adopted across Africa. Upgrading schemes changing the design of housing styles, are both replacing traditional knowledge and practices, but also potentially eco-friendly designs. Investment in housing by private and public actors is failing to incorporate traditional practices, meaning cities are being built through modernist planning ideals.  Slum dwellers need the right to build. Dwellers need to be provided with an enabling environment to use their own capacities to meet their own housing needs [1] .  [1] See further readings: Turner, 1978."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro03a","title":"","text":"Gender empowerment  Slum dwellers, particularly women, are affected by violence and crime. COHRE (2008) indicates women living in slums are at risk of violence and illnesses, such as HIV\/AIDS, due to insecurities experienced on a daily basis in personal and private spaces. Figures show that in Nairobi slums 1 latrine is shared amongst 500 people (Cities Alliance, 2013). Fearing to go to the toilet at night due to risk of rape, women\u2019s geographical experience of the city is constrained [1] . Therefore investing in houses, including building indoor toilets, provides empowerment, safety, and prevents gender based violence.  [1] See further readings: SDI, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro04a","title":"","text":"Tackling hazardous environments  Reports are frequently raised on fire outbreaks and hazards in slums. For example, a fire in Khayelitsha township [1] , Cape Town, resulted in five deaths and significant damage. The use of highly flammable materials, in a desire for fast construction, places slum-dwellers prone to risk.  National investment in housing, by providing materials, such as bricks, or training on how to build stable house designs, will ensure safety. Haphazard building can be controlled by investing in housing designs and inspections.  [1] See further readings: Lobel, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-con03b","title":"","text":"Slum dwellers in Nairobi are shown to pay high rents for low-quality housing - a reality identified by Gulyani and Talukdar (2009). Estimations show around $31mn USD was paid in the form of rents, by poor slum dwellers in Nairobi in 2004. Nevertheless the high-prices did not lead to the materialisation of improved housing. If a landlord can charge high rents in poor housing stock why should he invest in new buildings? Moreover if not done systematically the slum as a whole will never be brought out of poverty rather the poorest areas will simply move around to where those who have not had opportunities are staying."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-con01b","title":"","text":"As long as the stated objective is to tackle the issue of housing and remove slums, informal settlements, and squatting, who is investing is not important. The end goal is a key concern. The stated objective of the investor needs to work harmoniously towards removing slums for practical change to emerge."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-con02a","title":"","text":"Housing politics: who stays in slums?  What kind of city is desired versus being implemented by urban housing investments? The effect of decisions to relocate and design housing policies present implications for the social life of cities and whether existing inequalities are sustained.  For example, issues around housing in South Africa refer to a history of racial inequalities. While in Kenya concern is raised over ethnicity and political clientalism. Further, slum upgrading schemes need to provide an opportunity to change gender inequalities. For example, the precarious position of women in households may remain unchanged unless joint-titling is provided. Widows need to be assured the houses built will enable their freedom to stay out of slums following the bereavement of the male-head in the household.  Ultimately slums remain through upgrading programs. Whether the program provides houses in-situ or through relocation, slum dwellers are contained and kept in poor housing. Ultimately upgrading can often be beneficial to a small group not to all."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-con03a","title":"","text":"Alternative: Replacing slums by providing opportunities  Slum dwellers need to be granted rights to occupy and security of tenure. Slum-dwellers need to be provided with opportunities to progress - recognised as right-holders, or obtain a greater income.  A useful method may involve regulating the informal economy - where a large proportion of slum dwellers work - to provide minimal wages and employment conditions. Such a proposal will enable dwellers to enhance financial capital and reduce vulnerability through labour security. They will then have the money to upgrade their home. Alternatively, establishing a rental market provides an opportunity for replacing slums. A key myth within discussions on the housing problem suggests dwellers want to be homeowners and the rental market remains negative. However, renting enables flexibility to inhabitants and provides an income to landlords. Such funds can be invested within microfinance, community, schemes and individual developments to replace \u2018slums\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-con01a","title":"","text":"Investment is needed: but by who?  Housing is required, however, a crucial component within the debate is who needs to provide funding and be involved in decision making; does it need to be the government? The consequences of investment are influenced by the actors involved. With the need for quality control adamant, greater recognition of who is investing, and for what purpose, is needed. Allowing everything to be done by private firms will often mean evictions and houses just being made so as to increase rent or to sell to those who are not long term residents.  Otiso (2003) provides a case of slum upgrading in Mathare 4, which showcases the need for a tri-sector partnership - involving public, private, and voluntary actors, for upgrading to meet need and resolve shortages in housing. The question might go further; can the community fund upgrading itself, if so is it the best allocation of funding and how is payment to be kept equitable?"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiasfhbac-con02b","title":"","text":"Organisations, such as SDI and Cities Alliance, have recognised the diverse experiences of slum-dwellers and their multiple needs. The different programs are catered to local contexts, and work towards developing equal, and just, initiatives for the urban poor. The aim is to stop cyclic reinforcement of slums."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is important to remember that many areas of policy remain under national control and even those areas that are decided at the European level are agreed by the member states (9). The EU legislation, however, is important for creating trust between trading partners in the EU. Even if some of the laws seem trivial or unnecessary, it is the trust in the other countries\u2019 compliance even in these laws, which creates a stable market in which actors can expect larger laws and agreements to be honoured. The political aspects of the union therefore complement the economic aspects.  As regards austerity, the British are implementing their own austerity policies, without Commission involvement, and are doing just as badly as anyone else (10). On the contrary, someone needed to sanitise the Greek economy, and it was evident that they were not going to do so themselves. EU decisions, as a whole, are preferable. We should remember that when countries agree to austerity as part of a bailout it is not a violation of sovereignty; they have the choice to say no and probably default as a result.  (9) Bache, Ian; Bulmer, Simon; George, Stephen. \u201cPolitics in the European Union\u201d, 3rd edition, Oxford University Press. 17 February 2011.  (10) Giles, Chris; Bounds, Andrew. \u201cBrutal for Britain\u201d, The Financial Times. 15 January 2012."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro02a","title":"","text":"A European political union intrudes on its members\u2019 sovereignty  Many of the policies of the political union intrude on national legislation. In many cases, EU policies go against national traditions or redefine laws that were already functional. Occasionally EU policies even cause direct harm, when countries have less freedom to tailor them to their own conditions.  During the past few years, the Commission\u2019s powers have included monitoring Member States implementation of austerity policies in return for bailouts. However, everyone, including the IMF, agrees that austerity was unsuccessful and has seriously hampered recovery (7). Being a part of a political union inevitably means that sacrifices have to be made and this often intrudes on national sovereignty by reducing he room for manoeuvre of national governments.  Intrusion by the EU would be justified if it creates substantially better laws or solid trade benefits; however, regulations on the shape of cucumbers (8) do neither of these. The EU should not have legislative power on these areas.  (7) Blanchard, Olivier; Leigh, Daniel. \u201cGrowth Forecast Errors and Fiscal Multipliers\u201d, IMF Working Paper. January 2013.   (8) Geiger, Susanne. \u201cThe strange curvature of the cucumber\u201d, The German Times. January 2007."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is uncertain how many countries would realistically want remain in a trade bloc that does not support democracy as a core value.  Distilling the EU to a trade bloc that does not care about democracy and human rights would run the risk of allowing in non-democracies which in turn would merely alienate most of its current members. Many EU countries would not wish to be associated with non-democracies. Even only concerning trade, many would not want to make trade concessions to undemocratic countries whose regimes they cannot trust, as this might jeopardise the reliability of their trade with this country. (12) As such there would be very few potential new members as a result of moving back to a trade bloc. The better solution is to bring the standard of democracy in neighbouring countries up to the point where they can join the EU. To encourage other democracies such as Norway to join there could be concessions made such as on the common fisheries policy.  (12) Mansfield, Edward D.; Milner, Helen V.; Rosendorff, B. Peter. \u201cFree to Trade: Democracies, Autocracies, and International Trade\u201d, American Political Science Review. Vol. 94, No. 2. June 2000."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro01a","title":"","text":"A European political union is by necessity undemocratic  The EU is too large for a democratic structure. Since it deals not with citizens directly but with Member States, a question arises as to which agents should make fundamental decisions. Should every Member State get an equal vote, or a vote in proportion to the size of its population? If nation states get equal votes, a lot of people in larger states such as Germany, France or Spain may find themselves highly disenfranchised. On the other hand, if states get votes in proportion to the size of its population, countries such as Luxembourg will be forever hesitant to join, and rightly so, for its citizens would most likely be excluded.  The democratic deficit in the EU is no less visible in practice. The Commission is not directly elected (4); Council politics are confusing, take a long time, and grind to a halt whenever Germany is in the middle of elections (5); and the voting turnout for European elections, where MEPs are elected, is too low to be considered a fair representation of voters\u2019 views (6).  This poses a problem the moment the EU begins having legislative power in its Member States: we must not let more and more aspects of citizen\u2019s lives be affected by an institution that is increasingly undemocratic.  (4) \u201cAbout the European Commission\u201d, European Commission.   (5) Pop, Valentina. \u201cGerman elections to set EU agenda in coming months\u201d, Agenda, EU Observer. 2 September 2013.   (6)Dowling, Siobh\u00e1n. \u201cEurope\u2019s Unpopular Elections: Who Is to Blame for EU Voter Apathy?\u201d, Spiegel Online International. 3 June 2009."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is not true that not being fully representative makes a political entity undemocratic. In national politics we elect representatives to then make decisions on our behalf rather than have constant referenda, or even rather than require unanimity within Parliament. We expect not to have perfect representation. Furthermore, states that feel disenfranchised always have the option of leaving the EU; in fact it is much easier than it would be to leave an unrepresentative nation state. It is important to remember that Member States have consented to acting within this framework.  Even if the political entity is flawed, it can always be improved. Much more power could be given to the European Parliament, and there are already plans for the President of the Commission to be elected through the Parliament. Moreover if turnout is a problem for the elected legislature\u2019s legitimacy then this is a question of encouraging turnout which might happen organically due to increased relevance but if not could be managed if necessary through compulsory voting. Finally not being a flawless democracy must be weighed against not having an entity at all."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro04b","title":"","text":"The reason that there is such trust in the status quo lies in that these countries have collaborated in a political union for decades. Once this structure has been removed, it is easy to turn protectionist and to start trade wars. This is precisely the source of the failure of trade blocs such as NAFTA. Without the presence of a political body, it was possible for the US to develop protectionist policies within the trade bloc framework. By subsidising their agricultural products to outcompete Mexico\u2019s in Mexico itself, the US severely harmed its trade partner\u2019s economy (14). This is a harmful form of trade. The EU benefits from its current more balanced, controlled and mutually beneficial structure.  (14) Faux, Jeff. \u201cHow NAFTA Failed Mexico\u201d, The American Prospect. 16 June 2003."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro03a","title":"","text":"The EU as a trade bloc would be more inclusive to current and new members  The European project has gone too far for many European countries. For some such as Norway or Switzerland the EU has already gone far past the amount of integration they would be willing to allow. Even Member States are increasingly finding that the EU\u2019s intrusiveness and the cost of supporting smaller economies outweigh any potential benefit. Britain has expressed this discontent particularly strongly. (11)  This is a problem for the European Union. The problem of its alienated Member States is only likely to get worse as it seeks to continue expanding: new countries will have increasingly divergent values and will be harder to integrate while deepening will mean more countries are left behind. In practice, this means that the EU will face massive barriers to its goal of integration, and compromise all its other goals in the process. The best solution then is to go back to a stage in the EU\u2019s development that every country supports; the single market without the politics attached. This would bring the benefit of encouraging those who have been left out like Norway and Switzerland to join.  (11) \u201cGoodbye Europe\u201d, The Economist. 8 December 2012."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro04a","title":"","text":"A European trade bloc can succeed without a political union  The European area only consists of liberal democracies, which consistently honour their agreements. While historically a political union might have been necessary to further strengthen the Coal and Steel Treaty (the EU as it originated) between recently belligerent states, these countries can now obtain the benefit of the trade union through multilateral agreements. They simply have to regulate protectionism and tariffs so countries can remain competitive and barriers to trade remain low. In the event that a country does not comply, the external pressure from the other countries, together with soft sanctions, is more than enough to keep the trade bloc functional."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con03b","title":"","text":"The EU, in practice, is not a particularly consistent or effective promoter of democracy. It has been unsuccessful in countries such as Ukraine and Georgia in the European neighbourhood (18): this suggests the EU can only lead countries into democracy when the conditions already exist for this change to happen naturally.  The example of Hungary shows how powerless the EU can be when pressing Member States to stay democratic once they have got in, extremist parties have expanded, the independence of the judiciary threatened and freedom of the press reduced (19). Its structure may make it difficult to become a member without democratizing, but also difficult to justify expelling a Member State. Such cases damage the credibility of the EU as a promoter of democracy. But a change to a trade bloc would not damage the ability of the EU to promote democracy; states could still be forced to democratize as a condition of joining.  (18) Emerson, Aydin, Noutcheva, Tocci, Vahl and Youngs. \u201cThe Reluctant Debutante: The European Union as Promoter of Democracy in its Neighbourhood\u201d, Working Document, Centre for European Studies, No. 223. July 2005.   (19) Landry, David. \u201cHungary: \u201cTest case\u201d for EU democracy?\u201d, Budapest Business Journal. 1 August 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con01b","title":"","text":"While it might be true that some of these benefits are a consequence of the political union, all of these can be maintained in other forms. This is particularly evident by the fact that non-EU countries such as Switzerland and Iceland participate in these schemes, without becoming members of the political bloc. By disassembling the political union, countries can furthermore opt to participate in some agreements, while not participating in others, thus maximising everyone\u2019s benefit."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con02a","title":"","text":"Political union lends international credibility to a trade bloc  Trust is a valued asset on the international market. When multinational corporations trade in astronomical figures, they must be able to trust in the political goodwill of the governments of the trading partner, to ensure that all parties to the agreement honour its conditions. Major trading partners, such as China and the US, are immense markets where one body can represent the whole country; this is also the case with the European Union through the European Commissioner for Trade. Having one person who can negotiate for the whole bloc has immense benefits in terms of economies of scale and making the European Union a major power in trade negotiations. Without a political union that provides a framework that binds them all members equally Europe would lose out (16).  A single point of contact for trade negotiations is good because it gives the EU a larger market share, it allows smaller EU countries to benefit from the larger EU countries\u2019 economic gravity, and it contributes to long-term trade relations between the EU and other large international entities.  (16) \u201cEU position in world trade\u201d, Trade, European Commission."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con05a","title":"","text":"Political union has numerous non-economic benefits which a trade bloc lacks  Linking countries together politically is something we have done throughout history to preserve peace and ensure consistent channels of communication. Thanks to the European Union not only have millions of people gained greater freedom of movement and a freer flow of ideas: we have also secured very stable relations between a large number of states that previously were often at war with each other. All Member States, since they are tied both politically and economically, have a great interest in preserving stability in Europe and are incredibly unlikely to engage in hostility. Simple economics does not prevent war, as shown by the amount of trade before World War I, but political unions ensure that differences are worked out through dialogue. Because of this, it seems unthinkable for war to happen in the near future, an achievement that has been recognised by the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize (24). Eliminating the political union would compromise this great achievement.  (24) \u201cThe Nobel Peace Prize for 2012\u201d, Announcement, Prize Laureates, The Nobel Peace Prize. 12 October 2012."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con04a","title":"","text":"Political union is necessary for Eurozone recovery  What is needed for the Eurozone to flourish is an economic-political union with a single budget, so that capital can flow to where it is needed and fiscal policy can make up for imbalances between Member States (20). The alternative, as we have seen, is internal devaluation, which is a very painful and excruciatingly ineffective ways of achieving the same for a ridiculous price. (21) The European Union therefore needs to be looking forward to more integration rather than backwards to less. More integration can fix many of the problems in Europe; balancing regional disparities through fiscal transfers, eliminating the democratic deficit through a more powerful parliament, and preventing problems with nationalism by empowering regions.  (20) Traynor, Ian. \u201cEurozone should form political union, says Germany\u2019s ECB firefighter\u201d, The Guardian.   (21) Persson, Mats. \u201cCan the euro be saved through internal devaluation alone \u2013 and at what political cost?\u201d, The Telegraph. 28 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con03a","title":"","text":"The European political union is a tool for promoting democracy  The EU has the ability to demand certain conditions from candidate states before they join. It has explicitly set a democratic standard countries must satisfy to be members. This is a powerful tool that repeatedly has incentivised reform in terms of human rights and democracy. In particular, countries emerging from Former Yugoslavia and Turkey have engaged in structural reform during the last decade as part of the process towards becoming Member States (17). It is also stronger for enabling a common foreign and security policy which encourages cooperation between member states when setting policy ensuring all members work together. The EU, therefore, can be a strong force for democracy. This is good, not only because democracy is intrinsically preferable to non-democratic systems, but also because democracies will be more likely to trade and freer trade produces more economic benefits. If the EU were to be merely a trade bloc, it could not put pressure on its countries to stay democratic and endorse the free market. Thus, both in political and financial terms, the EU\u2019s role as a promoter of democracy should be defended.  (17) Dimitrova, Antoaneta; Pridham, Geoffrey. \u201cInternational actors and democracy promotion in central and eastern Europe: the integration model and its limits\u201d, Democratization. Volume 11, Issue 5. 1 June 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con05b","title":"","text":"The premise of this argument is that European countries are so connected that in entering war with another European country you would directly harm yourself. A European trade bloc is enough to ensure this, by interconnecting European economies to make war too expensive to be considered.  Furthermore, while it is clear that there have been no great wars since World War Two, conflicts have not entirely been prevented; to the extent that they have, perhaps it is not the EU\u2019s merit as the EU did not do much to prevent conflict in the former Yugoslavia (25); finally, perhaps the EU may even be blamed for the rise of nationalism and ensuing political tension in countries such as Greece so there is a growing potential for future conflict as a direct result of political union (26).  (25) \u201cThe EU and the Nobel Peace Prize\u201d, Charlemagne, The Economist. 12 October 2012.   (26) Mariam Onti, Nicky. \u201cSoros Blames Merkel For Golden Dawn\u201d, Greek Reporter. 7 October 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con01a","title":"","text":"European integration has been immensely beneficial to EU economies  The political union has had extensive benefits for the European trade bloc. Member States have the same legislation, for example, on labour conditions and protection of consumers (15). They also have similar property law. This allows products and ideas to freely move and be sold in different countries much more easily as there can be less bureaucracy at borders and companies can more easily expand abroad. The European political union also allows countries to streamline their production, students to access better international tuition, companies to move to countries where they can most boost growth, and cheap labour to move to where there is demand for their work as is currently the case with people from the Mediterranean countries moving to Germany for work, it is estimated that 80,000 south Europeans are moving to Germany every year (27). If the EU did not have a common legislation, its freedom of movement and thus its economic advantage would slow down.  (15) \u201cConsumers\u201d, Summaries of EU legislation, Europa.   (27) Connolly, Kate, \u201cYoung Spaniards flock to Germany to escape economic misery back home\u201d, The Observer, 7 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con04b","title":"","text":"The Eurozone is not the same thing as the single market, which is the foundation of the EU trade bloc. It would probably even be good for Europe for the Eurozone to be dismantled as it would allow currency devaluations to restore competitiveness to failing economies in Europe\u2019s periphery. The European trade bloc would certainly survive, and it is likely that the weaker economies would be in a much better position in the long-term because their products would be cheaper while still being a part of the single market (22). Further political union, on the other hand, would involve huge financial risks by eliminating any form of national flexibility to deal with economic problems. (23)  (22) See \u201cThis House Would Abolish the Single European Currency\u201d, Debatabase.   (23) Issing, Otmar. \u201cThe case for political union isn\u2019t convincing\u201d, Europe\u2019s World. 1 June 2013."}
+{"id":"training-economy-ecegiehbe-con02b","title":"","text":"The benefits outlined in the argument are only valid if the political aspect of the EU functions efficiently. The EU\u2019s undemocratic nature and unnecessary bureaucracy create uncertainty about whether the EU will even exist in the long-term. Adding to that the growing resentment to the EU in several Member States and looming referenda, the EU is an unstable entity.  A trade bloc, on the other hand, is not conflated with issues regarding sovereignty, national identity, immigration and other sensitive political issues. Therefore, it is likely to be considered safer by potential trading partners. When the EU is not a political agreement, foreign investors can have more trust that the countries involved now will remain involved in the future."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro02b","title":"","text":"President Bush took a series of extremely difficult decisions that were necessary for national security. Admittedly they were expensive but they made the world a safer place. His decisions on taxation ensured that all Americans benefitted from economic growth.  He had already done the heavy lifting all the Obama administration needed to do was allow the market to bring the economy out of recession. Instead he has interfered and regulated while constantly spending money that wasn\u2019t there on policies that weren\u2019t priorities.  There\u2019s no denying that the economy was in trouble when Obama got the keys to the West Wing but the job of being president is solving these things, not complaining about them. He wanted the job and has singularly failed to deliver.  Instead he has pursued a left-wing, interventionist agenda that believes that government can provide all the answers. Except there is a big problem: he has no experience of running anything. He was a junior Senator in an era where the country tends to turn to former governors to fill the Chief Executive\u2019s jacket; he simply doesn\u2019t know what he\u2019s doing [i] .  [i] Emmett Tyrrell. \"Barbour out on the hustings.\" The American Spectator. March 17th, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro02a","title":"","text":"After eight years of misrule under Bush, in the middle of an appalling recession expecting everything top get done in four years was always fantasy  Given the size of the challenges facing the Obama administration when he was elected, they were never going to be resolved in four years. Perhaps his largest mistake was not amending his \u201cYes, we can\u201d slogan with the caveat \u201cbut it\u2019s going to take a while.\u201d  A debt of $14tn was never just going to vanish like the morning mist, particularly in the depths for a recession caused, in large part, by the Bush administration\u2019s inability to regulate their friends in the banking industry, to start unnecessary wars and to give away tax breaks to the rich.  Equally, Obama came into the job at a time when most of the rest of the world was barely on speaking terms with the US and has had to rebuild bridges with all of the traditional allies beyond the ever loyal UK and Israel \u2013 although even they were looking edgy by the end of the bush era.  Even getting up to the starting line has taken the better part of his first term, it would be folly to hand the country and the economy back to the same people who caused the problem in the first place [i] .  [i] Steven Rattner. \"Ron Suskind\u2019s inaccurate revisionism.\" Politico. October 1, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro03b","title":"","text":"The republican primaries have yet to even begin so it is too soon to be writing off the whole party."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro01a","title":"","text":"Obama has delivered some remarkable reforms in fantastically difficult circumstances  On matters as diverse as healthcare to the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, President Obama has pulled a whole series of rabbits out of the apparently impossible hat he inherited from Bush.  Among other surprises he took the lead in a G20 summit that produced $1.1tn to act as a bailout fund. He\u2019s effectively resolved the catastrophes in two major conflict zones. He\u2019s ensured that poor families actually stay in their homes. Increased funding for student loans, extended unemployment insurance at a time when 7,000 Americans a week were losing their benefits and, on top of all that he\u2019s introduced a healthcare package that will give security and peace of mind to millions of Americans.  All of this has been accomplished in the face of extraordinary difficulties that were not of his making [i] .  [i] Athleen Rosell. \"Devil's Advocate: Re-Elect Obama.\" The Daily Titan. April 19th, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro01b","title":"","text":"Nobody denies that Obama talks a good game and that he came into office facing some big problems. However, the reality is that he simply hasn\u2019t stepped up to the plate. The economy is a shambles; unemployment is at over nine percent and only looks to grow, the debt is running at $14tn and the deficit is out of control.  His much vaunted healthcare plan is a rehash of Mitt Romney\u2019s plan in Massachusetts. His only solution to any problem is to throw money that the government doesn\u2019t have at it [i] .  Ultimately, he has proved himself long on rhetoric but very short on delivery. His campaign was based on an idea that he could provide leadership to a nation in trouble. Instead he has rushed after either verbosity or inaction and frequently both [ii] .  [i] Karl Rove. \"Why Obama Is Likely to Lose in 2012.\" Wall Street Journal. June 22nd, 2011  [ii] John Feehery. \"Opinion: Obama\u2019s fatal missteps.\" The Hill. October 3rd, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro03a","title":"","text":"Given the current state of the Republican field and the gravity of the challenges facing the US, Obama may well be not only the best but the only hope  The Republican Party primary campaign currently resembles a dismembered chicken\u2019s head in frantic search of a body. Palin, Trump, Perry\u2026 A string of gaffes followed by a collapse after collapse. [i]  Obama at the very least has the capacity to inspire confidence and the experience of four years in office. If, as seems most likely, the Republican candidate ends up being Mitt Romney, the former governor of Massachusetts, then he would represent a figure who is almost as unpopular in his own party as he is with Democrats.  Divided and divisive a Republican victory in 2012 would fragment congress, terrify the markets and worry international opinion. Furthermore, the only policy option they appear to have suggested for dealing with the economic mess is to do nothing except, perhaps, cut taxes some more; thereby increasing the deficit and further angering China.  Unless the republicans can come up with a genuine surprise (and the guy they voted against last time really doesn\u2019t fit that bill) then the voters are presented with one very harsh reality: Vote for anybody, as long as it\u2019s Obama [ii] .  [i] Dionne, E.J. Jr., \u201cThe Rise of the Reverse Houdinis\u201d, 13 October 2011 .  [ii] E.J. Dionne. \u201cGOP\u2019s Favorite Solution: Doing Nothing\u201d. Real Clear Politics. 13 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-con03b","title":"","text":"There is a perennial Republican attack \u2013 that Democrats cannot be trusted with national security. Obama has proven that to be untrue settling issues in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan. He has, however, managed to do it without offending anybody or having his effigy burnt on the streets in Canada and Europe [i] .  He has managed to re-forge the supportive attitude of much of the world towards combating terrorism and worked with leaders of other major economies to tackle the economic troubles in the global economy. President Bush was the one always looking for votes with his fake bonhomie and folksy charm for the voters back home. Obama by contrast treats his allies with respect and receives it in return and abundance. [ii]  [i] President Obama. \"Let's reclaim the post-9\/11 unity.\" USA Today. September 08, 2011  [ii] President Obama. \"Let's reclaim the post-9\/11 unity.\" USA Today. September 08, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-con01b","title":"","text":"Obama took the lead in putting together an international solution to the financial crisis. He has taken bold decisions to prevent the crisis turning into a full-blown depression, such as pushing through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 which was to give an estimated $787billion stimulus to the economy, [i] and has acted to control the worst excesses of Wall Street through the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. [ii] He has passed consumer protections legislation relating to credit cards and mortgages and established a framework to double US exports by 2015. He created and Advanced Manufacturing Fund to help the economy away from its addiction to the antics of Wall Street wide boys and return the focus to industries that make something tangible and, in the same spirit, rescued Detroit from its own suicidal tendencies.  He has freely conceded that unemployment is too high and is working to address that in the midst of an economic crisis that was not of his making. However, he is delivering public policy solutions in new and imaginative areas as opposed to the tired claims of Republicans that yet another tax cut would be a panacea for all economic ills.  [i] Recovery.gov, \u2018The Recovery Act\u2019  [ii] The Library of Congress Thomas, \u2018H.R.4173 Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act\u2019, 111th Congress 2009-2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-con02a","title":"","text":"Obamacare is neither one thing nor the other; even his flagship policy shows that Obama is always the politician and never the leader that the US needs  Obama managed to steer a bill that everyone disliked through Congress. He angered the Republicans, and lost the support of some democrats in congress, 39 voted against the bill, [i] as well as more than a few Democrat voters, and ended up watering it down enough that his own core supporters failed to show up for congressional elections in 2010. [ii]  He is reluctant to show leadership in any area of policy and when he does, as Mitt Romney puts it, acts more as \u201ca politician in chief than a commander in chief\u201d [iii] .  From the outset the President has been considerably more about spin than substance, usually trying to pass off his own mistakes as those of someone else. Of course all politicians do this but, usually, they also do something else as well; Obama is a one trick pony.  [i] Cannon, Carl M., \u2018The 39 House Democrats who Voted Against Their Party\u2019s Health Care Bill\u2019, Politics Daily, 8 November 2009.  [ii] Best, Samuel J. Best, \u2018Why Democrats Lost the House to Republicans\u2019, CBS News, 3 November 2010.  [iii] Mitt Romney. \"We need a leader, not a politician.\" USA Today. June 10th, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-con03a","title":"","text":"Obama has no clear foreign policy agenda  Obama\u2019s foreign policy to date has, frankly been a mess. He has failed to stand up to Iran and has allowed both Russia and China to take advantage of his \u2018reset\u2019 policy. He has ignored the growth of hostile powers while showing a similar disregard for America\u2019s Allies.  Simply by dint of not being Bush, Obama had the possibility of a huge upsurge in support overseas but he has tended to act more the clown than the statesman at international gatherings, for example insulting Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu at the G20 summit in Cannes; responding to French President Sarkozy he said \"You are sick of him, but I have to work with him every day.\" [i] Once again his desire to be the politician than the leader applies even at events where nobody has the vote. [ii] [iii]  [i] FoxNews.com, \u2018White House Silent on Conversation With French President Insulting Israeli Prime Minister\u2019, 8 November 2011  [ii] Nile Gardiner. \"Barack Obama\u2019s disastrous first 1,000 days.\" The Telegraph. October 18th, 2011  [iii] \"Goldberg: Obama, abroad, is adrift.\" LA Times. September 6th, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-con01a","title":"","text":"Obama has singularly failed to resolve Americas economic woes, which was the single largest issue when he was elected  Beyond the rhetoric, beyond the inspirational speeches, there was one issue on voters\u2019 minds when they supported Obama; the economy and jobs. He has simply failed to deliver.  He likes to portray himself as the master of public policy; a kind of philosopher king. However the reality couldn\u2019t be further from the truth [i] . On the issue that has dominated international discourse since his election, the economic meltdown, he has simply failed to deliver. He accepted a fiscal stimulus package that contained plenty in the way of pork but little in terms of practicality. He has failed to create jobs, the unemployment rate is still at 9% up from 7.8% when he became President. [ii] And Obama has singularly failed to tackle the deficit, which has increased by $4 trillion since he took office, [iii] apparently seeming more interested in spending on unnecessary projects.  [i] Jonah Goldberg. \"Where's the evidence Obama's a policy genius?\" National Review Online. October 9th, 2011  [ii] Rogers, Simon, \u2018US jobless date: how has unemployment changed under Obama?\u2019, Datablog guardian.co.uk, 7 October 2011.  [iii] Knoller, Mark, \u2018National debt has increased $4 trillion under Obama\u2019, CBS News, 22 August 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egppgghwgo-con02b","title":"","text":"The reality is fairly simple; Obama is a skilled politician, that is beyond dispute. However, he is also a respected constitutional scholar, the man who caught Bin Laden after eight years of Bush-bluster, who delivered the Democrats \u2013 and the American people - their holy grail of universal healthcare.  Contrast this with a Republican leadership who either can\u2019t remember their own policies or who seem to base them on assertions, such as the one made by Michelle Bachman that Jefferson and Mason, both of whom owned slaves, worked tirelessly to abolish slavery. [i] Mitt Romney the candidate the Rupublicans finally decided on is out of touch with ordinary voters, making gaffes such as saying his wife drives 'a couple of cadillacs'.  The contrast could not be clearer; at least the president knows the difference between the War of Independence and the Civil War and cares about ordinary voters.  [i] Roper, Richard, \u2018Bachmann, Palin should just admit gaffes, then move on, Chicago Sun Times, 29 June 2011."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is based on several potentially faulty assumptions first the trust fund may not be aimed at helping to prevent pollution of clean up afterwards; it may simply be given the role of generating the biggest possible return. Second it assumes that politicians see themselves as tied to the people so that they have a reason to prevent pollution, in practice in an autocracy or a faulty democracy this may not be the case. The desire may therefore be to invest as much money as possible in the trust fund and therefore to exploit the resource as fully and cheaply as possible. Even if the money is going into a trust fund the self interest is in polluting as we should remember that dictators are likely to believe they will still be around to see the benefits in decades to come."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro02a","title":"","text":"A fund would prevent pollution  Environmental damage is an example of the \u2018tragedy of the commons\u2019 where if a resource is not owned by an individual (or is free to all) then it will be overexploited. This is because it is in everyone\u2019s self-interest to use it as much as possible. The result is pollution; politicians and oil companies want to exploit the oil as cheaply as possible so they dump pollution on the local population.  For example, the $19 billion ruling handed down last year by a court in Lago Agrio, a town near Ecuador\u2019s border with Colombia, held Chevron accountable for health and environmental damages resulting from chemical-laden wastewater dumped from 1964 to 1992(1).  Putting oil wealth into a trust fund can help prevent this kind of abuse. There are two reasons for this. First if politicians are not getting an immediate benefit they will be less inclined to overlook pollution and there won\u2019t be money to buy support for drilling and pollution to continue. The second is that since the fund is meant to provide long term benefits and investments one of the things it can be doing is being devoted to cleaning up any pollution that is created thus protecting the future generations.  (1) Joe Carroll, Rebecca Penty & Katia Dmitrieva \u201d Chevron\u2019s $19 Billion \u2018Disaster\u2019 Gets Hearing\u201d, Bloomberg, 29 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro03b","title":"","text":"Not all politicians are incapable of investing for the long term. After the economic crisis in which the world saw the perils of \u201cliving in the moment\u201d, politicians will be more cautious in the way they spend money. Politicians have in the past been able to build visionary projects such as the EU, or high speed rail, or invest in reducing greenhouse gas emissions; in Europe, domestic greenhouse gas emissions fell by over 15 % between 1990 and 2010, due also to improvements in energy and fuel efficiency, so there is no reason to think they could not do so again.(1)  As a result, we do not need a separate group for taking these decisions for the politicians, as they would do it by themselves.  (1) European Environment Agency, \u201cMixed success for European environmental policies\u201d, Spiral, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro01a","title":"","text":"Oil wealth flowing to politicians discourages democracy  The wealth from oil, or other natural resources, holds back democratization as a result of the \u201cresources curse\u201d or \u201cparadox of plenty\u201d. Resources provide money, and money is what is needed to run a security state. When money can come from natural resources there is little need to tax the people, instead it becomes a \u201crentier\u201d economy where the dictator has resources to buy support without recourse to taxation. [1] It is essentially the opposite of the well-known idea \u2018no taxation without representation\u2019; if the money comes not from taxes but from oil what need is there for democracy?  This proposal takes away the option of having access to large oil revenues instead providing only a limited amount to the state rather than the pockets of the dictator. This prevents the buying of key groups such as the army and the policy who can be used to repress the population. It is not by chance that the only countries in the Arab Middle East that could be considered democracies before the Arab Spring never had oil; Jordan and Lebanon.  [1] Michel Chatelus and Yves Scehmeil, \u2018Towards a New Political Economy of State Industrialisation in the Arab Middle East\u2019, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2 (May, 1984), pp.251-265, pp.261-262"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro01b","title":"","text":"The biggest problem African countries face is instability whether from rebellions, coups, international conflicts, or terrorist organisation. The inevitable result is violence. What the population needs is safety to enable social benefits like healthcare and education. Money to pay for an army can therefore be a good thing. A good well paid professional force is needed to ensure stability and prevent conflict. Nigeria for example would surely have split apart without a large army; violence from terrorist groups like Boko Haram is increasing creating Muslim-Christian tensions.(1) Without stability there can be no democracy; votes can\u2019t be held, so financing for stability is a good thing.  Egypt is a good example that shows a well-trained army can work for the benefit of democracy; it first stood aside while the people overthrew Egyptian dictator Mubarak and then stepped in when it was believed Morsi threatened democracy.  (1) \u201cNigeria\u2019s troubles ,Getting worse\u201d, The Economist, Jul 14th 2012   (2) Siddique, Haroon, \u2018Egypt army was \u2018restoring democracy\u2019, claims Kerry\u2019, theguardian.com, 2 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro04b","title":"","text":"Having oil does not just provide the money to undermine, or prevent democracy taking hold; it also provides an immense source for corruption. Oil revenues provide a revenue stream that is not dependent on the people but simply upon the global market and oil production. In a country with no checks and balances, accountability or transparency the money will inevitably go to the elite. This is how Equatorial Guinea can be rich while having most of the population in poverty. Dictator Obiang himself is worth an estimated $700million or the equivalent of about 4% of GDP.(1)  A trust fund can ensure that money from oil goes to the poorest not the richest. It is managed outside the country and away from political pressure. If the government is corrupt and uses the national budget to its own ends the trust fund can provide the dividends as investment in individual development projects to ensure the money is used where it is most needed. All the time it can be transparent to show when and where the government is trying to influence it or get backhanders.  (1) \u2018The Richest World Leaders Are Even Richer Than You Thought\u2019, Huffington Post, 29 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro03a","title":"","text":"Long term benefits  It is very tempting to recklessly use an unexpected windfall of money immediately. But the best thing to do is to invest for the long term either to build infrastructure that will pay back its cost in future economic growth, or to invest it in funds that will continue paying dividends long into the future. The example of how Britain and Norway spent their North Sea oil revenues is very revealing: \u201cthe British governments spent their North Sea winnings on cutting national borrowing and keeping down taxes. Whatever came in went straight into the day-to-day budget. By contrast, for the past 16 years Norway has squirreled away the government's petroleum revenue in a national oil fund\u201d(1) which now has $810 billion in assets, almost twice the country\u2019s GDP, providing 5% returns.(2)  The advantage of such investment is that they will continue to bring income even after the oil is gone. The oil will therefore benefit future generations as well as the current one. A panel of experts which are immune to political influence is the most likely body to think about long-term needs of the country and devise a plan which can ultimately bring income for a long period of time.  (1) Simon Gompertz \u201cHas the UK squandered its North Sea riches?\u201d , BBC News , 8 October 2012   (2) Jonas Bergman, \u201cWorld\u2019s Biggest Wealth Fund Says Record Size Is Posing Hurdles\u201d, Bloomberg, 1 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro04a","title":"","text":"Preventing Corruption  Having oil does not just provide the money to undermine, or prevent democracy taking hold; it also provides an immense source for corruption. Oil revenues provide a revenue stream that is not dependent on the people but simply upon the global market and oil production. In a country with no checks and balances, accountability or transparency the money will inevitably go to the elite. This is how Equatorial Guinea can be rich while having most of the population in poverty. Dictator Obiang himself is worth an estimated $700million or the equivalent of about 4% of GDP.(1)  A trust fund can ensure that money from oil goes to the poorest not the richest. It is managed outside the country and away from political pressure. If the government is corrupt and uses the national budget to its own ends the trust fund can provide the dividends as investment in individual development projects to ensure the money is used where it is most needed. All the time it can be transparent to show when and where the government is trying to influence it or get backhanders.  (1) \u2018The Richest World Leaders Are Even Richer Than You Thought\u2019, Huffington Post, 29 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-con03b","title":"","text":"The change need not be dramatic; it need not apply to all oil revenues at once. For example only revenues from new fields could go into the independent fund while existing revenues to the government are maintained. Services therefore won\u2019t need to undergo contraction.  The impact on politics would also be minor; people elect those who get things done not those who blame others for their problems. Moreover all of the politicians will have the same constraint of a lack of funds so no single party will have an unfair advantage."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-con01b","title":"","text":"Politicians only think about themselves and only for the short term looking for re-election. The result will be the money used for populist measures even if it is not sustainable. The example of Greece proves this idea, as there public sector wages rose 50% between 1999 and 2007, despite having a deficit (1). Everyone wants more money, so will vote for such measures. They don\u2019t think about the question of how that money will be acquired in the long run so will go for unsustainable policies that kick the problem to future generations. Only an independent body will be immune to short-termism.  (1) \u2018Eurozone crisis explained\u2019, BBC News, 27 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-con02a","title":"","text":"An independent trust fund discourages investment.  When it is politicians who control both the investment and the amount funds being returned from that investment then they have an incentive to encourage more investment. They will want more exploration to find more resources, they will promote technological advances to be able to extract more from the same fields, and they will be willing to grant more production licences.  If on the other hand the money goes into a trust fund then the government and parliament has little incentive to encourage the market and every incentive to hold it up. The oil only provides a risk; unpopularity due to environmental impacts without any benefit in return.  The result will be that the costs of drilling will be seen in the environmental damage it causes while communities do not get any of the benefit as the money is being squirreled away \u2018for the future\u2019. This is hindering the market and so reducing the economic benefits to the country."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-con03a","title":"","text":"Keeping funds from government has negative consequences for spending  Let us not forget that in most of the cases when we talk about oil revenues, we are talking about very large sums of money, which can have an immense impact on the budget.  In countries where oil already contributes to the budget any change could be immensely disruptive to the government\u2019s ability to deliver services. If we take Venezuela as an example oil revenues account for 25% of GDP (1), with government expenditure of 50% of GDP (2) any drop in oil revenues would have an immense impact upon social policies such as education, health and welfare. For those where the funding would be new that country would be foregoing a potentially transformative sum of money that could help to eliminate poverty or provide universal healthcare and education.  Such a drop in funds flowing into the government would also have a huge impact on politics; politicians would block the implementation of a proposal that takes away so much revenue. If it did happen the independent fund would simply get criticism heaped on it as an excuse for why services can\u2019t be improved.  (1) Annual Statistical Bulletin 2013, \u2018Venezuela facts and figures\u2019, OPEC, 2013,   (2) 2013 Index of Economic Freedom, \u2018Venezuela\u2019, Heritage Foundation, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-con01a","title":"","text":"For the people and accountable to the people  A country\u2019s resources should be used democratically. The resources that are found under the soil belong to the nation and therefore they should be used for the benefit of the people. Even where there is private ownership extending to mineral and energy resources it is the responsibility of the owners to use those resources for the good of the nation. The only way for this to happen is if there is a democratically accountable body in charge of the funding; this has to mean a democratic parliament.  Putting the money in an \u2018independent fund\u2019 is not very accountable. Even if it is independent there is no saying what the money will be used for, or that the fund is not really designed to funnel money back to a few individuals."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiaghwpto-con02b","title":"","text":"Is it better that money should be wasted immediately or should the return be spread out? Any prudent population would choose the latter. Most populations are wary of untrammelled exploitation of natural resources of the kind being promoted for fear of the devastating environmental impact.  Recent failures of big companies to protect the environment, like Chevron(1), only add to this discontent and lack of trust. The case of Rosia Montana Gold Company which wants to get a permit to mine for gold in Romania is also very illustrative. Following the request of this company to exploit certain mountainous areas in the Carpathian, a series of nation-wide protests have emerged. Thousands of people from across the nation are going out on the streets on a weekly basis to protest against this project.(2)  An independent fund won\u2019t disincentivise investment; money will still be returned to the nation\u2019s treasury to be used by politicians but because it takes longer to flow into the treasury there is less incentive for reckless investment that disregards the people\u2019s will.  (1) \u201cChevron's Toxic Legacy in Ecuador\u201d, Rainforest Action Network,   (2) Vlad Ursulean \u201cStopping Europe's biggest gold mine\u201d, Al Jazeera, 27 Nov 2013"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro02b","title":"","text":"The opportunities for trade are severely limited because of barriers imposed by the international system. The arguments made by pro-trade proponents are often couched in the rhetoric of market economics. Yet the international trade arena represents anything but a free market. Instead, tariffs, taxes, subsidies, regulations and other restrictions operate to disadvantage some countries. Because of their weaker bargaining and economic power, it is typically developing not developed countries that are on the losing end of this equation. The agricultural protectionism of the EU and USA, in particular, means that developing countries are unable to compete fairly.  Furthermore, even if we were to accept that trade is more important, they should not be seen as alternatives; they can readily be complements. Trade is not inevitably magic and aid is not inevitably damaging. They depend on complementary policies. For example, aid-for-infrastructure programs that encourage trade could enable African exporters to compete with their Asian competitors 1.  1. UNIDO, Industrial Development Report, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Trade provides developing countries with an important basis for their own improvement.  To gear up to be successful trading partners, developing countries often need to go through a number of key changes. As well as developing their own economy and their manufacturing or service sectors, they may need to build trade infrastructure in other ways. For example, increased trade would focus their attention on such things as good governance, the benefits of a broadly stable currency and internal security. Although such developments may come about as a facilitator for trade, in the best case scenario they may be seen as structural changes which will have a trickle-down benefit for the broader society in the underdeveloped country. China for example has reformed its agriculture, created a large manufacturing sector and is increasingly moving into high tech sectors as a result of trading with, particularly exporting to, the rich world and as a result has lifted more than 600 million people out of poverty between 1981 and 2004 1.  1 The World Bank, 'Results Profile: China Poverty Reduction', 19 March 2010, Retrieved 2 September 2011 from worldbank.org:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Trade can be as short term as aid is; demand is very cyclical so if a country specializes in providing that good or service it can soon find that the product they are providing is no longer desired by consumers, or that there is a new product that makes what they provide obsolete. Even if there is a long term partnership between two trading partners it may simply mean tying the poor country into a different kind of dependency. Instead of the poor country being dependent upon handouts it is dependent upon the richer country buying its products or not trying to undercut it."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Financial contributions from the West have proved detrimental for Africa.  Between 1970 and 1998 when aid was at its peak, poverty rose alarmingly from 11% to 66%. This statistic alone suggests aid is damaging to African welfare. Africa began borrowing money in the 1970s when interest rates were low, but a rising rates in 1979 caused 11 African countries to default. Even after restructuring, they fell deeper into debt. While the Marshall Plan had been a success, the same approach would not favor Africa; as Dambisa Moyo contends, it lacks the required institutions to utilize capital efficiently. Debt servicing meant money was passing from the poor to the rich, leaving Africa in a precarious global position. Furthermore, countries which have rejected aid as an approach to combat poverty have prospered, indicating an additional correlation between aid and a ruined economy 1.  1 Edemariam, A. (2009, February 19). 'Everybody knows it doesn't work'. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from The Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro01b","title":"","text":"While aid appears unsuccessful for Africa, the approach itself should not be criticized on the basis of results in one continent. Western countries have simply provided African countries with generous payments allowing them to stabilize their economy. It many aspects of life, emphasis is not often attributed to what resources are available but how they are used. Though more guidance on how to invest the money may have been useful, Africa itself must take responsibility for how it has spent the money. The evil behind aid is allegedly overreliance: a country becomes dependent on receiving more and more aid. However, a focused approach to budget and organization of capital could certainly put aid to good use."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro04b","title":"","text":"Resources will only be scarcer without aid; further chaos and corruption will ensue. There would be no need for fighting should resources be shared out equally. If aid is transferred to governments there is surely a centralized method of doing so; aid itself is not the problem. Africa could escape the issue of receiving payments according to donors\u2019 vested interests by administering a list of causes for which it desires support, accepting contributions where demands fall exclusively within its categories. Again, aid is not detrimental but its careless distribution and allocation is."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Trade is a long-term basis for international co-operation.  Whereas aid is mostly short term, particularly for individual projects or limited to the donors priorities, the other partner in a trading relationship is likely to represent an ongoing market for goods or services. So when a developing country has the capacity to engage in trade with another country, there is a strong likelihood that that trade will blossom into an ongoing trading partnership. This will allow a firm basis for a flow of cash or goods into the developing country, largely independently of whether the developed country is doing well or badly economically at a given moment. This can be contrasted to the flow of aid. It tends to be less predictable, both because it is manipulated for political reasons and also because it can be quite ephemeral and so, if the developed country goes through a bad economic time, the aid budget makes an easy target for a reduction in spending as is shown by the arguments in the United States where the USAID Administrator Shah \"We estimate, and I believe these are very conservative estimates, that H.R. 1[bill passed by republicans in the house cutting foreign spending] would lead to 70,000 kids dying,\"1.European trade with Africa may have decreased, but China\u2019s demand for oil and raw materials is blossoming, and Africa is becoming a major supplier 2.  1 Rogin, Josh, 'Shah: GOP budget would kill 70,000 children', foreignpolicy.com, 31 March 2011, Retrieved 1 September 2011 from Foreign Policy  2 Moyo, D. (2009, March 21). Why Foreign Aid is Hurting Africa. Retrieved July 21, 2011, from The Wall Street Journal:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Systemic aid' is detrimental to African society  While aid threatens the economy, it also poses hazards for society in Africa. As Moyo contends, it merely fosters civil war as people fight over scarce resources that cannot feasibly be equally distributed. According to Dr Napoleoni, $1.6bn of $1.8bn in aid received by Ethiopia in 1982 \u2013 1985 was invested in military equipment1.  As a result aid is often limited; some donors refuse to make payments unless a proportion is devoted to a specified cause or if some act is done in return. Moyo refers George Bush\u2019s demand that two thirds of his $15bn donation towards AIDs must go to pro-abstinence schemes. Such requirements further impede Africa\u2019s ability to create a domestic policy and think for itself. Aid is solely to blame for its dependent state.  1 Herrick, L. (2008, May 14). Money raised for Africa 'goes to civil wars'. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from New Zealand Herald"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con03b","title":"","text":"Aid money is often misspent, even when handled honestly. By imposing solutions from outside, it favors big projects, \"grand gestures\" and centralization - all of which may be inappropriate, only benefit a small number of people, and suffer from intended consequences. By contrast, the profits of trade trickle down to the whole population, giving people the power to spend additional income as they choose, for example by reinvesting it in worthwhile local industries and enterprises."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con01b","title":"","text":"All countries have something to trade. Many of the world\u2019s poorest countries have a lot of natural resources so they can take part in trade. Even if a country does not have sufficient natural resources it still has people. In order to be able to take part in the globalized manufacturing industry it need only be willing to accept lower wages than its rivals. Alternatively if it is landlocked and has not opportunity to trade in manufactures it can invest in education in order to become a services hub. All states have a comparative advantage somewhere, they just need to find it."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con02a","title":"","text":"Trade requires infrastructure  Trade does not exist in a vacuum. It needs a wider infrastructure to support it, e.g. roads, railways, ports, education to produce capable civil servants to administer trading rules, etc. For example Malawi as a landlocked country needs roads and railways to link it to ports in neighboring Angola and Mozambique. Without foreign aid, developing countries are not able to develop this kind of support, and so cannot participate effectively in international trade.  This is even more the case when it comes to creating the necessary legal infrastructure and effective civil service. Aid is not always in the form of money - it may also be given through expert advisors who help countries prepare for the challenges of globalization. Such were the efforts in the 1960s by the developing world, but they were dropped in favor of poverty relief. If restarted and restructured, they would yield much better results, without the fear of commodity prices dropping, enabling African countries to eventually stand on their own two feet. Corruption is a potentially huge problem as recognized by Sudan People\u2019s Liberation Movement Secretary General Pagan Amum \"We will have a new government with no experience at governing. Our institutions are weak or absent. There will be high expectations. Hundreds of millions of dollars of oil money will be coming our way, as well as inflows of foreign aid. It's a recipe for corruption.1\" As a result it is not physical infrastructure that is needed but rather mechanisms for preventing corruption. Something that aid will always be much better at achieving than trade.  1 Klitgaard, Robert, 'Making a Country', ForeignPolicy.com, 7 January 2011, Retrieved 2 September 2011 from ForeignPolicy.com"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con05a","title":"","text":"The global economy is not welcoming to African players  The international trade arena represents anything but a free market. Instead, tariffs, taxes, subsidies, regulations and other restrictions operate to disadvantage some countries. Because of their weaker bargaining and economic power, it is typically developing not developed countries that are on the losing end of this equation. The agricultural protectionism of the EU and USA, in particular, means that developing countries are unable to compete fairly. In the EU, for example, each cow gets over 12 USD every day, which is many times more than what the average Sub-Saharan person lives on 1. Furthermore, Africa has yet to break into the global market for manufactured exports: this is very difficult precisely because of the success of low-income Asia.  1 BBC News. (2008, November 20). Q&A: Common Agricultural Policy. Retrieved July 21, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con04a","title":"","text":"Trade does not allocate resources effectively  Aid allows for money in a given country to be allocated well against need. At the micro- level as well as the macro, trade is an inefficient distributor of resources in a developing country. Under it, most if not all of the benefit of the trade will stay with a small elite of people who are often amongst the richest in the country in the first place. They may then move the money offshore again. Alternatively, if it remains within the developing country, it may well simply be used to buttress their own position in a way which further entrenches their social and economic position. So, the benefits of trade flow to few people and often they are the least needy. Aid, by contrast, may be targeted against specifically identified groups or areas on the basis of need, often being given through local groups, such as churches, mosques, health clinics, etc. If one looks at the Gini index (income and wealth equality) ranking, it is plain that the top (most inequality) is occupied by Sub-Saharan countries, fortifying the point 1.  1 Mongabay. (2010, January 25). Distribution of Family Income. Retrieved July 21, 2011, from Mongabay:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con03a","title":"","text":"Free trade is dangerous  Exposing fragile developing economies to free trade is very risky. There is a short-term danger that a flood of cheap (because of developed world subsidies) imports will wreck local industries that are unable to compete fairly. For example China\u2019s dominance in textile manufacturers has reduced the amount African countries can export to the US and Europe and is causing protests in Zimbabwe and South Africa against cheap imported Chinese clothing. 1  In the longer term economies are likely to become dangerously dependent upon \"cash crops\" or other commodities produced solely for export (e.g. rubber, coffee, cocoa, copper, zinc), rather than becoming self-sufficient. Such economies are very vulnerable to big swings on the international commodity markets, and can quickly be wrecked by changes in supply and demand. For illustration, one only needs to look at Greenfield\u2019s \u201cFree market-free fall\u201d 2. He writes: \u201cTrade liberalization encouraged increased production, leading to overproduction that pushed down prices, driving down farmers\u2019 incomes\u2026\u201d Combined with the protectionism of the West (the CAP in the EU) trade is dangerous for Africa. Aid is more stable and certain, and is better for frail countries.  1Africapractice, 'The Impact of the Chinese Presence in Africa', 26 April 2007, retrieved 1 September 2011 from David and Associates  2Greenfield, G. (n.d.). Free Market Free Fall. Retrieved July 21, 2011, from UNCTAD:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con05b","title":"","text":"Even if that were true, people naturally want to trade with each other, seeking to turn their particular resources or skills to their advantage. All too often trade is limited not because government action is needed, but because the government actually gets in the way with restrictive rules and statist controls. For example, regardless of their terms of trade with developed nations, developing countries could all become more prosperous if they removed the barriers they have erected to trade with each other. Putting the emphasis on trade rather than aid redirects attention from what developed states should or could be doing for the developing world, to what developing countries can and should do for themselves."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con01a","title":"","text":"Trade may not help those most in need.  Aid is linked to need. Trade rewards those who are able and willing to engage in trade. This involves a number of elements \u2013 as well as having the rights sorts and quantity of goods and services and being willing to sell at the desired price, a country may need to meet certain other criteria of a purchasing country. For example, that country may make demands in terms of corruption, human rights, political support at the United Nations, or any other of a large number of possible preconditions for a trading partnership. This will suit some countries in the developing world. But for others it will act as a bar to trade. They will therefore not receive the redistribution of wealth that is claimed for the global trading web. In this way, trade can distribute its benefits very unevenly. By contrast, aid can in theory be more evenly distributed and can be targeted against identified need rather than against the ability to compete in a trading marketplace. While aid has not always been targeted effectively and has sometimes been wasted there have been efforts to increase accountability and coordinate aid better such as the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness 1.  1 Development Co-operation Directorate, 'Paris Declaration and Accra Agenda for Action', OECD, Retrieved 2 September 2011 from oecd.org:"}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con04b","title":"","text":"This argument borders on the absurd. Trade is much more likely to yield benefits for the ordinary men and women of Africa, than aid ever hoped to be. Aid and its unregulated flow are precisely what kept numerous dictators in power (Zimbabwe\u2019s Mugabe, to name but one) allowing them to starve their people while taking weekend trips to the Ivory Coast in private jets. Trade, on the contrary, creates jobs, and those jobs create demand for other jobs - which is what matters to the ordinary person."}
+{"id":"training-economy-fegippghp-con02b","title":"","text":"Yes, trade might require infrastructure, but Asian countries required it just as much, maybe more than the African ones do. As Moyo argues in \u201cDead Aid\u201d all of this is to be achieved not by clinging to aid, but by creating a stable enough atmosphere with favorable terms for FDI. The Chinese have already invested billions of dollars in Africa and are likely to invest much more. That way, the African countries get both trade and infrastructure, without being at the mercy of developed nations."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro02b","title":"","text":"Corruption in any form creates inefficiency and \u2018drag\u2019 on the economy \u2013 it is an unofficial form of transaction tax and has the same effect on the economy.  The proposition focuses on the \u2018seen\u2019 detriment to public servants of losing income from bribery but ignores the \u2018unseen\u2019 benefit of ending bribery which is that the cost of living naturally falls with the cost of doing business."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Bribery is sometimes necessary for survival  \"Survival\" corruption, practised by public servants, is usually the result of small salaries, perhaps in highly inflationary economies, which do not allow them to make a living. Such as with the junior police officers mentioned in the previous point. Without bribery, public administration would collapse altogether as no one would have any incentive to get anything done. Thus the level of corruption is determined by the poor economic situation of the country as well as by the policy of the government."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro03b","title":"","text":"The developed world also carries part of responsibility for the situation in the developing world due to its role as the bribe-payer. After all, it is largely multinational corporate interests that supply the bribe payments. They defraud the citizens of developing countries who get a less good deal as a result, as well as the interests of shareholders at home whose money is diverted into the pockets of foreign officials. This shows the necessity of treating the bribing of foreign officials as a criminal offence in companies\u2019 home countries. It also requires the publication of all payments relating to foreign deals."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Individuals may have no choice  People are often made to give bribes to officials because of unfavourable economic, social or bureaucratic conditions. Officials may refuse to serve clients unless they are paid. For example in Delhi police officers regularly take lunch without paying and more senior officers take 10,000 each month to allow the restaurant to stay open late. [1] In those countries where state institutions are extremely corrupted, refusal to give a bribe may cost financial losses for business representatives or even health and liberty for citizens who need medical service and access to justice.  [1] Burke, Jason, \u2018Corruption in India: \u2018All your life you pay for things that should be free\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 19 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro01b","title":"","text":"The position of civil society plays a key role in reducing corruption. Its action in taking a moral stand against corrupted officials is an important precondition for effective anticorruption policy. Hence, citizens who put up with the necessity to give a bribe become a part of the problem. It is not just the case of public officials abusing their positions, but of people who are tempted to choose the easiest way out. Recent developments in India show how quickly expectations can change once people begin to make a stand. Anna Hazare went on a hunger strike creating a mass movement against bribery. Now there are websites such as ipaidabribe.com popping up to shine a spotlight on corruption. [1] The change is the first step in the fight against corruption.  [1] Campion, Mukti Jain, \u2018Bribery in India: A website for whistleblowers\u2019, BBC News, 6 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro04b","title":"","text":"In different cultures the lines between the acceptable and unacceptable are drawn differently. However, there are limits in all societies, beyond which an action becomes corrupt and unacceptable. The abuse of power for private gain and the siphoning off of public or common resources to private pockets should be illegal and unacceptable in all cultures and societies."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Bribery is sometimes the cost of doing business  Bribery is often inevitable for foreign companies that invest in those countries, where corruption is widespread and the conditions for business development are unfavourable. In Russia IKEA, the Swedish furniture company, was asked to pay bribes to get electricity for its stores and refused hiring generators instead, however the generators themselves had their price inflated, as a result IKEA suspended investment in Russia. [1] It illustrates that bribe giving is just a result of political system with weak democratic traditions. That is why many companies from developed countries, where corruption levels are low, tend to practise bribery in the developing world.  [1] Kramer, Andrew E., \u2018Ikea Tries to Build Public Case Against Russian Corruption\u2019, The New York Times, 11 September 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Bribery is only wrong under a Western-centric notion of corruption  Norms and values differ between countries. In many non-western societies gift taking and giving in the public realm is a matter of traditions and customs. Moreover, gift giving is a part of negotiations and relationship building in some parts of the world. It is hypocritical for the west to target developing countries for this as many so-called democracies are hopelessly compromised by business interests through political funding and lobbying.  The United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act bans large bribes but allows for the payment of small \u2018customary\u2019 sums in order to ease transactions. [1]  [1] The Economist, \u2018When a bribe is merely facilitating business\u2019 June 11th 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-con03b","title":"","text":"Foreign companies simply adapt to the political and economic conditions that exist in different countries. You cannot blame them for high level of corruption, which is the inner problem of the state. Involvement of business representatives in anti-corruption actions may contradict their interests by providing access to commercially sensitive information. If bribery was banned, companies would be unable to operate, resulting in less investment and so less development in some countries."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-con01b","title":"","text":"Corruption is not always wrong \u2013 it can sometimes be a reaction to greater injustice. For example, the Mafia arose in 19th Century Southern Italy as a mediating institution for an \u2018in group\u2019 facing autocratic tyranny. Outsiders are treated badly, but then most groups of people that we label as legitimate also treat outsiders differently to their members."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-con02a","title":"","text":"Variation in standards leads to a \u2018race to the bottom\u2019 of corruptibility  International standards on prosecution of companies who bribe foreign officials may encourage positive changes in national legislation as well, thus eliminating legal flaws to combat corruption. Different national rules and standards for combating corruption are not sufficient in the era of global investments and international business transactions. Variation between national standards enables corruption to spread. In much the same way as companies and rich individuals make use of tax havens and places where taxes are lower and less regulated, all but two of the UK\u2019s FTSE 100 of top companies are set up in tax havens, [1] companies wishing to hide illicit transactions may attempt to take advantage of weaker standards, wherever they are found. In India national laws have clearly not worked with relation to political parties as only one of 45 parties has provided information in response to the Right to Information act. [2] That is why international efforts to ensure the prosecution of the companies that bribe foreign officials are necessary in the current situation.  [1] Provost, Claire, \u2018Tax havens and the FTSE 100: the full list\u2019, Datablog guardian.co.uk, 11 October 2011,   [2] Times of India, \u2018One out of 45 parties disclose information on sources of funding\u2019, 20 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-con03a","title":"","text":"The demand for bribes would end if companies stopped supplying them  The risk of corruption demand greater transparency from business. Companies have a big impact on the social environment and they have a responsibility to address it. Co-operative actions between the business sector and state institutions are essential for effective anti-corruption policy.  Companies that gain a reputation for reporting officials asking for bribes will find that officials stop asking for them. In turn they need a legislative environment that protects their interests. The OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials is an important step forward in this sphere. [1]  [1] \u2018OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions\u2019, oecd.org, 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-con01a","title":"","text":"Bribery is morally wrong  Corruption is the misuse of power for financial gain. It takes the core harm from unequal distribution of wealth and the resulting disparity in availability of goods and services and magnifies it by including access to just and nominally public services. It must always disproportionately harm the least well off in society either by denying them what is theirs by right or by forcing them into financial hardship to obtain it."}
+{"id":"training-economy-egplhbbsa-con02b","title":"","text":"The bribery of foreign officials cannot be fought by international means efficiently if the level of corruption at the national level is high. It depends on the political will of national governments, the activities of civil society and other social conditions that exists inside the state. This explains why in many countries there has been little enforcement of the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials. [1] In most OECD countries the political will to prosecute major bribery cases is lacking. This explains why international efforts to combat corruption are inefficient.  [1] Transparency International, \u20182008 Progress Report on Enforcement of the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions\u2019, 22 June 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-pro02b","title":"","text":"The much-acclaimed simplicity of the flat tax in fact makes it too simple to properly reflect a very complicated reality. Goods and services vary in order to make them accessible to different people; there exist both luxury and economy versions of the same goods because companies recognise that people have differing ability and willingness to pay, and hence price these goods differently. It would therefore be strange for the state to tax both kinds of good at the same rate, as if their respective buyers had the same discretionary income and could both afford to buy the product with the additional uniform flat tax on it."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-pro02a","title":"","text":"Why a flat tax is simpler:  The current system of 'progressive' taxation whereby higher earners are taxed a higher percentage of their income requires the identification and administration of multiple different tax brackets spanning the entire spectrum of earnings in a nation. This causes a number of problems. The brackets themselves may be largely arbitrary cut-off lines based around round numbers, with no real justification as to why one person increasing their earnings by as little as \u00a31000 should lead to them suddenly being propelled to a new tax bracket, when the actual difference to their income is negligible in overall terms. Moreover, the administration of multiple tax brackets is incredibly complicated and difficult, requiring every taxpayer to record their income and expenditure (in order to try and qualify for tax exemptions and 'loopholes') in meticulous detail and then to properly express this on lengthy and complicated government forms, a process which can cause anger, frustration and alienation amongst taxpayers. [1] In order to try and prevent tax evasion, governments are consequently compelled to have large bureaucracies that oversee this process and comb through looking for fraud, a costly and lengthy process. This may be contrasted with a flat tax system by taking the example of taxes on salaries paid to employees by a company under both systems. In the status quo, a tax collector must be aware in detail of exactly what is being paid to whom in order to ensure that everyone declares their income truthfully, allowing them to be placed in the correct bracket. However, under a flat tax, a tax collector could simply withhold the fixed flat tax rate (for example 20%) of the total company's payroll without needing to know what was paid to whom, as every pound is taxed at the same rate and thus it does not matter what goes to whom. This would allow for a massive simplification of tax forms, and for the down-scaling of the costly government departments dedicated to administering the different tax brackets. Thus the simplicity of a flat tax is a significant advantage.  [1] The Economist Special Report \u201cThe case for flat taxes\u201d The Economist. Apr 14th 2005."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-pro03b","title":"","text":"This argument ignores the fact that there is still another channel for the allocation of resources, namely the government. In the given example of agriculture tax credits verses manufacturing without such credits, if resources did not go into agriculture because of the special credit, they would have gone not into manufacturing but into government (through the closing of loopholes, and thus the disappearance of a means of being taxed less), and government is far less neutral to the market than any other allocation. Therefore, if the argument assumes that the best allocation of resources is that which most closely resembles a genuinely free market, then in this example a flat tax produces a worse situation, as any allocation of economic resources in the private sector (no matter how 'distorted) is closer to the free market (and thus 'better), than if those resources went into the hands of the government. So if reflecting the market is the uppermost concern, a flat tax is a worse proposition as it brings into higher rates of taxation many areas which currently are less taxed ('loopholes'), thus distorting the market even further as even more resources fall into government hands"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-pro01a","title":"","text":"Why a flat tax is fairer  In a welfare state such as the United Kingdom, everyone enjoys the same access to services provided by the government, and so it should stand to reason that everyone should also contribute equally to the funding of those services. As not all individuals are equal in their wealth and income, it is impossible to do this on the basis of everyone paying in the exact same numerical amount of money. However, this parity can be achieved by everyone paying the same percentage of their income in tax to the government, and this is exactly what a flat tax is, and so equality in contribution to government services (mirroring equality in access to government services) is achieved. This principle of equality is important for two reasons: firstly, if wealthier citizens feel they are being unfairly burdened by the current requirement that they pay higher percentages of their income to fund government services than those on lower incomes, they may feel a disincentive to work hard (which creates wealth for the whole economy), or may even be driven abroad to states with lower rates of taxation or to tax havens. [1] Secondly this removes the ability of the majority of a population to engage in what the French economist Bastiat called 'legalized plunder', where they (as the majority of voters) assign higher percentages of income tax to the wealthy in order that the state may appropriate and redistribute it to them for their own use. [2] With a flat tax in place, there would be no ability for anyone to vote for a tax rise simply on other people and not on themselves, and thus such policies would receive more consideration and not be used by the majority simply to appropriate the property of others through the law. Thus a flat tax is fairer as it equalized the basis on which everyone pays for access to equal services, and prevents a poorer majority from victimizing a wealthier minority through punitive rates of income tax for the wealthy, which may cause them to flee the country for other states with less taxation.  [1] Ramos, Joanne \u201cPlaces in the Sun\u201d. The Economist. Feb 22nd 2007   [2] Bastiat, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric. The Law. Ludwig von Mises Institute. 2007"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-pro01b","title":"","text":"The aim of a welfare state is to allow provide access to vital services for all, but especially for those who could not otherwise afford them -to lift the burden of poverty somewhat. A flat tax, however, would actually increase the burden on the poorest. [1] For example, if under a progressive taxation system the highest rate of tax was 50%, and the lowest 10%, if tax revenues were to be maintained when switching to a flat tax system, then it would be impossible to simply extend the 10% rate of tax to all, as this would mean a large effective drop in revenue (as 40% less is collected from the top bracket with no gains anywhere), and so the rate paid by all would have to be somewhere between 10% and 50%, meaning an effective tax rise on the poorest and middle classes, while the richest receive an effective tax cut. This hardly seems 'fair' or in keeping with the aims of a welfare state, as the argument purports to serve.  [1] Ulbrich, Holley. \u201cFlat Tax Is Class Warfare\u201d. U.S. News & World Report. April 12, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-pro03a","title":"","text":"Why closing tax loopholes is good:  Tax credits, deductions and loopholes distort resource allocation in a market situation because people respond to the differing tax rates and so put more resources into the areas which the loopholes apply to than they would otherwise. For example, current tax credits for investment mean that more resources go into investment than they would in the absence of that credit, as the returns on the placing of resources in this area are higher than others (as it is subject to a lower rate of tax). A government may even set certain tax credits and loopholes which favour certain industries or economic sectors, such as agriculture, on the basis that this is politically useful (in winning votes), when this again distorts resource allocation in the economy. These distortions may prove harmful as they cause certain sectors to be over-valued or over-invested in due to their favourable tax status, to the detriment and neglect of other more highly-taxed areas (for example, manufacturing) which may in fact be the more economically sound. A flat tax would abolish all 'credits' and 'loopholes' (and the politically-influenced government discretion which decides who gets credits and who does not) and therefore restore genuine market conditions without these harmful distortions. [1]  [1] Rothbard, Murray. \u201cThe Case Against the Flat Tax\u201d, The Free Market Reader. Auburn. Mises Institute. 1988"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-con03b","title":"","text":"The status quo, whereby governments select what areas to tax and at what rate, leads to even more examples of regressive taxation than is alleged of flat taxes. For example, the so-called 'sin tax' on alcohol and cigarettes are designed to limit people's consumption thereof (and thus mitigate the harms of excessive consumption and abuse), but in fact have highly regressive results. This is because those on lower incomes are both more likely to consume large amounts of alcohol and cigarettes, and because this expenditure thus represents a larger share of their income. Consequently, by proportion the taxes on alcohol and cigarettes actually redistribute wealth from the poor to the rich. [1] Therefore there is no reason to believe that government discretion in what is taxed and how much actually leads to less regressive taxation; it may even be more so.  [1] Barro, Josh. \u201cAlcohol Taxes are Strongly Regressive\u201d. National Review Online. March 25, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-con01b","title":"","text":"This argument fails to account for the fact that elected governments are even worse at determining what is 'fair' when it comes to tax policy than the arbitrary circumstances described when the government has the option to tax different persons at different rates on the basis of their income. In effect this allows the less wealthy majority to decide what the 'circumstances' of the more wealthy minority mean they 'should' pay in taxes, which may in fact be inaccurate and based more upon a desire to 'punish' the wealthy and appropriate their resources for the majority in an unfair manner. This populist tendency in elected governments is what makes them so bad at deciding 'fairly' based upon 'circumstances', not sectional or class interests, and so why the power to set different tax rates to different people should be taken out of the hands of the government by instituting a flat tax."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-con02a","title":"","text":"Why tax 'loopholes' can be good:  Many of the so-called 'loopholes' which a flat tax would close, by ending the exemptions given when you engage in certain kinds of expenditure under the current income tax system, are actually positive features which incentivize 'good' economic behaviour. One of the great advantages from owning a home, for example, is the resulting ability to deduct mortgage interest payments from taxes. This makes owning a home more expensive, meaning a greater number of people will be able unable or unwilling to buy homes, and will thus be forced to rent instead. This harms their long-term economic prospects, as their mortgage payments would result in them eventually owning an asset whereas rent payments bring them no return, and as self-owned homes become in less demand, the value of the homes which hundreds of thousands of people have already spent decades paying mortgages for will plummet. This would also cause great harm to the construction industry as fewer people can afford to buy new houses. Another example of a useful 'loophole' is that profits and capital gains are currently taxed differently. Under a flat tax they would both be taxed equally, representing a kind of 'double taxation' which would hit most heavily new, young venture capitalists going into high-risk industries, and so will stifle investment and innovation. Finally, the current income tax deductions we allow for charitable giving would be 'closed' with a flat tax, and hence charitable giving would become less affordable and less attractive to most taxpayers. [1] Thus, the closing of these 'loopholes' will in fact disincentivize what we consider to be beneficial economic behaviour, leading to a worse economic state for everyone.  [1] Rothbard, Murray. \u201cThe Case Against the Flat Tax\u201d, The Free Market Reader. Auburn. Mises Institute. 1988"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-con03a","title":"","text":"Why a flat tax is regressive  'Regressive' means that a tax impacts upon the poor more greatly than upon the rich, and this is exactly what occurs with a flat tax. Because everyone pays the same percentage, both a rich and poor man would for example pay 10% of their income in tax. As the poor spend a greater percentage of their income on their basic necessities (such as rent and food) than the rich do, as the rich have far more discretionary income to spend on luxuries. [1] Therefore, the impact of a 10% tax upon a poorer person is far greater in terms of limiting their ability to buy things they may want or need than it is upon a richer person, and consequently the harm of taxing a poorer person at the same rate as a richer person is greater than the harm of taxing a richer person at a higher percentage. Even if the 'personal allowance' allows the poorest in our society to exempt their income from the flat tax (which, of course, offers no relief to the middle class, who now pay a greater percentage tax on their income), they will still be significantly worse off as a consequence of the sales component of the flat tax. This again stems from the poorest spending a greater percentage of their income on necessities, which are not currently subject to sales tax (VAT). Once these VAT 'loopholes' (such as on books, children's clothing and food) are closed, the poorest will be harmed as they have to pay out even more to obtain the necessities of life. Both These increased harms breed resentment and can lead to social disorder, as was seen in the UK in 1990 when an attempt to introduce a 'poll tax' (a form of flat tax, with everyone paying the same charge) led to severe rioting in London and caused the plan to be abandoned. [2] Therefore the regressive nature of a flat tax makes it undesirable and more harmful than current forms of taxation.  [1] Encyclopedia of Business. \u201cDiscretionary Income\u201d. Enotes.   [2] BBC On This Day \u201c1990: Violence flares in poll tax demonstration\u201d BBC Home"}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-con01a","title":"","text":"Why a flat tax isn't 'fair':  The arguments in favour of a flat tax argue that it is more 'fair' than other forms of taxation because it theoretically treats all persons and all forms of income equally by taxing them all at the same rate. This firstly fails to explain why any arbitrary percentage at which the tax is set is necessarily the 'fair' number and thus why everyone should receive the wonderful privilege of paying that exact number and not another based upon their income, expenditure and circumstances. The effect of the tax upon different individuals in different circumstances is thus key to the tax's supposed 'fairness', and to the undermining of this argument. For example, say both Mr Smith and Mr Jones earn \u00a350,000 a year. However Mr Smith is a young man with few assets who relies upon his personal savings to finance a future business, and Mr Jones is an old man who has already built up or inherited \u00a3500,000 in assets. There is no clear reason why it is 'fair' for them to both pay the same rate of taxation despite their vastly different circumstances and the effect that the tax would have upon each of them, as Mr Jones' built-up wealth is protected, but Mr Smith's ability to build up assets and start a business in the first place is undermined. Or take the example of a sick man and a healthy man with the same income, but one of whom thus has much higher medical costs to pay. In the status quo they can be taxed differently (by allowing for income tax deductions for healthcare expenditure), however under a flat tax they would both be taxed the same, and it this would severely harm the sick man. Therefore, it seems counter-intuitive that in a world where all individuals are not the same and rates of taxation impact in highly different ways upon individuals depending on their differing circumstances (over which they may have little control), that every individual should pay exactly the same rate of tax, as if they were all the same. That hardly seems 'fair'."}
+{"id":"training-economy-tppphwift-con02b","title":"","text":"This argument again assumes that governments do a good job of deciding what areas and sectors 'deserve' loopholes and which do not. The fact that the distribution of resources would change if we abolished certain tax loopholes is probably a sign that these areas have been artificially inflated in terms of their resource allocation by these very tax credits and loopholes, and should therefore be returned to market standards. The selection of many of these sectors for credits may well have been done not on an economic but rather on a political basis, for example in order to protect jobs in some sectors and help boost a government's votes at election time."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro02b","title":"","text":"NAFTA's harmful effects on American industry outweigh its benefits. Americans are not helped by lower prices if they lose their job and have no money. Furthermore, evidence shows the American jobs lost through NAFTA were largely high-wage manufacturing jobs, thereby exacerbating income inequality."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro02a","title":"","text":"The US has benefitted from NAFTA through lower prices and increased trade  The increase in low-cost Mexican goods has benefitted US consumers1, thereby improving the standard of living for working Americans. US exports have increased by $104 billion2, thereby bolstering manufacturing. While some jobs have been lost due to NAFTA, these have been primarily low-skill jobs; reducing the number of low-skill jobs in the economy allows the US to concentrate on more profitable, white-collar jobs. And even these low skilled workers benefit from having to pay less for their goods.  1 Marla Dickerson, \"NAFTA has had its Tradeoffs for the U.S.: Consumers and Global Companies Benefitted, but Critics See Pitfalls,\" Los Angeles Times, March 3, 2008.  2 Robert Scott, Carlos Salas, Bruce Campbell, \"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good for North America's Workers,\" Economic Policy Institute, September 28, 2006, 5."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is little reason to believe that NAFTA was a key agent in Mexican political change. In the time after NAFTA was signed, Mexico also experienced an economic crisis linked to a currency collapse1. Its president fled the country on corruption charges and drug-related corruption continues to plague the country. Mexico has had both good and bad political and economic experiences since the implementation of NAFTA, and it is impossible to say that NAFTA caused the freer elections in 1994 and therefore has been overall beneficial for Mexico.  1Paul Magnusson, \"Did NAFTA Backers Bamboozle America?\" Business Week, May 8, 2000."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro01a","title":"","text":"NAFTA has benefitted Canada.  Canada already benefited from having the world's biggest market next door and under NAFTA this benefit is expanded immensely. Under NAFTA, Between 1994 and 2003, Canada's economy grew at 3.6% annually, and employment has risen1. NAFTA has also help equalize agricultural flows between the US and Canada. NAFTA has given Canada an advantage in the US, the world's biggest market, as well as zero-tariff access to a wide variety of American products2.  1 Lee Hudson Teslik, \"NAFTA's Economic Impact,\" Council on Foreign Relations, July 7, 2009.  2 George Myles and Matthe Cahoon, \"Canada and NAFTA: a 10-Year Measure of Success,\" BNET, January 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro01b","title":"","text":"While Canada has experienced some economic benefits due to NAFTA, these benefits do not outweigh the harms for North America overall. Furthermore, as the Con discusses below, Canada has struggled to reconcile its environmental regulations with NAFTA, thereby hurting it environmentally, if not economically."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro04b","title":"","text":"If anything, NAFTA has harmed international cooperation by damaging the parties involved. Due to the continental free trade agreement, Mexican farmers have lost their livelihoods, American manufacturers have been laid off, environmental harms have increased, and the agreement has failed to create the job stimulus it promised. We can only hope that NAFTA is not a typical example of international cooperation, for such would not bode well for the international community."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro03a","title":"","text":"NAFTA has improved democracy in Mexico.  Trade liberalization has caused social upheaval that created greater demand for genuine democracy within Mexico1. The election of 1994 is considered to be the first free election in the modern history of Mexico2. In 2000, the first opposition president (not a member of the Institutional Revolution Party) since 1929 was elected3. Many scholars credit the liberalized economic environment fostered by NAFTA for this political development towards a genuine democracy4.  1Kevin Kelley, \"Good NAFTA?,\" Utne: The Best of the Alternative Press, 2011, 2.  2Renee G. Scherlen, \"Lessons to Build on: the 1994 Mexican Presidential Election,\" Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 1998, 21.  3Sam Dillon, \"Mexico's Ousted Party Tries to Regroup After Stunning Defeat,\" New York Times, July 13, 2000.  4 Geri Smith and Cristina Lindblad, \"Mexico: Was NAFTA Worth it: A Tale of What Free Trade Can and Cannot Do,\" Business Week, December 22, 2003."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro04a","title":"","text":"NAFTA has bolstered cross-continental cooperation.  By expanding their free trade regions to the entire continent, Canada, the US, and Mexico have demonstrated the plausibility of greater international cooperation. Although NAFTA is not on the scale of the EU, it similarly demonstrates the ability of nations to work together for mutual benefit, thereby increasing international cooperation. NAFTA helps create a secure North American continent where none of the states need be worried about the other members in much the same way as the European Union does in Europe. Competition and potentially wars are prevented through greater trade integration as is shown by European integration since the second world war."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con03b","title":"","text":"Corn is only one product in a complex trade system. While NAFTA has undoubtedly given US corn farmers an advantage, it has also benefited Mexican avocado famers- and everyone employed in the industry1. Automobile production has shifted away from the US and towards Mexico after NAFTA2. Each country cannot expect to export more of every product- what Mexico has lost in corn production, it has gained in other areas.  1Amy Clark, \"Is NAFTA good for Mexico's Farmers?,\" CBS, February 11, 2009.  2 Scott, Robert, Carlos Salas, and Bruce Campbell. \"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good for North America's Workers.\" Economic Policy Institute, September 28, 2006."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con01b","title":"","text":"The loss of US production jobs is part of a greater global trend; NAFTA is not responsible for this change. Mexico and Canada are responsible for only one-fifth of the growth in the US trade deficit. The rapid acceleration of technological communication has made outsourcing and offshore production easier than ever1, and the US is losing jobs to countries that do the work as a fraction of the cost.  1 Thomas L. Friedman, \"The World is Flat: a Brief History of the Twenty-First Century,\" (New York: Picador, 2007), 148."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con02a","title":"","text":"NAFTA has interfered with Canadian laws concerning environmental protection.  Under NAFTA, if foreign investors believe they are being harmed by regulations, they may sue for reparations under special tribunals1. Canada regulates commercial use of its lake and river water2, fearing ecosystem damage, and had previously banned the importation of a gasoline additive MMT3. Due to lawsuits brought by American companies Sun Belt Water Inc. and Ethyl Corporation, the Canadian government was forced to change legislation to allow these companies to conduct business. By compelling Canada to reduce its standards for environmental protection, NAFTA has failed to meet Canada's interests.  1 Joseph E. Stiglitz, \"The Broken Promise of NAFTA,\" New York Times, January 6, 2004.  2 \"The Sun Belt NAFTA Case.\" Sun Belt Water, 2004.  3 Kerr, Jim. \"Auto Tech: MMT: the Controversy Over this Fuel Additive Continues.\" March 10, 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con05a","title":"","text":"NAFTA has reduced workers' bargaining power.  In reducing barriers to imports and exports, NAFTA has shifted bargaining power in favor of producers, who can more easily relocate factories if workers in an area are too demanding. This allows more exploitation of workers, something that we should be preventing rather than encouraging. By allowing companies to move production across the US, Canada, and Mexico, NAFTA creates a disadvantage for workers in all three countries1. This essentially helps the rich get richer while making those who are poor, or middle class poorer increasing income inequality.  1 Scott, Robert, Carlos Salas, and Bruce Campbell. \"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good for North America's Workers.\" Economic Policy Institute, September 28, 2006."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con04a","title":"","text":"NAFTA has failed to give Mexico a competitive edge in the global economy.  Although NAFTA gives Mexico a slight advantage over its competitors, this edge has been insufficient; Chinese labor is still cheaper, and imports more goods to the US than Mexico does1. Real wages in Mexico have actually decreased 0.2% and income disparities between Mexico and the US have grown2. In failing to provide sufficient means for Mexico to compete with other developing nations, NAFTA has failed to serve its parties' interests.  1 Smith, Geri and Cristina Lindblad. \"Mexico: Was NAFTA Worth it: A Tale of What Free Trade Can and Cannot Do.\" Business Week, December 22, 2003.  2 Stiglitz, Joseph E. \"The Broken Promise of NAFTA.\" New York Times, January 6, 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con03a","title":"","text":"NAFTA was severely damaging to independent Mexican farmers.  US farm subsidies make it impossible for Mexican farmers to compete without tariffs; the so-called free trade act disadvantages Mexican workers because their American counterparts are not working under a free trade system1. While Mexican consumers benefit from lower prices, rural farmers tend to be much poorer than city residents in Mexico. Therefore this agricultural loss benefits the rich at the expense of the poor1.  1 Joseph E. Stiglitz, \"The Broken Promise of NAFTA,\" New York Times, January 6, 2004."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con05b","title":"","text":"NAFTA has reduced the cost of production. In a free trade economy, workers only have the upper hand in bargaining if there is a labor shortage. NAFTA does not deprive workers of something they are entitled to; if a company saves money by relocating production, new workers get hired, goods become cheaper, and consumers benefit. NAFTA may have disadvantaged certain workers, but it benefits other workers and consumers."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con01a","title":"","text":"NAFTA caused a severe trade imbalance between the US and its neighbors.  As NAFTA has allowed manufacturing to relocate south of the border and export to the United States the US has turned from having a trade surplus to a trade deficit. In 1993, the US had a trade surplus with Mexico and a stable deficit with Canada1. After NAFTA, the US' deficit with its neighbors increased $107.3 billion, creating a net displacement of over 1 million jobs. NAFTA was supposed to stimulate job growth in the US, not job loss; this failure demonstrates the harms that NAFTA has caused its members.  1 Scott, Robert, Carlos Salas, and Bruce Campbell. \"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good for North America's Workers.\" Economic Policy Institute, September 28, 2006."}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con04b","title":"","text":"NAFTA gave Mexico an edge; that does not mean Mexico's problems would disappear. Mexico's economic problems are the result of a low tax base and poor education, among other issues1. A trade agreement alone cannot solve a nation's complex socioeconomic issues. Though it is impossible to know what would have happened, it is fair to speculate that Mexico would import even fewer goods to the US if not for NAFTA. Therefore, even if Mexico has yet to become an industrial powerhouse, NAFTA can still be considered advantageous.  1 Joseph E. Stiglitz, \"The Broken Promise of NAFTA,\" New York Times, January 6, 2004"}
+{"id":"training-economy-epiahbnhba-con02b","title":"","text":"NAFTA allows companies to shed light on antiquated regulations. The advantages and disadvantages of MMT are contested1, and the Canada's grounds for prohibitions on the water exportation that Sun Belt wanted to do were questionable1. Environmental protection is necessary, but should be reasonable; if regulations are preventing business for no good reason, those regulations should be reconsidered.  1  \"> Jim Kerr, \"Auto Tech: MMT: the Controversy Over this Fuel Additive Continues,\" March 10, 2004, <"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro02b","title":"","text":"If retailers need to unload an item, it is totally within their rights to do that, as long as they don't use that item to trick consumers into buying more expensive items. Selling off goods at a low price, when not planned, would also not harm producers because it would not be a case of \"retail price management (RPM),\" in which producers agree to sell the product for less to the retailer."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro02a","title":"","text":"The use of loss leaders can have damaging social effects.  Typically it is less healthy products that are heavily discounted, such as alcohol and fatty, sugary and salty processed food. Heavily processed food should cost more than fresh food, but supermarkets don't use fresh fruit or vegetables as loss leaders. The practice tends to distort the shopping behaviour of many of the poorest in society, pushing them into poor diets that lead to obesity, bad dental health and poor nutrition. Banning the practice would make it easier to encourage healthier diets and lifestyles. Selling alcohol below cost price leads to large social harms caused by alcoholism and binge-drinking. The use of alcohol as a loss leader has already been identified as a problem in some countries. In New Zealand, for example, Foodstuffs and Progressive Enterprises\u2014the two companies that own all of the major supermarket chains in the country\u2014agreed not to use alcohol as a loss leader.1 Of course companies in most countries would not agree to such a promise without being prohibited by law, and even New Zealand should go a step further by prohibiting all loss leaders, as alcohol is not the only good that can cause social harm when it is artificially inexpensive.  1 Robert Smith, \u201cLack of loss-leader sales good news for brand conscious wine industry,\u201dNational Business Review (New Zealand), June 19, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro03b","title":"","text":"The use of loss leaders allows greater competition in the retail sector. It helps to drive the overall level of prices down by allowing much greater variation in pricing than would be possible if all goods had to be offered at cost price plus a small profit margin. Loss leaders also allow new entrants to make an immediate impact upon a mature marketplace dominated by a small number of entrenched incumbents, and so they are a valuable tool in maintaining price competition over the long term."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro01a","title":"","text":"Banning loss leaders would help suppliers  The practice of loss leaders is bad for suppliers. Farmers and manufacturers are often forced by the dominant retail giants to participate in discount schemes, sharing the losses at the dictate of the retailer. If they refuse they will be dropped by the retailer and cut off from the marketplace. The American Antitrust Institute has concluded that these \"Resale price maintenance (RPM)\" agreements\u2014which are agreed upon because retailers have all of the leverage\u2014are usually illegal.1 Prohibiting loss leaders will prevent this abuse of market dominance by the big retail companies and ensure a fair deal for our farmers.  1 John B. Kirkwood, Albert Foer, and Richard Burnell, \u201cThe American Antitrust Institute On the European Commission\u2019s Proposed Block Exemption Regulation and Guidelines on Vertical Restraints,\u201d American Antitrust Institute, September 27, 2009, page 5-6."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro01b","title":"","text":"The use of loss leaders in marketing campaigns can benefit both retailers and producers. Below-cost price offers are typically used at the introduction of new products in order to encourage consumers to try something for the first time. Whether it is a new vegetable or cheese, a different breakfast cereal or an improved type of soap powder, it is in the interest of farmers and manufacturers to build consumer awareness and market share quickly. In the long run, if consumers like the new product, prices will rise and both producers and retailers will profit from it, so it is quite reasonable that producers are asked to share in the costs of launching it at a discount."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro03a","title":"","text":"Banning loss leaders protects consumers from predatory marketing tactics.  Loss leader strategies exploit consumers by providing partial, misleading information. Giant retailers are not charities; they do not offer heavily discounted goods in order to help the poor. Instead they have calculated that they can attract price-conscious shoppers in with headline deals on a few loss-leading basics, and then persuade them to pay over the odds on a wider range of goods with big profit margins. In this way, loss leaders are a con trick on consumers who are bewildered by deliberately confusing marketing\u2013an onslaught of advertising and ever-changing promotions to the point that they are unable to compare the prices of rival firms and make a rational choice about where to shop. In their paper, \u201cLoss Leading as an Exploitative Practice,\u201d Zhijun Chen and Patrick Rey show how retailers use loss leaders to trick consumers by giving them incomplete information.1 And in the long term, by driving out smaller retailers and reducing competition in the retail sector, the practice can drive up the overall cost of essentials for everyone.  1 Zhijun Chen and Patrick Rey, \u201cLoss Leading as an Exploitative Practice,\u201d Institut d\u2019Economie Industrielle (IDEI Working Paper #658)"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-pro04a","title":"","text":"The prohibition of loss leaders would promote competition in the market.  Selling items at a loss is a predatory strategy used by large retailers to drive out smaller businesses, and so prohibiting them would protect competition. The practice is especially bad for small businesses, which cannot compete with the massive retail firms behind huge hypermarkets. These dominant corporations have the deep pockets to make a short-term loss in order to increase the volume of their sales. The whole basis of this policy is to drive smaller firms that cannot afford to offer loss leaders out of business. France has regulated its retail sector to prevent this kind of abuse of market dominance, in order to preserve its traditional shopping streets with family businesses. Other countries should follow the French example and ban loss leaders to protect small business and boost competition."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con03b","title":"","text":"It is not the government's place to force lifestyles on people. There is plenty of information around on what constitutes a balanced and healthy diet; people should be left to make up their own minds about what they buy with their own money. In any case, loss leaders make very little difference to the overall price comparison between processed and fresh food. Fresh food like fruit, vegetables and raw meat is expensive because it will soon rot and so it incurs higher transport and storage costs than processed food with a long shelf life. If governments want to change the balance in costs, they would be better off putting a tax on the unhealthiest foods rather than interfering arbitrarily in the realm of the marketing."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con01b","title":"","text":"The government should be able to stop large retailers from exploiting consumers and producers. There is no doubt that retailers have a reason for selling items below market value, but they are only able to profit from such an illogical strategy by exploiting consumers and producers. They trick consumers into buying more expensive items and they force producers who have minimal leverage to lower the wholesale price in order to take the loss leader price into account."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con02a","title":"","text":"Loss leaders are an inexpensive option available to less well-off customers.  The use of heavily discounted loss-leaders is good for shoppers, especially low-income consumers, who are most appreciative of a bargain that will help them stretch their limited budget. Customers are not stupid but instead canny consumers who are well able to see through the marketing ploys of the big retailers. Often price-conscious shoppers will stock up on the most heavily discounted items, but then go elsewhere for the rest of their shop. On the other hand, attempts in countries like France to regulate retailers have just resulted in protection for the existing firms that dominate the marketplace, and in a lack of competition, which drives up the cost of the weekly groceries for everyone. The same items can cost 30% more in France, where loss leading is banned, than in Germany where it is not and discount stores flourish1. Prohibiting this strategy will hurt consumers. 1: Economist, \"Purchasing-power disparity: French shoppers want lower prices, but not more competition,\" May 15, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con04a","title":"","text":"Selling at a loss is a practical way of shifting products that have failed to sell.  Retailers find themselves all the time with stock that they need to unload, that nobody is buying. This is especially a concern with items that have a sell-by date after which they may not be sold and so become worthless. In such a situation, selling below cost price is economically rational, as it means that the retailer realises some money on their stock rather than none at all. Visit any open-air market at 3.00 p.m. and you will see traders slashing the prices of unsold perishable goods for just this reason. If a retailer is going to sell an item below price level, it might as well use that item as a marketing device. Can you imagine the same market trader slashing his prices, but not shouting them to passersby? Sometimes retailers need to sell items below the price level, and they should be allowed to market them cleverly in order to make up for some of the loss in revenue."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con03a","title":"","text":"Banning loss leaders will interfere in the market, causing a net economic loss for society.  By requiring retailers to sell items at least at cost level, the government is creating an artificial price floor, which will cause prices to rise and create a net loss for society. Basic economics explains that artificial price floors upset the free market, costing a net economic loss for society, which will eventually be paid by all sectors involved.  The harm that prohibiting loss leaders causes to prices is well documented. According to a study by the French newspaper La Tribune, a basket of identical items costs 30% more in France than it does in Germany, partly because of the ban on loss leaders1. In fact, this is the very reason why Ireland repealed its loss leaders ban. The Minister for Enterprise, Trade & Employment said at the time, \"The single most important reason for getting rid of the [law] is that it has kept prices of groceries in Ireland at an artificially high level.\" Indeed, a study published in the British Food Journal concluded that the Irish law had caused prices to rise, and a separate study came to the same conclusion regarding France's loss leader prohibition. More generally, a report from the American Anti-Trust Institute shows that throughout history, such price laws have typically raised prices to consumers. 1 Economist . \"Purchasing-power disparity: French shoppers want lower prices, but not more competition.\" May 15, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con01a","title":"","text":"The government has no right to tell business what it should charge for its goods.  It should be up to business what it charges for its goods; if it decides to charge less than the cost price, it must have a market-based reason to do so, and it is not the place of government to intervene. It is well-known that consumers focus on the prices of a few staple goods, such as bread, milk, baked beans, etc. So it is rational for retailers with high fixed costs (in wages, rents, power etc.) to set the prices for these key products very low, and even make a loss on selling them, because it will entice more shoppers into their stores. These consumers will also buy other products on which the store does make a profit, and overall sales volumes and profits will rise."}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con04b","title":"","text":"There is a good and a bad side to loss leaders for consumers, but prohibiting the practice will always be worse. The obvious benefit to consumers of loss leaders is that they are inexpensive goods to buy. While it is possible that some people will then buy more expensive products because they have entered the store, every item has a price tag, so the customer is always aware of his decision, which means this is not a predatory practice.  Banning loss leaders, on the other hand, is catastrophic for consumers, as it will always result in prices rising. When announcing the repeal of Ireland's loss leaders prohibition, Irish Minister for Enterprise, Trade & Employment Miche\u00e1l Martin said, \u201cVery simply, the [law] acted against the interests of consumers for the past 18 years.\u201d1 Loss leaders have positive and negative effects on consumers, but a ban is all bad.  1 Ireland Business News, \u201cGroceries Order abolition.\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-economy-beghwprsci-con02b","title":"","text":"Loss leaders do not help lower-income customers because they are aimed at people who will buy a lot of expensive goods at the store. Patrick DeGraba of the U.S. Federal Trade Commission argues that, when retailers act strategically, loss leaders are aimed at highly profitable customers1. Retailers have no interest in targeting less well-off consumers, because they won't then spend a lot of money in the store. Therefore, they are more likely to offer a high-quality item below its true cost; this will still be too expensive for many people, though. For example, stores will offer discounts on high-quality turkeys at Thanksgiving, because people who buy them are likely to buy a lot of food. Loss leaders may provide discounts for some consumers, but prohibiting the strategy would not hurt lower-income customers. 1: Patrick DeGraba, \"Volume Discounts, Loss Leaders, and Competition for More Profitable Customers,\" Federal Trade Commission Bureau of Economics (Working Paper 260), 2003."}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-pro02b","title":"","text":"If Japanese ministers wish to exercise their freedom of religion then there are plenty of other Shinto shrines that they could visit. Freedom of religion does not mean that politicians should be free to do as they wish knowing that it will insult others. The consequences of attempts to exercise freedom of religion in a volatile situation can be immense; Ariel Sharon\u2019s visit to the Temple Mount while leader of the opposition was one of the sparks for the Al Aqsa Intifada. [1]  [1] \u2018Al Aqsa Intifada timeline\u2019, BBC News, 29 September 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-pro02a","title":"","text":"Freedom of religion  Everyone is entitled to freedom of religion and that applies to the Japanese as much as any other peoples. Yasukuni is a shrine in the Shinto religion \u2013 equivalent to a church - and was the center of state Shinto through the first half of the twentieth century. [1] Refusing to allow Japanese ministers to visit the shrine might therefore be said to be similar to barring British politicians from Westminster Abbey because there is a memorial stone to Oliver Cromwell there and as a result it could be interpreted as offensive to the Irish \u2013 Westminister Abbey\u2019s page notably avoids mentioning the Wexford and Drogheda massacres that are remembered by the Irish. [2]  [1] EDITORIAL \u2018Lawmakers must respect constitutional separation of religion and state\u2019, The Asahi Shimbun, 13 August 2013,   [2] \u2018Oliver Cromwell and Family\u2019, Westminster Abbey,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-pro03b","title":"","text":"If ministers were visiting the shrine as part of their private lives then they should visit anonymously not publically as part of the large events at the shrine. If an individual is going under the glare of the media to take part in a formal event then it is clearly they are not doing so just for their own private and domestic reasons because it is a public event. As a public event then the position of the person in question becomes important."}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-pro01a","title":"","text":"Every nation should be allowed to respect its war dead  Every nation should be allowed to honor its war dead how it wishes. Wars are horrifying times and atrocities are almost always committed by all sides. Japan\u2019s actions in its wars, particularly the Second World War were particularly brutal but this should not mean that Japans leaders should be banned from paying their respects to their ancestors who died fighting for their country. Most nations do this in one way or another. The difference is that Yasukuni has those who were convicted criminals enshrined but others also honor those who have committed acts that might be considered criminal. Perhaps the most extreme example is the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong right at the heart of Beijing where there are still big celebrations to mark his birthday \u2013 unlike Shintoism in Japan Maoism is still very much part of the ideology of the state. [1]  [1] Analects, \u2018Mao\u2019s birthday Party time, The Economist, 7 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-pro01b","title":"","text":"If the Japanese politicians wish to honor their war dead there is another option for them; they could visit the Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery. The Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery houses the remains of the unknown Japanese soldiers who died overseas during the second world war. [1] This is both a broader cemetery in that it honors civilians who died in the war as well as soldiers and narrower as it is only those remains that are unidentified so it does not contain war criminals as Yasukuni does.  [1] \u2018Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery\u2019, Ministry of Environment,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-pro03a","title":"","text":"Is a domestic matter for each individual  The vast majority of members of the government when visiting Yasukuni do so only in a private capacity and not as representatives of the government. As private individuals in their own lives anyone should be allowed to visits any such sites they wish. Minister Keiji Furuya argues \u201cPaying homage to the war dead is a purely domestic matter and it\u2019s not for other countries to criticize us or intervene in these matters\u201d and Prime Minister Abe agrees that it should not be a diplomatic issue \u201cAs for when I might go to Yasukuni Shrine, or whether I will go or not, I will not say as this should not become a political or diplomatic issue\u201d. [1] That there has been controversy and criticism even when it clearly is a domestic private matter, such as former Republic of China (Taiwan) President Lee Teng-hui visiting the grave of his elder brother in 2007 shows that critics, in this case the People\u2019s Republic of China, are simply interested in finding an opportunity to attack the Japanese government. [2]  [1] Slodkowski, Antoni, \u2018Cabinet ministers visit Yasukuni Shrine; Abe sends offering\u2019, Japan Today, 15 August 2013,   [2] Fujioka, Chisa, \u2018Taiwan\u2019s Lee visits Tokyo\u2019s Yasukuni war shrine\u2019, Reuters, 7 June 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con03b","title":"","text":"It is silly to argue that visiting a shrine makes a country look militaristic. Of course in most cases militaristic symbolism and militarism goes hand in hand but this is not the case here. Japan by its actions is not militaristic and no amount of visits to shrines will make it so. Japan is committed to a pacifistic constitution; Article 9 states \u201cAspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes.\u201d [1] Despite flashpoints with all its neighbours only 25% of the Japanese public want to increase Japan\u2019s defense capabilities \u2013 although this is rising. [2] It is notable that he Yashukan itself accepts that its position on the war is a challenge to the mainstream Japanese opinion. [3]  [1] \u2018The Constitution of Japan\u2019, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 3 November 1946,   [2] Hayashi, Yuka, \u2018As Tensions Rise, Pacifist Japan Marches Into a Military Revival\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 18 July 2013,   [3] Yoshida, Takashi, \u2018Revising the Past, Complicating the Future: The Yushukan War Museum in Modern Japanese History\u2019, Japan Focus, 2 December 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con01b","title":"","text":"Those going to Yasukuni are not going to honour the class A war criminals but the more than two million others who have given their lives for Japan. It is unfortunate that there are war criminals enshrined in the cemetery but it is wrong to conclude that because they are there those visiting must be visiting the war criminals."}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con02a","title":"","text":"Visits sour relations  The visits by senior Japanese politicians to Yasukuni are clearly a major issue in international politics that damages relations between Japan and its neighbours, particularly the People\u2019s Republic of China and the two Koreas. Whenever ministers visit there is a round of recriminations this is often accompanies by cancelling discussions and visits as in april 2013 when South Korean Foreign Minister Yun Byung Se cancelled his visit. [1] South Korean President Park Geun-hye notes \u201cIf [Japan] does not have the courage to face its past and does not take an attitude of taking care of its partners\u2019 pain, it will be difficult to establish trust to proceed toward the future.\u201d [2] Diplomacy is about trust, Yasukuni undermines it.  Even attempts to minimise damage by sending representatives, as done by Prime Minister Abe in August 2013, does not help repair relations with China responding \u201cIt does not matter in what form or using what identity Japanese political leaders visit the Yasukuni Shrine, it is an intrinsic attempt to deny and beautify that history of invasion by the Japanese militarists\u201d. [3] The only option is for all ministers to steer clear of the shrine and avoid sending offerings. It is not in Japan\u2019s national interests for them to go.  [1] \u2018Seoul cancels summit over Yasukuni visits\u2019, The Japan Times, 23 April 2013,   [2] \u2018S. Korea\u2019s Park: Japanese politicians hampering citizens\u2019 efforts to promote trust\u2019, The Asahi Shimbum, 15 August 2013,   [3] Mead, Walter Russell, \u2018China & Korea Condemn Japan over Shrine Visit\u2019, The American Interest, 15 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con04a","title":"","text":"Separation of Church and State  In most modern democracies there is a strict separation of Church and State. This is the case in Japan just as in the United States of France. The constitution states \u201cNo religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State, nor exercise any political authority\u201d and bans the use of public money on any religious institution. [1] Lawmakers, and in particular cabinet ministers, visiting the Yasukuni shrine break this principle. [2] The constitutionality of visits has been challenged before and was ruled to be in violation of article 20 of the constitution (quoted above) by the Osaka High Court in September 2005. [3] Clearly no state should have senior members of the executive regularly breaking its own constitution.  [1] \u2018The Constitution of Japan\u2019, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 3 November 1946,   [2] EDITORIAL \u2018Lawmakers must respect constitutional separation of religion and state\u2019, The Asahi Shimbun, 13 August 2013,   [3] \u2018Koizumi\u2019s Yasukuni trips are ruled unconstitutional\u2019, The Japan Times, 1 October 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con03a","title":"","text":"Makes Japan look militaristic  Ministers and MPs visiting Yasukuni makes Japan look much more militaristic than it really is. There are two reasons for this. The first is the class A war criminals who should not be honoured as it appears to be honouring their militarism. The second is that Yasukuni itself has an overt political mission that essentially promotes such militarism. In the Yasukuni\u2019s museum the Yashukan Japan\u2019s wars are portrayed as wars of liberation from Western colonialism and fights against bandits and terrorists [1] \u2013 exactly the same justifications used in World War II itself. The museum, and its close ties with the shrine, display the unreconstructed view that Japan was the victim of the Second World War not the aggressor. When politicians visit the shrine they are showing their support for this interpretation. This could be solved by making the museum much more balanced; admitting that Japan started the wars they were involved in, information about the massacres such as at Nanjing, and about some of the other horrors perpetrated such as the \u2018comfort women\u2019 and unit 731.  [1] Kingston, Jeffrey, \u2018It\u2019s time Japan acted to end the war over Yasukuni Shrine\u2019, The Japan Times, 14 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con01a","title":"","text":"Honouring war criminals is wrong  It is wrong to honour war criminals whose actions resulted in the deaths of thousands \u2013 or if you count the responsibility for the whole war in East Asia millions \u2013 of lives including the lives of Japanese citizens. The results were horrifying criminal acts. If Yasukuni is at all about remembrance then these individuals should not be enshrined and politicians certainly should not visit. Even Emperor Hirohito \u2013 Emperor during the Second World War \u2013 was opposed to their being enshrined. After the enshrinement of the war criminals in 1978 he stopped visiting the Yasukuni. He is quoted by Imperial Household Agency Grand Steward Tomohiko Tomita in his memoirs \u201cAt some point, Class-A criminals became enshrined, including Matsuoka and Shiratori. I heard Tsukuba [the chief priest before the enshrinement] acted cautiously\u201d However he questioned \u201cWhat\u2019s on the mind of Matsudaira\u2019s son [the chief priest at the time of enshrinement], who is the current head priest? Matsudaira had a strong wish for peace, but the child didn\u2019t know the parent\u2019s heart. That\u2019s why I have not visited the shrine since.\u201d [1]  [1] \u2018Hirohito visits to Yasukuni stopped over war criminals\u2019, The Japan Times, 21 July 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con04b","title":"","text":"The ruling in this case, as in others, was equivocal as it considered the problem to be that the visits by then Prime Minister Koizumi were in an official capacity. Koizumi put his name down as Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi which the court considered made it official. [1] If the visits had been considered to be in a private capacity it would have been ok. Most cabinet ministers when visit emphasize that they go in as private citizens not as state ministers.  [1] \u2018Koizumi\u2019s Yasukuni trips are ruled unconstitutional\u2019, The Japan Times, 1 October 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwvys-con02b","title":"","text":"The visits to the Yasukuni Shrine are mostly taken by the PR China and the Koreas as an opportunity to complain and bring up old wounds. Simply stopping visiting Yasukuni is not going to solve the fundamental problems in relations between these nations \u2013 disputes over Liancourt Rocks\/Dokdo\/Takeshima and Pinnacle Islands\/Senkaku\/Diaoyu or provide the demanded apologies over Japan\u2019s World War II conduct which in any case when offered tends to be rejected as not enough. [1]  Ultimately foreign relations between nations do not have to be linked to history; many countries put conflicting pasts behind them. If the other countries of North East Asia wanted good relations with Japan they would simply ignore these visits.  [1] AP, \u2018China dismisses Japanese apology for war aggression\u2019, USA Today, 22 April 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-pro02b","title":"","text":"Referring back to counterargument one, this again assumes the a priori existence of individual rights. Moreover, following this logic, as all individuals would, behind a \"veil of ignorance\", most certainly choose to live is a developed, prosperous nation, all developed nations would have the moral obligation to literally relocate the entire population of the developing world into their own countries. Simply because something may be seen as \"preferable\" to some people does not a moral imperative create.  Further, this experiment assumes universality of any conception of rights or \"human rights\". The subjective nature of what it means to be a human being between different faiths and cultures leads to different conceptions of what \"dignity\" means to humanity and thus enforcing the conception of \"dignity\" held by the militarily powerful on other states does not necessarily protect it, but in many ways can erode it."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-pro02a","title":"","text":"National sovereignty ends when human rights are systematically violated.  States violate their right to non-intervention through systematic human rights abuses by violating the contract of their state.  States derive their rights of control and on the monopoly of violence through what is called the \u2018social contract.\u2019 A state gains its right to rule over a population by the people of that state submitting to it their rights to unlimited liberty and the use of force on others in society to the state in return for protection by that state [1] . The individual is sovereign and submits his rights to the state who derives sovereignty from the accumulation of an entire population\u2019s sovereignty. This is where the legitimacy and right to control a population by force comes from. When a state is no longer protecting its people, but rather is systematically removing the security and eroding away the most basic rights and life of those citizens, they no longer are fulfilling the contract and it is void, thus removing their right to sovereignty and immunity from intervention.  The necessity of intervention in such a case comes from the desperation of the situation. Regimes that use the machinery of the state and their enriched elite against their populations hold all the wealth, power and military might in the country. There is no hope for self-protection for individuals facing a powerful, organized, and well-funded national army. In such a case, the sovereignty of the individuals need to be protected from the state that abuses them."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-pro01a","title":"","text":"Interventions can be small and successful.  It is the interventions that take a long time to succeed, such as Kosovo, or even fail such as Somalia, or those where many people do not buy into the justification such as Iraq that are remembered. However this forgets that there have also been many small successful interventions and sometimes the threat of intervention is enough. Sierra Leone is the forgotten conflict of Tony Blair\u2019s premiership in the UK. In 2002 Britain sent 800 paratroopers into Sierra Leone, originally just to evacuate foreigners from the country but became an intervention when the British helped government forces drive out rebels which may have saved many lives. However it may also have emboldened Blair to help with intervention in Iraq. [1] This example also shows that it is important to have support on the ground as the British were seen as being legitimate and there was a functioning government who could do the rebuilding. Where this luxury does not exist it is important not to do as happened in Iraq and disband the civil service and prevent those natives who are qualified from running the country even if they may have been implicit in the previous regimes actions.  Where possible as little force as possible should be used. In Libya NATO only committed airpower and supplied weapons so keeping the conflict as much a domestic affair as possible. Slowly as it becomes accepted that interventions will happen the threat will become enough. Sudan may well in part have accepted the secession of South Sudan due to the US backing of the peace deal in 2005.  [1] Little, Allan, \u2018The brigadier who saved Sierra Leone\u2019, BBC Radio 4, 15 May 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-pro01b","title":"","text":"Individual rights are created by the state and do not exist in a vacuum, nor do they exist outside of the realm of the existence of a state. To argue that a \u201csocial contract\u201d exists where one gives up their \u201crights\u201d to the state is to suggest that these rights somehow exist outside of the scope of the state existing, which they do not. States empower individuals to have the capacity to do things and thus allow for practical rights to exist. The rights they allow or disallow, whether \u201chuman rights\u201d or otherwise, are simply constructions of the state and its denial of certain rights is therefore in no way a breach of any contract or trust [1] . No state or external organisation has any right to decide what a state should or should not construct as its citizen\u2019s rights and therefore has no basis for intervention.  [1] Burke, Edmund. \"Reflections on the Revolution in France.\" Exploring the French Revolution. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jun 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-pro03a","title":"","text":"This deters future human rights abuses.  The use of force sends a strong message to oppressive regimes that their behaviour will not be tolerated.  Human rights abuses happen around the world because there is no mechanism to stop it. Oppressive regimes thrive simply because there is no real, coherent deterrent to their abuses. Sanctions target their populations not their personal enrichment they gain through siphoning off money from domestic industry, diplomatic sanctions have no tangible impact on states and peacekeepers are useless when there is no peace to keep. The only true deterrent to regimes around the world is the danger that a strong military rival from outside will intervene and stop them and remove them from power.  Sending a strong message that the international community can and will intervene in the cases of human rights abuses seriously increases the costs in regimes' cost-benefit-analysis of state behaviour and deters them from committing human rights abuses for fear of military defeat from abroad."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-con03b","title":"","text":"Most human rights abuses are motivated by ideological factors that are not rationally calculated through a \"cost-benefit-analysis.\" Much of the world's human rights abuses are committed along ethnic or religious lines and thus are not open to incentives and disincentives but are rather absolutist obligations they think they have from their religion or ethno-cultural beliefs.  Moreover, most interventions are costly, damaging for the intervening forces and are generally unappealing to domestic populations in the states that are intervening. As such, the political will for intervention is usually quite low and not feasible. Most regimes will know this and thus take this \"message\" from the international community with a grain of salt and therefore have no impact on their actions."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-con01b","title":"","text":"This is unlikely to happen in the majority of cases as not all countries have an anti-Western bias and not all intervening forces have to be Western or identifiably Western. Moreover, the best way to gain the support of a population is to tangibly impact their lives and demonstrate the commitment to their protection and their cause. The best solution for anti-intervention force bias comes with the intervening force itself when real people see troops fighting in a real way to protect them and their rights. There is no more powerful way to build trust than to save a member of someone's family or community in front of their eyes. Thus, this is a self-correcting issue. Although there may be initial issues with backlash from the region, most people will welcome those who are risking their lives to save them and their families."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-con02a","title":"","text":"Force does more harm than good.  The use of force is incredibly damaging to the people you are trying to protect.  Military intervention inevitably leads to further casualties and loss of civilian life. All warfare has civilian costs due to imperfect strategic information, the use of human shields and the simple fact that more bombs, troops and guns leads to more violence and thus more death of those caught in the crossfire. Adding to this the propensity of forces to hide among civilian populations and, often, the lack of identifiable military uniforms, leads to further human costs and prolonged guerrilla warfare.  Adding to human cost is the infrastructural costs of prolonged warfare, particularly seen in interventions including bombing campaigns, leads to prolonged and sustained damage caused by the use of force both during war and in reconstruction.  For example, the NATO bombing campaign in Kosovo in 1998 led to 1,200-5,000 civilian deaths [1] .  If we are aimed at protecting the human rights of individuals, the massive loss of human life, and sustained damage to basic infrastructure necessary for the functioning of the state means the use of forces furthers human rights abuses, not stops them.  [1] \"Kosovo: Civilian Deaths in the NATO Air Campaign.\" Human Rights Watch. United Nations High Commission for Refugees, n.d. Web. 7 Jun 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-con03a","title":"","text":"This is an illegitimate violation of national sovereignty.  Human rights are a social construct that are derived from the idea that individuals have created on the subject. States empower individuals to have the capacity to do things and thus allow for practical rights to exist. The rights they allow or disallow, whether \u201chuman rights\u201d or otherwise, are simply constructions of the state and its denial of certain rights is therefore legitimate practice of any state [1] .  The imposition of one state\u2019s conception of what rights should or should not be protected is in no way morally justifiable or universally applicable. Different religions and cultures create different constructs of human dignity and humanity and thus believe in different fundamental tenets and \u201crights\u201d each person should or should not have.  It is not legitimate to impede upon another state\u2019s sovereignty due to subjective consideration imposed upon the less powerful by the superpowers of the global system.  [1] Burke, Edmund. \"Reflections on the Revolution in France.\" Exploring the French Revolution. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jun 2011. <  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-con01a","title":"","text":"Foreign intervention fragments the conflict.  The use of force by foreign agents fragments conflicts which perpetuates the war. The countries who are likely to and historically have participated in humanitarian intervention are developed Western nations such as the US, UK, Canada and France either unilaterally or under organisational banners such as NATO. In the vast majority of the world, the West is not well-liked and the education systems, media and local history have created negative perceptions of the West as \"imperialists\" and colonialists. Intervention can often be seen as \"neo-colonialism\" and the West trying to assert power to change regimes inside other countries around the world. This, combined with the inevitable human cost of the use of force, turns local populations against the intervening forces and allows government forces to cast any resistance movements that cooperate with the intervening forces as traitors to their country.  This is both bad in terms of causing large military opposition from both sides of the conflict against the troops who are intervening, but also fragments the conflict. Resistance movements splinter into those cooperating with the intervening forces and those who aren't. This fractures the resistance movements, reducing their chances of success and reducing the possibility of ceasefires by fragmenting the sides of the conflict making it hard to determine who effectively represents who at the negotiating table.  A good example of this can be seen by the fragmentation of Sunni and Shi'a factions in Iraq post-intervention and the further entrenchment of Sunni opposition to the Shi'a after the Western forces specifically enriched the Shi'a through power and wealth for their cooperation1.  1 \"Iraq in Transition: Vortex or Catalyst?\" Chatham House 04.-2 n. pag. Web. 7 Jun 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilpws-con02b","title":"","text":"Although there are some subjective elements of rights, there is generally a consensus amongst most people that fundamental human rights, such as being alive, are universally good. Although we should not impede sovereignty for subjective things, genocide, ethnic cleansing and other systematic abuses of human rights are things that are universal and thus should be protected for all people around the world."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is no appetite for, and little interest in, the outside world in the North. Those reunions that have been organised have been established by the South. As far as the citizens of the North are concerned they are living in a utopia that is the envy of the world. There is little evidence that North Koreans are clamouring for reunification, although there is some appetite for it in the South, it is diminishing as the generations that remember a united country die and the younger generations take a look at the cost of doing so.  It is also highly questionable what either party would get from the union. The North would gain little except mass unemployment as they are simply not equipped for a 21st century economy and the south would get all of the social unease that usually accompanies mass unemployment. Talk of a shared culture and heritage is all very well but simply doesn\u2019t pay the bills in is a fairly dubious claim at best \u2013 the languages are now unrecognizable to each other and the last sixty years have eradicated anything but the most romanticised views of an ancient and honorable past that never existed.  Neither party brings any noticeable natural resources to the deal and the skill sets of each society are now so vastly different as to be mutually exclusive. There simply is no economic advantage.  Politically the merger would look set to cause disaster, the last thing that the South\u2019s new and somewhat fragile democracy needs is the sudden addition of millions of unemployed citizens with no history of participating in a democratic process. It would confer second-class status on those from the North for generations to come and be more likely to create a situation that looks like Israel\/Palestine than one that looks like Germany."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro02a","title":"","text":"Kim Jong Un is unlikely to consent to any form of unified government that does not include him and his family  Although the regime in Pyongyang has expressed an interest in a reunified country, progress has been painfully slow. It took twelve years to get from initial contact to the first meeting. It seems likely that any suggestion of reunification is more a negotiating ploy than emblematic of any serious commitment.  If reunification is to be achieved, it will happen in spite of the current leadership in the North rather than because of it.  The continued separation of the two Koreas is, in many ways, an accident of history. They were only divided in 1945 for administrative convenience. If the Soviet and American leaderships had been able to develop a more sensible agreement then the two would never have been separated in the first place.  This means that for the sake of administrative convenience sixty years ago, four thousand years of history has been torn apart.  From the perspective of Korean culture and the Confucian beliefs that underpin it the nations should be reunited. It is clearly in the interests of the citizens in the North, whether they are aware of the fact or not. It is an idea that speaks to natural justice but is obstructed by the fact that one half of the country is run as the private fiefdom of one family. The only realistic way it will happen is through military intervention to compel the North and remove Kim Jong-Un and his cronies."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro03b","title":"","text":"Although the famines in North Korea are now an annual fixture and are routinely exacerbated by the regimes whimsical refusals to accept food aid, it is difficult to see how the situation would be improved by what would probably be a long and protracted war followed by permanent unemployment.  South Korea has no welfare state to speak of and retired people live off the income of the working \u2018middle\u2019 generation.  Mostly the situation works well but it does assume that at least somebody in the household is capable of getting a job at some point.  Per capita incomes are approximately five per cent of those to the South.  Although it is possible to make a moral argument that the world has a responsibility to avert another famine in the North, they certainly do not have the moral authority to impose, asked and unwanted, a solution that runs the very real risk of making things worse for citizens on both sides of the 38th parallel.  It is questionable as to whether the South has the right to meddle in its neighbours affairs for the rest of the world, en masse, to take it upon itself to do so is as lacking in moral authority as it is in economic credibility."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro01a","title":"","text":"North Korea represents a clear danger to its neighbours and their allies and that is unlikely to change  [1] Tania Branigan The Guardian 23 November 2010  [2] Green, Shane, \u2018North Korea  North Korea is virtually the definition of a rogue state. It remains technically at war with the South and frequently this manifests itself in acts of aggression. In any other situation the regime bombing of Yeonpyeong island would have been considered an act of war and met with a military response [1] . The regime\u2019s relentless pursuit of nuclear weaponry poses a very real threat. The regime has tested missiles at least capable of reaching Tokyo and Seoul and has indicated a desire to be able to reach Washington, [2] James Cartwright, vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is worried that they will be able to hit the west coast within a few years. [3] It seems reasonable to assume that, with the limited resources of the state being spent on these two goals, rather than feeding the people, the regime will ultimately succeed in their ambitions. Waiting until they can actually bomb North America or Europe would make Kim Jong-Un or his successor far too secure. Although it seems unlikely that he would ever mount an attack with conventional weapons, access to an appropriate delivery system and a nuclear warhead would make his removal by military means virtually impossible. Removing him from office before this happens is essential for the security of the region and the world.  [1] Tania Branigan The Guardian 23 November 2010  [2] Green, Shane, \u2018North Korea threatens to attack US\u2019, The Age, 8 March 2003  [3] Barnes, Julian E., \u2018U.S. may be within N.Korea missile range in 3 years, official warns\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 17 June 2009  threatens to attack US\u2019, The Age, 8 March 2003  [3] Barnes, Julian E., \u2018U.S. may be within N.Korea missile range in 3 years, official warns\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 17 June 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro01b","title":"","text":"North Korea may well be a dangerous state with an unstable leader but neither the regime nor the nation is suicidal. There may be a large military but it simply lacks the resources to mount an invasion.  The occasional demonstrations of military prowess have far more to do with negotiations about aid than they have to do with a genuine military threat to the South.  It is inconceivable that North Korea would take any significant military action without the agreement of Beijing and it is inconceivable that any military action would achieve more than a gnat bite from the point of view of either the American or Chinese military. Although Kim Jong-Il may be a master of sabre-rattling as a form of brinkmanship it is staggeringly unlikely that the sabre would ever be unsheathed.  It is worth noting that the idea that Pyongyang would commit financial suicide by attacking their main form of financial support \u2013 South Korea \u2013 is relatively ridiculous. The shifting relationship between the two Koreas has more to do with the varying level of political machismo in Seoul than it has to do with the realities of the possibility of military intervention or confrontation."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro03a","title":"","text":"Despite the tyranny of Kim Jong-Un, the control he exercises over his people has eliminated the possibility of revolution  There is grinding poverty in the North as well as brutal repression and all the other trapping of a military dictatorship. The only alternative future for the North is of a failed state going economically and socially in the opposite direction from the rest of Eastern Asia but now armed with nuclear weapons.  The security threat this poses to the region is terrifying.  However, it seems unlikely that the regime has any intention of surrendering their absolute power and the people are unlikely to remove him however bad things get, North Koreans do not have access to the tools such as mobile phones and the internet that made the Arab Spring possible. [1] Instead the people will continue to be fed a diet of propaganda and not much else.  As well as the security implications there is a simple issue of morality, in any other situation where the actions of a government were impoverishing a people to, quite literally, the point of starvation, the world would feel moved to act.  It is as clearly in the interests of North Koreans not to starve to death by the hundreds of thousands as it is in the interests of the South not to see similar numbers irradiated by a bomb on Seoul.  [1] Zakaria, Fareed, \u2018Zakaria: Will the North Koreans rise up?\u2019, CNN World, 14 November 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-con03b","title":"","text":"Although the younger generation in South Korea doesn\u2019t have the hunger for reunification of their parents and grandparents, very few are hostile to the prospect per se, they are only concerned about the cost.  It seems unlikely that this would in any way reflect the \u201850-53 war which was a battle between the US, the Soviet Union and China and just happened to be hosted on the peninsula and to its huge cost.  One of the advantages of involving China is that it would be the clearest possible demonstration to the South Korean people that the superpower was committed to the long process of rebuilding their mutual neighbour.  This answers several of the possible objections. China gets the benefits of security and South Korea gets an important ally in the process of rebuilding the North."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-con01b","title":"","text":"China has an enormous interest in not having an unstable nuclear power on its doorstep. It also has an interest in Pyongyang doing nothing to upset the region\u2019s relationship with the West. That in and of itself should be enough for China to at least increase the trade and support it gives to North Korea. China is already investing in North Korea, such as at the port of Rason, [1] it would want to protect these investments, Chinese firms main criticism of operating in North Korea is the business environment something that unification would improve.  The same can be said for Japan and the other Asian Tigers. Rates of growth in North Eastern Asia have been spectacular in recent years and do not look set to diminish in the long term.  It is also worth noting that the estimates for the costs of reunification vary and $5trillion is on the upper end. Also that is the cost for getting the North to where the South is now. It took the South 60 years. North Korea would be following the same path as part of a larger and richer nation and could as a result do it faster. The North has land for development that is desperately lacking in the south and a large pool of cheap labour whose living standards would be increased dramatically by the association. Even just accepting the food aid sent by the international community would be huge progress on the current situation.  Clearly North Korea is not going to solve all of its problems over night but simply not getting much worse every year would be a start.  [1] Wong, Edward, \u2018Tending a Small Patch of Capitalism in North Korea\u2019, The New York Times, 12 October 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-con02a","title":"","text":"Forcible \"liberation\" is contrary to the principle of self determination  The absence of a civil society in North Korea makes it very difficult to know if there is a great upwelling of dissent in the country but there is certainly very little in the way of evidence of it. For the same reason, there is no obvious government in waiting, there is nothing that could take over from the triad of party, army and state that currently runs the country except and imported elite from the South.  As a result an uninvited military intervention the people of North Korea would end up, in effect being ruled by a ruling elite that they don\u2019t know.  The influence of the regime is everywhere in the North and an occupying force would need to attempt a process similar to the disastrous de-Ba\u2019athification actions in Iraq. The results do not seem likely to be any different.  Replacing a heavily armed rogue state with a similarly heavily armed failed state would not seem to represent much in the way of progress.  A rogue state can, at least, be mostly constrained by China, a border region that is part of a united Korea in name only offers no such opportunities for persuasion and coercion. Instead it would represent a \u2018badlands\u2019 causing difficulties for all around it on a daily basis with rampant crime taking the place of economic activity."}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-con03a","title":"","text":"There is little interest in unification among young people in South Korea  There is one very obvious historical example which speaks to attempts to unite Korea by force: the 1950-53 war. It seems unlikely that even the most ardent supporter of reunification south of the border would be keen to repeat that fiasco which had at least 910,000 battle deaths and total death toll up to 3.5million. [1]  In addition, the younger generations have much less interest in the proposal than their parents and grandparents did.  As a result the grand coalition would run the very real risk of one of the component parts actively opposed to the proposal and the other half at the very least unhappy about it.  The assumption that the North Korean army will simply roll over or melt away is reminiscent of the ideas about swift victories in Iraq and Afghanistan and so it seems unlikely that the US public would be too keen to sign up for a second Korean War.  Ultimately to work this proposal needs the support of the peoples of North and South Korea as well as those of, at least, the US and China. There is precious little evidence that any of those things are true.  [1] \u2018Inter-State War Data\u2019, Correlates of War v.4.0, 1816-2007 , \u2018Korean War\u2019, Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century"}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-con01a","title":"","text":"Reunification of the Korea peninsular is unaffordable  Estimates of the cost of reunification vary wildly but one thing is clear, they\u2019re all very large. One recent estimate put it at $5 trillion \u2013 or $40,000 per capita for South Koreans for 30 years. [1]  The economy of the North is virtually non-existent, it was never that healthy even when Moscow was propping it up, in 1992 it collapsed completely. Now only the military has any money at all. A whole series on unfinished and unnecessary vanity projects are the only thing resembling an infrastructure and roads and factories would simply need to be built from scratch.  Although it is tempting to make the comparison with the reunification of Germany, the two situations are very different. Incomes in the East were about one third to one half of those in the West and the population was about a quarter that of its more populous neighbour.  The population of the North is about half of the South and incomes are at about 5 per cent. [2]  The Republic of Koreas simply could not pay the bills and so the burden would fall on other nations, presumably China and the US.  Such a commitment would seem unlikely, it would be fantastically unpopular in the United States and unlikely to be supported for more than a couple of years. In the case of China, since they have shown little interest in developing many of their own backward, rural provinces it seems unlikely that they would commit to someone else\u2019s.  [1] Beck, Peter M., \u2018The Cost of Korean Reunification\u2019, Atlantic Council, 7 January 2010  [2] Ibid"}
+{"id":"training-international-agdhwiafrk-con02b","title":"","text":"There are certainly difficulties in seeing how an independent North Korea could be reasonably expected to joined the global community of nations. However, that is not the case here. There are still ties between the North and South, of blood and kindred if nothing else, two potent forces in Korean culture and Confucian thought.  The situation is different from Iraq and the lessons of the De-Ba\u2019athication process appear to have been learnt; that middle ranking, and often senior, apparatchiks do not necessarily have a loyalty to the former regime. De-Ba\u2019athication was much more extensive than its equivalent in post-communist Europe where generally only those over a certain level were excluded [1] while after World War II very few Japanese were excluded from the bureaucracy. [2] It seems unlikely that the mistake would be repeated.  The closest analogy to where the North is now is not the oft-cited East Germany but South Korea\u2019s own prodigious economic growth. On the basis of which there should be huge optimism at the prospect of reunification.  Reunification looks almost inevitable as the state quietly implodes. The leadership in North Korea are not fools, they see the economic data and know that change is needed. There is even talk of not accepting Kim Jong Un\u2019s designated successor.  As a result reunification can take place after a long period of decline which leaves the country needing even more effort and money to rebuild or following decisive action.  There is every reason to suspect that there is genuine dissatisfaction in the North and certainly the accounts and actions of defectors would suggest this to be the case.  [1] Williams, Kieran et al., \u2018Explaining Lustration in Eastern Europe: \u2018A Post-communist approach\u2019\u2019, SEI Working Paper No 62, 2003, p.2  [2] Arato, Andrew, \u2018The Occupation of Iraq and the Difficult Transition from Dictatorship\u2019, Constellations, Volume 10, Number 3, 2003, p.9"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro02b","title":"","text":"Africa has witnessed significant economic growth since the inception of the \u2018War on Terror\u2019, and it is predicted that between 2013 and 2023 there will be an annual increase in GDP of 6% a year [1] . This implies that US military assistance to help counter-terrorism activities will not be needed in the future to same extent.  In addition, the emergence of the African Union\u2019s composite peacekeeping force has created an army with counter-terrorism abilities. This force draws from multiple countries which reduces the cost for each member, creating an economically viable African force.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Africa rising: A hopeful continent\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro02a","title":"","text":"African states can\u2019t afford the full cost  Africa is the least developed continent in the world and will struggle to independently maintain a specialised counter-terrorism force. Thirty four of its fifty four states are classed as \u2018least developed countries\u2019 [1] . The result of poor funding and bad governance is a decreased efficiency of security and military services in these states. In turn, this has resulted in destabilisation of the region. Wages, training, and military equipment are expenses which few African countries can afford alone. Kenya, for example, had to disband its Police Reserve unit in 2004 as unpaid officers had turned to corruption to ensure a decent wage, despite the need to combat terrorism in the state as shown by the attack on Nairobi\u2019s Westgate shopping mall [2] . Aid from the United States enables these African states to field financially viable forces which can then participate in counter-terrorism. Before military aid was cut to Egypt in 2013, the US provided $1.3 billion annually to support one of the strongest militaries on the continent [3] .  [1] The World Bank \u2018Least Developed Countries\u2019  [2] Boniface,B., \u2018Kenya to revive police reservists in Garissa to fight al-Shabaab\u2019  [3] BBC \u2018US withholds Egypt military aid over crackdown\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro03b","title":"","text":"Other actors are gaining strength in the counter-terrorism scene. Despite its weaknesses, the AU has participated successfully in counter-terrorism actions such as that of Darfur and Somalia. Other Western actors have also presented themselves as an alternative. In 2012 France intervened in Mali and prevented extremist Muslim and Tuareg separatists from gaining control of the state. The US\u2019 response to this same incident was limited in contrast demonstrating numerous alternatives to AFRICOM."}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro01a","title":"","text":"Specialism of the United States in counter terrorism  The United States has one of the most elite and experienced counter-terrorism forces in the world, Africa could only benefit from the help they offer. Branches of the US military which specialise in counter-terrorism, such as the US Navy SEALs and Delta Force, receive rigorous training and have gained experience from numerous operations. Many African states lack the ability to train and utilise such forces, which is why US help is welcome. US military advisers were sent to Uganda to help combat the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army [1] (LRA) and assisted with \u2018an impact disproportionate to its size\u2019 [2] . Between 2011 and 2013, the LRA\u2019s attacks were halved and the conflict\u2019s death toll decreased by 67%. The experience that these forces provide is visibly valuable for Africa\u2019s counter-terrorism activities.  [1] Shanker,T., \u2018Armed U.S. Advisers to Help Fight African Renegade Group\u2019  [2] BBC, \u2018US forces join jungle search for Kony\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro01b","title":"","text":"The use of US Special Forces does not guarantee success in counter-terrorism operations. These forces have made mistakes in the past, as demonstrated by the failure in the battle of Mogadishu. Despite two years in the field, the US assisted African forces have still not found Joseph Kony (leader of the LRA) which puts the Special Forces\u2019 usefulness in to question. There is also the issue of sending the \u2018right man for the job\u2019. Military advisors who are female or lower ranked are often not respected by the forces they train [1] .  [1] Metrinko,M.J., \u2018The American Military Advisor\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro04b","title":"","text":"Providing military assistance against terrorism can have a negative effect on global stability. Operation Restore Hope in Somalia misappropriated the state as a terrorist haven and anti-terror missions failed to target the nature of the conflict [1] . This led to continued instability within the country which then produced a significant Islamic, terrorist movement in 2006.  [1] Lyman, P. N., \u2018The War on Terrorism in Africa\u2019 pg.4"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro03a","title":"","text":"There are few alternatives  The United States is the only significant actor in region which can be relied upon in counter-terrorism issues. Due to the \u201cWar on Terror\u201d and a need to maintain a military equipment export industry [1] , the US has been a reliable ally for many African states. The alternatives are less attractive. African nations often dislike their neighbours involving themselves in their affairs, exemplified by the second conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo \u2013 the Great War of Africa that drew in nations across the region attempting to secure their own interests. The limited effectiveness of the AU\u2019s army has also prevented them from becoming a prominent actor in counter-terrorism. The failure of the AU\u2019s measures in Sudan during 2003 forced them to appeal to the UN for aid. This was effectively an admission of failure [2] , signifying these actors as weak in comparison to the USA.  [1] Plumer,B., \u2018The U.S. sends Egypt far more military aid than it needs\u2019  [2] Lyman, P. N., \u2018The War on Terrorism in Africa\u2019 pg.13"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-pro04a","title":"","text":"Increased global security  The presence of US military equipment and counter-terrorism forces in Africa will result in greater security for the rest of the world. Many of the terrorist groups which have existed in the \u2018ungoverned\u2019 spaces of Africa have an international agenda. Al-Qaeda and other groups have used Africa as a base to plan attacks against the West, such as the 2004 Madrid bombing [1] . The disruption and eradication of these groups is therefore beneficial as it will prevent these groups from acting freely on the international stage.  [1] Lyman, P. N., \u2018The War on Terrorism in Africa\u2019 pg.2"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con03b","title":"","text":"The US Congress has taken steps to reduce security assistance to states which have committed mass human rights abuse [1] . In October 2013, President Obama announced cutbacks in military aid to Egypt after a military coup and crackdown on protestors [2] . In addition to these penalties, there are also good governance programmes run by USAID in unison with counter-terrorism policies to ensure a healthier transition to democracy, reducing the risk of repression [3] .  [1] Ploch,L., \u2018Countering Terrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response\u2019 pg.38  [2] Gordon,M.R., \u2018In Crackdown Response, U.S. Temporarily Freezes Some Military Aid to Egypt\u2019  [3] Ploch,L., \u2018Countering Terrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response\u2019 pg.55"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con01b","title":"","text":"The rise in terrorist activity in Africa since 2006 has reshaped this priority. Following the Kenyan example, the Nairobi mall massacre and the subsequent attacks have acted to change the prioritisation of terrorism in some countries. In early 2014, Kenya\u2019s Defence Secretary Raychelle Omamo stated that there was going to be a greater focus on counter-terrorism in the future [1] , this event has shown many Africans that terrorism is an issue that requires serious attention.  [1] Otieno,B., \u2018Kenya: China to Help Kenya Safeguard Territory\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con02a","title":"","text":"Militarisation of US policy in Africa  The broadening of USAID to accommodate counter-terrorism assistance has detracted from long term development goals. When Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice announced the change of USAID\u2019s focus, the agency transformed from one of development to one of a \u2018quasi-security\u2019 nature [1] . Since 2001, USAID has been forced go beyond its traditional humanitarian role. Development goals, which are crucial dealing with the root causes of terrorism such as poverty and poor state-citizen relationships [2] , are being sacrificed for short term military objectives. The military training of police has actually served to detract from development, as police financially exploit citizens with their newly gained power [3] . Africa\u2019s urgent need for development suggests that the expansion of USAID\u2019s role is disadvantageous for the continent.  [1] Hills,A., \u2018Trojan Horses? USAID, counter-terrorism and Africa\u2019s police\u2019 pg.629  [2] Gast,E., \u2018U.S. Counterterrorism in the Sahel\u2019  [3] Hills,A., \u2018Trojan Horses? USAID, counter-terrorism and Africa\u2019s police\u2019 pg.638"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con04a","title":"","text":"Disrupts international relations  US counter-terrorism support of certain African states has resulted in the indignation of their rival states. Africa\u2019s complex history of conflicts has created enmity between states. The selection of some states for counter-terrorism support has weakened relations between these states and the United States. Eritrea, for example, has been hostile towards the United States due to the latter\u2019s support of Ethiopia, who fought a war with Eritrea from 1998-2000. Eritrea accused the US of supporting Ethiopian occupation of Eritrean lands and caused the state to withdraw from US regional counter-terrorism plans [1] .  [1] Lyman, P. N., \u2018The War on Terrorism in Africa\u2019 pg.7"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con03a","title":"","text":"Props up authoritarian regimes  The USA has helped solidify the rule of several oppressive regimes in Africa through its counter-terrorism assistance. In an effort to prevent terrorism from gaining a foothold in Africa, US policy has supported states which have poor human rights records, allowing them to continue brutal regimes. The training and equipping of counter terrorism units by the US has been linked to increased repression and unaccountability from police forces [1] . This approach strengthened the Sudanese regime, who committed atrocities in Darfur while simultaneously received aid from the USA [2] . US support on the continent could backfire if highly trained but repressive forces become prominent.  [1] Hills,A., \u2018Trojan Horses? USAID, counter-terrorism and Africa\u2019s police\u2019 pg.638  [2] Lyman, P. N., \u2018The War on Terrorism in Africa\u2019 pg.13"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con01a","title":"","text":"Many Africans do not prioritise counter-terrorism  The US focus on terrorism has detracted attention away from the more pressing issue of domestic crime. High rates of murder, manslaughter, rape, corruption and the illicit drug and small arms trades are of greater importance than counter-terrorism to many Africans. The misplacement of funds by USAID in states like Kenya, has detracted attention away from the major threats to citizens. Hills commented in 2006 that \u2018their (Kenyans) concerns focus on the ineffectiveness of the country\u2019s criminal justice system in the face of rising crime\u2019 and claims that the counter-terrorist training received by them does little to improve domestic crime rates [1] .  [1] Hills,A., \u2018Trojan Horses? USAID, counter-terrorism and Africa\u2019s police\u2019 pg.637"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con04b","title":"","text":"In general, the USA\u2019s counter terrorism assistance has led to greater regional co-operation. Shared intelligence and resources have become necessary to efficiently combat the global threat of terrorism. The US assisted a joint Mali-Niger venture to regain their desert regions, increasing co-operation between these two states [1] . Intelligence co-operation between North and Sahelian Africans has increased significantly since the beginning of the \u201cWar on Terror\u201d, improving international relations between these countries.  [1] Lyman, P. N., \u2018The War on Terrorism in Africa\u2019 pg.18"}
+{"id":"training-international-athwuhfto-con02b","title":"","text":"Counter-terrorism helps ensure security, which is closely linked to development. Before it is possible to improve health care, education, poverty and other development factors, it is necessary to have a secure environment [1] . The action to broaden USAID\u2019s development agenda is therefore taking a more practical approach towards ensuring that long term growth can occur in a stable environment.  [1] Beswick,D. & Hammerstad,A., \u2018African agency in changing security environment: sources, opportunities and challenges\u2019 pg.476"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro02b","title":"","text":"Acting due to a change of government is not the prerogative of another state. Putin is within his rights not to recognise that government and to grant asylum to former president Yanukovych but not to take action within the Ukraine to change the situation.  The coup however was not a coup but an abdication. \u201cYanukovych has lost his legitimacy as he abdicated his responsibilities. As you know, he left Ukraine \u2013 or left Kyiv, and he has left a vacuum of leadership.\u201d It was therefore Yanukovych who essentially decided that he was no longer in charge by leaving Kiev and not making any statements for several days. [1] Moreover the Ukrainian constitution (both 2004 and 2010 versions) gives the right to impeach the President to Parliament [2] this is what the Parliament has done.  [1] Psaki, Jen, \u2018Daily Press Briefing\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 28 February 2014  [2] Constitution of Ukraine, Article 85 (7 & 10), wikisource, 2004 , 2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro02a","title":"","text":"Necessary response to an illegal coup  The current government in Ukraine is the result of an illegal coup. On the 21st February Yanukovych and the opposition in Ukraine agreed to EU proposals that restored the 2004 Ukrainian constitution and set Presidential elections for later in 2014. The two sides were \u201cto create a coalition and form a national unity government\u201d. Thus Yanukovych was to remain President until the next elections. [1] The opposition however ignored this deal. As Putin puts it \u201cThey immediately seized his residence rather than giving him a chance to fulfil the agreement... He didn\u2019t have any chance of being reelected.\u201d The Ukrainian opposition used illegal and unconstitutional means to effect regime change. Russia therefore has a right to act to protect those who there has been an \u201carmed seizure of power\u201d. [2]  [1] \u2018Agreement on the Settlement of Crisis in Ukraine - full text\u2019, theguardian.com, 21 February 2014  [2] Siddique, Haroon, \u2018Putin: Yanukovych ousting was \u2018unconstitutional overthrow\u2019\u2019, theguardian.com, 4 March 2014 [used this link as it is more comprehensive than the Guardian\u2019s own]"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro03b","title":"","text":"Historical and cultural claims are not worth much when it comes to sovereignty over territory; if they were then every country in the world would be involved in disputes with their neighbours. In 1994 Russia agreed the Budapest Memorandum with the US, UK and Ukraine in it committing \u201cto respect the independence and sovereignty and the existing borders of Ukraine [and] reaffirm their obligation to refrain from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of Ukraine\u201d. [1] Russia signed agreements in 1997 that recognised Crimea as a part of Ukraine in return for a lease on the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. [2] Russia has therefore not been contesting sovereignty and so has no legal claim.  [1] Presidents of Ukraine, Russian Federation and United States of America, and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, \u2018Budapest Memorandums on Security Assurances, 1994\u2019, cfr.org, 5 December 1994  [2] Felgenhauer, T., \u2018Ukraine, Russia, and the Black Sea Fleet Accords\u2019, dtic.mil, 1999"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro05a","title":"","text":"Approval of the Parliament  The Russian parliament has agreed to approve force \u201cin connection with the extraordinary situation in Ukraine, the threat to the lives of citizens of the Russian Federation, our compatriots\u201d [1] The Russian Federal Council approved the move unanimously so allowing Russian troops to be used. [2] This gives President Putting the authority to use the Russian military in Crimea, or elsewhere in the Ukraine, if he believes it is necessary.  The Crimean Parliament has also asked to join Russia and is to have a referendum to show the support of the people for this action. \u201cFrom today, as Crimea is part of the Russian Federation the only legal forces here are troops of the Russian Federation, and any troops of the third country will be considered to be armed groups with all the associated consequences.\u201d [3] This clearly gives Russian troops the right to be in Crimea.  [1] Kelly, Lidia, and Polityuk, Pavel, \u2018Putin ready to invade Ukraine; Kiev warns of war\u2019, Reuters, 1 March 2014  [2] RT, 1\/3\/2014  [3] AP, \u2018Crimean parliament votes to join Russia, referendum on move March 16\u2019, FoxNews.com, 6 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro01a","title":"","text":"Invited by the legitimate government  President Yanukovych is Ukraine\u2019s legitimate President. He is therefore perfectly at liberty to allow Russian troops into his country to keep the peace in much the same way as countries around the world welcome US troops on their soil as protection from external threats or UN peacekeepers to keep the peace domestically. Yanukovych in a letter to Putin called \u201con the President of Russia, Mr. Putin, asking him to use the armed forces of the Russian Federation to establish legitimacy, peace, law and order, stability and defending the people of Ukraine.\u201d [1]  [1] \u2018Yanukovich sent letter to Putin asking for Russian military presence in Ukraine\u2019, RT, 3 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is a very different situation from a government inviting in UN peacekeepers. First the Russians are an involved party \u2013 part of the cause of the conflict due to the protests in Kiev first breaking out due to Yanukovych turning from the EU to Russia a country so involved would never be asked to be involved in a UN peacekeeping force. Secondly a UN peacekeeping force requires not only the approval of the government but of the UN Security Council. [1] This has not been forthcoming in this case.  On the other hand it is different from basing in another country as the US does as that does not involve coercion. Or for that matter taking vital strategic points such as airports and surrounding the host countries military bases. [2]  [1] \u2018Role of the Security Council\u2019, United Nations Peacekeeping, accessed 4\/3\/2014  [2] Fraser, 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro05b","title":"","text":"Approval by one parliament may make the action legal within Russia but it does not make an invasion legal under international law. The Russian parliament has no legal authority over Crimea or other regions of Ukraine so cannot authorise the use of troops within that country \u2013 that is something only the Ukrainian parliament, or in extremis the UN Security Council can authorise.  Similarly the Crimean parliament cannot legally simply decide that Crimea is no longer a part of Ukraine, even a referendum does not enable such a transfer of sovereignty. Self determination should be internal, not external. [1]  [1] Supreme Court of Canada, Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro04b","title":"","text":"\u201cRussian mobilisation is a response to an imaginary threat. Military action cannot be justified on the basis of threats that haven't been made and aren't being carried out.\u201d Argues US UN Ambassador Samantha Power. [1] There is little threat to Russian citizens or minorities from the new government. Putin has accused the new government of intimidating minorities and increasing anti-Semitism but Ukrainian Jewish organisations have said \u201cdoes not correspond to the actual facts\u201d. [2] Any protection of citizens should not be pre-emptive.  While it is right that the Crimea should be consulted on its future this should be done without any Russian intervention. Having Russian soldiers on the ground biases any referendum helping to make it illegitimate. With the referendum having happened after intervention Russia cannot say it was reacting to the demonstrated will of the people.  [1] Mardell, Mark, \u2018Ukraine's Yanukovych asked for troops, Russia tells UN\u2019, BBC News, 4 March 2014  [2] Zisels, Josef, et al., \u2018Open letter of Ukrainian Jews to Russian Federation President Vladimir Putin\u2019, Voices of Ukraine, 4 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro03a","title":"","text":"Crimea should be Russian  Russia has a strong claim to the Crimea; The territory was only handed over in 1954 by Nikita Krushchev for political reasons. [1] Previously it had been Russian for three hundred years. Historically Crimea is Russian not Ukrainian. Culturally Crimea is important to Russia too, it was the main Russian tourism destination during the Soviet Union and Symbolised Russia\u2019s gains in the 18th and 19th Centuries. [2] Russia for most of the 1990s refused to accept Ukraine\u2019s independence, let alone Crimea that Crimea should be a part of it with the Russian Parliament engaging in actions such as declaring Sevastopol a Russian city. [3] Therefore the sovereignty of the region should be considered to be contested.  [1] Pravda, \u2018USSR's Nikita Khrushchev gave Russia\u2019s Crimea away to Ukraine in only 15 minutes\u2019, 19 February 2009  [2] Judah, Ben, \u2018Why Russia No Longer Fears the West\u2019, Politico, 2 March 2014  [3] Minorities at Risk Project, \u2018Chronology for Crimean Russians in Ukraine\u2019, 2004"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro04a","title":"","text":"Need to protect Russian civilians  It is the people of Crimea who are important and their interests should be considered. Putin told the Federation Council that Russia is responding to a \u201cthreat to the lives of citizens of the Russian Federation\u2026 and the personnel of the armed forces of the Russian Federation on Ukrainian territory\u201d. [1] Russia needs to protect both the Russian citizens who are in Crimea and the ethnic Russians who look to Moscow not Kiev.  The Crimean parliament has agreed to hold a referendum on 25th May on \u201cAutonomous Republic of Crimea has state sovereignty and is a part of Ukraine, in accordance with treaties and agreements.\u201d [2] This was put forward to 16th March with two options; Do you support Crimea's reunification with Russia? Do you support the restoration of the Constitution of the Crimean Republic dated 1992 and Crimea's status as a part of Ukraine? [3] The 97% vote for joining Russia and 83% turnout conclusively show that this is the will of the Crimean people. [4]  [1] RT, 1\/3\/2014  [2] RT, 27\/2\/2014  [3] Interfax-Ukraine, \u2018Crimean parliament speeds up referendum, introduces question about joining Russia\u2019, Kyiv Post, 6 March 2014  [4] Hewitt, 17\/3\/2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con03b","title":"","text":"Negotiating with the new government would mean recognising it. Russia may well recognise a new government after elections are held and the government is once more legitimate but until then there is little to negotiate. Moreover elections must be held only when there is stability. At the moment Russia won\u2019t recognise any elections because they would be held under a situation of terror where \u201cthere is the danger that a fascist element will come to the fore, and some anti-semite will come to power.\u201d [1]  [1] Siddique, 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con01b","title":"","text":"Russia is hardly the first nation to send troops across a border without UN Security Council support, indeed there is quite a list; Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Kosovo. All undertaken by western powers. Russia is not threatening the use of force it is simply guaranteeing that its citizens will not come to harm and putting the military on standby just in case such protection is necessary."}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con02a","title":"","text":"Any cross border troop movements are a violation of sovereignty  States are allowed to take measures for \u201cself-defence if an armed attack occurs\u201d. [1] The movement of troops across the international border from Russia into Ukraine, and from the Russian base in Sevastopol clearly is a violation of sovereignty and Ukraine if it wishes has every right to use force to defend itself even if the Russians don\u2019t fire first. [2]  [1] United Nations, \u2018Article 51\u2019, 1945  [2] Deeks, 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con05a","title":"","text":"Damaging to Russia  The United States wants to isolate Russia economically with Kerry threatening Putting \u201cHe may find himself with asset freezes, on Russian business, American business may pull back, there may be a further tumble of the ruble.\u201d [1] Even without economic action Russia is already suffering fallout from the markets. The Moscow stock exchange fell 11.2% - or almost $60billion. The ruble reached all-time lows against the dollar and the euro and the Central bank was forced to raise interest rates by 1.5% to prevent further losses. [2] Longer term investment is likely to be hit as US and European companies are less willing to invest in a country with an aggressive foreign policy.  [1] Swaine, 2014  [2] Adomanis, Mark, \u2018The Invasion Of Crimea Is Crushing Russia's Stock And Currency Markets\u2019, Forbes, 3 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con04a","title":"","text":"What are the consequences of violating international norms?  President Putin has noted the west is being hypocritical by highlighting their role in the middle east over the last decade. And it is true that violating the prohibition against force does not carry any immediate sanction, and that which it does carry are discretionary to individual powers. However that does not mean the violation does not matter; instead it means that any attempt to annex Crimea will be seen as completely illegitimate. [1] International institutions are also likely to react, albeit slowly and not very effectively. Institutions such as the Council of Europe demand \u201cUkraine's territorial integrity must be respected and international commitments upheld\u201d [2] while the OSCE is sending monitors to Ukraine. [3] Some institutions may exclude Russia altogether; there have been suggestions from Secretary of State Kerry that Russia could be thrown out of the G8. [4]  [1] Voeten, Erik, \u2018International law and institutions look pretty weak now, but they will matter a lot down the road\u2019, The Washington Post, 2 March 2014  [2] Jagland, T., \u2018Secretary General Jagland warns against escalation in Ukraine's Crimea region\u2019, Council of Europe, 1 March 2014  [3] AFP, \u2018OSCE security monitors 'advance teams' in Ukraine tonight: US\u2019, google.com, 4 March 2014  [4] Swaine, Jon, \u2018Russia G8 status at risk over \u2018incredible act of aggression\u2019 in Crimea says Kerry\u2019, theguardian.com, 2 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con03a","title":"","text":"Russia should negotiate with the new government  If Putin is truly concerned about Ukraine\u2019s government being illegitimate and unconstitutional then he should be supporting elections as soon as possible to settle the question of who the government. Putin himself accepts that Yanukovych has \u201cno political future\u201d and helped him for \u201chumanitarian reasons\u201d. [1] If this is the case then military action in Ukraine is superfluous; what Russia needs is a new government in Ukraine that is legitimate. The action in Crimea however simply unites Ukrainian opinion against him making it less likely that a pro-Russian candidate stands a chance of winning the election. Already 58% of Ukrainians support integration with the EU. [2] A rash attempt on Crimea could ensure Putin permanently loses Ukraine from Russia\u2019s sphere of influence.  [1] Siddique, 2014  [2] Titchenko, Ilya, \u2018The Deadly illusion of a divided Ukraine\u2019, Kyiv Post, 2 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con05b","title":"","text":"While there has been some economic fallout for Russia this is likely to only be temporary, as the risk of actual conflict goes away the markets will return to normal. There is almost no chance that there will be any sanctions that do real damage because much of Europe is dependent on Russia for gas; Germany gets around 39% of its gas from Russia, and this accounts for almost 9% of its energy consumption and other smaller economies in Eastern Europe are even more dependent. [1] Impose sanctions and Russia could squeeze gas supplies.  [1] Ratner, Michael et al., \u2018Europe\u2019s Energy Security: Options and Challenges to Natural Gas Supply Diversification\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 20 August 2013, p.10"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con01a","title":"","text":"It is an invasion without Security Council sanction  The legality of Russia\u2019s invasion of Crimea is simple \u201cRussia\u2019s military intervention in Ukraine violates international law.\u201d [1] The UN Charter is unambiguous \u201cAll Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state\u201d. [2] Russia has both threatened the use of force by its parliament authorising the President to use force on Ukrainian territory [3] and actually done so by sending troops into Crimea. The only legal way for the UN Charter\u2019s prohibition on force to be avoided is through a Security Council mandate. Which Russia does not have. [4]  [1] Posner, Eric, \u2018Russia\u2019s Military intervention in Ukraine: International Law implications\u2019, ericposner.com, 1 March 2014  [2] United Nations, \u2018Article 2\u2019, Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945  [3] RT, 1\/3\/2014  [4] Deeks, Ashley, \u2018Russian Forces in Ukraine: A Sketch of the International Law Issues\u2019, Lawfare, 2 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con04b","title":"","text":"This action by Russia shows (once again) that the consequences of violating international norms is practically zero. As such the action damages the credibility of that norm, especially when applied to a powerful state like Russia. [1] The main problem is Russia is a member of these organisations; as a Security Council member the UN can do nothing, similarly it is blocking a full scale monitoring mission by the OSCE. [2] As for the G8, a talking shop, is Putin really likely to care? [3]  [1] Ku, Julian, \u2018Russia Reminds the World (and International Lawyers) of the Limits of International Law\u2019, Opinio Juris, 2 March 2014  [2] AFP, 2014  [3] Judah, 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-egilpwhbrh-con02b","title":"","text":"\u201cUkraine is not [only] our closest neighbour, it is our fraternal nation... we will not go to war with the Ukrainian people.\u201d [1] There have been no shots fired and the action is not a hostile act, it is simply to protect the Crimeans. Russia has not engaged in an armed attack as the forces in Crimea have not fired a shot.  [1] Siddique, 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro02b","title":"","text":"The veto is not wielded as an ideological tool, but rather a tool of national interest like any other diplomatic tool. The recent case of Libya, whereby the veto power was not used by any of the P5, demonstrated the ability of the Security Council to align themselves to the cause of civilian protection. For this reason, it should also be noted that collective security is often indistinguishable from the national interests of the P5. The military might of each of the P5 members individually, and within separate groups, notably the UK and US axis within NATO, is such that the avoidance of disagreement is crucial to international peace. Even if the P5 did cast their vetoes for reasons of ideological self-interest, this cost is outweighed by the maintenance of unity that becomes ever more critical in the post-Cold War multipolar world."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro02a","title":"","text":"The veto is wielded as an ideological tool.  In the rare recent circumstances in which the veto power has been utilised, it has been hijacked by ideological demands and petty national interests. The P5 are able to use their veto powers not to enforce legality, justice and transparency in the international environment, but rather appease their allies and punish their enemies. China prevented peacekeeping operations proceeding in Guatemala and Macedonia on account of the engagement of those countries with Taiwan1. The veto is no longer applied for the maintenance of collective security, but the substantiation of internal security. 1 He, Yin, 'China's Changing Policy on UN Peacekeeping Operations', Institute for Security & Development Policy, July 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro03b","title":"","text":"The veto power is still as relevant as it ever was. As the opposition notes, the veto power was granted to ensure the victors in World War II that they could prevent the escalation to world war that had so ravaged their lands and populations. The maintenance of the 'long peace' over the subsequent half-century can be at least partially attributed to the effectiveness of the Security Council veto; the P5 are tempted away from military solutions towards diplomatic feuds due to their ability to bring overbearing political power to bear on rivals. For example, fears of Iran's acquirement of a nuclear weapon have been abetted by US-sponsored efforts to impose sanctions on the regime. Without the veto power, the Security Council would not remain in its current, useful form and may not have prevented a resort to war in this case."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro05a","title":"","text":"The Security Council knows it has to reform.  All the Security Council members know that at some point there is going to have to be reform of the council. This will most likely mean more members being admitted to the Council. The three countries whose grasp on the Security Council is tenuous due to their relative power having declined; UK, France and Russia, will likely be willing to give up their veto in order to retain their seats. The United States and China would then have to follow or face the rest of the international community and devalue the United Nations. A half-way house would probably be agreed where the veto could be retained in a few areas much as it has been within the European Union decision making process. This could then be slowly eroded over time."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro01a","title":"","text":"The veto power is a barrier to discourse, preventing the U.N. from acting where the majority of its member states want it to.  Purported U.N. actions that would clearly antagonise a member of the P5 never even reach the Security Council; such is the awareness that the veto would stall its progress. The statistics of the numbers of vetoes passed at any particular point in UN history does not reveal the true defect of the institutional arrangement. In an attempt to circumvent this, countries and military alliances are forced to act unilaterally. NATO initiated military action against Yugoslavia, under the imprimatur of the United States and the United Kingdom, without receiving Security Council authorisation. It had become evident that any UN military involvement would be vetoed by both China and Russia. Furthermore, the silence of the Security Council whilst Russia launched a relentless and brutal campaign against Chechnya was deafening. Nevertheless, there is little that can be done such is the absolute power of the veto that Russia and the other P5 members have."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro01b","title":"","text":"The Security Council is a unifying force, regardless of its veto powers. Its history of mandating U.N. interventions to prevent humanitarian disasters is on the record and clear. Though many point to the Srebrenica massacre in the former Yugoslavia, few recall the success of the U.N. mission in bringing that conflict to a peaceful resolution. Furthermore, unilateral actions, undertaken without recourse to the Security Council, are often eventually rectified through the Council anyway. The legality of the NATO action in both Yugoslavia and Kosovo was subsequently scheduled for consideration by another organ of the UN, the International Court of Justice. Following the conflict NATO and Russia sought and achieved Security Council endorsement of the campaign. The Council then authorised the deployment of a peacekeeping force in order to police Kosovo. The Security Council thus proved to be a unifying force despite the presence of the veto power."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro04b","title":"","text":"The efficacy of the United Nations Security Council is dependent on the participation of the world's most powerful states, which is in large part due to the possession of the veto power. Removing the veto, or granting it only to those who contribute their fair share to the United Nations budget risks undermining the very structures that have made the Security Council the platform for co-ordinated international action. For example, whilst China is not one of the top contributors to the budget of the organization, it's economic and military strength are enormous and if the Security Council is to remain relevant, China must be encouraged to remain at the table. The veto power ensures unilateralism is a secondary thought."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro03a","title":"","text":"The veto power is an anachronism that does not suit the contemporary international society and it's power relations.  The permanent five (P5) were given this privilege for two reasons that have no application in the post-Cold War world. Firstly, the Allied powers, with the addition of China, sought to bind themselves to the UN organisation that was designed to prevent the depredations of the Second World War ever recurring. Secondly, the P5 held unrivalled strategic might through their possession of nuclear weapon technology or imminent nuclear capacity. Yet, the UN is no longer in any danger of imminent collapse. The P5 will abandon neither the organisation nor the cause of global peace by loss of the veto power. Moreover, the global power balance has shifted dramatically since 1945; the P5 'do not reflect the geopolitical realities of today'1. Nuclear proliferation has accelerated in the past decade, such that inter alia India, Pakistan, North Korea, Egypt, Iraq and Iran are developing inter-continental ballistic capacity. 1 Kafala, T. (2003, September 17). The veto and how to use it. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from BBC News"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-pro04a","title":"","text":"The Permanent Five no longer contribute to the United Nations to a degree expected of their special status.  Funding contributions to the United Nations should directly relate to the influence that member organizations thereafter have on its actions; with the veto in place, this is no longer the case. The Permanent Five, as the group of nations granted the most constitutional power in the United Nations, should contribute a proportional amount of resources to the institution. Initially, this was the case \u2013 however, by 2004, Japan was contributing 19 per cent of the UN budget, second only to that of the United States [1]. In third place, contributing 8 per cent, was Germany, another state lacking a veto power and any ability to overrule the interests of P5 nations, all bar one of whom contributed less to the UN budget [2]. Furthermore, India and Brazil, whilst not contributing financially to the degree of Japan and Germany, have permitted large swathes of their armed forces to join U.N. peacekeeping operations to fulfil the mandates handed down by the Security Council. Despite these financial and military contributions, the states concerned get no greater say in the interests and actions of the organization. A fairer, more equitable model would insist on a greater proportionality between one\u2019s contribution to the United Nations and one\u2019s ability to influence its actions.  [1] Blum, 2005  [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con03b","title":"","text":"Constitutional change within the UN is possible and thus worthy of full discussion. As Richard Butler has observed, a proper debate about the defects of the veto might at the least yield a more constructive interpretation of the nature of the veto and its application1. An informed public awareness of the potential for the Security Council to be bypassed or hijacked might lead to pressure for exercise of the power in accordance with the Charter aims. Notably, China was persuaded or compelled not to cast the veto in respect of the Council measures on Kosovo. This reasonable approach prevailed in spite of vocal Chinese opposition to the bombing campaign, and the destruction of the Chinese embassy by NATO forces. 1 Butler, R. (1999, August 19). Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from Chicago Tribune:"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con01b","title":"","text":"Treaties do not confer permanent and inalienable rights; they should be constantly subject to reform when their dictates conflict with the wishes of their voters. In an institution like the United Nations, which espouses self-determination, the existence of a power which is immune from reform is not a source of pride. If the veto powers had a right to the veto when they were first introduced, that right has now been lost in the chorus of disapproval found among the very same U.N. member states that granted them that right. In a political environment, if an elected official loses the will of their voters, the elected official does not get to choose whether they keep those elected powers. The power remains with they who grant the powers, the voters."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con02a","title":"","text":"The veto power has proven a success in the maintenance of peace.  The veto power has been wielded with increasing success both during and since the Cold War. Between 1945 and 1990, 240 vetoes were cast1. Yet between 1990 and 1999 the power was utilised on only 7 occasions, whilst more than 20 peacekeeping operations were mandated. This figure exceeds the total number of operations undertaken in the entirety of the preceding 45 years. The prodigious use of the veto during the Cold War period might have saved the world from the realisation of nuclear war. Now, increasing nuclear proliferation is a reason for maintaining the unity of the P5 by means of the veto. The current rhetoric concerns 'rogue states' gaining possession of nuclear weapons. These are states whose potential deployment of arms is unpredictable and with whom there is limited international dialogue. If the P5 is split on a matter of international security, any one or more of its members could become equally 'rogue'. 1 Global Policy Forum. (n.d.). Changing Patterns in the Use of the Veto in the Security Council. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from Global Policy Forum:"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con04a","title":"","text":"The veto power reduces the risk of nuclear escalation.  The P-5 veto holding members of the UN SC are unique in that they are the only countries that have nuclear arsenals (not simply a small stock of nuclear weapons). They are the only countries with the power to initiate full-scale nuclear war. Therefore, it is important that that they be able to end measures with their veto power to ensure that measures are not realized that could foment serious international tension and possibly nuclear war. In other words, 'you give (veto power) to the nations who- thanks to their nuclear missiles- already have effective veto power anyway'1. The gift of the veto power encourages such nuclear states to act within the system, ensuring that 'they have a stronger stake in acting within the system than acting outside of it'2. 1 Beck. (2004, December 5). The Security Council Veto Power, or Got Nuke? Retrieved May 13, 2011, from Incite: 2 Fassbender, B. (1998). UN Security Council Reform and the Right to Vote: A Constitutional Perspective. Hague: Kluwer Law International."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con03a","title":"","text":"Abolition of the veto is practically impossible.  The abolition of the power of veto is simply impossible to imagine. The P5 will not willingly cede their pre-eminent position in international politics. And unsurprisingly, each member would have the constitutional power of veto over any proposal to remove the veto. Articles 108 and 109 of the United Nations Charter grants the P5 veto over amendments to the charter, requiring them to approve stripping away their own veto powers. Given the influence wielded by a veto-bearing state, it is unlikely that any of the P5 would agree to give up this privilege. Therefore, this whole debate is undermined by the sheer impossibility of it being removed, without the wholesale destruction of the United Nations as an organization or, at best, as a relevant organization."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con01a","title":"","text":"The veto power was granted legally to the P5 by the other participating states, and therefore the P5 have a right to those powers.  There is no requirement in the UN Charter for the veto power to be distributed according to geopolitical realities. Whilst democracy and equality are the principles that direct the General Assembly, they were never intended to apply to the Security Council. The Security Council was conceived as the 'hegemonic' organ, designed to be responsible and effective. As such, the veto power was a tool to ensure the Security Council would not be encumbered by democracy. Therefore, the privileges of the P5 'appear as rights bestowed upon them' by the states who ratified the UN Charter in 19451. As a consequence, the non-permanent members of the UN Security Council have little to complain about when they themselves are responsible for their 'diminished status' under the Charter1. The price paid for their diminished status is the effectiveness of the Security Council. 1 Fassbender, B. (1998). UN Security Council Reform and the Right to Vote: A Constitutional Perspective. Hague: Kluwer Law International, p.264"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwascv-con02b","title":"","text":"Only the abolishment of the veto power would enable global action free from the political motives and inherent power politics of the veto powers. Absent of the veto, motions would be considered and passed on merit, not on the self-interest and political motives of the veto powers.As Tarik Kafala argues, 'the majority view at the Council would prevail and we might expect more resolutions passed, more situations identified as threats to world security, more cases of states being reprimanded and sanctions being imposed'1. Far from destabilising the world order, the removal of veto power would merely enshrine self-determination within the organization that purports to carry that principle to the world. 1 Kafala, T. (2003, September 17). The veto and how to use it. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from BBC News"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro02b","title":"","text":"Under international law there are only two instances where secession is possible; in the case of foreign occupation and as a result of decolonisation. The third category espoused by the proposition is disputed and naturally leads to absurd consequences: how small a group of people on how small a plot of land can unilaterally declare independence?  Moreover, the Kosovan claim for independence is not clear-cut. The population ratio of Kosovo-Albanian to Serb inhabitants of Kosovo is constantly in flux. In addition, the current ratio has far fewer Serbs because of enforced or fear-driven flight from the region after NATO intervention gave Kosovo-Albanians the upper hand in the region. In 1971 Serbs were 18.4% of the population. [1] The Kosovo-Albanians have suffered undeniably over the last decade. However, that should not lead us to ignore the very genuine historical significance of Kosovo to Serbia, particularly to the Orthodox faith. There is a historical tradition of both Serbs and Kosovo-Albanians inhabiting Kosovo. To effect a change in the sovereignty over a region on the basis of a temporary population ratio is to ignore the complexity of the issues that surround this territory.  [1] Howe, Marvine, \u2018Exodus of Serbians stirs province in Yugoslavia\u2019, The New York Times, 12 July 1982,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro02a","title":"","text":"Self-determination is a human right  Self-determination is a right recognised by the United Nations Charter and forms the basis of relations between all nations on earth. Thus, Kosovo-Albanians have international law on their side in their pursuit of an independent homeland. If the UN Charter is not explicitly on the side of the Kosovo-Albanians it is difficult to see which people it does support. The very credibility of international law and international society depends on support for causes like that of Kosovan independence where the people in a region have had their right to self-determination internally totally frustrated. [1]  [1] Kumbaro, Dajena.\u2018The Kosovo Crisis in a International Law Perspective: Self-Determination, Territorial Integrity and the NATO intervention\u2019. NATO Office of Information and Press. 2001."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro03b","title":"","text":"Ethnic Serbs are suffering right now in Kosovo. A large portion of them have been displaced from their homes and a significant number of Serbian Orthodox churches and cemeteries have been demolished or vandalised. It is hypocritical to use to suffering of one side to justify a transfer of sovereignty while simultaneously ignoring the suffering of the other side."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro01a","title":"","text":"The people of Kosovo are distinct from their neighbours  Kosovo-Albanians are ethnically and culturally distinct from Serbs. They live in a geographically distinct location, Kosovo which is separated from Serbia by the Prokletije, Kopaonik and Zegovac mountains. They comprise 1.7 million people, living within a distinct area, who as the majority are ethnically Albanian and religiously Muslim are clearly different from the Serbs who until recently ruled over them. There was initially a peaceful resistance movement led by Ibrahim Rugova, established after the loss of autonomy and rights the region experienced in the 1990s. However once this failed to make progress in 1997 an armed resistance movement called the Kosovo Liberation Army emerged. [1] Slobodan Milosevic the Serbian leader responded with in ethnic persecution resulting in NATO intervention which in itself should be enough reason to support independence. For all these reasons, Kosovo-Albanians deserve to be allowed to govern themselves just as much as any other people.  [1] Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, \u2018Background Note: Kosovo\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 16 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro01b","title":"","text":"An ethnic or religious difference from the rulers of one\u2019s country is not a sufficient condition to necessitate independence. It is perfectly possible for example to be a Muslim in a predominantly Christian country, or someone of Irish heritage living in England, without calling for a separate \"state within a state\". Not just any minority group deserves to have its call for sovereign independence recognised. There have to be additional and better reasons, other than a simple difference in ethnicity or cultural heritage if a people are to ground a valid claim for sovereign independence."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro04b","title":"","text":"Britain does though claim sovereignty over far away locations such as the Falkland Islands and Gibraltar. The controversy of those claims is not mitigated that they are populated by ethnic Britons who immigrated on assumption of British control.  Ethnic nationalism has a very bad history, both around the world and in the Balkans in particular. Out of the nineteenth century explosion in popularity of nationalistic ideologies grew the bitter tensions and wars of the twentieth century. The last thing that we should be doing is promoting a continuation and an extension of this divisive and destructive way of perceiving the world. Ultimately, an independent state would be created just because it was believed that there is too much bad blood between the Serbs and Kosovo-Albanians for them to live in harmony. To create an ethnically exclusive state because of animosity with another ethnic group is not a solution; it is a recipe for disaster."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro03a","title":"","text":"Reversing de-facto sovereignty would be an affront to those who suffered from ethnic cleansing  The NATO action in Kosovo was justified as a humanitarian intervention to prevent the oppression and murder of Kosovo-Albanians. It makes a mockery of that action and the liberal-internationalist, humanitarian rhetoric that underpinned it, to then deny these over a million people the right to determine their own future free from outside interference. Tony Blair for example stated \u201cWe cannot let the evil of ethnic cleansing stand. We must not rest until it is reversed.\u201d [1] If they should then choose to seek EU membership, then that is their right and a clear opportunity for them to gain greater prosperity outside Serbia.  Kosovar Albanians have suffered much over the last decade at the hands of Serbia. It is offensive to suggest that they must submit to any arrangement that preserves Serbian sovereignty over Kosovo. Serbia\/Yugoslavia forfeited whatever right it had to govern Kosovo when it systematically discriminated against Kosovo-Albanians. It is also in Serbia\u2019s own interests to put its own bloody past behind it and make a clean break in the interests of improving its economic and diplomatic relationships with its neighbours, and in seeking foreign aid and perhaps one day EU membership.  [1] Blair, Tony, \u2018Prime Minister\u2019s speech: Doctrine of the International community at the Economic Club, Chicago\u2019, 24 April 1999,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro04a","title":"","text":"The popular sovereignty of the Kosovan people must take precedence over other considerations  The present fact of a distinct, Kosovo-Albanian people living in Kosovo must take precedence over any traditional, religious or historical claim to Serbian sovereignty over that land. It is certainly true that Kosovo is historically and culturally important to Serbia. It has a particular significance for the Orthodox faith. However, consider the following analogy. Great Britain is, officially, a Christian country. This fact gives the British no valid territorial claim to sovereignty over Bethlehem (the literal birth-place of Christianity), particularly when there are people already living in the area. Historico-religious, traditional associations with a place can never override the rights of an indigenous population to remain in possession of its land and sovereignty.  There are clear, historical precedents for granting Kosovo independence. These precedents can be seen regionally in the post-communist independence of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Macedonia, as well as of the Baltic Republics. Globally, one can see precedents in the struggle of African countries for independence from European colonial rule. The relative proximity of Serbia to Kosovo in no way makes the situation dissimilar to the struggles of India against British rule - the British would not be content to be ruled by France just because the two countries are neighbours."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con03b","title":"","text":"This argument depends upon how one defines the \u2018territorial integrity\u2019 of a state in Article 2. Certainly it would not be legitimate for a state to simply declare based on an old treaty or historic claim that its territory encompassed that of a neighbour and to invade, therefore the requirement to respect territorial integrity must only refer to de facto integrity. Given that Serbia has no actual control over the territory of Kosovo it is not a violation of the rights of the Serbian state to recognise it as an independent nation."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con01b","title":"","text":"In the last decade Kosovo has leveraged remittances and direct investment from the Kosovar diaspora to achieve robust growth. It has also made significant progress in developing key social and economic institutions necessary for a viable state. In adopting the Euro as legal tender it has gained a strong financial anchor. Kosovo also benefits from low public debt and a strategic cash reserve. [1] It is also wrong to argue that Kosovo would be unviable because of its size as Kosovo has a population considerably larger than many independent states in Europe today (eg Iceland, Malta, Cyprus, Estonia).  [1] IMF \u2018Republic of Kosovo: Concluding Statement of the 2011 Article IV Consultation Mission\u2019. May 30 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con02a","title":"","text":"Now is not the appropriate time  There are still widely reported incidents between Kosovo-Albanians and Serbs. [1] Mafia-style gangs dominate the area, [2] many associated with the KLA paramilitaries who struggled against Serbia, and are involved in international crimes such as drug and people trafficking. Moreover, there was an effective Serb boycott of recent elections in Kosovo. The region has clearly not yet healed its wounds and to put even more strain on the already tense relations between the two communities is simply not advisable.  In Serb-dominated North Kosovo, schools utilities and municipalities are integrated into Serbia\u2019s system, not Kosovo\u2019s.  [1] Potok, Zubin, \u2018NATO soldiers wounded by gunfire in Kosovo clash\u2019, Reuters, 28 November 2011,   [2] Lewis, Paul, \u2018Kosovo PM is head of human organ and arms ring, Council of Europe reports\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 14 December 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con04a","title":"","text":"It will be bad for regional stability  Not only will a move toward independence be bad news for the Serb minority population and for regional relations in general. Some areas of northern Kosovo are ethnically Serb, while parts of southern Serbia have an Albanian population, so the border is likely to be in dispute. It will also increase tensions in neighbouring Macedonia. There is a large, Albanian minority in the north of Macedonia. In the aftermath of NATO intervention in Kosovo separatists attempted to put the cause of independence from Macedonia on the map. The Macedonian government is not willing to cede any of its territory and any resurgence in separatist terrorism - which would be the inevitable consequence of independence for Kosovo - would lead to bloody conflict in that region. [1] Not only Serbia but also Macedonia and Greece fear a struggle for a Greater Albania. Thus, in the interests of preserving peace and preventing loss of life, we should postpone the settlement of the question of sovereignty until tensions between the different communities subside.  [1] Karon, Tony, \u2018Why Macedonia Has NATO Worried\u2019, TimeWorld, 12 March 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con03a","title":"","text":"The UN charter is against it.  Article 2 of the UN charter requires all member states to \u2018refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state\u2019.  Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999), which authorised the deployment of an international force to Kosovo to manage security and governance, explicitly affirmed the commitment of all Member States to the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (the name for the Union of Serbia and Montenegro which ended in 2006) and the other States to that region. [1]  Recognition of an independent Kosovo is a violation of the territorial integrity of Serbia and thus a violation of the rights of the Serbian state.  [1] UN Security Council Resolution 1244"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con01a","title":"","text":"An independent Kosovo is not a viable state  An independent Kosovo would be too small for it to be a viable state. It is one of the poorest regions in Yugoslavia, with a per capita GDP of only $2750, [1] and needs to be a part of a larger state for it to benefit from the development subsidies, economies of scale and labour movement rights that are offered by membership of a larger state. The creation of an independent sovereign state would entail the introduction of destructive tariffs and other bureaucratic obstacles to the regeneration of the region, which must be the first priority. The avid desire of Slovenia and other former communist countries to join the political and economic project of the European Union is a clear indication of the way that Balkan people should be directed.  [1] Background Note: Kosovo,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con04b","title":"","text":"Whilst the ideal of Serb and Kosovar living in harmony is an honourable one, the international community should not waste energy trying to engineer such a society when both sides appear committed to exclusive, nation-state models which involve the political and social hegemony of one group over the other. Multicultural toleration is a fine liberal, democratic ideal but it does not fit every empirical reality. The tensions are too great to make such a system work."}
+{"id":"training-international-ggvhwrkis-con02b","title":"","text":"The uncertainty over Kosovo\u2019s status is a cause of tension. Drawing a line under the whole issue and making it clear that Kosovo will not revert to being part of Serbia again allows for a relaxing of nationalist tension and for serious discussions to begin over land swaps that would make the border more sensible."}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro02b","title":"","text":"This would be a very risky course to take; currently there is 51% support for independence and that could as well go up as down when given the opportunity. With both the Spanish and Catalan economies in crisis it is likely that such a referendum would only be bolstered by anger at the government due to the state of the economy. This might therefore be an option for Spain at some point in the future when the economy is back on its feet and so less of an issue but at the moment it would be waving goodbye to Spain as we know it."}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro02a","title":"","text":"Control over Catalan destiny would reduce tensions and may help prevent independence  For Spain by far the biggest reason for allowing a referendum is that it may well be the best way of keeping Catalonia within Spain over the long term. So long as Spain says it will not allow a referendum or give the Catalans control over their own destiny the movement for Catalan independence is likely to get stronger as it can focus on the denial of democratic rights \u2013 Spain is waving a red flag to the bull. Allow a referendum, particularly if it has to be accompanied by a long period of campaigning for reflection and Catalans will have to agonise whether it is in their own best interests, 1 decide whether they want to damage their economy by having large companies such as Planeta the world\u2019s largest Spanish language publishing business pulling out, 2 sever extensive links with Spain, and risk their membership of the European Union which Spain would veto. 3 If Spain were to offer as an alternative a new constitutional settlement that solves many of the grievances the Catalans have at the moment they might find they really want to remain within Spain, 4 much as many scots would prefer devo-max.  1 Bloomberg editors, \u2018To Keep Catalonia In, Spain Should Allow a Cote to Secede\u2019, Bloomberg, 15 October 2012,   2 Charlemagne, \u2018Hostage to Catalonia\u2019, The Economist, 5th October 2012,   3 Bollier, Sam, \u2018Catalans press for secession from Spain\u2019, Al Jazeera, 30 September 2012,   4 Bloomberg editors, \u2018To Keep Catalonia In, Spain Should Allow a Cote to Secede\u2019, Bloomberg, 15 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro03b","title":"","text":"Such a decision by the Catalan government would clearly be against the Spanish Constitution and therefore illegal. The constitution makes it \u201cthe Army\u2019s mission is to guarantee the sovereignty and independence of Spain, to defend its territorial integrity and the constitutional set up\u201d so such a move would invite a military response. Some members of the ruling PP party have already stated that the Guardia Civil should take over the Mossos (Catalan police). 1 There are also members of the army who would be willing to take such action, \"Catalan independence? Over my dead body and that of many soldiers\" says Colonel Francisco Aleman who also compared the crisis to the start of the Spanish Civil war in 1936. 2  1 Guibernau, Montserrat, \u2018Calls for independence in Catalonia are part of an evolution of Spain\u2019s democracy that the country\u2019s constitution may have to come to accommodate.\u2019, London School of Economics and Political Science, European Politics and Policy, 8 October 2012,   2 Mason, Paul, \u2018Catalan leaders seek independence vote, legal or not\u2019, BBC News, 5 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro01a","title":"","text":"Catalans clearly want self determination  Every peoples has the right to self determination. This is enshrined in the UN Charter right at the start in Article 1 as a purpose of the United Nations \u201cTo develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples\u201d and is also in other major international agreements. 1 Large numbers of states have been recognised since this principle of self determination was recognised by the world in 1945 a great many of them states that are less natural states in terms of size, economy, ethnicity or geography so it would be wrong to deny a right exercised by so many others from the Catalans. It is clear that the Catalans wish to exercise this right to decide their own destiny democratically through a referendum. When polled by the Catalan Survey Institute 74.1% said they would be in favour of organising a referendum with 19.9% against, the remaining 6% were undecided. 2  1 The United Nations, \u2018Charter of the United Nations\u2019, 26 June 1945, Chapter 1, Article 1,   2 Coll, Gaspar Pericay, \u201874% of Catalan citizens are in favour of holding an independence referendum in Catalonia\u2019, Catalan News Agency, 10 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is far from clear whether self determination gives peoples the right to decide whether they should be independent. The Supreme Court of Canada has looked at this issue with reference to Quebec that has in the past argued for its right to self determination. The court argues \u201cThe recognized sources of international law establish that the right to self-determination of a people is normally fulfilled through internal self-determination -- a people's pursuit of its political, economic, social and cultural development within the framework of an existing state. A right to external self-determination (which in this case potentially takes the form of the assertion of a right to unilateral secession) arises in only the most extreme of cases and, even then, under carefully defined circumstances.\u201d This is because such a right must fit in with the principle of territorial integrity of existing states. 1  1 \u2018Reference re Secession of Quebec\u2019, Supreme Court of Canada, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217  Para 126\/7"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro04b","title":"","text":"Not getting your way in a democracy is not an excuse for turning to violence. Catalonia instead must attempt to persuade the other regions of Spain to allow a referendum or if it can\u2019t then accept that the majority in Spain do not want Catalonian independence and respect their position. Violence will not help persuade the rest of Spain of its case; it did not for the Basques, and will not for Catalonia. So far the Catalan independence movement has recognised this with Lopez Tena the leader of the Catalan Solidarity for Independence party states \u201cWe would under no condition follow that [violent] path. That\u2019s not how things are done in a democratic country.\u201d 1  1 Primor, Adar, \u2018Catalan leader predicts independence in about two years, and close friendship with Israel\u2019, Haaretz, 4 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro03a","title":"","text":"Catalonia will hold its own referendum regardless of Spain\u2019s position  Catalonia is likely to go its own way and decide it should make its own decisions regardless of the rest of Spain\u2019s views. Artur Mas Catalonia\u2019s President says \"If we can go ahead with a referendum because the government authorises it, it's better. If not, we should do it anyway\". 1 So regardless of the Spanish position in his next four year term he will hold a referendum asking \u201cDo you want Catalonia to become a new state within the European Union?\u201d If Spain then does not back down about allowing this then there may well be a constitutional crisis. So far the Catalan option is simply to \u201cinternationalise the conflict we will have to go to Brussels to explain that they don't even let us consult with the people\u201d. 2  Ultimately despite being within Spain so long as support for independence remains strong the Catalans probably have more cards to play; they provide more in taxes than they receive so could cut Madrid off, or in the final play they could unilaterally secede leaving Spain with the unpalatable option of either negotiating to get Catalonia back in, accepting, or invading.  1 Bollier, Sam, \u2018Catalans press for secession from Spain\u2019, Al Jazeera, 30 September 2012,   2 Tremlett, Giles, \u2018Catalonia leader threatens to draw EU into independence row with Spain\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 15 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-pro04a","title":"","text":"If a referendum is not allowed violence may be the result  The worst case scenario is one in which the Spanish government continues to deny the Catalan people the ability to decide for themselves democratically and peacefully then it is possible that eventually the result will be a change from a peaceful movement to a violent one. Some outside observers see parallels with the break up of Yugoslavia where the solution has to be further decentralisation and the center accepting a democratic route \u2013 in Yugoslavia failure to do so ultimately lead to several wars. 1 2 For the moment there are only the slightest of hints that things may get more radical if denied Pujol the General secretary of the governing Catalan party says \"There will be no way to avoid it. If we don't deliver it someone else will. More radical parties. But in a negotiation\u2026 it's not the best thing to reveal what you are going to do next\" so there is the possibility some factions of the independence movement turning to violence as Eta did in the Basque region if denied the democratic route. 3  1 Stanic, Ana, \u2018Catalunya and Spain: more than time for dialogue\u2019, Open Democracy, 18 October 2012,   2 Basta, Karlo, \u2018Reducing Catalonia\u2019s autonomy as a reaction to the fiscal crisis would only provide more fuel for secession-minded nationalists\u2019, London School of Economics and Political Science, European Politics and Policy, 26 September 2012,   3 Mason, Paul, \u2018Catalan leaders seek independence vote, legal or not\u2019, BBC News, 5 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-con03b","title":"","text":"It is not up to the Spanish state to choose when the Catalans should be able to have a referendum on independence. A time of crisis is as good as any; economic grievances are one of the main drivers in the desire for independence so it should come as no surprise that there is increase desire for a referendum when there is just such a crisis. Spain has already shown that it considers that there never has been and never will be a right time for a divorce. Even in the good times attempts to get an autonomy statute were met by challenges in the constitutional court which after years of deliberation watered down the agreement which had already been watered down by the Spanish Parliament. 1 More recently it was in large part the refusal of the Spanish Prime Minister to consider a request to consider Catalonia the same way as the Basques and Navarra in terms of finances that triggered the current crisis. 2  1 Pericay, Gaspar, \u2018The Spanish Constitutional Court shortens the current Catalan Statute of Autonomy\u2019, Catalan News Agency, 28 June 2010,   2 Guibernau, Montserrat, \u2018Calls for independence in Catalonia are part of an evolution of Spain\u2019s democracy that the country\u2019s constitution may have to come to accommodate.\u2019, London School of Economics and Political Science, European Politics and Policy, 8 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-con01b","title":"","text":"Section 2 of the constitution continues \u201cit recognizes and guarantees the right to self-government of the nationalities and regions of which it is composed and the solidarity among them all.\u201d 1 However it is not the constitution that is the problem blocking a referendum; rather it is the Spanish parliament. The government and parliament clearly could ask the King to allow a referendum on Catalan independence if it so wished. It should do so in order to prevent any more existential challenges to the constitution; constitutions have to be flexible if they are to survive the government is therefore wrong to treat it as a static unchanging document and justification for ruling out a referendum for Catalan independence. 2  1 Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution, 27 December 1978,  Section 2  2 Guibernau, Montserrat, \u2018Calls for independence in Catalonia are part of an evolution of Spain\u2019s democracy that the country\u2019s constitution may have to come to accommodate.\u2019, London School of Economics and Political Science, European Politics and Policy, 8 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-con02a","title":"","text":"Catalan independence would lead to further break up of the Spanish state  The issue of Catalan independence does not just affect Catalonia but the whole of Spain. All the regions of Spain have strong regional identities and Catalan is merely most widely spoken regional language with the both the Basque region and Galicia in particular having their own languages. Therefore a Catalan bid for independence might prompt other regions to make a bid for independence too. Moreover Catalan is spoken in regions outside Catalonia so these regions could potentially decide they are better off with Catalonia than Spain. 1  The basques in particular, who have already turned to the political path from that of violent separatism, are likely to take inspiration to work towards peaceful independence if the Catalans succeed and are allowed a referendum. 2 If Catalonia is allowed to secede then why should the Basque region be any different?  1 McCormick, Mark, \u2018The languages of Spain \u2013 interactive\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 19 January 2011,   2 Zabalo, Julen, \u2018Basque nationalists are taking inspiration from Scotland and Northern Ireland by using politics as a vehicle for independence\u2019, London School of Economics and Political Science, European Politics and Policy, 25 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-con03a","title":"","text":"The middle of a crisis is not the right time for divorce  Both Catalonia and Spain are in the middle of an economic crisis. Spain is considering a bail out by the European central bank and the prospect of losing 20% of its economy and the uncertainty while it happens would have an immense impact on the rest of the economy at a time when Spain already has unemployment of 23%. On the other side Catalonia\u2019s regional government needs bailing out by Spain\u2019s central government; it is seeking 5 billion Euros from a bailout fund set up by the Spanish government. Therefore while Catalonia may be the richest part of the Spanish economy but its government is missing its deficit targets. 1 It is therefore exactly the wrong time for Catalonia to be rocking the boat with a referendum on independence and the uncertainty this creates. Catalonia needs the Spanish government for its own bailout and the Spanish government needs stability if it is to avoid a bail out from the European Union and the conditions that are likely to come with such action.  1 Tremlett, Giles, and Traynor, Ian, \u2018Catalonia's \u20ac5bn plea brings Spanish bailout nearer\u201d, The Guardian, 28 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-con01a","title":"","text":"Spain is one indivisible nation  The Spanish constitution does not allow the holding of referendums on independence by Spanish regions. Spain is a single \u2018demos\u2019 made up of all the regions together rather than being separate and simply brought together under one banner. The Constitution says it \u201cis based on the indissoluble unity of the Spanish Nation, the common and indivisible homeland of all Spaniards\u201d. 1  Moreover while referendums may be allowed for \u201cpolitical decisions of special importance\u201d \u201cThe referendum shall be called by the King on the President of the Government's  proposal after previous authorization by the Congress.\u201d 2 So the calling of one is first up to the national government to decide one is needed and then requires the approval of the national parliament. In case that was not clear enough it is reiterated in section 149 on the role of the State and Regions \u201cThe State shall have exclusive competence over the following matters: Authorization of popular consultations through the holding of referendums.\u201d 3  1 Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution, 27 December 1978,  Section 2  2 Ibid, Section 92  3 Ibid, section 149"}
+{"id":"training-international-eplgvhwar-con02b","title":"","text":"For the most part this is simply being alarmists. However if other Spanish regions do wish to go their own way then all the arguments for why Catalonia should be allowed its own choice apply to them as well."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-pro02b","title":"","text":"Whatever the strengths and weaknesses of the Palestinians' legal case, their foremost argument for a 'right of return' has always rested on a claim of victimhood; this claim is highly disputed (as outlined below). Without this moral culpability on the part of Israel, there is no responsibility to right the situation on the part of the Israeli state.  Moreover, the 'individual' nature of the right of return is not helpful to the Palestinian case: Stig Jagerskiold argued in 1966 that the right of return was intended as an individual and not a collective right: \"...[it] is intended to apply to individuals asserting an individual right. There was no intention here to address the claims of masses of people who have been displaced as a by-product of war or by political transfers of territory or population, such as the relocation of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe during and after the Second World War, the flight of the Palestinians from what became Israel, or the movement of Jews from the Arab countries.\" [1] The claimed legal 'right of return' was never intended to be invoked by masses of people, which would fundamentally alter the welfare and nature of the state they returned to, and so its use in this way is invalid.  [1] Lapidoth, Ruth. \"LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PALESTINIAN REFUGEE QUESTION\". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: Jerusalem Letter \/ Viewpoints. 1 Septemebr 2002."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-pro02a","title":"","text":"Palestinians have a right to return under international law  Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that \"Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.\" [1] This right clearly applies to the Palestinians, as shown by UN General Assembly Resolution 194: \u201cThe General Assembly, Having considered further the situation in Palestine ... Resolves that the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property which, under principles of international law or in equity, should be made good by the Governments or authorities responsible.\" [2] This resolution was further clarified by UN General Assembly Resolution 3236 which reaffirms: \"the inalienable right of Palestinians to return to their homes and property from which they have been displaced and uprooted, and calls for their return.\" Israel itself accepted Resolution 194 when it was allowed to join the UN on the condition that it accepted this resolution. [3]  Israel's own laws recognise the importance of the 'right of return' to a people in general through the fact that Jews are allowed to emigrate to Israel under Israel's Law of Return, even if their immediate ancestors have not lived in the area in recent years. [4] The fact that, conversely, Palestinian people who grew up in the area and whose immediate ancestors had lived there for many generations are forbidden from returning is thus a huge injustice even from Israel's own legal perspective. Moreover, this right of return applies not just to Palestinians as a group but also individually to all Palestinian refugees themselves. On March 15, 2000, a group of 100 prominent Palestinians from around the world expressed their opinion that the right of return is individual, rather than collective, and that it cannot therefore be reduced or forfeited by any representation on behalf of the Palestinians in any agreement or treaty. They argued that the right to property 'cannot be extinguished by new sovereignty or occupation and does not have a statute of limitation.' [5] Therefore the Palestinian right of return has a clear basis in international law, including in Israel's own law, and so it should be recognised.  [1] United Nations. \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\". Wikisource. 10 December 1948.   [2] United Nations. \"UN General Assembly Resolution 194\". United Nations. 11 December 1948.   [3] Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition. \"Factsheet\". Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition.   [4] The Economist. \"The Palestinian right of return\". The Economist. 4 January 2001.   [5] Al-Ahram Weekly. \"Affirmation of the Palestinian Right of Return\". Al-Ahram Weekly Online. 9 - 15 March 2000."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-pro03b","title":"","text":"This argument again assumes that Israel is morally responsible for the current plight of the Palestinian refugees, which is untrue as Israel was not responsible for their exodus (as outlined below). Moreover, it is Arab countries, not Israel, which keep Palestinians in a state of limbo. It is the failure of Arab states to incorporate Palestinians into their societies by offering legal status which keeps the Palestinian refugees in their current indeterminate position, not Israeli policy. Furthermore, self-determination is not an absolute right. Not every territory and region in the world that seeks independence has the right to it. This is due in no small part to the fact that such a system would be unworkable. Certain criteria must be met for a territory and people to obtain a legitimate right to self-determination, including not compromising the fundamental security or nature of the original state, something which recognising the Palestinian right of return would do to Israel. Such policies are often pursued by Arab states explicitly as a tool against Israel: for example, Palestinians who moved from the West Bank (whether refugees or not) to Jordan, are issued yellow ID cards to distinguish them from the Palestinians of the \"official 10 refugee camps\" in Jordan.  Since 1988, thousands of those yellow-ID card Palestinians have had their Jordanian citizenship revoked in order to prevent the possibility that they might become permanent residents of the country. Jordan's Interior Minister Nayef al-Kadi said: \"Our goal is to prevent Israel from emptying the Palestinian territories of their original inhabitants,\" the minister explained. \"We should be thanked for taking this measure... We are fulfilling our national duty because Israel wants to expel the Palestinians from their homeland.\" [1]  [1] Abu Toameh, Khaled. \"Amman revoking Palestinians' citizenship\". The Jerusalem Post. 20 July 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-pro01a","title":"","text":"A Palestinians were forced to leave and so have a right to return  Especially in the 1948 War, Palestinians were forcibly removed from their homes and towns en masse by the Israeli Defence Force (IDF). The traditional Israeli point of view arguing that Arab leaders encouraged Palestinian Arabs to flee is simply untrue. In fact, Arab leaders intended for the Palestinian Arab population stay put. Historians such as Benny Morris, Erskine Childers, and Walid Khalidi state that no evidence of widespread evacuation orders exists, and that Arab leaders in fact instructed the Palestinian Arabs to stay put. [1] [2] [3] .  According to Morris, whatever the reasons driving many into flight, temporary evacuation under local orders, contagious panic, fear of Jewish arms, or direct expulsion manu militari, the 700,000 odd Palestinians who did become refugees acquired that status as a result of compulsory displacement or expulsion, since they were not permitted by Israel to return.(1) In terms of the cause of the Palestinian flight, Morris argues that \"Arab evacuees from the towns and villages left largely because of Jewish... attacks or fear of impending attack.\"(1) A report from the military intelligence SHAI of the Haganah entitled \"The emigration of Palestinian Arabs in the period 1\/12\/1947-1\/6\/1948\", dated 30 June 1948 affirms that up to 1 June 1948: \"At least 55% of the total of the exodus was caused by our (Haganah\/IDF) operations.\" To this figure, the report\u2019s compilers add the operations of the Irgun and Lehi, which \"directly (caused) some 15%... of the emigration\". A further 2% was attributed to explicit expulsion orders issued by Israeli troops, and 1% to their psychological warfare. This leads to a figure of 73% for departures caused directly by the Israelis. In addition, the report attributes 22% of the departures to \"fears\" and \"a crisis of confidence\" affecting the Palestinian population.  As for Arab calls for flight, these were reckoned to be significant in only 5% of cases. [4] This clearly demonstrates not only Israeli responsibility for the Palestinian refugees of 1948, but also that Israel was aware of it while it was going on, thus showing that expelling the Palestinians was intentional Israeli policy. This is compounded by the fact that the dispossession and ethnic cleansing of the Arabs of Palestine was part of the Zionist project from the very beginning. Theodor Herzl, in effect the father of modern Zionism and the state of Israel, in the draft-agreement of The Jewish-Ottoman Land Company (JOLC) stated the company was 'for the purpose of settling Palestine and Syria with Jews' (the company lobbied for approval from Sultan Abdulhameed in Istanbul in 1901). In Article III of the same agreement the JOLC was given the right to deport the native populations, an act aimed at legitimizing ethnic cleansing, by granting \"The right to exchange economic enclaves of its territory, with the exception of the holy places or places already designated for worship. The owners shall receive plots of equal size and quality procured by it (the JOLC) in other provinces and territories of the Ottoman Empire.\" [5] This intentional ethnic cleansing of Arabs from Palestine can therefore be seen as part of the Zionist project to create a Jewish majority state in Israel. Therefore, to deny the Palestinian right of return is to perpetuate this injustice and allow ethnic cleansing to succeed. Israel, a state founded by refugees of ethnic cleansing and the Holocaust, should not allow such an injustice to stand any longer.  [1] Morris, Benny. \"The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited\". Cambridge University Press. 2004  [2] Childers, Erskine. \"The Other Exodus\". The Spectator. 12 May 1961  [3] Khalidi, Walid. \"Why did the Palestinians Leave, Revisited\". Journal of Palestinian Studies Vol 134, no. 2 (Win. 05).  [4] Morris, Benny. \"The Causes and Character of the Arab Exodus from Palestine: The Israel Defence Forces Intelligence Branch Analysis of June 1948\". Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Jan., 1986)  [5] Sakhnini, Nizar. \"Dispossession and Ethnic Cleansing.\" Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition. 12 July 2004."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-pro01b","title":"","text":"The characterization of the 1948 Palestinian exodus as forced by Israel is incorrect. In the very same passage quoted opposite, Morris goes on to argue that only \"an extremely small, almost insignificant number of the refugees during this early period left because of (Israeli) expulsion orders or forceful 'advice' to that effect\". [1] Count Bernadotte, the UN mediator in Palestine, testified that \"the exodus of the Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion.\" [2] Thus, Israel is not responsible for acts of flight from Palestine which were largely motivated by imagined fears, which were the cause of almost all the Palestinian refugees, as they were not directly expelled or threatened by the IDF.  The Palestinians of 1948 may have made a tragic choice, for themselves and for their descendants, but this does not make Israel morally responsible for this choice and its consequences, as in almost every case Israel was not to blame, and it is impossible to isolate and identify those few where it may have been. Even if Israel were somehow morally responsible, it does not follow from this that Israel should accept an unlimited Palestinian right of return on the part of every refugee, considering the massive harms this would inflict on the state of Israel (outlined below). Rather, as Israel has proposed in the past, the Palestinians could accept words of contrition from Israel, and generous allocations of international aid, in place of the right of every refugee and his descendants to go back to his old home inside Israel. [3] This would be a more acceptable alternative to Israel, and still help to heal Palestinian wounds.  [1] Morris, Benny. \"The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited\". Cambridge University Press. 2004  [2] UN Progress Report, 16 September 1948, Part 1 Section V, paragraph 6; Part 3 Section I  [3] The Economist. \"The Palestinian right of return\". The Economist. 4 January 2001."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-pro03a","title":"","text":"Denying the right to return harms Palestinians  Palestinian refugees represent the longest suffering and largest refugee population in the world today. During the creation of Israel in 1948, approximately three quarters of a million Palestinians were forced to become refugees. Together with their descendants, more than 4.3 million of these refugees are today registered with the United Nations while over 1.7 million are not. Approximately 32,000 Palestinians also became internally displaced in the areas occupied in 1948. Today, these refugees number approximately 355,000 persons. Despite the fact that they were issued Israeli citizenship, Israel has also denied these refugees their right to return to their homes or villages. [1] The fact that these refugees are forced by Israel to continue living abroad, mostly in refugee camps, further harms Palestinians by denying them the right to self-determination in their homeland which they were expelled from.  The 1993 Vienna Declaration, which reaffirmed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Charter (and so sets the standard in current international law), unequivocally gives all peoples the right to self-determination: \"All people have the right to self-determination. Owing to this right they freely establish their political status and freely provide their economic, social and cultural development...World Conference on Human Rights considers refusal of the right to self-determination as a violation of human rights and emphasizes the necessity of effective realization of this right\". [2] By this measure, the Palestinian people have a right to self-determination in their homeland, allowing them to establish an independent state if they wish, any suppression of that right should be seen as a human rights violation. Therefore Israel's denial of the Palestinian\u2019s right of return harms the Palestinians, and so it should be ended.  [1] Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition. \"Factsheet\". Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition.   [2] United Nations World Conference on Human Rights. \u201cVIENNA DECLARATION AND PROGRAMME OF ACTION\u201d. United Nations. 14-25 June 1993."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-con03b","title":"","text":"The 1948 UN General Resolution 194 specifically applies the right of return to the Palestinian refugees. Paragraph 11 states \"that the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property which, under principles of international law or in equity, should be made good by the Governments or authorities responsible.\" [1]  [1] United Nations. \"UN General Assembly Resolution 194\". United Nations. 11 December 1948."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-con01b","title":"","text":"The inalienable rights of refugees are not negotiable, nor are they subject to the interests of the state which they would be returning to. International law considers agreements between an occupier and the occupied to be null and void if they deprive civilians of recognized human rights including the rights to repatriation and restitution. [1] Therefore the interests of the state of Israel are not legitimate reasons to deny the right of return which is owed to Palestinian refugees. Moreover, the right of return is feasible in Israel due to the availability of empty land. 80% of Israelis live in 15 percent of the land and that the remaining 20% live on 85% of the land that belongs to the refugees. Further, of the 20%, 18% live in Palestinian cities while the remaining 2% live in kibbutzim and moshavs. By contrast, more than 6,000 refugees live per square kilometer in the Gaza Strip, while over the barbed wire their lands are practically empty. [2]  [1] Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition. \"Factsheet\". Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition.   [2] Sakhnini, Nizar. \"Dispossession and Ethnic Cleansing.\" Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition. 12 July 2004."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-con02a","title":"","text":"The Palestinian refugee crisis was created and is perpetuated by the Arab states and the Palestinians themselves  The current Palestinian refugee crisis is largely the creation of the Palestinian people themselves, who largely left voluntarily (or at least not by Israeli force) in 1948, and the Arab states who both started the 1948 war against Israel and who have kept the Palestinians in limbo ever since instead of integrating them.  Firstly, Palestinian flight from Israel was not compelled but was predominantly voluntary, as a result of seven Arab nations declaring war on Israel in 1948. Israel officially denies any responsibility for the Palestinian exodus, stating that their flight was caused by the Arab invasion. Efraim Karsh states that most Palestinians chose their status as refugees themselves, and therefore Israel is therefore absolved of responsibility. [1] Morris argues that only \"an extremely small, almost insignificant number of the refugees during this early period left because of (Israeli) expulsion orders or forceful 'advice' to that effect\". [2] Count Bernadotte, the UN mediator in Palestine, testified that \"the exodus of the Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion.\" [3] Therefore Israel is absolved of moral responsibility for the Palestinian exodus, as the vast majority of it was caused by the Palestinian people themselves.  Further, Arab states instigated the 1948 and 1967 wars, and so they bear responsibility for their outcomes, including the refugees that resulted. Israeli official sources, foreign press, and officials present at the time, and historians such as Joseph Schechtman have long claimed that the 1948 refugee crisis was instigated by the invading Arab armies, who ordered Palestinian civilians to evacuate the battle zone. Israel officially denies any responsibility for the Palestinian exodus, stating that their flight was caused by the Arab invasion. [4] [5] Thus the responsibility for housing and integrating Palestinian refugees into established, recognised nations in fact lies with the Arab states. However, this is a responsibility that the Arab world has neglected since 1948.  It is the failure of Arab states to incorporate Palestinians into their societies by offering legal status which keeps the Palestinian refugees in limbo, not Israeli policy. Refugees and their descendants are usually kept in refugee camps and not allowed to integrate into the Arab nations in which they reside. [6] Such policies are often pursued by Arab states explicitly as a tool against Israel: for example, Palestinians who moved from the West Bank (whether refugees or not) to Jordan, are issued yellow ID cards to distinguish them from the Palestinians of the \"official 10 refugee camps\" in Jordan. Since 1988, thousands of those yellow-ID card Palestinians have had their Jordanian citizenship revoked in order to prevent the possibility that they might become permanent residents of the country. Jordan's Interior Minister Nayef al-Kadi said: \"Our goal is to prevent Israel from emptying the Palestinian territories of their original inhabitants. \"We should be thanked for taking this measure... We are fulfilling our national duty because Israel wants to expel the Palestinians from their homeland.\" [7] Thus, the Palestinian refugee problem was brought about through choices made by Palestinians themselves, during a war against Israel initiated by Arab states. The crisis has since been perpetuated by other Arab governments. Many states- such as Jordan- have pursued policies that call for the exclusion and marginalisation of Palestinians, in the interest of weakening Israeli claims to statehood and maintaining and deepening Palestinian and Arab resentment of Israel. Israel is not therefore the morally culpable actor, and so has no responsibility to recognise the Palestinian 'right of return'.  [1] Karsh, Efraim. \"Fabricating Israeli History: The \"New Historians\"\". Cass. 1997  [2] Morris, Benny. \"The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited\". Cambridge University Press. 2004  [3] UN Progress Report, 16 September 1948, Part 1 Section V, paragraph 6; Part 3 Section I  [4] UN Progress Report, 16 September 1948, Part 1 Section V, paragraph 6; Part 3 Section I  [5] Schechtman, Joseph. \"The Arab Refugee Problem\". 1952.  [6] The Economist. \"The Palestinian right of return\". The Economist. 4 January 2001.   [7] Abu Toameh, Khaled. \"Amman revoking Palestinians' citizenship\". The Jerusalem Post. 20 July 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-con03a","title":"","text":"No real 'right of return' exists in international law  Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights does not guarantee a right of return because the clause \"everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country\" was meant to guarantee the right to leave.  According to its legislative history, Article 13 was aimed at governments which imprisoned certain subgroups of their own nationals by preventing them from moving beyond their national borders. According to its sponsor, the mention of a \"right to return\" was included to assure that \"the right to leave a country, already sanctioned in the article, would be strengthened by the assurance of the right to return. [1] Moreover, Article 13 only guarantees a specific right to return \"to his own country\". [2] But, the Palestinians who were displaced were never citizens or legal residents of Israel. Therefore, they can have no right of return to Israel. U.N. General Assembly Resolution 194, furthermore, does not specify a 'right', but rather says refugees \"should\" be allowed to return. [3] Hence Israel is under no obligation to recognise a 'right', but rather merely to accept that Palestinians have some claim to return or to compensation for not being able to return. This is distinct from a total and inalienable 'right' to do so, regardless of the consequences for Israel. Also, there is no formal mechanism in international law to demand repatriation of refugees and their descendants in general or Palestinians specifically. No international legislation, binding UN resolutions or agreements between Israel and the Palestinians require this. This is demonstrated by international precedent, especially by the case of the 758,000-866,000 Jews who were expelled, fled or emigrated from the Arab Middle East and North Africa between 1945 and 1956, with property losses of $1 billion. [4] Since these refugees were neither compensated nor allowed return\u2014to no objection on the part of Arab leaders or international legal authorities\u2014the international community has accepted this migration of Jews as fait accompli, and thereby set legal precedent in the region against a right of return for Palestinians also.  Finally, most of the inhabitants of the Palestinian refugee camps abroad were not actually alive in either 1948 or 1967, and there is no reason to believe that their descendants automatically inherit any 'right of return' which their ancestors may have held. Therefore Israel should not recognise the Palestinian 'right of return' as no such right really exists under international law.  [1] Dinstein, Yoram. \"Israel Yearbook on Human Rights\". Volume 16; Volume 1986  [2] United Nations. \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\". Wikisource. 10 December 1948.   [3] United Nations. \"UN General Assembly Resolution 194\". United Nations. 11 December 1948.   [4] Schwartz, Adi. \"All I wanted was justice\". Haaretz\/adi-schwartz.com. 4 January 2008."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-con01a","title":"","text":"A Palestinian right of return would destroy the 'Jewish State' in Israel  If all or a large majority of Palestinian refugees and their descendants were to implement a 'right of return', it would make Arabs the majority within Israel and Jews an ethnic minority. This amounts to abolishing the Jewish people's right to self-determination, which they hold under the 1993 Vienna Declaration. [1] It would also mean eradicating Israel as a Jewish state, which was the intention behind its foundation. The majority of Israelis find a literal right of return for Palestinian refugees to be unacceptable, pointing to this worry that as they become a minority Israel as a Jewish state would be undermined. [2]  Re-enforcing the need for the existence of a Jewish state (as a safe haven for persecuted Jews) is the presence in Israel of 758,000-866,000 Jews who were expelled, fled or emigrated from the Arab Middle East and North Africa between 1945 and 1956, to whom the Arab states which expelled them are not willing to offer any 'right of return' of their own. [3] An open letter to the Palestinian leadership published in 2001 by Amos Oz, A.B. Yehoshua and other Israeli intellectuals and peace activists dramatically demonstrated the agreement even among the 'peace camp' in Israel that a total right of return for Palestinians can never be acceptable to the Israeli people: \u201cWe shall never be able to agree\u201d, they wrote, \u201cto the return of the refugees to within the borders of Israel. The meaning of such a return would be the elimination of the state of Israel.\u201d Yossi Sarid, chairman of the Meretz Party, stated baldly that \u201cIsrael can survive without sovereignty over Temple Mount, but it cannot survive with the right of return. If the Palestinians insist on it, there will be no (peace) agreement.\u201d [4] Thus asking Israel to recognise the Palestinian right of return is tantamount to asking Israel to accept its own destruction as a state, and is thus totally unacceptable.  There are further reasons that recognising the Palestinian right of return would be fundamentally harmful to Israel's welfare, and thus an invalid action. Article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that rights can be limited by law solely for securing 'due recognition and respect for the rights of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order, and general welfare in a democratic society.' Article 30 states that nothing in the declaration may be interpreted as permitting any state, group, or person to engage in activity aimed at the destruction of any rights or freedoms guaranteed. The 'rights' and 'general welfare' of Israel's Jewish citizens would be endangered if millions of Palestinians who were openly hostile to Israel's existence became a majority. Article 3 of the declaration further states that \"these rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purpose and principles of the United Nations\". [5] The Palestinian right of return would result in the loss of Israeli sovereignty and its replacement with an Arab-majority state, and the dismantling of Israeli society in favour of an Arab-Muslim dominated society, resulting in the destruction of a UN member state: a violation of the United Nations Charter. For this reason, a Palestinian right of return is invalidated.  A right of return would also result in a flood of Palestinians stating their 'right of return' as justification for entering Israel at any time and in unlimited numbers and laying claim to old homes. This creates an unworkable legal nightmare, clouded by historical ambiguities. Such an extended legal nightmare would last for decades, and hurt the reconciliation process. [i-[1]  There are many things that Israel can and has offered to Palestinian refugees: compensation, assistance in resettlement, and return for an extremely limited number of refugees based solely on family reunification or humanitarian considerations. But an unlimited right of return for all refugees and their descendants simply goes too far. This is largely because it is purely unworkable to allow millions of Palestinians to return back to a territory that is already overcrowded. [i-[2] [6] For all these reasons, recognising the Palestinian right of return would destroy Israel as a 'Jewish state' and fundamentally harm the welfare of its current legal inhabitants by infringing on their rights, and so Israel should not pursue this recognition.  [1] United Nations World Conference on Human Rights. \u201cVIENNA DECLARATION AND PROGRAMME OF ACTION\u201d. United Nations. 14-25 June 1993.   [2] The Economist. \"The Palestinian right of return\". The Economist. 4 January 2001.   [3] Schwartz, Adi. \"All I wanted was justice\". Haaretz\/adi-schwartz.com. 4 January 2008.   [4] The Economist. \"The Palestinian right of return\". The Economist. 4 January 2001.   [5] United Nations. \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\". Wikisource. 10 December 1948.   [6] The Economist. \"The Palestinian right of return\". The Economist. 4 January 2001."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehrilsim-con02b","title":"","text":"The Zionist project which led to the state of Israel intended to displace Palestinians from the very beginning, long before the so-called Arab 'aggression' in 1948. Theodor Herzl, who presided the First Zionist Congress, had provided the ideological underpinnings of the Zionist movement in his pamphlet, Der Judenstaat, which was published in 1896. Herzl called for a colonial project for the exclusive benefit of the Jews and suggested that Der Judenstaat would 'form a portion of the rampart of Europe against Asia, an outpost of civilization as opposed to barbarism.' Efforts of the Zionist political movement to implement their project, with the support of the Imperialist Great Powers, in complete disregard to the Palestinian rights and human reality in Palestine, were responsible for initiating and prolonging the conflict in and around Palestine. The establishment of an exclusive Jewish State in a country where the majority of its people were not Jewish meant transplanting Jews from all corners of the world and bringing them to Palestine. Simultaneously, it meant dispossession and ethnic cleansing for the Palestinians. This was, and still is, the core issue in the conflict. All subsequent events are derivative and irrelevant as a consequence. [1]  [1] Sakhnini, Nizar. \"The Core Issue\". Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right of Return Coalition. 11 July 2004."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro02b","title":"","text":"A great many of the world\u2019s leading states are multicultural\/ethnic rather than ethnic states. The United States, Brazil, India, and Indonesia to take just a few. These states have been able to construct national identities that are not just based upon ethnicity. For cosmopolitan democratic states the border being an accident of history does not matter [1] ; this is what African states need to do as well not carve themselves up.  [1] Ratner, 1996, p.591"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro02a","title":"","text":"Ethnic borders allow nation states  In Africa borders are artificial often running through ethnic groupings without consideration for culture or even local geography with the exception of water courses. [1] Altering these borders to reflect ethnicities and culture would help states to create their own national identity as their identities would not be split. Having the whole of an ethnicity within one state will help prevent misappropriation of culture and history by another state.  [1] Michalopoulos, 2011, p.19"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro03b","title":"","text":"That such a move will reduce conflict relies on a lot of assumptions; most notably that the changes won\u2019t spark a lot of new conflicts. Territory is the biggest source of violent conflicts among states and this will create a large number of new such conflicts. When there is a response 76.6% of the time it will be military when territory is in dispute compared to 49% when something else is the cause, and such disputes are three times as likely to escalate to war (7.3% to 2.5%). [1] The redrawing process would also mean suffering as states attempt to pre-empt new borders by moving those of the \u2018wrong\u2019 ethnicity and as insurgencies are stepped up. The Abyei area of Sudan shows what is likely to happen; it was to have a referendum to decide whether to join the North or South but the north occupied the region before it could be carried out. [2]  [1] Hensel, 1998, pp.20-1  [2] Copnall, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro05a","title":"","text":"Redrawing could be democratic  A redrawing of borders would allow for democratic participation in the building of new African states. There would have to be plebiscites in local areas to determine where borders should run and extensive consultation so that the borders are drawn based on the wishes of the people this time. The opposite of what happens at the moment. For example much of the Bakassi homeland was ceded by Nigeria to Cameroon as a result of an International Court of Justice ruling on the colonial border and many people are asking Nigeria to resettle them as they don\u2019t share Cameroon\u2019s culture. [1] Clearly the people would surely much prefer to have their destiny in their own hands than letting the borders be settled by an international court pouring over 19th century maps. [2]  [1] Chinwo, 2012  [2] Fisher, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro01a","title":"","text":"Ethnic borders erase a wrong of history  Imperialism and Colonisation is one of the great wrongs of history where much of the globe was carved up without any reference to the facts on the ground. When the west drew borders peoples were split, and kingdoms and cultures carved up. Independence may have ended some of the worst aspects of imperialism but it exacerbated the problem of borders. [1] Africa has since seen the problems that this has created and should realise the need to break from the colonial legacy.  [1] Michalopoulos, 2011, p.4"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro01b","title":"","text":"Changing borders won\u2019t erase the wrong \u2013 it happened and that should be recognised. Borders are simply one by-product and if there are individual borders that are particularly problematic then they might need to be redrawn but there should not be a comprehensive change. To do so might simply create a new wrong with thousands of conflicts over where borders should run."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro05b","title":"","text":"Plebiscites and consultation across the whole of Africa. The project would take years or decades to come up with agreed upon borders. Small areas state might wish to be ceded to a neighbouring state when those closer don\u2019t creating enclaves and exclaves [1] as well as a recipe for conflict.  [1] Exclave.eu"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro04b","title":"","text":"First changing borders encouraging development relies on the assumption that there won\u2019t be conflict. Second if independence movements gain independence then there will be a lot more international borders and the barriers to trade these impose. Finally we need to think about this the other way around; when there are ethnic groups on both sides of the trade they are encouraging and facilitating trade between the two states \u2013 this is something to be encouraged not changed. Having the same ethnicity on both sides of the border works in the same way as having emigration in encouraging trade. Because of networks overlapping between the two countries trade will increase. In Spain for example doubling the number of immigrants leads to an increase in exports to the immigrant\u2019s country of origin by 10%. [1] Economic development is not always stifled at borders; two of the four Nigerian states with GDP per capita of over 2000NGN are on the border with Benin. [2]  [1] Peri, 2010  [2] AlifArabia, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro03a","title":"","text":"Preventing conflict  Redrawing borders could help resolve conflict in Africa. Michalopoulos and Papaioannou find \"civil conflict intensity, as reflected in war casualties and duration, is approximately 35% higher in areas where partitioned ethnicities reside.\" Conflict duration is 18.5% higher. [1]  They identify seven different ways in which artificial borders lead to, or intensify conflict;  1, partitioning ethnicities creates irredentist demands  2, partitioning makes an independence movement more likely  3, when borders are not marked the ethnic group has a reason to attempt to change the border  4, patronage politics leads to discrimination against minorities  5, splitting ethnicities encourages smuggling and criminalisation  6, splitting resources that were previously part of an ethnic group\u2019s homeland will leave the ethnic group trying to engineer the resources return  7, partitioning reduces development so increases inequality with and resentment towards the center of the state. [2]  Getting rid of all of these reasons for conflict would help make Africa more peaceful in the long run.  [1] Michalopoulos, 2011, p.22  [2] Michalopoulos, 2011, pp.4-6"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-pro04a","title":"","text":"Encouraging development  Using data from satellites measuring luminosity Michalopoulos and Papaioannou find that border areas with partitioned ethnic groups are up to 60% less developed than those towards the centre of countries so are not artificially split. Ethnicity is significant for trade. For example between Niger and Nigeria prices of millet increase at the border by 23.2% when it is also the border between ethnicities but only 9.3% when the same ethnicity is on both sides of the border for cowpea the figures are 20.2% and 14.4%. [1] Moreover internally where there is an ethnic border between markets there is a similar increase of 21% for millet and 22% for cowpea. [2] Ethnicity may also affect the ability to gain credit from other traders. [3] It therefore makes sense economically to have borders at ethnic boundaries due to the natural trading relations within an ethnic group. Splitting an ethnic group creates unnecessary hardship by making it more difficult to trade.  [1] Aker, 2010, p.16  [2] Ibid, p.21-2  [3] Ibid, p.25"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con03b","title":"","text":"There are many \u2018odd borders\u2019 around the world without problems. Not least between Belgium and the Netherlands. There are about twenty tiny enclaves at Baarle as 5732 parcels of land in a 50km border region were parcelled out separately. [1] Yet there has been no conflict between the two since Belgian independence. Odd borders don\u2019t matter \u2013 it\u2019s the willingness to cooperate that counts.  [1] Smith"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con01b","title":"","text":"It has since been accepted in the 1989 Guinea-Bissau\/Senegal case that a colony gaining independence need not be bound by agreements concluded by the imperial power. [1] Borders have never in the past been fixed, they have changed usually as a result of conflict but also more peaceful changes such as demarcation or unification. African states should not be binding themselves to an out of date territorial system forced upon them by their imperial oppressors.  [1] Ratner, 1996, p.620"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con02a","title":"","text":"Encourages Secessionism  There are at least 834 different ethnicities in Africa [1] and could be as many as 3315. [2] If the ethnicities along the borders are being allowed to choose where they belong then every other ethnicity should, anything else is inconsistent. This is necessary to solve long running campaigns for independence such as by Western Sahara where the people would not want to have to choose between Morocco and Mauritania. [3] On the other hand if only groups which are already in revolt are asked whether they wish independence then such a proposal is simply hypocritical failing to take into account that groups that have been non-violent may also wish independence.  [1] Michalopoulos, 2011, p.1  [2] Wentzel, 2013  [3] BBC News, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con04a","title":"","text":"Damages dreams of African unity  The African Union Constitutive Act has as an objective to \u201cachieve greater unity and solidarity\u201d. This is something that is damaged by making borders open to question. Borders at the moment are a settle but redrawing borders will open up disputes between African countries as every state will fear losing valuable pieces of territory. It will make that the primary international issue for decades setting back cooperation on peacekeeping or a common market.  If African unity is the ultimate objective then borders should not matter."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con03a","title":"","text":"Would create odd borders.  Unfortunately ethnic groups don\u2019t all live in a block with clear dividing lines between them and the neighbouring group. Borders reflecting ethnicities will be squiggly. Often there will be enclaves. Even enclaves may not be enough to get everybody from each ethnicity in the \u2018right\u2019 nation. This is shown in the former Yugoslavia where when a nation for Kosovars was created Serbs were suddenly on the wrong side of the border.  This is the problem with not going based upon administrative borders. The question is immediately raised; how finely grained should the border be calibrated? A border cannot be moved to suit every individual."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con01a","title":"","text":"Violates current states sovereignty  One of the core principles of sovereignty is that of territorial integrity. In the process of decolonisation this was expressed through the principle of uti possidetis, that the administrative divisions of the previous state should form the borders the new states so as to prevent gaps in sovereignty and the conflict that would create. [1] The OAU in 1964 went so far as to solemnly declare \u201cthat all Member States pledge themselves to respect the borders existing on their achievement of national independence.\u201d [2] Any alteration to borders would be attacking this principle. No African state is going to accept a change that is likely to redraw many of their borders, open disputes with neighbours and possibly create new states.  [1] Shaw, 1997, p.356  [2] OAU, 1964"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con04b","title":"","text":"Solving the conflicts and preventing violence is the first step to real African unity and cooperation. Redrawing the borders is a radical solution that has yet to be tried as it will makes stronger and reduce the threat of secession movements it should make African leaders more willing the work with neighbours."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehwrabre-con02b","title":"","text":"In addition to meeting the demands of some independence movements, there could be a decrease in the number of such organisations due to reduced prospects. If it is unlikely to get a whole province then they may be less inclined to attempt to secede. [1]  There have been conflicts in Kivu, DR Congo, but the Banyamulenge the main group involved only makes up around 4% of the population [2] \u2013 would they desire to split from Congo if they were not likely to take the whole province?  [1] Ratner, 1996, p.591  [2] Wikipedia"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro02b","title":"","text":"Not all rebels have disarmed; the FDLR group has said it will disarm but has not done so. [1] The disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programme faces coordination and financial problems. There is a security threat from volatile border regions that might reverse the whole DDR effort as militias and military units struggle for control over resources and terrorise the local population. MONUSCO can't protect the repatriated civilians, which may mean any demobilisation is only temporary. If violence flares then so will guns be taken up once more.  [1] Mvano, Chrispin, \u2018U.N. Congo peacekeepers question Rwandan rebel disarmament claim\u2019, Reuters, 4 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro02a","title":"","text":"There has been disarmament and demobilisation  In a war-torn society MONUSCO helps with disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR). DDR is of crucial importance for the future stability of the DRC. They have used the latest technology and decades of UN experience with visible success. Thousands of ex-combatants have already been returned to their homes and reintegrated into the lives of their communities. By March 2011 almost 210,000 ex-combatants had been through the demobilisation process \u2013 out of an estimated total of 300-330,000. [1] And almost 32,000 of 39,000 child soldiers had been reunited with their parents. [2]  [1] \u2018Democratic Republic of Congo: Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) and reform of the army\u2019, Amnesty International, 25 January 2007,   [2] \u2018Demobilization and Reintegration in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)\u2019, The World Bank, 11 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro03b","title":"","text":"The presence of the UN has not stopped human rights abuses. A recent UN report has highlighted that the Congolese army itself has been involved in such abuses particularly sexual violence. Convictions by the ICC are welcome but prosecuting a tiny number of leaders is a drop in the ocean of criminality that occurred, and still occurs in the DRC."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro01a","title":"","text":"Elections have been a success  The elections process is moving ahead well. While elections cannot be said to be an unqualified success there have been two general elections, in 2006 and 2011. Local media is vibrant and competitive. And there were a large number of candidates. In the 2011 elections the observers from the African Union and other organisations welcomed \u201cthe successful holding of elections\u201d and \u201cthe spirit of cooperation and solidarity\u201d. [1] Moreover the whole election process is moving ahead; the country\u2019s first ever local elections are planned for 2014. [2] This will provide the people with much more say over their daily lives. In a country with little centralised power like the DRC local elections are as important as national ones.  [1] African Union et al., \u2018Joint Declaration on the presidential and parliamentary elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo\u2019, au.int, 30 November 2011,   [2] Enough Team, \u2018A First for Congo: Local Elections Announced for 2014\u2019, enough, 26 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro01b","title":"","text":"Elections do not show the UN is moving Congo towards becoming a functioning democracy. In 2011 President Kabila has changed the election system to strengthen his own chances of re-election. The elections were hardly free and fair; the AU election monitors have every incentive to praise the elections but even they noted violence occurring. The US state department said \u201cwe believe that the management and technical execution of these elections were seriously flawed, lacked transparency and did not measure up to the democratic gains we have seen in recent African elections.\u201d [1] The Carter Center found \u201cmultiple locations\u2026 reported impossibly high rates of 99 to 100 percent voter turnout with all, or nearly all, votes going to incumbent President Joseph Kabila.\u201d [2] Worse the elections were marred by violence with at least 18 people killed in the run up to the vote. [3]  [1] Nuland, Victoria, \u2018State Department on Results of Presidential Election in DRC\u2019, US State Department, 14 December 2011,   [2] \u2018Carter Center: DRC Presidential Election Results Lack Credibility\u2019, The Carter Center, 10 December 2011,   [3] Callimachi, Rukmini, \u2018Congo Elections 2011: Violence Kills At Least 18 People\u2019, Huffington Post, 2 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro04b","title":"","text":"As recently as January 2014 the United Nations Security Council noted in a resolution \u201cthat the situation in the DRC continues to constitute a threat to international peace and security\u201d. [1]  In the border regions of Ituri and Kivu armed fighting still goes on despite the supposed defeat pf M23. In December 2013 the bodies of 21 slaughtered civilians were found with the finger of blame pointing at the National Army for the Liberation of Uganda (NALU) and the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) showing that the fight is not yet fully won; there are still groups fighting. [2]  [1] \u2018Resolution 2136 (2014)\u2019, United Nations Security Council, 30 January 2014,   [2] UN News Service, \u2018Congo-Kinshasa: UN Boosts Attack Force in East After Gruesome Massacre of Civilians\u2019, allAfrica, 16 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro03a","title":"","text":"Convictions by the ICC show international justice in action  There has been some justice for past crimes. The former warlord Thomas Lubanga [1] and warlord and politician Jean-Pierre Bemba [2] have both been put on trial in the Hague for war crimes. Lubanga was found guilty of using child soldiers and given a 14 year sentence. [3] Additionally rebel General Laurent Nkunda has also been arrested in neighbouring Rwanda although there have as yet been no charges against him [4] the government of the DRC wishes to extradite him. showing that accountability is being introduced and providing a warning for current militia leaders.  [1] \u2018Trial Reports: Lubanga Trial\u2019,   [2] \u2018Trial Reports: Bemba Trial\u2019,   [3] Wakabi, Wairagala, \u2018Lubanga Given 14-Year Jail Sentence\u2019, the Lubanga Trial, 10 July 2012,   [4] Nienaber, Georgianne, \u2018What Happened to Congolese General Laurent Nkunda?\u2019, Huffington Post, 20 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-pro04a","title":"","text":"Peace may finally be at hand  With the Ceasefire Agreement of Lusaka in July 1999 the so-called \"Africa's World War\" ended. Foreign occupiers (Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe\u2026) officially removed their troops from the territory under the sovereignty of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). MONUSCO has been involved in the process of peace-building ever since the Lusaka Agreement. The agreement ended the international element of the fighting leaving just conflicts with rebel militias. This too is now close to being finished. In November a peace deal was signed between the government and M23 in Kenya as a result of aggressive UN action. [1] With a deal struck with the biggest remaining rebel group DRC is close to permanent peace.  [1] \u2018DR Congo government 'signs deal with M23 in Kenya'\u2019, BBC News, 12 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con03b","title":"","text":"While a factional, corrupt government that can\u2019t control its territory is an impediment to peace it is not the United Nations main responsibility. MONUSCO has done what it can in coordination with other United Nations agencies, donors and non-governmental organizations, providing assistance for the reform of security forces, and the re-establishment of a State based on the rule of law. It has more than 2,000 civilian staff helping to build institutions. In the years after the Lushaka agreement revenue collection doubled from 6.5% in 2001 to 13.2% of GDP in 2006 showing that the government bureaucracy is being put back on its feet even before the conflict is completely ended. [1] It also shows the government does still have control. As a result international investment has started to flow in and life is better for the large majority of Congolese, especially in the calmer western areas.  [1] Harsch, Ernest, \u2018Building a state for the Congolese people\u2019, Africa Renewal, January 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con01b","title":"","text":"MONUSCO is working on improving the humanitarian situation in the DRC. They deliver humanitarian help and medical equipment. For example the peacekeepers regularly build health clinics. [1] Quick impact programmes are specially meant to address humanitarian issues and work with the population affected. Without the work of the UN, the desperate situation of the Congolese people would be even worse.  [1] \u2018MONUSCO Builds and Equips a Medical Clinic in Mahagi, Ituri District, Oriental Province\u2019, MONUSCO, 12 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con02a","title":"","text":"Resources still flow out of the country  There is considerable evidence of a continuation of criminality linked to exploitation, including fraud, smuggling, counterfeit money, extortion, and tax evasion. Many natural riches are flown directly out of the country without being taxed \u2013 or worse being taxed by rebel groups. FRPI for example collects a tax of 3-5g per week from mines within their control. It is estimated by the UN that $383-409million worth of gold was smuggled out of the country in 2013. [1]  Reports indicate that criminal networks with political links transport and sell \u2018unofficial\u2019 quantities of minerals and other forms of wealth \u2013 such as ivory as a result of poaching, in return for arms. Child and slave labour is still being used \u2013 it has been estimated that in small mines up to 40% of the miners are children. [2]  [1] Alusala, Nelson et al., \u2018Final report of the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo\u2019, United Nations Security Council, S\/2014\/42, 23 January 2014,  , pp.36, 37, 42, 46  [2] \u2018Child Miners Speak\u2019, WorldVision, May 2013,  , p.10"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con04a","title":"","text":"Allegations of misconduct by peacekeepers  UN troops have sometimes perpetrated violence themselves. 63 soldiers were expelled in 2005 from the mission due to being involved in abuses. In 2008 100 Indian blue helmets were accused of paying for sex with underage girls. The allegations have continued with a reported attack and gang rape of a 15 year old in February 2011. [1]  Moreover the effort to professionalise the Congolese army has also had little impact; the 391st Commando Battalion trained by US special forces has been accused of taking part in the rape of 97 women and 33 girls in November 2012. [2] If even those meant to keep the peace are perpetrating violence the mission has to be considered a failure.  [1] Caplan, Gerald, \u2018Peacekeepers gone wild: How much more abuse will the UN ignore in Congo?\u2019, The Globe and Mail, 3 August 2012,   [2] Whitlock, Craig, \u2018U.S.-trained Congolese troops committed rapes and other atrocities, U.N. says\u2019, Washington Post, 14 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con03a","title":"","text":"The government is not in control  The government is a place of constant ethnic frictions that impede the performance of its duties. [1] Corruption is rife; the world bank gives DRC a control of corruption rate of only 5%. [2] But the biggest problem is that the government can\u2019t exercise control over the country. The vastness of Congo, and its lack of any roads or rail links between population centers, ensures this is the case. People have no trust in the democratic structures and display no national feeling. Instead loyalties are to the more than 200 ethnic groups. Some of which are shared with neighbouring countries \u2013 which are geographically closer so loyalties lie more with those countries than the DRC government. This is also a problem with other resources such as tin. [3] The UN has been able to do little to prevent government corruption, or to encourage greater national feeling.  [1] \u2018Annan disquieted by rising factionalism in DR of Congo Government\u2019, UN News Centre, 30 March 2004,   [2] Worldwide Governance Indicators, \u2018Country Data Report for Congo, Dem. Rep., 1996-2012\u2019, The World Bank,   [3] Herbst, Jeffrey, and Mills, Greg, \u2018DRC: The only way to help Congo is to stop pretending it exists\u2019, Congo DRC News, 26 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con01a","title":"","text":"An ongoing humanitarian crisis  Although gradually improving the humanitarian situation in the DRC remains critical. Congo is lacking hospitals, access to safe water and adequate sanitary facilities. Life expectancy remains low at the age of 50.6 for women and 47.3 for men, and child mortality is 109.5 per 1000 births [1] . The country is constantly facing different epidemics; measles and even plague, [2] with HIV\/AIDS a major threat. The humanitarian situation is unlikely to improve quickly when the DRC is not fully at peace. Even when this does occur DRC will still be one of the poorest countries in the world with little infrastructure.  [1] United Nations Statistics Division, \u2018Democratic Republic of the Congo\u2019, World Statistics Pocketbook,  accessed 5 January 2014  [2] Piarroux, R. et al., \u2018Plague Epidemics and Lice, Democratic Republic of the Congo\u2019, letter Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol.19 No.3, March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con04b","title":"","text":"While such incidents are abhorrent and the UN has recognised \u201cthat an ugly stain is left on these heroic efforts by the appalling misconduct of a minority of peacekeepers\u201d [1] such instances do not jeopardise the overall mission. Few minor instances should be treated as criminality not equated with a country in civil war.  [1] Annan, Kofi, \u2018In Africa, Annan stresses that peacekeepers must adhere to conduct standards\u2019, UN News Centre, 30 January 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbuidrch-con02b","title":"","text":"The recorded economy of the DRC and its real GDP are showing signs of growth. The UN Panel of Experts has finally provided detailed information about the involvement of a range of African, European and North American businesses in illegal or illicit exploitation of natural resources in the DRC. Sanctions have been implemented to help stop these practices. [1] With the support of the UN, measures have been implemented intended to increase the control of the ministry of finance over state expenditure, and new statutes have strengthened the independence of the Central Bank.  [1] \u2018Resolution 2136 (2014)\u2019, United Nations Security Council, 30 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is no reason to believe that African opinions are disregarded when in the UNSC. Three out of 15 members is not particular disproportionate.  First of all, many decisions are taken in the United Nations General Assembly, a completely democratic body, in which the African Union due to its 54 members has a lot of influence. Therefore Africa is not underrepresented on economic and development issues.  Moreover the UNSC is usually following local concerns; the African Union has a chance to intervene on African security issues first like every other regional organisation. Indeed the AU is increasingly providing peacekeeping and even intervention as in Somalia. [1]  [1] African Union Peace and Security, \u2018Somalia (Forward AMISON HQ)\u2019, African Union, 12 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro02a","title":"","text":"The UNSC mostly deals with Africa  Africa\u2019s goal is to be fully represented in all the decision-making organs of the UN, particularly in the Security Council, which is the principal decision-making organ of the UN in matters relating to international peace and security.  In 2013 the majority (23 out of 41) of UNSC resolutions concerned Africa. [1] Beyond 2013 almost 70% of issues considered are African; further 90% of peacekeeping personnel are in Africa. The African continent is keen to ensure that their opinion is considered on prospective embargos and military interventions. At the moment African countries are \u201cpreached to rather than consulted as equals\u201d this must change. [2]  [1] United Nations Security Council, \u2018Resolutions adopted by the Security Council in 2013\u2019, un.org, 2013,   [2] Spies, Yolanda K., \u2018The multilateral maze and (South) Africa\u2019s Quest for Permanent United Nations Security Council representation\u2019, University of Pretoria,  , p.99"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro03b","title":"","text":"Despite Africa\u2019s demands for increased influence, they are not in a position of power and it is within their interest to maintain positive relations with the developed powers.  They have numbers but despite their economic growth in the past decade Africa is still more dependent than any other region on foreign help. The budgets of Ghana and Uganda, for example, are more than 50 percent aid dependent. [1] Moreover, they need foreign troops in order to maintain order and fight rebel groups. In 2013, there were 15 peacekeeping missions in Africa playing a necessary role in maintaining order in countries such as the CAR. [2]  [1] Ayodele, Thompson et al., \u201cAfrican Perspectives on Aid: Foreign Assistance Will Not Pull Africa Out of Poverty\u201d Cato Institute, 14 September 2005   [2] \u201cUN Peacekeeping\u201d, Better World Campaign,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro01a","title":"","text":"An African voice would change priorities for the better  An African state with veto power in the UNSC would have much more leverage to get African positions listened to. This is something that is particularly important as Africa is the region that is most commonly on the UN agenda. An African permanent member would likely alter the priorities of the Council for the better. It would be the first UNSC member without nuclear weapons, indeed if it were South Africa it would be a state that had given up nuclear weapons so would be in favour of disarmament. [1] There might be more attempts to solve the \u2018root causes\u2019 of conflicts rather than just providing a response when a conflict breaks out as Rwanda promoted as president of the UNSC in 2013. [2] An African member might also be more interested in development issues, pushing on climate change etc. It would provide more of a view from the South.  [1] Graham, Suzanne, \u2018South Africa's UN General Assembly Voting Record from 2003 to 2008: Comparing India, Brazil and South Africa\u2019, Politikon, Vol.38, No.3, 2011,   [2] Kanyesigye, Frank, \u2018Rwanda Sets Priorities for UNSC Presidency\u2019, AllAfrica, 2 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro01b","title":"","text":"Countries on the UNSC do already take an interest in the Africa, illustrated by French troops helping local democratic governments form Mali and CAR defeat various outlaw rebel groups. [1]  Secondly, simply giving a veto to an Africa nation, does not guarantee that they will promote beneficial policies. South Africa for example has been accused of using UNSC membership to defend human rights abusers, South Africa\u2019s response was that human rights \"have always targeted mainly the developing countries\". [2]  [1] \u201cSand on their boots\u201d, The Economist, Jan 24th 2013   [2] Humphreys, Joe, \u2018SA defends human rights voting at UN\u2019, The Irish Times, 20 November 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro03a","title":"","text":"The current UNSC Membership is outdated  The composition of the council is outdated and must adapt to a much-changed world in the 21st century.  It is clear that there is growing discontent among African countries regarding the current structure of the UNSC. \u201cWe don\u2019t understand why you have three countries out of five countries on the Security Council as permanent members with a veto coming from Europe,\u201d Simbarashe Mumbengegwi, Zimbabwe\u2019s Foreign Affairs minister has said. [1] South African Minister of International Relations and Cooperation Maite Nkoana-Mashabane appealed for United Nations Security Council (UNSC) reforms and inclusion of Africa with at least two permanent seats, he made it clear that South Africa expects a UNSC seat when reform occurs. [2] The United Nations is meant to present sovereign states equally. The current membership was created in 1945 when there were 51 member states; most of them European, now there are 193 of which almost a third are African. On numbers alone in the current UNSC Africa should have between 4 and 5 members of which 1-2 should be permanent. The current distribution is selfish reflecting an imperialist past.  [1] Phiri, Gift, \u201cAfrican nations push for permanent UNSC seat\u201d, Al Jazeera, 26 September 2013,   [2] Nkoana-Mashaban, Maite, \u2018South Africa demands permanent African seats in UNSC\u2019, South African Foreign Policy Initiative, 12 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con03b","title":"","text":"Assessment of fees for the UN is not done on the basis of the influence of the member within the UN, rather it is done through a formula based on national income. The payment is for membership, not to buy influence. [1]  As far as peacekeeping forces are concerned, South Africa is already a prominent contributor. In the UN\u2019s assessments of present troop contributions for peacekeeping efforts South Africa is 10th. Its record in promoting peace on the continent includes playing leading roles to end conflicts in Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and most recently in Ivory Coast. [2]  [1] Committee on Contributions, \u2018Regular budget and Working Capital Fund\u2019, United Nations, 2013,   [2] African Union Monitor, \u2018Africa and the UN Security Council Permanent Seats, Pambazuka News, Issue 204, 28 April 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con01b","title":"","text":"There is no evidence that an African state would constantly use the veto if they had it. No African state has the kind of interests around the world the current members have so a veto is only likely to be wielded over African issues. Such a veto will simply be ensuring that the African side is put before the council.  Moreover an African veto would not prevent the council from being useful; it won\u2019t even have the effect the cold war did. Since 1990 62 UNSC resolutions were adopted per year, during the cold war only 15 were on average. If the UNSC could operate then it can operate with more veto members now. [1]  [1] Okhovat, Sahar, \u2018The United Nations Security Council: Its Veto Power and Its Reform\u2019, Sydney University, CPACS Working Paper no.15\/1, December 2011,  p.12"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con02a","title":"","text":"International competition for seats on UNSC  African countries are not the only ones who wish to have a chair at the P5 table. There are more financially and military prominent countries who also have expressed their desires for having a veto power. [1] Among them, the most important are Germany and Japan who are, the second and third largest contributors to the UN budget.  Offering an African state permanent membership to the UN, would likely offend Germany and Japan. The reason UNSC reform has not gone ahead is that all potential members have other powerful countries that would be opposed to their membership. Thus for example Japan is opposed by China. And the G-4 (Japan, India, Germany, Brazil) are generally opposed by the 'coffee club' of 40 mid-size countries led by Argentina, Pakistan, Italy, Mexico, South Korea and Spain. [2]  [1] Parashar, Sachin, \u201cInsistence on veto may delay UNSC reform process\u201d, Times Of India, 16 January 2012   [2] Alam, Mohammed Badrul, \u2018For a Rightful Place: UNSC Reforms and Japan\u2019, SSPC, 12 July 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con04a","title":"","text":"Who should get the seat?  There is not just competition from countries outside Africa but also internally. If there is only to be one permanent African member or even two who should it be? With no defined criteria for UNSC membership any African state could stake a claim. There are however three or four serious contenders. South Africa, Nigeria and Egypt have declared themselves contenders and are leaders of their sub regions. [1] Ethiopia is also a similarly sized state and if thinking about the future DR Congo has immense potential if its conflicts are ever resolved. How would these countries resolve their competing interests with only one position on offer?  [1] Spies, Yolanda K., \u2018The multilateral maze and (South) Africa\u2019s Quest for Permanent United Nations Security Council representation\u2019, University of Pretoria,  , p.106"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con03a","title":"","text":"Proportionality  When looking at contributions to the UN, in 2010 no African countries are in the Top 27. [1] Those who fund an organisation deserve to lead it and have their opinion count the most. Of course, there is the need for a democratic council such as the UNGA, where all the countries, regardless of contribution deserve a right to vote, but when it comes to the UNSC, the veto power is just a privilege the African countries have not earned yet. Imagine creating a union to which a few states provide contribute the most resources, but are prevented from acting by another member who actively contributes nothing. This sort of power is unjustified.  Peacekeeping and other activities the UN undertakes in Africa require money. No African state would want these operations to be diminished as Africa would be the region that has most to lose. But in return the continent has to accept the funders will get more say over the UN.  [1] Browne, Marjorie, and Blanchfield, Luisa, \u2018United Nations Regular Budget Contributions: Members Compared, 1990-2010\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 15 January 2013,  , p.23"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con01a","title":"","text":"More vetoes mean less action  The reason there are only a few states with veto power is to prevent most states from being able to block essential security action that is in the international interest.  More members increase the chances of vetoes and deadlock. There have been 263 vetoes since the founding of the UN with vetoes having been used by every permanent member. The veto is used to protect national interests not for the good of the international community. [1] States provide veto cover for censure against those they consider allies or even trading partners. Thus the most common veto in the last couple of decades has been by the USA to prevent censure of Israel. China and Russia on the other hand have prevented action against Syria and Sudan despite crises in these countries. [2]  Give more countries vetoes and it will be used more often. Even worse an African country would have very different interests so would be vetoing different proposals. Thus for example in the past the USSR and USA have vetoed the admission of new members from Angola to Vietnam. An African veto might be wielded to discourage secession movements by for example vetoing the membership of South Sudan.  [1] Okhovat, Sahar, \u2018The United Nations Security Council: Its Veto Power and Its Reform\u2019, Sydney University, CPACS Working Paper no.15\/1, December 2011,  pp.11-12  [2] United Nations, \u2018Security Council \u2013 Veto List\u2019, Dag Hammarskskj\u00f6ld Library, accessed 20\/12\/2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con04b","title":"","text":"A dispute over who which African state obtains membership is a sideshow. What matters is the principle that an African state should have permanent membership."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con02b","title":"","text":"That there should be competition for a seat at the highest international table is no surprise. However this is not a reason against reform. Nor should Germany and Japan be considered stronger contenders than an African country; why should Europe get a third and Asia a second permanent member before Africa has one?"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Additional crimes in the remit of an African Criminal Court could cause more problems than they solve.  Drug trafficking was rejected from the remit of the ICC [1] because it would overburden the court, which is intended to deal with international crimes. While the idea of prosecuting coups sounds good, in practice it would raise the same persecution complexes amongst leaders as the ICC does.  An AU court will also be subject to more local fractious politics and power struggles, rather than the bulk of the membership being from outside the region.  [1] See , Kiefer, Heather, \u201cJust Say No: The Case against Expanding the International Criminal Court\u2019s Jurisdiction to Include Drug Trafficking\u201d, Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review, 2009,  at p164"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro02a","title":"","text":"An African Criminal Court would be better  Instead of the ICC structure, the African Union has proposed an African Criminal Court. An ACC could not only bring justice home to Africa, by creating a court which will not appear to African nations as being imposed by outsiders, but also be able to have additional remits to address other issues in Africa that the ICC does not have powers to deal with, such as coups, corruption and drug trafficking [1] . An African Criminal Court may also have a chance of being seen as more legitimate than the ICC, which had only 39% support in Kenya in July 2013 [2] .  [1] IRIN, \u201cAnalysis: How Close is an African Criminal Court?\u201d, IRIN (Integrated Regional Information Networks), 13 June 2012,   [2] Ipsos Synovate, \u201cThe ICC Issue and Raila\u2019s Political Future\u201d, Ipsos Synovate"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The principle of complementarity means that the ICC is only a backstop court \u2013 it only takes on a case when a state is unwilling or unable to have it dealt with in its own national courts [1] .  If the ICC were a tool for external interference, it is solicited by the states in that most situations follow on from referrals by the domestic governments.  Referrals by the UN Security Council can happen irrespective of if a state is a party (hence the Libya and Sudan situations) \u2013 just like the ad hoc tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda were created in 1994. Regardless this will only happen with the assent of Russia and China so ensuring that referrals are not following a \u2018western imperialist\u2019 agenda.  [1] Rome Statute, Article 17"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The ICC has an anti-African bias  Every person indicted by the ICC so far has been an African, for events which occurred in Africa, all bar one case, the Libya situation (in which no trials have started and seem a long way off), are in sub-Saharan Africa.  The ICC has not brought actions against anyone involved in conflict in Colombia, or for the conflict in Sri Lanka or for human rights abuses around the world. The ICC is simply selectively prosecuting."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Almost all the cases involve self-reference \u2013 the only ones that did not are UN Security Council references, done in the same way as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda were set up. The other case, Kenya, was set up when the ICC prosecutor used its power in the Rome Statute. This only occurred after the Kenyan parliament failed to implement the recommendations of the Waki Commission, which it set up.  While horrible events occurred in Sri Lanka, the ICC does not have the ability to prosecute unless the case is referred to the court by the UN Security Council, or the Sri Lankan government, which is unlikely \u2013 it is not a kangaroo court that can make up jurisdiction to hear a case for political reasons [1] . Colombia is still being investigated [2] .  [1] Rome Statute, Article 22  [2] Office of the Prosecutor, Report in to Preliminary Examination Activities, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Justice is more than just a road to peace; it is a goal of its own. [1]  For most African states this should not be a cause to leave the ICC as they are unaffected by ICC indictments affecting a peace process. Even for those whom it does affect it is only transitory until a solution is reached. Such concerns moreover could be better dealt with by ensuring that the ICC puts in place a mechanism that recognises that in some instances peace can come first.  [1] Human Rights Watch, \u201cPerceptions and realities: Kenya and the International Criminal Court\u201d, hrw.org, 14 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Tool for external interference.  The ICC creates a way that foreigners, and in particular the west with its tendency towards intervention, can remove and imprison African leaders [1] .  Uhuru Kenyatta, the President of Kenya, who has been indicted by the court, has referred to it as a \u201ctoy of declining imperialist powers\u201d [2] .  The court is largely funded by Western countries, with the European Union providing over half the cost. So it should not be surprising if the west has a lot of power over the court. Moreover the west is dominant in the United Nations Security Council so potentially controls both the methods of referring a country to the ICC without its permission.  [1] Monbiot, George \u201cImperialism didn\u2019t end. These day\u2019s it\u2019s known as international law\u201d, The Guardian, 30 April 2012,   [2] Kenyatta, Uhuru, \u201cUhuru: ICC is a toy of declining imperial powers\u201d, CapitalFM Blogs, 12 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Detriment to peace process  The ICC has not been particularly effective in dealing with the situation in Uganda, the ICC prosecutions having been a distraction to local community reconciliation and leading to further violence [1] .  Similarly, the situation in Darfur has not been helped by ICC involvement, with mass destruction of villages by people already indicted by the International Criminal Court [2] . Due to his indictment, a diplomatic solution has become harder as Rome Statute signatories are under a legal duty to arrest Sudanese leader Omar al-Bashir, although many have just ignored this. [3]  [1] Sinclair, Jessical, \u201cThe International Criminal Court in Uganda\u201d, Undergraduate Transitional Justice Review, 2010,   [2] Human Rights Watch, \u201cSudan: Satellite images confirm villages destroyed\u201d, hrw.org, June 18 2013,   [3] Cooper, Belinda, \u201cThe ICC: The Politics of Criticism\u201d, World Policy Journal, 4 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-con03b","title":"","text":"Independent nations are capable of trying war crimes themselves.  The ICC is an unnecessary intrusion on national sovereignty. It should be up to each state to determine its own legal system as to how criminal matters should be prosecuted.  The principle of complementarity is no guarantee as it is up to the ICC itself to determine if the state is unable or unwilling, meaning it could take over a case for its own ends."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-con01b","title":"","text":"Impunity has occurred in some cases, due to the ICC system not leading to prosecutions, such as in Sri Lanka.  At any rate, the ICC is not needed \u2013 African courts can deal with individuals, not a foreign one."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-con02a","title":"","text":"ICC is cheaper  Africa bears little of the cost of the ICC \u2013 by far its largest contributions come from the European Union, and its member states.  This, coupled with the fact that the ICC is cheaper than the ad hoc tribunals due to economies of scale, means that justice can be delivered to war criminals and those who commit crimes against humanity in an affordable manner \u2013 saving resources for helping the victims."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-con03a","title":"","text":"ICC necessary to provide fair trials  Domestic legal systems will often suffer from a lack of judicial independence and potentially politicised prosecutions, and are also open to allegations of victors\u2019 justice, or whitewashes by a judiciary biased towards the winners of the conflict.  The ICC, as an effective court and with an independent judiciary, provides a suitable and unbiased climate for these cases to be heard in. While it is difficult to give any former head of state a fair trial, it is even more so in cases involving states divided along ethnic and political fault lines where any conviction could be seen as one based on continuing hatreds rather than evidence and criminal procedure.  In addition, the principle of complementarity means African states can prosecute on their own if they wish."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-con01a","title":"","text":"No impunity  The ICC means an end to impunity. It has meant that warlords such as Germain Katanga have been able to be prosecuted for things like using child soldiers, which are universally reviled.  What the African Union leaders are simply advocating by withdrawal from the ICC is impunity for themselves. They see one of their own \u2013 Uhuru Kenyatta, who has to face very serious allegations over his part in the mayhem after the 2007 elections which killed over a thousand people \u2013 being prosecuted and then claim it is selective. The only selection going on is that those who do not have a case to answer are not being prosecuted."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbassw-con02b","title":"","text":"Is justice something to be subjected to simple financial parameters?  Even so, what is the ICC cheaper than? It may be cheaper than individual criminal tribunals like the ICTY and ICTR, but that assumes that such tribunals are desirable. It should be left up to individual states to bring action."}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Moral responsibility is not about comparisons if it were then what about those European countries that have not been open armed like in Hungary they have made it illegal to help Syrian refugees [1] . Riot police in Hungary have used teargas and water cannon to send them off. [2] Saudi Arabia has been doing enough to account for its moral responsibility; it has given residency to 100,000 Syrians. [3]  [1] Frayer, Lauren, \u2018Risking Arrest, Thousands of Hungarians offer help to refugees\u2019, NPR, 29 September 2015,   [2] Weaver, Matthew, and Siddique, Haroon, \u2018Refugee crisis: Hungary uses teargas and water cannon at Serbia border \u2013 as it happened\u2019, theguardian.com, 16 September 2015, www.theguardian.com\/world\/live\/2015\/sep\/16\/first-refugees-head-for-croatia-after-hungarys-border-crackdown-live-updates  [3] The Guardian, \u2018Saudi Arabia says criticism of Syria refugee response \u2018false and misleading\u2019, 12 September 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Gulf states have a moral responsibility to take in Syrian refugees  It is a moral responsibility for gulf states to take in Syrian refugees both in terms of common humanity and as they all belong to the same culture and regional organisations (i.e. The Arab League). The numbers taken by the gulf states look particularly irresponsible looking it as a comparison to the number that European countries have taken in. Amnesty International has accused the gulf states of offering zero resettlement places. [1]  [1] Amnesty International, \u2018Facts & Figures: Syria refugee crisis & international resettlement\u2019, 5 December 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Taking in refugees is not the only thing that countries can contribute in combating the Syria refugee crisis. Gulf countries are known to have donated a total of around \u00a3589m in addition to other aid they have delivered. This is vital to make the camps that have sprung up along Syria\u2019s borders liveable."}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro01a","title":"","text":"The Gulf states are a convenient place to settle Syrian refugees  With language being the basis of communication, and most of the gulf state\u2019s population speaking in Arabic, which is the language widely spoken by Syrians the Gulf states are a natural choice to take in refugees. Syria and the Gulf states also have similar cultures. Both of these make it easier for refugees to interact with natives, build up a social network, and find work. Studies from the US have implied that it is best to send migrants (refugees) to places where there is such a network they can quickly plug into which improves the prospects of the migrants getting jobs. [1]  [1] Beaman, Lori A., \u2018Social Networks and the Dynamics of Labour Market Outcomes: Evidence from Refugees Resettled in the U.S.\u2019, Berkeley University, 15 November 2006,  , P.31"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro01b","title":"","text":"The affinity as a result of joint linguistic and cultural ties between Syrians and the gulf may be of little use if the refugees are heavily restricted in where they live or can do. If they are put into camps with little contact with the outside world the refugees could simply be cut off from this social network. Syria\u2019s neighbours have generally been unwilling to integrate refugee populations; Jordan has had Palestinian refugees for almost half a century yet nearly 370,000 are still in refugee camps. [1]  [1] \u2018Where we work; Jordan\u2019 United Nations Relief and Works Agency, 1 July 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro04b","title":"","text":"Unfortunately the refugee crisis is not happening at a good time economically for the Gulf. Oil prices have slumped. As a result there is a turbulent economy with many losing their jobs. [1] There is high levels of competition for those jobs that do exist and in the gulf people often get their jobs through influence (Wasta, as it is known in gulf countries) of acquaintances\/friends, which would serve to shut refugees out of the jobs market.  [1] Reuters, \u2018FGB announces 100 job cuts in UAE\u2019, Gulf News, 24 November 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro03a","title":"","text":"European countries have taken in a huge number of refugees while gulf states have taken none  There were 1,294,000 claims for asylum in Europe in 2015 with more than a fifth of these coming originally from Syria. [1] Although many Arab states have shouldered their share of the burden, particularly neighbouring Jordan and Lebanon, the Gulf at the same time have taken in almost nil refugees. The Gulf states are rich countries, particularly by comparison to their neighbours that are taking up the burden. Per capita income in Jordan is $5,160 compared to $25,140 in Saudi Arabia and $44,600 in UAE as such they can afford to do much more. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Migrant crisis: Migration to Europe explained in seven charts\u2019, 18 February 2016,   [2] World Bank, data.worldbank.org,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-pro04a","title":"","text":"Gulf countries could benefit from refugees  Just like Gulf countries have greatly benefitted from expat immigration, the U.A.E being a great example of such growth where the expat population is estimated to be 84% of the UAE population [1] , Gulf countries in the same way can make use of Syrian refugees immigrating. Syrian refugees can provide cheap labour on the Gulf states ambitious construction projects as well as helping to provide an educated workforce that can help diversify the gulf states economies away from oil.  [1] Al Qassemi, Sultan Sooud, \u2018Give expats and opportunity to earn UAE citizenship\u2019, Gulf News, 22 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-con03b","title":"","text":"The effort to fund and arm the rebels has not shown any result, it\u2019s been over 4 years and yet nothing has solved the problem. Rather the situation has got steadily worse with moderate opposition first losing out to Daesh, and then to Assad since Russian air support tipped the balance. Arming rebel groups simply helps to perpetuate the civil war and ensure that refugees cannot return home."}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-con01b","title":"","text":"Refugees can\u2019t be choosers in a situation where their country has been destroyed. A survey conducted among refugees arriving in Germany showed that around 68% of the people fled just to save themselves from the imminent threat. [1] The Gulf States may not be a model of democracy and human rights but migrants would be considerably safer than in Syria.  [1] Von Martin, \u2018Survey amongst Syrian refugees in Germany \u2013 Backgrounds\u2019, adopt a revolution, 7 October 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-con02a","title":"","text":"ISIS could infiltrate to Gulf States  The 2015 terrorist attacks in Paris show that ISIS has the ability to infiltrate countries through refugees. Although the participants in these attacks had been living in France and Brussels some had also been to fight in Syria and at least one, Abdelhamid Abaaoud, returned along the migrant route. [1] This shows that influxes of refugees could pose great threat to gulf countries and Daesh has already claimed terrorist attacks in Kuwait. [2] Even before the rise of ISIS gulf states were concerned about the security risks posed by migrant workers with Bahrain\u2019s Minister of Labour Majid Al-Alawi stating migrant workers are a strategic threat. [3]  [1] Holehouse, Matthew, and Samuel, Henry, \u2018Terrorist ringleader got into EU as \u2018refugee\u2019\u2019, The Telegraph, 20 November 2015,   [2] Cafiero, Giorgio, \u2018The \u2018Islamic State\u2019 Attacks Kuwait\u2019, Huffington Post, 1 July 2015,   [3] Rahman, Anisur, \u2018Migration and Human Rights in the Gulf\u2019, Middle East Institute, 2 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-con03a","title":"","text":"The Gulf states want to solve the root of the refugee crisis; getting rid of Assad  Gulf countries have been trying to fix the problem politically rather than taking in a few refugees, which would be beneficial to most of the Syrians? The vast majority of Syrians would prefer to go home to a Syria with the civil war over and preferably with Assad gone. The gulf starts, are the main powers working to see this happen. While the US has helped arm some rebel groups the funding for this was provided by Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states have gone further than the west in terms of providing arms. [1]  [1] Mazzetti, Mark and Apuzzo, Matt, \u2018U.S. Relies Heavily on Saudi Money to Support Syrian Rebels\u2019, The New York Times, 23 January 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-con01a","title":"","text":"The Gulf states are themselves not bastions of freedom  Syrians are leaving Syria as a result of a civil war born out of the Arab Spring, it was an attempt to gain more freedom within a dictatorship. [1] Such a population is unlikely to wish to move to a country where freedoms are often restricted. All the countries of the Gulf are monarchies, often with only the barest touch of democracy electing rubber stamp parliaments. Organisations such as Human Rights Watch have highlighted the violence which many migrants suffer and large numbers are exploited. [2]  [1] Ali, Jasim, \u2018Gulf states need to aim higher on freedom parameter\u2019, Gulf News, 4 September 2015,   [2] Begum, Rothna, \u2018Gulf States Fail to Protect Domestic Workers From Serious Violence\u2019, hrw.org, 16 October 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mesimhbgs-con02b","title":"","text":"The incidents that occurred in Europe were involving native Europeans themselves, although they did travel to and back from Syria.  Just like Europe could have home grown terrorists, the same likeliness applies to the gulf states. In fact statistics even show that one of the highest number of recruits for Daesh has been those from Saudi Arabia. [1]  [1] The Economist, \u2018It ain\u2019t half hot here, mum\u2019, 28 August 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro02b","title":"","text":"This infrastructure still costs money, whatever event it is around: a state could launch an infrastructure drive without a football tournament that would be much more focused on the real needs of the people. Foreign investment can have significant costs, such as preferential access to natural resources. The work can often wind up being done by foreign contractors so that it creates no local jobs, as happened when Angola hosted the tournament [1] . In the case of the Stade de l\u2019Amiti\u00e9-Sino-Gabonaise China does not just get the benefit of the name; the finance provided was a loan, and the construction was done by the Shanghai Construction Group meaning much of the benefit went to China. [2]  [1] Capstick, Alex, \u201cAngola uses football to showcase economy\u201d, BBC News, 2010,   [2] Ndenguino-Mpira, Hermanno, \u201cThe African Cup of Nations 2012 \u2013 China\u2019s goals\u201d, Centre for Chinese Studies, 23 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro02a","title":"","text":"Legacy of infrastructure  The benefits of hosting these events for African nations include the ability to concentrate on infrastructure for the event. In addition to sporting infrastructure, which could last well in excess of 50 years, homes, hospitals, roads and schools have been constructed in Gabon\u2019s host cities [1] . The Chinese government assisted funding of some of this; [2] it co-financed and helped construct the Stade de l\u2019Amiti\u00e9-Sino-Gabonaise, the biggest stadium.  [1] Yilmaz, Cetin, \u201cGabon works hard for 2012 Cup of Nations\u201d, Hurriyet Daily News,   [2] Murphy, Chris, \u201cAfrican ambition: tiny nations host football feast\u201d, CNN, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro03b","title":"","text":"There were only two host cities in each country, however. This is understandable: the African Cup of Nations does not use as large a number of venues as other tournaments. The 2013 edition in South Africa used a larger, fifth, venue for three matches only, and the 2015 event will revert to four venues."}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro01a","title":"","text":"The ACN in Gabon shows what can be done by smaller African nations  A key reason for hosting any big sporting event is that it puts the host in a shop window. Unless the event is a disaster (as, arguably, Angola\u2019s tournament was due to the gun attack on the Togo team), which it was not, it creates an opportunity for the nation to show itself as being an advanced society, capable of big events, \u201cgetting things done\u201d and as a place to do business. All of this is positive for the economies of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The African Development Bank notes that Economic growth was 7% in 2011 and 5.7% in Gabon in part because of \u201cmassive investments undertaken for football\u2019s Africa Cup of Nations 2012\u201d. [1]  [1] African Economic Outlook, \u2018Gabon Economic Outlook\u2019, African Development Bank Group, accessed 28\/1\/2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro01b","title":"","text":"Aside from the cost issues, the event is short-lived, a few weeks. An event such as the African Cup of Nations will only be remembered for a while, and then it will just be a footnote in history, fading from the memory quicker than an event like a World Cup. The ACN is focused largely within Africa, when all the PR benefits are best focused towards Europe and higher income countries.  The economic effects are not always beneficial and are only temporary; even the massive building projects have failed to solve the problem with unemployment which is at 27%."}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro04b","title":"","text":"The African Cup of Nations brings very few tourists with it; Ghana vs Guinea had only 4,000 fans while the Zambia vs Sudan Quarter final only had a few hundred spectators. [1] Numbers like this are clearly not going to boost local shops and bars much. Even the investment does not boost local small businesses; the contracts went to big foreign firms. Those firms then make contracts with companies they already know not local ones and often employ foreign workers; the construction of the Stade de l\u2019Amiti\u00e9-Sino-Gabonaise employed a thousand workers, but only a quarter were Gabonese. [2]  [1] Reuters, \u2018Fans go it alone at Africa Cup of Nations\u2019, AlJazeera, 6 February 2012,   [2] Ballong, St\u00e9phane, \u2018Gabon\u2019s 2012 CAN effect\u2019, theafricareport, 7 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro03a","title":"","text":"Benefits spread across the country  The benefits of these events, unlike hosting an event such as an Olympic Games (which would be outside the reach of Gabon or Equatorial Guinea, especially with the increasing trend of the IOC to select major world cities in medium or high income countries), is that more than one site in a country can host different parts of the tournament. This provides a platform for a focus on broad based development across the entire nation, rather than one-sideded development focused on one city. In Gabon\u2019s case there was both construction of the Stade de l\u2019Amiti\u00e9-Sino-Gabonaise in the Capital and a rebuild of a stadium in Franceville for \u20ac76.2 million [1] .  [1] Ballong, St\u00e9phane, \u2018Gabon\u2019s 2012 CAN effect\u2019, theafricareport, 7 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-pro04a","title":"","text":"Helps small businesses  There is a big benefit for small businesses in hosting the large sporting events. The hosting of the tournament in 2012 has been credited by African Economic Outlook with playing a role in the \u201crobust\u201d economic growth in the country in that year turning the country around from negative growth in 2009 [1] . The 2013 Africa Cup of Nations was credited with 10,000 jobs and helping the tourist sectors of the South African economy, [2] Gabon would have received a similar boost.  [1] NN, \u201cGabon\u201d, African Economic Outlook, no date,   [2] NN, \u201cAfrica Cup of Nations 2013 to boost SMEs in South Africa\u201d, MSME News Network, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-con03b","title":"","text":"Few countries in Africa meet with approval on the part of Freedom House.  At any rate, sport and politics are supposed to be separate. Also, human rights concerns could be advanced by placing these countries under the spotlight, rather than the usual position of them being ignored"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-con01b","title":"","text":"There are always other things that any sum of money could be spent on. Every nation, even ones with large economies and high development standards have other things to spend money on.  The reason why many nations desire to host prestigious sporting events, giving them varying level of government support, at local or national government levels, is to change perceptions of the nation or region by advertising it. It also leads to regeneration and infrastructure investment in the host areas \u2013 all things with good long term benefits that can be applied to the entire nation."}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-con02a","title":"","text":"Empty seats  Organizers in Gabon had to hand out free tickets to fill stadia [1] . This not only makes the tournament appear unpopular to TV viewers, it reduces the revenues of the event.  It would be better for the sport if the Africa Cup of Nations was held in countries that are likely to sell out more of the matches; this means countries with bigger populations than Gabon and Equatorial Guinea that can pull in a domestic audience.  [1] Sport24, \u201cEmpty seats plague AFCON\u201d, Sport 24, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-con03a","title":"","text":"Showcasing countries with poor human rights records  Allowing a country to host a major sporting event gives them a big boost in international prestige. Repressive regimes to not deserve this.  Equatorial Guinea, a dictatorship run by Teoodoro Obiang, is one of the world\u2019s worst human rights offenders, with the worst possible scores for civil liberties and political rights according to Freedom House [1] .  Gabon, while rated by Freedom House as better than Equatorial Guinea, also has a bad human rights record, with \u201charsh prison conditions, lengthy pretrial detention, ritual killings, police use of excessive force, \u2026 widespread government corruption \u2026 and forced child labor [sic]\u201d [2] .  [1] Freedom House, \u201cEquatorial Guinea\u201d, Freedom House   [2] US State Department, Gabon 2012 Human Rights Report,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-con01a","title":"","text":"Cost could be spent on other things  Gabon\u2019s government invested \u20ac370 million in the games. [1] Even though it is one of the more stable West African countries, there are still many people living in grinding poverty \u2013 nearly 20% of the population, according to the World Bank [2] . While infrastructure development is welcome, it is a better use of money to lift people out of poverty rather than for three weeks of football.  It can also have other negative effects on the day to day lives of individuals, for example in South Africa when it hosted the world cup tolls were increase [3] .  [1] Ndenguino-Mpira, Hermanno, \u201cThe African Cup of Nations 2012 \u2013 China\u2019s goals\u201d, Centre for Chinese Studies, 23 January 2012,   [2] World Bank, \u201cWorld Development Indicators\u201d, World Bank Databank,   [3] Sands, Darren, \u201cIn South Africa, the African Cup of Nations is big business\u201d, Black Enterprise, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-astshbghacn-con02b","title":"","text":"Ticket sales, while good for revenue, are not crucial. The African Cup of Nations has never been an event with large scale sellout crowds for every match like a World Cup.  Disposable incomes are lower in Africa compared to the rest of the world. This coupled with the vast size of the area covered by the confederation means lower numbers of travelling fans. Expectations should be managed: the higher demand is for matches with the host team involved. In the tournament the following year (held earlier due to CAF changing the years in which the tournament is held to odd years, to avoid clashes with World Cups and Olympics) in South Africa, the bronze medal match got 6,000 spectators [1] .  Even the Olympics, when held in London, did not sell out every ticket for every football match, meaning some sections of seating were covered over [2] .  [1] ESPN, \u201c2013 African Nations Cup Fixtures and Results\u201d, ESPN, 2013,   [2] Magnay, Jacquelin, \u201c\u201dLondon 2012 Olympics: 500,000 football tickets removed to ensure full stadiums [sic]\u201d, The Telegraph, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro02b","title":"","text":"While membership in the European Union might contribute to peace, economic cooperation and good diplomatic relations being a member is neither the cause such stability nor is it sufficient on its own. There are countries outside the European Union that are stable states \u2013 such as Norway and there are countries within the EU where membership is no longer creating stability and possibly even undermining it such as in Greece where being dictated to by other member states is one cause behind the anti-government riots in the country.  Once both the EU is ready\/willing to expand and the countries have fulfilled the criteria for joining, membership can be extended, but it should not be considered to be a quick fix to create international stability."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro02a","title":"","text":"EU expansion is good for current members politically.  Expansion means extending a project which has ensured unprecedented levels of peace and cooperation among former enemies in western Europe for nearly half a century. This was the original purpose of the European project. The European Union started out as the European Coal and Steel Community which shared these important strategic resources that were necessary to fight a war. It was argued that this integration is the only way to keep France and Germany, enemies that had fought three wars in the previous eighty years, from attacking each other. Entrenching peace, democracy and economic integration throughout the continent is to the benefit of all European nations, the most recent two wars; World War I and World War II expanded to include the whole of Europe and much of the rest of the world. The European Union also means that there is no concern that there will be conflict. This both allows members of the European Union to spend less on defence \u2013 only the UK, France and Greece meet NATO\u2019s 2% of GDP target [1] and frees up European forces for Peacekeeping missions such as those in the in the western Balkans in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia, but also further afield, for example 3700 troops were deployed as an EU force in Chad in 2008-9. [2]  [1] Defence Dateline Group, \u2018As Europe Wakes to Defence Spending Shortfall, NATO Risks Losing US Investment\u2019, Defenceiq.com, 14 March 2011,   [2] Eufocus, \u2018The EU and Peacekeeping: Promoting Security, Stability, and Democratic Values\u2019, Stacy Hope ed., November 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro03b","title":"","text":"That there were immense trade increases during the period when the new member states were joining does not necessarily show causality or that these same increases would not have been created without EU membership. Development and economic integration is something that will occur regardless of whether applicant countries join the European Union or not. There would likely have been a similar growth in trade if these states had joined the network of free trade agreements such as the European Economic Area instead of full membership of the European Union.  The 0.3% of GDP figure for the financial transfers from the old to new member states the proposition gives may be accurate but 0.3% of GDP per year is not insignificant. Germany paying 0.3% of its GDP would still be almost 7.5 billion Euros. It is also questionable whether further expansion would be as beneficial as the most recent expansions as the new members would be getting progressively poorer and poorer compared to current members. Macedonia\u2019s GDP per capita for example is less than 10% of the 15 pre enlargement member states. They are therefore going to benefit current member states through trade less while costing more."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro01a","title":"","text":"EU expansion is right.  It is right to extend the economic and political benefits enjoyed by existing EU members to the rest of Europe. States in eastern Europe are still recovering from the \u201cdead hand\u201d of communist rule imposed after deals between the USSR and the USA and Britain at the end of World War II. Many within the boundaries of the former Soviet Union such as Belarus and increasingly Ukraine have reverted to more authoritarian governments. These states should not be abandoned by their western neighbours. Europe has just as much responsibility to those states within Europe that have so far been left out the European Union\u2019s enlargement as it did to those countries of Central and Eastern Europe that were accepted in the most recent enlargements."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro01b","title":"","text":"European Union expansion is not a moral process. No one in Europe is trying to claim some kind of \u2018civilising mission\u2019. The remaining countries that are outside the European Union cannot be said to be countries that the members of the European Union had abandoned to Russian rule in the same way that could be said of Poland from 1945. Instead these were either within Yugoslavia which largely escaped Soviet control or were already within the borders of the USSR before World War II.  The sheer fact that a country is on the European Continent is not enough for a country to be admitted. Neither is it true that EU countries have a duty to give membership in order to help. The EU is already involved in aid, reconstruction and development programs all over Europe and should not have further obligations."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro04b","title":"","text":"While an argument for cooperation (including logistic and financial support) between the EU and neighbouring states, it is not an argument for granting full EU membership to these states. While the prospect of membership may motivate countries to introduce reforms, premature accession can cause this progress to grind to a halt, as seen with the corruption in Bulgaria still affecting government and there being very little chance of prosecution. [1] This is because once a state joins the European Union the EU no longer has much influence over that state. Once a state is a member the methods of punishing that state are constrained. This is because where previously their path to membership could be slowed of halted once they join this is no longer possible. It is no longer possible to impose effective economic sanctions against these states. For this reason some kind of association outside of the European Union itself would be more effective at encouraging states that are outside the European Union to become fully functioning democracies.  [1] Novinite.com, \u2018WikiLeaks\/Stratfor: Corruption in Bulgaria is Part of Society\u2019, 28 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro03a","title":"","text":"EU expansion is good for current members economically.  The current economic crisis within Europe masks its immense success in turning new member states into prosperous economies while also benefiting those who were already members. Between 1999 and 2007 trade between the new and old member states grew from 175 billion Euros to 500 billion, this outweighs the cost of EU financial assistance to the new members which only amounts to between 0.2-0.3% of EU GDP. [1] For example British exports to the 12 new member states were worth \u00a311.6billion in 2009 compared to \u00a34.5billion in 1999 whereas the Dutch government estimates that the benefits of enlargement to each of its inhabitants was 650 Euros. [2]  Admitting new members is also necessary over the long term in order to counter the aging that is occurring in Europe. Every member of the European Union has an aging population and a fertility rate below the replacement rate of 2.1. Encouraging economic growth in countries that are old and getting older is difficult because they are less inclined to take risks and be innovative. [3] This means that Europe needs more young workers; these can be gained either through immigration from the rest of the world or through admitting more vibrant economies into the European Union. Turkey is a good example of the kind of country the EU needs to allow to join; its economy is growing rapidly, even faster than China\u2019s in the first half of 2011, [4] and the median age of the population is still only 25. [5]  [1] \u2018Good to know about EU Enlargement\u2019, European Commission \u2013 Directorate General for Enlargement, March 2009,   [2] David Lidington, \u2018European Union Enlargement: Tulips, Trade and Growth\u2019, Foreign & Commonwealth Office, 9 March 2011,   [3] Megan McArdle, \u2018Europe\u2019s Real Crisis\u2019, the Atlantic, April 2012,   [4] Ergin Hava, \u2018Robust private sector fives Turkey fastest H1 growth worldwide\u2019, Todays Zaman, 12 September 2011,   [5] Euromonitor International, \u2018Turkey\u2019s Population Young and Rapidly Expanding\u2019, 24 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-pro04a","title":"","text":"Expansion furthers EU ideals.  The prospect of joining the EU has been an impetus for reform in many ex-communist countries, driving changes (e.g. legal reforms, privatizations, human rights) that are desirable in their own right. The progress made in a few years by the first wave of eastern European states to join the European Union was impressive and membership was their deserved reward. Conversely, if the prospect of EU membership was now denied to those states that are still hoping to join in the future, these states are likely to be unwilling to implement the unpopular reforms that the European union would like. Even in countries that are not on any EU lists of applicant or potential members the door to enlargement has a positive influence. The prospect of joining the European Union has tempted even those who might naturally be inclined to look the other way. Viktor Yanukovych was the Pro-Russian candidate in Ukraine yet he has continued on the path towards EU membership since taking office for example creating the legislation necessary for an EU-Ukraine free trade zone. [1]  Enlargement is a unique opportunity to encourage nations to take a path which will lead them to becoming prosperous developed democracies. Most states are unwilling to accept lectures on where they are going wrong and would, like Russia has for example done, accuse western nations of violations against its sovereignty if there are attempts to encourage civil society, democracy or more westernized economies. Vladimir Putin has many times made statements referring to western NGO such as \u201cthe activities of \"pseudo-NGOs\" and other agencies that try to destabilize other countries with outside support are unacceptable.\u201d [2] However these are much more palatable if the end result is membership in the European Union and the reforms are accompanied by European expertise and money, per-accession assistance currently totals 12.9 billion Euros. [3]  [1] \u2018Yanukovych: Laws for creation of Ukrainian-EU free trade zone will be adopted in June\u2019, Kyiv Post, 24 May 2010,   [2] Putin, Vladimir, \u2018Russia\u2019s Place in a Changing World\u2019, Moskovskiye Novosti, 27 February 2012, Trans. Igor Medvedev,   [3] 2007-2013.eu, \u2018Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance. (IPA)\u2019, 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con03b","title":"","text":"According to the principle of free movement of people, citizens of EU may work and study anywhere in the EU. This is a very important chance for every individual and should be embraced. By spending part of their education or training in another EU country, they acquire an insight into other work environments and gain skills that are invaluable in later life. Closer cooperation and sharing experience with other European countries will bring democratic traditions and modern way of living to the society of new member states. Indeed there have been suggestions that far from their being a brain drain in the long run such migration results in a brain gain. The possibility of migrating to a richer nation means that individuals are much more likely to increase their education or learn skills with the intention of migrating. This decision to increase their human capital is a decision that would not have been made if the possibility of migration was not present. Of course in the short term much of this gain will migrate abroad as intended some will not and others will return home later. The result is therefore that both the source country and the receiving country have more highly skilled workforces. [1]  [1] Stark, Oded, \u2018The New Economics of the Brain Drain\u2019, World Economics, Vol 6, No. 2, April \u2013 June 2005, pp.137-140, p.137\/8,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con01b","title":"","text":"Conflicts of interest between member states are inevitable. Britain has consistently been one of the outlier states even though it has been a member since 1974 and has many interests in common with the other old members of the EU. It has remained outside the Eurozone and the Schengen agreement and disagrees on policies such as a tax on financial transactions. New members in the Balkans for example are unlikely to be less cooperative than the UK. Moreover these conflicts of interest are most acute in foreign policy, such as the conflicts of interest over policy towards Russia, where so far the EU does not demand a common position from members so this should not be a concern."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con02a","title":"","text":"The European Union is no longer in a financial position to be taking in new members.  The financial crisis and European Union member states\u2019 having to bail each other out means that there will be less money available for any new members. The bailouts have cost the EU more than $500 billion plus financing the European Stability Mechanism with $650 billion. [1] Hence current prospective entrants will not have such auspicious conditions for adoption as there were for all previous entrants into the EU. This means that all the benefits will have to come from the extension of Free Trade, something which could happen without full membership. Joining the EU as full members would at the same time work against these poorer countries\u2019 competitive advantages. European labor regulations will make many workers in these countries less competitive and stringent environmental regulations will impose a cost that countries at their level of development cannot afford. For example Croatia will require an extra 10.5 billion Euros to implement the EU\u2019s environmental regulations. [2]  [1] Alessi, Christopher, \u2018The Eurozone in Crisis\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, Backgrounder, 14 February 2012,   [2] \u2018EU environmental regulations will cost Croatia \u20ac10.5 Billion\u2019, Macedonian Intl News Agency, 27 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con04a","title":"","text":"Expansion would be unpopular.  As expansion moves outward to places that are further and further away from the western European countries and into countries that are culturally less \u2018European\u2019 there is bound to be less enthusiasm for allowing them to join. Turkey is the country most likely to be a victim of public opinion against membership. Polling in 2010 showed 52% against membership and only 41% backing it if voting in a referendum. The main reason for being against was Turkey being \u201ca Muslim country\u2026 not compatible with the common Christian roots\u201d of Europe. [1] The trend has been for a decline in support for further enlargement falling from a high of 49% in 2004 to 41% two years later in 2006. [2]  [1] EU Business, \u2018Europeans split over Turkey EU membership: poll\u2019, 24 January 2010,   [2] Antonia M. Ruiz-Jim\u00e9nez, Jos\u00e9 I. Torreblanca, \u2018Is there a trade-off between deepening and widening? What do Europeans think?\u2019, European Policy Institutes Network, Working Paper No.17 April 2008, p.3"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con03a","title":"","text":"There will be an even greater brain drain from poorer countries to richer.  As the EU expands allows poorer and poorer countries to join there are likely to be increasing problems with internal migration creating a brain drain. The EU will not in the future be able to be nearly as generous in terms of funds to develop new members\u2019 economies. If any new members are allowed freedom of movement their will almost certainly be even greater migration flows than there were as a result of the 2004 enlargement. Poland for example despite being the only European country to avoid recession has still had a net loss of 1.4million people who have stayed abroad more than a year. [1] If the talented and skilled from a country that is experiencing rapid economic growth are staying abroad when the rest of Europe is in the middle of a downturn how many more would move from the poorer potential members such as Macedonia?  [1] Marcin Sobczyk, \u2018Poland Loses 1.4 Million People to Brain Drain\u2019, Wall Street Journal, 24 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con01a","title":"","text":"Expansion will create conflicts of interest between members.  Continuing expansion will mean a dilution of common national interests between the member states. National interests are to a large extent based upon geography and the economy. The EU-15 could be said to have both a unity of purpose; preventing another war between France and Germany as well as similar cultures, similar levels of wealth, and even a similarity in social policy. This has meant that the EU-15 member states had a lot of common interests so could agree to continuing integration. Newer member states have very different post World War II national experiences, shaped in particular by communist occupation. This makes many new EU members less willing to share sovereignty or contemplate the Union deepening. Moreover as the European Union gets bigger and more geographically diverse other interests diverge. For example some countries such as Germany are already inclined to conciliate Russia while others have been much more outspoken. This was particularly highlighted during Russia\u2019s conflict with Georgia in 2008 where Poland strongly supported Georgia. [1]  [1] Andrew Curry, \u2018Old Europe vs. New Europe Will Poland Split EU over Russia Policy?\u2019, Spiegel Online, 14 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con04b","title":"","text":"Previous enlargements were unpopular as well with support in the low 40s percentage points in 2001 however this rapidly increased to above 50% as enlargement approached before falling back, possibly as a result of media attention towards the possible negative consequences such as immigration. [1]  Therefore basing policy on public opinion years, possibly decades before a country would actually be joining the EU is not helpful as opinion is fickle and could easily change in the intervening period. Moreover public opinion is likely to be based upon prejudices, for example with Turkey opposition is based on it being a Muslim country but this ignores that Turkey is in fact secular with an Islamic culture in a similar way to France being a secular state with a Christian culture.  [1] Antonia M. Ruiz-Jim\u00e9nez, Jos\u00e9 I. Torreblanca, \u2018Is there a trade-off between deepening and widening? What do Europeans think?\u2019, European Policy Institutes Network, Working Paper No.17 April 2008, p.3"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbesefe-con02b","title":"","text":"First of all while many members of the EU are experiencing low or even negative growth the bailouts don\u2019t actually make Europe poorer as they have so far been loans that will have to be paid out. Even if current members are unwilling or unable to give large subsidies to any members that may join the European Union in the future there will still be large economic benefits to joining. The principles of European integration, such as free competition or free movement of goods and capital, will foster the transition from a post-socialist economy to a free market economy in any new member states. The removal of custom barriers will enable producers to cut production costs, which will result in export increases. In addition, integration into the EU will encourage foreign investment. It will create new jobs and will bring new technologies and experience into East-central European industry and trade. New member states inevitably engage in a catch up phase where grow rapidly. The ten new members who joined the EU in 2004 grew from having an income per capita of 40% of the EU15\u2019s average in 1999 to 52% in 2008 with most of the growth coming after membership where GDP growth was 5.5% from 2004-2008 compared to 3.5 % in 1999-2003. [1]  [1] European Commission, \u2018Five Years on an enlarged EU \u2013 A win win result\u2019 Press Conference, Europa.eu, 19 February 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-pro02b","title":"","text":"Further expansion is not in NATO\u2019s interests. The alliance is based on the principle that the security of one is the security of all, so that all members will go to war if any one member is attacked. This is a very serious commitment and should not lightly be extended to new nations. The irresponsible manner in which Georgia provoked a conflict with Russia, ignoring US warnings, shows the danger of being sucked into quarrels in which most NATO members have no strategic interest. It was obvious from this conflict that Georgia could not defend itself so the burden would fall on NATO. [1] Like the breakaway regions of Georgia, Ukraine also contains many Russian-speakers who look to Moscow for protection, especially in the Crimea which hosts Russia\u2019s Black Sea fleet. [2] If Ukraine had been a member of NATO when Russia moved troops into Crimea then NATO would be a dangerous confrontation with Russia.  [1] Tayler, Jeffrey, \u2018Russia: Back to the Future\u2019, the Atlantic, September 2008,   [2] Varettoni, William, \u2018Crimea\u2019s Overlooked Instability\u2019, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.34, No.3, Summer 2011, pp.87-99,  , p.89"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-pro02a","title":"","text":"Expansion is in the interests of NATO  Expansion to include Georgia and Ukraine is in the interests of NATO. After more than a decade without a clear role, the alliance now once again stands for the principle of solidarity between western liberal democracies. The hopes of the 1990s for a new world order in which a democratic and liberalising Russia would see partnership with NATO and other western clubs as strongly in its own interest died during the Presidency of Vladimir Putin. Russia once again poses a threat to Europe and needs to be contained or at least shown that NATO has not forgotten about it. This is shown by President Putin\u2019s continuing lashing out at foreign countries for funding NGOs and plans to boost defense spending. [1] Extending NATO up to Russia\u2019s southern border will signal the West\u2019s strength and determination and force Russia to respect the alliance and its members.  [1] Cullison, Alan, \u2018Putin Warms West on Interference\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 28 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-pro03b","title":"","text":"In retrospect, the decision to welcome the former Soviet states in the Baltic into NATO appears foolish. They continue to have a prickly relationship with Russia, which has some legitimate concerns about the treatment of large Russian minorities in Latvia and Estonia, and about the siting of US nuclear defences. Their entry into NATO was forced upon Russia, which naturally saw it as an aggressive move designed to humiliate it, and marked the point when its pro-western policy shifted to a more nationalist and confrontational approach. [1] It also weakened the unity of NATO as there are quite legitimate doubts as to whether all the alliance\u2019s members would really go to war with Russia over the integrity of, say, Estonia. Given this history, it would be madness to compound the problem by extending NATO membership to Georgia and Ukraine.  [1] Fraser, Malcolm, \u2018Ukraine: there\u2019s no way out unless the west understands its past mistakes\u2019, theguardian.com, 3 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-pro01a","title":"","text":"The people of Ukraine and Georgia want to join  Many people in both Ukraine and Georgia wish to join NATO, and that is the best reason for welcoming them into the alliance. NATO is an alliance of democratic states and should respond positively to the request of a sovereign nation. In Georgia a non-binding referendum on whether to join NATO showed 77% of voters in favor of joining. [1] Polls show that some 50% of Ukrainians in 2002 said that would support Ukraine\u2019s membership in NATO if a referendum on this issue were held. [2]  Both states are at risk of being pushed around by Russia, partly because their desire to adopt \u201cwestern\u201d democratic values is at odds with the more autocratic values of Russia\u2019s leadership. They also fear that Russia has designs on their territory and sovereignty, knowing that many in the Russian elite have never fully accepted the collapse of the old Soviet Union. These fears have been realised with Russian forces in South Ossetia, Abkhazia, and Crimea. Joining NATO offers Georgia and Ukraine the protection of a proven alliance and a clear route to European Union membership that has already been travelled by other former Soviet states. Ukraine and Georgia as European states have a right to join NATO if they would satisfy all criteria for NATO membership. [3]  [1] NATO, \u2018Backgrounder, Deepening relations with Georgia\u2019, NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 2011, p.15,   [2] Katchanovski, Ivan, \u2018The Orange Evolution? The \u201cOrange Revolution\u201d and Political Changes in Ukraine.\u201d Post-Soviet Affairs, 24 (4), 2008, p. 376.  [3] Katchanovski, Ivan, \u2018Puzzles of EU and NATO Accession of Post-Communist Countries.\u2019 Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 12 (3), 2011, p 309."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is far from the settled will of the Georgian and Ukrainian peoples that they wish to join NATO. Georgia\u2019s President Saakashvili did wish to join, but after his disastrous attempt to regain control of South Ossetia was unable to bring his country with him. Saakashvilli was defeated in parliamentary elections and ran up against his term limit at the end of 2013 [1] opening the way towards better relations with Russia. Public opposition to NATO membership in Ukraine since the US-led war in Iraq 2003 outweighed support for joining the alliance. [2] Ukraine is split over NATO membership, with most of the Russian-speaking East of the country firmly opposed to the idea, and only about 30% support overall. [3] The crisis of Ukraine\u2019s pro-western coalition over how to respond to the conflict in Georgia showed how divisive the question is; the President firmly supported Georgia while the PM kept quiet. [4] In any case, NATO membership should not automatically be extended to every nation which wishes it, but only offered when the current members of the alliance judge it to be in their strategic interest to do so.  [1] Traub, James, \u2018The Georgia Syndrome\u2019, ForeignPolicy, 13 August 2010,   [2] Katchanovski, Ivan, \u2018The Orange Evolution? The \u201cOrange Revolution\u201d and Political Changes in Ukraine.\u201d Post-Soviet Affairs, 24 (4), 2008, p. 376.  [3] Atwell, Kyle, \u2018Two Different Paths to NATO: Georgia and Ukraine\u2019, Atlantic Review, 7 November 2008,   [4] Arel, Dominique, \u2018Ukraine Since the War in Georgia\u2019, Survival, Vol.50, No.6, pp.15-25,  , p.16  [4] Arel, Dominique, \u2018Ukraine Since the War in Georgia\u2019, Survival, Vol.50, No.6, pp.15-25,  , p.16"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-pro03a","title":"","text":"There is a strong precedent for expansion  There is a strong precedent for letting Ukraine and Georgia join NATO. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia are also former Soviet states, and Russia objected to their entry into NATO quite as much as it objects today about its Black Sea neighbours. [1] Yet Russia was not allowed a veto over their futures, and it soon got over its annoyance, continuing to participate in joint forums with NATO and to cooperate with the USA over Afghanistan, North Korea and nuclear non-proliferation. So NATO is already committed to the defence of states in Russia\u2019s near-abroad, and should not fear further expansion.  [1] Black, Stephen J., \u2018NATO Enlargement and the Baltic States: What Can the Great Powers Do\u2019, Strategic Studies Institute, November 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-con03b","title":"","text":"Dramatic and depressing as events in Georgia in 2008 were, the loss of Abkhazia and South Ossetia actually make Georgia better suited to NATO membership than before. There would have been a clear danger of allowing Georgia into NATO if the status of these breakaway regions was unsettled, with the obvious potential for conflict with their Russian patron. Once Georgia can be brought to accept the permanent loss of these territories to Russia, then it becomes a much more united country, without any other obvious grounds for Russia\u2019s future interference. This is similarly the case with Crimea; The Russian Black Sea Fleet based in a NATO member would have clearly been a risk."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-con01b","title":"","text":"We do not need to buy Russia cooperation by sacrificing Georgian and Ukrainian sovereignty. The West would like Russian cooperation in a whole range of areas, but this isn\u2019t a zero sum game where if one side wins the other must lose out. Russia should also worry about issues such as terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, and the threat posed by failed states, so it is in its own interests to work with international partners to find global solutions. It also wants World Trade Organisation membership to continue its economic growth, especially if oil and gas prices should fall. For these reasons Russia will not make its whole foreign policy dependent on the expansion of NATO, but can be relied upon to continue existing partnerships because they are of mutual benefit."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-con02a","title":"","text":"The West is reliant on Russia\u2019s Gas reserves  NATO\u2019s European members have an additional reason not to offend Russia by continuing to expand the alliance in defiance of Moscow. Much of Europe depends on imports of Russian gas for their energy needs, Russia currently supplies 25% of European gas and this may rise to as high as 55% by 2020. [1] Unfortunately the Kremlin has made clear over the past three years that it is prepared to use its control of energy as a political weapon. It has already limited the flow of energy to states (e.g. Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia) who have annoyed it on several occasions, and may well be prepared to turn lights, heating and factories off across Europe in retaliation for interference in its near abroad. [2]  Russia\u2019s energy riches in a time of high oil prices also mean that it is far richer and self-confident than at any time since the fall of communism. The profits of its energy wealth have also enabled its military to be strengthened. This means that even if Moscow backed down in response to western assertiveness in the past, it is now determined to overturn past humiliations.  [1] Paillard, Christophe-Alexandre, \u2018Rethinking Russia: Russia and Europe\u2019s Mutual Energy Dependence\u2019, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 63, No.2, Spring\/Summer 2010, pp.65-84,   [2] Weir, Fred, \u2018Why Russia is cutting off gas supplies to Belarus\u2019, The Christian Science Monitor, 21 June 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-con03a","title":"","text":"NATO is divided on how to deal with Georgia  The conflict in Georgia showed how NATO is already badly divided over how to respond to Russia. Old European states such as Germany and Italy are much readier to accommodate Russian interests than America, [1] which is supported by newer NATO members such as Poland and the Czech Republic. The same fault has been seen in relation to the response to Russian moves in Crimea; Germany has been much more cautious. [2] The United States faces a danger that if it pushes for NATO expansion in the face of Russian objections, it will split the alliance completely.  [1] Traynor, Ian, \u2018Nato allies divided over Ukraine and Georgia\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 2 December 2008,   [2] Dempsey, Judy, \u2018Europe Is Completely Divided Over How to Respond to Russia\u2019, Carnegie Europe, 4 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-con01a","title":"","text":"The West needs to deal with Russia  Western countries should seek to compromise with Russia, as they need its cooperation in a whole range of areas. Global efforts against terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, energy security and organised crime will all fail without Russian participation. Russia\u2019s veto power on the United Nations Security Council also means that alienating Moscow could frustrate international efforts to bring security and freedom to states such as Sudan, Myanmar, Zimbabwe and Iraq. In particular the west needs Russian help in Syria; the UNSC has only been able to get humanitarian resolutions on the country when Russia has been cooperative. [1] And NATO depends on Russian goodwill to allow supplies into Afghanistan via the safer northern route, [2] cooperation that is likely to be withdrawn if Georgia and Ukraine remain candidates for membership.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Syria crisis: UN Security Council agrees aid resolution\u2019, 23 February 2014,   [2] Cullison, Alan, \u2018Russia Considers Blocking NATO Supply Routes\u2019, The Telegraph, 28 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdhwenmga-con02b","title":"","text":"Russian strength is illusory \u2013 the country\u2019s wealth is highly dependent on the energy exports and its economy is very vulnerable to a fall in oil and gas prices. Russia needs to sell its oil at $115 per barrel for the budget to balance. [1] Despite recent hostility to foreign oil firms attempting to operate in Russia, in the long term the country also needs western investment and technology if it is to maintain its energy output by opening and exploiting new fields. Indeed, Europe cannot be held hostage to Russian energy policy \u2013 who else could Russia sell its oil and gas to? Russia\u2019s apparent military strength is also deceptive \u2013 its army and air force actually performed badly in Georgia and are no match for the modern forces available to NATO.  [1] Nikishenkov, Oleg, \u2018Oil muddles Russia\u2019s budget debate\u2019, themoscownews, 16 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro02b","title":"","text":"Both countries are among the most prosperous economies in the entire world and have nothing to gain from EU membership. Through their EEA and EFTA memberships, as well as bilateral deals with Brussels, both Norway and Switzerland have access to the Single Market and are fully integrated into the European economy. While it may be true that the European Union is generous to Norway and Switzerland it is also in the EU\u2019s interest to add Norway and Switzerland to the European Common Market even if not as full members. The chances of the European Union cancelling such agreements are remote as international agreements and trade rely on trust between partners so other partners of the EU would worry that their treaties might also be cancelled."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro02a","title":"","text":"Benefits of joining the European Union  Both Norway and Switzerland already gain from their economic association with the European Union, but they would realise much greater benefits if they formally joined the organisation. Being imperfectly integrated into the European economy means that consumers pay higher prices for goods and services than citizens of EU countries. Businesses are sheltered from full competition, which can lead to complacency and a loss of global competitiveness. And the nature of their relationships with Brussels means that their economies are inherently fragile \u2013 bilateral agreements could be cancelled by either side at any time. This would have little impact on the wider EU-economy, but would devastate much smaller Norway or Switzerland. The risks this involves were brought home in 2008 when Swiss voters had to approve an extension of the freedom of movement under the Schengen agreement to new EU-members Romania and Bulgaria; if the referendum had been rejected, the EU would have cancelled the whole bilateral deal on Schengen. [1] So unless the two countries stay in step with the EU as it moves forward towards integration, they may lose many of the benefits they have already acquired. Given that in recent deals the EU has been relatively generous in the expectation that Switzerland and Norway will be encouraged to join the Union, there is a further risk that future treatment will be much less sympathetic if Brussels recognises that this is not going to happen.  [1] EurActiv.com, \u2018Populists defeated in Swiss EU labour poll\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro03b","title":"","text":"While it is true that trading freely with the EU requires acceptance of many of its rules, neither country has given up control over those areas they consider key policy areas. These are the areas that Norway and Switzerland most important such as agriculture, fishing (highly important for Norway) and foreign affairs. The Swiss in particular have done well out of bilateral deals with the EU \u2013 would their concerns in areas such as banking and farming be listened to as carefully once they were inside the club? How much are the concerns of smaller states taken seriously in the EU today?"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro05a","title":"","text":"It would be easy to assimilate into the EU  Both Switzerland and Norway would be warmly welcomed within the EU family and guaranteed a speedy entry into the Union. As advanced economies with strong legal and political institutions, they would be easy for the EU to assimilate, especially given their close involvement in the Single Market already. Both would be net contributors to the EU budget, and would strengthen the EU at a time when it is still coping with poorer new members and would-be members in Eastern Europe. And by contributing financially to the EU in this way, Switzerland and Norway will benefit from increasing trade as Eastern and Central European states rapidly gain in prosperity with support from EU regional transfers."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro01a","title":"","text":"There is little room for small states in a globalizing world  Both countries would benefit from pooling sovereignty in an increasingly globalised world. For relatively small states true independence is no longer possible, with countries like Switzerland and Norway at the mercy of bigger economic forces. Thus Switzerland for example had to bail out its biggest bank UBS with $5.23 billion In 2008 as well as taking on $50 billion of toxic assets. [1] UBS and Credit Suisse the banks that were bailed out held assets worth 680% of GDP so Switzerland could have faced a similar crash as Iceland did. [2]  [1] Gow, David, \u2018Switzerland unveils bank bail-out plan\u2019, 2008  [2] Theil, Stefan, \u2018What the Swiss Did Right\u2019, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro01b","title":"","text":"Being small may well be the best way of avoiding the effects of globalization. Globilization is not only transferring power up from the state level to a more globalized level but also down to the local level. This works to the advantage of small states and as a very decentralized state this is particularly likely to benefit Switzerland. It is notable that most the world\u2019s wealthiest states in per capita terms are small states despite globalization supposedly meaning that countries need to create immense markets to survive. [1] In practice small states are able to rapidly change to the changing economic environment. Iceland itself is a good example, despite the crash it experienced it is recovering and is turning against the idea of EU membership as its finance minister Steingrimur Sigfusson says \"You are quicker turning a small boat around than a big ship. And that is, I think, what is being proven: that the small, vibrant Icelandic economy, including having our own currency, makes adapting quicker.\" [2]  [1] Alesina, Alberto, \u2018The Size of Countries: Does it matter?\u2019, 2003, p.308  [2] Henley, Paul, \u2018Iceland has doubts about the euro as economy recovers\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro05b","title":"","text":"It is clear why the EU would like to welcome the rich Swiss and Norwegians within its embrace, but why would either country want to sign up for a project which would involve their citizens\u2019 taxes being given away to other countries? EU waste and fraud are legendary, so it is easy to understand why voters have consistently rejected giving up their taxes to Brussels. As latecomers they are not in a strong position to bargain over entry terms, and can expect to become major net contributors, especially as their farmers are unlikely to gain much from the Common Agricultural Policy. Estimates of the cost of membership for Switzerland were set between SFr3 billion and SFr8 billion in 2004 \u2013 more than its entire defense budget."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is no moral obligation upon either state to join the EU. Both can continue to play a full part in promoting peace and stability outside the organization. As a NATO member with a firmly internationalist outlook, Norway already makes a big contribution to peacekeeping around the world. Indeed its valuable role as an arbiter in bitter disputes such as the Israel-Palestine and Sri Lanka-Tamil conflicts might be lost if it was merely a small part of a big power bloc. Switzerland too already contributes to building stability in the Balkans, in partnership with EU countries. But its long tradition of neutrality would be clearly compromised by EU membership, especially as a Common Foreign and Security Policy, voiced from Brussels by a High Representative on behalf of all member states, is rapidly becoming a reality."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro03a","title":"","text":"Norway and Switzerland already implement many EU policies  Both Norway [1] and Switzerland [2] have agreements with the EU allow them the access to its enormous market that they need to survive economically, but at the same time they have to abide by EU rules that they have no influence over making. Norway in particular, as an EEA member must accept all EU single-market, employment, environment and competition rules. Switzerland meanwhile is under pressure as the European Union wants changes to EU law to be adopted automatically by the Swiss. [3] Both contribute to the EU budget as European Free Trade Area members contribute to operational and administrative expenditure. [4] Norway contributes 340million Euros per year. [5] If they joined the EU, they would at least be given a say in the regulations they have to implement, and as their presence would strengthen the relatively more free-market camp led by the UK, Ireland and Denmark, they are likely to be happier with the rules that then result.  [1] The European Community and Iceland, The Principality of Liechtenstein, Then Kingdom of Norway, \u2018Agreement on the European Economic Area\u2019, 1994  [2] European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation, \u2018EC Switzerland Free Trade Agreement\u2019 1972  [3] Pop, Valentina, \u2018EU looking to reset relations with Switzerland\u2019, 2010  [4] Efta.int, \u2018EEA EFTA Budget\u2019, 2011  [5] Norway Mission to the EU, \u201910 Basic facts about the European Economic Area\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-pro04a","title":"","text":"The EU shares the same values as Norway and Switzerland  The European project has been a great political success in first ensuring, and then extending democracy and stability within the European continent. As strong democracies Switzerland and Norway surely belong within the EU family, and should play their part in advancing stability and European values in the future, for example in the Western Balkans. Swiss fears about compromising their neutrality should not be an issue \u2013 EU states like Ireland and Austria prize their neutrality too. And for the EU, the entry of both Norway and Switzerland at the same time would help to maintain present balance between NATO members and neutral states."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-con03b","title":"","text":"Replacing their currencies with the Euro would also benefit both Switzerland and Norway. Over the past ten years the Euro has gained in strength and credibility, and is now clearly the world\u2019s second currency after the dollar. The high volatility of sterling shows the danger of trying to maintain your own currency as a national virility symbol, while Iceland shows the risk small countries face when financial trouble strikes. For Switzerland, switching to the Euro would allow it to capitalize on its banking expertise by becoming a true rival to London as Europe\u2019s financial center. For Norway, the Euro would help the country avoid \u201cDutch disease\u201d \u2013 where a strong oil and gas industry pushes up the currency to the point where other businesses are severely hurt."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-con01b","title":"","text":"Many other countries in the European Union are proud of their sovereignty, Britain for example was also initially reluctant to join the EU and has worried about losing sovereignty ever since. All the Eastern European states have been dominated by outside powers much more recently than Norway has and yet welcome the EU. Many commentators believe that the EU is moving towards being much more based upon regions and small states, something which would fit closely with Swiss and Norwegian membership. [1]  [1] Alesina, Alberto, \u2018The Size of Countries: Does it matter?\u2019, 2003, p.313"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-con02a","title":"","text":"CAP and Fisheries policies would damage traditional industr  By remaining outside the EU itself, neither has to sacrifice key elements of its domestic economy to Brussels in a way countries like the UK do. For cultural and environmental reasons both countries protect and subsidise their small family farms, which would not be possible inside the EU\u2019s Common Agricultural Policy. Norway\u2019s fishing industry also occupies an important place within the national psyche, and Norwegians are proud that good fisheries management within their 200 mile exclusion zone has left their fish stocks much healthier than those of EU neighbours who have fallen victim to the Common Fisheries Policy. And Swiss banking continues a proud tradition of independent financial expertise that might be lost to London if the country was just another part of the EU."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-con03a","title":"","text":"Requirement to join the Euro  Even if EU membership were in the interests of Switzerland and Norway, the requirement that all new members join the Euro provides a strong argument against joining the Union itself. At present, both countries have strong currencies, with the Swiss Franc a major international reserve currency in its own right. Through the Krone and Franc they can control their own monetary policy to suit economic conditions. By contrast, small EU states are at the mercy of the European Central Bank, having to endure interest rates that may be right for Germany or France, but which are too tight or too loose for Ireland or Belgium. This explains why EU countries such as Denmark and the UK have so far refused to join the Euro. Norway and Switzerland may also wonder whether they want to yoke themselves to profligate debtor countries like Italy, Greece, whose falling credit ratings are placing monetary union under strain at present. And neither Norway or Switzerland has the financial problems of Iceland, although the credit crunch has required Switzerland to support its international banks \u2013 in ways which EU membership might well have prevented."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbsansaje-con01a","title":"","text":"Strong traditions of Sovereignty  Both Norway and Switzerland greatly value their sovereignty and do not want to give it up to Brussels. The Swiss have a tradition of proud independence stretching back to the middle ages, while the Norwegians still remember what it was like to be politically dominated by Denmark and Sweden. In both, voters have consistently shown that they have no wish to compromise their sovereignty by joining the European Union. The Swiss particularly fear their tradition of more direct democracy would be threatened with EU membership, as laws from Brussels could not be overturned by referendum as at present. This is already having an effect on EU-Swiss relations with Switzerland unwilling to have automatically adopt evolving EU law. The Swiss would be equally worried about the role of the European Court of Justice which decides if countries infringe European law. [1]  [1 ] Pop, Valentina, \u2018EU looking to reset relations with Switzerland\u2019, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Just as a high degree of reliance upon free economic markets was instrumental to the growing prosperity in the modern era of the First World nations, so too a free economic market at the international level would tend to enhance the growth and development of a strong world economy. As for national government anti-cyclical policy, although it is clearly justified in crisis conditions of deep depression or hyperinfla\u00adtion, too often in the past it has been applied injudiciously, so that it aggravates rather than ameliorates cyclical swings. Owing to the various lags in policy determination and implementation described by the famous economist Milton Friedman, often expansionary policy takes full effect in boom periods, while contractionary policy takes full effect in recession periods. This problem might well hold at the global level if there were a world government in existence attempting to apply world anticyclical policy. To the extent that the world government ventures beyond anticyclical policy into the realm of overall regulation and control of the business economy, it is likely to repeat and amplify the self-evident errors and excesses the national governments have made in this area."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Economic globalization suggests the need for political globalization  Economic interaction among the nations of the world, in the form of trade, investment and migration, has reached such a point today that it is meaningful to think of \u201cthe world economy.\u201d Economic globalization suggests the need for political globalization in the form of a world government. Following the seminal work of John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression of the 1930s, it has become widely accepted within the economics profession that a certain amount of interventionist national government policy is essential to maintaining a proper balance between the twin economic evils of unemployment and inflation. Just as judicious national anticyclical policy is beneficial to national economies, so too a judicious world anticyclical policy, as implemented by a functioning world government, would be beneficial to the world economy. A world government would also improve the overall functioning of the global economy by means of regularizing various circumstances of international economic interaction (for example, in the area of patents and copyrights), and by working to reduce various trade impediments (such as tariffs and quotas) imposed by national governments."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Although the problems of resource depletion and environmental deterioration are indeed serious global problems, it is unreasonably optimistic and idealistic to believe that a world government, in and of itself, would be an effective instrument toward the reduction of these problems. The world government would likely promulgate resource use and environmental protection policies that would be acceptable to some countries, but totally unacceptable to other countries. Another consideration is that in a fundamental sense, resource depletion and environmental deterioration are caused by rapid population growth. A world government might try to control population growth by such draconic means as the notorious \u201cone child\u201d policy in the People\u2019s Republic of China. This would be totally unacceptable to a very large majority of the contemporary human population."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro05a","title":"","text":"There are successful precedents for supra-national bodies  The history of the European Union (EU) in the post-World War II era provides an encouraging example of what might be done at the global level through a functioning world government. It is widely agreed among economists that the relatively high degree of prosperity and security enjoyed today by the people of the Western European nations is in no small measure the result of the gradual evolution from the original limited-purpose, six-member European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) to the general-purpose, 27-member EU of today. In the early 1940s, many of the EU nations of today were locked in devastating warfare. The fact that these same nations are today harmonious components of a quasi-state polity demonstrates the capability of people to change their customary modes of thought and behavior when there exists a sufficient incentive to do so."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro01a","title":"","text":"A world government would reduce the probability of a catastrophic nuclear world war  Ever since the destruction of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 during the closing days of World War II, the threat of global devastation through nuclear world war has hung over human civilization like a Damocles\u2019 sword. The threat of global nuclear destruction peaked during the most perilous years of the Cold War during the 1950s through the 1970s, and it gradually subsided thereafter. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, many people came to believe that the threat has entirely disappeared. But this is false complacency. Although national arsenals of nuclear-tipped ICBMs have declined in the two decades since the end of the Cold War, they still exist at levels that would cause unimaginable death and destruction were they unleashed in a world war. The history of human civilization throughout the ages demonstrates the strong propensity among human beings toward hostility, violence and warfare\u2014whatever the potential cost. As long as the international political system is based upon the sovereignty of nation-states, the threat of nuclear world war will always be there."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro01b","title":"","text":"A world government is not needed to prevent nuclear world war, because such a war would be so catastrophic that the common sense of humanity will prevent it from ever happening. From the earliest days of the nuclear arms race, and especially after intercontinental ballistic missiles were perfected in the 1960s as the principal means of delivery of nuclear bombs, a delivery system for which no plausible defense could be devised, it was recognized that all-out world war was no longer a viable option in the contemporary world, simply because such a war would almost inevitably entail Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). Not only would the immediate death and destruction be overwhelming, but the long-term effects from radiation and possible nuclear winter could be even worse. In the MAD world, the populations of all nations, especially those of the major powers, are held hostage in a sort of perpetual \u201cMexican standoff.\u201d As paradoxical as it may seem, the development of nuclear weapons and ballistic delivery systems has created the most effective deterrent to unrestricted warfare ever seen in the history of the human race. The inescapable horrors of a nuclear war guarantee that such a war will never happen."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro05b","title":"","text":"The basic flaw in this argument is that throughout modern history. Western Europe has always been far more homogeneous, in terms of economics and culture, than the world as a whole is at the present time. The immense human and material losses of World War I and World War II created a far more intense motivation in the post-war era toward change than exists at the present time over all the nations of the world, since most nations today have not experienced the horrors of war at first hand for a very long time. Moreover, in the aftermath of World War II, the Western European nations were motivated to a higher level of harmony and mutual cooperation owing to the fear that if they did not cooperate, they would become mere pawns in the strategic and potentially deadly game being played between the United States and the Soviet Union."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro04b","title":"","text":"International relations specialists have long concluded that for a successful political amalgamation to take place, the people of the various regional components of that amalgamation must have a great deal in common. The history of nation-states demonstrates, for example, that a common language is a strong unifying force. But there must be other strong commonalities aside from language. There cannot be extreme differences in economic conditions among the regions, or extreme differences in political beliefs and ideologies, or extreme differences in cultural attitudes and social mores. When we look at the world of nations today, we cannot avoid acknowledging the existence of extreme differences in all of these areas. Aside from economics and political ideologies, the most obvious factors are the multiplicity of languages and religions. We are forced to conclude that a successful political amalgamation among such a wide assortment of dramatically diverse nations is virtually impossible."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro03a","title":"","text":"A world government would enhance the probability of mitigating global environmental problems  A world government would enhance the probability that effective means will be developed and implemented toward ameliorating the global problems of resource depletion and environmental decay. In a world divided into a host of jealously independent and self-righteously sovereign nations, national leaders tend to point the finger of blame for these problems at other nations, and to resist international efforts toward resource conservation and environmental preservation. As the mutual accusations and recriminations go on and on, the problems are left to fester. If a world government existed, it might muster sufficient respect and possess sufficient authority to enable the nations to arrive at a workable consensus on how to share equitably the short-term costs and inconveniences necessary to securing long-term sustainability of resources and preservation of environmental quality."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-pro04a","title":"","text":"A world government would foster a constructive cosmopolitanism  A world government would give people a higher focus for their political loyalties than their respective nation-states, and thus facilitate the development of a higher degree of cosmopolitanism than is possible under the sovereign nation-state system. This would benefit the practical operations and effectiveness of the world government. The greater the sense of community among the citizens of a polity, the higher the effectiveness of the polity\u2019s government, and the higher the effectiveness of the polity\u2019s government, the greater the sense of community among its citizens. This suggests an interactive, snowballing relationship over time between the sense of community of the citizens of the world federation, and the efficiency and effectiveness of its practical operations. From relatively low sense of community and low effectiveness in its early stages, over many years of gradual evolution, the world federation would eventually achieve a very high level of community spirit and practical effectiveness."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con03b","title":"","text":"Although it is a popular form of entertainment to malign generic bureaucracies, professional sociologists define a bureaucracy in neutral terms as any large-scale, hierarchical organization that practices specialization and division of labor in its operations. According to this definition, such organizations as armies, navies, business corporations, the International Red Cross, and numerous others, are classified as bureaucracies no less than national tax collection agencies\u2014the archetypical target of \u201cbureaucracy haters.\u201d It is important to understand that bureaucracies do not arise from nowhere, but are a tangible consequence of perceived needs and shared purposes. With that in mind, it can further be argued that a world government would not necessarily increase the total bureaucratic burden on the human population of the world. Some functions currently handled by separate national government bureaucracies might more cost effectively be handled by an analogous world government bureaucracy."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con01b","title":"","text":"Although post-World War II world government proposals were mostly for an unlimited world government descriptively designated the \u201comnipotent world state,\u201d there has been considerable evolution in world federalist thought since the immediate post-war period. More recent proposals envision a limited federal world government subject to significant restraints that would effectively eliminate the danger of global tyranny. Among these are proposals that discontented member nations may withdraw peacefully, at their unilateral discretion, from the federation, and that member nations are allowed to retain independent control over armed forces. In addition to these provisions, a sensible voting scheme in the world legislature would preclude the poor countries enforcing their preferences on the rich countries, and vice versa. In any case, excessive emphasis on the heterogeneity of nations tends to obscure the fact that in reality\u2014despite the obvious differences in language, race, religion and culture\u2014a considerable amount of consensus has already been achieved among the global human population on some critical elements of ethical behavior and social organization. The existence of a federal world government would facilitate further development of the friendly, cooperative and mutually supportive impulses within people."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con02a","title":"","text":"A world government would be ineffective in practice  From the early 1990s, at about the time of the collapse and dissolution of the Soviet Union, there has developed an immense literature on global governance in the post-Cold War era. It is agreed by many if not most international relations authorities that the existing institutions of global governance, comprising the United Nations and several others, are achieving as much as can reasonably be expected given the extreme diversity of the contemporary global human population, its widely differing perceptions, viewpoints, and policy preferences. If this diversity is hampering efforts to improve the global human prospect, this is unfortunate, but there is no reason to expect that a formal world government would not be similarly hampered. Furthermore, significant improvements can be made, such as the proposed Global Parliamen\u00adtary Assembly (GPA) that would convert or replace the UN General Assembly with a directly elected assembly\u2014without going to the premature extreme of full-fledged world government. Many other ideas short of world government were offered by the Commission on Global Governance of the early 1990s. Many of these are viable and attractive options for making progress without an excessively risky departure from the status quo. Thus there is no need to make a reckless giant step into world government, when there are more cautious baby steps that could be taken toward improving international harmony and cooperation."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con05a","title":"","text":"There is no feasible transition path to a world government model  Some eminent international relations authorities have argued that no feasible transition path of a benign nature exists from the present situation of national sovereignty, to a world government. A nuclear world war might change this situation: such a war might so shock and horrify the global human population that it will turn to world govern\u00adment in desperation. This outcome is possible, of course, but it is equally possible that after a nuclear Armageddon had occurred, the scattered and demoralized survivors would be neither capable of nor interested in world government. Quite likely the surface of the world would become sub-divided into a host of autonomous principalities presided over by dictatorial war lords. It would seem that in a post-nuclear war world, there would be just as much chance of severe political fragmentation taking place as there is of further political consolidation."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con04a","title":"","text":"The forces of nationalism are too strong to permit the loosening of state sovereignty any further  The force of nationalism is so strong in the contemporary world that no national population will be willing to turn over any substantial part of its national sovereignty and autonomy to a world government. There is too much apprehension among the great majority of people around the world that a world government would promulgate and enforce policies that would disadvantage their specific national interests. Most opinion leaders and national government officials believe that they have a vested interest in the status quo. One evidence that interest in world government has declined to a vestigial level is that the World Federalist Association (WFA), which was quite active throughout the Cold War, was recently absorbed by Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS), an organization principally devoted to preserving and supporting the United Nations, and which studiously avoids any mention of world government in its literature."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con03a","title":"","text":"A world government would add another, laborious level of bureaucracy  A world government would add another layer of bureaucracy to a world which is already laboring under a heavy burden of bureaucracy. Were a world government bureaucracy to be added to what already exists at the national, regional and local levels, it would be accurate to describe the situation as \u201cbureaucratic suffocation\u201d or \u201cbureaucratic strangulation.\u201d Of their nature, bureaucracies stifle creative thought and innovation. A world government would be subject to so many conflicting viewpoints and attitudes that its bureaucracy would necessarily have to impose an overwhelming deluge of requirements, restrictions, forms and reports on the citizens. The citizens would be effectively hamstrung, and be (figuratively speaking) more or less trussed up in straitjackets. So even if\u2014by some remote chance\u2014the world state did not immediately degenerate into a brutal police state, its massive bureaucracy would in some ways constitute a virtual police state. The problem of bureaucracy alone argues against a world state."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con05b","title":"","text":"The fact that some international relations authorities do not have the imagination required to perceive a feasible transition path to world government is not necessarily strong evidence that such a path does not exist. The principal reason why the idea of world government is not being pursued vigorously at the present time is that it is assumed by the large majority that world government could only be realized in the form of the omnipotent world state. But if a sufficient amount (a \u201ccritical mass,\u201d so to speak) of awareness of the limited world govern\u00adment option is achieved, the situation could change dramatically within a short period of time. If there was sufficiently widespread and strong support for world government, it could be established by the same sort of international conference that established the United Nations. As for world government coming about through nuclear world war, no sane and sensible world federalist gives this any credence."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con01a","title":"","text":"There is no popular support for such a body  There is too much economic, political and cultural heterogeneity in the contemporary world to permit the establishment of a democratically organized, authoritative and effective\u2014yet benign\u2014world govern\u00adment. This was especially the case during the Cold War era with its virulent opposition between communist and non-communist economic, political and social ideologies. But it is still the case. For example, if a democratic world government were established, it would likely want to create a global welfare state, but this would be unacceptable to citizens of the rich countries because of the excessive taxation necessary to provide welfare benefits to the citizens of the poor nations. Another possibility is that the world government would be effectively controlled by the rich nations (despite appearances of democracy), and thus it would implement policies of uncontrolled trade and investment. These would be unacceptable to the poor nations because they would be regarded as a return to the exploitative con\u00additions of the colonial era. Thus a serious effort to establish a world government in the real world would almost certainly lead to widespread armed resistance, and this might well escalate into the very nuclear world war that the world government was supposed to prevent. That would be the ultimate irony."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con04b","title":"","text":"While it cannot be denied that interest in world government is currently at a low ebb, among both the general public and international relations professionals, it is arguable that a principal reason for this is relatively low familiarity with alternatives to the \u201comnipotent world state\u201d concept developed in the immediate aftermath of World War II. In time, as greater familiarity develops with the more recent proposals for a limited federal world government being developed by the younger generation of world federalists, the situation might change. The more recent proposals envision a world government that would exercise far less power and authority relative to the member nations than would the omnipotent world government of earlier, \u201cold-fashioned\u201d world federalist thought. There would be far less likelihood of these newer blueprints leading to unmanageable conflicts between national interests and global interests."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbwg-con02b","title":"","text":"There is no doubt that the processes of global governance have improved since the decline of the Cold War in the early 1990s as a result of the collapse and dissolution of the Soviet Union. But it is unduly na\u00efve to suggest, as do some global governance enthusiasts, that the United Nations and other international institutions amount to a virtual global government that is as effective as an actual world government would be. Close examination of actual events at the international level shows that national interests tend to trump global interests again and again. As for \u201cbaby step\u201d proposals such as the Global Parliamentary Assembly, these are uninspired and uninspiring. So long as the UN General Assembly (or its equivalent) remains a purely consultative body confined to issuing resolutions with no power of enforcement, then it makes very little difference whether its members are elected by the national populations, or appointed by the national governments. A full-fledged world government, as an institutional reality with legislative, executive and judicial branches, the high officials of which would be directly elected by the global constituency, would constitute a quantum leap forward that would excite the human imagination. So long as it is properly limited according to the more recent, post-Cold War world federalist proposals, it would not constitute a meaningful threat to the legitimate national interests of the member nations."}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Officially talks are ongoing so an agreement is still possible. Moreover a failure to reach an agreement does not mean that Germany should act unilaterally. Restraint will in the long term mean Germany is much more likely to negotiate an agreement with the United States as they will be more willing to listen to an ally who has not tried to prosecute US intelligence officials."}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-pro02a","title":"","text":"No chance of an agreement with the USA  The German government has been working towards a \u2018no-spy agreement\u2019 with the United States. It however looks unlikely that such a deal will every become a reality with officials saying \u201cwe won't get anything\u201d and \u201cthe Americans lied to us\u201d about the chances of an agreement. [1] German officials have also been disparaging of Obama\u2019s new announcements on restrictions of the NSA; Roettgen, a member of Merkel\u2019s party says \u201cThe fundamental question is, should security services be able to do everything they\u2019re technically able to do, Obama essentially said \u2018yes\u2019\u201d. [2] If Germany can\u2019t get an agreement then it has no choice but to act unilaterally.  [1] Medick, Veit, and Meiritz, Annett, \u2018\u2019The Americans Lied\u2019: Trans-Atlantic \u2018No-Spy\u2019 Deal on the Rocks\u2019, Spiegel Online, 15 January 2014,   [2] Donahue, Patrick, \u2018Germany Says Obama\u2019s Spying Pledges Fail to Address Concerns\u2019, Bloomberg, 20 January 2014\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Politics is about action. The German government has to take some action on the issue of NSA surveillance and German privacy or it will look weak. Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrich went to Washington in July but was accused of \u201creturning empty-handed\u201d and having \u201cnot moved a single step forward on any of the key points\u201d. [1] The stonewalling by the United States provides an opportunity for opponents to Damage Merkel\u2019s new government as well as potentially to show gaps between the SDP and CSU. Merkel has been invited to visit Washington at some point in 2014 by President Obama, [2] Merkel can\u2019t afford for her own diplomacy to have as little result as Friedrich\u2019s.  [1] Deutsche Welle, \u2018SPF, Greens slam Interior Minister Friedrich after US surveillance talks in Washington\u2019, dw.de, 13 July 2013,   [2] Reuters, \u2018Obama invites Merkel to visit during call about trade, NATO\u2019, 8 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-pro01a","title":"","text":"Illegal under German law  Monitoring communications in Germany\u2019s capital \u2013 including the communications of government leaders like Merkel would be illegal under German law. Numerous politicians, such as then interior minister Hans-Peter Friedrich have stated that those \u201cresponsible must be held accountable\u201d. [1] There are even those, such as Gregor Gysi from the far left Left Party who say \u201cThe fact that the German government and the Federal Prosecutor isn't acting shows that their fear of the US government is greater than their respect for our legal system.\u201d [2] When an act is illegal the state has a moral responsibility to prosecute that act. It should not be OK for another state to break the law simply because it is an ally and there is a desire to keep relations cordial.  [1] McGuinness, Damien, \u2018US bugged Merkel's phone from 2002 until 2013, report claims\u2019, BBC News, 27 October 2013,   [2] Spiegel Staff, \u2018Probing America: Top German Prosecutor Considers NSA Investigation\u2019, Spiegel Online, 20 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-pro01b","title":"","text":"Of course spying on another country is illegal, but everyone does it. Le Monde in July had a report on The Direction G\u00e9n\u00e9rale de la Securit\u00e9 Ext\u00e9rieure (DGSC) having systematically collected \u201cthe electromagnetic signals transmitted by computers and phones in France, as well as the digital streams going back-and-forth between the French and abroad. All communications are being spied on: emails, SMS messages, phone records, Facebook and Twitter updates, which are all then stored for years\u201d. [1]  [1] Follorou, Jaques, and Johann\u00e8s, Franck, \u2018Exclusive: French Intelligence Has Its Own Version Of PRISM\u2019, Worldcrunch, 4 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Doing nothing makes Merkel and Germany look weak  Politics is about action. The German government has to take some action on the issue of NSA surveillance and German privacy or it will look weak. Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrich went to Washington in July but was accused of \u201creturning empty-handed\u201d and having \u201cnot moved a single step forward on any of the key points\u201d. [1] The stonewalling by the United States provides an opportunity for opponents to Damage Merkel\u2019s new government as well as potentially to show gaps between the SDP and CSU. Merkel has been invited to visit Washington at some point in 2014 by President Obama, [2] Merkel can\u2019t afford for her own diplomacy to have as little result as Friedrich\u2019s.  [1] Deutsche Welle, \u2018SPF, Greens slam Interior Minister Friedrich after US surveillance talks in Washington\u2019, dw.de, 13 July 2013,   [2] Reuters, \u2018Obama invites Merkel to visit during call about trade, NATO\u2019, 8 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-con03b","title":"","text":"If countries will not act on narrow issues involving privacy freedoms and internet surveillance even when their head of government is on the receiving end then what hope is there for the broader picture? There is no point in proclaiming everyone should follow the law then we would have no crime if there is no mechanism to punish those who commit crime. Germany should not let the NSA get away with its actions or it will surely do the same again in the future."}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-con01b","title":"","text":"A failure by the United States to agree to a no spy agreement already damages relations. One of the leaders of the SPD, Thomas Oppermann, has said \u201cfailure of the agreement would be unacceptable\u201d and would \u201cchange the political character of relations.\u201d [1] If the US is willing to damage relations by stonewalling then should the Germans really be considering US diplomatic feelings in the matter? The United States gains from its relations with Germany as well as the other way around. Stopping intelligence sharing as a result of a prosecution would be acting against US interests in fighting terrorism.  [1] Deutsche Welle, \u2018Impasse at US-Germany \u2018no-spying\u2019 talks?\u2019, dw.de, 14 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-con02a","title":"","text":"Will the investigation get anywhere; who should be prosecuted?  The biggest problem facing an investigation by a prosecutor is whether there is any point in the investigation. Who could be relevant witnesses? Would any of them cooperate? [1] Ultimately who do you prosecute? Germany might be able to bring some of the US staff in Germany who conducted the surveillance to trial but it seems most unlikely that they would be able to get anyone higher up the chain. Is the person who authorised the surveillance really likely to be extradited? It seems unlikely, so why bother?  [1] Spiegel Staff, \u2018Probing America: Top German Prosecutor Considers NSA Investigation\u2019, Spiegel Online, 20 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-con03a","title":"","text":"Investigating a sideshow  The issue of the United States bugging Merkel and whether Germany can reach an agreement to prevent spying in the future is really a sideshow. The bugging of one person no matter how important does not matter. Much more important is the protection of the internet and internet freedom. This German Interior Minister de Maiziere [1] says is what is most important and Germany can work with the USA on it \u201cThere are organized criminals, who are interested in our transactions. There are business models that aim to sell individuals' profile images, and so on\u2026 The protection of the Internet, against whomever, that is our common purpose, and not just this fixation on the NSA.\u201d [2] Germany should not be fixing on what the NSA has done but be looking at the broader picture.  [1] NB the German government changed on 17th December with a resulting reshuffle  [2] Deutche Welle, \u2018German Interior Minister de Maiziere warns over NSA 'fixation'\u2019, dw.de, 10 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-con01a","title":"","text":"Damages US-German relations  An investigation would have serious repercussions for German-American relations which would be seriously against German interests. Germany needs the United States as an ally in NATO and both are currently disengaging from deployments in Afghanistan. Much more important might be the impact on intelligence sharing between Germany and the United States. Intelligence officials are concerned \u201cThey could simply shut off the faucet,\u201d with the Americans simply no longer providing intelligence to Germany. This would immediately impact German security by making it more likely terrorists could attack German interests. [1] Germany should accept the Obama\u2019s assurances \u201cAs long as I am the President of the United States, the German Chancellor need not worry about that [surveillance of Merkel]\u201d. [2]  [1] Spiegel Staff, \u2018Probing America: Top German Prosecutor Considers NSA Investigation\u2019, Spiegel Online, 20 January 2014,   [2] Reuters, \u2018Obama Tells Merkel, Germans He Will Not Wiretap\u2019, Huffington Post, 18 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eptcphbg-con02b","title":"","text":"There is a big difference between justice not being done because the United States refuses to cooperate and justice not being done because German prosecutors could not get the evidence to bring charges. If the former there is at least a chance of a trial, possibly in abstention, where all the evidence can come out."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-pro02b","title":"","text":"The reality is that antibiotics and similar medicines are mostly sold to Monopsonistic governments and don\u2019t represent the profit base of big Pharma. Instead they have focussed on products such as Prozac that are high-profit by their nature, while thirty-year old antibiotics are left to become ever less effective against evolving viruses. [i] .  [i] Gouge, Deborah, \u2018Big Pharma Abandons Antibiotics: An Opening For Small Biotech\u2019, Seeking Alpha, 13 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-pro02a","title":"","text":"ACTA promotes medical research  Companies that accept huge research costs \u2013 such as the pharmaceutical industries \u2013 need the surety of knowing that they will have some payback for that research. Without that there is little point in them undertaking the research in the first place and medical science will suffer.  It\u2019s easy to say that manufacturing a pill only costs two cents \u2013 the reality is that a trial alone can cost upwards of $100m with the whole research and development per approved drug costing billions. [i] The framework  for doing that is one that requires a profit for investors and security for researchers.  Allowing for generic medicines to undermine that end point profit discourages the necessary blue-sky thinking and ground-breaking research as they\u2019re risky and may not see a financial return. As a result, those medicines that are proven \u2018sellers\u2019 need to make the profit for the long-term investment that will be required for cures for cancer, AIDS and other global killers. Stopping pharmaceutical companies from making a healthy profit on established antibiotics and similar medicines means that they then don\u2019t have the financial muscle to be able to fund the long development and large amount of research necessary to create the drugs of the future. If they then believe those drugs will quickly be recreated and turned into generics they will give up researching entirely.  [i] Herper, Matthew, \u2018The Truly Staggering Cost of Inventing New Drugs\u2019, Forbes, 10 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-pro03b","title":"","text":"Were proposition\u2019s case true then it would raise the question of why no consumers groups have been involved in the negotiations or representative of cloth and other manufacturers in the developing world \u2013 or for that matter the originators of design techniques more generally. The only people consulted were the stakeholders of extremely wealthy brands; mostly price-gougers with appalling records in terms of how they spend that money as it relates to the payment of workers or suppliers. This agreement serves purely for the protection of a wealthy few and against the interests of the overwhelming majority in the industries they represent."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-pro01a","title":"","text":"Piracy in an Internet age.  In an age of such easy global communications, the threat of piracy is far greater for creative industries than it has ever been before. There is a huge difference between a few cheap video copies and global downloads available free of charge. With sites making movies that cost millions available for free, it poses a real threat to major studios. For example The Institute for Policy Innovation believes the global music industry loses $12.5 billion a year due to piracy resulting in 71,060 lost jobs. [i]  The fact that these sites are so popular demonstrates that music and movies are popular but that people are unwilling to pay real cost of producing that quality of product.  The reality is that creative material is produced not just by a handful of millionaire actors and producers but by thousands of screen-writers, technicians and backroom staff; all of whom have to be paid. To do that studios, music producers and publishers need some guarantee of a return on their initial investment.  [i] Siwek, Stephen E., \u2018The True Cost of Sound Recording Piracy to the U.S. Economy\u2019, The Institute for Policy Innovation, 21 August 2007."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-pro01b","title":"","text":"We should be wary of any figures set on losses to the economy as a result of piracy, mostly because the coinsumer who is downloading pirated materials will simply use his dollars elsewhere. [i] There have also been studies that show that these same people who illegally download also spend more on legal downloads. [ii] Moreover this should really be seen just as a spur to innovate. Those who benefitted from film were happy enough with the impact that cinema had on theatre, music producers happy enough with the impact that musical electrification, global distribution methods and broadcasting had on the music industry. Objecting that new technologies require some new thinking is ridiculous and smacks of protectionism from industries that, increasingly, seem to have lost the battle of ideas. ACTA is anti-competitive and aims to protect the interests of outdated approaches against new and imaginative thinking.  [i] Raustiala, Kal, and Sprigman, Chris, \u2018How Much Do Music and Movie Piracy Really Hurt the U.S. Economy\u2019, Freakonomics, 12 January 2012.  [ii] Michaels, Sean, \u2018Study finds pirates 10 times more likely to buy music\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 21 April 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-pro03a","title":"","text":"ACTA is needed to protect brands  There is a genuine value to a brand \u2013 in part because, for clothing companies for example, it is a mark of quality as much as it is of origin. However even if that were not the case, the brand identity of a company is part of its legal property and should be protected in the same way and stock or cash against theft.  The very fact that people are so keen to buy branded clothing and other products \u2013 even when pirated \u2013 demonstrates that there is a value to those brands.  ACTA doesn\u2019t seek to control people\u2019s rights to wear any pair of jeans or trainers or other type of product. It simply says that if someone wants to own Levi jeans or Nike trainers they should pay the price set by Levis or Nike. If they don\u2019t want to pay the premium then they are at liberty to buy different unbranded products."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-con03b","title":"","text":"The EU [i] has described this agreement as a balance of the interests of all stakeholders \u2013 including customers or other users. Nobody is banned from freely sharing their own ideas, inventions or research; merely from ripping off that of other people. The oppositions need not worry about the articles it mentions as they are targeted not at individuals but at other commercial outfits.  What is described as privatizing data is in fact increasing functionality and ensuring interoperability. Ask anyone who uses an Apple device or have become accustomed to using Microsoft Outlook and they will testify that their products work best when used together with other similar products. By allowing other organisations to copy these services you are only harming consumers.  [i] European Commission, \u2018ACTA \u2013 Anti-counterfeiting Trade Agreement\u2019, 4 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-con01b","title":"","text":"Government is about taking tough decisions rather than pandering to majoritarian whims. Legislation such as this protect industries in the creative, IT, manufacturing and medical sectors. The support it has garnered among trades union demonstrates that they, at least, recognise that it is about protecting jobs. It is no surprise that many people prefer to buy products that are cheap \u2013 or better, free \u2013 but government has a responsibility to protect the livelihoods of its citizens with rather more enthusiasm that the right to download free movies. It would be interesting to see where the democratic deficit goes when entire industries start collapsing because of counterfeiting."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-con02a","title":"","text":"Creativity will suffer if ACTA is brought in  Many within the creative industries have developed business models that work with the Internet. A few giants \u2013 frequently not producing the most artistically acclaimed work \u2013 are simply trying to defend their monopolistic profits. The idea that any of the companies involved in these negotiations are serious about protecting creativity is undermined both by the products and their response to anything new or threatening to their corporate interests. Instead this is holding up the process of creative destruction, whereby new better ideas sweep away the old that will be outcompeted, [i] by standing in the way of this in the digital world ACTA is stifling both creativity and the economy. The opposition to this legislation has come from actual creatives \u2013 programmers, artists, performers and others as well as researchers academics and more. It is being promoted by the very commercial interests that also seek to suck the life-blood out of genuine art, research and ingenuity [ii] .  This is all about protecting the commercial interest of those corporations that have ceased to have much to do with any of these processes and simply want to make the most out of what they already control through copyright. It is and remains profoundly anti-competitive and a retrograde step in terms of developing any artistic, scientific or intellectual field. By securing, through copyright, established technologies, paradigms, and industries, the agreement undermines the very competition that so many of its proponents claim to endorse. Indeed the only thing it can be demonstrated to do is to allow organisations to steal widely held information by slapping a copyright or brand on it.  [i] Cox, W. Michael and Alm, Richard, \u2018Creative Destruction\u2019, The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, 2008.  [ii] Creative Freedom Federation, New Zealand."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-con03a","title":"","text":"ACTA attacks free software and privatises data  ACTA represents a fundamental attack on the right to produce or host free software. It is written in such a way as would protect the rights of corporations such as Microsoft to build systems that require updating while, at the same time undermining freeware software such as Linux. Its provisions that can both punish (art 12:1) and pass enforcement over to ISPs (art 8:1) who therefore have an incentive to restrict free software. Article 27:6 specifically attacks computer programs that are providing a free alternative and those that may affect digital rights management programs. [i] [ii] In doing this it creates a culture of surveillance and represents a fundamental attack on freedom of expression and basic principles of democracy as it would commercialise the right to access and distribute information.  The rights to free expression are recognised in virtually every codification of basic human rights \u2013 on which this agreement is mostly silent. It will make impossible the free distribution of programmes and other computer tools and re-asserts, as did GATS, the primacy of corporations through a right to protect things that they didn\u2019t think of but wished they had.  Already they have the advantages of massive budgets and huge legal departments, this agreement simply distorts the playing field still further in their interest.  [i] \u2018Speak out against ACTA\u2019, Free Software Foundation, 19 June 2008.  [ii] \u2018ACTA: threats to Free Software\u2019, hugo\u2019s blog, 21 April 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-con01a","title":"","text":"ACTA is anti-democratic  This has been a secret stich-up between a handful of, mostly Western, governments and massive corporations or their representative trade organisations. It has notably failed to receive democratic support and poses a genuine threat to freedom and equality offered by the Internet. So far it has been signed by fewer than 40 nations and has failed to receive democratic approval [i] in any of them; it is the child of national and business elites but has failed at every hurdle where the public was watching hence it has not been ratified by any legislatures and in some cases such as in Mexico been thrown out almost unanimously. [ii] [iii] Where it has been signed, it has mostly been met with protests from politicians and public alike. If the proponents of this measure are so sure of its virtues, the obvious solution would seem apparent; put it to a vote.  It proposes the creation of an international body with no democratic accountability [iv] at all as it just has representatives from each party to the treaty but no accountability to any other body and seeks to undermine public involvement in both formal and informal ways with the management of information in the modern world. Opposition to this agreement has been at least as ferocious as previous attempts to remove the democratic input of the inhabitants of the planet into decisions that affect their lives \u2013 such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The Agreement has run into issues of constitutionality in the EU, US and elsewhere with legislatures questioning whether national executives have the right \u2013 let alone the capacity \u2013 to implement the measures of the Agreement. Any government that attempted to ratify the agreement would be likely to face stiff opposition from both parliamentarians and the public \u2013 to date that has been insurmountable [v] .  [i] Various articles from around the world  [ii] \u2018Dict\u00e1menes a Discusi\u00f3n y Votaci\u00f3n\u2018, Senado de la Republica LXI Legislatura, 22 June 2011.  [iii] Hernandez, Daniel, \u2018Mexico signs anti-piracy treaty, setting up battle with activists\u2019, Latimes blog, 13 July 2012.  [iv] Chapters four and five, Council of the European Union, \u2018Anti Counterfeiting Trade Agreement\u2019, 23 August 2011.  [v] Mason, Daniel, \u2018European Opposition to ACTA grows\u2019, Public Service Europe, 13 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsciidfi-con02b","title":"","text":"The major corporations, which seem to exercise the opposition so greatly, are also major employers and major investors. In addition to which counterfeiting is a much greater threat to small corporations that are dependent on one good idea and lack the financial muscle to protect that idea, for example Ifttt, an internet startup was cloned by a Chinese company, Linggan, while it was still in beta. [i] The people that have something to fear from this agreement are those with no ideas seeking to skim a profit off the energy and effort of others [ii] .  Importantly protecting intellectual property rights can also encourage innovation, by ensuring that start-ups keep creating new ideas and are sure they can profit from them. We need to ensure that there are sufficient incentives for entrepreneurs, of which intellectual property is one important component.  [i] Sam, \u2018Speedy Chinese Clone Copies Startup Still in Beta\u2019, TechinAsia, 23 August 2011.  [ii] A list of supporters"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is little evidence that the Ba\u2019ath Party would have tolerated a handover of power to Saddam\u2019s sons. Even in North Korea, the issue of Kim Il Sung\u2019s succession became fraught, and hotly contested amongst the North Korean political elite.. However, the issue of who should run Iraq was and should remain a matter for the Iraqi people. The current puppet regime has little power outside Baghdad and, frankly, not that much inside, this lack of central control is as damaging as too much would be as is shown by the failure of Somalia and resulting civil war and piratical attacks. [i]  In many ways the war has encouraged the world\u2019s rogue states to pursue nuclear weapons as, in an era of \u2018pre-emptive defense, they are the only surety against invasion and overthrow [ii] . Iran is continuing to persue nuclear weapons even without the threat of Iraq on its borders, instead it is worried about Israel and the United States. One more threatening state would therefore have made little difference. [iii]  If the aim of the war was to insure against future threats then leaving a nation bitter and resentful, where barely a family has not lost someone to the conflict, a radicalized younger generation, emboldened militant clerics and a weak central government seems a very strange way to go about doing it. The West will almost certainly have to return to Iraq within a generation, if not a decade.  [i] Blair, David, \u2018Somalia: Analysis of a failed state\u2019, The Telegraph, 18 November 2008  [ii] Francis Fukuyama. \u201cIraq May Be Stable, But The War Was Still A Mistake\u201d. Wall Street Journal. 15 August 2008.  [iii] BBC News, \u2018Q&A: Iran nuclear issue\u2019, 23 January 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro02a","title":"","text":"Although there has been a huge cost in human life the alternatives may well have been worse Saddam had made quite clear his intention to hand over power to his sons  Without intervention there is little doubt that Saddam or one of his still more murderous sons would be running Iraq. Even though there were no WMDs, it seems reasonable to assume that neither Saddam nor his sons would have ignored Iran\u2019s attempts to secure fissile material and develop a bomb. Iraq had attempted to build a nuclear reactor in the 1970\u2019s but it was destroyed by Israel in 1981 [i] and Iraq and Iran had fought a far for most of the 1980s for political dominance in the Gulf and the Shi\u2019ite, Sunni religious divide. [ii] So we would now be watching an arms race in the Middle East between the two with Israel on a hair trigger.  This wasn\u2019t just about removing one tyrant; the regime had dynastic ambitions, and a failure to act would have created the equivalent of North Korea. However, this particular hermit kingdom would have been sitting on top of the second largest reserves of oil in the world. It would, therefore, have the capacity to create the sort of fear and chaos Kim Jong Il can only dream of.  [i] BBC On This Day, \u20181981: Israel bombs Baghdad nuclear reactor\u2019.  [ii] Pipes, Daniel, \u2018A Border Adrift: Origins of the Iraq-Iran War\u2019, The Iraq-Iran War: Old Conflict, New Weapons, 1983"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro03b","title":"","text":"By empowering the Shi\u2019a majority, the outcome of the war has provided an obvious link to Iran, an equally obvious threat to Israel and has implication for nations \u201cfrom Lebanon to Pakistan. [i] \u201d  The weakness of this government represents a far greater threat to security and regional stability than any dictator, however bloodthirsty. Iraq looks set to join the other lawless regions of Asia such as the Pashtun Valley as an obvious place for terrorists and Criminals to base themselves.  [i] Vali Nasr. \u201cRegional Implications of Shi\u2019a Revival in Iraq\u201d. The Washington Quarterly \u2022 27:3 pp. 7\u201324. The Centre for International and Strategic Studies and the Massachusetts Institute for Technology. Summer 2004."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro01a","title":"","text":"Saddam Hussein is gone and Iraq is now functioning as one of very few democracies in the Middle East  It's important to be clear that this debate is looking at the results of the Iraq war and, by any definition Iraq is in a much more stable and secure position than it was in 2003 when American, British and other international troops arrived in the country.  Whatever one thinks of the initial justifications for the war there is no doubt that the country, the region and the world are better and safer places without Saddam Hussein [i] . It is easy to criticize the allies but it is worth bearing in mind that the alternative was leaving in power a man who had committed genocide was a vicious and brutal dictator under whose regime extra-judicial execution and detention, mass-murder and torture were commonplace [ii] .  [i] Richard Miniter. \u201cWas the Iraq War Worth It?\u201d. Hudson New York. 2 September 2010.  [ii] Interview with Donald Rumsfeld. Inside Politics. NPR. 14 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro01b","title":"","text":"In the unlikely event that something resembling a democratic government survives in Iraq after the international troops leave then that would, of course, be welcome.  However, some context is required to establish whether the price was worth paying. Over a trillion dollars, 4,000 American dead, tens of thousands of Iraqis, US reputation destroyed in the region to establish a puppet government whose only real chance of survival is a continued American presence in the country.  The alternatives are all unpleasant \u2013 a theocratic regime allied to a nuclear Iran, a simple meltdown of the state or the emergence of a new strongman along the lines of Saddam's regime.  Assuming the US can't sign up in perpetuity then one of these outcomes seems likely and those lives and resources will have been squandered for no reason whatsoever [i] .  [i] Francis Fukuyama. \u201cIraq May Be Stable, But The War Was Still A Mistake\u201d. Wall Street Journal. 15 August 2008."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro03a","title":"","text":"His removal provides stability and security not only for Iraq but for the Middle East as a region  The Middle East is a tinder box at the best of times. Having an unpredictable megalomaniac sitting in the middle of it was dangerous, not only for Iraqis but for other peoples in the region. Hussain was a danger to the Middle East as he had proved many times, through his invasion of Iran [i] which was followed only a couple of years later in 1990 by an invasion of Kuwait which sparked the Gulf War [ii] and his use of scud missiles on Israel which was otherwise uninvolved in the conflict. [iii]  It was better to remove this threat than risk being drawn into a multi-player conflict when he next attacked a neighbor.  [i] Pipes, Daniel, \u2018A Border Adrift: Origins of the Iraq-Iran War\u2019, The Iraq-Iran War: Old Conflict, New Weapons, 1983  [ii] BBC on this day, \u20181990: Iraq invades Kuwait\u2019.  [iii] CBC Digital Archives, \u2018Scud vs. Patriot missiles\u2019, 19 January 1991"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-con01b","title":"","text":"The sands of Iraq are as soaked in blood as they are in oil. For once the Iraqis have actually got something out of their mineral wealth, which has otherwise served as a curse for over a century.  There has been a functioning civilization around the Tigis-Euphrates Valleys for at least ten thousand years it was only with the discovery of oil and the importation of the Industrial Age that this began to function as a curse.  For once their oil wealth has worked to their advantage, leading to the removal of a dictator rather than the imposition of one. As the troops step back it seems likely that Iraq has the opportunity to become that rarest of things; a Middle Eastern, oil producing state that is democratic and stable. As a result they can negotiate with oil consuming nations on an even footing."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-con02a","title":"","text":"An entire generation has been turned against the West and fundamentalist clerics have gained enormously in influence  The aftermath of the war has been to create an entire people with no reason to love the West and more than100,000 reasons to hate it as a result of an estimated 105-115000 dead. [i] The country is teetering on the brink of civil war, with the leader of the sunni block having said Iraq is heading towards a \u201csectarian autocracy that carries with it the threat of devastating civil war\u201d [ii] unemployment is rife and the reputation of the \u2018liberators\u2019 lies in tatters [iii] .  It is not hard to see how this combination is likely to lead to chaos in Iraq and insecurity for the West. Millions of young people with a perfectly justifiable grudge, little education, no job and a desire to do something to make things right. [iv]  It is difficult to imagine a situation more likely to produce violence, terrorism and instability.  [i] Iraq Body Count  [ii] Loney, Jim, \u2018Iraq on the brink of \u2018devastating civil war\u2019: Former PM Allawi\u2019, National Post, 28 December 2011  [iii] Malou Innocent. \u201cThe Iraq War: Still a Massive Mistake.\u201d Christian Science Monitor. 5 April 2010.  [iv] Benmelech, Efraim et al., \u2018Economic Conditions and the Quality of Suicide Terrorism\u2019, Journal of Politics, Vol. 74, No. 1, January 2012, pp. 113-128"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-con03a","title":"","text":"Even if the outcome is a stable democratic Iraq, the war was still a costly, illegal, ideologically-driven mistake  The cost of the Iraq war has been astonishing both in the lives and treasure spent and the resentment and chaos stored up for the future. Even if the result had been Switzerland on Sinai, it would still not have been worth it. There have been more than 100,000 Iraqi deaths [i] . It has been the most expensive US war other than WWII in constant 2011 dollars, costing more than $400 billion more than Vietnam, [ii] and what is left is a failed state in the making.  The war was poorly conceived, recklessly enacted and devastatingly badly concluded. The secretary of defense Donald Rumsfeld wanted the war fought \u201con the cheap\u201d using a much smaller force than the pentagon or independent analysts thought was necessary. [iii] With the allies now withdrawing from Iraq the world\u2019s best hope is that the US and its allies will be sufficiently cowed by public opinion as to never try such folly again. That, perhaps, would be a benefit.  [i] Iraq Body Count  [ii] Daggett, Stephen, \u2018Costs of Major U.S. Wars\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 29 June 2010  [iii] Weinraub, Bernard, and Shanker, Thom, \u2018A NATION AT WAR: UNDER FIRE; Rumsfeld\u2019s Design for War Criticized on the Battlefield\u2019, The New York Times, 1 April 2003"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-con01a","title":"","text":"The war was illegal and the removal of Saddam should have been left to the Iraqis Yet another puppet regime is not what the Middle East needs  Events from the Arab Spring have demonstrated, more graphically than anything else could have done, that Arab peoples are more than capable of dealing with their own dictators and do not need to be patronized by fading imperial powers.  Imagine what the situation in Iraq would be now following a genuinely democratic uprising rather than the imposition of yet another puppet regime by the West. Since the creation of the state of Iraq as a modern state by the British in 1932, a succession of rulers, of various stripes of dictatorial ruthlessness, have been brought in to ensure that the oil wealth continues to flow to Washington, London and other foreign capitals.  The allies were never interested in Iraqi freedom, this was yet another grab for oil and the results look set to be the same round of misery and tyranny for the people of Iraq."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbwiww-con02b","title":"","text":"Iraq now has a professionally trained army and police force accountable to a democratically elected government and, through them, to the people.  Unusually among Arab nations the security forces should now act as upholders of the law rather than the personal armies of local and national strong men used to settle grudges and silence dissent.  The torture chambers are closed and the courts are functioning. There is, of course, work still to be done in terms of creating jobs but at least those jobs will go to people on the basis of ability rather than political loyalty.  Iraq still faces problems but is better equipped to deal with them than it has been in a century and more."}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro02b","title":"","text":"A U.S. dovetailing of interests in Central Asia is unlikely to last. September 11th moved Central Asia from being an area of peripheral importance to being a central US interest. [1] There is nothing to say that it will not sink back to being peripheral in the future. The Taliban were both sheltering extremists such as al Qaeda and exporting disorder to surrounding states. [2] As George Bush put it \u201cmake no mistake about it, the new war is not only against the evildoers, themselves; the new war is against those who harbor them and finance them and feed them.\u201d [3] But with al Qaeda diversifying, terrorism no longer so high up the agenda and the United States drawing down in Afghanistan US and Russian interests are set to diverge.  [1] Boris Rumer, The Powers in Central Asia, Survival, vol. 44, no.3, (Autumn, 2002), pp.57-68, pp.63-64.  [2] Rajan Menon, \u2018The New Great Game in Central Asia\u2019, Survival, vol.45, no.2, (Summer, 2003), pp.187-204, p.188.  [3] At O'Hare, President Says \"Get On Board\", Office of the Press Secretary, September 27, 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro02a","title":"","text":"Desire to stabilize Central Asia  September 11th brought a change in how the United States dealt with the autocratic rulers of Central Asia, bringing policy more into line with Moscow\u2019s interests. The US changed from promoting democracy in the region to trying to keep the region stable by supporting the incumbent regimes. For example Uzbekistan was given US political, military and economic support despite human rights violations. [1] There were also secondary US interests that were not related to terrorism such as attempting to limit the production of drugs and the corruption this causes. President Putin recognised that \u201cTerrorism and drugs are absolutely kindred phenomena.\u201d With Russia\u2019s immense drug problems \u201cWe have a conspicuous growth of the share of highly concentrated drugs, and in the first place Afghan heroin\u201d [2] The promotion of \u201cpeace and stability to Afghanistan\u201d and the promised aid to \u201crebuild Afghanistan and the region economically,\u201d were also recognised by George Bush as US interests in the region. [3] There has therefore in the aftermath of 9\/11 been a dovetailing of interests in central Asia and in particular Afghanistan and on the war on drugs.  [1] Lena Jonson, Vladimir Putin and Central Asia The Shaping of Russian Foreign Policy, (I.B. Tauris, London, 2004), p.64.  [2] Speech by President Vladimir Putin at a Meeting of the Security Council of the Russian Federation, Moscow, September 28, 2001  [3] Joint Statement by President George W. Bush and President Vladimir V. Putin on Afghanistan, Office of the Press Secretary, November 13, 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro03b","title":"","text":"Even if both agree that fighting terrorism is in both their interests this is not a reason for cooperation when views about how to tackle the problem divide. While both have used military force in their attempts to defeat terrorism both have criticised the other\u2019s force as being excessive. The United States continued to be critical of the situation in Chechnya where 45000 civilians were killed and 200000 made refugees. [1] September 11th was a gift to Putin as it transformed perceptions of the situation in Chechnya. [2] Chechnya was effectively legitimised by September 11th as it was similar to what the United States would fight in Afghanistan. [3] However the western media continued to be sceptical about terrorism in Russia for example that Chechen militants were the bombers of the apartment blocks, rather than it being rogue elements of the Russian security services, or even originated from the Kremlin. [4] Moreover the two diverged over the need to invade Iraq to fight terrorism; Russia opposed the invasion in the Security Council. In short Russia and the United States cooperate in Afghanistan but this does not translate into wider cooperation against terrorism. Terrorism is also no longer the number one foreign policy priority of the United States which is \u2018pivoting\u2019 to Asia and away from the Middle East. [5]  [1] Kramer, Guerrilla, pp.210, 214.  [2] Claire Bigg, Five Years After 9\/11: The Kremlin's War On Terror, Radio Free Europe, 2006,   [3] Oksana Antonenko, \u2018Putin\u2019s Gamble\u2019, Survival, Vol.43, no.4, (Winter, 2001-02), pp.49-60, p.51  [4] World: Europe, Russia's bombs: Who is to blame? BBC News, September 30, 1999,   [5] Clinton, Hillary, \u2018America\u2019s Pacific Century\u2019, Foreign Policy, November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro01a","title":"","text":"Russian and the US have many areas where they can cooperate.  In 2009 President Obama stated \u201cI believe that on the fundamental issues that will shape this century, Americans and Russians share common interests that form a basis for cooperation.\u201d [1] This makes the real question \u2018how to cooperate\u2019 rather that whether there should be cooperation. Military transparency, particularly on nuclear weapons is necessary. \u201cRussia and the United States matter to one another, and how well or how poorly we manage our interactions matters to the rest of the world. The two of us control more than 90% of the world\u2019s nuclear weapons, and our leadership can do more than anyone else\u2019s to help secure nuclear material globally and prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.\u201d [2] This continued cooperation on nuclear issues in particular has been demonstrated with the signing of the \u2018New START\u2019 treaty on 8th April 2010.  There are many other areas where cooperation between the America and Russia is vital as well. As is demonstrated by the geopolitical situation \u201cRussia sits astride Europe, Asia and the broader Middle East \u2013 three regions whose future will shape American interests for many years to come. And in an era in which common challenges\u201d so cooperation is necessary for the United States, but also for Russia as it would not want the US acting without its cooperation. According to Undersecretary of State Burns there are also many issues \u201cnon-proliferation, climate change, energy security, the struggle against terrorism, and many more \u2013 demand common action more than at any other period in human history, the United States and Russia have a lot more to gain by working together than by working apart.\u201d [3]  [1] Barak Obama, Obama\u2019s Speech in Moscow, President addresses New Economic School graduation, 7\/7\/09,  accessed 20\/4\/11  [2] William J. Burns, The United States and Russia in a New Era: One Year After \"Reset\", Remarks to the Center for American Progress, Washington DC, 14th April 2010,  accessed 10\/4\/11  [3] William J. Burns, The United States and Russia in a New Era: One Year After \"Reset\", Remarks to the Center for American Progress, Washington DC, 14th April 2010,  accessed 10\/4\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro01b","title":"","text":"Even assuming that US-Russian there are many areas where the US and Russia could cooperate this does not mean that it will happen. Cooperation between the United States and Russia would have been even more vital to the world at the end of World War two when both were superpowers and both had common interests in keeping Germany and Japan down yet this did not lay the ground for cooperation between the two. Instead there was a forty year cold war. Now whole Burns may consider the challenges in Europe, Asia and the Middle East to be common interests Russia may instead choose to cooperate with others such as China and consider US interests to be counter to its own"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro04b","title":"","text":"Although the United States would like to get its hands on Russia\u2019s vast economic resources it is not a good place to do business. Russia was accused of being a \u2018virtual mafia state\u2019 by US diplomats in a wikileaked cable. [1] According to then US Ambassador to Russia Russia needs to \u201csupport the \u201csanctity\u201d of commercial contracts and agreements; create a \u201ctransparent, stable and enforceable\u201d tax and license regime; improve and enforce intellectual property rights protection; act decisively on \u201cpervasive bureaucratic red tape and over-regulation\u201d; bring corruption under control; reverse the \u201cworrying trend\u201d in Russia towards control over the mass media\u201d [2] before it becomes a place that the US can really do lots of business with. The economy may therefore be more of a source of conflict than cooperation as The United States tries to push Russia into being more open and less corrupt against the wishes of the Russian elites.  [1] Luke Harding, WikiLeaks cables condemn Russia as \u2018mafia state\u2019, guardian.co.uk 1\/12\/10,  accessed 28\/4\/11  [2] Alexander Vershbow, \u201cOpportunities in U.S.-Russian Economic Relations,\u201d United States Embassy Moscow, 22 May 2003."}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro03a","title":"","text":"Shared experience of terrorism  A shared experience of terrorism means both have long term reasons to cooperate against it. Russia already had experience with terrorism with a string of bombings in the summer of 1999 which the Russian government blamed on the Chechans. [1] As a result of this on-going Chechen terrorism the Russian government was keen to cooperate in any counter terrorist effort there may be. Russian officials such as Sergey Ordzhonikidze spoke of the grief they shared with the American people \u201cThe hearts of Russians who know first-hand what terrorism is like are also filled with grief for all those who fell victim to terrorism in other parts of the planet.\u201d [2] President Putin himself agreed with this immediately after the 9\/11 attacks \u201c[Russia is] deeply shocked by the reports of the tragic events that occurred today in the United States. The barbaric terrorist attacks against innocent people evoked the anger and indignation of the Russian people.\u201d [3] Both the terrorists who had been attacking Russia and the 9\/11 attackers were motivated by an extremist version of Islam, this gives both Russia and the United States a mutual interest in combating this terrorism wherever it may be occurring. This continues to give both Russia and the United States an interest in solving the problems that create terrorism such as the Israel-Palestinian conflict and keeping the Taliban out of power in Afghanistan. That both understand the other\u2019s motivations makes this link much stronger.  [1] Mark Kramer, Guerrilla Warfare, Counter Insurgency and Terrorism in the North Caucuses: The Military Dimension of the Russia-Chechen conflict, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.57, No.2, (March, 2005), pp.209-290, p.212  [2] Statement by Sergey A. Ordzhonikidze, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, on agenda item 166 of the 56 session of the UN General Assembly: Measures to eliminate international terrorism New York, October 1, 2001  [3] Russian President Vladimir Putin telegram of condolence to US President George W. Bush, September 11, 2001,  accessed 20\/4\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro04a","title":"","text":"Economically compatible  There is a huge potential for economic cooperation between two of the biggest states in the world. Russia desperately needs investment and technology to modernize its economy. The USA can offer this and more. It has helped Russia to get into the World Trade Organization, [1] to integrate it into the global economy, put pressure on Russian companies to drop their corrupt ways and adopt modern modes of operation. Russia also has plenty of chips to bring to the table. Pumping seven million barrels a day, Russia is second only to the Saudis in oil production. The Bush team saw Russia as a source for crude oil should U.S. relations with Saudi Arabia deteriorate, this is why at the Moscow summit in May, 2002, Bush and Putin launched \u201can energy dialogue to strengthen the overall relationship between our countries, and to enhance global energy security, international strategic stability, and regional cooperation.\u201d [2] The United States has invested whenever it could in Russian oil and gas despite the difficulties private companies like Yukos have faced with government tax demands. For example in October 2001, Exxon Mobil announced that the Sakhalin 1 project was profitable and outlined the company\u2019s plans to invest $30 billion by 2030. [3]  [1] Kirk, \u2018Full Statement by Ambassador Kirk Regarding the Invitation to Russia to Join the WTO\u2019, Office of the United States Trade Representative, December 2011,   [2] William Ratliff, \u2018Russia\u2019s Oil in America\u2019s Future: Policy, Pipelines, and Prospects, Hoover Institution, 1\/9\/03,  accessed 04\/5\/11  [3] Tamara Troyakova and Elizabeth Wishnick, \u2018Integration or Disintegration: Challenges for the Russian Far East in the Asia-Pacific Region, p.18.  accessed 6\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con03b","title":"","text":"\"Kupchan: Russian Opposition to Kosovo Independence \u2018Perplexing\u2019\". (Charles A. Kupchan, CFR Senior Fellow for Europe Studies). US Council on Foreign Relations. December 18, 2007 - \"But on the question of Kosovo, direct Russian interests are difficult to discern, and therefore it appears that Russia\u2019s backing of Serbia is part of a more muscular Russian policy, and a desire to stand up to the United States and the EU across the board. The problem with Russia\u2019s position is that it has the potential to lead to bloodshed.  The Russian support for Serbia\u2019s unwillingness to sign off on Kosovo\u2019s independence makes it more likely that Serbs still in Kosovo will not accept a declaration of independence. It makes it likely that the northern part of Kosovo might secede from an independent Kosovo. It makes it more likely that paramilitaries in Serbia might resort to violence if this process moves forward. In that sense, the Russian position is quite problematic. And it remains to be seen whether the Russians follow through on their hints that they might recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia in retaliation for Kosovo\u2019s independence. Some even suggest that they might send troops into the southern military districts of the Russian Federation, possibly precipitating violence in Georgia.\""}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con01b","title":"","text":"This is a problem with perception, not with the fundamentals on the ground. The United States can reassure Russia that missile defence and the expansion of NATO is not directed at Russia. NATO has accommodated Russia by not expanding into the Former Soviet Union (excluding the Baltic states) so there is little reason for Russia to feel encircled. On Missile defence President Obama has also listened to Russian concerns and has scaled it back. Interceptors will be on warships rather than in former Warsaw bloc countries Poland and Czech Republic this helps to show Russia that the focus of missile defence really is on defending against Iran and North Korea rather than Russia. [1]  [1] Sanger, David E., and Broad, William J., \u2018New Missile Shield Strategy Scales Back Reagan\u2019s Vision\u2019, The New York Times, 17 September 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con02a","title":"","text":"Russian and US strategic interests conflict  Contradictions between Russian and U.S. interests will always exist. The United States is not Russia's ally, and it can be confidently predicted that it never will be. While politically the two countries sometimes temporarily need each other to face global challenges, as long as it does not harm them politically or economically, militarily they will remain positioned as strategic enemies. NATO is a good example of this. While the United States believes NATO brings peace and stability Russia feels directly threatened by NATO expansion into states that were once a part of the Soviet Union such as the Baltic states or the possibility of expansion to Ukraine or Georgia. [1] There have even been suggestions that Russia\u2019s 2008 conflict with Georgia was to prevent Georgia proceeding down the path to NATO membership with US encouragement. A view partially substantiated by President Putin himself \u201cit has become absolutely clear that the desire of Georgian authorities to join NATO is motivated not by their ambition to form part of a global security system and contribute to the strengthening of international peace. Tbilisi's NATO bid is determined by other considerations, namely an attempt to embroil other nations in its bloody undertakings\u2026 from a legal point of view, Russia's actions in South Ossetia are totally legitimate.\u201d [2] As a result America's relations with Russia will never resemble its relations with France or Great Britain. U.S. strategic nuclear planning will always envisage a potential Russian nuclear attack on targets on American territory. Likewise, Russian planners will not rule out an American attack on Russian targets.  [1] Neuger, James G., and Alison, Sebastian, \u2018Putin Says NATO Expansion Is Direct Threat to Russia (Update 2)\u2019, Bloomberg, 4 April 2008,   [2] President Putting quoted in \u2018South Ossetia \u2013 The Stakes\u2019, globalsecurity.org,  accessed 27\/4\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con05a","title":"","text":"Russian and US economic interests conflict  Good economic relations are possible only as long as long as The USA believes that Russia is genuinely trying hard to bring its economy into line with the Western world. Both Putin and Medvedev have emphasised that the country\u2019s economic interests will always determine Russian foreign policy. Most particularly foreign policy has been driven by oil and natural gas. This has involved a conflict with the United States over the construction of pipelines. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil and the Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum (BTE) gas pipelines are specifically built to diversify European energy supplies away from dependence on Russia but were only built due to unequivocal US support. [1] Building these pipelines is directly against Russian interests. Russian economic interests include, amongst other things, close trade links with autocratic regimes, particularly in the former USSR, and exporting weapons and nuclear technology to China and Iran. In the example of Iran Russian economic interests have meant that Russia has blocked US efforts to get sanctions. [2] An area of particular conflict with the US is the Russian building of an $800million nuclear reactor at Bushehr. Similarly Russia sold Iran $1.7 billion of arms between 2002 and 2005 including anti-aircraft systems so making any potential attack on Iranian nuclear facilities by the United States much more dangerous. [3] Thus, close economic cooperation between two states whose economies are driven by very different goals is improbable.  [1] \u2018Pipeline politics? Russia and the EU\u2019s battle for energy\u2019, EurActive.com, 20\/8\/09,  accessed 6\/5\/11  [2] Tony Karon, \u2018Iran Diplomacy: Why Russia and China Won\u2019t Play Ball\u2019, Time, 22\/3\/06,  accessed 6\/5\/11  [3] Mark N. Katz, \u2018Russian-Iranian Relations: Functional Dysfunction\u2019, Mideast Monitor, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2009,  accessed 6\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con03a","title":"","text":"Russia\u2019s near abroad  Russia and the US have a fundamental divergence over the notion of spheres of interest. Russia only accepts any other country playing a role in its near abroad very grudgingly and will attempt to get other great powers out whenever possible. In the aftermath of 9\/11 Russia could not prevent American intervention in Central Asia therefore it was sensible to make sure it was co-opted to serve Russia\u2019s own interests, namely to be against international terrorism, rather than being directed against Russia herself. By doing so Russia could preserve her influence in the region. As America was willing to take on the costs of maintaining the security of the region Russia could retrench and cut costs. [1] Yet Russia began to force the US out as soon as was possible, for example forcing the closure of a U.S. airbase in Kyrgyzstan. [2]  Russia has sometimes seemed to purposefully take the opposite side to the US in Eastern Europe. An example of this occurring was over the possibility of independence for Kosovo almost a decade after the conflict that forced Serbian forces out of the country. According to Charles Kupchan \u201con the question of Kosovo, direct Russian interests are difficult to discern, and therefore it appears that Russia\u2019s backing of Serbia is part of a more muscular Russian policy, and a desire to stand up to the United States and the EU across the board.\u201d [3]  [1] Lena Jonson, Vladimir Putin and Central Asia The Shaping of Russian Foreign Policy, (I.B. Tauris, London, 2004), pp.172-174  [2] Schwirtz, Michael, \u2018Kyrgyzstan Insists U.S. Base to Close\u2019, The New York Times, 11 June 2009,   [3] Bernard Gwertzmann, \u2018Interview Kupchan: Russian Opposition to Kosovo Independence \u2018Perplexing\u2019, Foreign Affairs, Dec 2007,  accessed 27\/4\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con05b","title":"","text":"No countries economic interests exactly match yet that does not lead to conflict. The European Union and United States have had several trade wars, for example over the EU giving preferential treatment for Caribbean producers of Bananas, [1] but are still close partners in NATO. The reset is having an effect in bringing Russia and the US closer together economically, Vice President Biden argues that trade between the two countries has a long way to grow and economic interests will get closer. \u201cOne way to realize the potential of that relationship is to bring Russia more fully into the international trading system. That is why we strongly support Russia\u2019s effort to join the World Trade Organization.\u201d [2] This would reduce and help manage any economic conflicts between both powers meaning that they will not get in the way of good relations.  [1] Business:The Economy WTO approves banana sanctions, BBC News, 19\/4\/99,  accessed 6\/5\/11  [2] Joseph R. Biden Jr., \u2018The Next Steps in the U.S.-Russia Reset\u2019, The New York Times, 13\/3\/11,  accessed 6\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con01a","title":"","text":"Missile defence shows Russia is still suspicious of U.S. motives.  Russia has been suspicious of most US actions fearing they are directed against Russia. This suspicion is in part born out of the cold war, Russia is much weaker than the USSR was and is worried about any US expansionism. The expansion of NATO to include former Soviet states such as Lithuania has resulted in one Russian news organisation declaring \"Generations of Russians feel betrayed by NATO's expansion.\" [1] The United States\u2019 missile defence proposals have been a continuing sore in relations. In 2007 then President Putin compared the proposed siting of anti-ballistic missile systems in Eastern Europe with the Cuban Missile Crisis, \u201cThe situation is quite similar technologically for us. We have withdrawn the remains of bases from Vietnam and Cuba, but such threats are being created near our borders.\u201d [2] It is clear from this that Russia will not be able to cooperate with many things that the United States considered to necessary. Things like NATO expansion and missile defense which the United States considers to be defensive Russia believes are aimed at Russia, either to encircle it or to negate Russia\u2019s main strategic asset; its nuclear arsenal.  [1] Russia Today \"Generations of Russians feel betrayed by NATO's expansion\"   [2] President Putting quoted in Philip Coyle and Victoria Samson, \u2018Missile Defence Malfunction: Why the Proposed U.S. Missile Defences in Europe Will Not Work, Ethics & International Affairs, Vol.22, No.1, (Spring 2008),  accessed 6\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-aeghbltcbra-con02b","title":"","text":"The strategic interests of Russia and the west will not always conflict. In the post-Cold War, post-September 11 world, the political presumptions that require a substantial reliance on nuclear forces do not exist, and, in fact, cannot exist. 9\/11 showed that national interests can change. The terrorist attacks instantly moved terrorism to the top of the US security agenda involving recognition of it as a global and military problem. [1] Russia and the United States now must jointly face a host of wider problems, from environmental degradation to the growth of ethnic violence, and the challenges to nation-states posed by globalization. Global problems are not decreasing, but, quite the opposite, there are new ones looming on the horizon; this will forge a long-term close economic, scientific and political relationship between Russia and the United States. The National Security Strategy of September 2002 recognised that closer relations are built on common national interests; They [Russian policy makers] understand, increasingly, that Cold War approaches do not serve their national interests and that Russian and American strategic interests overlap in many areas. [2]  [1] Iver B. Neumann, \u2018Russia as a Great Power\u2019, in Jakob Hedenskog et al (eds.) Russia as a Great Power Dimensions of Security under Putin, (Routledge, London, 2005), pp.13-28, p.18  [2] The National Security Strategy of the United States of America September 2002,  pp.26-27. Accessed 20\/4\/11"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-pro02b","title":"","text":"International negotiations take place with many organisations that are not states in their own right. When the leaders of nations meet with trades union or corporations, pressure groups or networks it does not endow those bodies with statehood.  Likewise, regional governments and authorities routinely meet with national and international representatives without requiring representation at the UN. If Palestine were to be given voting rights at the General Assembly then one might as well give them to the International Olympic Committee, which already enjoys permanent observer status [i] .  Put simply, having global recognition does not make an entity a state.  [i] \u201cUN General Assembly Approves Olympic truce for London Games 2012\u201d. 17 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-pro02a","title":"","text":"Palestine is a legal entity and deserves to have its voice heard on an equal footing with Israel  Nobody can dispute that Palestine functions as a nation, its citizens are governed within the jurisdiction of a government that is one of the closest observed in the world. Abbas has as much right to speak for the Palestinian people as any other world leader does for theirs and that reality is reflected in the fact that he and other members of his administration negotiate with other nation states and international bodies. Palestine is for example a member of numerous International Organisations the most recent of which is joining UNESCO in November 2011. [i] If Palestine can be treated as a state for the purposes of signing international treaties and negotiating with the Israeli [ii] and other governments then it is only sensible that it should be awarded the benefits and status that come with statehood, of which recognition by the UN is one.  [i] UNESCO, \u2018Palestine\u2019, unesco.org, 2011,   [ii] Jewish Virtual Library, \u2018Israel-PLO Recognition\u2019, 9 September 1993,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-pro03b","title":"","text":"In law this point was settled with the creation of the state of Israel. The map of the Middle East, as with much of the rest of the world, was redrawn at the end of the second world war. The resulting nations, many of them newly created following the collapse of the European empires, formed the constituent members of the UN. The very fact that the Palestinians have successfully mounted their case to the international community in a way that, for example, Kurds or Australian Aboriginals have not, would suggest that they have no need of a seat at the UN to be heard."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-pro01a","title":"","text":"Palestine has its own infrastructure and government and is, in all meaningful ways a state  In any meaningful way Palestine is a state. It may well be one at war with a neighbour and in dispute over its boundaries but the only reason it has yet to be recognised is that it would be politically inconvenient for the US, Israel and their allies.  There are plenty of nations that do not function in line with European and North American concepts of statehood, Afghanistan for example, however they take their seat at the UN and add their voice to the choir of nations [i] . There are even other member states that are not recognised by every other member state, Israel is not recognised by 33 UN members [ii] and the People\u2019s Republic of China is not recognised by 23 UN members. [iii]  [i] John Quigley. \u201cStatehood for Palestine: International law in the Middle East Conflict\u201d. Cambridge University Press, 2010.  [ii] Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, \u2018Background Note: Israel\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 10 December 2010,   [iii] Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, \u2018Background Note: China\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 6 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-pro01b","title":"","text":"Regardless of what people may wish, Palestine is not a state. It is probably the most recognised issue in twentieth century politics that the statehood of Palestine is a matter of dispute. The United Nations is the forum for those states that recognise each other\u2019s existence to debate matters of mutual concern, it is not an opportunity from grandstanding and point-scoring over matters that are still under dispute.  Absolutely any group can design a flag, appoint a president, elect a congress, print stamps and undertake all sorts of similar activities, that does not make them a state. When squatters in a London road in 1977anounced that they were declaring a unilateral declaration of independence from the UK [i] they were not recognised as a state just because they wanted to be. Although the stakes are much higher in the case of Palestine, the principle is the same.  [i] Wikipedia. Frestonia."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-pro03a","title":"","text":"The issue of Israel\/Palestine has been a major one for the UN for sixty years, it is simply unfair that one of the parties represented and the other one is not  The territory claimed by both the state of Israel and the state of Palestine is contested. These matters should be settled by the UN but this is not possible when one of the parties is represented but the other is not. It is simply against the principles of natural justice \u2013 let alone the precepts of international law \u2013 for only one party in any dispute to be fully represented where the other is not.  Essentially, this is a fraud that has been perpetrated for over sixty years, in the interests of politics, justice has been ignored; Israel has been given recognition when Palestine has not, which body has the right to speak for the populace of that disputed territory should not be a matter imposed from outside but for the inhabitants of the land itself."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-con03b","title":"","text":"Palestine is a unique case; the UN removed its statehood during the creation of Israel. They are, perhaps ironically, Ishmael and Isaac to the UN\u2019s Abraham. One recognised and the other shunned.  The issue of statehood for Palestine was a misstep created at the inception of the UN as fallout of the decline of the British Empire and the emergence of American hegemony. If this were an entirely new issue of the world scene then many of the caveats raised by opposition would by justifiable but the reality is that this is simply a case of clearing up an old injustice."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-con01b","title":"","text":"Exactly the same point could be made of any number of member states. It is highly questionable as to whether the authority of the central governments of Afghanistan or Pakistan extends into much of their territory, it certainly doesn\u2019t in Iraq or many of the nations in central Africa.  Much of Latin America is under the control of warlords and drug barons but nobody would suggest that they should be represented at the United Nations. Effective political control is ceded to devolved authorities in many nations but they are not recognised as states. Political confusion is no reason no ignore the existence of a state."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-con02a","title":"","text":"The Palestinian cause has no shortage of advocates in the UN this would add nothing to the discussion  The entire Arab League is already perfectly capable of speaking for the Palestinian cause in the United Nations. There are established nations whose leaders have not addressed a full meeting of the General Assembly as frequently as leaders of the Palestinian cause, even the leader of the PLO, Mahmoud Abbas has addressed the General Assembly as he did in September 2011. [i] It is the only geo-political issue that routinely impacts upon the conduct of the elections of other nations, the plight of the Palestinian issue is the stuff of newspaper headlines around the world while other, arguably more serious, concerns go unvoiced. It is difficult to see how admitting Palestine as a member state would bring any more focus to the issue in practical terms.  [i] \u2018Full transcript of Abbas speech at UN General Assembly\u2019, Haaretz.com, 23 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-con03a","title":"","text":"The UN has historically recognised statehood when nations achieve it, not when they ask for it or wish it  Establishing statehood is a matter for international law and, as things stand, Palestine is not a state. Since 1990, 34 new countries have been created \u2013 mostly as a result of the collapse of the former USSR [i] . Palestine is not among them and does not look set to be any time soon. There have been many separatist movements in countries all over the world from the Basque region to Aceh. These often have similarly legitimate grievances as the Palestinians but the UN does not recognise them. Any one of those nations, or at least movements within them may have wished for recognition by the UN but they did not receive it because the UN is bound to recognise what is, not what might be.  [i] Matt Rosenburg. \u201cNew Countries of the world\u201d. 10 July 2011. About.com"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-con01a","title":"","text":"The Gaza Strip and West Bank cannot agree on a government so who should the UN recognise, Hamas or Fatah?  If the Palestinian people cannot agree on who speaks for them then what is the rest of the world to make of the situation? One of the defining attributes of statehood is a single, stable government that can, in some meaningful way, be said to have control over the lands within that designated territory. This was set out in article 1 of the Montevideo convention that a state should possess \u201ca ) a permanent population; b ) a defined territory; c ) government; and d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.\u201d [i] Only the permanent population criteria is unequivocally met by Palestine.  The Palestinian Authority can barely be said to speak for itself let alone the people it claims to represent. By recognizing one faction over another, the UN would be taking sides in an internal, domestic affair. Abbas is not asking the UN to recognize Palestine, he\u2019s asking it to recognize him rather than Hamas.  [i] International Conference of American States, \u2018Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States\u2019, 26 December 1933,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmetpssbru-con02b","title":"","text":"The United Nations fulfills a number of roles but perhaps its foremost function is to act as an arbiter in international disputes. To do that effectively it needs to reflect the opinions of the international community and deal in realpolitik. As things stand that would make it impossible for the organisation to take what would be seen as a partisan stance.  Recognising the existence of a state which could at best be described as aspirational, and at worst as a fantasy, would put an intolerable burden on the UN\u2019s ability to act as an impartial agent in negotiations."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro02b","title":"","text":"The United States has far too often relied on the use of force and coercion. For much of the Cold War and thereafter, America covertly and openly helped overthrow and wage war on governments that it perceived to be hostile to its national interests. From Latin America to Southeast Asia and the Middle East, coercion and war has often been America\u2019s primary foreign policy tool. Moreover, this continues to the present time. Not only has Iraq highlighted America\u2019s propensity to use force, but even the more internationally backed \u201cwar on terror\u201d has featured unilateralism and controversial military practices such as \u201cdrone attacks,\u201d which many say are counterproductive and undermine the importance of a law-based rather than militaristic approach to tackling terrorism.[6] Even in nominally \u2018multilateral\u2019 bodies such as the WTO and the UN, the US has often gotten its way through bribes, backdoor deals and coercive measures.[7]  [6] Howard, Michael (2002), \u2018What\u2019s in a name? How to Fight Terrorism\u2019, Foreign Affairs, January\/February 2002.  [7] Wade, Robert (2004), \u2018The Ringmaster of Doha\u2019, New Left Review 25, January-February 2004."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro02a","title":"","text":"The US had led the world through consent rather than coercion.  An important part of the liberal international order the US maintains is that power is diffused and is based on negotiation, strategic bargaining and the exercise of power through mutually-agreed rules and institutions. Globalization and the liberalization of the global economy has been actively supported by many nations in the world, some of whom\u2014such as China, Japan, and Germany\u2014have even used it to compete economically with the United States. Other states have also enjoyed significant decision-making powers in international institutions. For example, the World Trade Organization (WTO) decisions are made on the basis of a \u2018one country, one vote\u2019 system.[4] This consensus-based exercise of power has provided the US with a relatively large degree of legitimacy in world opinion, often outstripping the global approval ratings of other major powers.[5]  [4] Ikenberry, G. John. \u201cIllusions of Empire: Defining the New American Order\u201d, Foreign Affairs, March\/April (2004), 144-156  Mark Beeson & Richard Higgott (2005), \u201cHegemony , Institutionalism and US Foreign Policy : theory and practice in comparative historical perspective\u201d Third Word Quarterly , Vol.26, No. 7.  [5] Gallup, \u2018Worldwide Appeal of U.S. Leadership Tops Major Powers\u2019, March 24, 2011.  , Accessed 12th May 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro03b","title":"","text":"Rather than promoting a progressive global agenda, the United States has often undermined effective cooperation and coordination between countries as a result of unilateralist and self-interested policies. Thus, it has often regarded the United Nations as an ineffectual rival to its national interests \u2013 leading the country to disasters such as the Iraq war and undemocratically vetoing internationally-backed initiatives in the UN Security Council, such as those critical of Israel\u2019s occupation of the West Bank. Rather than showing leadership, the US has also obstructed international efforts to tackle climate change, as seen by George W. Bush\u2019s refusal to sign the Kyoto Protocol and President Obama\u2019s signing of the deeply flawed Copenhagen Accord.[8]. Many instances have also shown America\u2019s willingness to pursue its own commercial interests at the expense of vital international issues. One example of this was George W. Bush\u2019s protectionism in protecting the \u201cintellectual property rights\u201d and the high price of drugs (including Anti-AIDS drugs) of US pharmaceuticals, which damaged the international fight against AIDS.  Furthermore with regards to international terrorism, the UNSC worked through the Counter Terrorism Committee (CTC) which had a minor US presence and was set up to tackle terrorism from the root causes rather than using military might.  [8] On the Copenhagen Accord, see The Independent, \u2018Obama\u2019s climate accord fails the test\u2019, 19 December, 2009.  , Accessed 13th May, 2011.  [9] Mann, Michael (2003), Incoherent Empire, (London), pp. 58-59.  Mokhiber, Russell and Robert Weissman (2003), \u2018The Two Faces of Bush in Africa\u2019, Common Dreams, July 2003.  , Accessed 14th May 2011.  United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro05a","title":"","text":"The US has used its power to promote democracy, human rights and international law  The collapse of the Soviet Union and the victory of liberal democracy over communism have provided the US with more impetus to actively promote democracy, human rights and international norms and law. Under President Clinton, the Leahy Amendment to the Defense Appropriations Act of 1998 and the Religious Persecution Act of the same year demonstrated this change in priorities. Democracy promotion also became a core element of George W. Bush\u2019s National Security Strategy of 2002, and has been a key motivating factor in President Obama\u2019s response to the Arab Spring, where the US has supported democratic forces against dictators such as Hosni Mubarak of Egypt and Colonel Gaddafi of Libya. The US under Obama has also provided leadership in the UN Human Rights Council[12], and holds governments to account through The Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour (DRL), which also forges and maintains global partnerships to promote human rights and democracy.[13]  [12] Brookings, \u2018U.S. Leadership at the U.N. Human Rights Council: A Foreign Policy at Brookings Event\u2019, February 2010.  , Accessed 14th May 2011.  [13] U.S. Department of State, \u2018Human Rights\u2019.  , Accessed 14th May 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro01a","title":"","text":"The US used its power to establish a set of open global institutions which have been broadly beneficial.  As Robert Cox argues, American hegemony has been successful because the US has been able to maintain its dominance through a high level of global consensus by establishing a broadly accepted rules-based liberal international economic order, and has been able to shape other states\u2019 preferences in a manner that has awarded sufficient benefits to these states while ensuring the dominance of the US.[1] This has been what John Ikenberry terms America\u2019s \u201cliberal grand strategy,\u201d* which has enabled the US to construct a relatively benign and highly institutionalized multilateral system based on open markets, free trade, and the provision of \u2018public goods\u2019, such as collective security and an open international trading regime.[2] This has allowed other countries to prosper economically and also in terms of their security; the rebuilding and success of Japan and Germany provides important examples of this.  [1] Cox, Robert. \u2018Gramsci, Hegemony and International Relations, Millennium, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1983, pp. 162-175.,  Cox, Robert. \u201cSocial Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory\u201d, in R.O. Keohane (ed.) NeoRealism and its Critics, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986)  Where the US has used military force, it has largely done it to uphold human rights and international peace, security and prosperity.[2] Ikenberry, John G. (2002), \u2018America\u2019s Imperial Ambition\u2019, Foreign Affairs, September\/October 2002.  *liberal grand strategy is a terminology that describes the USA\u2019s long term policy goal- to promote its system to other countries."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the liberal order the US has constructed has benefited its allied economies in Western Europe and Japan, for much of the developing world the benefits have been few and far between. For example, many African and Asian nations have suffered tremendously from the spread of free market capitalism and the \u201cstructural adjustment programmes\u201d imposed on them by the American-dominated International Monetary Fund (IMF). Rather than helping poorer nations, the West (led by America) has often practiced selective freed trade, whereby the markets of the developing world were opened up to foreign companies as the United States and its Western allies subsidized and provided unfair advantages to sectors of their own economies that were not as globally competitive, such as farming. This crippled the agricultural industries of many developing countries and made them dependent on importing food, directly contributing to many recent food crises. What is more, the US and its allies have manipulatively achieved this through nominally \u201cmultilateral\u201d and \u201cfair\u201d institutions such as the IMF, the World Bank and the World Trade Organization (WTO).[3] Many countries have not received the benefits of this so-called \u201cbenign\u201d open, liberal order.  [3] Bello, Walden (2005). Dilemmas of Domination: The Unmaking of the American Empire, (London),  Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2002), Globalization and its Discontents (New York: W.W. Norton)."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro04b","title":"","text":"On closer inspection, it is evident that while many of these interventions espoused humanitarian principles, they were primarily designed to advance US strategic and geopolitical interests. Critics have been right to argue that the Iraq war was fought to gain strategic control of Middle Eastern oil and to dismantle the state-dominated economic structures of the region. No Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) were found in Iraq, and overthrowing a dictatorship could not have been a primary consideration, given America\u2019s support for authoritarian regimes and dictatorships across the world (such as Uzbekistan and Saudi Arabia). These contradictions can be seen in the recent Libya conflict, where the US suddenly endorsed regime change despite years of supporting Colonel Gaddafi. Other \u2018humanitarian interventions\u2019 have similarly been motivated in large part by self-interested strategic and geopolitical considerations."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro03a","title":"","text":"The US has provided global leadership in tackling important issues such as terrorism.  America\u2019s hegemonic power has enabled it to provide global leadership on important international concerns. Because the US is affected by the same problems as many other countries in an increasingly inter-connected world (for example climate change, terrorism, epidemics, oil crises, economic recessions, the illegal drugs trade, and nuclear proliferation) it is in its interests to promote policies that are broadly globally beneficial. The US is able to utilize its considerable economic and diplomatic clout to convince its allies to back important multilateral international initiatives. One example of this was George W. Bush\u2019s initiative on HIV\/AIDS in the developing world. The United States has also used its power to unify the global effort against terrorism and provide collective security and considerable aid to various nations, as well as leading the international effort to prevent failed or weak states (such as Somalia and Yemen) falling into the hands of terrorists."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-pro04a","title":"","text":"Where the US has used military force, it has largely done it to uphold human rights and international peace, security and prosperity.  Examining the use of American military power following the end of the Cold War shows us that the United States has pursued an agenda of tackling serious threats to international peace, security and prosperity\u2014whether they emanate from rogue states and sponsors of terrorism, oppressive dictators, or war criminals. Humanitarian interventions in Yugoslavia, Iraq, Afghanistan and most recently Libya highlight the importance of these considerations to America\u2019s military strategy, and the willingness of the US to put aside narrow geopolitical interests in order to pursue humanitarian goals, to the benefit of much of the world.[10] America\u2019s military dominance and \u2018command of the commons\u2019 (sea, space and air) has also allowed it to provide global collective goods and to maintain an open international order, which is vital to international prosperity.[11]  [10] Rieff, David (2003), \u201cLiberal Imperialism\u201d, in Andrew Bacevich (ed.), The Imperial Tense: Prospects and Problems of American Empire, (Chicago, 2003)  [11] Posen, Barry R. \u201cCommand of the Commons: The Military Foundation of U.S. Hegemony\u201d, International Security, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Summer 2003), pp. 5-46."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con03b","title":"","text":"This argument misleadingly presents the nature of US influence as essentially coercive. In fact, it is America\u2019s \u201csoft power\u201d\u2014or the ability to get what it wants through the attractiveness of its culture and political institutions\u2014that has been instrumental in spreading American values.[25] People across the globe\u2014from Singapore, South Korea, and Japan to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait\u2014are fascinated by and have emulated what John Agnew terms America\u2019s \u201cMarket-Place society,\u201d defined by mass consumerism, the influx of American cultural products and the displacement of traditional social standards.[26] In this context, arguments of \u201ccultural imperialism\u201d exaggerate the level of control the US has over the process, as well as the extent to which conflicts arise.[27] The desirability of American culture and institutions in the eyes of many of the world\u2019s people ensures that soft, and not hard, power has universalized American values.  [25] Nye, Joseph (2004), \u201cSoft Power and American Foreign Policy\u201d, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 119, No. 2 (2004), pp. 255-270.  Nye, Joseph (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Basic Books, 2004)  [26] Agnew, John (2005). Hegemony: The New Shape of Global Power (Philadelphia)  [27] Sardar, Ziauddin and Merryl Wyn Davies (2003), Why Do People Hate America? (Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd.), p. 130."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con01b","title":"","text":"US support for democracy has been at best hugely inconsistent, and at worst criminally apathetic. During the Cold War, the US overthrew various democratic governments (for example Iran and Guatemala in the 1950s) and supported dictatorial regimes. This has continued into the post-Cold War era, as the US support for the coup attempt against President Hugo Chavez of Venezuela in 2002 demonstrated. While the US professes support for democratic forces in the Arab world, it has also continued to give vital assistance to the strategically-important dictatorships of the Gulf, primarily Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, which have been responsible for grave human rights abuses in response to recent peaceful protests[14].The US also continues to support states such as Israel which violate international law, and also routinely flouts international law itself\u2014as seen by wars such as Iraq, the treatment of terrorist suspects and breaches of the Geneva convention [15], the undermining of the International Criminal Court (ICC), and the violation of countries\u2019 sovereignty with \u2018drone\u2019 attacks. Clinical realpolitik, and not the pursuit of democracy and human rights, determines the use of US power.  [14] Goodman, Amy (2011), \u2018Barack Obama must speak out on Bahrain bloodshed\u2019, The Guardian: Comment is Free, April 2011.  , Accessed 14th May 2011.The US is not a hegemon at all, but an imperialist power-an empire.  [15] Chatham House, \u2018Extraordinary Rendition: A summary of the Chatham House International Law Discussion\u2019.  , Accessed 15th May 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con02a","title":"","text":"The US has used its power to undermine the sovereignty of other nations, often through coercion and violence.  As Samuel P. Huntington has written, the US suffers from \u201cbenign hegemon syndrome.\u201d[19] Its self-perception as an exceptional, virtuous superpower is at odds with the violent history of its foreign policy. Since the end of World War II, it has sought to overthrow over forty governments, and to destroy numerous populist-nationalist movements.[20] Its interventions in other countries have substantially increased following the end of the Cold War and the absence of a rival power balancing against it; one study has shown a 60% increase with an average of two interventions per year.[21] In addition, the US often interferes in the internal affairs of other countries; including through perverting elections, applying sanctions to change behaviour or influence domestic politics, propping up opposition forces, and even trying to assassinate foreign leaders (for example, Fidel Castro and more recently, arguably, Colonel Gaddafi). Therefore, while it may see itself as a benign hegemon, many see America as a rogue superpower.  [19] Huntington, Samuel P. (1999), \u2018The Lonely Superpower\u2019, Foreign Affairs, March\/April 1999.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011.  [20] Blum, William (2002). Rogue State: A Guide to the World\u2019s Only Superpower (London).  [21] In Sardar, Ziauddin and Merryl Wyn Davies (2003), Why Do People Hate America? (Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd.), pp. 67-68."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con05a","title":"","text":"The US has established an unjust system of unequal relationships in order to exploit developing countries.  While Western Europe and Japan may have been awarded a privileged position in the international order the US constructed following the end of World War II, developing countries were incorporated as \u201csubordinate elements in the global capitalist system.\u201d[32] The global South has in effect been controlled and exploited through nominally multilateral institutions such as the IMF, the World Bank and WTO, which are designed in a way that provides wealthy countries with de facto control. The United States has also set up a \u201chub and spoke\u201d system to deal with subordinate states, which is built around bilateralism, client states, \u2018special relationships\u2019, and patronage-oriented foreign policy, which serves to translate America\u2019s power advantage into concessions from other states.[33] When subordinate states have failed to comply, they have often faced US intervention\u2014from Guatemala, to Iran, to Chile, to Iraq. Through this system of unequal relationships the US has gained access to markets for its corporations, and enjoyed geopolitical and political control of key strategic areas. Developing countries on the other hand have often faced economic stagnation, food crises, and various attacks on their sovereignty.  [32] Bello, Walden (2005). Dilemmas of Domination: The Unmaking of the American Empire, (London), pp. 153.  [33] For an elaboration of how a \u201chub and spokes\u201d system works, see Ikenberry, John G. (2004), \u201cLiberalism and empire: logics of order in the American unipolar age\u201d, Review of International Studies, 30, pp. 609-630"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con04a","title":"","text":"The US eschews multilateralism and prefers unilateralism.  Rather than working through international institutions and gaining the consent of the international community as a \u2018benign\u2019 hegemon would be expected to do, the United States far too often undermines multilateralism and exercises its power unilaterally. President Clinton\u2019s military interventions during the 1990s, George W. Bush\u2019s unilateral launching of the Iraq War, and President Obama\u2019s use of covert drone attacks illustrate this propensity to shun multilateralism in favour of the \u201cimperial logic\u201d of unilateralism.[28] Indeed, since the end of the Cold War the United Nations has frequently been ignored or devalued as an institution by America. Most American policymakers are what Robert Kagan refers to as \u201cinstrumental multilateralists.\u201d They engage with multilateral institutions for pragmatic reasons, but act unilaterally when it serves the interests of the United States. This is in contrast to many European leaders, who Kagan describes as \u201cprincipled multilateralists\u201d that are interested in multilateralism as a cornerstone of world order.[29]  [28] Ikenberry, John G. (2003), \u2018Is American Multilateralism in Decline?\u2019, Perspective on Politics, Vol. 1.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011.  [29] Kagan, Robert (2002), \u2018Multilateralism, American Style\u2019, The Washington Post, September 2002.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con03a","title":"","text":"The US has arrogantly (and dangerously) sought to reshape the world in its own image.  A commitment to American \u2018exceptionalism\u2019 has led US policymakers to view the United States as the political and cultural centre of the world. Consequently, they expect others to follow their own standards on political, economic and cultural issues, with free and open markets, liberal democratic structures, and individualistic cultural norms serving as models for other countries to follow. This is not simply propaganda; the US has used considerable resources to influence other nations in this respect, including military interventions, coercive austerity measures through the IMF\/World Bank\/WTO, economic sanctions, and the categorization of certain countries as \u201crogue states\u201d for not following American standards.[23] American corporations have also been responsible for a form of cultural imperialism by exporting consumerist and materialistic ways of life around the world, often threatening indigenous cultures. In some instances this has caused what Samuel P. Huntington calls a \u2018clash of civilizations,\u2019[24] leading other cultures to respond violently to the introduction of American cultural exports, as is the case in some conservative Muslim societies and in India, where a major political party (BJP) actively orchestrates opposition to Western ideals of sexual permissiveness and individualism.  [23] Huntington, Samuel P. (1999), \u2018The Lonely Superpower\u2019, Foreign Affairs, March\/April 1999.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011.  [24] Huntington, Samuel P. (1993), \u2018The Clash of Civilizations\u2019, Foreign Affairs, September 1993.  , Accessed 17th May 2001."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con05b","title":"","text":"It is a hyperbole to suggest that American-led globalization and the spread of free and open markets has been \u201cimposed\u201d on developing countries; globalisation has been a far more impersonal and voluntary process. Moreover, rather than being exploited, the spread of free trade and open markets has benefited developing countries; one only needs to see the success of China, and India after 1991 when it embraced neoliberal reforms to find evidence of this. More generally too, World Bank reports have suggested that poorer countries that are \u201cmore globalized\u201d have grown faster than even developed countries, while those that are \u201cless globalized\u201d have seen their GDPs drop.[34] The purportedly \u201chub and spoke\u201d system the US has employed has also benefited many countries, which have received security guarantees from America, and can often count on the US to help tackle regional threats and ensure stability. Middle Eastern states that cooperate with the US to tackle terrorism and a resurgent and nuclear Iran provide examples of this.  [34] Meredith, Robyn and Suzanne Hoppough (2007), \u2018Why Globalization is Good\u2019, Forbes, March, 2007.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011.  Schonwald, Josh (2002), \u2018Johnson, economic development expert, discusses globalization and its benefits,\u2019 The University of Chicago Chronicle, February 21, 2002, Vol. 21, No. 10.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con01a","title":"","text":"The US is not a hegemon at all, but an imperialist power-an empire.  While the US may not have formal colonies like the empires of the past, it is still able to pursue imperialism through its massive military juggernaut and control of the world\u2019s financial institutions. America possesses what Chalmers Johnson called an \u201cempire of military bases,\u201d which are located in dozens of countries across the world and provide the US with, as Jonathan Freedland puts it, \u2018the same global muscle it would enjoy if it ruled those countries directly.\u2019[16] This coupled with its entrenched military-industrial complex allows the US to contain rivals, maintain strategic control of resources (particularly oil), and to militarily intervene in countries that threaten its imperial \u201cinterests.\u201d The US has also shaped and structured the international political economy in a way that has given it effective control of the global institutions which ensure it remains the pre-eminent power. This is not indicative of a \u2018benign\u2019 hegemon, but a modern Rome.[17]  [16] Freedland, Jonathan (2002). \u201cRome, AD... Rome, DC?\u201d, The Guardian, September 18, 2002.  , Accessed 16th May, 2011.  [17] Wade, Robert (2002), \u201cThe American Empire,\u201d The Guardian, 5th January, 2002."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con04b","title":"","text":"It is true that the US sometimes resorts to unilateral action to advance its national security interests. However, its commitment to multilateralism is more than just instrumental and cynically selective. Even George W. Bush\u2019s unilateralism\u2014criticized as imperialist by even mainstream analysts\u2014was restricted to certain issues, such as arms control, nonproliferation, and the use of force against certain threatening states. Unilateral military action was only used against Iraq, and even other \u201crogue\u201d states (specifically Iran and North Korea) were dealt with through diplomatic and multilateral channels.[30] As John Ikenberry argues, the \u201cfoundational\u201d multilateralism\u2014as seen in the liberal, open international order the US built following World War II\u2014is still a core part of US foreign policy.[31] Moreover, George Bush Sr.\u2019s painstaking coalition building for the first Gulf War and more recently President Obama\u2019s commitment to working through the UN Security Council for the intervention in Libya demonstrates America\u2019s preference for consensus-based international action.  [30] Robbins, Carla Anne (2007). \u201cBush Foreign Policy: Grand Vision and its Application\u201d in Fortier, John C. and Ornstein, Norman J. (eds.), Second-Term Blues: How George W. Bush Has Governed, (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 2007), pp. 89-108.  [31] Ikenberry, John G. (2003), \u2018Is American Multilateralism in Decline?\u2019, Perspective on Politics, Vol. 1.  , Accessed 17th May, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghbusbh-con02b","title":"","text":"While the US does have a long history of intervening in various countries across the globe, this has mostly been in response to genuine threats to national security, international peace, and basic human rights in line with the UN Charter. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, a new global discourse has emerged where state sovereignty is no longer regarded as absolute in instances where states endanger international peace and commit human rights abuses.[22] Post-Cold War US interventions (Haiti, Somalia, Yugoslavia, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya) have largely followed this discourse. Thus, rather than malignly intervening in other countries, the US has relatively benignly sought to apply pressure on violent and dictatorial regimes, with international law and the will of the international community being central to many of the actions taken. The carefully undertaken Libyan intervention demonstrates this.  [22] Annan, Kofi (1999), \u2018Two concepts of sovereignty\u2019, The Economist, 18th September 1999.  , Accessed 16th May, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-pro02b","title":"","text":"The educational policies of developing states should not be tailored to the needs of businesses in the developing world. Arguably, cross border trade in commodities and products is as important for nations in the developing world as partnerships with wealthy companies in Europe and the USA. Cross border trade of this type requires skills distinct from those required by established forms of economic production (farming, heavy industry, resource extraction) and those required by the service industry.  Development theory encourages poorer states to increase both their workforce\u2019s skill base and the adaptability of their economies. The more flexible an economy, the more resistant it will be to shocks and changes in individual markets. Side proposition\u2019s argument would lead to developing economies exchanging dependence on agricultural and manufacturing activity for a dependence on outsourcing.  All forms of economic activity are vulnerable to crises and market failure. Side proposition can do little to prove that the service economy, or skilled manufacturing are inherently more robust forms of economic occupation than farming, craft or semi-skilled manufacture.  Side proposition believe that individuals who are trained to serve a service economy will be inherently more adaptable and employable than those trained in fields tied to more traditional forms of economic action. Why should these two areas of expertise be mutually exclusive? The large families and highly integrated communities that are predominant in the most populace developing states should encourage the acquisition of a wider range of skills \u2013 the better to ensure that all economic eventualities will yield some form of profit and prosperity."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-pro02a","title":"","text":"Offshore outsourcing accelerates the development of poorer states citizens.  Offshore outsourcing incentivises wider engagement with education in developing states, for longer periods of time. While- even more so than in the wealthy world- education is seen by citizens of developing nations as offering a path out of poverty or subsistence-level economic activity, worries about property rights, the breakdown of families and communities and the acquisition of essential skills may lead to schooling becoming a lower priority for older children and young adults. The connection between education, skills acquisition and improvements in income and living standards are not immediate. There is little impetus for workers and parents to pay for forms of education that are not directly linked to the sorts of economic activity that are predominant in their communities. In developing states that lack a growing service sector, the value of a qualification in science, accounting or computing cannot be immediately realised. This situation may prevent social mobility in one of two ways.  Firstly, a child who is only educated to a certain standard, or who is encouraged to gain knowledge that is relevant only to a certain field, may be unable to adapt to changes in his economic circumstances later in life. A worker with training in computing will be able to compete for a much wider range of jobs than someone who only has a basic education that only focused on literacy.  Secondly, although it may be possible to educate a teenager on the finer points of irrigation engineering or vehicle maintenance, the utility of those skills will still be limited by environmental factors. A teenager trained to construct a modern irrigation system will still find that his father\u2019s farm fails when it is caught up in a drought or crop blight. By linking education to \u201ctraditional\u201d economic activities, families are unable to take advantage of alternative sources of trade or income.  Where a state fosters a healthy service economy, and offers additional benefits to foreign firms who employ its businesses as outsourcing partners, demand for highly educated workers will increase."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-pro03b","title":"","text":"Side proposition\u2019s description of the economic processes underlying off shore outsourcing is overly optimistic, and makes claims about educational and industrial development in the first world that are highly contestable.  By shifting production and support services to the developing world, western businesses are, in effect, circumventing protections built into first world employment laws designed to ensure that the demands of the market do not abrogate individual liberty or basic standards of welfare. Limitations imposed on market freedom, such as the minimum wage, are justified by the risk of incentivising businesses to cut wages to such a level that employees are forced into lives of subsistence, with restrictions on their spending power and mobility effectively tethering them to a particular employer or trade.  Offshoring presents a direct challenge to the creation of liberal democratic ideas, norms and institutions within developing states. Offshoring favours states that provide a consistent supply of cheap, reliable labour \u2013 even if the availability of that labour is a result of poverty or government authoritarianism. An authoritarian state may ban unions, or create unbalanced labour laws that give no protection to employees.  Businesses that engage in offshoring have no control over the uses that the taxes paid by their overseas partners are put to. It is frequently the case that undeveloped states will continue to underinvest in infrastructure and public services. Instead, tax revenue will be kept low enough to attract further investment, with takings spent on entrenching the position of undeveloped states\u2019 controlling institutions and social elites. Such practices may ultimately undermine the development process within poorer nations. A diminishing supply of workers will be obliged to taken on the burden of a declining standard of living. Workers will be forced to pay for increasingly costly educational and medical services in order to meet the needs of their families and extended families. Payment of bribes will become common. Without sensible reinvestment of tax revenues, workers are likely to become dependent on foreign in order to meet their domestic needs. Eventually, excessive growth in dependency may push an economy into competitive decline, as the state fails to maintain the size or education standards of its working population."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-pro01a","title":"","text":"Offshore outsourcing is consistent with existing labour distribution patterns.  Offshore outsourcing lowers the cost of goods and services. There is no real need for all of the goods and services that are consumed within a highly developed economy to be produced in that economy. The sale price of a particular form of good or service is determined by a wide range of factors, including the pay demands made by the workers assembling the good or providing the service. Seeking out a labour force willing to accept lower wages and work longer hours enables a business to reduce the price and increase the overall supply of the products it offers [i] .  As more expensive and elaborate goods become available to more people- due to reductions in price- living standards throughout an economy will rise. Concurrently, increased demand for goods produced abroad will lead to increased business for offshore firms that take on outsourced work, leading to more money flowing into developing economies. Standards of living will also increases in these economies \u2013 albeit at a lower rate than in the import economy.  Offshore outsourcing does nothing more than reflect labour distribution patterns that already exist in domestic economies [ii] . Different types of activity will be carried out in centralised urban areas- where land and operating costs may be higher- than in the countryside or peripheral, industrialised districts. Certain regions of a state, by dint of geography or earlier investment decisions, may produce a concentration of certain type of worker, service or skillset. Competition within these areas will drive labour costs down \u2013 but a downward trend in service and production costs will usually lead to an upward trend in demand. This interrelationship has successfully fostered developed within all of the worlds\u2019 largest economies, without creating unmanageable regional inequalities and without undermining workers\u2019 rights.  Greater social mobility and education attainment within developed economies reduces the availability of the types of skilled and semi-skilled manufacturing-oriented labour that drove first-world economies during the twentieth century. First world nations now compete in knowledge-led economies, seeking to provide research new technologies and provide novel services to consumers in other highly developed nations. The residual power of collective bargaining mechanisms such as unions, coupled with expectations of high pay and highly refined working conditions mean the relative competitiveness of first-world manufacturing industries has dropped. Even if a state were to give preferential treatment to domestic manufacturers and low-level service providers, it would still run the risk of being out-competed by its counterparts in the developing world.  Better standards of education, growing personal wealth and the frequent use of credit to purchase assets have created a collective action problem in first world states that practice off shoring. While, in the long-term, the number of highly skilled workers within domestic economies will grow, in the short term, a significant number of older manual and clerical workers may become unemployable as a result of more intense overseas competition. However, side proposition argues that this constitutes a marginal and bearable cost in term of the wider benefits to quality of life that outsourcing achieves.  Further, the potential costs of assisting excluded domestic workers to re-enter the job market will be covered by increased taxation and excise revenues resulting from more frequent trade with offshore outsourcing firms.  [i] \u201cIdea. Offshoring.\u201d The Economist, 28 October 2009.   [ii] \u201cThe once great offshoring debate.\u201d Real Clear Politics, 16 May 2007."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-pro01b","title":"","text":"Failures and defects in outsourced labour and products take longer to detect and are more expensive to remedy. Whilst customer feedback or angry employees may indicate flaws in outsourced support or payroll services, a company may only realise that a component manufactured by an offshore partner is faulty when they take delivery of it. The process of returning the component to its place of origin adds further expense to the costs caused by the delayed completion of a client firm\u2019s product.  Offshore outsourcing reduces the amount of control that a client firm can exercise over component manufacturing even further. The expense of sending supervisors to contractor\u2019s factories will increase. In addition, an offshore contractor may engage in outsourcing itself, entering into relationships with dozens of sub-contractors. This practise further limits the client firm\u2019s ability to control the practices used to produce the materials it has ordered. A client may not be provided with complete information on the actions of sub-contractors; inadequate auditing of a lead contract may conceal the existence of sub-contractors.  In 2004, the aircraft company Boeing announced that it would use subcontractors (many of them offshore) to build the majority of the components that would make up its new 787 passenger jet. Many of Boeing\u2019s offshore partners produced substandard components that failed to fit together or function properly [i] . Boeing inadvertently became entangled with a number of sub-sub-contractors who had been hired in order to meet deadlines imposed on sub-contractors without Boeing\u2019s authority. When a number of firms engaged in the manufacture of key 787 components came close to financial failure, Boeing was forced to take them over and settle their debts. Boeing had concluded that the cost of bailing out its offshore partners would be lower than the expenses incurred by delaying the launch of its aircraft.  Takeovers of failing outsourcing partners by larger firms are becoming an increasingly common occurrence [ii] . While, in the short term, this practice may enable the client firm to maintain production schedules, in the long term the cost of integrating a new subsidiary into a larger business may prove crippling. Moreover, bailing out an outsourcing partner does not provide a guarantee that they will complete the tasks assigned to them in a timely and efficient fashion.  Especially in manufacturing dependent industries, but also in other sectors of developed economies, offshore outsourcing is indicative of flawed, short term strategizing that attempts to engineer higher profits by reducing investment in staff and taking unacceptable risks.  [i] \u201cThe trouble with outsourcing.\u201d The Economist, 30 July 2011.   [ii] \u201cBoeing\u2019s woes. Nightmareliner.\u201d The Economist, 03 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-pro03a","title":"","text":"Offshore outsourcing accelerates the development of poorer states\u2019 infrastructure.  Offshoring spurs the development of poorer states. Offshoring relies on the existence of a basic industrial base and certain essential forms of state infrastructure, including an education system. These facilities are likely to be partially or wholly absent in a developing economy. The readily available capital that is located in the developed world, along with the example provided by other developing states that have successfully engaged in offshoring projects incentivises investment in service infrastructure and high quality education.  Many contemporary development strategies focus on developing a state\u2019s industrial and agricultural sectors before its service economy. Expansion of developing states agricultural sectors is already proving to be a politically contentious issue, thanks to the generous and entrenched subsidies that farmers in the developed world are provided with. Resource extraction from developing states is not possible without ceding control of land and hiring of employees to wealthy supermajor oil firms, which exercise an effective monopoly over skilled geologists, miners, scientists and oil drilling experts. Under these circumstances, a conservative approach to development is likely to take an extremely long time to substantially improve economic prosperity and living standards within a poor state. However, an immediate focus on the service sector may allow a state to \u201cleap frog\u201d these developmental stages [i] .  Offshoring provides businesses within a developing state with access to foreign markets far larger than those in their native economy may contain. This will allow offshoring businesses to take advantage of economies of scale and capital inflow in order to develop with greater speed.  A state\u2019s political culture will also stand to benefit from increased outsourcing. Offshore businesses will demand increasingly accountable, predictable and non-arbitrary forms of national governance. A level of reliability and foreseeability is essential in any system of civil law; so is a restrained, stable government that is prevented from using its power to expropriate private assets or spend tax revenue capriciously.  [i] \u201cStrengthening India\u2019s offshoring industry.\u201d McKinsey Quaterly, August 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-con03b","title":"","text":"It must be remembered that the offshore manufacturing and service sectors are relatively young. Workers have not yet had the opportunity to develop coherent collective bargaining strategies. It takes time for those involved in an industry to learn how to act as advocates for their own and their colleagues\u2019 interests. Once these skills have become commonplace throughout the offshoring industry, workers will be better equipped to form unions and to hold their own governments to account over the lacunae and lax policy making identified by side opposition.  Side opposition have adopted a somewhat orientalist line of argument by suggesting that developing economies are inherently weak and easy to subvert. In jurisdictions such as India quite the opposition is true; governments eager to control the effect of globalisation on domestic markets have adopted policies that inhibit the involvement of foreign firms in their economies. Businesses and politicians- both local and foreign- expend a great deal of political capital in order to make developing states accessible to the offshoring industry \u2013 often on terms that require workers\u2019 welfare to be strictly monitored."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-con01b","title":"","text":"Side opposition have created an argument for increasing the quality and affordability of education within developing states. Thanks to Trade Union\u2019s intensive involvement in the decisions taken by large western businesses, companies that engage in offshoring are often compelled to invest a portion of the savings that they make from offshoring their operations into retraining schemes for staff at risk of redundancy. In 2005, the large IT services company CSC reached an agreement with the Union Amicus that required it to share a portion of the savings that it made through expanding its use of outsourcing with its staff [i] . Rather than declaring any redundancies, CSC gave its staff the opportunity to retrain by devoting almost \u00a35000 for each of its English employees to education and development schemes.  It is conceded that the offshoring relationships formed between America and India and China during the nineteen nineties formed the basis of the industrial booms that both of those states are currently experiencing. An influx of expertise and increases in education and living standards funded by companies specialising in offshore have enabled both Indian and China to reduce their dependence on US manufacturers in many areas of their economy. However, the transition of manufacturing-led industries into developing economies is only one aspect of the offshoring narrative.  Increases in living standards within the developed nations of Europe and north America will only be sustainable if the individuals benefitting from higher wages and access to global markets for goods and services are able to maintain access to these advantages independently of the state\u2019s intervention and changes in industrial practices. This goal is only possible if levels of education within a state are increased. Although side proposition believe that the increased burden on state support services that offshoring may cause is intractable, investment in education can limit the impact of such negative trends to only a single generation.  The affluence of many developed states is also reflected in intense entrepreneurial activity within their economies. In states such as Germany the proliferation in highly specialised small and medium sized businesses- that are unable to afford the services of offshoring businesses- has sustained demand for skilled and semi-skilled jobs. Many of these firms are sustained by larger businesses seeking outsourcing opportunities that are unwilling to engage in offshore outsourcing.  The size and relatively low individual incomes of German-style mittelstand enterprises prevents them from taking advantage of offshore outsourcing, often seen as (proportionately) too expensive and too risky [ii] by mittelstand executives. Such companies also help to sustain employment within economies that place a high premium on specialised technical and professional knowledge, but neglect equally complex and specialised vocational and craft skills.  [i] \u201cCSC to retain staff with offshoring cash.\u201d 09 August 2005.   [ii] \u201cBig is back.\u201d The Economist, 27 August 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-con02a","title":"","text":"Outsourcing reduces businesses\u2019 control over their supply chains. Offshoring firms are difficult to manage and cannot easily be held to account for failings and errors.  Companies that rely on directly hiring new employees to cover their back-office, estates and maintenance needs will not run the risk that the cost efficiency of those services might suffer as a result of union action or state regulation of pay.  Companies that rely on outsourced offshored labour to fill back-office and administrative roles expose themselves to the risk that those relationships will be undermined, damaged or abused by legal disputes or negotiation failures.  When a dispute develops between a business and a worker that it employs directly, the consequences of that dispute- in terms of lost productivity and lost profits- will usually be limited by the nature of the role that the employee occupies. It will be relatively cheap for a multinational firm to settle a dispute with a sacked cleaner. In addition, the loss of a single cleaner from a large facilities department will not compromise a company\u2019s ability to do business.  The situation is quite different when the services and productivity of an entire company department are dependent on a relationship with an outsourcing firm. The collapse of the relationship between the media firm BskyB and its outsourcing partner EDS resulted in combined legal costs of $70,000,000 and a court case that lasted for almost five months [i] . A dispute over the terms of a contract or a crisis within the state in which an offshore outsourcing service is based can cut a company off from the workers and systems that it has hired. If a company has transferred all responsibility for its payroll or customer support operations to an offshore location, it will be completely paralysed by disagreements or emergencies of this type.  Ordinarily, the equity value and insurance liabilities of businesses could only be directly threatened by large scale union action, a failed product launch or the departure of a senior manager. However, the web of high dependency relationships that a business must enter into to remain competitive has now grown. By decentralising their authority and giving up their right to regulate relationships with its labour force on a one-to-one basis, businesses have exposed themselves to a greater amount of risk.  [i] \u201cThe trouble with outsourcing.\u201d The Economist, 30 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-con03a","title":"","text":"Offshoring exploits both individual workers and under developed states.  Investment in offshore outsourcing can easily develop into a form of economic and cultural imperialism. Offshoring encourages first-world governments and businesses to perceive underdeveloped countries as little more than cheap sources of labour and support for developed economies. The discourse that outsourcing creates does not focus on development strategies or the strengthening of weak economies, but on exploitation of the flaws and gaps inherent in the labour markets of developing nations [i] .  Moreover, wide-scale exporting of roles dependent on specific forms of linguistic and cultural knowledge forces workers to adopt alien and over-simplified cultural practises \u2013 directly echoing the relationships between colonial-era employers and native service providers.  [i] \u201cThe new masters of management.\u201d The Economist, 15 April 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-con01a","title":"","text":"Offshore outsourcing reduces living standards and limits social mobility.  Reliance on offshoring and offshore outsourcing is likely to lead to increases in inequality and reductions in social mobility within developed western liberal democracies.  Trade with developing economies typically results in a price premium becoming attached to specialised, skilled labourers and service providers in western economies. Poorer countries- even rapidly growing states such as India- produce smaller quantities of highly educated, highly skilled workers, such as vehicle designers, microchip fabricators and architects. In view of this, developing states concentrate on creating semi-skilled jobs that can be assigned to workers lacking- for example- university degrees. A larger proportion of Indian citizens are educated to a lower standard, so the creation of jobs accessible to them will generally be seen as politically astute. Opportunities for employment as a call centre operative or a pay roll clerk will rise in a developing state in response to an increased interest in offshoring by first world businesses.  Concurrently, as some of the money businesses save by offshoring is reinvested in advanced training, consultation exercises and research and development, demand for the services of specialists and highly skilled professionals will rise. Less skilled workers in a developed economy will see a decline in both employment opportunities [i] and pay. Professionals and those who can afford postgraduate education are likely to see their salaries increase. The gap between the rich and poor strata of society within developed economies will grow.  In short, while professionals, executives and decision makers will benefit from offshoring, seeing demand for their services rise, foreign competition is likely to undermine the domestic market for less skilled labour [ii] .  A reduction in demand for white-collar clerical workers, bookkeepers and assembly line workers will increase the burden placed on state social support schemes such as public housing, jobseekers\u2019 payments and subsidised medical care [iii] . Although businesses may benefit from cheap overseas labour, the state will be left to contend with increasing expenditure in the short term and impaired educational and welfare standards in the long term. Children and communities within developed states that lose jobs to offshore operations will be less able to access further and higher education and are more likely to suffer  The social costs engendered by outsourcing do not balance against the financial benefits that accrue to businesses and professionals. Attempts to tax profits generated as a result of offshoring practices may fill a state\u2019s coffers, but will not provide and effective solution to job losses and an increasing dependence on state assistance within less economically mobile communities within the developing world.  Finally, it should be noted that companies encountering financial difficulty or attempting to adapt to recessions come under intense pressure to cut costs. Increasingly, large businesses achieve these savings by engaging in outsourcing [iv] . For the reasons described above, such a practice may exclude a large number of individuals from the labour market. Outsourcing may therefore entrench and prolong a recession.  [i] Fig 3, \u201cLabour-market trends. Winners and losers.\u201d The Economist, 10 September 2011.   [ii] \u201cFree Trade\u2019s great, but offshoring rattles me.\u201d Blinder, A S. The Washington Post, 06 May 2007.   [iii] \u201cIdea. Offshoring.\u201d The Economist, 28 October 2009.   [iv] \u201cPassage to India.\u201d The Economist, 24 June 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-seighweo-con02b","title":"","text":"Greater risk will simply oblige companies to be more diligent in screening and selecting the outsourcing firms that they choose to do business with.  While examples such as the construction of the Boeing Dreamliner serve to demonstrate how outsourcing can go wrong, they do not undermine the value of the idea itself. Indeed, an increased emphasis on closely supervised and responsible outsourcing will only serve to bolster the business of firms offering legal and auditing services (some of which are off-shore operations themselves)\u2013 and a slight increase in transaction costs is not likely to deter the majority of companies who have already observed the benefits of outsourcing reflected in their annual accounts.  It should also be pointed out that all sensibly run businesses should attempt to guard against the risks inherent in adopting new practices or forming new relationships by taking out insurance. Many insurers and underwriters are gearing up to assess and cover the costs of a collapse in the relationship between a businesses and an outsourcing partner.  If the worst happens and a company is forced to pull out of an offshoring agreement, it will be able to use the money that it receives from its insurer to bring troubled back-office operations or subcontracted tasks back in-house.  Increased competition within the outsourcing market, from both offshore and domestic businesses, will have the effect of forcing outsourcing firms to increase the quality and reliability of their services above the standard offered by their rivals [i] . Competition is likely to result in a net improvement of the standard or service available throughout the outsourcing industry.  [i] Drezner, W D. 26 July 2007."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro02b","title":"","text":"Although titles may initiate slum upgrading the quality and time-scale of services provided remains questionable. Services can be of poor-quality as states rush to meet demands, and the area whereby women are given titles may remain unsafe and unhealthy spaces. Titling therefore does not fundamentally improve, or provide, services and infrastructure.  Further, women are given the burden (time and physical) of building decent homes. The provision of land titling transfers responsibility from the state to women.  In many cases across Africa land is not owned by the state, but rather private actors and international organisations. Such realities have implications in whether women are able to invest in, and build, homes as land titles need to be respected, and recognised, by multiple actors not only the state."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro02a","title":"","text":"Land titles mean single women can build decent homes.  Due to a lack of access to formal titling women have been pushed into acquiring, and living in, slums [1] . Land titling programmes benefit slum dwellers and inhabitants living in informal housing across African cities. Titles for women mean a sense of security to inhabit space is provided; and women will be encouraged to invest in their land. Titling provision has resulted in slum upgrading, investing in changing the structure of urban Africa.  Second, being recognised as title holders means women are able to demand new services - such as access to water, sanitation, and lights. Such demand will ensure improved health for women. Women are able to use the law to interact with the state and change their future by demanding crucial services.  [1] Slums are officially defined as a group of individuals living in a household which lacks safe housing, sufficient living space, access to water, adequate sanitation, and\/or security of tenure (UN-Habitat, 2003)."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro03b","title":"","text":"Are women really able to access credit and finance, and should they be able to enter such markets if there is an inability to return payments or get equal profits? Accessing credit with a high interest rate may put women are greater risk. We need to think about the credit lenders, what they charge, and if it can be paid back. Women may be less willing to use their primary asset to gain credit due to the potential risk of loss.  Studies in Madagascar [1] have shown limited differences in the degree of plot investment on land whereby titles were held, or not. The provision of a title has minimal impact in the case of rural Madagascar, suggesting women will be no more \u2018entrepreneurial\u2019 than initially believed [2] . Land speculation may become more of a concern with the provision of titles, as land is believed to be of value and thus occupied, but with minimal investments made.  [1] Jacoby and Minten, 2007.  [2] See further readings: Fenske, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro05a","title":"","text":"Land titles for women today will provide inter-generational equalities for the future.  Giving women the right to land will provide the path for gender equality in the present and future. Girls will be granted equal access rights to family land and inheritance in the future, and decisions around marriage dowry can be changed."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro01a","title":"","text":"Land titles provide a voice in the legal system.  Land titles mean women will be recognised as citizens, with rights. Women will be included in the system of justice and their rights to occupy, build, and use, land, recognised. Titles will provide bottom-up empowerment. A physical and psychological sense of security will be provided; and a sense of social belonging, and place, is enabled. Legal security has benefits for health (mental and physical) and reduces risk. For example, access to titles will reduce the vulnerability of women to \u2018property grabbing\u2019.  In the case of Ethiopia, the introduction of joint land-titling and household registration in 2003 [1] has been shown to have changed women\u2019s perception of tenure security. Previously, the prevalence of polygamous relationships meant only the first wife was granted legal rights and recognition, leaving other wives and households without rights to land. The provision of land titles ensures women equal security within a legal framework. Women are entitled to rights; and titles provide the security to use the legal system.  [1] The Joint titling program in Ethiopia was a implemented as a partnership between the government and World Bank, see further readings: Girma and Giovarelli, 2013; Barne, 2010; and Deninger, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro01b","title":"","text":"Land titles mean women will be recognised as citizens, with rights. Women will be included in the system of justice and their rights to occupy, build, and use, land, recognised. Titles will provide bottom-up empowerment. A physical and psychological sense of security will be provided; and a sense of social belonging, and place, is enabled. Legal security has benefits for health (mental and physical) and reduces risk. For example, access to titles will reduce the vulnerability of women to \u2018property grabbing\u2019.  In the case of Ethiopia, the introduction of joint land-titling and household registration in 2003 [1] has been shown to have changed women\u2019s perception of tenure security. Previously, the prevalence of polygamous relationships meant only the first wife was granted legal rights and recognition, leaving other wives and households without rights to land. The provision of land titles ensures women equal security within a legal framework. Women are entitled to rights; and titles provide the security to use the legal system.  [1] The Joint titling program in Ethiopia was a implemented as a partnership between the government and World Bank, see further readings: Girma and Giovarelli, 2013; Barne, 2010; and Deninger, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro05b","title":"","text":"Having rights does not ensure there will be an awareness of how to use rights and education on what such rights do. To ensure land titles contribute to promoting gender equalities women, and girls, need to be made aware of the meaning of rights and how to use them. Land titles are not the means of providing inter-generational equality, but rather one piece of the puzzle. To ensure equality education and awareness is required."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro04b","title":"","text":"The case of Kenya is not representative of evidence across all African nations. In Rwanda, where post-conflict recovery has put gender equality as a fundamental objective, underlying tensions are emerging. Land titles have been distributed to women however male counterparts are beginning to raise doubts over the extent of gender 'equality', arguing policies reflect a gender bias in favour of women. [1]  In societies where women live in a \u2018man\u2019s world\u2019 land titles are not the means of safety and security. Rape, harassment, and abuse occur in public spaces across cities, due to fear, police relations, and social acceptance.  [1] Bikorimana, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro03a","title":"","text":"Land titles will develop entrepreneurial women.  Access to titles is a means of poverty alleviation for female-headed households and women. Having recognised land rights means first, their land becomes exchangeable and profits can be gained through different strategies. Second, women are able to access credit and finance with the granting of a formal land title. Women are able to become entrepreneurs establishing businesses, agricultural cultivation, and the ability to sell property and land. Such investments have positive benefits for the whole economy. For example by encouraging crop cultivation to small-scale farmers food security can be provided, and the agrarian market revitalised. [1]  In the case of Ethiopia, the economy remains highly dependent on agricultural production. The security land titles provides has encouraged agricultural cultivation to women nationwide. Women are able to build a new food market and earn an income to sustain their livelihoods.  [1] See further readings: Oseni, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-pro04a","title":"","text":"Land titles will help end violence against women.  One of the main forms of gender-based violence includes violent acts carried out by husbands or partners [1] . Evidence shows the provision of land titles reduce risks to female health and vulnerabilities to violence. Women become accepted as, and confident, decision makers within their homes as titling redistributes power within households. Furthermore possessing a land title enables safer sexual relations by offering legal protection. Research in Kenya has shown titles will reduce the risk of spreading HIV\/AIDS and rape [2] . Due to gender norms widows are forced into traditional \u2018cleansing\u2019 rituals, rape and forced marriage, in order to hold onto physical assets and inherit their rightful land from in-laws. Land titles are therefore a means of tackling gender discrimination and providing freedom of choice on how women can act. Women are less likely to be forced into unsafe sex, following the death of their husband or divorce, to occupy the land.  Additionally, returning to the case of Kenya, FIDA have reported how a woman's choice to divorce her partner often leaves many property-less [3] . Women may be more likely to remain in an unhappy, dangerous, marriage without changes in property legal systems.  [1] Defined by WHO, 2013.  [2] Sweetman, 2008.  [3] Migiro, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con03b","title":"","text":"Female-headed households are not the poorest of the poor, and taxation is required. Taxation is vital resource to enable the government to mobilise key services and as a redistributive tool. By developing an effective functioning taxation system, social policies can be put on the agenda in Africa - providing social support and security to those in need.  Having access to titles will reduce poverty by encouraging entrepreneurialism, productive use of land, security, better health, and opportunity to enter property markets."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con01b","title":"","text":"The possession of a formally recognised entitlement to land presents a win-win scenario - being an indicator of good governance and enabling the promotion of good governance. Land titles represent an effective economic institution in society, of which enables democratic, political institutions, such as an accountable state. Land titles mean corruption and rent-seeking behaviour can be monitored."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con02a","title":"","text":"Land titles are not affordable to poor women  The cost of obtaining land titles is higher than the benefits sought. Research has shown that although there is a desire, by women, to obtain land titles the reality is land titles remain unaffordable. To empower land titles need to be more affordable to include a diverse range of women able to obtain titles and rights [1] . Having expensive titles limits empowerment to the comparatively wealthy. To make matters worse the provision of titles increases the burden on women - introducing additional costs, time commitments, and worries on top of normal activities.  Cheaper, and more effective, alternatives are available to provide rights and security of tenure for women. For example Toulmin (2009) emphasises the potential role of using local institutions to register rights. Community organisations, for saving (etc) as in South Africa which prevent the need to go to loan sharks, are a positive alternative to empower women. [2] For real empowerment women need to be included in the process of designing land titles.  [1] See further readings for the case of Dar-es-Salaam: Ayalew et al, 2013.  [2] Frederikse 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con05a","title":"","text":"Land titles are being granted in high-risk areas.  Land title provision for women across Africa is occurring in informal settlements and slums - therefore the question is whether titles provide an ability to relocate through the property market. First, land titles in the case of South Africa have left inhabitants stuck on the lower-end of the property market [1] . Lemanski (2010) shows homeownership, in Cape Town, does not bring the hoped for financial return. Low-income households are unable to trade their asset (land or home) due to low returns, preventing movement into upgraded houses and areas. Second, dangers emerge as to the degree of future sustainability when considering climate change and the hazardous nature of environments. In Mathare slum, Kenya, landslides are a frequent occurrence. The provision of titles in such areas does not have sustainable.  [1] Lemanski, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con04a","title":"","text":"Land titles do not solve the main issue for women - rental markets.  About 50% of the poor across Africa, including women, used rental accommodation [1] , many are landless. Although it remains debatable as to whether women enter the rental market by choice or not, renting has been noted to provide a greater degree of flexibility. Renting provides flexibility to relocate and manage finances effectively over a short-term. Land titles may therefore increase immobility to those using the rental markets; and enable landlords to raise prices of renting. Titles don\u2019t help those who rent.  [1] Edwards, 1990, p.255"}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con03a","title":"","text":"Land titling will increase female poverty.  Titles provide a path for the state to gain, and mobilise, resources - such as taxation. Therefore the provision of land titles to women will mean they are forced to pay taxes (including land tax and additional government taxes). Such a reality has major consequences for single female-headed households who represent a disproportionate number of the poor [1] . Increased expenses will impact multiple dimensions of their livelihoods.  [1] For debates on Female-Headed Households in Africa as the \u2018poorest of the poor\u2019 see further readings: Chant, 2007."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con05b","title":"","text":"Real empowerment needs to enable strategic, and practical, gender needs (Moser, 1989). Land titling for women enables women to change their position in society and thus how they are viewed by the state and communities. Having a land title means women in high-risk areas can demand changes to be made by the state."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con01a","title":"","text":"Land titles, and markets, in Africa remain corrupt.  On the one hand, land titles do not provide increased tenure security for women and will legitimise gentrification. In urban areas, if women are granted rights over a desired plot of land holding titles may be more of a curse. Poor women may be forced, and enticed, to sell their homes at prices under their market value. Titles often results in urban gentrification, as the spaces become legally mapped and property markets work for the elite.  On another hand, land titles in African states are based on bad governance, rent-seeking, and corrupt desires. The idea land titles will provide empowerment, security and poverty reduction is based on a Western model of the state. However, the boundary between what is legal and illegal in African states remains less clear-cut. The case of Zimbabwe\u2019s \u2018Operation Murambatsvina\u2019 (\u2018Restore Order\u2019) in 2005 is a case in point. Mass evictions occurred despite the homes being classified as \u2018legal\u2019 and titles being held. Livelihoods were destroyed as a result. The ability for land titles to empower in a repressive or mercurial state is questionable. Propositions for land titling are based on inadequate blueprints and ideas of the state."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con04b","title":"","text":"Renting holds fewer benefits for women than ownership. For empowerment more women need to become home, and landowners. The provision of land titles to women means they have a sense of stability. In the case of Johannesburg, South Africa, a majority of young, female renters engage in different forms of transactional sex due to the expense of renting [1] . Equality in land titling will ensure women are able to save and seek safer livelihood options.  [1] See further readings: Action Aid, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipiasgfih-con02b","title":"","text":"Programmes implemented have taken action to reduce costs. The recent government program in Ethiopia has been government-sponsored and used a participatory model to ensure affordability across a large-scale."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro02b","title":"","text":"If there were similar crises without the EU existing as a balm and place where all countries can talk regularly and confront problems together then the security situation would be much worse. In the past it has only taken small incidents to spark a war \u2013 usually exemplified by the assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand starting off world war I, but there have also been wars started by trade such as the \u2018War of Jenkins Ear\u2019 which became part of the war of Austrian Succession. Today the EU provides a place to negotiate disputes between members making war between member states unthinkable. Of course war would still be a very unlikely response to a dispute, but leaving the EU would mean getting rid of one of the organisations that reduces that possibility by mitigating crises."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro02a","title":"","text":"The EU causes instability  According to Boris Johnson the European Union is \u201ca force for instability and alienation\u201d [1] that increasingly causes security problems such as the migration crisis. The EUs inability to solve its crises such as the economic difficulties of peripheral countries like Greece and Portugal are causing resentment and warnings that one may fall out of the Euro block. It is the EU that is creating these problems by not dealing with its crises but leaving them to fester and grow. In Greece for example only a third of Greeks have a positive view of the EU and only 17% believe integration has been good for Greece. [2]  [1] \u2018EU referendum: Cameron warns UK exit could put peace at risk\u2019, BBC News, 9th May 2016,   [2] Stokes, Bruce, and Goo, Sara Kehaulani, \u20185 facts about Greece and the EU\u2019, PewResearchCenter, 7 July 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro03b","title":"","text":"Control of borders is important. However it is also not relevant to the debate as the UK not being a party to the Schengen agreement already has control over its borders; the UK checks passports and visas at the border just as would happen if the country were to leave the EU. Leaving would make no difference to UK border security."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro01a","title":"","text":"A nation state can only rely on itself for security  In the security sphere it is national interests that are most important and no state can expect other states to have exactly the same interests. Everyone therefore needs to look after their own. In the case of the EU Britain cannot expect France or Germany to have the same security interests as the UK with its different situation \u2013 being an island rather than part of the continent. Germany is much more concerned with Eastern Europe than the UK, France much more with Northern Africa. Freedom from the EU means greater freedom for the UK to focus on its own national interests on security; terrorism, maritime defence, and building up NATO rather than any competing European force."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro01b","title":"","text":"While keeping sight of the UKs national interests is important almost all of them can be carried out as well with the European Union as outside it. In particular the whole of Europe is interested in preventing terrorism. In other areas such as maritime security it makes sense for the UK to specialise in it while other countries specialise in other areas such as having larger armies. Moreover it should be noted that the UK is in one of the safest areas of the world with no hostile states in any direction. In this sense the EU is a buffer between the UK and less stable areas such as North Africa, the Middle East, or Russia so it makes sense to work with them as part of the same organisations including the EU."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro04b","title":"","text":"In a letter to the Telegraph five former Secretary-Generals of NATO stated \u201cThe European Union\u2026 is a key partner for NATO\u201d and that \u201cBrexit would undoubtedly lead to a loss of British influence, undermine NATO and give succour to the West\u2019s enemies just when we need to stand shoulder-to-shoulder across the Euro-Atlantic community against common threats\u201d. They give sanctions imposed by the EU on Iran and Russia as examples of where the EU has lead on enhancing regional security. [1] Moreover if the EU is to create an EU force this will happen regardless of Brexit. Britain stands a much greater chance of stopping it when it has a voice in the EU with which to object.  [1] Lord Carrington, Javier Solana, Lord Robertson, Jaap De Hoop Scheffer, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, \u2018Letters: At a time of global instability, Britain needs to stand united with its EU allies\u2019, The Telegraph, 10 May 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro03a","title":"","text":"Strong control of borders is needed to keep the country secure  Terrorism is often considered the biggest security threat to the UK. Ian Duncan Smith has argued that being in the EU \u201cexposes UK to terror risk\u201d because an \u201copen border does not allow us to check and control people\u201d. [1] The Schengen agreement on the free movement of people makes it easier for terrorists to move about in Europe as shown by the terrorist attacks on Paris which were planned in Brussels.  [1] \u2018Staying in EU 'exposes UK to terror risk', says Iain Duncan Smith\u2019, BBC News, 21 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-pro04a","title":"","text":"British security is dependent upon NATO not the EU  NATO is \u201cthe most successful defensive alliance in history\u201d, it saw off the USSR and Warsaw pact without a fight and has created a single security regime throughout most of Europe. [1] With its\u2019 record NATO is clearly most important for security in Europe; it is still needed to deter Russia. The creation of an EU army on the other hand will undermine NATO and is something that will be pushed through after the referendum. [2] Britain could likely opt out, but with cooperation taking place under EU rather than NATO auspices the alliance that has kept the peace would be badly damaged.  [1] London Declaration quoted by Reeve, Richard, \u2018We need to talk about NATO\u2019, OxfordResearchGroup, 17 September 2015,   [2] Kemp, Richard, \u2018It is an EU army that could bring about war\u2019, The Telegraph, 9 May 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-con03b","title":"","text":"Since the end of World War II Germany and national rivalries in Western Europe not been the main threat to Europe. Instead that threat has emanated from outside the EU; largely from Russia, and then from more nebulous threats such as terrorism. In both these cases it has been military alliances such as NATO and nuclear deterrence that have kept the peace."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-con01b","title":"","text":"The EU simply adds to an alphabet soup of organisations that work on security in Europe. The two which matter, NATO and EUROPOL, both have little to do with the EU and would work just as well with the UK out."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-con02a","title":"","text":"Leaving will mean less communication with other security services  Leaving the EU may damage relationships with key security partners such as France and Germany. Both countries would have much less reason to cooperate on security issued when not in the same organisation. There would certainly still be some cooperation but the former heads of Mi5 and Mi6, Lord Evans and Sir John Sawers have stated that the UK would lose out through not being able \u201cto take part in the decisions that frame the sharing of data, which is a crucial part of counter-terrorism and counter-cyber work\u201d. Sawers points out that data sharing in the EU allowed France to transfer DNA and fingerprints of one of the Brussels bombers within months \u2013 previous to EU data sharing it would have taken months slowing down critical investigations. [1]  [1] \u2018Row as ex-intelligence chiefs say EU membership protects UK security\u2019, BBC News, 8 May 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-con03a","title":"","text":"The EU brings together former enemies  The EU has created peace among states that formerly fought each other. Most notably Germany and France had fought each other three times in seventy-five years prior to the formation of the EU. The EU has helped make such a conflict unthinkable now. The EU as a structure restrains old rivalries through giving a joint project and goal. It ensures cooperation particularly in places where there are competing interests like Gibraltar where continued cross border access is guaranteed by being a member of the EU. [1]  [1] Hague, William, \u2018Leaving the EU would be disastrous for the Falklands, Gibraltar and Ulster\u2019, The Telegraph, 9 May 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-con01a","title":"","text":"Security is better shared  Security is not a zero sum game \u2013 our security does not get better if our neighbours is worse. On the contrary good French, Irish, Belgian and Norwegian security helps ensure good British security. Being in the EU provides an opportunity for cooperation between member states by creating interaction on all levels. Some integration ensures a common and cooperative response to international threats. The EU is the most obvious place to develop a coordinated response to terrorism and other, particularly non-military, security concerns throughout the region. [1]  [1] Galbreath, David, \u2018Professor David Galbreath on: Security in, secure out: Brexit\u2019s impact on security and defence policy\u2019, University of Bath IPR Blog, 24 March 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdtwhblew-con02b","title":"","text":"There would still be data sharing between Britain and its neighbours even if the UK left the EU. No intelligence agency would sit on information that could save lives in another country simply because that country is no longer in the same organisation. Moreover the UK could still negotiate data sharing agreements with relevant intelligence agencies to ensure that information sharing remains fast and comprehensive."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro02b","title":"","text":"The two-state solution would have Israel relinquish the West Bank, known to the Israelis as \u201cJudea and Samaria\u201d. Yet, these are historic regions to the Jews. Israel would similarly have to undermine its identity to give up these two regions, and so any two-state solution acceptable to Israel would have to mean the retention of Judea and Samaria. Because of the large Palestinian population in the West Bank, even a two-state solution would mean Israel could not be both Jewish and democratic.(3)"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro02a","title":"","text":"A one-state solution mean Israel would cease to be either democratic or Jewish  As described in the above quote by Peres, the vast majority of Israelis desire to live in a Jewish homeland in which they can define their own institutions and culture in light of their Jewish heritage. A one-state solution, however, would undermine Israel's legitimacy and internationally recognized right to exist as a sovereign Jewish state in the land of the Jewish forefathers.  From Israel's perspective, it is not possible for the Jewish people to accept an arrangement that signifies the end of the existence of a Jewish state, which would be the result of a one-state solution, as the state could not be considered a Jewish one if it housed a very large Palestinian population, possibly even a Palestinian majority.(1) For this reason it is unlikely that any one-state solution would be truly democratic, and rather would be a situation of an Israeli minority ruling over a Palestinian majority, who would be largely excluded from the running of the country and determining their own affairs.(4) A one-state solution would only produce an explosive situation in which Jews would dominate the economy and most other aspects of the new state, creating a reality of exploitation. At that point in time, the new state would be a new form of occupation that would only set the conflict on a more violent track.(5) Therefore, the new state created by a one-state solution would be unacceptable either to Israelis or to Palestinians, as it would cease to be either Jewish or democratic, and so would not be a just outcome.  Only a two-state solution can keep Israel Jewish and democratic, and allow a Palestinian state similarly to be Arab and democratic, as it would most likely wish."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro03b","title":"","text":"Palestinian support for two-state solution declined around 2008, and is waning even among the 'moderate' Palestinian camp, as well as among additional Arab elements.(8) It is also na\u00efve to think that a two-state solution would gain the favour or even support of Iran. Iran wants to be the dominant power in the Middle East, and it wants nuclear weapons so that it can threaten not only Israel but other states in the region.(9) To this end, Iran has an incentive to keep the Israeli-Palestinian conflict big and bloody so as to distract the West from its own regional agenda. Furthermore, an independent Palestinian state would probably be perceived as a security threat to some of its neighbours, particularly Jordan, and thus might actually prompt further tensions.(9)"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro01a","title":"","text":"A two-state solution is best for peace  Palestinians and Israelis will not be able to live together in peace in the same state any time in the foreseeable future. The idea that Palestinians and Israelis can live in peace and harmony in one state, with tolerance for each other and in keeping with democratic principles of inclusion, is simply naive. This idea has been made impossible by nearly a century of direct conflict between these people. While this might change in coming centuries, it is unacceptable to adopt a one-state policy now based on these naive ideas.  Israeli President Shimon Peres has argued: \u201cEstablishing a single multinational country is a tenuous path that does not bode well for peace but, rather, enforces the conflict's perpetuation. Lebanon, ravaged by bloodshed and instability, represents only one of many examples of an undesirable quagmire of this nature.\u201d(1)  This stance has been endorsed by leaders and officials from around the world: US special envoy George Mitchell has stated \u201cIn the case of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, we believe that the two-state solution, two states living side by side in peace, is the best and the only way to resolve this conflict.\u201d(2)  Pope Benedict XVI has similarly called on Israel\u2019s leadership to embrace the two-state solution for peace with the Palestinians: \u201cI plead with all those responsible to explore every possible avenue in the search for a just resolution of the outstanding difficulties, so that both peoples may live in peace in a homeland of their own, within secure and internationally recognized borders.\u201d(3)  Even Colonel Gaddafi, the late Libyan leader, argued that a two-state solution was essential for peace.(1) The reason the two-state solution has been recognised as the best for peace is because it respects the democratic will of both peoples for a state of their own.  As Peres argues, \u201cThe Jewish people want and deserve to live in peace in their rightful, historical homeland. The Palestinian people want and deserve their own land, their own political institutions and their right to self-determination. It is vital that this cause be based on the prospect of coexistence between Jews and Arabs, which translates into cooperation in fields such as the economy, tourism, the environment and defence. Achieving all this will be possible only by granting each people its own state and borders, to enable their citizens to pray according to their faiths, cultivate their cultures, speak their own languages and safeguard their heritages.\u201d(1) Because only a two-state solution allows for this peaceful co-existence and development, a two-state solution is best for peace and thus more justified than a one-state solution."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro01b","title":"","text":"Simply because past conflict has existed is no reason to believe that peace and understanding cannot be established through co-operation, shared institutions and interaction. This is exactly what a one-state solution would foster in the long term, but which a two-state solution prevents by separating the two communities. Even if they each have a state of their own, unless the Israelis and Palestinians learn to live in proximity to each other in co-operation, there will be no peace."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro03a","title":"","text":"Only a two-state solution can satisfy both sides  A two-state solution can offer sufficient territory for both Israelis and Palestinians. For Israel this would mean keeping the vast majority of areas inhabited by Israeli citizens within the state of Israel. The two-state solution would also, however, offer sufficient land to the Palestinians.  While cynics might question the size of the West Bank and Gaza, optimists should look no further than Singapore for reassurance. The area of the West Bank and Gaza is nine times as large as Singapore's, yet the combined population of Palestinians in both regions is smaller than that of Singapore. Singapore enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world. The Palestinians are capable of achieving similar success, through instituting a modern economy based on science, technology and the benefits of peace.(1)  Moreover, throughout the years polls have consistently showed respectable Israeli and Palestinian majorities in favour of a negotiated two-state settlement.(6) Even the Iranian President Mahmud Ahmadinezhad has stated that Iran would support a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The success of a two-state solution, therefore, would, at a minimum, gain the support and possibly cooperation of the Iranians. This would be valuable diplomatically, particularly in resolving the larger conflict between Iran and the West.(7) Therefore, the best way to satisfy both sides and achieve peace is to adopt a two-state solution, which is therefore the most just solution."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-con03b","title":"","text":"The most just outcome is that which best secures peace. Both sides will be compelled to make certain concessions, and some inequalities and discrepancies between the two new states are unavoidable. However, on balance the benefits of peace and security for both peoples will outweigh the harms of any concessions or inequalities, so long as both peoples receive a state of their own in which they can control their own destinies, which is the only way to ensure peace."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-con01b","title":"","text":"These arguments about 'sympathetic cooperation' ignore the realities on the ground of two people who are and seem certain to remain violently opposed to each other as long as they struggle over control over a single state rather than each having a state of their own. Furthermore, offering the Palestinians a sovereign state of their own, free from Israeli control, would likely go a long way to satisfying the vast majority of Palestinians, and thus actually make a war against Israel far less likely. As Peres argues: \u201cIndeed, six miles will be too narrow to guarantee full security, which only reinforces our belief that Israel's safety is not embedded only in territorial defence but in peace. Peace provides breadth of wings, even when the waist is narrow.\u201d(1)"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-con02a","title":"","text":"Israelis and Palestinians are too intermingled for a two-state solution  A million Palestinians live throughout Israel even without the West Bank and Gaza strip, and when the Israeli settlements in the West Bank are considered also, it becomes clear that dividing these two populations is simply unfeasible. By comparison, the feasibility of a bi-national state, with the two peoples living in a kind of federation, seems workable. Given this 'reality' on the ground, the most practical solution seems to be a united democratic state offering equal citizenship for all: One Person, One Vote.(12)  The ever-expanding Israeli settlements in the West Bank particularly represent a barrier to the separation of the two peoples into two states. In 1993, when Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat famously shook hands on the White House lawn, there were 109,000 Israelis living in settlements across the West Bank (not including Jerusalem). Today there are 275,000, in more than 230 settlements and strategically placed 'outposts' designed to cement a permanent Jewish presence on Palestinian land.(10)  Forcibly removing settlers would be too difficult, could foment civil strife among Jewish Israeli citizens, and would create a level of resentment among fundamentalist Jews that would likely inflame the Israeli-Palestinian conflict."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-con03a","title":"","text":"Only a one-state solution can guarantee equal rights for all  A one-state solution is the most just because a two-state solution would inherently result in a worse situation for the Palestinians than the Israelis, whereas a one-state solution would guarantee equal rights for all. The July 2007 Madrid meeting in favour of a one-state solution put firth that: \u201cA two-state solution is predicated on the unjust premise that peace can be achieved by granting limited national rights to Palestinians living in the areas occupied in 1967, while denying the rights of Palestinians inside the 1948 borders and in the Diaspora.\u201d Thus, the two-state solution condemns Palestinian citizens of Israel to permanent second-class status within their homeland, in a racist state that denies their rights by enacting laws that privilege Jews constitutionally, legally, politically, socially and culturally. Moreover, the two-state solution denies Palestinian refugees their internationally recognized right of return.\u201d(14)  A two-state solution, particularly one that enables a Jewish state, would also most likely alienate the Palestinian population remaining within Israel. At best, they would be second class citizens. At worst, they would be pushed out, directly or indirectly.(13)  A two-state solution, and the establishment of a Jewish state, would also kill the idea of the return of Palestinian refugees that were expelled from Israel during various wars and conflicts. The Palestinian state created would also- if past experience is any judge- be highly divided (between factions such as Hamas and Fatah) and dysfunctional. This situation would have a material impact on the quality of life of citizens of the new Palestinian.(15)(16) Therefore, a one-state solution is more just than a two-state solution."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-con01a","title":"","text":"Only a one-state solution can end the conflict  It was no less a man than Albert Einstein who believed in 'sympathetic cooperation' between 'the two great Semitic peoples' and who insisted that 'no problem can be solved from the same level of consciousness that created it.' A relative handful of Israelis and Palestinians are beginning to survey the proverbial new ground, considering what Einstein's theories would mean in practice. They might take heart from Einstein's friend Martin Buber, the great philosopher who advocated a bi-national state of 'joint sovereignty,' with 'complete equality of rights between the two partners,' based on 'the love of their homeland that the two peoples share.'(10) This position has been adopted by some Palestinian leaders: In October 2005, Nusseibeh, then president of al-Quds University in Jerusalem, and several other liberal Palestinian political activists and intellectuals held a press conference in Jerusalem, stating: \u201cWe are pressing now for equal political and legal rights within a single, democratic Israel, and we are confident that our Israeli brothers and sisters will welcome us and that together we will build a free and democratic state in which Jews and Arabs will live together in peace.\u201d(5)  A two-state solution, however, would most likely foster continued conflict, for two reasons. Firstly, a Palestinian state would be base for terrorism. As seen when Israel withdrew from Gaza, the Palestinians there did not embrace the two-state solution, but the Muslim hardliners who controlled Gaza continued to want nothing less than Israel's destruction, and Gaza's newly-elected Hamas government spent much of its money not on the welfare of Palestinians but on attacking Israel.(11)  Similarly, a two-state solution makes Israel too narrow and vulnerable. A two-state solution would make Israel only 6 miles wide at a number of points where the West Bank juts into Israeli territory.(1) This creates a number of vulnerabilities, particularly the risk that Israel may become divided during a war (a not unlikely prospect). For all these reasons, a two-state solution cannot offer true peace, but a one-state solution built on co-operation and equal rights can, and so a one-state solution is more just."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbcbiapts-con02b","title":"","text":"A two-state solution could succeed in partitioning the land and the two peoples by including the largest Israeli settlements within Israel, possibly by allowing for non-contiguous \u201cislands\u201d of Israeli territory around the larger settlements surrounded by the new Palestinian state.(13)  In any case, a two-state solution can find practical solutions to these problems, while having the advantage of solving the inherent and insolvable problems of having two opposed nations and identities in perpetual conflict within a single state."}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro02b","title":"","text":"There have been continued protests and violence since the military coup. The post-Morsi leadership and the Egyptian army have therefore done little to bring the Egyptian crisis under control. The most notable incident was on 14th August 2013, over a month since the military coup removed Morsi, when over one thousand people were killed in a day\u2019s fighting between security forces and protestors. Human Rights Watch declared that this was \u2018the most serious incident of mass unlawful killings in modern Egyptian history\u2019. [1] Even after the ban on un-notified protesting there have been continued demonstrations of civil disobedience. Due to the handling of these demonstrations the USA has threatened to cut some of its $1.3 billion military aid to Egypt [2] . This inability to gain control of the situation echoes the reasoning for removing Morsi.  [1] Loveluck, 2013  [2] Sciutto & Labott, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Failed to gain control of the Egyptian crisis  The official line of argument for the Egyptian army\u2019s intervention was that Morsi\u2019s administration was failing to grasp control of a worsening situation [1] . The response to Morsi\u2019s judicial immunity had been largely negative, with tens of thousands taking to the streets to protest. Soon after, pro-Morsi protestors began their own protests. Muslim Brotherhood supporters were called to defend the palace and the resulting clashes left ten dead [2] . On the 1st July 2013 millions of protestors gathered in Tahrir Square, as well as in Alexandria, Port Said and Suez [3] and the Egyptian army stated it would intervene if the government did not \u2018meet the demands of the people\u2019 by restructuring the government to appease protestors [4] . The protestors did not disperse, and there were several ministers who resigned from government. With no clear policy change in sight, Morsi had evidently failed to take control of the situation. General el-Sisi, leader of the coup, claimed that they \u2018could not stay silent and blind to the call of the Egyptian masses\u2019 [5] . The intervention was necessary as Egypt had become ungovernable.  [1] El-Tablawy & Fam, 2013  [2] Loveluck, 2013  [3] Maqbool, 2013  [4] Abdelaziz & Wederman, 2013  [5] Bowen, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro03b","title":"","text":"The Morsi government arguably did not have enough time to deal with Egypt\u2019s economic conditions. Tourism and investment had already been in decline prior to Morsi assuming power [1] . The global perception of Egypt as unstable was unavoidable following the revolution which had deposed Mubarak. The ex-dictator had been a symbol of security and stability prior to the Arab Spring. Tourism dropped from 14.7 million people to 9.8 million in the first year post-Mubarak, which led to a loss of revenue [2] . Unemployment had been on the rise prior to the Arab Spring, as was the cost of living. Morsi\u2019s establishment had only been given one year to resolve the economic crisis which was insufficient time to put any economic recovery plan in to full effect.  [1] The World Bank, accessed 2013  [2] Bakr, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Morsi Undermined Democratic Principles  Separation of powers is a key democratic principle which Morsi undermined with the November 2012 declaration. The underlying idea of the separation of powers is that one branch of government should not have undue power over any other. That is why there are a number of checks and balances set out which allows each branch to constrain the actions of the others to prevent them acting illegally [1] . Morsi\u2019s declaration that he would remove the checks and balances which the judiciary held over the presidency violated this principle. This led many to fear that Morsi was returning the country to a dictatorship where he could force through the Muslim Brotherhood\u2019s agenda [2] , undoing the work of the Arab Spring [3] . The army\u2019s intercession was welcomed by many as maintaining democracy [4] .  [1] Wikipedia  [2] CNN Staff, 2013  [3] Spencer, 2012  [4] Reuters, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro01b","title":"","text":"The post-Morsi leadership, with the assistance of the military, have arguably continued the trend of undemocratic governing. These actions have given the impression that they are acting hypocritically by removing Morsi. In November 2013 a new law was enacted which banned peaceful protest without prior notification to the police. Believed to be aimed at Morsi\u2019s supporters and the Muslim Brotherhood, this law sought to curb protests being conducted against the Egyptian army\u2019s leadership [1] . As protest is a political right, many human rights groups have had a negative response to this legislation. Defiance of these laws has led to the use of teargas and violence to disperse crowds [2] . The new constitution also places the defence ministry firmly in the hands of the military, giving policy control to an unelected official [3] . The claims of the military backed authorities being anti-democratic illustrate the hypocrisy of removing Morsi.  [1] G uerin, 2013  [2] el-Deen, 2013  [3] Aswat Masr iya, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Morsi maintained relatively moderate rhetoric and did not declare any intention to impose sharia law. When questioned about Islamic society and non-Muslims he stated that he believed Coptic Christians had inherent rights and stated that Islam and sharia law \u2018cannot be imposed on the people and it cannot be done from the top\u2019 [1] . Morsi\u2019s comments on the respect owed to everyone\u2019s rights and beliefs seem to contradict any notion that he planned on enforcing a strict interpretation of sharia law.  [1] El Amrani, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Morsi\u2019s economic and social policies had been ineffective and unpopular  Morsi\u2019s inability to tackle the main issues which faced Egypt was another issue which caused the large-scale protests leading to his removal. One of the major reasons for Egypt\u2019s Lotus Revolution was the lack of economic reform. Rising living costs, unemployment and wage levels were causes of grievance for the majority of Egyptians. The Egyptian population hoped that, once the corruption of the Mubarak regime was replaced by a democratic system, their economic condition would improve. This was not to be the case. The Morsi government planned to reduce its fuel subsidies to entitle the country to a $4.8 billion loan from the International Monetary Fund [1] , raising the living costs of the average citizens. In conjunction with the subsidy cuts, the government failed to tackle unemployment. At the time of Morsi\u2019s ouster from government there were 3.6 million unemployed, an increase of one million since 2010 [2] . Analysts linked the lack of jobs to the security of the state claiming that unemployment would lead to greater numbers of rioters and furthering instability [3] . In a poll assessing the Egyptians\u2019 attitude toward their government and their future, 61% felt they were worse off than five years ago [4] . This dissatisfaction then led to dissent.  [1] Werr, 2013  [2] Ahram Online, 2013  [3] Fam & Shahine, 2013  [4] Zogby Research Services, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Morsi was going to implement Islamic policies on a secular country  Another major concern of the anti-Morsi protestors on whose behalf the Egyptian army intervened was the Islamist nature of Morsi [1] . While many supported the Islamic nature of the Muslim brotherhood, there were equally many liberals and Coptic Christians who were afraid of Egypt transforming in to an Islamic state. Mubarak had managed to secure popularity within these groups by exploiting this fear that, should his regime be overthrown, extreme Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood would take control and deprive them of their rights. The Morsi government\u2019s constitution was thus perceived as a threat to minority and secular rights, and thus a security issue. Even if this was not the case, Morsi should have done more to calm the population\u2019s fear rather than allowing discord to materialise.  [1] Khalil, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-con03b","title":"","text":"The army should not have a position of influence in democratic, civilian politics. It is generally accepted that the military\u2019s responsibility is to the state [1] . This means that they cannot become involved in the governing of said state, as this is a breach of the civil-military relationship. According to Huntington, \u2018Politics is beyond the scope of military competence, and the participation of military officers in politics undermines their professionalism\u2019 [2] . It is important, therefore, that civilian supremacy is maintained and that the military is subservient to the civilian government. In modern democracies it is expected that the government is held to account at the polls, as long as they act legally, rather than military whims. There is also a tendency for military figures to feel more inclined towards intervention in civil society after their initial attempt, as demonstrated by the most recent military coup as the military had previously taken charge between the fall of Mubarak and Morsi\u2019s election. For this reason, the overthrow of the civilian government at the hands of the Egyptian military is flawed.  [1] May et al., 2004  [2] Huntington, 1957 pg. 16"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-con01b","title":"","text":"While just over half of respondents to the poll thought that deposing Morsi was wrong, 46% of Egyptians felt it was the correct move [1] . This shows that there was still a large amount of support for the Egyptian army\u2019s actions. 51% of the population is not an overwhelming figure. In addition to this, the poll which produced these results only interviewed 1,405 people. With a population of over 84 million, it is possible that majority of the population actually supported the Army.  [1] Smith, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-con02a","title":"","text":"Mohamed Morsi had been democratically elected  It was wrong to depose Morsi as he had been chosen to serve as the first democratically elected president in Egypt. Morsi was elected as president with 51.7% of the vote. Having won the 2011-2 elections, Morsi and the Freedom and Justice party had a democratic mandate which they should have been able to fulfil. The military coup which removed them from power was therefore a violation of the democracy which Egypt had fought to establish."}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-con03a","title":"","text":"The army has no place in a modern democracy  The army should not have a position of influence in democratic, civilian politics. It is generally accepted that the military\u2019s responsibility is to the state [1] . This means that they cannot become involved in the governing of said state, as this is a breach of the civil-military relationship. According to Huntington, \u2018Politics is beyond the scope of military competence, and the participation of military officers in politics undermines their professionalism\u2019 [2] . It is important, therefore, that civilian supremacy is maintained and that the military is subservient to the civilian government. In modern democracies it is expected that the government is held to account at the polls, as long as they act legally, rather than military whims. There is also a tendency for military figures to feel more inclined towards intervention in civil society after their initial attempt, as demonstrated by the most recent military coup as the military had previously taken charge between the fall of Mubarak and Morsi\u2019s election. For this reason, the overthrow of the civilian government at the hands of the Egyptian military is flawed.  [1] May et al., 2004  [2] Huntington, 1957 pg. 16"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-con01a","title":"","text":"Most Egyptians still supported Morsi  A poll conducted in November 2013 illustrated that the majority of Egyptians still supported Morsi. The Egyptian army\u2019s claim that they were acting in the name of the people is therefore invalid. The poll, conducted by Zogby Research Services LLC, found that 51% of Egyptians believed that it was wrong to depose Morsi [1] . The fact that the army were acting to the contrary of the wishes of a sizeable proportion of the population therefore exemplifies that the army were not acting \u2018for the people\u2019 as a whole.  [1] Smith, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-amepdlvhb-con02b","title":"","text":"The Morsi government had acted to monopolise their power within the government, hence undermining their democratic position. To begin with, Morsi\u2019s cabinet had consisted of about 25% candidates from his own party, with the rest belonging to the opposition parties. This by 2013 this had dropped to roughly 1\/3 Morsi supporters. This, in combination with Morsi\u2019s extra judicial powers implied that the president was attempting to extend his political power. Many liberals feared that this would be done to enforce the Muslim Brotherhood\u2019s agenda in Egypt [1] . To preserve the democratic integrity of the Egyptian government, the army had to intervene.  [1] CNN Staff, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro02b","title":"","text":"The proposed right of family reunification is too much of a burden on receiving countries, making it an obstacle to a migrant rights treaty. Indeed, states have levelled as an argument against the Migrant Workers Convention, and against other possible international migrant treaties, concerns about a robust right of family reunification to all migrant workers present in migrant-receiving countries. This could offer family members a right to migrate into the state in question, resulting in large increases in population size. And, there is no doubt that the text of the Migrant Workers Convention aims to create a \"right\" to family reunification. Even if it provides flexibility on how a nation attempts to facilitate reunification, it still requires that states reunite families in some way. Under this treaty, therefore, any migrant could sue the state for not allowing his family (and perhaps extended family) to immigrate as well. In overpopulated and strained migrant-receiving countries, particularly in Western Europe, such a proposition is untenable, which is why so many migrant-receiving nations oppose the treaty."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro02a","title":"","text":"Migrants ought to have a right to family reunification.  The right to family is widely recognized as an essential human right. Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that the family is the fundamental unit of society. Within the right to family is the right to family reunification for migrants who are separated from their loved ones. The Human Rights Education Associates argue, \u201cstates are obliged to facilitate contacts and deal with requests to enter or leave a state party for the purpose of reunification in a humane and expeditious manner.\u201d [1] This right is especially important for refugees, who have often been torn from their families by force, and although they have not been separated by force economic migrants are also separated from their families and at the very least should be able to visit their families, and it is not granted by many countries.  [1] Asmita Naik, \u201cThe Right to Family,\u201d Human Rights Education Associates,\u201d Accessed June 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro03b","title":"","text":"The receiving countries would not accept a regulatory body. The current international regulatory bodies such as the WTO and World Bank are essentially run by the rich countries for the benefit of the rich countries and so they accept it. Any body regulating migrants\u2019 rights would, however, be doing the opposite-- benefiting the poorest -- meaning the rich countries would try to prevent the creation of such an organisation.  In the unlikely event that the regulatory body could be created it would face a gargantuan task. How could global migration be monitored and regulated by an international body when even national bodies in rich countries are not able to keep track of all migrants in their nations? Yet the international body would also have to monitor the conditions of migrants in many much poorer countries where the infrastructure currently does not exist."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro05a","title":"","text":"Economic and social protections prevent the exploitation of migrants.  Migrants face a number of challenges when they reach their destination, such as finding housing and in integrating into the workforce, and the opportunities to exploit them can be dangerous. According to Dr Tasneem Siddiqui, \"In 1929, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) identified the migrant workers as the most vulnerable group in the world. Seventy years have elapsed since then, but they still belong to that group.\" [1]  This is something that the U.N. Convention attempts to address creating specific changes in many countries that would make migrants less vulnerable. For example, in all of the Gulf States, migrants are prohibited or at least restricted from \u201cparticipation in independent trade union activities.\u201d [2] Protecting the right to unionize, as the U.N. Convention does with Article 40(1), allows migrants to fight for their own rights in the workplace, allowing migrants to fight and ensure their own rights is the best way to ensure that they will be protected in the long-term.  Migrants have the same fundamental rights as any other segment of the population as recognised by all states when they signed the universal declaration of human rights. Yet while migrants often initially migrate due to the dream of a better life they often find themselves in terrible living conditions, even in developed countries like Britain they often end up in what are essentially shanty towns, in London for example even if they manage to stay off the streets many new immigrants are housed in sheds and garages. [3] All governments should recognise their responsibility to ensure the minimum rights of migrants when it comes to shelter, education, and health are protected.  [1] Daily Star, \u201cRatify UN convention on migrant workers\u2019 rights,\u201d May 3, 2009,  .  [2] Human Rights Watch, \u201cSaudi Arabia\/GCC States.\u201d  [3] Rogers, Chris, \u2018The illegal immigrants desperate to escape squalor of Britain\u2019, BBC News, 28 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro01a","title":"","text":"Further protections are required to grant migrants full human rights.  Unless migrants receive equal social and economic rights, they will never be seen as equal in a human sense. According to Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, everyone has the right to leave or enter a country, as well as to move within it (internal migration). This freedom of movement is often not granted under current laws.  Human rights also include fair treatment under the welfare state, and increased economic protections for migrants is necessary in many states for them to receive such treatment. Without this equal treatment, common myths about migrants will continue to be widely believed. These myths claim that immigrants are criminals and that they steal jobs from natives. The organization Migrant Rights says, \u201cAll these myths rob migrant workers and refugees of their humanity, and are aimed at portraying them as less deserving of our sympathy and help.\u201d [1]  It is a violation of migrants\u2019 human rights to be treated this way, and they will only be seen as equals when they are granted economic protection that allows them to work alongside natives.  [1] Migrant Rights, \"Fact-checking the Israeli government\u2019s incitement against migrants and refugees,\" October 1st, 2010 , accessed June 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro01b","title":"","text":"Migrant rights are already protected under human rights law. If a nation violates existing international human rights law against a migrant, perhaps with exploitative working conditions, wrongful imprisonment, seizure of property, discrimination, or violence, existing international law already adequately protects them. There is no need to expand human rights law to create a separate category and separate protections for migrants. Even if the international community decided it wanted to better protect the human rights of migrants, an international treaty will not necessarily advance that cause, as international law has proven to be very difficult to enforce. This will continue to be a problem into the foreseeable future."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro05b","title":"","text":"In most democratic, developed countries\u2014which are those that receive the most immigrants\u2014people share equal rights in the workplace, as long as they immigrated legally. People who broke the law to come to the country do not deserve these rights. Because they usually come to work, the workplace is even the ideal place to discover illegal immigrants. Not only are they not allowed to unionize, but they are not allowed to get paid. Workplace rights do not need to be strengthened for legal migrants, and they should not be for illegal migrants. Similarly it is impossible for the conditions for illegal migrants to be improved; if they are found they will be deported and so there is no need to improve their conditions, although of course they should be well treated while in the process of deportation. Moreover improving minimum conditions would be counterproductive as they would attract more migrants to immigrate illegally knowing that they will get minimum living conditions that may well be considerably better than those that they had in their home country."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro04b","title":"","text":"Migration puts too heavy a burden on receiving countries, and it essentially means giving up on source countries. It is not a mechanism of the market, but rather an unfair system of taking money from taxpayers in certain countries and giving it to people other countries, this money is then sent abroad and spend abroad resulting in a net loss to the economy. Not all migration is bad, but legislation that would protect the right of immigrants to send money home would solidify this unfair system. Remittances are a short-term fix. If migrants are not allowed to send home remittances, it is possible that the most skilled workers would stay in their home country and work to rebuild the economy for the long-term.  The supposed intangible benefit to receiving countries of \u201cinnovation and invention\u201d is much less important than the real cost that these countries feel as a result from the unemployment and increased cost of health, education, and welfare systems that migrants cause."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro03a","title":"","text":"An international regulatory body should exist for global migration.  With an international regulatory body, states would be held accountable for protecting migrant rights, and migrant policies and protections would be better coordinated. The international community has created a number of regulatory bodies that have helped the global economy adapt to rising globalization, such as the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. Migration is an essential part of globalization, but there is no international body regulating the flow of workers around the world. Jason Deparle of the New York Times writes, \u201cThe most personal and perilous form of movement is the most unregulated. States make (and often ignore) their own rules, deciding who can come, how long they stay, and what rights they enjoy.\" [1] Because migrant rights are a growing problem and an essential part of globalization, an international regulatory body would be an effective way of improving human rights around the world.  [1] Deparle, \"Global Migration.\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-pro04a","title":"","text":"Protections would benefit the economies of receiving as well as source countries.  Economic protections are not only good for the migrants themselves, but they benefit all countries involved. Migrants move from countries that have a lot of workers but not a lot work available, to countries with a lot of work available, but not enough workers. Migration is a market mechanism, and it is perhaps the most important aspect of globalization.  The growth of the world\u2019s great economies has relied throughout history on the innovation and invention of immigrants. This is particularly the case in the United States, which is famously a nation of immigrants, where the architect of the Apollo program Wernher von Braun immigrated from Germany and Alexander Graham Bell the inventor of the telephone was born in Scotland. More recently immigration has been instrumental in the success of Silicon Valley co-founder of Google Sergey Brin is Russian born while the co-founder of Yahoo Jerry Yang came from Taiwan. [1] The new perspective brought by migrants leads to new breakthroughs, which are some of the most important benefits to receiving countries from migration. The exploitation of migrant workers that exists in the status quo creates tensions and prejudices that hamper this essential creative ability of migrants in the workplace.  Source countries are equally aided by migration. Able workers who would be unemployed in their home land are able to work in a new country, and then send money\u2014\u201cremittances\u201d\u2014back to their families. Migrants sent home $317 billion in remittances in 2009, which is three times the world\u2019s total foreign aid, and in at least seven countries this money accounted for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. [2] One of the important goals of migrant rights is to protect these remittances, and thus to protect the economies of source countries that require them to survive.  Irene Khan shows that migrant protections are important for everybody involved: \"When business exploits irregular migrants, it distorts the economy, creates social tensions, feeds racial prejudice and impedes prospects for regular migration. Protecting the rights of migrant workers -- regular and irregular -- makes good economic and political sense for all countries -- whether source, destination or transit.\" [3] Both sides are likely to benefit more if migrants are welcomed and allowed to join the formal economy; they will be better able to work, they will pay taxes and national insurance to the host country and they themselves will be more secure so will be able to send more home. This benefit to the source state could be even greater if the benefits from paying national insurance were made portable and continue to be paid when they return.  [1] Marcus Wohlson, \u2018Immigration chief seeks to reassure Silicon Valley\u2019, USA Today, 22 February 2012,   [2] Human Rights Watch, \"Saudi Arabia\/GCC States: Ratify Migrant Rights Treaty,\" April 10th, 2003 ,  .  [3] Irene Khan, \"Invisible people, irregular migrants,\" The Daily Star, June 7th, 2010 ,  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con03b","title":"","text":"The receiving countries to which most migrants move are the richest countries in the world so are able to afford increased protection. While migrants may sometimes cost these countries money in services like healthcare they are in countries that can afford to pay this cost. It should also not be assumed that migrants just take from the public purse. As most migrants are legal they also pay taxes. Even those who are illegal will still pay some taxes such as VAT or duties on cigarettes and alcohol. The UK government estimates that \u201cin 1999\/2000, \ufb01rst generation migrants in the UK contributed \u00a331.2 billion in taxes and consumed \u00a328.8 billion in bene\ufb01ts and public services \u2013 a net \ufb01scal contribution of \u00a32.5 billion\u201d. [1] This will obviously vary from country to country but stories that immigrants are costing huge amounts and putting nothing into the collective pot are plain wrong.  [1] Home Office, The Economic and Fiscal Impact of Immigration, A Cross-Departmental Submission to the House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs, October 2007, p.8,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con01b","title":"","text":"There is plenty of international law on the books, and it is legitimate when it protects rights that ought to be universal for the individual, no matter what country you are in. The right to have a family is not a Chilean right, or a German right, or a Malaysian right; it is a human right. As is the right to work without being harassed. The huge increase in migration over the past two decades shows that individual well-being has developed into a more important concern in the world today than state sovereignty. Migrant protections are moral because they reflect this change."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con02a","title":"","text":"Migration policy should be crafted on a state-by-state basis, allowing countries to protect their national identities.  Every state has different issues and problems related to migration. There is no monolithic economic and social crisis facing migrants around the globe. It is inappropriate, therefore, to call for all nations to improve their protections in some standard manner. Instead, immigration policy and even rights need to be approached on a case-by-case, nation-by-nation basis.  This approach would allow each state to pass a law that fits its needs, particularly those of protecting its national identity, which is a concern international law cannot approach. Maintaining an original ethnic and cultural structure is important to many states, especially those that are populated by one ethnic group. Is Israel, for example, wrong to term itself a \"Jewish state\"? There is nothing inherently wrong with its efforts to maintain this identity, even if that effort constrains the expansion of migrant rights."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con05a","title":"","text":"Protection of migrants causes \u201cbrain drain,\u201d which further damages the economies of source countries.  The countries from which workers emigrate often struggle from failing economies, and through migration they can lose their most skilled workers, who are needed at home to turn their economy around. Strengthened protections of migrants would further incentivize migration, and so brain drain would become more of a problem. India for example has seen more than 300,000 people migrate to the United States and more than 75% of these migrants had a tertiary education [1] meaning the vast majority of these migrants were among the most educated from a country where only 7% of the population is able to goes to university. [2]  [1] Carrington, William J., and Detragiache, Enrica, \u2018How Extensive is the Brain Drain?\u2019, Finance and Development, Volume 36, No. 2, June 1999,   [2] \u2018When More Is Worse\u2019, Newsweek, 8 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con04a","title":"","text":"Protections of migrants will hurt the economies of receiving countries by overcrowding them and taking away jobs from citizens.  Increasing protections of migrant rights has the general effect of increasing migration. Indeed, one policy goal of many migrant rights activists is for open borders and free and unrestricted migration across them. A right to family reunification would also increase migration. This can be problematic in many countries. It may worsen overpopulation problems, increase tensions between ethnic and\/or religious groups, and raise unemployment rates. The economies of many receiving countries are barely managing to fight unemployment in the status quo. If migrants receive further protection, they will take more jobs, making it harder for citizens to find employment. Everybody should have the opportunity to work in his home country, but the economic protection of migrants overcrowds receiving countries, driving up unemployment. In America, for example, between 40 and 50 percent of wage-loss among low-skilled workers is caused by immigration, and around 1,880,000 American workers lose their jobs every year because of immigration. [1] In addition to unemployment problems, overcrowding can have a variety of negative consequences affecting air pollution, traffic, sanitation, and quality of life. So, why are migrants deserving of \"protection\"? It should be the other way around: the national workers of a state deserve protection from migrant workers and the jobs they are taking.  [1] Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform, \u201cEconomic Costs.\u201d  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con03a","title":"","text":"Receiving countries should not and cannot afford to further protect migrants because they often free ride on health, education, and welfare systems.  Because immigrants are frequently less well off financially, and they sometimes come to a new country illegally, they cost a lot for receiving countries, and so they should not be further protected. Immigrants make heavy use of social welfare, and often overload public education systems, while frequently not pulling their weight in taxes. Illegal immigrants alone have already cost the United States \u201cbillions of taxpayer-funded dollars for medical services. Dozens of hospitals in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, have been forced to close\u201d because they are required by law to provide free emergency room services to illegal immigrants. In addition, half a billion dollars each year are spent to keep illegal immigrant criminals in American prisons. [1] The money spent to build and maintain schools for immigrant children, and to teach them, takes away from the education of current schools, existing students, and taxpayers. This is unfair. Increasing social and economic protections and rights for migrants means increasing migration and increasing benefits that migrants receive from societies. This could be a burden that a state's welfare system is not capable of handling.  [1] Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform, \"Economic costs of legal and illegal immigration,\" accessed June 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con05b","title":"","text":"Those who are being \u2018drained\u2019 from the source countries are those who are more highly skilled and so in less need of protections in the first place as these people are leaving to find much more highly skilled and therefore highly paid jobs. The \u2018brain drain\u2019 may not be a drain at all, either on the source countries or the receiving country. In fact the \u2018brain drain\u2019 might be better considered as a \u2018brain gain\u2019. This is because the lure of migration means that individuals are much more likely to increase their education or learn skills with the intention of migrating. This decision to increase their human capital is a decision that would not have been made if the possibility of migration was not present. Of course in the short term much of this gain will migrate abroad as intended some will not and others will return home later. The result is therefore that both the source country and the receiving country have more highly skilled workforces. [1]  [1] Stark, Oded, \u2018The New Economics of the Brain Drain\u2019, World Economics, Vol 6, No. 2, April \u2013 June 2005, pp.137-140, p.137\/8,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con01a","title":"","text":"Universal migrant \u201cprotections\u201d are an affront to state sovereignty.  International law, like the U.N. Migrant Rights Convention, and any international regulatory body that requires the nations of the world to increase protections for migrants would be a violation of state sovereignty. Not all international law is necessarily bad, but these protections go too far, because they force a huge burden on certain nations, and not others. It is fair for an international body to say that all nations should treat their citizens with equality and respect, but it is not fair to say that certain countries should have to provide for many citizens from less-well-off ones."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con04b","title":"","text":"The effect of migration on unemployment is actually positive: it provides cheap labor for receiving countries, and lowers the supply of labor in source countries where employers can often not afford to pay sufficient wages to their workers. The claim that immigrants take jobs away from native citizens is unfounded. In the United States, for example, visa applications for skilled foreign workers are extremely difficult to receive and are limited to a small number of people. Foreign students at U.S. universities even need special authorization to work a summer job. Immigrants cannot undercut U.S. workers wages, taking their job away for less money, because foreign workers must be paid a minimum salary, mandated by law. [1] Even illegal immigrants who do not follow these regulations tend to take very-low-paying jobs that are unwanted by U.S. citizens and that would not otherwise exist.  [1] Farhad Sethna, \u201cImmigrants Don\u2019t Take Away U.S. Jobs!\u201d Immigration Law Blog, July 9, 2009, accessed June 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-gsimhbnws-con02b","title":"","text":"While every state may have different issues and problems, the human rights of individuals must be protected by all of them. States may choose to protect their national identity and tradition through museums and festivals and other cultural institutions; it is not necessary that they keep migrants out, or suppress those who have already immigrated."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro02b","title":"","text":"A repatriation policy will not effectively target this area of illegal immigration. Criminal networks will always find ways of smuggling people into a country and evading detection. All a repatriation policy will do is make these gangs more sophisticated when it comes to hiding illegal immigrants. This not only makes it more difficult to discover and undermine these networks, but also puts the illegal immigrants that are involved in these criminal activities at risk. If there is a standard repatriation policy for all illegal immigrants, vulnerable groups such as trafficked women are less likely to seek help, because not only is it likely that they will be repatriated, but they also put the lives of themselves and their families at risk by going through this procedure, rather than receiving anonymous help. As a result, illegal immigrants that are often at the bottom of criminal organisation will be worse off, while the criminal at the top will get more power over their victims."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Illegal immigration is facilitated by criminal networks  Repatriating illegal immigrants would lead to fewer opportunities for criminal networks to gain entry to the country. Illegal Immigration is linked to dangerous criminal activity such as people and drug trafficking, terrorism and the sex trade. An estimated 270 000 victims of human trafficking live in industrialized countries, of whom 43% are forced into commercial sexual exploitation, mostly women and girls1. This is both dangerous for those involved in illegal immigration but also increases the criminal activity in a country, putting lawful residents at risk. The state also has a duty to protect its citizens from the harms associated with illegal immigration. Illegal immigration fuels dangerous industries such as prostitution and the drug trade, repatriating illegal immigrants cuts off a vital source of labour for these industries and could contribute to the eradication of these industries.  1 UN.GIFT, \"Human Trafficking: The Facts\",, accessed 31 August 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is impossible to prove that all illegal immigrants are a drain on the system and so their cost to society cannot be used as a justification for repatriation policies. Many illegal immigrants pay taxes in some way and actually contribute to the economy of a country. For instance, every time an illegal immigrant buys something, they pay the same amount of sales tax or VAT as any other person. Illegal immigrants do not always undercut the labour market. The illegal workforce is a necessary part of the economy because lawful residents do not want jobs such as casual labour, agricultural or domestic jobs. Illegal immigrants often provide vital services that would otherwise be too expensive or hard to find if regular workers were employed e.g. cleaning, childcare and manual labour. Goods would become too expensive to produce if, for example, parts of the agriculture industry had to employ lawful residents\/migrants."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro05a","title":"","text":"States have the sovereign right to control their own borders.  All states have sovereignty\u2013 the supreme authority within a territory 1.This includes the supreme authority to decide who should be allowed into and out of the country. Illegal immigrants have breached that sovereignty by arriving uninvited and attempting to circumvent checks. These people should be deported in order to maintain the sovereignty of the nation. The United Nations recognises the sovereign rights of members when it says \u201cNothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.\"2 Who is allowed to be resident in the state is an internal consideration.  1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010,   2. Article 2, UN Charter,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro01a","title":"","text":"There needs to be a tough stance to prevent illegal immigration.  The only way to stop the problem of illegal immigration is to take a hard-line stance and adopt policies of repatriation. This means that illegal immigrants, after it has been proven through a fair hearing that they have no legitimate reason to stay, will be granted a period of voluntary repatriation, where they receive counselling and help to return to their country. If this does not work, and the illegal immigrant wants to stay, he or she will forced to repatriate. Repatriation is needed because illegal immigrants are residing in a country which is different from their country of origin, without fulfilling the legal requirements to do so. They also do not make the same contributions to the state as other people do, such as paying taxes. This means that illegal immigrants are actively harming the legal system, the citizens of the country and legal immigrants. At the same time, the number of illegal immigrants is rising every year, with an estimated 11.5-12 million illegal immigrants living in the US alone1. These kind of numbers show that the rules on immigration need to come with tough sanctions to ensure that they are not exploited or broken in the future. Repatriation is necessary because it targets successful illegal immigrants and ensures a comprehensive immigration policy that aims to reduce illegal immigration. What this policy of repatriation will do, is that it firstly will reduce the number of illegal immigrants in the country, which will lead to a decline of harms caused by them. Secondly, it will act as a strong deterrence for future immigrants. Repatriation sends a message to potential illegal migrants that their presence in the country will not be tolerated and that any attempt to stay in the country illegally will be unsuccessful.  1 BBC News, \"BBC guide on illegal immigration in the US\", 2005, accessed 31 August 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro01b","title":"","text":"There are many alternatives to a repatriation policy that will more effectively target the problems caused by illegal immigration. Countries can toughen border controls and have better systems in place for granting asylum. Voluntary repatriation is unworkable, even if accompanied by financial assistance, because many illegal immigrants want to stay in the country. Involuntary repatriation is inhumane and harmful because it restricts the freedom of movement for people, and separates them from their family and friends, whilst they are forced to go back to potentially harmful situations. Repatriation will not stop the numbers of people coming to the country. Illegal immigration does not occur because a country is a 'soft touch': very few, if any, countries have no problems with illegal immigration. The reasons behind immigration are social, political and economic and have nothing to do with an individual country's policy on illegal immigration. Those who turn to illegal immigration are often desperate and will pay no attention to the immigration policies of a country."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro04b","title":"","text":"The repatriation of all illegal immigrants is an impossible task to start with, so if this policy is adopted and fails in its execution, this will lead to a greater loss of trust in the government. If immigration policies focus more on the integration of illegal immigrants, this will have a more beneficial effect than criminalizing them. Marking illegal immigrants as criminals that have to leave the country as soon as possible will actually incite more conflict between migrants and populists."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Costs of illegal migrants and harm to labour market  Illegal immigrants cost the state in money, time and resources. It is difficult to give an accurate number on the cost of illegal immigrants for the rest of the population (the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) has come up with numbers as high as $1,183 per household in the state of California1), but they are likely to put a strain on resources by not paying taxes whilst demanding social services such as healthcare and education. As a result, they take taxpayer's money away from those who are lawfully entitled to use these services and put a burden on the state. Moreover, illegal immigrants undercut the labour market by accepting low wages and working under illegal conditions. This is harmful to lawful residents because it takes employment opportunities away from them and encourages employers to seek illegal labour in order to keep costs down. Removing the illegal workforce would increase the number of jobs available to lawful residents and force employers to pay fair wages and provide safe working conditions.  1 Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR), \"The Costs to Local Taxpayers for Illegal Aliens\", 2006,, accessed 31 August 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Loss of trust in the government  Failing to remove illegal immigrants undermines public confidence in the government and its migration policy. In the UK, opposition leader Ed Milliband has acknowledged that Labour had lost trust in the south by underestimating the number of illegal immigrants and the impact they would have on people's wages1. People believe that allowing those who have no right to remain in the country to stay on means the whole immigration system is broken. Legitimate migrants such as refugees, students and those with visas for work will be lumped together with illegal immigrants, and calls will grow for all forms of migration to be restricted. Populist feeling may also be inflamed against ethnic minorities, with increased social tensions.  1 BBC News, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con03b","title":"","text":"Although it might be true that immigrants might be harmed by repatriation in some cases, the majority of illegal immigration takes place because of economic reasons, and those people can return safely. The United High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) sets the conditions for voluntary repatriation on the grounds of legal (absence of discrimination, free from persecution), physical (freedom from attack, safe routes for return) and material (access to livelihoods) safety1. If this is not the case, these people should be given temporary asylum. Victims of trafficking are usually given special protection, as is the case with the EU, which also imposes tough rules on criminals involved2.  1 Refugee Council Online, \"Definitions of voluntary returns\", accessed 31 August 2011  2 European Commission, \"Addressing irregular immigration\", 30 June 2011, , accessed 31 August 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con01b","title":"","text":"Repatriation is a more direct solution to the problem, and it is not sure whether these alternatives would work. Tougher border controls will only result in immigrants finding better ways to avoid them; improving economical conditions in poor countries is a slow and insecure progress, and the situation in many developing countries in unlikely to improve anytime soon. Giving illegal immigrants temporary working visas will not stop some immigrants from staying in their host country after their visas have expired if they prefer the living conditions. Even in the case where they do decide to go back to their country of origin, this means the money they have earned will be spent there, and not in the country they have worked. This means the states loses out on revenue."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con02a","title":"","text":"Repatriation is expensive and unrealistic  The repatriation of all illegal immigrants is impossible to realize, and this large-scale project would cost large sums of money. The Center for American Progress study released in March of 2010 concluded that a strategy aimed at deporting the US population of illegal immigrants would cost the government approximately $285 billion over five years. (A deportation-only policy would amount to $922 in new taxes for \"every man, woman, and child in this country).\"1 In separate research released in January, UCLA professor Ra\u00fal Hinojosa-Ojeda found that if undocumented immigrants were removed from the economy, it would reduce US GDP by $2.6 trillion over ten years.1  The impracticality of repatriation lies not only in the costs of the transportation and the help given to immigrants, but also in the time and effort of finding all illegal immigrants. A repatriation policy would be never-ending and a waste of time and money. It would be better to target only those illegal immigrants who pose a proven risk of harm to society.  1. Apsan, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con04a","title":"","text":"Repatriation is immoral  The repatriation of illegal immigrants, even if it is not completely under coercion, is immoral. Even if the repatriation is 'voluntary', immigrants know they have no alternatives, and might agree to go back voluntary because the next step would be involuntary repatriation. This means that illegal immigrants are severely restricted in their freedom of movement. In the Western world, people can move around relatively easily, and this is seen as an inalienable right. To restrict this for people that do not come from this part of the world would be inhumane. Moreover, illegal immigrants have often built their lives in the country they reside in, having a family, sometimes children, work and a social circle. Often, children from illegal immigrants get citizenship because of their age, whilst their parents are repatriated. This forceful separation of children from their parents is a violation of their human rights, as article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that the family is the natural unit in society which is entitled to state protection1. Separating children from their mother can be seen as a violation of this right.  1 United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948,, accessed 31 August 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con03a","title":"","text":"Repatriation poses a danger for illegal immigrants  The system of repatriating illegal immigrants can be proven harmful for these immigrants on several levels. Some illegal immigrants, although they might not fall under the official category of refugees, have fled dangerous situations such as persecution, violation of human rights and severe poverty. In 2009, France and the UK sent back several migrants that had fled the Taliban to Afghanistan when the country was still at war1. To send these people back to their country of origin would be a severe attack on their liberty and security. Having a zero-tolerance policy on illegal immigration will also make it harder for those who are trafficked to escape from criminal gangs because if they contact the authorities they will be sent home. This gives the criminals behind people-trafficking more power over their victims and will lead to worse living\/working conditions in illegal industries.  1 The Telegraph, \"France deports illegal Afghan migrants on joint Franco-British flight\", 22 October 2009,, accessed 31 August 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con01a","title":"","text":"Alternatives are better  There are alternatives to the repatriation of illegal immigrants that are much more attainable. First of all, there has to be more attention to the root causes of migration, rather than attacking the results. The money that would be spent on repatriation could be used for prevention of immigration by focusing on border controls and improving economic conditions in countries where migrants come from. Trade agreements between developed and developing countries could be improved, which gives poorer countries more opportunities to trade. Most illegal immigrants migrate to Western countries to earn money, so if there are more opportunities for foreign workers to operate legally and on a temporary basis, with the assurance that they can come back if needed, this will remove the current incentive for many illegal immigrants to stay in their host country."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con04b","title":"","text":"The repatriation of illegal immigrants is not immoral because they do not have the right to be in that country in the first place. Laws are put in place to prevent people to live certain countries without a legitimate reason, and if these laws are wilfully breached, people must face the consequences. It is true that people have the right of freedom of movement, but this right is restricted to the borders of one's home country, and are widened by international agreements. But even then the freedom of movement can be restricted, even for people in Western countries. If we take the example of a European or an American that wants to go on holiday to a tropical island, we see that freedom of movements is relative. Legally this person can be free to go, but if he or she does not have money to pay a ticket or refuses to do so, this right can still be taken away."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrsimhw-con02b","title":"","text":"It might be true that repatriation is a costly option, but so are other alternatives. Illegal immigrants are already putting a costly burden on the state by using its resources without giving much back. If this situation is left on its own, the long-term costs of keeping illegal immigrants might be higher than the relative short-term cost of repatriation. Alternatives, such as nationalisation of immigrants are also very costly and time-intensive, and would moreover encourages more potential migrants to come and obtain the country's nationality."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-pro02b","title":"","text":"The reason western leaders have not been indicted is firstly, because their domestic judiciaries are strong and independent enough to be able to prosecute abuses when they occur. The ICC has a principle of complementarity where the ICC will only prosecute if the state themselves are unwilling or unable to prosecute. This is not the case in western countries where there is no difficulty putting members of government on trial \u2013 in the UK for example the environment secretary Chris Huhne was sent to prison for perverting the course of justice. [1] Secondly however, there is no evidence that these leaders were involved or responsible for atrocities in the same way the African leaders were. Western leaders have not authorized individual killings of civilians, or massacres, genocides or other crimes that are prosecuted by the ICC.  [1] Mr Justice Sweeney, \u2018Chris Huhne and Vicky Price jailed: judge\u2019s sentencing remarks in full\u2019, The Telegraph, 11 March 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-pro02a","title":"","text":"ICC treats Africa differently  Africa and its leaders are treated far more contemptuously by the court. The prospect of prosecuting Barak Obama for the killing of civilians by drones which Amnesty International has suggested amount to war crimes [1] or George W. Bush for war crimes in Iraq and Afghanistan is remote \u2013 yet Omar Al-Bashir and Uhuru Kenyatta have both been indicted as sitting leaders. The ICC will only prosecute if those who have committed war crimes are not going to be prosecuted locally but this is as much the case for western leaders as African ones. This points clearly to the ICC proselytizing what is \u2018right\u2019 and \u2018wrong\u2019 to Africans but not to other leaders \u2013 treating these leaders less respectfully and blatantly undermining African nations sovereignty in a way they would not, or would dare not, for others.  [1] \u2018USA must be held to account for drone killings in Pakistan\u2019, Amnesty International, 22 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-pro03b","title":"","text":"The need in most cases for a referral from the UNSC certainly makes it unlikely that those states will be investigated but this does not make the court biased against Africa. Some of the cases in Africa have involved countries or their judiciaries referring themselves. In the case of Kenya\u2019s election violence in the five years after the violence occurred very little action occurred from the domestic forces; there was a commission lead by Philip Waki that recommended a special tribunal to prosecute those involved. [1] However this never happened as a result the Waki commission handed their report over to the UN and ICC for action [2] . Unsurprisingly the case of Kenyatta has seen accusations of witness intimidation on large scales, showing that a fair trial would have been very difficult to guarantee in Kenya itself [3] .  [1] Waki Report, October 2008, (large pdf)  [2] Wachira, Muchemi, \u2018Annan did not ambush Kenya says Justice minister\u2019, Daily Nation, 13 July 2009  [3] \u2018Perceptions and Realities: Kenya and the International Criminal Court\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 14 November 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Africa is overtly prosecuted  All of the twenty-four people currently indicted are African. Of the fifteen cases currently sitting before the court, all are African [1] . This in and of itself points to a large disparity between Africa and the rest of the world. It is also not at all true that Africa is the only place worthy of investigation \u2013 atrocities have occurred in the Middle East, Kosovo, Chechnya, Sri Lanka and North Korea, among others since the inception of the court. This is clearly because these other cases have powerful backers in the form of permanent Security Council members. The only conclusion to be drawn is that the ICC feels more comfortable targeting Africa then other regions where it is likely to run into opposition from powerful members of the international community.  [1] \u2018Situations and cases\u2019, International Criminal Court, accessed 13\/2\/2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-pro01b","title":"","text":"While Africa is the only continent to face prosecutions, a number of other regions where atrocities have taken place are being heavily investigated, including Afghanistan, Colombia, Georgia, Honduras and South Korea [1] . These are expected to lead to prosecutions occurring. So while Africa has had the focus during the initial years of the ICC, its focus is expanding not just focused on African atrocities. It is not even solely focused on developing countries; a complaint about British actions in Iraq has been handed to the ICC. [2]  [1] \u2018Situations and cases\u2019, International Criminal Court, accessed 13\/2\/2014  [2] Owen, Jonathan, \u2018Exclusive: Devastating dossier on \u2018abuse\u2019 by UK forces in Iraq goes to International Criminal Court\u2019, The Independent, 12 January 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-pro03a","title":"","text":"ICC is controlled by the Security Council  The ICC can only investigate situations that are referred to it by either the host country, or the Security Council [1] . A power also exists for the prosecutor to seek investigation, though this has as yet only been used twice. As such, most atrocities that occur across the world are shielded from prosecution because such a prosecution would be against the interests of a member Security Council. Leaders do not seem to be brought for investigation until they offend the west; Charles Taylor was not prosecuted until he had a falling out with the USA, despite their soft support for him in overthrowing the Doe regime [2] . Another case in point is Uganda where the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army has been charged, but not the Pro-US government forces, despite evidence existing they have also committed crimes [3] . It is clear then that the ICC makes decisions by broad external factors, which biases it against Africa which does not have any countries on the UNSC or any patrons sitting on the council.  [1] States parties to Rome Statute, \u2018Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court\u2019, ICC, 2011  [2] \u2018Charles Taylor \u2013 preacher, warlord, president\u2019, BBC News, 13 July 2009  [3] \u2018ICC, A Tool To Recolonise Africa\u2019, African Business"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con03b","title":"","text":"The point isn\u2019t that the ICC has prosecuted in Africa; it\u2019s that they have focused exclusively on Africa. This presents the rhetoric that Africa and Africans are somehow more violent and less moral then the rest of the world \u2013 or that Africans require more intervention than other places. This biases Africa again the rest of the world and marginalizes them in the international community."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con01b","title":"","text":"While these countries referred themselves, they did under enormous pressure from the ICC. The Prosecutors chose to \u2018follow closely\u2019 African cases to the exclusion of others and then actively invited these countries to refer themselves, under threat of seeking prosecutions on their own if the country did not comply [1] . Self-referral under pressure does not show that the ICC is not biased against Africa rather it shows either that the ICC has been more interested in Africa than elsewhere, or that it has put more pressure on African states to self-refer.  [1] African Business"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con02a","title":"","text":"Africa has a strong voice in the ICC  The ICC has gone to great lengths to involve all parts of the world in all aspects of its operations. Fatou Bensouda, from Gambia, was recently appointed Chief Prosecutor of the ICC. Moreover, Africans have twice been Vice-President of the court, and have had a fair representation of judges presiding over the court, with five of twenty-one current judges on the panel [1] . Moreover, the Africa Union played a large role in the negotiations over the Rome statute and the creation of the ICC, reflected in the large proportion of countries who are members. [2] As such, Africa\u2019s voice is strongly heard in the ICC.  [1] \u2018Judge Sang-Hyun Song re-elected President of the International Criminal Court for 2012-2015; Judges Sanji Mmasenono Monageng and Cuno Tarfusser elected First and Second Vice-President respectively\u2019, International Criminal Court, 11 March 2012  [2] M urithi, Tim, \u2018The African Union and the international Criminal Court: An Embattled Relationship\u2019, IJR Policy Brief, no.8 March 2013, pp.1-2"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con04a","title":"","text":"The ICC is pursuing the gravest situations within its jurisdiction  The ICC\u2019s jurisdiction is limited to those countries that have ratified the Rome statute. This combined with the likelihood of deadlock in the UNSC, means that many of the worst conflicts are off limits for the ICC. Using data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program and UNHCR database since the Rome Statute came into effect in July 2002 (up to 2011) Ben Shea of the UCLA Law School finds that there has been little bias against Africa.  Not only have most of the gravest conflicts taken place in Africa but the countries that were not investigated are not party to the Rome Statute. This eliminates Algeria, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Palestine, Russia, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Syria, Thailand, Togo, Turkey, Yemen and Zimbabwe. Others such as Liberia, and the Philippines only signed up after their conflict had ended. Others such as Columbia, Georgia and Mexico can be eliminated due to Complementarity (where the states are willing to investigate themselves).  In conclusion \u201cDespite the fact that several very grave conflicts outside of Africa have occurred sometime between 2003 and 2011, once taking into account the jurisdictional obstacles of the ICC, only one country remains: Afghanistan. The fact that Afghanistan has been under preliminary examination by the ICC suggests that the Court is not biased toward Africa.\u201d [1]  [1] Shea, Ben, \u2018Is the International Criminal Court targeting Africa inappropriately\u2019, ICCForum, 17 March 2013 , Ben\u2019s analysis is much more detailed than we have room for here so do read it for yourself."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con03a","title":"","text":"African victims deserve ICC intervention to bring justice  At the most fundamental level, many of the world\u2019s atrocities of recent times have occurred in Africa, where weak government and mass war are rampant. Taken per head of population Africa has the most conflicts of any continent and unlike Asia its most brutal conflicts have occurred in the last couple of decades. [1] As such, it is not surprising that a focus has existed in Africa from the ICC. That the ICC has not been as strong in other continents is not evidence of bias against Africa, rather that they have work to do in other areas. But the victims of atrocities in Africa deserve their perpetrators to be brought to justice. As such, Africa is not a \u2018victim\u2019 of the ICC, but the greatest beneficiary. Africa had the greatest desire and push for international assistance in obtaining justice, and are now receiving that. This simply shows that Africa is forging a path that other regions should follow in terms of its acceptance of international criminal law.  [1] Straus, Scott, \u2018Wars do end! Changing patterns of political violence in sub-Saharan Africa\u2019, African Affairs, 111\/143, March 2012, pp.179-201, p.186"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con01a","title":"","text":"Africa has invited ICC intervention  Far from the ICC being biased against Africa it is Africa\u2019s embrace of the ICC and the opportunity for international justice that has led to so many Africans being tried at the Hague. The reality is that the only nations to refer themselves to the ICC have been African \u2013the DR Congo, Central African Republic, Mali and Uganda were all self-referred [1] . Likewise, the Ivory Coast referred itself to ICC jurisdiction, and referral of Darfur to the ICC from the Security Council was done so with the African Union\u2019s support [2] . The ICC has clearly not as an institution been targeting Africa, rather it has been investigating, and then engaging in trials on situations that have been brought to it by the countries involved. Other regions of the world have not embraced the opportunity for justice in the same way so it is taking longer for investigations into war crimes in those situations by the ICC.  [1] Clark, P. \u201cLaw, Politics and Pragmatism: The ICC and case selection in the DRC and Uganda\u201d in Justice Peace and the ICC in Africa at 37.  [2] Lamony, Stephen A., \u2018Is the International Criminal Court really picking on Africa?\u2019, African Arguments, 16 April 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con04b","title":"","text":"That the ICC is investigating the conflicts that under some analyses may be the gravest within its jurisdiction does not mean it is not biased. Complementarity in itself shows bias; it allows countries that are considered more developed off the hook ensuring that the ICC will only look at the least developed. African states have signed up to the ICC but the result of their belief in international criminal justice has been that those who attempt to avoid international justice by not signing up to the statute have succeeded while those who accept some form of justice have been targeted."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbibaa-con02b","title":"","text":"One of strongest current criticisms of the African Union is that the ICC is ignoring its opinions. In particular, the AU has very strong views on the treatment of the Kenyan President and his deputy by the ICC in the Kenyan investigation, which the ICC has failed to engage with. Tanzanian President, Jakaya Kikwete, said 'The ICC continues to ignore repeated requests and appeals by the African Union' and this 'attitude has become a major handicap that fails to reconcile the court's secondary and complementary role in fighting impunity' [1] . This has led to African Union seriously considering leaving the union \u2013 not evidence of them being an important part of the process. Having Africans as a part of the ICC itself does not mean it listens to the African states that are parties to it.  [1] Dersso, Solomon, \u2018Unplanned obsolescence: The ICC and the African Union\u2019, AlJazeera, 11 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro02b","title":"","text":"Britain should not feel sorry for the new EU members and give up its rebate out of pity for them. They chose to enter the EU and accepted the terms of membership - including the rebate arrangements. Indeed, it could be argued that membership was not necessarily good for the former communist states - having escaped one bureaucratic and ideological superstate, they have now chosen to be ruled by another, exchanging Moscow for Brussels. EU membership will impose thousands of unnecessary regulations upon them and tie them to a \u201cEuropean social model\u201d which is clearly failing in the western states - both these things could hold back their economic growth and leave them poorer than they could have been outside the EU. Even the development aid they will receive will largely be wasted because it has to be spent in ways Brussels demands rather than in locally productive investment.  And if Britain did wish to be nice to the new member states, it could do so without giving up the principle of the rebate. Tony Blair agreed to alter the rebate in December 2005. Britain would not seek rebate payments linked to new member states agricultural and regional aid spending, but should keep the rebate in terms of spending of the original 15 EU countries who agreed ."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro02a","title":"","text":"New member states are much poorer than the UK  Britain should give up the rebate in solidarity with the new member states. Most of the ten recent entrants to the EU are still struggling to overcome the legacy of communist rule and are much poorer than the previous 15 member states. In 2009 Bulgaria and Romania had less than half the average EU GDP per capita whereas the UK was about 120% EU average. [1] As one of the richest EU members, Britain has a moral responsibility to contribute its share of the money needed to allow the new member states to make a success of EU membership. It also has a self-interest in contributing to their economic development, for as they become richer their citizens will increasingly buy the services and media exports in which Britain specialises. Indeed, because the rebate is paid for by all member states the new member states will be contributing payments towards Britain\u2019s rebate - clearly something which Britain cannot attempt to defend given the disparity in wealth.  [1] Eurostat, \u2018European economic statistics\u2019, 2010, p.31"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro03b","title":"","text":"It might be worth giving up the British rebate for serious CAP reform, but it is unnecessary. If the CAP were abolished, Britain\u2019s net payments to the EU would automatically be much smaller anyway, so the rebate (66% of the difference between the UK\u2019s contributions to the EU and its receipts from it) would also shrink away to insignificance. CAP reform is worth doing for its own sake, and other EU countries will only agree to it once they realise that fact - offering up the rebate will make no difference. In any case, even if the rebate was a useful bargaining chip to be cashed in, there is no chance of individual countries such as France (or Eire, Spain, Greece, Italy, Belgium, etc.) agreeing to changing the CAP at present and any one country could prevent it, so Britain should hold on to the rebate card."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro05a","title":"","text":"Enlargement could mean a new start  Britain should not alienate its natural allies among the new member states by insisting on the rebate. Like Britain, the new member states are largely economically liberal, anti-federalist regarding the future of the EU, and are pro-American in terms of foreign policy. As a result Britain is much more likely to be able to work with Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary on these issues. [1] They also recognise that Britain promoted the cause of their membership throughout the 1990s and appreciate its willingness to grant immediate free movement to their citizens who wish to work in Britain. In all these ways they are closer to Britain than to France or Germany, the two big states who have traditionally dominated EU decision-making. Enlargement presents Britain with a great opportunity to influence the future direction of Europe in partnership with these new states, but this opportunity will be lost if British insists on the rebate regardless of Central and Eastern European opinion.  [1] Number 10, \u2018Transcript of press conference given by the Prime Minister David Cameron at the EU Summit in Brussels on 17 December 2010\u2019, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro01a","title":"","text":"The Rebate is not justified  The British rebate is an undeserved anomaly - no other country has a similar arrangement to pay back part of its contribution to the EU budget. Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden all make a bigger net contribution to the EU than Britain does (in proportion to the size of their populations), [1] yet they do get special treatment. Britain knew how the EU operated when it chose to join more than thirty years ago - if it didn\u2019t like the structure of the budget, whereby rich countries pay more than poor ones, it could have stayed outside. In any case, a few billion Euros a year is a small sum to pay for access to a huge continent-wide market, the department for Business Innovation & Skills estimated that GDP in 2006 was 2.2% higher than it would have been without a single market, [2] in Britain this would be almost $50billion.  [1] BBC News, \u2018EU Budget\u2019, 2007  [2] BIS, \u2018The Benefits and Achievements of EU Single Market\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the UK is the only country to have so far received a rebate the Commission pointed out that the Fontainbleu agreement was based on the principle that \u2018\u2026.any Member State sustaining a budgetary burden which is excessive in relation to its relative prosperity may benefit from a correction at the appropriate time.\u2019 [1] This could clearly apply to many other countries apart from Britain, Germany and other countries could therefore ask for a rebate if they wish. While there is no other compensation mechanism like the rebate there are lump sum payments to the Netherlands and Sweden [2] while Netherlands, Sweden, Germany and Austria all have reduced rates of the European portion of VAT, [3] and the same states also pay less towards the rebate. [4]  [1] Patterson, Ben, \u2018The UK rebate issue\u2019, p.2 (link downloads pdf)  [2] Europa, \u2018Where does the money come from?\u2019, 2010  [3] Notenboom, Harry, \u2018Structure and composition of the European Union own resources System\u2019, 2009, p.17  [4] Ibid, p.15"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro05b","title":"","text":"Britain can be on good terms with the East European states without dropping the rebate. Tony Blair in his deal on the rebate in 2005 gave a good deal to the new members of the EU which gave much more in structural funds to these members and at the same time reduced the British rebate. [1]  [1] White, Michael, and Watt, Nicholas, \u2018Blair clinches deal with offer of big rebate cut\u2019, 2005"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro04b","title":"","text":"Britain does not want to be at the heart of Europe - it wants to be in the EU, but not run by the EU. Even if the rebate went, the UK would remain outside any EU \u201ccore group\u201d of countries, as it has chosen not to join the Schengen agreement on passport free movement, and to stay outside the Euro. Both these decisions have very wide political and popular support in the UK, and neither will be changed even if the rebate was weakly given away. So tensions will continue between Britain and its European partners, but at least by defending the rebate they will know that the UK is prepared to stand up for its interests and respect it."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro03a","title":"","text":"The rebate should go in exchange for CAP reform  It is worth giving the rebate up in exchange for serious reform of the EU budget, particularly of the Common Agricultural Policy which spends 40% of the EU\u2019s budget [1] on 3% of its population. [2] The CAP not only wastes taxpayers\u2019 money, it also raises the cost of food for European consumers, ruins the environment and prevents poor farmers in the developing world from trading their way out of poverty. Even in its own terms it is a disaster, for most CAP money goes to a small number of rich landowners running huge agribusiness estates, not to small-scale peasant farmers preserving the traditional rural way of life. If offering to give up the British rebate helps to get agreement on reform, then it is a sacrifice well worth making. Britain on the other hand favors using CAP more to protect the environment rather than encourage food production. [3]  [1] Europa, \u2018Budget 2011 in figures\u2019, 2011  [2] Eurobarometer, \u2018Europeans, Agriculture and the Common Agricultural Policy\u2019, 2007, p.9  [3] Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, \u2018The Common Agricultural Policy after 2013\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-pro04a","title":"","text":"Giving up the rebate would mean better relations with the Europe Union  It is worth giving up the rebate to remove a constant source of tension and ill-feeling between Britain and its European partners. Until the rebate is abandoned, Britain will never be at the heart of Europe. This limits our ability to promote our other interests in Europe, as every argument always ends up back at the rebate, and weakens our moral authority. Denmark for example is similarly Euro sceptic but is fiercely opposed to the UK rebate and aims to scrap it during Denmark\u2019s next EU Presidency in 2012. [1] Because preserving the rebate has always been the Prime Minister\u2019s priority, every other British goal has been given up instead. This led to bad deals for Britain over the ERM, at Maastricht, and in 2002 when Tony Blair accepted a Franco-German agreement to leave the CAP unreformed until 2013. This is because Britain is inevitably on its own in any possible change to the rebate whereas on almost any other issue Britain has allies. So when Britain\u2019s opponents can link the rebate to an issue Britain may be able to keep the rebate but will in other respects be on the losing side. [2]  [1] Jensen, Arne Nis, \u2018The UK rebate \u2013 or rethinking the EU budget?\u2019, 2011, p.27  [2] Rennie, David, and Helm, Toby, \u2018Blair is all alone in Britain\u2019s EU rebate row\u2019, 2005"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con03b","title":"","text":"When the rebate was agreed over twenty years ago, Britain was poor after decades of decline. In fact it was the third poorest state in the then European Economic Community (after Ireland and Greece) [1] , so the size of its net contribution to the budget was clearly unfair. Now the UK is one of the EU member countries and the rebate is no longer justifiable in the way it was originally justified. The sums involved are small compared to the overall UK budget - much less than the margin of error in the Chancellor of the Exchequer\u2019s tax and spending plans, in 2003 for example Gordon Brown had to borrow \u00a310 billion more than expected. [2] It is partly (perhaps largely) because of Margaret Thatcher\u2019s achievements in power that the UK is so strong economically, so agreeing that the rebate is no longer necessary is a tribute to her legacy, not a betrayal.  [1] OECD, \u20181984, Gross domestic product: Per head, US $, constant prices, constant PPPs, OECD base year\u2019, 2011  [2] Schifferes, Steve, \u2018Chancellor to squeeze wages\u2019, 2003"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con01b","title":"","text":"With the expansion of the European Union it is no longer justified that Britain should not be paying more towards the European Union, and in particular the much poorer Eastern European states which have joined. Britain cannot expect to get as much back from the European Union as it puts in. Britain should accept being one of the biggest contributors and in return would get a bigger influence one the EU, rather than being constantly frozen out of decisions by France and Germany."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con02a","title":"","text":"The Rebate makes membership acceptable to the British people  The EU is a vast wasteful bureaucracy, for example creating a \u2018House of European History\u2019 for \u20ac14 million, [1] and is beyond reform. Anything to limit Britain\u2019s contribution to this monster with pretensions to becoming a super-state is desirable. Many in the UK, between 35 and 65% of the population, [2] would prefer that we withdrew altogether, but if we can\u2019t at least we should \u201cstarve the beast\u201d by limiting the amount of money we give it to do harm with. Even if you think Britain should stay in the EU, you must recognise that the rebate is one of the only things that makes EU membership acceptable to ordinary people. Giving up the rebate is likely to swing British opinion strongly in favour of withdrawal.  [1] Banks, Martin, \u2018Parliament hits back at claims of \u2018wasteful\u2019 spending plans\u2019, 2011  [2] Hannan, Daniel, \u2018Would Britain vote to leave the EU?\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con04a","title":"","text":"Europe needs to tackle much bigger problems  Those EU leaders who are most critical of the rebate are ignoring the EU\u2019s real and serious problems by spending large amounts of time in rows with Britain over the rebate. Europe has immense problems such as persistent 10% unemployment, which has gone up as a result of the financial crisis, the rejection of the EU constitution by voters, the challenge of globalisation, the failure to make the single market in services work fairly, corruption and waste at Brussels, etc. This is even before the immense difficulties with the Euro which the Eurozone is currently suffering from. All these issues are much more important than the rebate for the future of the European Union. If Europe can once again become competitive economically then the financial gains for Europe will be much greater than persuading Britain to drop the rebate."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con03a","title":"","text":"The rebate could never be regained  Margaret Thatcher fought for four years to win the rebate for Britain, famously wielding her handbag at EU summits until it was agreed. Giving it up is a clear betrayal of Thatcher\u2019s legacy and shows the present government\u2019s unwillingness to stand up for Britain\u2019s interests in Brussels. With the situation now different due to there being more members there is no chance of any future British Prime Minister being able to repeat Mrs Thatcher\u2019s achievement of 1984, so once the rebate is given up, it can never be regained."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con01a","title":"","text":"Britain should not pay more than other countries  Britain\u2019s rebate is completely justified. Without it Britain would pay far more into the EU than it ever received back. The UK government argues \u201cWithout the rebate, the UK's net contribution as a percentage of national income would be twice as big as France's, and 1.5 times bigger than Germany's.\u201d [1] This is because most of the EU\u2019s budget goes to pay for the costs of the Common Agricultural Policy and regional aid programmes. The UK\u2019s farming sector is a very small part of the economy, and very few of its regions count as poor in Europe-wide terms, so Britain receives little funding back from the EU. Meanwhile as a result of new members joining the EU development funding has been taken away from poorer areas of Britain, many of which will no longer be eligible, to be redirected to Eastern and Central European countries which need it much more, [2] Britain\u2019s net contribution to the EU budget will go up .The rebate recognises this and returns two-thirds of the UK\u2019s net EU contribution (payments less receipts) every year. Even with the rebate, the UK is still the second biggest net contributor (proportional to population) of all the EU states. Over the past ten years Britain has contributed 2\u00bd times as much to the EU budget as France has [3] - and without the rebate it would have been 15 times as much!  [1] BBC News, \u2018EU budget commissioner calls for UK rebate to end\u2019, 2010  [2] European Union Committee, \u2018Future Financing of the European Union\u2019, 2005, p.154  [3] The Economist, \u2018About a rebate\u2019, 2005"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con04b","title":"","text":"There may be bigger problems but the rebate is symptomatic of many of them. The reason for many of Europe\u2019s problems is the determination for member states to take from the EU but not give and to haggle over everything rather than working together. The rebate is a prime example of one state believing that it deserves a small amount of money more than others and as such should be scrapped in order to help show that both big and small problems can be tackled through one state being willing to give up something important to it in return for others doing the same on other issues."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbbsgier-con02b","title":"","text":"The rebate is bad for Britain and the EU as it leads to a complacency in the UK about the way the EU is run. Knowing that two-thirds of Britain\u2019s net contribution will be returned anyway, British politicians and civil servants have not had to be serious about tackling waste and corruption at Brussels. Giving the rebate up would focus British minds much more clearly upon how the EU operates and would lead them to demand higher standards, both of the Commission and of their own elected representatives in the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament."}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is all supposition; we have no way of knowing if Syria will test any set red lines, or that they will use chemical weapons if there is no response. Instead it may be the response that causes the use of chemical weapons. The Syrian Foreign Ministry has said in the past that chemical and biological weapons \u201cwill never be used unless Syria is exposed to external aggression.\u201d [1] Clearly an intervention aiming to stop the use of chemical weapons would constitute just such external aggression.  [1] Associated Press, \u2018Syrian regime makes chemical warfare threat\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 23 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-pro02a","title":"","text":"No reaction will embolden the regime  Not responding to Syrian moves to use chemical weapons will be enabling the Syrian government to use chemical weapons. It has already been reported that some chemical weapons are being made ready for use such as the combining of the two chemical precursors, isopropanol and methylphosphony difluoride, needed to weaponize sarin gas. It means that \u201cPhysically, they\u2019ve gotten to the point where the can load it up on a plane and drop it\u201d. [1] If there is no response to this then Syria will be more likely to use weapons.  If there is no response to the limited use of chemical weapons, such as the use of Agent 15 in Homs, then there the regime will be encouraged to think that there will be no response to larger uses of chemical weapons. Syria would slowly escalate to see what it can get away with, an escalation that US officials think could \u201clead to a mass-casualty event\u201d without the appropriate response. [2]  [1] Shachtman, Noah, and Ackerman, Spencer, \u2018Exclusive: U.S. Sees Syria Prepping Chemical Weapons for Possible Attack\u2019, Wired Danger Room, 3 December 2012,   [2] Rogin, Josh, \u2018Exclusive: Secret State Department cable: Chemical weapons used in Syria\u2019, Foreign Policy The Cable, 15 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-pro03b","title":"","text":"Attacking chemical weapons stores prevents a threat in itself as it runs the risk of blowing up the weapons and therefore dispersing them into the air. [1] This risk would potentially be even higher with any biological weapons as they would not become harmless through dispersal as Chemical weapons would.  Quite apart from the risks of setting off the arsenals when attacking them such attacks would be very unlikely to be successful. While Syria\u2019s chemical weapons may be held in a few large centers this would seem to be unlikely given the history of attacks on unconventional weapons programs. Syria itself has had a nuclear weapons program destroyed as a result of an Israeli air attack in 2007. [2] This would have been a powerful lesson in the need to disperse these weapons to prevent their destruction from the air.  [1] \u2018Preventing Syrian Chemical Weapons Threat From Becoming Deadly Reality\u2019, PBS Newshour, 5 December 2012,   [2] Harel, Amos, \u2018Five years on, new details emerge about Israeli strike on Syrian reactor\u2019, Haaretz, 10 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-pro01a","title":"","text":"Intervention would be legitimate  If Syria uses, or looks as if it is about to use, chemical weapons then this would be a clear escalation that would require action. Syria has never signed the Chemical Weapons Convention [1] but it should be considered to be a part of customary international law so binding even on those who have not signed. [2]  The use of chemical weapons would also clearly be an attempt to cause huge numbers of casualties and large scale suffering. In 2005 with the United Nations World Summit the nations of the world signed up to \u201cIf a State is manifestly failing to protect its populations, the international community must be prepared to take collective action to protect populations.\u201d [3] So any intervention would be fully justifiable, and indeed should occur as Syria would be demonstrating that it is \u201cfailing to protect its populations\u201d by using chemical weapons on them. There is no doubt that the world has a moral responsibility to prevent atrocities in Syria, these atrocities are already happening, but the world cannot stand by while the Syrian government escalates their scale through the use of chemical weapons.  [1] \u2018Non-Member States\u2019, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,   [2] \u2018United States of America Practice Relating to Rule 74. Chemical Weapons\u2019, ICRC, 2013,   [3] Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, \u2018The Responsibility to Protect\u2019, United Nations, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-pro01b","title":"","text":"Intervention would only be legitimate if it was sanctioned by the United Nations Security Council or another country came directly under attack. What is being suggested while abhorrent does not meet either of these conditions. The Security Council is unlikely to agree to an intervention now and Syria would be very foolish to use their chemical weapons on a neighbour so inviting attack. The use of chemical weapons may be banned by international law but that does not mean that their use authorizes an intervention against a sovereign nation. [1]  [1] Ku, Julian, \u2018Would Syria\u2019s Use of Chemical Weapons Change the Legality of U.S. Intervention?\u2019, Opinio Juris, 7 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-pro03a","title":"","text":"No fly zones and bombing could eliminate the threat of chemical weapons  One of the reasons why there has not been an intervention in Syria already is the difficulty of doing so. Preventing or limiting the use of chemical weapons however does represent a defined objective that is smaller, and therefore easier, than bringing peace to Syria. It however has to be accepted that if Assad\u2019s regime is determined to use chemical weapons then some are likely to get through and how much is prevented is largely dependent on intelligence.  Interdicting chemical weapons during transport and bombing the storage facilities to make it much more difficult to move the weapons would be easiest to accomplish. [1] But if chemical weapons are about to be used then attacking the delivery vehicles would be necessary; any intervention would have overwhelming air superiority so would prevent the option of aircraft and helicopters being used to deliver the weapons.  More difficult to destroy are ballistic missiles, and particularly artillery [2] but even these are much easier to hit than infantry would be. In the conflict against Gaddafi successfully used precision guided weapons to destroy tanks and artillery. [3] Moreover an intervening force would not need to destroy every missile and artillery brigade only find those that are being issued with chemical weapons.  [1] Eisenstadt, Michael, \u2018Chemical Reaction\u2019, Foreign Policy, 18 January 2013,   [2] Fargo, Matthew, \u2018Targeting Syria\u2019s Chemical Weapons \u2013 A Dangerous Proposition\u2019, Center for Strategic & International Studies, 25 July 2012,   [3] Hebert, Adam J., \u2018Libya: Victory Through Airpower\u2019, Airforce-Magazine.com, December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-con03b","title":"","text":"According to Russia Syria has centralised its chemical weapons into just one or two locations which makes it possible to attack and destroy the weapons comparatively easily. [1] This might not destroy all Syria\u2019s chemical weapons but would still severely restrict their access to these weapons.  [1] \u2018Syria \u2018secures chemical weapons stockpile\u2019\u2019, Al Jazeera, 23 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-con01b","title":"","text":"All killing is abhorrent and one life is worth as much as any other. But while the lives lost are the same it is not true that the use of chemical weapons to kill is the same as conventional weapons; the difference is that one is banned and the other is not, their use makes intervention possible in a way it is not during a conventional conflict. The threat from chemical weapons is also of an order of magnitude greater than that of conventional weapons. They can kill immense numbers quickly and indiscriminately. The use of chemical weapons is an escalation that must not be allowed to happen."}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-con02a","title":"","text":"The use of weapons may not change the diplomatic situation  Russia and China have been vetoing U.N. action on Syria throughout the crisis. [1] It is precisely the intervention to prevent a massacre that the Russians and Chinese are trying to avoid, for fear that this would simply be a pretext for regime change as happened in Libya. Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov has explicitly stated \u201cWe\u2019ll not allow the Libyan experience to be reproduced in Syria.\u201d [2] When Obama said that chemical weapons use was a red line Xinhua, China\u2019s state news agency, responded \u201cObama's \"red line\" warnings merely aimed to seek new pretext for Syria intervention\u201d urging continued negotiations instead. [3] While the use of chemical weapons is odious and would make Assad even more of a pariah than he already is it should be remembered that China supports an equally odious regime in North Korea, so may not see Chemical weapons as sufficient reason to change position.  [1] Lynch, Colum, \u2018Russia, China veto U.N. action on Syria \u2026 and the blame game begins\u2019, Foreign Policy Turtle Bay, 4 February 2012,   [2] \u2018Russia Rules Out Libyan Scenario in Syria\u2019, RIANovosti, 9 December 2012,   [3] Chang, Liu, \u2018Obama\u2019s \u201cred line\u201d warnings merely aimed to seek new pretext for Syria intervention\u2019, Xinhua, 22 August 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-con03a","title":"","text":"Cannot prevent the use of chemical weapons  No intervention could prevent the use of chemical weapons of the Assad regime had decided to use them. No outside force could ever be certain they know where all Syria\u2019s weapons are [1] and destroy them in time if they were distributed for use; even full scale air strikes might not be enough, the pentagon thinks it would require 75,000 troops to secure the arsenal in the event of Syria\u2019s collapse. [2] The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, Martin Dempsey, admits that even if acting before the use of Chemical weapons by the Syrian government the United States would not be able to stop their use. \"The act of preventing the use of chemical weapons would be almost unachievable... because you would have to have such clarity of intelligence, you know, persistent surveillance, you'd have to actually see it before it happened, and that's -- that's unlikely, to be sure,\" [3] If widespread chemical weapons use had already occurred then the intervention could hardly be to prevent their use in the first place but to punish their use. Responding to the use of chemical weapons would seem to be pointless; the deaths will have occurred already. Syria may have more chemical weapons in its arsenal still to use but an attack would simply make them more likely to use everything they have.  [1] Stares, Paul B., \u2018Preventing Chemical Weapons Use in Syria\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 19 December 2012,   [2] Alexander, Kris, \u2018Syria\u2019s Collapse Could be a Chem Weapon Nightmare\u2019, Wired Danger Room, 16 July 2012,   [3] Rogin, Josh, \u2018Exclusive: Secret State Department cable: Chemical weapons used in Syria\u2019, Foreign Policy The Cable, 15 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-con01a","title":"","text":"Do chemical weapons really make a difference?  Chemical and biological weapons are among the most horrifying weapons ever created by man; it is with good cause that they are banned. However if there have already been 60,000 [1] people killed by the conflict in Syria then would the use of chemical weapons, unless it was on a massive scale, would not make much difference in terms of the numbers of people the Assad regime is killing. [2] It is morally inconsistent to consider chemical weapons somehow different if they are not changing the scale of the killing. It is human lives that matter, or rather does not matter as has been made clear by the unwillingness to do anything, not the type of weapon that kill those people. If Syria kills a few thousand more by using chemical weapons then what is the difference to killing thousands more using conventional weapons?  [1] \u2018Data suggests Syria death toll could be more than 60,000, says UN human rights office\u2019, UN News Centre, 2 January 2013,   [2] Eisenstadt, Michael, \u2018Chemical Reaction\u2019, Foreign Policy, 18 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhwispo-con02b","title":"","text":"The use of chemical weapons would change the Chinese and Russian positions. Syrian officials have been reported as saying they would not use chemical weapons because \u201cWe would not commit suicide\u201d as the support from Russia and China would be lost. [1] While China and Russia do have interests in Syria these interests are nothing like those China has in maintaining the North Korean regime.  [1] Blair, Charles P., \u2018Why Assad Won\u2019t Use His Chemical Weapons\u2019, Foreign Policy, 6 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Just because the Scots are less Europhobic than the English does not mean they are actually natural Europhiles. There is still a fair amount of euroscepticism in Scotland [quote=Prof. John Curtice] The rise of UKIP is also evident here albeit at a lower level [1] [\/quote]. When Scots were asked 'Which institution do you think has most influence over how Scotland is run?' in 2012 9% thought the EU did, when the question was changed to 'Which institution do you think ought to have most influence over how Scotland is run?' Only 1% said the EU, which certainly implies a degree of Euroscepticism. [2] One poll asking the question 'if Scotland were independent do you think it should join the EU?' even got a no answer, with 49% saying no and 32% saying yes. [3]  Indeed Scotland was more anti-european in the 1975 referendum on Europe than England. 41.6% of Scots voted no to joining the European Community compared to 31.3% of English. [4] Scottish attitudes towards the EC\/EU changed in the 1980s as Thatcher was becoming increasingly Europhobic. Because of this shift some academics think that the Scottish pro-european sentiment is a result of anti-Tory feeling rather than a judgement on Europe itself. [5] If this is the case then once independence removes the threat of Tory government Scottish attitudes to Europe might well shift back into a more anti-European position.  [1] BBC Newsnight Scotland, 25 October 2013 01:12 am  [2] What Scotland Thinks, \u2018Which Institution do you think has most influence over how Scotland is run?\u2019, 2012,    [3] What Scotland Thinks, \u2018If Scotland were independent do you think it should join the EU? \u2019, 2012   [4] Wikipedia, \u2018United Kingdom European Community membership referendup 1975\u2019, accessed 4 November 2013,   [5] Carrell, Severin, \u2018Salmond\u2019s EU crisis: polling suggests Scottish voters care\u2019, theguardian.com, 7 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Scotland is more pro-EU than the rest of the UK  According to a February 2013 Ipsos-mori poll Scots want an EU referendum but 53% would vote to stay in the EU and only 34% would vote to leave. Indeed if Scotland became independent those who wanted it to be in the EU rose to 61% and the number who wanted out fell to 33%. [1] In England 48% would vote to leave (as of November 2012) and 44% would vote to stay in. [2] The UK Independence Party whose principal policy platform is a desire to leave the EU has performed considerably worse in Scotland than in England. In the 2010 general election UKIP received 3.1% of the vote [3] whereas in the Scottish election the next year they only received 0.9% of the vote. [4] Similarly in the 2009 European Parliament elections UKIP came second nationally receiving almost 2.5 million votes, 16.5% [5] of all votes cast but in Scotland it came 6th, beaten by all four main parties and the Greens receiving only 5.2% of the vote. [6] Scots clearly believe their interests lie with Europe and it would be better for Scotland not to be tied to a country where sentiment is considerably more negative towards the EU.  [1] McLean, Christopher, \u2018Scots want EU referendum but would vote to stay in\u2019, Ipsos MORI, 14 February 2013,   [2] Social Research Institute, \u2018British public split on our future with the European Union\u2019, Ipsos MORI, 15 November 2012,   [3] BBC News, \u2018National Results\u2019, Election 2010,   [4] BBC News, \u2018Scotland elections\u2019, Vote 2011,   [5] BBC News, \u2018European Election 2009: UK Results\u2019, Elections 2009,   [6] BBC News, \u2018European Election 2009: Scotland\u2019, Elections 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-pro03b","title":"","text":"On the vast majority of issues rUK and Scotland have the same interests. Scotland wants to retain the UK\u2019s opt outs on issues such as the free movement of people and the Euro. Scotland also has the same interests on the main issue for the EU; trade. Nicola Sturgeon has highlighted the benefit to Scotland of the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership something that the UK is also strongly in favour of. [1]  [1] Sturgeon, Nicola, \u2018Scotland\u2019s Relationship with Europe\u2019, The Scottish Government, 26 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-pro01a","title":"","text":"An independent Scotland would avoid having a referendum on EU membership  The Scottish National Party (SNP) has said that they would not hold an EU referendum in an independent Scotland. Scotland is [quote=Nicola Sturgeon] regardless of the direction of UK policy - Scotland is strongly committed to continuing within the EU as an independent nation [1] [\/quote] A vote for independence would therefore be a vote for a stable relationship with Europe.  Interestingly should Scotland become independent and accede to the EU there would have to be a treaty change to provide for Scottish representation in EU institutions. [2] This could well trigger an EU referendum in the remainder of the UK (rUK) under the 'referendum lock'.  [1] Sturgeon, Nicola, \u2018Scotland\u2019s Relationship with Europe\u2019, The Scottish Government, 26 February 2013,  \u00a79  [2] Avery, Graham, \u2018HC 643 The foreign policy implications of and for a separate Scotland, Foreign Affairs Select Committee, 24 September 2012,  point 6."}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-pro01b","title":"","text":"The SNP's strongest argument, repeatedly made, is that independence would allow Scots to make their own decisions. It would therefore be only right that Scots whether independent or not should be allowed their own referendum on EU membership. The principle of a referendum on EU membership is supported by 58% of Scots with only 36% opposing a referendum. [1] A vote for independence would therefore seem to be a vote in favour of the validity of referendums legitimising the need to have referendums on similarly large issues in the future. A vote for an independent Scotland is not necessarily a vote for a stable relationship with Europe.  [1] McLean, Christopher, \u2018Scots want EU referendum but would vote to stay in\u2019, Ipsos MORI, 14 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Scotland has different interests to rUK  States are often seen as having one single unitary interest, however this is not the case the interests of different regions can be very different. It should therefore not be surprising that Scotland and rUK have different interests with relation to the EU. For example on climate change Scotland has the greatest potential for the generation of renewable energy in Europe with 25% of Europe\u2019s tidal potential and 10% of wave potential [1] yet the UK is in favour of scrapping European targets for the generation of renewable energy. [2] UK ministers have also been accused of \u201cworking against Scotland\u201d on agriculture being willing to accept reductions in farm support meaning that Scotland receives the lowest level in Europe. [3] Scotland\u2019s own interests would therefore be better represented by having its own government at the negotiating table than a UK government.  [1] \u2018Energy in Scotland: Get the facts\u2019, The Scottish Government, 10 July 2013,   [2] Harvey, Fiona, \u2018Britain resists EU bid to set new target on renewable energy\u2019, The Observer, 25 May 2013,   [3] McLaughlin, Mark, \u2018SNP Conference: UK ministers \u2018working against Scotland\u2019\u2019, The Independent, 19 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-con03b","title":"","text":"The Scottish Government claims that an independent Scotland would be able to join the EU with all the UK's various opt outs intact. Scotland indeed could not be forced to join the Euro because in order to do so it would have to demonstrate currency convergence for at least two years which the newly independent state obviously would not be in a position to do. [1] Therefore if Scotland retained UK opt outs there would be only a positive change in relationship with Scotland receiving greater representation in EU institutions through having its own seat in the Council of Ministers, possibly its own Commissioner, and also a reallocation of European Parliamentary constituencies that would increase its representation there (and paradoxically increase rUK representation as well). [2]  [1] Noon, Stephen, \u2018Euro membership\u2019, 10 November 2011,   [2] Engel, Arno, and Parkes, Roderick, \u2018Accommodating an independent Scotland: how a British-style constitution for the EU could secure Scotland\u2019s future\u2019, European Policy Centre, 24 October 2012,  p.7"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-con01b","title":"","text":"The SNP argues that the transition from being a constituent part of the UK inside the EU and being an independent state within the EU would be seamless. [1] While 'the Scottish government does not take the process of EU membership for granted' they hope to notify the EU of their intent to join the EU before the referendum and then use the period between a yes vote and independence to negotiate their accession. [2] They would have 18 months to sort out the transition between the referendum on independence on 21 September 2014 and independence in March 2016. It should be remembered that an independent Scotland should already meet all the criteria for membership as a result of having already been a member so should be able to go through membership negotiations quickly.  [1] The Scotsman, \u2018Scottish independence: Hague EU claims criticised\u2019, 31 October 2013,   [2] Sturgeon, Nicola, \u2018Scotland\u2019s Relationship with Europe\u2019, The Scottish Government, 26 February 2013,  \u00a742-5."}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-con02a","title":"","text":"The UK or rUK is not going to leave the EU.  Despite the legislative activity an EU referendum is still not an immediate prospect. Legislation as it stands only calls for a referendum in the event of treaty change, which would itself take years to negotiate. The private members bill currently progressing through the Commons is likely to be butchered in the Lords and David Cameron's promise of a 2017 referendum relies on a Conservative victory in 2015. Such a victory may not happen, despite Labour's soft poll lead the natural bias of the current boundaries make an outright Conservative victory a very remote prospect. [1] Even if a referendum does get held the out supporters would then have to win it. Although polls for a prospective EU membership referendum tend to show those who favour the exit leading this cannot be taken as necessarily meaning that it is likely to happen. Polls change, the AV referendum saw numbers initially favourable to AV swing round to a decisive victory against AV over the course of the campaign. [2] There are a number of reasons why this is likely in an in\/out EU referendum. A vote to leave the EU is in fact rather unlikely because of the full weight of the establishment in the staying in camp. Businesses tend to favour staying in because [quote=John Cridland, Director General of the CBI] being a member of a reformed EU is the best way to preserve market access [3] [\/quote]. The CBI released a report that said that each UK household was \u00a33,000 better off due to EU membership. [4] That is a lot of money and if opinions on the EU are anything like those on Scottish independence it is a killer argument. 56% of scots would favour independence if it would make them \u00a3500 better off but only 22% would still be in favour of independence if it would make them \u00a3500 worse off. [5] If similar swings were to occur in an EU referendum Britain would not be leaving the EU. Furthermore, the referendum is likely only to occur after a renegotiation which is bound to bring something, enough for the (presumably Conservative) Prime minister to recommend a vote to stay in, the result would be support for the EU across all three main parties, plus the nationalist parties as well. A renegotiation sufficient for a conservative PM to recommend staying in also has an interesting effect upon polled voting intentions by almost exactly reversing them. A YouGov poll (May 2013) found that while under the current terms 47% would vote to leave and only 30% to stay but after renegotiation 32% would vote to leave and 45% to stay. [6]  [1] Mylles, Richard, \u2018The chances of an EU referendum in the next parliament are wildly overstated\u2019, New Statesman, 18 July 2013,   [2] UKPollingReport, \u2018Alternative Vote\u2019, accessed 4 November 2013,   [3] Cridland, John, \u2018Leaving Europe would be bad for British business\u2019, The Guardian, 17 May 2013,   [4] CBI, \u2018In with reform or out with no influence \u2013 CBI chief makes case for EU membership\u2019, 4 November 2013,   [5] ICM, \u2018Scottish Independence Poll \u2013 September 2013\u2019, 18 September 2013,   [6] YouGov, \u2018YouGov \/ Sunday Times Survey Results\u2019, 10 May 2013,  p.15."}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-con03a","title":"","text":"The Scottish relationship with the EU is likely to change after independence.  The UK's various opt outs exist because of the strong negotiating position that the whole of the UK had at the time of the signing of the various relevant treaties. Had Scotland been independent then it would not have been in the same position. It is also argued that if Scotland wants to join the EU then it implicitly wants to join the EU as it is now and could retain exceptional status only in the very short term. [1] The change in relationship would probably change the Scottish attitude to the EU, although it is hard to say whether this would be automatically in a negative way. The implication of Jose Manuel Barroso's comments quoted earlier is that Scotland will be unlikely to retain the UK's opt outs from certain areas of EU policy. Most obviously it is likely that if joining as a new state Scotland may have no choice but to join the Euro at least in the long term when it meets the convergence requirements. [2] Several polls show Scots less likely to vote for independence if Scotland would then have to join the Euro. [3] The other main sticking point would be Schengen, it has been suggested that Scotland would have to join the EU's free travel zone which the UK is not currently a member of and the main consequence of this would be border controls between Scotland and England. [4] Were Scotland to seek to avoid joining the Euro and Schengen then it would prolong the application process meaning that Scotland would be unlikely to be ready to join the EU upon independence. This point was made by the ambassador of the EU's newest member Croatia [quote=Ambassador Ivan Grdesic] if you decide to opt out on many things, you are not ready actually... [\/quote] so warning that attempts to opt out of the Euro and Schengen would prolong negotiations. [5]  [1] Engel, Arno, and Parkes, Roderick, \u2018Accommodating an independent Scotland: how a British-style constitution for the EU could secure Scotland\u2019s future\u2019, European Policy Centre, 24 October 2012,  pp.6-7.  [2] Thorp, Arabella, and Thompson, Gavin, \u2018Scotland, independence and the EU \u2013 Commons Library Standard Note\u2019, parliament.uk, 13 July 2012,   [3] What Scotland Thinks, \u2018If an independent Scotland had to join the Euro, how would this effect your vote in a Scottish independence referendum?\u2019, January 2013,    [4] Barnes, Eddie, \u2018Scottish independence: EU may force border terms\u2019, The Scotsman,   [5] BBC News, \u2018Scottish independence: Warning over EU membership plan\u2019, 3 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-con01a","title":"","text":"Scottish independence might be a faster route out of the EU than a referendum.  Before 2012 the SNP argued that Independence could be achieved and Scotland remain within the EU while retaining all UK opt outs with a minimal amount of trouble. However this position has since changed largely due to European commission pronouncements on the issue. [1] There is no EU precedent to the situation that Scottish independence would bring about. It has been argued that Scotland would not automatically remain part of the EU and would have to reapply. Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso has said [quote=Barroso] For the European Union\u2019s purposes, from a legal point of view, it is certainly a new state. If a country becomes independent it is a new state and then it has to negotiate into the European Union [2] [\/quote] Certainly if Scotland's application to join the EU were a normal one then the 18 month timetable between referendum to independence would not give enough time to go through the process of joining the EU. Some applications have taken over a decade, the UK's own (second) application took over 5 years. The fastest application was Finland which only took 2 years 10 months between application and accession. [3] Even seemingly very minor disputes can hold up membership for long periods, a Croatia-Slovenia dispute over maritime access considerably delayed the accession of the former. Thus small disputes like with Spain over fishing rights or with Ireland over Rockall could be a considerable drag on Scotland's application. [4] None of the above are insurmountable problems and would only impose a temporary exit of Scotland from the EU. However, it is possible that Scotland will be unable to rejoin. It ought to be remembered that enlargement requires unanimous support of the current member states, which may not be forthcoming. A number of other states such as Belgium and Italy have regions with national aspirations, the most likely European opponent to Scottish independence would be Spain with its eastern region of Catalonia's independence movement often being compared to Scotland's. As a result there have been persistent rumours that Spain might veto Scottish re-entry into the EU in order to send a message to its own separatists. [5] Spain\u2019s Prime Minister Rajoy was plain when he said [quote=Rajoy] It's very clear to me\u2026 a country that would obtain independence from the EU would remain out of the EU. [6] [\/quote]  [1] Carrell, Severin, \u2018Barroso casts doubt on independent Scotland\u2019s EU membership rights\u2019, The Guardian, 12 September 2012,  McSmith, Andy, \u2018The impact of that Barroso letter\u2019, The Independent, 20 December 2012,   [2] Davidson, Ruth, \u2018Separate Scotland would have to reapply to EU \u2013 Barroso\u2019, Scottish Conservatives, 10 December 2012,  [BBC Hardtalk transcript]  [3] Wikipedia, \u2018Enlargement of the European Union\u2019, accessed 4 November 2013,   [4] Open Europe Blog, \u2018Scottish independence and EU accession: tricky to pull off in one manoeuvre?\u2019, 5 February 2013,   [5] York, Christopher, \u2018Scottish Independence: Spain Could Veto EU Membership\u2019, The Huffington Post, 6 December 2012,   Peterkin, Tom, \u2018Scottish Independence: Spain key to Scotland\u2019s EU hopes\u2019, The Scotsman, 4 November 2012,   [6] Carrell, Severin, and Kassam, Ashifa, \u2018Scottish independence: Spain blocks Alex Salmond\u2019s hopes for EU transition\u2019, The Guardian, 27 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eppgglghb-con02b","title":"","text":"Polls consistently point to a vote to leave the EU in a prospective referendum. [1] Whether this actually happens is a moot point, such a referendum would still bring about instability in the relationship with the European Union. Scotland if independent could avoid this turbulence. At the same time a renegotiation does not mean that Scotland\u2019s interests would be safeguarded as a British Prime Minister would be negotiating with an eye to winning any referendum. The result is that such renegotiations would likely favour English interests over Scottish ones as it is English votes the Prime Minister would need to win over.  [1] UKPollingReport, \u2018YouGov\/Sunday Times \u2013 Con 29, Lab 40, LD 9, UKIP 14\u2019, 19 May 2013,    and others on the same site."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro02b","title":"","text":"The Opposition acknowledges that the US government\u2019s obligation to act in its own nation\u2019s best interest reflects a flaw in the US\u2019s international role. However, this flaw is outweighed by the benefits of US protection. First, other countries can use soft power to prevent the US from abusing its military power. In 2010, US exports exceeded $1.8 trillion and imports exceeded $2.3 trillion; international trade accounted for 14% of US GDP. [1] The US is vulnerable to economic sanctions. Furthermore, the US enjoys the position it holds in international relations; were it to lose respect and bargaining power in the international community, Americans would strongly question the wisdom of government decisions. Furthermore, Americans are strongly attached to an ideal of American morality. This ideal places a check on the nation\u2019s willingness to engage in foreign combat without any moral justification. Thus there are checks in place to keep the US from acting only in self-interest.  [1] William Baumol and Alan Blinder, Macroeconomics: Principles and Policy 12th Edition, (Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning), 2011, 23."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The US government\u2019s obligation to its own people is mutually exclusive to acting on behalf of the international community.  A government derives its sovereignty from a social contract with its citizens. Citizens surrender some of their freedoms in exchange for government protection; if a government does not serve its people\u2019s best interests, it is not legitimate. Thus in any situation where the interests of the American public are not aligned with those of the global population, the US military cannot serve the international community without failing to meet its obligation to its own citizenry. Because the American public has the ability to oust a leader that does not promote their interests, the military is much more likely to choose the option of serving American interests. This may not be unreasonable behavior, but it is indicative of the need for other entities- either other nations or international organizations- to have comparable military power to that of the United States."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro03b","title":"","text":"The Pro only identifies US military failures; there are also many occasions of US military success. The Opposition case details examples of military success in Panama, Kuwait, and Bosnia. The recent success of Libyan rebel attempts to overthrow Gaddafi is partially attributable to US military assistance. [1] Furthermore, US military strategy is constantly changing and adapting. The rules of international engagement change relatively quickly; when the rise of the Soviet threat rendered isolationism impossible, the US adapted its foreign policy to a bipolar world in which mutually assured destruction was an effective means of preventing direct conflict. The fall of the USSR created a multi-polar world in which MAD became a more complex and less reliable strategy. Today, the US is adjusting to the increasing threat of Islamic terrorism. These constant changes render perfect implementation of military force impossible- this impossibility is not unique to the US. But with constant reevaluation and assistance from the international community, the US can be a reasonably effective peacekeeper.  [1] Steven Erlanger, \u201cPanetta Urges Europe to Spend More on NATO or Risk a Hollowed-Out Alliance,\u201d New York Times, October 5, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro05a","title":"","text":"As long as the United States works unilaterally to quell violent conflict, progress is not being made towards a better, internationally coordinated system.  The United States spends approximately $700 trillion annually on its military; China, the world\u2019s second largest military spender, spends $114 trillion. [1] The US outpaces other possible peacekeepers by such a large gap that these other powers have little incentive to even try to keep up. Unilateral US intervention undermines international actors such as UN troops because it communicates the US\u2019s refusal to submit to the interests of the international community. Thus US military intervention becomes a \u201cquick fix\u201d which prevents genuine long-term stability  [1] \u201cSIPRI Military Expenditure Database,\u201d Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro01a","title":"","text":"The United States is not an appropriate agent for monitoring international security because it is only representative of one nation.  The U.S. is an independent nation, not an international entity. Thus 96% of the world population has no voice in its\u2019 government\u2019s decisions. [1] The US government has authority over its own citizens, and it is justified in engaging in war if its citizens are under direct threat. However, citizens of other nations have no means of expressing their opinion in the US government. If the US government abuses its power, these people have no reliable legal means of recourse. Consequently, the US government has no authority to intervene in their affairs.  [1] \u201cCountry Comparison: Population,\u201d The World Fact Book, Central Intelligence Agency."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro01b","title":"","text":"All conflicts are a threat to the entire international community.  As is discussed in the Opposition\u2019s arguments, conflicts have the ability to spill over into other regions and to destabilize governments. Such conflicts endanger the international community because they increase the risk of irrational\/non-state actors attaining weapons of mass destruction. This is problematic because irrational actors do not necessarily have a sense of self-preservation, and thus cannot be deterred by threats of mass retaliation. Thus if such an actor attains nuclear weapons, there is little that can stop them from using such weapons. Non-state actors are problematic because governments do not know with whom they are negotiating or where\/how to find them. Thus the US is justified in intervening in such conflicts as a means of self-preservation.  The Pro\u2019s argument is based on a theory of sovereignty that is already violated in most of the conflicts in which the US interferes.  The Pro\u2019s argument is based on the notion that the proper agent to act on behalf of a group of people is a legitimate government that has earned the right to sovereignty. The Opposition does not dispute this theory. However, many of the conflicts in which the US intervenes involve abusive governments or invading nations that violate human rights on massive scales. The people that the US seeks to protect often do not have a legitimate government to represent their interests. US protection may not be the ideal means of protecting global human rights, but it is better than not protecting them at all."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro05b","title":"","text":"The Pro\u2019s perspective is backwards; as long as other nations do not move towards providing viable alternatives to US military dominance, the US cannot afford to reduce its own defenses. The US should not have to provide an incentive for other nations to improve their defense systems; their own self-preservation should be a sufficient incentive. In June 2011, then-US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates warned that European NATO members\u2019 reluctance to fund their share of NATO operations could be negative impacts for the alliance\u2019s future. The New York Times related Gates\u2019 words; \u201c[Gates] warned of a \u2018dim if not dismal future\u2019 for the alliance unless its European members increased their participation, and he said that Washington would not forever pay for European security when the Europeans could do that for themselves.\u201d [1] The US may be able to alter its role to be less unilateral, but it cannot do so until after other military entities improve their defense systems.  [1] Erlanger."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro04b","title":"","text":"There are currently no viable alternatives to US military dominance. All would simply lead to more strife; dominance by another, probably less peaceful power, no dominance at all leading to anarchy or a balance of power, which usually leads to war as in the 18th Century. All of these options would create considerably more conflict than there is at the moment.(See Opposition argument)"}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Failure after failure has made it clear that the US military is not an effective actor for maintaining international stability.  The US military makes problems worse just as often as it makes them better. The US intervened in Vietnam on the grounds of protecting the free world from communism; over 58,000 American soldiers and approximately 2 million Vietnamese civilians were killed while the US failed to subdue the Vietcong. The United States provided covert support to Augusto Pinochet after his military coup d\u2019etat over Chile\u2019s democratically elected government under Salvadore Allende because the US feared Allende, a socialist, would promote communism. [1] , [2] Today, Pinochet is remembered as a bloody dictator that ruled through terror for 17 years. US intervention in Somalia in 1992-94 resulted in little more than the loss of American lives. [3] The US experienced similarly negatively results during its intervention in Beirut (1982-84), Grenada (1983), Libya (1986), and Haiti (1994). [4] More recently, the US has occupied Iraq and Afghanistan for nearly ten years without brining long-term stability to the region. The United States military needs to step down from its self-assumed role as world police officer because it is not effective and its failed attempts lead to huge civilian casualties.  [1] Reel and Smith.  [2] \u201cCovert Action in Chile,\u201d U.S. Department of State, December 19, 1975.  [3] Richard W. Stewart, \u201cThe United States Army in Somalia: 1992-1994,\u201d U.S. Army Center of Military History.  [4] \u201cA Chronology of U.S. Military Interventions: From Vietnam to the Balkans,\u201d PBS Frontline"}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro04a","title":"","text":"US unilateral intervention is a form of the Western imperialism that has caused so much of the strife that exists in the modern world.  Western domination is not the answer to political conflict; it is the cause of many predicaments that result in the violation of human rights in countries in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East today. Former CIA analyst Michael Scheuer, who led the hunt for Osama Bin Laden, wrote in his 2005 book, Imperial Hubris, that \u201c[Bin Laden] could not have his current- and increasing- level of success if Muslims did not believe their faith, brethren, resources, and lands to be under attack by the United States and, more generally, the West. Indeed, the United States, and its policies and actions, are Bin Laden\u2019s only indispensable allies.\u201d [1] The United States\u2019 unwavering support for Israel and its dubious grounds for invading Iraq are further source of anger in the Arab world. [2] The US justifies its military dominance by arguing that terrorist groups pose a serious threat to American society, and then this military dominance increases support for such terrorist groups. America cannot act as the world police because such a system will never lead to peace.  [1] Scheuer, iii.  [2] Ibid."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con03b","title":"","text":"Brute force is not sufficient to maintain global security. Just as one cannot simply strike a stone repeatedly and expect to replicate Michelangelo\u2019s David, one cannot simply produce more tanks and train more soldiers and expect to resolve the complex problems that create modern global threats. The US has failed to establish a stable and safe environment in Iraq and Afghanistan despite almost 10 years of occupation. The Pro\u2019s arguments point to failed or misguided intervention in Vietnam, Chile, Somalia, Lebanon, Grenada, Libya, and Haiti. These examples demonstrate that the US is not receiving much benefit from the vast resources it puts into its military. The US is only one country, and thus does not have the capability to view global conflicts from an international perspective. The world would be better served by greater investment in international military entities, such as NATO or UN peacekeepers. An international response to global conflict has greater perceived legitimacy than a unilateral response by one nation; perceived legitimacy reduces backlash from groups that feel victimized. Thus US military intervention is not a very effective means of attaining sustainable peace."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con01b","title":"","text":"The variety of checks upon the US military may prevent it from total global domination, but these checks are not sufficient to make the US a genuinely altruistic actor. The US justifies intervention on the grounds of promoting democracy, but selectively intervenes. The US has supported non-democratic regimes in Chile and Iran, [1] and Guatemala, and has relatively close relations with Saudi Arabia. The US rarely criticizes the Israeli government for expanding settlements, while at the same time providing support to rebel forces in Libya. The Pro does not contend that the US is a completely amoral actor. However, ideologically inconsistent foreign policy demonstrates that the US is willing to prioritize its own interests over the rights of other nations\u2019 citizens. Thus the US is not an appropriate entity to protect global human rights or international stability.  [1] James Risen, \u201cSecrets of History: the C.I.A. in Iran,\u201d New York Times, 2000."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con02a","title":"","text":"The United States is entitled to take measures to protect its citizens.  In a nuclear world, it is impossible to dismiss another nation\u2019s instability as \u201ctheir problem.\u201d If a government with nuclear weapons collapses, irrational actors (such as ideological terrorist groups) may attain control of such weapons. Nuclear war has the potential to destroy all of humanity- even in the case of a limited conflict. Alexis Madrigal of Wired Science explains, \u201cImagine that the long-simmering conflict between India and Pakistan broke out into a war in which each side deployed 50 nuclear weapons against the other country\u2019s megacities [\u2026] Beyond the local human tragedy of such a situation, a new study looking at the atmospheric chemistry of regional nuclear war finds that the hot smoke from burning cities would tear holes in the ozone layer of the Earth. The increased UV radiation resulting from the ozone loss could more than double DNA damage, and increase cancer rates across North America and Eurasia.\u201d [1] Thus it is impossible for the US to turn a blind eye to conflicts and instability in other regions. Furthermore, the stakes of nuclear fallout are so high that very few chances can be taken. Even if the chance of a conflict ending in nuclear war is very small, the damages that would occur are so great that even small chances cannot be taken. Thus the US military is justified in intervening in international conflicts because such intervention can be decisively linked to the welfare of its citizens.  [1] Madrigal."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con04a","title":"","text":"There are currently no viable alternatives to US military dominance.  The 2011 Libyan revolution demonstrates the world\u2019s dependence on US military support. Although NATO unanimously agreed to intervene in the revolution, less than half participated, and even fewer actually conducted airstrikes. In August 2011, NATO Secretary-General Anders Fogh Rasmussen told the Wall Street Journal \u201cThe fact is that Europe couldn\u2019t have done this on its own [\u2026] the lack of defense investment will make it increasingly difficult for Europe to take on responsibility for international crisis management beyond Europe\u2019s borders.\u201d [1] Other prosperous nations criticize the US on the grounds that it needs to share military power, but these nations are not actually willing to increase their own involvement in order to share responsibility. The second largest military in the world belongs to China; because China is an emerging power, the international community cannot be sure how they will wield this power. Until US allies increase their military participation so that there are viable alternatives to US military involvement, the US cannot safely step down from its active military role.  [1] Filer and MacDonald."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con03a","title":"","text":"The United States has greater military capacity than any other entity in the world.  The US accounts for 43% of global expenditures on military. [1] The US has greater capacity to prevent global security threats than any other entity. Furthermore, the US has used limited military intervention successfully in the recent past. In 1989, the US sent 27,000 troops to Panama to protect the lives of 35,000 Americans in Panama and to protect Panama\u2019s own citizens. The invasion led to the removal of the dictatorial leader Manuel Noriega and the implementation of an elected government. [2] In the Persian Gulf War of 1990-91, the US successfully forced Iraqi troops to retreat from Kuwait. [3] In 1995 the US used limited military tactics to protect civilians in Sarajevo from Bosnian Serb forces, leading to a peace agreement between the warring parties. [4] The Opposition does not contend that every US military intervention is or will be successful, or that military intervention is all that is necessary in addressing conflicts. The Opposition also promotes constant reevaluation of military tactics so that past tragedies are not repeated. But despite its drawbacks, US military intervention has the potential to be a source of stability and protection in the modern world from nuclear threats, terrorist attacks, and other large-scale violations of human rights.  [1] \u201cSIPRI Military Expenditure Database,\u201d Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2011.  [2] \u201cA Chronology of U.S. Military Interventions: From Vietnam to the Balkans,\u201d PBS Frontline.  [3] Ibid.  [4] Ibid."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con01a","title":"","text":"The United States has several qualities that allow it to act honorably on behalf of the international community.  It is essential that there is some agent in the international community that is able to step into situations that threaten global security, such as a collapsed government in a state with nuclear capacity. The US is an appropriate agent because its internal checks prevent it from abusing its military capacity. First, the US government contains a system of checks and balances that prevent an individual corrupt leader from going to war. Second, the US is a democracy; few civilians are eager to send their sons off to die in unnecessary wars. Thus political leaders must fear repercussions for engaging in excessive conflict. Third, the US is a relatively open economy; it is not unimpressionable to external influence. The Opposition does not contend that everything the US military does is perfect. However, the myriad of checks listed above ensures that excessive use of US military force will not go unchallenged, either domestically or internationally."}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con04b","title":"","text":"US unilateral intervention is a form of the Western imperialism that has caused so much of the strife that exists in the modern world. There are alternatives \u2013while some may contend they will be worse we do not know that this is the case. The United States would remain dominant but it would not need to use its military power in the overbearing way that it does now but rather in a much more constructive way that relies on diplomacy rather than military force. (See proposition argument)"}
+{"id":"training-international-agpwhouhmp-con02b","title":"","text":"The Opposition correctly identifies the threat, which is nuclear war. However, hegemonic US military power is not the solution to this threat. The first nuclear arms race began during the Cold War; because neither the US nor the USSR wanted the other to have the upper hand in nuclear capacity, each produced enough weapons to destroy the entire world. In the 1970s, Pakistan developed nuclear weapons; Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto argued that \u201cthe Christians have the bomb, the Jews have the bomb, the Hindus have the bomb, why not Islam?\u201d [1] As the US continues to increase its military strength, other nations that are not sure they can rely on the US as an ally feel compelled to increase their strength in response. This leads to a perpetual armaments race. Armaments races are a waste of resources that would be better spent on civil services, and create widespread paranoia that the other country may attack at any time. Furthermore, continuously increasing military capacity is not an effective way of combating non-state actors. Terrorist groups operate underground; because they are difficult to detect, they are most effectively addressed through community engagement with government security. Thus excessive military development puts the US and other nations at risk without effectively addressing security threats.  [1] Sijo Joseph Ponnatt, \u201cThe Normative Approach to Nuclear Proliferation,\u201d International Journal on World Peace, March 1, 2006. ["}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Expansion is not the right way to increase transparency, as the number of informal consultations of smaller groups (such as permanent members or only industrialised permanent members) in order to try and push though resolutions would probably rise. Reforms to enhance transparency and improve working methods are already taking place \u2013 At a 19 July 2007 informal meeting of the Open-ended Working Group on the Question of Equitable Representation on an Increase in Membership of the Security Council, some suggested a more analytical report that would, among other things, provide rationales for the Council's major decisions. [1]  [1] 'Efforts to Reform Council Working Methods 1993-2007', 18\/10\/2007,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Security council needs to be more democratic.  At the moment many countries are not heard in the council and some states may never gain a chance of being elected to the Security Council. This leaves billions of the world's population without representation in the world's highest body. How can India with over a sixth of the world's population be left out? Security Council expansion would make the UN much more democratic as there would be more participants representing more of the people of the world present in closed meetings and informal consultations. Expansion would increase the transparency and therefore the accountability of the Council \u2013 something that even countries sometimes considered to be against democracy believe is necessary \u201che (Seyed Mohammad Ali Mottaghi Nejad) said Iran believed that the links between the issues comprised the \u201cbasic objective\u201d of a comprehensive reform towards a Council that was more democratic, inclusive, equitably representative, transparent, effective and accountable. \u201c [1]  [1] 'Concluding Annual Debate on Security Council Reform, General Assembly', 12\/11\/2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Non-permanent members are selected to represent voices of entire regions already. Increasing the size of the Council would only make it more unwieldy as it would be extremely difficult to negotiate in such an expanded forum. The nature of the Council's work requires swift action and expansion could negatively impact on its ability to provide quick solutions for world peace."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro05a","title":"","text":"The EU is one of the world's largest trade blocs, has the world's largest GDP, and represents almost half a billion people.  The EU is one of the world\u2019s largest trade blocs, has the world\u2019s largest GDP, and represents almost half a billion people. A permanent seat for the EU would reflect those new power dimensions. The permanent seats for France and the UK are based on the fact that they were among the great powers and victors of World War II. However, the global balance of powers has shifted significantly since then: France and the UK have declined and at the same time, the EU has emerged as a major player in the international arena."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro01a","title":"","text":"The current Security Council doesn't reflect the economic reality of the 21st century.  The current Security Council doesn\u2019t reflect the economic reality of the 21st century. France and Great Britain have clearly lost their position among the most powerful nations and their role was long ago taken over by Germany and Japan. They are the 3rd and 4thworld economies. Furthermore these two countries are the second and third largest contributors to the UN budget and deserve a permanent seat in the Council. Moreover, as permanent members pay an extra share for their seat, Japan and Germany\u2019s contributions would bring considerable amounts to the UN budget \u2013 \u201cThe three largest contributors to the United Nations, the US (22.000% of the UN budget), Japan (12.530%) and Germany (8.018%) thus together finance some 43% of the entire UN budget.\u201d [1] Meanwhile Brazil and India have emerged as major economies and stable democracies over the past decade, and deserve recognition for their global importance.  [1] Contributions to the United Nations budget"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Giving Germany a permanent seat would hardly be a step forward in an endeavour for a more equitable distribution of seats in the Council. The UK and France hold a veto power over any amendments and aren\u2019t willing to give up their seats, so adding Germany would mean that the EU would have three permanent seats in the Council. That wouldn\u2019t be a fair geographical distribution and wouldn\u2019t, for that matter, be a equitable distribution either.  Japan in particular is not as deserving as has been suggested; although it is rich Japan has been struggling economically for a decade while other countries (including the UK and France) have continued to grow. The Japanese economy has been recently hit by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and Fukushima nuclear disaster \u201cBefore Japan's 2011 earthquake, its economy was just starting to emerge from its deepest recession since the 1970s(\u2026)Japan's economy is still challenged by rising commodity prices -- the country imports most of its food and oil -- and a shrinking labor pool, as its population ages. Japan's worst challenge is a national debt that is twice as big as its annual economic output.\u201d [1]  Compared to other nations, both Germany and Japan are military insignificant. Germany spends only 1.27% of its GDP on military defence, in comparison to 2.32% for UK and France. [2] This is important as the Permanent 5's status currently reflects great power realities - they are the countries most able to project power abroad and so have the ability to implement (or block) UN security decisions.  [1] Amadeo, Kimberly. 'Japan's Economy', 26\/08\/2011   [2] 'Military of the European Union'"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro05b","title":"","text":"In any case, France and the UK are still amongst the world's foremost military powers, with the world's largest nuclear arsenals after the USA and Russia, and the world's highest military expenditure after the USA and China. By contrast, the EU has no significant military to speak of, and is thus unable to project power across the globe. Given the mission of the UNSC to maintain international peace and security, eligibility for a permanent seat should be based on military power, not just economic or demographic power."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is a lack of consensus among developing countries themselves on who should get permanent seats. Nigeria, Egypt and South Africa all claim their right to an African one. The most logical candidate for an Asian seat \u2013 India \u2013 is opposed by Muslim countries, who want a permanent seat for themselves \u2013 \u201cPakistan\u2019s Foreign Office spokesman has politely opposed the endorsement (India\u2019s candidacy in the UNSC), saying it will complicate the process of expanding the UN Security Council and increasing the number of its permanent members. He has referred, as has been done on several past occasions, to India\u2019s bad record on human rights, unsatisfactory relations with its neighbours etc.\u201d [1] Spanish speaking neighbours oppose Brazil\u2019s candidacy because it speaks Portuguese.  [1] 'A permanent UN SC seat for India?', 9\/11\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro03a","title":"","text":"A rise in UN membership should be reflected also in an increase in Security Council members.  In 1945 there were only 51 UN members, so eleven Council members were adequately representing all voices. Today the UN membership has risen to almost four times the number of the original one, yet there are only fifteen voices in the Council. This means that there are many countries who do not have anyone on the security council that has similar priorities to them, their views may well be unrepresented."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-pro04a","title":"","text":"There is a growing imbalance between developing and developed countries representation in the Council.  There is a growing imbalance between developing and developed countries representation in the Council. Four out of five permanent members are industrialized and four out of five are \u201cEuropean\u201d. The four-fifths of humankind that live in developing countries have only one spokesman among the permanent five. Giving Africa, Asia and Latin America a permanent seat is a step forward in North-South balance \u2013 \u201cCurrently, four out of five veto-bearing members are industrialized countries and the fifth, China, is rapidly approaching industrialized status. Many in the rest of the world seethe at their exclusion from this elite group. Africa, Latin America, and the Islamic world, for example, have no permanent voice on the council. Without a voice, it is understandable why many countries are unwilling to send troops or aid whenever the Security Council demands it. This imbalance, highlighted by the Iraq war, has made Security Council reform a hot topic of debate.\u201d [1]  [1] ) Teng, Michael. 'United Nations Security Council Reform Autumn 2003'"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con03b","title":"","text":"By including more developing countries in the Security Council, more issues of their concern would get on the Security Council's agenda. As we all know the major issues in the status quo nowadays occur mainly in developing countries. For example the consequences from global warming are worse in the developing regions. There are also the rebels in the Arab countries. There are a lot of concerns and the developed countries should give the developing ones the opportunity to participate in the process of their discussion and solution."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con01b","title":"","text":"There should be no differentiation between old and new permanent members and the new ones should get the veto power in order to preserve the interests of the regions they represent. Veto power is not as problematic with potential permanent members as it is with the current ones, as all the candidates are known for their multilateral approach and cooperation, while the same cannot be said for the current ones."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con02a","title":"","text":"A UNSC reform is very hard to achieve due to the many different interests and demands.  Reforming the UN Security Council is very difficult as no one can agree which new powers deserve representation, whether they should have a veto, and even whether permanent membership should continue to exist in any form. Japan and India seem obvious candidates for permanent status, but their candidacies are fiercely opposed by a variety of other Asian countries, while Nigeria and Egypt both feel they have a good claim to an \"African\" seat. The EU also considers it deserves a separate place. Furthermore Brazil as a very fast developing country and turning into a world power claims it also has a right in the UNSC as a permanent member. All these different demands opinions make an eventual reform or expansion of the UNSC very hard to achieve."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con04a","title":"","text":"In regards to an eventual separate place on the UNSC for the European Union \u2013 the EU might be an economic powerhouse and might want to coordinate foreign relations in regards to external economic policy, but at heart it is intended to be an economic union  In regards to an eventual separate place on the UNSC for the European Union \u2013 the EU might be an economic powerhouse and might want to coordinate foreign relations in regards to external economic policy, but at heart it is intended to be an economic union, not a political union. Most of its founding treaties and the daily workings of its institutions focus on creating and maintaining a single market, not on creating a shared foreign and military policy. Giving the EU representation at what is an institution for foreign and military policy is misreading what the EU was intended to be."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con03a","title":"","text":"The bulk of operations approved by the Security Council are financed by industrialised nations.  As the bulk of operations approved by the Security Council are financed by industrialised nations, both because they are the main contributors to the budget1 and because the Security Council members pay more towards peacekeeping2 they should have the main role in deciding on action. Developing countries already have a voice in the Council but should not have a veto power over decisions that they do not finance. Developed countries would not agree to pay for something they are not happy with. In the contemporary world economy and business are fundamental and they are the ones who drive the world.  1 Contributions to the United Nations budget  2 United Nations, 'Financing Peacekeeping',"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con01a","title":"","text":"By giving five more countries veto power, the Council could come to a stalemate.  This could mean that the council ends up deadlocked more often than not as was the case during the Cold war when the two blocs almost always opposed each other. Up until 1991 (from the UN founding in 1946) there were only 700 security council resolutions due to the deadlocked nature of the council. In the 20 years since there have been over 1300 resolutions.1 The negotiation process would also be significantly longer. As a result the peace and security of the world could be endangered by this step.  1 Wikipedia, United Nations Security Council resolution,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con04b","title":"","text":"The EU might function as an economic union, but its original goal was to prevent war from ever happening again on the European continent. Economic integration is a means to this goal, by making member states economically too dependent on each other for them to want to declare war on each other. Given this history, the EU can contribute a lot of knowledge and experience on how to use \u2018soft power\u2019 in a foreign policy context, and given its goal of (and success in) creating everlasting peace on the continent, it should have a seat at the world\u2019s foremost foreign policy institution. Furthermore the EU is ever closer to a political union \u2013 \u201cGerman finance minister Wolfgang Schaeuble has said his country is willing to discuss greater harmonisation of eurozone tax policy, adding that the next decade is likely to see Europe take significant steps towards closer political union.\u201d [1] Therefore it is simply a normal step for the EU to have a say in the international affairs.  [1] Willis, Andrew. 'Germany predicts EU 'political union' in 10 years', 13\/12\/2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghweunsc-con02b","title":"","text":"It is widely recognised that the current Security Council set-up lacks legitimacy and requires reform. Major states such as Japan, and rising powers such as Brazil, South Africa and India deserve recognition and giving them permanent status would provide representation for a much broader cross-section of humanity. It maybe hard to achieve consensus on what exactly to be the change in the UNSC, but the new international environment requests that. This is supported by a lot of leading politicians and leaders in a global aspect. \"The United States is open to UN Security Council reform and expansion, as one element of an overall agenda for UN reform\" 1\"The UN must rationally adapt itself to new world realities. It should also strengthen its influence and preserve its multinational nature and integrity of the UN Charter provisions. The reform of the UN Security Council is an essential component of its revitalization.\" 1 (Dmitry Medvedev)  1 \"The reform of the United Nations Security Council: What role for the European Union?\" Bureau of Public Affairs (USA) , June 20, 2005,  2 Address to the 64th Session of the UN General Assembly 23\/09\/2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro02b","title":"","text":"We have seen variations in opinion regarding political and economic issues (e.g. monetary union) in the EU. In the far more thorny area of defence policy, the EU member-nations\u2019 interests are even more divergent. For example, the French position on Algeria may be different from the United Kingdom\u2019s. This difference in priorities will ultimately lead to deadlock, as no country wishes to see its soldiers dying on a battlefield that provides no direct strategic interest to itself."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro02a","title":"","text":"A single army would enhance the political integration of EU members states  The European Union has significant integration and convergence of the political and economic spheres. Integration of defence policy and the establishment of a European Defence Force should be the logical next step. The African Union took this step and has achieved success in combat missions defending the Union [1] .  [1] The UN Refugee Agency (31 January, 2008) Comoros: Military invasion of Anjouan imminent, government warns. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro03b","title":"","text":"NATO and the proposed European Defence Force are designed to address very different concerns. NATO exists to deal with situations of such magnitude that the nations of Western Europe are likely to adopt a common defence policy. In contrast, the EDF is targeted at smaller geopolitical incidents which would otherwise be \u2018beneath\u2019 the notice of NATO. Unfortunately smaller incidents by their nature do not have uniform effects on all EU member-nations, and are therefore unlikely to generate a consensus of policy among EU nations."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro05a","title":"","text":"Regional instability in certain areas of continental europe necessitates the creation of an EU defence force  Constant political instability and war in and near the Middle East call for a united single force charged with the defence of EU countries lying close to the volatile areas.. Turkey is a prime candidate for EU membership, and with its location on the border of both Syria and Iraq, will require support if its refugee problem is to remain manageable. The revolutions in Northern Africa also call for a stabilising force in the region, particularly in Italy where a \u2018refugee crisis\u2019 has coincided with the attempts of anti-Gaddafi Libyans to flee the country [1] . If the EU is to take its growing role upon the world stage seriously, it needs a dedicated defence force to make an impact in the region.  [1] Day, M. (14 May, 2011) Flood of North African refugees to Italy ends EU passport-free travel. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro01a","title":"","text":"The EU needs a dedicated defence force  It is important for the EU to have a defence policy independent of NATO. With its origins in the Cold War, and its preponderance of American influence, NATO carries a great deal of historical and geopolitical baggage. This means that NATO cannot easily intervene in Eastern Europe without incurring the displeasure of Russia. This was best proven during the 2008 conflict between Russia and Georgia, when Georgia\u2019s impending accession to NATO was seen as part of the incentive for Russian support to the \u2018break-away\u2019 regions in Georgia [1] . The European Defence Force will allow the EU to deal with crises in Eastern and Central Europe more effectively, as they will not have to tiptoe around Russia as much.  [1] Parsons, R. (8 August, 2008). Georgia pays price for its NATO ambitions. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro01b","title":"","text":"NATO has successfully defended the interests of Western Europe for several decades now \u2013 why rock the boat? It is hard to see a problem which NATO cannot solve, which the European Defence Force could instead. In any case, we will always have to consider Russia\u2019s sensibilities when engaging in peacekeeping operations in Eastern Europe, and it is far better to have America\u2019s bargaining power and geopolitical clout backing us when we negotiate with Russia. If we create a European Defence Force, we will marginalise NATO and the United States. This will lead to a reduced US engagement in Europe, which may in turn diminish our influence when having discussions with Russia over security issues in Europe and beyond."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro05b","title":"","text":"Although there is instability in neighbouring regions, most of Europe is in complete and utter peace. The new force would simply be another layer of defence in a stable continent that simply doesn\u2019t need it. War in Europe is completely inconceivable in the 21st century, and considering the threat of war should be the primary reason for holding a standing army, it seems that an EU army has no reasonable case for existence."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro04b","title":"","text":"Even if we assume that the massive costs of a standing military force can be borne by the EU and its members, the key barriers to establishing a standing defence force are often political. Creating a European Defence Force de novo would require us to decide on several thorny questions, namely the command structure, whether the role should be merely defensive or include peacekeeping, the choice of equipment and supplier, creating a common defence policy, and choosing a language of communication. All of these questions involve political considerations or economic vested interests, all of which are likely to result in on-going wrangling that will yield a stillborn EDF."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro03a","title":"","text":"NATO has established a precedent for multilateral military action  NATO has been crucial to maintaining the balance of power during the cold war. Although there have been some arguments amongst its member states, NATO has shown us that a standing multinational defence force is possible and more importantly works well overall. The recent NATO deployment in Libya is an example of its regional influence and military flexibility [1] . Considering many members of NATO are also members of the EU, the proposed European Defence Force could follow its example and complement it.  [1] BBC News (26 August, 2011) Libya conflict: Nato jets hit Gaddafi Sirte bunker. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-pro04a","title":"","text":"The economic strength of the EU enables the creation of a strong military  With the growing industrial and economic maturity of the European Union and its members, it is now financially feasible for the EU to have its own standing defence force [1] . The proposed EDF would also create a great many jobs as European defence contractors could be recruited into supplying equipment and weaponry.  [1] Amadeo, K.. The EU has replaced the U.S. as the world\u2019s largest economy. Accessed September 7, 2011 from About:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con03b","title":"","text":"This is mostly speculation. The proposition takes a more optimistic view of US-EU relations after the creation of a European Defence Force. America will more than welcome a strong friend in the region, anything to calm the instability in the near regions of North Africa and the Middle East, not to mention the global markets."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con01b","title":"","text":"The EU has managed to pass similar large amounts of apparently \u2018unconstitutional\u2019 legislation through member state legislatures. The Lisbon Treaty, for example, managed to be signed. And so, it seems that archaic constitutional convention cannot stop EU integration \u2013 the European Project is simply turning its eyes upon defence: integration has occurred in many walks of life, now it is defence policy\u2019s turn."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con02a","title":"","text":"Germany  Europe has been torn apart twice in the 20th century and on both occasions a German Army has been the aggressor. If the E.U. ever had a defence force, no doubt German troops would be at the heart of it. It is just over 60 years ago that German troops invaded many of the countries that today will be forced to fight alongside them. This, especially for the people who fought against a German Army and are alive today, is at best insulting and at worst, political provocation. This is even without mentioning the Holocaust and its ever-present artifacts that litter eastern Europe; a constant reminder to Europeans of the horrors a German Army had once committed."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con05a","title":"","text":"A large and diverse collective defence for would be impossible to command and develop  It does not take an in-depth analysis to imagine the issues, on the ground and at HQ, such as army would face. There would be communication issues, would the force use French, Spanish or English? There would be accountability questions [1] , who would be in charge and who would pay for resources? Finally, there would be hostilities within the army and potentially inherent racism between the nations involved. Such a force would not be effective in a combat situation, and valuable lives and resources would be wasted.  [1] Ioannides, I. (4 September, 2002). The European Rapid Reaction Force: Implications for Democratic Accountability. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con04a","title":"","text":"The creation of a standing army would be contrary to the spirit and purpose of the EU  It was not the aim of the original European Community to integrate defence. The original partnership was called the European Coal and Steel Community for a reason [1] , designed as a union for mutual economic development and the sharing of scarce resources [2] . The acceleration of the EU has therefore gotten out of hand, and it\u2019s high time it came to an end. A defence force would be one step to far \u2013 it would signal the creation of some sort of federal super state, something that not many people in Europe want.  [1] CVCE (18 April, 1951). Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:   [2] The Irish Times (26 August, 2011). A thirst for peace. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con03a","title":"","text":"The creation of an EU army could harm diplomatic relations with the USA  We are completely ignoring the issue of geopolitics and how the creation of this entity would be a direct move to replace NATO as the primary defender of Europe. This would of course mean a rejection of the US, as the heart of NATO. What would follow from this would be an extremely unpredictable and volatile place to practice international relations. One thing that we can predict, however, will be the \u2018cold shoulder\u2019 the US would suddenly show the EU. The US would feel as if its ally had used it to gain strength after WWII (The Marshall Plan), and now that it\u2019s back on its feet again can forget and even challenge America\u2019s supremacy."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con05b","title":"","text":"The proposition believes in a more liberal and open-minded average European soldier. There will be no communication issues in the 21st century where translators and bilingual officers are easy to come by. There will be no accountability issues when we create a proper command structure. And there will be no racism because to believe that there would be is to prejudge the whole of Europe and insult the culture-shapers\u2019 attempts to respect and learn from Europe\u2019s dark past, not to repeat it."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con01a","title":"","text":"Constitutional obstructions  Every EU country would have an incredibly hard time making the constitutional changes necessary for the handing over of a part of defence policy to an EU institution. In fact, for many EU countries it would be unworkable. In the U.K., constitutional issues might not be as bad as say in France \u2013 but this does not change the fact that it would require deft political skill and manoeuvring, often undemocratic and without any sort of referendum, in order to make the constitutional changes necessary to create this force [1] .  [1] Wagner, W. (May 19, 2007). The Democratic Deficit in the EU\u2019s Security and Defense Policy \u2013 why bother? . Accessed September 7, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con04b","title":"","text":"It might not have been the original aim to integrate defence. Nevertheless, it doesn't mean that defence integration should not be done. The aims are changeable; they should be reconsidered and revised, according to requirements and demands of current situations. Few would have imagined how far Europe would come in other areas such as freedom of movement or the creation of a European Common Foreign policy from a mere industrial coalition between few countries. The EDF will be a rationally reasonable step for the EU, considering the advances that the community has made in integration in other areas of policy. To protect all its achievements, to connect its member states, and to provide its citizens with more safety the EU needs a dedicated defence force."}
+{"id":"training-international-epdghwcseu-con02b","title":"","text":"The status of Germany is an irrelevant issue. What has happened in the past should have no bearing on judging the Germany of today. Their whole system of government and culture has changed with a new constitution and the maturity of an open-minded youth born after WW2. It\u2019s simply an insult to judge those Germans who have done everything they can to make up for the past atrocities of their nation, by once again digging up the past."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro02b","title":"","text":"In other cases, such as in Yugoslavia, the deterrent effects of international courts have been dubious.  Prosecutions, far from being on both sides, may lead to allegations of bias against one side or another by the international court, which could lead to it being seen as merely another battlefield."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Would prevent further atrocities  An international mechanism where Sharon would have been able to be tried would be likely to have been one which would have been able to hear cases dealing with the \u2013 serious \u2013 allegations of crimes against humanity and war crimes by various other groups such as the al-Qassam brigades (the paramilitary group attached to Hamas).  This would have been able to prevent further atrocities by acting as a deterrent through punitive methods as well as showing that the law applies to Western nations and their allies too."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro03b","title":"","text":"Is an aid for historians really worth all the upheaval and problems a trial would cause?  Denialism can still continue even though there are established facts, such as denial of the Japanese role in Second World War forced prostitution [1] .  [1] See Honda, Masakazu and Takada, Makoto, \u201cLDP Pressure led to cuts in NHK show\u201d, The Asahi Shimbun, 12 January 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Impunity  In addition to events mentioned in the introduction, Sharon was accused of, along with troops under his command, execution-style killings of 49 Egyptian civilians taken prisoner by the IDF in the Saini peninsula in 1956 [1] - wilful killing of civilians being a war crime as per the Fourth Geneva Convention.  The purpose of international criminal law is that individuals are brought to trial to ensure that individuals are held accountable for war crimes and crimes against humanity: if a person isn\u2019t prosecuted, either by a domestic or international court, the credibility of the limits civilized nations place on war is eroded.  [1] Miller, Marjorie, \u2018Israel to Probe Deaths of Egyptian POWs in '56 : Sinai: At Cairo's request, defense officials will investigate general's claim that scores were shot.\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 16 August 1995,"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is up to sovereign states to deal with their own criminality, not that of international courts. Israel decided Sharon had nothing to answer for. There have been commissions into some of his actions; the Khan Commission of Inquiry looked into the massacre at Sabra and Shatilla and concluded that \u201cblunders constitute the non-fulfillment of a duty with which the Defense Minister was charged.\u201d Sharon was only indirectly responsible. [1]  When he became a head of state, head of state immunity applied to him \u2013 a necessary thing to keep the wheels of international diplomacy turning. This has been accepted by the International Court of Justice in the arrest warrant case [2] .  [1] The Kahan Commission of Inquiry, \u2018Report into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut\u2019, Jewish Virtual Library, 8 February 1983,   [2] Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Belgium) 14 February 2002"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro04b","title":"","text":"This fails for two reasons. Firstly, prosecutions are not always a deterrent to future crimes. Secondly that justice is not necessary in all cases to prevent recidivism \u2013 justice has not been needed in many cases, such as in Haiti after the 2004 coup, Haiti\u2019s subsequent problems being caused by natural disasters.  Even if Sharon were to be brought to trial before an international tribunal, the Israeli state apparatus would be able to carry on with a new leader, rendering the exercise futile in trying to stop the conflict. A prosecution would not have brought peace it would simply entrench the Israeli position."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Historical record  Prosecutions by international criminal courts have a positive side-effect of creating a historical record of events. This creates an impartial record of events which takes in to account the evidence provided by all parties.  By removing scope for denialism, a peace can be constructed on the foundations of an impartial truth. Many of the actions of Israel have been controversial, The Guardian says it is the issue that is most controversial and comes under most scrutiny, [1] such an impartial historical record would be particularly useful for a full understanding of atrocities committed by all sides.  [1] Editorial, \u2018Fairness: Israel \u2013 Palestine\u2019, guardian.co.uk, accessed 16\/1\/2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-pro04a","title":"","text":"Necessary for an impartial peace.  By prosecuting perpetrators, justice creates a deterrent. The deterrent effect, as accepted in criminal law generally, is likely to make the peace more long standing and stable in the future \u2013 it will make those minded to perform atrocities think again. If those who committed atrocities \u2018get away with it\u2019 they will be much more likely to plunge the country back into violence. If Sharon was prosecuted for his crimes in the 50s, would he have gone on to have the same political career? He would likely not have had the chance to allow the Sabra and Shatia massacre or Operation Defensive Shield. [1]  The career of Laurent Nkunda is a good example of this; he fought in the Tutsi group that took control of Rwanda in 1994 ending the genocide and then was a rebel commander in both Congolese civil wars in which he was accused of atrocities before launching his own rebellion, only now after 14 years as an army commander is he under arrest [2] . Clearly Nkunda being locked up at some stage would have been better than regularly negotiating with him to try and create peace.  [1] Hasan, Mehdi, \u2018Five Numbers That Suggest Ariel Sharon Was a War Criminal\u2019, Huffington Post, 12 January 2014,   [2] BBC News, \u201cProfile: General Laurent Nkunda\u201d, 23 January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con03b","title":"","text":"Good: impunity is a bad thing. Those who break those norms of international law , and commit war crimes, crimes against humanity and the crime of aggression should be prosecuted - on all sides. Actions by Hamas and other organizations that are reprehensible are matters that should be brought before impartial courts, too.  While there is no international international definition of terrorism, there are a number of acts which are prohibited by particular treaties \u2013 they can be prosecuted too."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con01b","title":"","text":"If both parties are sincere negotiators \u2013 which is doubtful at best \u2013 the prospect of prosecutions may focus the mind on preventing further atrocities, de-escalating the situation entirely."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con02a","title":"","text":"Was unlikely ever to happen anyway  At any rate, a prosecution was unlikely. In addition to the general support for Israel amongst the permanent members of the UN Security Council such as the United States \u2013 the US would have been likely to use its veto power to stop any International Criminal Tribunal for Israel-Palestine. Also, many of these actions were before the renaissance of international criminal law in the early 1990s following the creation of the ICTY and ICTR by UN Security Council resolutions."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con04a","title":"","text":"Took a key role in negotiations  Sharon was not a genocidal maniac. He led the withdrawal of settlers from Gaza, as part of the unilateral disengagement plan.  If he continued in office, perhaps further negotiations would have continued with further successes rather than the stalled talks and false hope of more recent events. [1] Leaks of State department Cables show that Sharon had stressed to US senators that he would face down \u201ca left that has no power, and a right which was totally opposed to his initiative\u201d in order to negotiate a peace and was willing to hand over some Arab neighbourhoods in Jerusalem and he said \u201cA final settlement might take a few years, but it can be achieved.\u201d [2]  [1] Vick, Karl, \u2018Ariel Sharon: Israel\u2019s Soldier and Strongman, 1928-2014\u2019, Time, 11 January 2014,   [2] Ravid, Barak, \u2018Sharon was planning diplomatic moves beyond Gaza, leaked documents reveal\u2019, Haaretz, 13 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con03a","title":"","text":"If Sharon is tried then many others would have to be as well  While many of the actions of Sharon were unacceptable, he is not the only person who committed horrible acts: not just only in the Israeli-Palestinian conflicts, but across the world.  If he were to be prosecuted, many others would be. Hamas figures would have to be indicted for their actions, too \u2013 for example Mohammed Deif, who masterminded the 1996 Jaffa Road bus bombings which killed 33 civilians as with many other commanders of groups \u2013 Hamas, Islamic Jihad, even Fatah - that have engaged in targeting civilians could be put on trial."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con01a","title":"","text":"Prosecutions are an impediment to peace negotiations  A prosecution against a prominent military or political figure could jeopardize faith in the international community, which would be harmful to peace negotiations. Prosecuting one side would effectively allocate blame, damaging Israel\u2019s position. Sharon may have been the only man who could have led the Gaza pullout, [1] he would not have had the chance or would not have been able to if he was prosecuted.  This is not a new concern \u2013 there were issues following ICTY indictments and the Dayton negotiation, with some parties being unable to attend [2] . Similarly, the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army offered to surrender but refused due to ICC arrest warrants [3] .  [1] Vick, Karl, \u2018Ariel Sharon: Israel\u2019s Soldier and Strongman, 1928-2014\u2019, Time, 11 January 2014,   [2] Goldstone, Richard, \u201cPeace versus Justice\u201d, Nevada Law Journal, 2006,  at p421-p322  [3] Otim, Michael, and Wierda, Marieke, \u2018Justice at Juba: International Obligations and Local Demands in Northern Uganda\u2019, in Waddell and Clark eds., Courting Conflict? Justice, Peace and the ICC in Africa, pp.21-28"}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con04b","title":"","text":"The occupation of the West Bank still continued, including the construction of settlements.  The general role of individuals in the peace negotiations is beside the point: individuals who commit atrocities should be responsible for them."}
+{"id":"training-international-melhrilppd-con02b","title":"","text":"Just because something is difficult does not mean it should not be attempted.  Israel itself was no stranger to war crimes trials between Nuremberg and the ICTY: Adolf Eichmann, the logistical architect of the Holocaust, was tried and put to death by an Israeli court in 1962.  Sharon has been accused of things after the creation of the ICTY came in to force, such as deaths as a result of Israeli operations in Jenin in 2002 [1] .  [1] Human Rights Watch, \u2018Jenin\u2019, 2 May 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro02b","title":"","text":"The majority of these laws have done little to prevent citizens from seeking a career as a mercenary. While they are commendable on principle, mercenary specific legislation has not translated in to a high number of prosecutions for mercenarism in Africa7. Examples such as Angola and Zimbabwe are rare exceptions. Mercenaries generally operate in conflict zones, where government control is weak. This makes it difficult for the state to enforce such laws, especially as the mercenaries may be working for opposition factions.  7) Fallah,K. \u2018Corporate actors: the legal status of mercenaries in armed conflict\u2019, 2006 pg. 610"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Legislation against mercenaries  Nation states and the United Nations have passed laws making mercenary activity illegal. Legislation against mercenaries prevent either seeking employment as a mercenary or hiring one. Western states such as Austria and Germany have made it illegal for citizens to become mercenaries, revoking their citizenship if they choose to do so anyway6. South Africa, a major source of hired guns, passed the \u2018foreign military assistance act\u2019 in 1998 which prohibited citizens from joining foreign wars with the exception of humanitarian intervention. In international law, the United Nations has outlawed mercenaries through the UN Mercenary Convention of 1989 which bans the use of foreign soldiers from fighting for profit. Finally, many African states have passed further legislation which restricts mercenaries operating in their countries. The trial of thirteen mercenaries in Angola and the arrests of Simon Mann\u2019s unit Zimbabwe in 2004 were both due to their mercenary status. The increased legal pressure is a symptom of changing attitudes towards the use of mercenaries in Africa.  6) Mian,Q. \u2018Legal status of mercenaries\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro03b","title":"","text":"There are still enough wars and rebel movements to provide opportunity for employment. By 2013 there were 23 conflicts in Africa, with many other small militia groups actively fighting low-intensity wars. This stream of conflicts has ensured revenue for mercenaries. Reports have surfaced that ex-commander for the anti-terror unit in Liberia, Benjamin Yeaten, raised a mercenary force to fight against the army of the Ivory Coast between 2012 and 201311 With the prediction of \u2018forever wars\u2019 by Gettlemen12, where rebels have no object except banditry, mercenaries could maintain their prevalence in Africa for a long time.  11) Heritage \u2018Liberia: UN reports- Yeaten remains a threat to peace and security in Liberia\u2019 2013  12) Gettlement,J. \u2018Africa\u2019s Forever Wars\u2019 Foreign Policy 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Private corporations have replaced mercenaries  Private Military Companies (PMCs) are independent, registered, corporate actors who have risen in prominence and replaced mercenaries in their security function. PMCs are different to mercenaries in the sense that mercenaries will fight for the highest bidder. PMCs on the other hand will only work for legitimate governments and intergovernmental organisations such as the UN1. Their main roles include; support services, logical support, humanitarian support and the upholding of law and order and defensive military action2. PMC activity has seen corporations operating on behalf of the Somalian government training coast guards to deal with the threat of piracy which peaked in 20093. The legal status of PMCs, compared with mercenaries, makes them a preferable choice for the aforementioned tasks reducing the prominence of illegal hired guns.  1) Jefferies,I. \u2018Private Military Companies- A Positive Role to Play in Today\u2019s International System\u2019, 2002 Pg.106  2) Jefferies,I. \u2018Private Military Companies- A Positive Role to Play in Today\u2019s International System\u2019, 2002 Pg.107  3) Stupart,J. \u2018Somalia\u2019s PMCs: What\u2019s the Big Deal?\u2019, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro01b","title":"","text":"PMCs are just mercenaries under a different name, demonstrating a continued prevalence of the dogs of war in Africa. To escape the name, and the illegal status, of mercenary a PMC must only avoid one of the several clauses laid out by the United Nations Mercenary Convention4 While they are rarely hired for fighting roles, companies such as Military Professional Resources Inc. have demonstrated a willingness to engage in military operations; making them guns for hire5. Executive Outcomes\u2019 operations in Sierra Leone equated to mercenary work, as they undertook offensive military operations with a force of foreign soldiers for profitable gain. In this sense, mercenaries still maintain their position on the continent.  4) Sheimer,M. \u2018Separating Private Military Companies From Illegal Mercenaries in International Law\u2019, 2009 Pg. 624  5) Milliard,S. \u2018Overcoming Post-Colonial Myopia: A Call to Recognise and Regulate Private Military Companies\u2019, 2003 Pg.16"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro04b","title":"","text":"More than half of African countries are ruled by dictatorships. Authoritarian regimes remain numerous enough, and the opposition still prominent enough, for there to be adequate instability for mercenaries to gain employment. During the Libyan revolution, caused by the poor governance of Gaddafi\u2019s regime, South African mercenaries attempted to extract Gaddafi from Libya with supposed Tuaregs joining his force as guns for hire14.  14) Hicks,C. \u2018Tuareg rebels make troubled return from Libya to Mali\u2019 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Decreased Conflict and the end of the mercenary age  The decline of conflicts and mercenary freedom on the African continent has meant less work for mercenaries. The Congo conflict of the 1960s, is seen as the first mercenary age8. Hired guns fought on all sides of the conflict and enjoyed the freedom to act at their discretion. The 1976 execution of mercenaries in Angola was seen as a symbolic ending of this age. That said, mercenaries were still prevalent into the 1990s and early 2000s.  Since the peak of the 1990s, however, there has been a noticeable decrease in the number of conflicts in Africa from 27 civil wars and 9 interstate wars to 5 major civil wars and no interstate wars9,10 . As wars and civil unrest are an obvious source of employment for mercenaries; this decrease in conflict leaves them with fewer opportunities. The African Union\u2019s promise to end war on the continent by 2020 also puts the future prospects of mercenaries in to question.  8) Keane,F. \u2018There will be work for mercenaries in Africa until democracy replaces dictatorships\u2019 2004  9) The World Bank \u2018World Development Report 2011\u2019 pg.52  10) Wikipedia \u2018List of ongoing armed conflicts\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-pro04a","title":"","text":"The expansion of democracy  The increased presence of democracies on the African continent has led to greater security. Mercenary activity is usually associated with the presence of bad governance, which is most commonly featured in dictatorships. Dictatorships generally lead to corruption, unrest and economic collapse. The dispossessed in society then begin to resist, with the ensuing conflict providing employment opportunities for mercenaries. A prime example of this being Equatorial Guinea, where mercenary Simon Mann planned to use popular support to remove the infamous Teodoro Nguema13. Since the first mercenary age, however, the number of democracies has increased from 3 to 25 which has reduced instability on the continent in some regions, reducing opportunities for mercenaries.  13) Keane,F. \u2018There will be work for mercenaries in Africa until democracy replaces dictatorships\u2019 2004"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con03b","title":"","text":"NGOs are actively discouraged from hiring mercenaries. In 2003, UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw strongly advised against the use of mercenaries by British companies on the Ivory Coast. In addition to government deterrence, many charities are more likely to depend on the United Nations to secure conflict zones before they operate. In Darfur, aid agencies relied upon the United Nations to set up refugee camps in the region rather than seek protection from mercenaries27.  27) Pham,J. \u2018Send in the Mercenaries\u2019 2006"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con01b","title":"","text":"Firstly, the emergence of the African Union (AU) as a peacekeeping force on the continent negates the need for mercenaries. The AU\u2019s has become increasingly involved in peacekeeping since 200316. They are more willing to involve themselves in African affairs than the West, and have deployed the lion\u2019s share of soldiers in peacekeeping operations as in the Central African Republic17.  Secondly, the UN has condemned mercenary use in general and it would seem hypocritical to begin hiring them. The UN\u2019s weaker states have been reluctant to agree to UN mercenaries for fear they could be used against them18. The UN has actively criticised humanitarian mercenaries in the past for their lack of appreciation of conflict dynamics19, making them unlikely to employ dogs of war.  16) Pan,E. \u2018African Peacekeeping Operations\u2019 December 2005  17) Felix,B. \u2018Militia attack Muslim neighbourhoods in Central African Republic\u2019s Capital\u2019 2013  18) Avant,D. \u2018Mercenaries\u2019 pg.26  19) Chrisafis,A. \u2018UN and aid groups criticise \u201cHumanitarian Mercenaries\u2019 2007"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con02a","title":"","text":"Mercenaries still have a presence in coups  African Mercenaries have been crucial to the success of many coups in the 21st Century, and are a \u2018ubiquitous factor in the continent\u2019s conflicts over the years, often determining the duration or outcomes of such conflicts\u201920. The 2013 coup in the Central African Republic saw President Francois Bozizi ousted from power and was accomplished with support of mercenaries from Chad and the Sudan21. An attempted coup by Simon Mann against Equatorial Guinea failed in 2004 and Bob Dernard\u2019s five coups against the Comoros22 demonstrate that mercenaries still have a role in the changing of political leaders within Africa.  20) Mwagiru,C. \u2018Mercenaries: Are the \u2018dogs of war\u2019 still prevalent in Africa?\u2019 2012  21) Melly,P. \u2018Central African Republic: France and the CAR- Now Comes the Hard Part\u2019 2013  22) Mwagiru,C. \u2018They Kill Africans, paid by Africans\u2019 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con04a","title":"","text":"Cyber Mercenaries  There is a new form of mercenary appearing on the continent which is hired to use technology, rather than a gun, to fight. Cyber mercenaries are a relatively recent phenomenon. In 2013, British intelligence service GCHQ stated that nations were beginning to employ hackers to \u2018attack their enemies\u201928. Kenya experienced attacks by cyber mercenaries in 2013, with 91% of its organisations coming under attack from these hired hackers29. There is potential for this to become a substantial form of mercenary work in the future.  28) The Age \u2018Hackers turn into cyber-mercenaries as nations battle a virtual war\u2019 2013  29) Murule,R. \u2018Kenya: Firms Battle Cyber Crime\u2019 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con03a","title":"","text":"Mercenaries are still hired by NGOs  Non-Governmental organisations struggle to operate in conflict zones, and still hire mercenaries to protect them. Extractive industries also require security for their installations and operations in unstable regions25. The massacre of 74 civilians at a Chinese oil field in Ethiopia in 2007 and the 2013 Amenas siege demonstrate the continued need for security, which mercenaries can provide. Charities have employed mercenaries in the past to ensure better security. In 2002, mercenaries were hired by the African Rainforest and Rivers Conservation Organisation to seek out elephant poachers who they could not pursue themselves26.  25) Avant,D. \u2018Mercenaries\u20192004, pg.26  26) Astill,J. \u2018Charities hire gunmen to stop elephant poachers\u2019 2002"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con01a","title":"","text":"Humanitarian mercenaries  Mercenaries are finding a more ethical role in the form of humanitarian missions. The idea of humanitarian mercenaries is a concept of hired guns employed by governments and the United Nations to prevent genocide in the place of nation state militaries. The major benefit of using mercenaries would be the absence of a political cost should there be mercenary causalities as seen in Iraq15. There will not be waning political support from the military\u2019s home country. Early examples include the use of mercenaries in Sierra Leone. When the Revolutionary Unified Front (RUF) was advancing on the capital Executive Outcomes and other mercenaries held back the RUF, preventing a massacre. They would later seek out and destroy elements of the rebel group. The lack of political cost makes them ideal for operations where other countries have no domestic political will to intervene.  15) Raffin,R. \u2018Humanitarian Mercenaries\u2019 2008"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con04b","title":"","text":"Hired hackers don\u2019t count as real mercenaries. While it is true that they are not a citizen of either state\u2019s military structure and that they seek to gain profit from their venture, they do not qualify under the UN mercenary convention. To be a mercenary, one must qualify under all the conditions listed in the convention. Cyber mercenaries are not directly involved in acts of violence, which disqualifies them under Article 1, sub-section 2.A of the UN mercenary convention30. Definitions will have to be updated in the future if cyber-mercenaries are going to be considered anything other than criminals.  30) United Nations \u2018United Nations Mercenary Convention\u2019 1989"}
+{"id":"training-international-apdwhbpa-con02b","title":"","text":"Coups are becoming less frequent and less successful. The number of coups, which some mercenaries headed personally, has decreased from an average twenty per decade between 1960 and 1990 to ten a decade23. Success has also been less forthcoming; Simon Mann\u2019s attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea was met with failure when he was arrested in Zimbabwe, and Bob Denard was eventually arrested by French forces for disgracing France\u2019s reputation abroad with his frequent coups24.  23) August,O. \u2018Africa Rising: A Hopeful Continent\u2019 2013  24) Mwagiru,C. \u2018They Kill Africans, paid by Africans\u2019 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-pro02b","title":"","text":"The long-term security of Israel rests in a stable peace agreement with the Palestinians, not in attempting to bludgeon Hamas into a truce 'on Israel's terms'. To the extent that Israel's large scale assault on Gaza eliminated the hopes of such an agreement, the attacks worsened Israel's long-term security.  A crucial step towards peace is to bring Hamas to the bargaining table. Israel's levelling of Gaza emboldened Hamas' message of resistance, and allowed Gazans to continue to rely on Hamas. As long as Israel continues to justify Arab and Palestinian anger through its disproportionate response, it is unlikely that enough trust can be established to reach a peace deal.  Even Israelis recognize that this assualt has created an even larger barrier to peace. \u201cThis policy [Operation Cast Lead] is not strengthening Israel,\u201d noted Sari Bashi, the executive director of Gisha, an Israeli human rights group that works on Gaza issues. \u201cThe trauma that 1.5 million people have been undergoing in Gaza is going to have long-term effects for our ability to live together.\"(10)"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-pro02a","title":"","text":"The military operations were necessary for long term peace:  As Michael Oren and Yossi Klein Haleviargue explain, \u201cthe Israeli public will not make territorial concessions on the West Bank or the Golan Heights if Gaza is allowed to become a neighboring terrorist state that can launch attacks with impunity. Israel had already had a bad enough experience letting that happen with Hezbollah in Southern Lebanon.\u201d(1) Without the assurance that they will be allowed to protect their homes and families following withdrawal, Israelis will rightly perceive a two-state solution as an existential threat. They will continue to share the left-wing vision of coexistence with a peaceful Palestinian neighbor in theory, but in reality will heed the right's warnings of Jewish powerlessness.(4)  Meanwhile, the stronger Hamas becomes, the more resistance moderate Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas will face to making any concessions to Israel.(1) Therefore damaging Hamas, via Operation Cast Lead, actually aided the peace process in the long run, and was necessary in order to make an eventual two-state peace solution possible. The Israeli attacks may also eventually help force Hamas to accept a more durable ceasefire. Unlike the botched invasion of Lebanon in 2006, when Israel set itself the unattainable goal of eliminating the military capability of Hezbollah, during Operation Cast Lead it was made clear that the objective was not to wipe out Hamas, but instead to force the radical group to accept a durable cease-fire on Israel's terms.(8) This was necessary as prior to Operation Cast Lead Hamas showed no interest in peace, opting instead to pursue its political objectives through the use of terrorism. When Hamas came to power in Gaza in January 2006, it failed to control the rocket fire from the variety of miltary brigades, including its own al-Qassam brigade, into Israel and failed to establish internal stability. The widespread violence between Fatah and Hamas, which ended in June 2007, when Hamas took control of Gaza and ousted leaders of President Mahmoud Abbas's Fatah movement, made Israel more wary of the security threat an unstable Gaza could pose.(9)  In Israel's view, Hamas' behavior and its reliance on terror tactics will never change if it thinks it can attack with impunity, and so the Israeli military operations were necessary and justified in the name of restoring Israel's deterrent and weakening Hamas, both of which make long term peace more likely."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-pro03b","title":"","text":"Under the same logic, over 1 million residents of Gaza have been under occupation since 1967, facing limited rights of movement, regular air raids, military checkpoints, random searches and seizures, random arrests, the destruction of sanitation facilities, homes, schools, roads, shops, markets, and health facilities, and therefore Hamas has the right act in its own self-defense by whatever means it sees fit. If Palestinians do not have an army to call to its defense, how can the entire population be punished for the actions of non-state military groups?  Israel\u2019s right to take positive steps of some kind in the interests of its own safety does not mean it has the right to do anything it wishes in order to protect itself. It is also evident that Israel violated international law and committed war crimes, was was reported in the Goldstone Report.  Between the time when the shelling from Gaza started in 2001 and Operation Cast Lead, 20 Israeli civilians were killed by rockets or mortars, according to estimates by Israeli human rights groups. That doesn\u2019t justify an all-out ground invasion that killed more than 1,400 people.(10) As Javier Solana, chief of foreign policy for the European Union, said in late December 2008, \"the current Israeli strikes are inflicting an unacceptable toll on Palestinian civilians.\"(14)  It is a widely accepted principle of international law that actions taken pursuant to a state\u2019s right to defend itself must be proportionate to the danger that the state faces. While the 20 deaths that resulted from the actions of Hamas and its associates were tragic, the nature of these attacks did not justify a full scale military invasion of the Gaza strip, or the mass destruction of infrastructure essential to life in the strip."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-pro01a","title":"","text":"The military operations were legitimate as Israeli self-defense:  The military operations were a legitimate use of the Israeli state\u2019s right to defend itself and its citizens: To quote then-President-elect Barack Obama - \"If somebody was sending rockets into my house where my two daughters sleep at night, I would do everything to stop that, and would expect Israel to do the same thing.\"(1)  Prior to Israel's 2008-2009 military operations, Hamas had consistently violated the terms of the ceasefire between Gaza and Israel. It launched a total 6,300 rockets during an agreed hiatus in the confrontation, killing 10 and wounding more than 780. Hamas refused to extend the truce past 19 December 2008 and subsequently resumed attacks, firing nearly 300 more missiles, rockets and mortars.(1) Hamas was the first to actually escalate the conflict after the ceasefire expired, with a systematic increase in rocket attacks to a magnitude of hundreds of rockets fired daily in late December.(2) The 250,000 Israelis who lived in the southern part of the country were under constant threat, often in bomb shelters, and the economy suffered as a result.(1) Israel went to great lengths to avoid its military escalation. Just a few days before Israel's military operations, outgoing Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert made an appeal on the Arab television station Al-Arabiya asking Gaza residents to stop the firing of rockets and mortar shells so that a military response could be avoided.(3) This appeal was apparently ignored by Hamas and the other militant groups in Gaza, and so Israel proceeded to respond militarily to remove the capacity of Gaza to launch rocket and mortar attacks \u2013 Israel was left with no other way to ensure that the inhabitants of the country\u2019s southern regions would not have to live in fear of rocket fire.  Gaza was also a test case, intended to prove that Israel remained a legitimate and authoritative actor in the region. Much more was at stake than merely the military outcome of Israel's operation. The issue, rather, was Israel's ability to restore its deterrence power and uphold the principle that its citizens cannot be targeted with impunity.(4) Israel's military operations were a good tool to fulfill this need for self-defense and did so effectively. The Israeli strikes hit their targets precisely enough to do significant damage to Hamas forces, both to its leadership and to the tunnels from Gaza to Egypt that Hamas uses to smuggle in weapons and build its growing army.(1) Doing this damage was necessary as Israel could never be safe with a strong terrorist regime in control of Gaza. As David Harris, Executive Director for the American Jewish Committee, argued: \"Israel could not tolerate a terrorist regime on its border that was launching repeated rocket and mortar attacks against Israeli towns and villages.\"(5) Therefore there can be no debate that Israel had the right to defend itself as well as the right to determine how best to do so.  While it is easy for countries and foreigners to state their opinions about Israel's security interests and how its actions may or may not fulfill them, Israel's right to make that judgment itself must be respected. Therefore Israel's military operations against Gaza were justified as legitimate self defense against Hamas and militant aggression which was putting the lives of Israeli citizens in jeopardy."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-pro01b","title":"","text":"Israel similarly violated the ceasefire prior to 2008, and had unlawfully kidnapped and imprisoned hundreds of Palestinians. Furthermore, Israel's attack on Gaza was not an act of last resort. Israel could and should have tried to negotiate a truce with Hamas based on the following principle: an end to the Israeli siege on Gaza in exchange for an end to Hamas-led rocket attacks on Israel. This is the deal Hamas offered Israel before Operation Cast Lead was launched. Israel should have accepted Hamas\u2019s offer and assessed whether Hamas\u2019s intention to be bound by its terms was genuine before launching a military attack.(6) If an action isn't truly an act of last resort, it cannot be legitimately termed 'self-defense', and so is not justified. Hamas were prepared to enter into negotiations with Israel and it was prepared to discuss the more intricate details of the deal it had proposed. Its attempts to avoid conflict were committed and consistent enough to suggest that Gaza\u2019s leaders were not engaged in diplomatic posturing or sabre rattling. Israel targeted more than just military targets, including UN warehouses holding medical and food supplies, UN schools, and hospitals. Its imprecise tactics and refusal to allow access of humanitarian workers show that it was not merely self-defense."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-pro03a","title":"","text":"The military operations were proportionate to the threat:  Operation Cast Lead was justified as it was proportionate to Hamas' rocket attacks against Israel. It should be remembered that 250,000 Israelis living in the southern part of the country had lived under years of terrorism before Operation Cast Lead was launched, often in bomb shelters, and the economy has suffered. The world's media may only have paid attention when Israel responded to Hamas' barrage, but this does not mean that Israel was not already under severe attack by this point.(1) Moreover, the Israeli strikes were rightly measured to disable Hamas rocket attacks.(11)  Terror groups fire indiscriminately at innocent Israelis and then complain of excessive or disproportionate force when Israel fires back. But according to internationally accepted laws of war, Israel is permitted to respond with the force necessary to end the conflict.(2)  Israel was legitimate in using full force to win its war on Hamas; Israel was under no obligation to restrain itself in what is, on Hamas' own terms, an existential war. Provoked by Hamas, Israel had every right to wage a disproportionate and overwhelming response. Hamas has repeatedly stated that its objective is to destroy Israel. Such an existential threat goes beyond simply Hamas' rocket attacks, as it portends much more destructive attacks in the future. This justifies defensive attacks from Israel that go beyond responding merely to the Hamas rockets, and would even justify Israeli efforts to fully demobilize or destroy Hamas.(12) In spite of this, Israel was actually far more restrained and proportionate than it was obligated to be. Israeli precision strikes sought to minimize civilian deaths, as Benjamin Netanyahu argued: \"In launching precision strikes against Hamas rocket launchers, headquarters, weapons depots, smuggling tunnels and training camps, Israel is trying to minimize civilian casualties.\"(13) Unlike Hamas, Israeli strikes targeted military sites, not civilians. As Gary Grant argued: \"Even if you target your action at military sites, civilians are inevitably going to get killed...these need to be contrasted with the actions of Hamas where every single rocket is designed to attack civilian populations, so every single act of Hamas in firing these rockets is clearly an illegal act without any legal justification.\"(2)  Israel may have been justified in acting disproportionately, but instead chose to respond in a proportionate and limited manner which minimized civilian deaths in Gaza, and thus the Israeli military operations were certainly justified."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-con03b","title":"","text":"It is indisputable that Hamas has launched violent attacks against civilian targets. Israel, on the other hand, conducts its operations exercising all due care to limit civilian casualties. Hamas terrorists, however, set up their headquarters and store weapons in private homes, schools, colleges and mosques. Both Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas and Egyptian Foreign Minister Aboul Gheit have blamed Hamas for provoking the Israeli attack on Hamas targets embedded in civilian areas.(28) Israel's air assault has resulted in more Palestinian casualties, but that is in part because Hamas deliberately locates its security forces in residential neighborhoods. This is intended both to deter Israel from attacking in the first place as well as to turn world opinion against the Jewish state when it does attack. By all accounts, however, the Israeli strikes hit their targets precisely enough to do significant damage to Hamas forces.(1)  Israel actually put its own troops in harm\u2019s way to minimize civilian casualties during Operation Cast Lead.(13) This shows Israel's commitment to preventing civilian casualties and thus the justification of Operation Cast Lead. The disparity between Israeli and Palestinian casualties can be explained by the fact that Israel has early warning systems and hospitals. Israel invests significantly more in stable buildings that do not crumble when subjected a blast, systems that can detect incoming rocket fire, and an extensive and modern network of hospitals and emergency response teams. This, and the fact that Israel does not attempt to shield its military installations behind civilian homes and businesses, helps lower the number of civilian casualties as compared to in Gaza.(2)  The claim that Israel violated the principle of proportionality, by killing more Hamas terrorists than the number of Israeli civilians killed by Hamas rockets, is absurd. There is no legal equivalence between the deliberate killing of innocent civilians and the deliberate killings of Hamas combatants. Under the laws of war, any number of combatants can be killed to prevent the killing of even one innocent civilian.(29) Moreover, if Israel were to be 'proportional' and respond to the Hamas attacks in the same way, what would that mean? Would this require that it launch rocket attacks back against Gazan civilians? Obviously not (this would result in even more civilian deaths), and this is where the logic of proportionality against terrorist attacks makes little sense."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-con01b","title":"","text":"None of these arguments change that fact that 250,000 Israelis in southern Israel lived under constant fear of Hamas rocket attacks, which Hamas escalated after a ceasefire which it refused to extend. It is notable that Syria, an implacable enemy of Israel, actually played a significant role in triggering he conflict. The Damascus office of Hamas, which operates under the aegis of the regime of Bashar al Assad, vetoed the efforts of Hamas leaders in Gaza to extend the cease-fire and insisted on escalating rocket attacks.(4) The role of foreign powers in proving the conflict through Hamas has been recognized outside of Israel was well: Egypt's Foreign Minister, Ahmed Abul Gheit, assailed Israel's air strikes but also held Hamas responsible. The Egyptian government understood that Hamas, like Hezbollah, is increasingly allied with Iran and its goals for fomenting regional instability.(1) Israel could not possibly have been expected to thus not take military action to defend itself when coming under rocket fire from a terrorist government dedicated to Israel's destruction and under the direction of foreign states which are mortal enemies of Israel's existence. There was simply no other way to stop the rocket attacks. Moreover, Israel's blockade of Gaza was not a justified reason for Hamas' rocket attacks. Israeli control of Gaza\u2019s borders was a response to Hamas\u2019 exploitation of Israel\u2019s withdrawal from Gaza to turn it into an armed, Islamic state dedicated to the destruction of Israel above all else, even its own economy. Hamas was not provoked. Quite the contrary. Hamas\u2019 arms smuggling was the provocation. Then, on top of this provocation, Hamas fired rockets indiscriminately into Israel. The idea that Hamas was provoked leapfrogs the facts.(27)"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-con02a","title":"","text":"Israel's military operations harmed the chances of peace in the long term:  The long-term security of Israel rests with a stable peace agreement with the Palestinians, not in attempts to bludgeon Hamas into a truce 'on Israel's terms'. To the extent that Israel's large scale assault on Gaza eliminated the hopes of such an agreement, the attacks worsened Israel's long-term security.(10)  Operation Cast Lead ignored history, which teaches that there is no military solution to peace with the Palestinians. As a Daily Star Editorial argued, \"For the Israelis, once they have exercised this latest spasm of gratuitous bloodletting, there will be yet another opportunity to accept the oft-proved impossibility of a military solution. The Palestinian people will not be battered into submission, no amount of air strikes will make the core issues in the moribund peace process go away, and all of the same difficult decisions will still be waiting when the dust settles.\"(18) Thus Operation Cast Lead actually undermined future peace by once more making Israelis believe they can fight their way to a solution, which they cannot. As Nicholas Kristoff argues, \"What we\u2019re seeing in the Middle East is the Boomerang Syndrome. Arab terrorism built support for right-wing Israeli politicians, who took harsh actions against Palestinians, who responded with more terrorism, and so on. Extremists on each side sustain the other.\"(10)  Israel cannot stop rocket attacks by military action alone; eventually a political deal will be needed.(19) Operation Cast Lead emboldened the anti-negotiation side of Israeli politics, however, which focus on their claim that Israel should not negotiate with Hamas. However, Hamas was democratically elected, and so Israel must make peace with them. If Hamas was an authoritarian regime, Israel could possible attempt to get rid of it and make peace with the Palestinians in Gaza separately. But, because Hamas was democratically elected, any efforts by Israel to destroy them will be seen in Gaza as an effort to destroy the Palestinians and their democratic will. This would not enable any long-term peace with the Palestinians. Therefore, a long-term peace depends on working with Hamas, rather than attempting to destroy them.(20) Instead, Israel pursued Operation Cast Lead, which included an Israeli ground assault in Gaza, the excessive force of which is likely to create more terrorists in the long run.(10) The fact that Hamas was always going to survive Israel's assault meant that Operation Cast Lead was always going to help to consolidate the legitimacy of the Hamas movement, and to ensure that all the efforts of Israel to eliminate that fundamental pillar of resistance will produce the reverse result.(22)  Israel's offensive gave Iran and its allies a way to pressure Egypt, Jordan and other Arab 'moderates'. Like the Lebanon war of 2006, Israel's battle with Hamas in Gaza produced a schism among Muslim states. Iran and its Lebanon based ally Hezbollah have joined Hamas's Damascus-based leadership in calling for a new intifada, or uprising, against Israel -- and also against the governments of Egypt and Jordan, which are accused of silently supporting Israel's air attacks.(23) Israel\u2019s ruthless attack on Gaza and the massive civilian casualties it has inflicted has severely damaged the nation's moral stature in the world. This moral deficit will cause problems for Israel in its future engagements in the world. Therefore long term peace in the region was harmed by Operation Cast Lead, and so it was not justified."}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-con03a","title":"","text":"Israel's military operations were disproportionate and harmed too many civilians:  The killing of over 1,400 Palestinians, mostly civilians, and more than 4,500 injuries, accompanied by the destruction of schools, mosques, houses, UN compounds and government buildings, which Israel has a responsibility to protect under the Fourth Geneva Convention, is not commensurate to the deaths caused by Hamas rocket fire. For 18 months Israel had imposed an unlawful blockade on the coastal strip that brought Gazan society to the brink of collapse. In the three years after Israel\u2019s redeployment from Gaza, 11 Israelis were killed by rocket fire. And yet in 2005-8, according to the UN, the Israeli army killed about 1,250 Palestinians in Gaza, including 222 children. Throughout this time the Gaza Strip remained occupied territory under international law because Israel maintained effective control over it.(15) The targeting of civilians, whether by Hamas or by Israel, is potentially a war crime. Every human life is precious, but the numbers speak for themselves: 800 Palestinians, most of them civilians, were killed during Operation Cast Lead. In contrast, around a dozen Israelis were killed, many of them soldiers.(17) Precision strikes which avoided civilian deaths were never going to be possible in the crowded Gaza Strip. As Akiva Eldar argued: \"The tremendous population density in the Gaza Strip does not allow a 'surgical operation' over an extended period that would minimize damage to civilian populations. The difficult images from the Strip will soon replace those of the damage inflicted by Qassam rockets in the western Negev. The scale of losses, which works in 'favor' of the Palestinians, will return Israel to the role of Goliath.\"(24)  It is notable that Israel is more culpable for the civilian deaths it causes than Hamas is with its rockets, as Israel had options (such as ending the blockade and negotiating with Hamas) which could have caused fewer civilian deaths, whereas Hamas did not. Rather Hamas responds as the disproportionately weaker party; the Palestinians were compelled to use the crude means at their disposal to free their lands from Israeli occupation, even if this meant being unable to target them well and some civilian deaths resulting.(25) Israel's Operation Cast Lead was less legitimate as it was not Israel's only option, and so cannot be regarded as proportionate. Furthermore, Israel's use of white phosphorous in Gaza was a humanitarian crime. The use of white phosphorous by Israel to shield its military movements in Gaza was a humanitarian crime, as the chemical causes serious health problems to civilians that inhale it. And, by all accounts, the chemical was inhaled by many Gazan civilians.(25)"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-con01a","title":"","text":"Israel's military operations were aggression, not self defense:  Israel has sought to justify its military attacks on Gaza by stating that they amounted to an act of 'self-defense' as recognized by Article 51, United Nations Charter. This contention should be rejected: the rocket attacks on Israel by Hamas deplorable as they were, did not, in terms of scale and effect amount to an armed attack entitling Israel to rely on self-defense. Under international law, self-defense is an act of last resort and is subject to the customary rules of proportionality and necessity.  Operation Cast Lead caused the deaths of over 1,400 Palestinians, over 300 of whom were children, injured 4,500 more and resulted in the destruction of schools, mosques, houses, UN facilities and government buildings. If, as Israel has stated, Cast Lead was carried out in accordance with the terms of international law, and the safeguards incorporated into the contemporary law of war, then Israeli forces had a duty to protect civilian infrastructure under the fourth Geneva Convention. The death and destruction that Israeli forces wrought throughout the Gaza Strip was not commensurate with the losses caused by Hamas rocket fire, no matter how horrific those attacks may have been.  Israel\u2019s actions amount to aggression, not self-defense, not least because its assault on Gaza was unnecessary. Israel could have agreed to renew the truce with Hamas.(15) Israel's attack on Gaza was also not an act of last resort. Israel could and should have tried to negotiate a truce with Hamas based on the principle that Hamas stop firing rockets at Israel in return for Israel lifting its siege on Gaza. This is the deal Hamas offered Israel before it started Operation Cast Lead, and Israel should have taken it then and seen how went before resorting to military force.(6)  Israel arguably provoked the entire conflict by targeting Palestinian civilians with its blockade on Gaza. According to Hebrew University international law expert Yuval Shani, \"It is my opinion that in this situation, and given the question marks regarding Israel's status in Gaza and Gaza's long-standing dependency on Israel, cutting off its water and electricity supplies would be equivalent to a direct attack on a civilian target, especially given that the motive for doing so is one of collective punishment, which is, in itself, a problematic motive.\"(26) Hamas had offered to renew the ceasefire if Israel reopened Gaza's border crossings. The strip had been sealed by Israel in an economic siege aimed at toppling Hamas. The blockade had brought the territory near economic collapse.(21) Therefore this blockade must be seen as the true cause of the conflict, and thus Operation Cast Lead was not a legitimate act of self-defense.  The lack of efficacy of Operation Cast Lead also undermines its legitimacy as 'self-defense': while Hamas's offensive capacities were blunted for a while, the likelihood, as with Hezbollah after Lebanon in 2006, is that it will quickly rebuild its military strength. Indeed, the assassinations of its leaders by Israel over the years- and the raids on its weapons workshops- did little to limit its rise to power.(16) Israel's overall strategy, moreover, is not one of 'self-defense' against Hamas, but rather to make ordinary Palestinians suffer in hopes of creating ill will toward their Hamas government. This is why, beginning in 2007, Israel cut back fuel shipments for Gaza\u2019s utilities, and why, in the aftermath of the bombings, 800,000 Gaza residents were deprived running water. As Sari Bashi, the executive director of Gisha, an Israeli human rights group that works on Gaza issues, argued: \u201cThe Israeli policy on Gaza has been marketed as a policy against Hamas, but in reality it\u2019s a policy against a million-and-a-half people in Gaza.\u201d(10) Rashid Khalidi added to this argument: \"This war on the people of Gaza isn\u2019t really about rockets. Nor is it about 'restoring Israel\u2019s deterrence,' as the Israeli press might have you believe. Far more revealing are the words of Moshe Yaalon, then the Israeli Defense Forces chief of staff, in 2002: 'The Palestinians must be made to understand in the deepest recesses of their consciousness that they are a defeated people.'\"(17)  Israeli internal politics may also have played a role in determining the size and scope of Cast Lead. Israel was preparing for general elections on 10 February 2009. The prospect of a return to power by the hawk Benjamin Netanyahu, leader of the right-wing Likud party, promising tough action against Hamas, hardened the positions of Israel's more moderate political leaders, and may have caused them to launch such an operation to 'look tough', rather than judging its proportionality on its own merits.(21)Therefore Operation Cast Lead should be regarded not as legitimate self-defense, but rather as an act of aggression against the Palestinian people of Gaza, and consequently w"}
+{"id":"training-international-meptwhbi22-con02b","title":"","text":"The most important thing for regional peace in the long run is not the belief among Israelis that there is a 'military solution' to the conflict, but rather the belief of Hamas and its backers in Syria and Iran that Israel can be 'solved' militarily. It is this belief that causes them to constantly return to using force against Israel, as they did with the rocket attacks. Therefore to establish peace in the long run, Israeli deterrent and demonstration that its citizens cannot be targeted with impunity are the most important factors, and these are exactly what Operation Cast Lead re-established. Moreover, Hamas may promotes itself as the legitimate power in Gaza, but in reality, Hamas is at its core a terrorist organization that refuses to renounce violence or recognize Israel's right to exist. Hamas is listed as a terrorist organization by the United States and the European Union. Hamas came to power in Gaza through a violent coup against the Palestinian Authority government. Since Hamas refuses to live in peace with Israel, the Israeli government has no choice but to seek Hamas' replacement.(2)"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Because of the size of the global community, and ease of communication and transport, most countries can still attain necessary weapons and tools. As the world has globalized and information can be passed, attained, and hidden, with the click of a button, arms embargos are much more difficult to maintain. The UN placed an arms embargo on the Sudan due to fears of ethnic cleansing carried out by the Janjaweed, yet it was reported that there were violations of the embargo on all sides of the conflict. In fact, there were accusations backed up by pictorial evidence that even after the arms embargo was put into place, China and Russia, both members of the UN security council, were selling weapons to the country1. Arms embargoes often fall short of their goals. 1 BBC (2007), \"China, Russia deny weapons breach\", [Accessed June 10, 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Sanctions can block the weapons that are used to perpetrate human rights violations.  Arms embargos are a type of sanction that specifically target types of weapons. If a country is being particularly violent towards its people or at risk of civil war, arms embargos can be used to decrease the weapons available to the government or the people. In 1993-1994 an arms embargo was placed on Haiti by the United Nations after a military coup by the group FaDH (the Forces ArmArm\u00e9es d\u2019Haiti). Forces were estimated to shrink from 6000 to 1000 by the time the US invaded in 1994 thanks to the arms embargo [1] . Preventing governments from attaining weapons can be the most effective way of stopping government violence. If they don\u2019t have weapons to arm their military, civil war and genocide become more difficult to perpetrate. Arms embargoes have been successful and when used in conjunction with other policy actions can be an effective way of addressing fears of civil war, ethnic cleansing, government violence, and coups.  [1] Bromley, Mark (2007), \u201cUnited Nations Arms Embargoes: Their Impact on Arms Flows and Target Behaviour. Case study: Haiti, 1993\u201394\u201d, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute,Bromley, Mark (2007), [accessed June 7, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro03b","title":"","text":"Sanctions often hurt the people more than they hurt the regimes, rendering it difficult to discern whether the state(s) imposing sanctions truly care about the citizens involved or their own self-interests. Inflicting the pain of poverty and starvation obviously does not show solidarity, but instead can crush any opposition movement in the country. If people are worried about feeding themselves they are less likely to take action against their government. Additionally, sanctions are not the only form of supporting the people of a country. In the most recent Arab Spring, the US did not support protesters solely through sanctions, but instead publicly called for reforms1. Drawing international attention to certain issues can also be an effective means of taking action. Sanctions are therefore not a necessary or effective way of showing support. 1 Sharp, Jeb (2011), \"President Obama Calls for Middle East Reform\", PRI's The World, [accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sanctions have been an effective long term policy tool in the past.  If sanctions are effective, their use is justified because they ultimately achieve a desired outcome. They cause financial pain to leaders pressuring them to reform. Long term sanctions on South Africa were an effective policy. They caused the living standards in the country to deteriorate, however this ultimately led to the right amount of pressure on the government for apartheid to be ended1. Economic restrictions were first placed on South Africa in 1963 and were ultimately lifted after the end of apartheid almost 30 years later. Nelson Mandela himself has stated that sanctions played a role in forcing the South African government to end apartheid2. The success of sanctions in the past has prevented the international community from taking military action against certain states. Due to prior success in South Africa, sanctions are an appropriate tool to push countries towards reform while preventing military escalation. 1 Foer, Franklin (1996), \"Economic Sanctions\", Slate.com,, [Accessed June 7, 2011]. 2 Laverty, Alexander (2007), \"Impact of Economic and Political Sanctions on Apartheid\", The Africa File, [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Sanctions have also failed in the long term. A recent study found that sanctions were used 116 times between 1914 and 1990, and after 1973 were only effective 24% of the time1. South Africa is not an appropriate example because the US and EU had a cooperative relationship with the country prior to sanctions therefore increasing the impact the trade restrictions had. Sanctions are now mostly used against isolated countries, like North Korea and Myanmar, who do not have a close relationship with international actors, and for whom cutting off trade is not such a detrimental loss. Since the countries sanctions are currently being used against do not fit the profile of South Africa, sanctions are ineffective and success in South Africa is irrelevant. 1 Gilboy, George (2008), \"Political and Social Reform in China: Alive and Walking\", Washington Quarterly, [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro04b","title":"","text":"Recent sanctions failures can make sanctions a less viable threat. Seeing that Myanmar, Iran and North Korea have successfully been able to deflect the pain and pressure of sanctions onto their people1, the threat of sanctions becomes less powerful because it is less likely to spell the end of a regime2. The failure of sanctions, not the infrequent use, makes them useless. 1 The Economist (2011), \"An aye for sanctions\", [Accessed June 10, 2011]. 2 Noland, Marcus (2009), \"The (Non-) Impact of UN Sanctions on North Korea\", The National Bureau of Asian Research, [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Sanctions make clear where a country stands.  Sanctions send a strong message to the people of a country that the Western world is on their side and will not just remain compliant by dealing with an oppressive regime as if it has done nothing wrong. Part of what encourages peoples to stand up for their civil liberties is a feeling of support against their regime from outside actors. True reform needs to come from pressure within and outside of the state as it did in South Africa. The only way to incentivize internal pressure is by expressing support for civilian movements. In the case of the repressive government in Myanmar, the lifting of sanctions would be viewed as a betrayal by the Myanmarese and would reverse any progress that sanctions have helped to achieve. The leader of the opposition movement, Aung San Suu Kyi, in Myanmar has called for a continuation of sanctions, and in an act of support the US has complied1. Therefore sanctions can be an important signal of support to a country's people, which makes them more likely to stand up to their government and create the necessary internal pressure for reform. 1 Colvin, Jake and Cox, Simon (2007), \"Are Economic Sanctions Good Foreign Policy?\", Council on Foreign Relations, [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-pro04a","title":"","text":"Just the threat of sanctions can be an effective coercive tool.  Most diplomatic negotiations occur behind closed doors, and it has been hypothesized that if sanctions are going to be effective it is the threat of the sanctions that forces the country to concede, not the sanctions themselves1. That said, if sanctions were never followed through, the threat would be meaningless. The use of sanctions builds up the fear of sanction. This fear can bend countries towards the will of the sanctioning nation. To maintain the threat of sanctions as a viable negotiating tool, sanctions need to be implemented on occasion to prevent sanctions from becoming an empty, meaningless threat. 1 Colvin, Jake and Cox, Simon (2007), \"Are Economic Sanctions Good Foreign Policy?\", Council on Foreign Relations, [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con03b","title":"","text":"Free trade does not guarantee democracy and causes bargaining countries to lose leverage. In order to increase their own wealth most dictatorial oligarchies welcome free trade. Once they have been accepted into the free trade arena the West no longer has any leverage on them. It is true, for example, that a sanctions regime against China would be impossible to implement but that does not mean we should concede entirely. We should reinstate MFN as a lever and use it to force China to improve upon its human rights record. To believe that free trade can lead to democratization is na\u00efve. It is far too hopeful to suggest that the wealth produced thereby will be allowed to filter down to the people. For example, pervasive poverty still persists in China [1] . In reality free trade has acted as a mechanism to worsen the living standards of the people in China as profits are concentrated in the business sector, and people are subject to terrible working conditions and low wages [2] . As this continues, China also suppresses the voice of the people and censors the internet [3] . Trade liberalization has clearly not made a China a democracy, and thus cannot be declared a more successful policy option than sanctions.  [1] Wall Street Journal (2009), \u201cFacts About Poverty in China Challenge Conventional Wisdom\u201d, [Accessed June 10, 2011].  [2] Roberts, Dexter (2007), \u201cChina's Widening Income Gap\u201d, Bloomberg News, [Accessed June 10, 2011].  [3] Ramzy, Austin (2011), \u201cState Stamps Out Small 'Jasmine' Protests in China\u201d, Time Magazine, [Accessed June, 10 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con01b","title":"","text":"A unified front is not impossible, and when executed correctly can have effective results. Sanctions were used in South Africa, and due to grassroots pressures in the US and Europe trading with South Africa became stigmatized1. Even though it is difficult to create effective sanctions, it is not impossible particularly if there is pressure internally and externally on the country to reform. 1 Foer, Franklin (1996), \"Economic Sanctions\", Slate.com,, [Accessed June 7, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con02a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are ineffective because they hurt ordinary people more than leadership.  Sanctions operate under the assumption that they will hurt leaders of a country so much that they will bend to the will of the sanctioning country. Yet this assumption is false: governments have the tools to insulate themselves thereby preventing sanctions from imposing necessary pressure. By keeping all available resources for themselves, the government ensures that the sanctions impact only the people. Governments that can achieve this deflection have a relatively powerless citizen base that even when they are suffering have difficulty standing up to the government. Punishing innocent people is immoral, because they are suffering for a crime they did not commit. When the US and UK placed sanctions on Saddam Hussein, it lead to the death of hundreds of thousands of children in Iraq, although the exact number is contested. Considering that US ultimately invaded Iraq, these children died in vain. In North Korea, it is thought that sanctions have led to the starvation of hundreds of thousands of people. In both Myanmar and North Korea most of the pain from sanctions is deflected onto the largely helpless population who have little ability to put pressure on their oppressive governments to stop the suffering1. Because this suffering often does not affect the leadership, they can essentially ignore any pressure to reform2. And, many of these governments simply don't have an interest in improving the lives of their people, making sanctions immoral and ineffective3. 1 Carpenter, Ted and Preble, Christopher (2006), \"North Korean Sanctions: A Cruel Mirage\", The CATO Institute, [Accessed June 10, 2011]. 2 House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs (2006-2007), \"The Impact of Economic Sanctions, [Accessed June 10, 2011]. 3 Loyola, Mario (2010), \"We Don't Need to 'Get Over the Sanctions Delusion'\", National Review,, [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con04a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are ineffective because they can be counterproductive.  Sanctions often cut off a country from the international community. This blocks the flow of outside information into a country and permits dictators to mercilessly use propaganda to strengthen their own position. It is impossible for the people to believe such propaganda is false when there are no competing external claims1. This propaganda can deflect blame for the economic suffering from the government to the international community. This is called the \"rally around the flag effect\" characterized by the banding together of opposing factions because of the adverse actions of an outside power2. For example, sanctions in Myanmar will only serve to insulate the SPDC, the ruling party, in power. The SPDC's grip on the national media means that it is able to disseminate propaganda which demonizes the West as the enemy of the Myanmarese, and casts the military junta as their hero. This can make the people more willing to stand up to the Western powers instead of their government. The lifting of sanctions may ensure that ordinary Myanmarese citizens are exposed to Western technology, labor practices and political ideologies which in turn will equip them with the belief and self-determination necessary to engineer change in their own country. The power of media cannot be underestimated, and isolation of sanctioned countries jeopardizes the opposition movements in that country integral to regime change. This threat ultimately outweighs potential benefits of sanctions. 1 Eland, Ivan (2006), \"Economic Coercion Is Not an Effective Foreign Policy Tool\", Independent Institute, [Accessed June 10, 2011]. 2 Chapman, Terrence and Reiter, Dan (2004), \"The United Nations Security Council and the Rally Around the Flag Effect\", Emory University Political Science Department, [Accessed June 20, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con03a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are the opposite of free trade and therefore should not be used because free trade has greater benefits.  Sanctions prevent free trade, which is ultimately more effective for incentivizing reforms. Three mechanisms can be broadly identified through which free trade brings about democratization. Firstly, it permits a flow of information from Western countries. Secondly, it leads to an increase in the wealth of everybody and thirdly it facilitates the growth of a middle class. The middle class is usually the one that calls for political reform, because they no longer have to worry about living from day to day, and are not complacent about their government's corruption and failure to address their concerns1.These three factors together result in internal pressure and consequent political change; economic freedoms lead to political freedoms. This approach was successful in helping to bring about the downfall of communism in the Warsaw pact and is starting to lead to increased freedoms in China. For example, China has been taking a slow path to government reform2. Previous policy directed toward China was to link trading rights, in the form of MFN (most favored nation) status to improvements in human rights. All China ever did was offer fleeting changes whenever necessary to preserve MFN status. It is only with unlimited free trade that we will see deep structural changes in human rights in China. Additionally, economic growth due to increased trade has not only impacted China, but other countries in the region as well, like Taiwan and South Korea. There, new constitutions and managed elections, led over time to a more meaningful democracy3. These success stories show that free trade can be implemented in other countries to produce effective government change over time and is a more viable option than sanctions. 1 Tlili, Moustapha (2011). \"Tunisia's Revolution Was Led By Secular Middle Class\", Daily Star (Lebanon), (Accessed June 20, 2011) 2 Gilboy, George (2008), \"Political and Social Reform in China: Alive and Walking\", Washington Quarterly, [Accessed June 10, 2011]. 3 Heritage Foundation (1997), \"A User's Guide To Economic Sanctions\", , [Accessed June"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con01a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are ineffective because it is very difficult to unify an adequate number of countries to cripple an economy.  Many countries must employ sanctions for them to be successful, yet due to competing political objectives unifying enough countries is almost impossible. If sanctions are only imposed by a few countries, the sanctioned nation can replace lost trade from those countries with trade from other allies, deflecting the economic consequences of the sanctions. North Korea is so isolated from the international community that sanctions have had little effect, particularly because their most important trade partner, China, has continued to do business with them1. The UK and US sanctions have not been effective in the case of Myanmar given that the country mainly trades with other ASEAN member states, India, China and Japan. The violation of sanctions often has to do with political motives. In the case of ASEAN, the member countries are concerned that China may use Myanmar for military and naval bases, so they are pouring money into the country and breaking US sanctions to promote their own self-interest in the region and counter China2. Considering that every country has their self-interest in mind, it is ultimately too difficult to forge a united front between enough countries to cripple the country they are sanctioning. 1 Noland, Marcus (2009), \"The (Non-) Impact of UN Sanctions on North Korea\", The National Bureau of Asian Research, [Accessed June 10, 2011]. 2 Heritage Foundation (1997), \"A User's Guide To Economic Sanctions\", , [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con04b","title":"","text":"Not all peoples are so easily manipulated by a corrupt government. It is na\u00efve to suggest that the Myanmarese people accept the government\u2019s propaganda without question. After all, many are still reeling from the tragedy that befell them in 1990 when the results of democratic elections were annulled and scores of opposition party supporters were arrested and imprisoned without trial [1] . The popularity of Aung San Suu Kyi, the main opposition leader, and the NLD remain high [2] . Further, social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter make propaganda less effective and help disseminate criticism of governments even in times of extreme media censorship [3] . With current internet tools, crushing opposition movements, even with propaganda, is not so easy therefore countering the potential threat of sanctions.  [1] BBC (2010), \u201cBurma's leaders annul Suu Kyi's 1990 poll win\u201d  [2] BBC (2011), \"Burma upholds dissolution of Suu Kyi's NLD party'  [3] Shirky, Clay (2011), \u201cThe Political Powers of Social Media\u201d, Foreign Affairs"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbssbupd-con02b","title":"","text":"Although they do indeed hurt ordinary people, in the long term this can create appropriate pressure on governments. When people are suffering enough at the hands of the government, they are likely to take action. In Egypt and Tunisia the leaders were getting richer, and the people were becoming poorer, leading to the protests for regime change1. Sanctions worked in South Africa and in the former Rhodesia. It is true that they can lead to the mass suffering of the very people they are designed to help, as they did to the black population of South Africa2. Yet this suffering creates necessary internal pressure for regime change. By the utilitarian standard, which says it is just to help the most people, the current suffering of some due to sanctions is outweighed by the future freedom promised to all citizens. Sanctions are therefore justified and effective even though they hurt the people as well as the leaders of a country. 1 Bajoria, Jayshree and Assaad, Ragui (2011), \"Demographics of Arab Protests\", Council on Foreign Relations, [Accessed June 20, 2011]. 2 Heritage Foundation (1997), \"A User's Guide To Economic Sanctions\", , [Accessed June 10, 2011]."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is clearly extremely unfair on those countries that traditionally have much lower turnouts. It essentially means that countries with low turnouts will have less representation than they do at the moment. There is little reason why a nation as a whole should be punished by having less representation for some of its citizens not going out to vote."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro02a","title":"","text":"Get out the vote!  In a system where every vote counts the same and where there are not set constituencies it is much more important to get the vote out. Political parties in countries with low turn outs, such as the UK which in 2009 has a turnout of just 35%, [1] will need to get their people motivated and voting if they want to win many seats as they currently control. If a country with a comparably sized electorate were to get twice the turnout then it would get twice the representation in the parliament regardless of the similarities in the populations of those countries. What would matter is getting the national constituency out voting. This will help show that individuals really do need to vote in order to get their voice heard.  [1] \u2018European Parliament Elections 2009\u2019, House of Commons, Research Paper 09\/53, 17 June 2009,  p.23"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is not just much more choice but too much choice! Do people in Greece really want the opportunity to vote for the UK Independence Party? Will anyone really have the information to make an informed choice between all the possible parties throughout Europe? The European People\u2019s party (one of the groupings in the European parliament) alone has 51 parties as members of its grouping is anyone really going to look up the different party policies to work out which best represents their views? [1]  [1] \u2018Member Parties European Union countries\u2019, European People\u2019s Party,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro05a","title":"","text":"Encourages Europe wide thinking  At the moment paradoxically European elections are often not about Europe. Much of the time they are about national politics, and since they are almost always mid-term what they are often about is punishing the national government. Governing parties\u2019 almost always loose votes while opposition parties gain, it is notable that governing parties only gain if the election is held in their \u2018honeymoon\u2019 period after they are voted into power. More generally European elections are seen as an opportunity to vote for small parties rather than bigger ones \u2013 implying it is a chance to follow ones heart over one\u2019s head. Europe however remains a minor element. [1]  This change in system is unlikely to mean that national governing parties gain significantly more votes but it will raise the profile of the European dimension in the elections. When people are able to vote for parties that do not contest their national elections they will have no choice but to see it as a European election rather than a national one. Voters will be much more likely to ask how the policies of these foreign parties affect them and some may even consider voting for them. A few particularly enterprising parties are likely to run transnational campaigns in the hope of picking up votes outside their home nation. The vote will simply be more European rather than the same old national parties being the only choice.  [1] Hix, Simon, and Marsh, Michael, \u2018Punishment or Protest? Understanding European Parliament Elections\u2019, The Journal of Politics, Vol.69, No.2, May 2007, pp.495-510,  , pp.501, 503, 507"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro01a","title":"","text":"One person one vote that will count in exactly the same way as everyone else\u2019s  The European Parliament has a proportional representation system meaning that almost everyone\u2019s vote counts but the change to a single constituency would still improve this. Everyone\u2019s vote should count for the same no matter where they live. This system ensures that there is such equality in the voting for the European Parliament. From the 2014 elections Germany will have 96 MEPs and Malta 6 [1] since Germany has a population of 82 million against Malta\u2019s 400,000 [2] it has one for every 854,000 inhabitants against Malta\u2019s one MEP per 66,000. Voters in smaller states have an outsize influence. Changing to a single constituency would make every European citizen\u2019s vote worth the same.  [1] European Parliament, \u2018How many MEPs will each country get after European Parliament elections in 2014?\u2019, Europarl.europa.eu, 13 March 2013,   [2] \u2018Member countries of the European Union\u2019, Europa.eu,  , accessed 7 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro01b","title":"","text":"While it may be true on an individual level that everyone\u2019s vote would count for the same in practice when looked at from a broader perspective there will not be equality. It will mean inequality among nations as turnouts will differ. Moreover democracy is not just about equality but also about defending the rights of the minority so as to prevent a tyranny of the majority this system however does not protect smaller states but allows the larger much greater influence."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro05b","title":"","text":"Simply allowing parties from other countries to compete is not going to encourage Europe wide thinking. There is very little to stop parties from other countries registering elsewhere already, and as the voting is already proportional there is already a chance that they could win seats. It has however not happened."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro04b","title":"","text":"Far from rationalising the system the European Parliament elections will become more irrational with a single constituency. Everyone will find it very odd that they can potentially vote for parties from the other side of the continent that they have never heard of. It may make the system the same everywhere but this does not mean it is a sensible system for European elections. The number of parties makes it complex, as does the concept of an international parliament where all votes go into one central pool rather than being based on nationality."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro03a","title":"","text":"Much more choice  Having only one constituency across the whole of the European Union would mean a lot more choice for the voter. They would not be restricted to just their own national parties, instead they could vote for parties from other countries across the EU. One of the most important things in a democracy is making sure that votes actually count \u2013 a greater choice helps immensely. There will not be any opportunity to say \u2018they are all the same\u2019 when there are dozens of parties to choose from. Everyone will be able to find a party that represents their views. For example a left wing voter in the UK might want to vote for the left party in Germany feeling that the Labour party no longer represents them."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-pro04a","title":"","text":"Rationalises an irrational system  The current system for the European Parliament elections is irrational and quirky because it is partially set individually per nation. The vote is not held on the same day in every country \u2013 the elections take place from Thursday when the UK and Netherlands votes through to Sunday when most of the EU votes, [1] some countries divide themselves into multiple constituencies \u2013 such as the UK which has 12 [2] \u2013 while others like Germany have one constituency for the whole country. Perhaps oddest of all Austrians are able to vote when they reach 16 years old while everyone else has to wait until they are eighteen. [3] And all this is before the oddities of little countries votes counting for more is included.  Rationalisation of this system is clearly necessary and this is what this proposal does. Clearly the main rationalisation is in terms of making the value of votes the same. It would also eliminate differences over constituencies. It is likely that it would eliminate the age difference too; Austria allowing its citizens to vote at 16 would effectively give it more say compared to its population size. The chances are then that other states would follow and reduce their voting age for European Parliament elections to 16. While there is no necessary link to voting on the same day it would also provide a good chance to make the change so the voting occurs at one time.  [1] \u2018EU elections: Polling day will stay on Thursday, insists government\u2019, BBC News, 13 March 2013,   [2] \u2018Your Members in the European Parliament\u2019, European Parliament Information Office in the United Kingdom,   [3] European Parliament, \u2018About Parliament - Members\u2019, europarl.europa.eu,  , accessed 3 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con03b","title":"","text":"This assumes that there could never be agreement in the European Council, between member states, to set up such a system. Members have an interest in having a representative system that is fair democratic system of elections so should welcome these changes. The member states have already effectively agreed that the European Parliament can decide for itself what elections for the European Parliament should look like having agreed in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union to accept European Parliament proposals for elections of parliament members. [1]  [1] \u2018Consolidated Version of The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union\u2019, Official Journal of the European Union,  , Article 223"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con01b","title":"","text":"No nation in the European Union has a majority so this is a baseless concern. The biggest country in the EU is Germany with a population of 81.8million against a total of 508million so Germany makes up a mere 16.1% of the EU total. [1] This is certainly not enough to dominate the continent.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con02a","title":"","text":"Punishes apathy  People have a right not to be engaged by voting, and all the more so for a parliament they see as a gravy train with little political power. The European Parliament has comparatively little power, and where it does have power it does not affect the issues that concern people; taxes, welfare, education, and health. [1] This policy however punishes their countrymen for their desire not to vote because political apathy means less votes within that nation \u2013 which in turn means that nation\u2019s parties will be less represented in the parliament.  [1] Pech, Laurent, \u2018European Parliament Elections: The Significance of Voter Apathy\u2019, International Law Prof Blog, 3 June 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con05a","title":"","text":"Some countries may be left without representation  It is difficult to conceive of how a system can be fair when some countries will be left without any representation at all. On average there is one seat in the European Parliament for every 670,000 individuals in the EU however Malta (452,000) and Luxembourg (537,000) both have populations that are smaller than this. In effect each of these countries will only have around two thirds of a MEP. It is very unlikely that even the most popular Maltese and Luxembourgian parties will secure a seat in a fully proportional system with a single constituency. Two countries would therefore effectively be disenfranchised by this system."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con04a","title":"","text":"This avoids the real questions about the European Parliament  The real problems with the European Parliament are not about the voting system; most people agree that the system is currently pretty fair. Rather the problem is with A, a lack of interest in European policies \u2013 only 43% are interested in European Affairs in 2013, a fall from 51% in 2012. B, the inability of the European Parliament to address the main concerns of the people which are in order unemployment, social inequalities, public debt, jobs for youth, it is not until the 7th most important challenge, immigration that the European parliament has a significant impact. [1] C, a lack of power, and where it has power lack of knowledge about the European Parliament. A change in voting system does not mean a change in the Parliament\u2019s powers or perception.  [1] Directorate-General for Communication Public Opinion Monitoring Unit, \u2018European Parliament Eurobarometer: One year to go until the 2014 European elections\u2019, European Parliament, EB 79.5, 21 August 2013  , p.69, 81"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con03a","title":"","text":"Would undermine national sovereignty  Separating the European Parliament elections from the individual countries of Europe is clearly a challenge to national sovereignty. Each member state should be able to decide how it conducts its elections (within a certain general framework), what parties can compete in those elections, the rules governing campaigning etc. The basis of the European Union is what is agreed between the member states by the members of the European Council. In the treaty of Lisbon it was agreed that \u201cRepresentation of citizens shall be degressively proportional, with a minimum threshold of six members per Member State. No Member State shall be allocated more than ninety-six seats.\u201d [1] A change to a single constituency would break this provision that has been agreed by the nation states.  [1] \u2018Article 9 A\u2019, Official Journal of the European Union, 17 December 2007,  C306\/17"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con05b","title":"","text":"It is not true that they won\u2019t have representation; they may not have a specifically Luxembourger or Maltese party but there will be so much choice of parties that their viewpoints will be represented. Additionally this system allows the parties from these small nations to solve this problem by appealing to a wider audience beyond their borders. It is simply an added incentive to Europeanise."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con01a","title":"","text":"Big countries will dominate  This system would create a tyranny of the majority that the current system guards against. The reason why smaller member states have greater representation is to prevent the possibility of the bigger states dominating in the parliament. Having smaller countries with a greater share of the seats in parliament ensures that their voice is heard. A change to a single constituency would change this to a big advantage for the bigger states. Under the current system in 2014 Germany will have 96 seats; if it were exactly proportional Germany would have 120 \u2013 a gain of 24 seats (presuming the limit of 750 remains the same). The smaller states will on the other hand loose seats and their voice in the parliament will become much more marginal."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con04b","title":"","text":"Discussing electoral systems may seem esoteric but the voting system makes an immense difference to the composition of a parliament. This in turn affects the balance of power in that Parliament and so what laws are actually passed. So a change in the voting system does not completely avoid the question of powers. It may also change perceptions because of the ability of parties to campaign in countries where they have not done so before.  While the lack of powers is a concern for the European Parliament this is something that is slowly changing anyway. The European Parliament was in 2009 made co-legislator with the council meaning it has much more power to stop European level legislation rather than simply being consulted. The change in 2014 to having an elected Commission President will also mean that parliament elections have some influence on the executive. Additionally even on those issues where the Parliament has little power this does not mean it does not take into account citizens\u2019 concerns, on youth unemployment for example the parliament has launched a \u20ac15 million program of job creation aimed at youth. [1]  [1] \u2018European elections 2014: Different this time?\u2019, EurActive.com, 18 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvepesio-con02b","title":"","text":"Part of the reason for such apathy is the belief that 62% of European Citizens believe that their vote \u201cwouldn\u2019t change anything\u201d. [1] Why vote if it does not matter. However by changing the electoral system to being completely proportional as this change does peoples votes really do count, this is no longer a reason for apathetically not voting.  [1] Merritt, Giles, \u2018European parliament: unpopular, uninteresting, indispensable\u2019, theguardian.com, 31 May 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-pro02b","title":"","text":"In many cases, an impartial third party can be more effective. If we look at peace negotiations as an analogy and look at, for example, those between FARC guerillas and the Colombian government they began in Oslo, Norway,(1) not in Colombia or any other South American country. This happens as in order for a conflict to be mediated, you need to have a neutral third party which no party can influence and has no preference. The same can be equally true of peacekeepers.  Due to African membership, the AU is unlikely to be considered impartial putting troops between them African factions. Of course, those African countries are part of the UN too, but due to the sheer number of countries in the UN, it is clear that the influence is much more diminished.  (1) Rueda, Manuel, \u2018The Ultimate Guide to Colombia\u2019s Peace Negotiations\u2019, Fusion, 17 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-pro02a","title":"","text":"African forces will be trusted by Africans  The primary purpose of international organisations is to resolve conflicts between members. In the case of the AU its first stated objective is \u201cachieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries\u201d. The main threat to this unity as well as peace in the continent is rebel groups and internal conflict. Groups for whom the only goal is wealth or to get into power in their own country.(2)  An AU force\u2019s role would therefore be to defeat these armed groups and to engage in peacekeeping. An AU force is always going to be better at handling these situations due to its legitimacy in Africa. In many African countries, the West is perceived as an imperialist power, due to their colonial past and as a result there is a serious lack of trust between the parties.  An AU force will also be better than any local force as a peacekeeper as it will, like the UN, be seen as being independent while also being African. It would also, like the rebels, be able to cross borders. Such a force would therefore be able to hunt down rebels like the Lords Resistance Army which has so far evaded destruction by moving between Uganda, Southern Sudan, and DR Congo.  (1) The Constitutive Act, African Union, 11 July 2000,   (2) Gettleman, Jeffrey, \u201cAfrica's Forever Wars\u201d, Foreign Policy, April 2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-pro03b","title":"","text":"In a world which has been constantly militarizing for the past century it is very hard to believe that Africa will be capable of building, from scratch, such an army capable of impressing the developed world.  Any AU army will be small; the US has a military budget about 15 times all the African countries combined(1)(2), China\u2019s military budget is growing at a double digit rate and many other countries have vasty superior armies when compared to the best in Africa. An AU force is always going to be severely limited by its low budgets and capabilities. It may win plaudits and influence for its help within Africa but it will have no role beyond the continent as it will never be a force used to project power. Changing a perception that Africa can do nothing on its own is one thing, it is quite another to gain influence outside the continent.  (1) Simmins, Charles, \u201cDefense Spending in Africa Increasing\u201d, Clearance Jobs, September 6, 2013   (2) \u2019Military expenditure\u2019, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-pro01a","title":"","text":"The international community cant be relied upon  It is clear that Africa cannot rely on the international community to solve its conflicts. In order to be more independent, what the African Union needs is a standing army, which can intervene whenever there is a crisis.  First of all, when looking at statistics, having dipped in the 1990s the number of conflicts is growing once more, the most recent events of Mali and the Algeria serving as a perfect example(1). \u201cfollowing a year (2010) that signalled hope for a more peaceful development, the number of conflicts increased by nearly 20 percent \u201c(4). This has served to demonstrate Africa\u2019s need for a force to engage in peace keeping and peace making.  Despite the growing need for peacekeeping forces, there is reason to believe that the help coming from the international community will be insufficient. The dysfunctional structure of the UNSC, the body which approves all major international interventions. Russia and China, two countries which have a non interventionist approach on foreign policy, have veto power in this body; which means a lot of possible interventions get vetoed. The examples of Syria and Sudan prove the inability of the international community to intervene in crisis situations(2) (3).  (1) \u201cJihad in the Sahara\u201d, The Economist, Jan 17th 2013,   (2) \u2018Genocide in Darfur\u2019, United Human Rights Council, 2013,   (3) Reuters, \u201cSyria Death Toll Tops 115,000, Group Says\u201d, Huffington Post , 1 October 2013,   (4) \u2018The number of armed conflicts increased strongly in 2011\u2019, Uppsala Universitet, 13 July 2013,  ="}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-pro01b","title":"","text":"On this point, there are two main reasons why the AU will actually do a poorer job as far as security in concerned.  First of all, there are no assurances that African countries have the necessary expertize or financial capacity of supporting a well trained and always prepared military force. Only one country has a top military, Egypt,(1), and this is largely because African states cannot support big militaries of their own so how would they additionally support an AU force?  On the other side, we have seen the international community engaging successfully in peacekeeping missions, helping local governments defeat rebel groups. There are currently have 15 UN peacekeeping missions(3) in Africa and French troops are helping to stabilise Mali and the CAR(4).  Moreover, the institutional drawbacks that apply to the UNSC unfortunately apply to AU as well. The AU has 53 members and for an intervention to be accepted they would need a two-thirds approval rate. These alleged military interventions might get stuck in the same institutional gridlock as in the status quo. There even are some cases, like Congo, where other states (Rwanda and Uganda) actively supported anti-government Congolese rebel groups(2).  (1) Global Fire Power   (2) \u201cDR Congo's M23 rebels: Rwandan support 'falling'\u201d, BBC, 5 July 2013   (3) \u201cUN Peacekeeping\u201d, Better World Campaign, 2013,   (4) \u201cSand on their boots\u201d, The Economist, 24 January 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Showing Africa can solve its own problems  Countries desire to have influence among the international community. States gain this influence in all sorts of way; economic wealth, high technology, charismatic leaders, or a military power. Having an AU standing army would help provide Africa with influence; it would show the unity of the continent and its willingness to work together. A lot of influence is about perception and this is something that an AU army can change; Africa will no longer be a continent that cannot act for itself even on its own soil but will instead be taking the burden off more established peacekeeping countries. This is an important gain as influence is gained by being able to bring something to the table. Having an AU force means the AU will always be able to bring resources and capabilities when there is a crisis in Africa. The default position will no longer be to look to the UN, or even to France and the UK for peacekeepers when there is a crisis in Africa but to the AU itself.  But an AU army would have other benefits too as the continent would be a better investment opportunity if there is an army guaranteeing security and ensuring peace. The continent\u2019s economic influence may also therefore expand as a result."}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-con03b","title":"","text":"In such a situation, past war experience counts for little as every conflict is different.  First of all, African armies on the other hand are familiar with the territory, conditions and people. It is true that Nigeria never sent troops to Iraq, but by battling Boko Haram every single day, it is fair to assume that the strategies and the military techniques used by the army are improving constantly, as they are forced to improve them by the growing threat.  Secondly, The West has been forthcoming when it needs to share military counter insurgency techniques for example of training foreign armies. Through the NATO Training Mission \u2013 Afghanistan (1) numerous soldiers have been trained and thus the Afghan security situation dramatically improved. Even if African armies are be under experienced, by participating in joint military exercises with military experts from the western world, they could improve their capabilities quickly  (1) \u2018NATO Training Mission \u2013 Afghanistan\u2019, International Security Assistance Force, 5 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-con01b","title":"","text":"It would be only beneficial to Africa to take matters into its own hands and not depend on some foreign country to save the day when they are in need. Even though at a diplomatic level, all big western liberal democracies are \u201ccommitted\u201d to helping Africa, it is clear that this may not always be the case.  The West has become fatigued by the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as proven by the opposition to a proposed intervention in Syria. Prior to this, the West has failed to intervene efficiently, such as in Rwanda where the response to genocide was too late (1).Moreover the African Union is often much faster to respond to crises in Africa and is the \u2018first resort\u2019 while the UN or foreign troops is a last resort. Thus in the Central African Republic AU troops were deployed four months prior to the French intervention. Intervention by western powers will only happen when the crisis is serious, and putting a UN force together can take a long time. This is a very big drawback on the side of the international community and it most often translates into lost lives and increased damages.  (1) Usborne, David, \u2018UN pilloried for failure over Rwanda genocide\u2019 Independent, 17 December 1999,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-con02a","title":"","text":"Action would require UN approval  The AU\u2019s powers will be at odds with those of the UN. While the United Nations accepts and even encourages regional organisations engaging in \u201cpacific settlement of local disputes\u201d the point of an army is to be able to intervene with more than just negotiations. \u201cBut no enforcement action shall be taken under regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council\u201d so any potential intervention of the AU in crisis zones will be conditioned by UNSC approval or not.(1)  If it will, it\u2019s very easy to see how the creation of this standing army will be more or less in vain as it will either be prevented from intervening or act as a subsidiary to a better equipped UN force. The AU could choose to ignore the UNSC. However this option is also problematic as it would undermine the legitimacy of the operation and encourage the creation of regional organisations that try to keep the United Nations out of the region.  (1) United Nations, \u2018Charter of the United Nations Chapter VIII: Regional Arrangements\u2019, un.org, 1945,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-con03a","title":"","text":"An AU force will be inexperienced  An AU force won\u2019t just be keeping the peace but it may also be involved in defeating rebel forces. One of the most important prerequisites for winning and ending such a conflict is experience.  When it comes to fighting insurgencies there are many countries that have experience fighting insurgencies; the French in Mail, NATO in Afghanistan, the British in Sierra Leone etc. In each of these national armies have gathered experience and learned counter insurgency techniques. This now makes them best able to solve conflicts.  On the other hand, when looking at the military campaigns of the AU or African countries, there has been little success. AMISOM (African Mission in Somalia) has been in place since 2007, yet Al-Shabaab is still in power in many regions including the capital city, Mogadishu, and the ending is nowhere near (1).  As a result, we should choose the ones with the most experience to handle such crisis rather than a newly created and unprepared AU force.  (1) Smith, David, \u201cAl-Shabaab rebuilds forces in Somalia as African Union campaign stalls\u201d, The Guardian, 28 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-con01a","title":"","text":"There is no need for an AU force  Western countries have military systems far more efficient than their African counterparts, so it is clear that their involvement would be much more efficient than any AU-lead intervention. UN has already embarked on a mission to end conflict throughout the world and help the continent reach prosperity. Therefore, it would be much more effective for Africa to concentrate and invest in other issues and let the international community handle security. France\u2019s recent intervention in Mali is a testimony of the western world\u2019s devotion when it comes to African security. The mission\u2018s ultimate objective is, in President Fran\u00e7ois Hollande\u2019s words, to \u201crestore Mali\u2019s territorial integrity\u201d(1) and an AU army would be no better at doing this.  The first point is obviously costs. The cost of a large effective army is very high, especially equipping it for any eventuality. This is very problematic especially when a lot of African countries have poor economies, extremely high illiteracy rates, bad healthcare and virtually no modern infrastructure. It would be much more cost effective for them to concentrate on handling these issues while using UN peacekeepers to maintain peace. There are currently over 15 UN peacekeeping mission in Africa, and if needed, this number can increase.(2)  (1) \u201cSand on their boots\u201d, The Economist, Jan 24th 2013   (2) \u201cUN Peacekeeping\u201d, Better World Campaign, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aghwaucsa-con02b","title":"","text":"The Security Council will be most unlikely to obstruct a recognised regional security organisation from doing its role. Any veto would be extremely costly for the power that did so as they would incur the ire of most of Africa.  Most of thesituations which the AU will want to intervene in are not of a high enough priority for the international community to devote significant resources to, but which are still big enough to seriously damage African countries. There will be no reason to veto. Moreover, there will be times when the world will be just too ignorant and too slow at some urgent matters which need immediate attention. A well-prepared standing army would have been able to stop the Rwandan genocide.  As a result, even though this policy is not perfect it would help the current situation in Africa improve."}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro02b","title":"","text":"That\u2019s what the status is now. If Africa is indeed rising, surely that is a better bet for Cape Verde? Cape Verde is already being integrated into Africa; it is a member of the Economic Community of West African States. There is an intention for these regional African communities to at some point merge into a market stretching across Africa; The African Economic Community. Cape Verde should increase its integration with a community it is already a member of.  Looking to the European Union also ignores China, India and other important economise \u2013 including millions of fellow Portuguese speakers in Brazil, one of the much touted BRIC economies."}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro02a","title":"","text":"Its the economy, stupid!  Cape Verde doesn\u2019t dislike West Africa \u2013 it just has no real economic connection to the region. Cape Verde\u2019s main economic partners are in Europe, with over half of imports coming from Portugal and The Netherlands, and more than three quarters of exports going to Spain and Portugal together [1] .  If Cape Verde were to join the EU Internal Market, as discussed [2] , it would give Cape Verdean exports total unfettered access to the whole market and integrate them in to the systems of standards. Joining would mean lower tariffs so in turn Cape Verde goods being exported would be cheaper in their main European market so boosting exports while imports would be cheaper for consumers in Cape Verde meaning the residents are able to buy more.  [1] Central Intelligence Agency, \u2018Cabo Verde\u2019, The World Factbook, 11 April 2014,   [2] \u2018Cape Verde could seek EU membership this year\u2019, EUbusiness, 7 May 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro03b","title":"","text":"Schengen membership is not the same as EU membership \u2013 some non-EU states, such as Switzerland are part of Schengen, the UK and Ireland are EU member states but are not. Joining Schengen would involve the politically sensitive issue of undocumented migrants, which could not only be fatal to Cape Verde joining Schengen but to integration with Europe itself. Even if it is unlikely, is it that difficult for people to show a passport?  Besides, tourism is not just from Europe to outside \u2013 a Euro move would only stop Europeans from needing to change currencies. The peg is the best of both worlds in that it means that the currency is stable."}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cultural links  Cape Verde is not a good fit with the much of the history of Africa. It has been joined at the hip with Europe, if other things had gone other ways this debate would not be happening as the islands could have remained an integral part of Portugal as with Madeira and the Azores. Not all Cape Verdeans do consider themselves to be Africans [1] .  Cape Verde culturally and historically has more in common with Europe. It has a longer standing relationship with a European state than other African nations that were colonized; it was first settled by the Portuguese in 1462 and unlike much of Africa it was uninhabited before Europeans arrived [2] . It history has therefore been one that is linked to Europe not Africa.  A future orientated towards Europe would not have to be culturally exclusive. Cape Verde would not be giving up its independence, any more than Ireland gave up its independence by becoming part of the European Union. Cape Verde would still be free to explore cultural and historical links with Africa.  [1] See Duarte, Diana, \u201cDiana Duarte on Blackness and Cape Verde\u201d, Unchain Africa Press, 2009,   [2] Schultz, Colin, \u201cThese are all the places Europeans actually discovered\u201d, Smithsonian.com, 16 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro01b","title":"","text":"While Cape Verde may have a history and culture that is closer to Europe than all other African states this does not mean it does not have an African culture. There are of course many African states all with their own histories, culture and independence dates \u2013 from Ethiopia in time immemorial through Namibia in the 1990s to the birth of South Sudan. Some will have more in common with European states than others.  Cape Verde has strong links to Africa; much of its population were originally slaves brought from Africa. The World Factbook gives its ethnic groups as 71% Creole (mulatto) \u2013 mixed race, 28% African, and only 1% European. [1] With its population being descended from slavery despite its history having been controlled by Europeans its peoples\u2019 historical experience is more in line with other African countries that were the victims of slavery.  [1] Central Intelligence Agency, \u2018Cabo Verde\u2019, The World Factbook, 11 April 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro03a","title":"","text":"EU membership is good for tourism  Tourism is a key industry for Cape Verde. The archipelago is a popular destination for many from Europe. While the country is resource poor in terms of natural resources, three quarters of the country\u2019s GDP comes from services [1] .  Integration with Europe could see a number of advantages. The Schengen agreement allows visa free, and border control free, travel between its members so this would mean a potential boom in the tourist industry. Joining the Euro would also mean a common currency with other European nations \u2013 the Cape Verde Escudo is already pegged to the Euro, and prior to that, it was pegged to the Portuguese Escudo.  [1] Central Intelligence Agency, \u2018Cabo Verde\u2019, The World Factbook, 11 April 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-con03b","title":"","text":"EU member states regularly have territories even further abroad than off the coast of West Africa \u2013 including even territory on the mainland of South America, French Guiana, a French overseas region. Cyprus is an EU member state too, in the Eastern Mediterranean sea sandwiched between Turkey and Syria. Cyprus is over 300 miles from any other EU territory, over water. In an era of telecommunications and international trade, is this distance too much of a problem?"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-con01b","title":"","text":"Size is not necessarily a problem; it means it is much simpler for the EU to pull Cape Verde up to European standards than it would be with a larger country. It also means there will be few concerns about membership; no one is going to be worried about emigration from a country with a tiny population.  The process would also not be immediate; countries take at a minimum five years and often over a decade to join the EU. There are other potential candidates such as Moldova, with a lower GDP per capita, which has been touted as a potential member by Romania [1] . Cape Verde has a service based economy, like many EU member states. It is already a member of the WTO, and has had good solid economic growth [2] . Moreover the entire accession process is built around helping potential member states achieve these criteria, and Cape Verde, due to its small size, would not face the biggest challenges to get in.  There is no reason why Cape Verde joining the EU is somehow impractical on an economic level.  [1] Nn, \u201cRomania urges EU membership date for Moldova\u201d, Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty, 19 March 2014,   [2] World Bank, \u201cCabo Verde Data\u201d, data.worldbank.org,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-con02a","title":"","text":"Cape Verde should be a beacon for Africa  Rather than joining the European sphere or even looking towards Europe, Cape Verde could act as a beacon for the rest of Africa. Africa has a need for countries that are setting a good example in governance for others to follow. The country is already at the top of several sections in the Mo Ibrahim Index, notably those relating to human rights [1] .  Its former President Pedro Pires has also won the Mo Ibrahim prize for \u201ctransforming Cape Verde into a model of democracy, stability and increased prosperity\u201d. The prize is only awarded when there is a peaceful, democratic transition and is in many years not awarded to anyone, it has not been awarded since Pires in 2011. [2] Instead of abandoning it Cape Verde should help build up Africa \u2013 a rising continent, rather than taking the tempting option of moving.  [1] \u2018Cape Verde 3rd\/52\u2019, Mo Ibrahim Index, 2013,   [2] \u2018President Pedro de Verona Rodrigues Pires, Cape Verde\u2019, Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-con03a","title":"","text":"Geographical stretch too far  Cape Verde is just too far from Europe \u2013 it is 400 miles off the coast of Senegal compared to almost 1,900 miles from the Portuguese mainland. [1] The European Union has never had a member from Africa, and neither have other European institutions such as the Council of Europe. [2] The Canary Islands and similar archipelagos are not helpful as a precedent because they are integral parts of other nations that are themselves clearly positioned on the European continent.  The sole condition for EU membership is that the applicant must be a European state, something Cape Verde is not. Would the EU really be willing to have a member so far from it as a full member, when Morocco, just across the strait of Gibraltar, was rejected for that reason? [3]  [1] \u2018Distance from Praia to\u2026\u2019, timeanddate.com,   [2] \u2018Member States\u2019, coe.int,   [3] \u2018Legal questions of enlargement\u2019, Briefing No 23, europarl.europa.eu,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-con01a","title":"","text":"Joining Europe is unrealistic  A move towards the European sphere of influence might seem logical, but success is not guaranteed. In terms of population, Cape Verde would be the second smallest EU member state after Malta meaning it would have little influence over the Union when it joins. And there is little reason for the EU to desire Cape Verde\u2019s membership as it will provide no real gains to the Union.  Also, its human development index is lower than that of Iraq [1] , over fifty places behind that of lowest EU member state Bulgaria \u2013 which when it comes to governance and development is subject to little more than ridicule in the media of other member states. Not every European nation would get in on economic criteria \u2013 Moldova joining is not likely in the near future either.  The only success from orientating towards Europe would be a burning of continental bridges with Africa.  [1] Central Intelligence Agency, \u2018Iraq\u2019, The World Factbook, 11 April 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aehbcvrflen-con02b","title":"","text":"Cape Verde should determine its own role in the world \u2013 not be beholden to the interests of a continental bloc.  Paradoxically by moving towards Europe Cape Verde could be a much better model for the African continent \u2013 it would show that African states, even small ones, are capable of becoming developed countries. An African country successfully joining European institutions would give hope to the rest of the continent that there could be closer integration and cooperation in the future."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Being leader should not allow you blanket immunity from persecution of crimes. If an agreement was able to be reached for these two men, surely a similar agreement can reached for others. Stability might be undermined more if leaders who are proven to committing war crimes are allowed to remain in power where they may do so again."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Having the president out of the country undermines stability  While Kenyatta and his deputy William Ruto have been visiting the ICC, they should have been leading their countries. While the indictment has occurred both have remained the leaders of their countries, but have been absent while major events such as the Westgate shootings occurred. Despite the need to strong leadership in the midst of a potentially divisive event, Ruto was only granted one week away from trial. [1] Having a clear and stable leadership is important for Kenya to develop, restrict violence and ensure that policy development is able to continue, particularly given the cross-ethnic powering sharing arrangement between Kenyatta and Ruto. Absence of leadership during the fear and uncertainty surrounding this event might lead to a fresh round of violence as supporters take to the streets in protest \u2013 this election had put former enemies Kenyatta and Ruto together, easing ethnic tensions in the region [2] .  [1] Ndonga, Wamubi, \u2018Kenya: Ruto Can Return to Kenya For A Week Over Westgate \u2013 ICC\u2019, allAfrica, 23 September 2013,   [2] \u2018Will Africa pull out of the ICC?\u2019, BBC News, 11 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro03b","title":"","text":"In the five years since the violence occurred, very little action has occurred from the domestic forces; there have been only two murder convictions for the 1200 deaths. [1] Furthermore, these forces are working for the people they are meant to be investigating. The case of Kenyatta has seen accusations of witness intimidation on large scales, meaning objectivity in local courts is very unlikely to occur [2] . The result of the Waki commission was to hand over alleged perpetrators to the ICC directly, showing that Kenya felt the need to rely on this international framework [3] .  [1] \u2018Kenya: Prosecute Perpetrators of Post-Election Violence\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 9 December 2011,   [2] \u2018Perceptions and Realities:Kenya and the International Criminal Court\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 14 November 2013,   [3] Wachira, Muchemi, \u2018Annan did not ambush Kenya says Justice minister\u2019, Daily Nation, 13 July 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The ICC indictment undermines democracy  Uhuru Kenyatta is a sitting president of a democratic nation. This means that he was elected by the people to serve them. By indicting a sitting leader, you undermine their ability to rule the country as they will be forced to spend long periods outside their country focusing on something that is irrelevant to the governance of their country. The ICC has demanded that Kenyatta and Ruto attend the trial in person. [1] By forcing the President and Deputy President to spend long hours away from the country involved in a trial the ICC is effectively disenfranchising the people who voted from him to be their leader. Further, Kenyatta is first and foremost accountable to the Kenyan people, who have chosen him as leader despite these claims. It is clearly unwelcome interference by the ICC for the court to take the President away from his duties.  [1] Statement by ICC, \u2018Kenyatta case: ICC Trial Chamber V(b) reviews decision on presence of accused at trial\u2019, whereiskenya.com, 27 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro01b","title":"","text":"It would seem to undermine democracy to allow a president accused of violence during an election to continue to serve. Elections are only one part of a democracy; another is a functioning and respected rule of law. When the president has charges to answer he should stand down, at least temporarily. It is wrong to assume that someone who is elected as representative should have some form of immunity and that outside forces should not be able to investigate him; a president has a lot of power to repress minorities. That repression being supported by a democratic minority does not make it any less wrong. Moreover Kenyatta was elected with 50.07% of the vote, not an overwhelming endorsement. [1]  [1] Gatehouse, Gabriel, \u2018Kenya Supreme Court upholds Uhuru Kenyatta election win\u2019, BBC News, 30 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Far from too much interference that the trial is on the point of collapse shows there has not been enough. The ICC has found itself unable to protect witnesses, with the result that there have been two withdrawals. Both the defence [1] and the prosecutor claim there has been witness intimidation in the trial. [2]  [1] \u2018Kenyatta lawyers demand trial scrapped, say witnesses intimidated\u2019, reuters, 10 October 2013,   [2] Sterling, Toby, \u2018Kenyatta war crimes trial: Prosecutor asks for delay after witnesses withdeaw in case against Kenyan President\u2019, The Independent, 20 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Kenya can prosecute these crimes itself  Kenya has a functioning judiciary and police force. They have successfully prosecuted some individuals for these crimes and it should be left to Kenya to deliver justice for itself. There have been several cases brought before the courts. [1] Kenyans overwhelmingly see the ICC is \u2018imperialist\u2019, and 61% want the ICC to terminate its case against Kenyatta. [2] If and when Kenya\u2019s leaders should be tried should be left to the domestic judiciary to decide.  [1] Nebehay, Stephanie, \u2018UN urges Kenya to probe violence after 2007 elections\u2019, Reuters, 26 July 2012,   [2] Wanyama, Henry, \u2018Kenya: 61 Percent of Kenyans Want ICC Cases Dropped \u2013 Poll\u2019, allAfrica, 1 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-pro04a","title":"","text":"A pointless trial that victimizes African leaders  While the ICC feels free to interfere with African countries it would never dare to do so in a western country; leaders such as George Bush, Tony Blair, Nicholas Sarkozy and others who have launched various armed interventions have not been put on trial. Not only is it victimization and interference the trial of Kenyatta is also likely to be pointless; it is on the point of collapse. The prosecutor Fatou Bensouda has stated \u201cHaving carefully considered my evidence and the impact of the two withdrawals, I have come to the conclusion that currently the case against Mr. Kenyatta does not satisfy the high evidentiary standards required at trial\u201d. [1]  [1] AFP, \u2018'Not enough evidence for Kenyatta trial': ICC prosecutor\u2019, Google, 19 December 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-con03b","title":"","text":"The Kenyan Parliament decided against creating a special tribunal, the court should not have then gone over the elected representatives\u2019 head to hand the case to the ICC. The Parliament has since shown its displeasure at the ICC\u2019s interference by voting to leave the ICC entirely. [1]  [1] AP, \u2018Kenya votes to leave ICC days before deputy president\u2019s Hague trial\u2019, The Guardian, 5 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-con01b","title":"","text":"Justice can still be sought by either local courts or after Kenyatta\u2019s term ends. Justice should be done without ICC interference in the domestic affairs of Kenya. Even so, this does not seem like the pursuit of justice by the ICC, rather a witch hunt by the ICC for African leaders [1] .  [1] \u2018African Union accuses ICC of \u2018hunting\u2019 Africans\u2019, BBC News, 27 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-con02a","title":"","text":"Breaks cycles of violence  When violence is not punished, it tends to lead to more violence \u2013 such as the lack of prosecutions following the violence occurring after the 1992 and 1997 elections, to which people attribute to the air of impunity in the 2007 elections. This is firstly because people never heal from the initial violence \u2013 when justice is not seen to be done, they remain angry and partisan. Secondly however, a lack of retribution leads to increased confidence to repeat and exacerbate acts."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-con03a","title":"","text":"Kenyans wanted the investigation  It cannot be unwelcome interference in Kenya\u2019s internal affairs when it was Kenyans who invited the ICC in. It was the Kenyan government that set up the Waki commission under Kenyan Court of Appeals Judge Philip Waki into the violence. It was then this commission that decided to pass the results of its investigation on to the ICC in order to get prosecutions due to the failure to set up a special tribunal. [1] The Kenyan government may have disliked the final outcome of its creation of such a commission but it was undoubtedly asked for by the Kenyan judiciary. Moreover until it became clear that the trial could collapse Kenyans were largely supportive with more than half the country supporting the trial. [2]  [1] Justice Initiative Kenya Monitor  [2] Maliti, Tom, \u2018New opinion poll finds rise in support for ICC; many want Kenyatta to attend trial\u2019, Kenya Monitor, 15 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-con01a","title":"","text":"Justice is important  Justice is important in its own right, for the victims of the atrocities and for the development of Kenya. Victims have a right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [1] to have access to justice. Being elected should not be a blanket ban from being prosecuted for your crimes. In fact, the rule of law establishes the principle that leaders are subject to the same laws as all citizens. By seeing leaders being prosecuted for crimes, everyone sees the system working, allowing citizens to trust and buy further into the democratic system. As a consequence, the pursuit of justice is the most important factor above and beyond any claims of interference.  [1] Article 8, Universal Declaration of Human Rights."}
+{"id":"training-international-alilhbukiw-con02b","title":"","text":"Justice for violence is not fundamental to peace, as can be seen by the comparatively peaceful 2013 elections. Having now established working relationship between ethnic communities, why stoke the fire by prosecuting community leaders? 60% of Kenyans say they do not believe that the case even if it runs to a conclusion will not help heal Kenya. [1]  [1] Wanyama, 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Israel has a better historical, moral and demographic claim to an undivided Jerusalem as its capitol than the Palestinians have a claim to East Jerusalem. This is both because Israel's historical claim is older, and indeed original, but also because Israel does govern all Jerusalem, including East Jerusalem, both fairly and democratically. Moreover, the idea that Jerusalem could be is not practical. If all Jerusalem becomes the capital of both Israel and Palestine, this would create all sorts of potential problems. If it was shared for example, would a baby born in a shared Jerusalem\u2019s civic nationality be Israeli or Palestinian? And if an act is committed in Jerusalem which one nation's government recognises as a crime but the other doesn't, who decides what should be done? Different countries sharing a disputed territory but not dividing it is very illogical, even more so if that territory is the capital of both. Imagine what would have happened if the UK, France, and the USA decided to share Berlin with the USSR instead of dividing it!"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Palestine has as valid a claim to Jerusalem as Israel does:  The Palestinians have as valid a claim to Jerusalem as the capitol of their state as the Israelis has a claim to Jerusalem as the capitol of their state. At the end of 2008, the population of East Jerusalem was 57% Muslim (Palestinian) and only 43% Jewish, sowing a clear and workable Palestinian majority in East Jerusalem.(10) Both sides have important religious sites in the city. The dome of the Rock is integral to Islam to the prophet Muhammad\u2019s night journey to the temple making it Islam\u2019s third holiest place after only Mecca and Medina. It is equally important for Jews to have access to the Western Wall.(1)  For the Palestinians Israel has made its claim over the whole of Jerusalem more illegitimate by misgoverning the East of Jerusalem. For example, because there are no Arab\u2019s on the committee that chooses street names in Jerusalem in the telephone book maps of Arab neighbourhoods are blank, like unexplored parts of the Amazon in the 19th century. As a result mail is seldom delivered there, and having Arabs' become perceived to be invisible, non-existent or else branded as terrorists.(5)  Throughout the Israeli occupation the demographic balance has served as the main consideration in Israeli decision making for both local and central government. This has been a deliberate attempt to forstall any attempt by the Palestinians to claim that they have an equal right to Jerusalem. Israeli policies have been directed to mainly serve spatial\/demographic domination of \"Jewish Jerusalem.\" There was no attempt to \"integrate\" the Palestinian neighborhoods' functions with West Jerusalem or the settlements built in Palestinian areas. On the contrary, the policy has been to separate and isolate them.  East Jerusalem serves naturally as a metropolitan center of the entire West Bank, until the Oslo agreement in September 1993, some autonomy of Palestinian Jerusalemites was allowed especially in educational, sport, health, cultural, religious institutions and community based organizations. There has however been a movement from \"United Jerusalem\" to \"Jewish Jerusalem.\" From 2000 the Palestinian demographic threat, became the reason for \"getting rid\" of Palestinian Jerusalemites after Israel had accomplished its spacio-political goals for a \"Jewish Jerusalem.\" Israel of today is in the process of replacing the slogan of \"United Jerusalem\" with great \"Jewish Jerusalem\" with the Old City as its core. As a result of the Israeli policy, Palestinian neighborhoods (including the available land for future development) consist of only 17 percent of the entire East Jerusalem area and 7 percent of total municipal Jerusalem. Israel restricted the Palestinian construction and economic development, which led to the emigration of the Palestinians from the city to new areas developed as suburbs of the city. This territorial\/demographic domination and restriction on Palestinian development affected East Jerusalem by deteriorating its functionality in disconnecting it from its hinterland and West Bank areas.(14)  Israeli officials have also not been fair or protective of Palestinians, repeatedly being highly abusive, and Israeli security forces have been accepting of abusive Israeli civilian treatment of Palestinians.(2) Moreover, Jerusalem can be shared, and thus divided in practical terms but not \"divided\" per se. It has been a Palestinian position that Jerusalem can \"remain the capital of Israel\" and can \"remain undivided\". This is a as long as that does not preclude the Palestinians from also having their capital in a \"shared\" city.(11) What matters is that it is recognised that the Palestinians have as valid a claim to their part of Jerusalem as the Israelis do to their part, and as a consequence Jerusalem should be divided in such a way as to give the Palestinians control over their area as the capitol of their new state."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-pro03b","title":"","text":"The 1947 Arab invasion invalidated the \"international\" status of Jerusalem. The Arab non-acceptance of Resolution 181 and invasion of Israel immediately upon its declaration of statehood essentially reneged the resolution and the creation of an Arab state at the time.(15) Furthermore, self-determination is not an absolute right. Not every territory and region in the world that seeks independence has the right to it. This is due in no small part to the fact that such a system would be unworkable. Certain criteria must be met for a territory and people to obtain a legitimate right to self-determination, including not compromising the fundamental security or territorial integrity of the original state, which a Palestinian East Jerusalem would probably do."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sharing Jerusalem is necessary for peace  The only sustainable solution is to divide and then share Jerusalem, and the Haram-Temple Mount. No final deal will be possible if one side or the other is not willing to embrace this. Sharing Jerusalem would involve acknowledging and respecting each other\u2019s claims which would extend to the other problems preventing agreement. (1)  Sharing is the only solution that leads to peace, as the Palestinians in East Jerusalem will not tolerate permanent Israeli governance. Peace will always be a trade-off; Israel needs security while the Palestinians need territory and a viable capital city which they have dreamed of having in East Jerusalem for decades. (9)(5) In any peace deal Israel will have to accept that their security forces cannot be in control of Muslim areas. The Palestinians won\u2019t trust them as a result of decades where they have not been fair to Palestinians and have been abusive rather than protective.(2) All this means that Israeli rule in East Jerusalem can never be legitimate in the eyes of the Palestinians, and so long term peace can never emerge as long as this rule continues.  French President Nicholas Sarkozy said in 2008: \"There cannot be peace without recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of two states and the guarantee of free access to the holy places for all religions.\"(3) There has actually been recent recognition of this fact on both the Israeli and Palestinian sides. Hady Amr, Director of Brookings Doha Center, wrote in 2007: \"At a recent closed-door gathering of former Israeli and Palestinian negotiators hosted at the Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the Brookings Institution...had come to realize just how painful the issue of Jerusalem was for both sides, that neither side could feel whole without Jerusalem, and that separation arrangements were unworkable when emotions flared over a few feet of Jerusalem stone. Although it took a decade, the Israelis realized that they could not be secure from Palestinian rancor if they deprived Muslim and Christian Palestinians of sovereignty over the Muslim Noble Sanctuary and the holy Christian churches. The Palestinian negotiators also acknowledged the corollary Israeli need for sovereignty over not only the Wailing Wall, but also the Jewish Temple Mount.\"(4) A poll in 2000 showed some 40 percent of Israelis were ready to give up Arab East Jerusalem without even knowing what they would get in return.(1) While it is an unlikely solution most of the more likely methods have already been tried so new more unconventional solutions need to be tried. The division of Jerusalem could be such a solution that would kick start the rest of the peace process. The benefits of ending the conflict would be immense.(4)"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Dividing Jerusalem would simply turn the city into a war zone, with the battle lines being drawn wherever the dividing lines are drawn, as the two mixed-up and opposing communities fight for control over streets, holy sites and neighbourhoods. Moreover, it is simply not true that the inhabitants of East Jerusalem necessarily want to be the inhabitants of the capitol of a new Palestinian state rather than inhabitants of Israel. An opinion poll of residents of all 19 Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem conducted in 2011 showed opposition to a transfer of control to the Palestinian Authority. 40% said that they would move to Israel if their neighbourhood was transferred to the Palestinian Authority, and 39% believed most of their neighbour\u2019s preferred Israeli citizenship. On the other hand only 29% would move to a Palestinian neighbourhood if theirs remained in Israel, and 31% estimated that most of their neighbours preferred Palestinian citizenship. 35% prefer Israeli citizenship compared to 30% preferring Palestinian citizenship, with 30% not knowing or not answering. Residents therefore seem to be satisfied with their current situation of having Israeli identity cards which entitle them to all the rights of Israeli citizens except the right to vote in national elections. They are also all entitled to citizenship upon request, in which case they may vote in national elections.(6) This means that sharing Jerusalem will not be a simple solution and that the Palestinians can come to trust the Israeli government and its security services."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-pro03a","title":"","text":"International law supports dividing Jerusalem  The Palestinian people since 1967 have demonstrated through resistance to Israeli occupation their desire for an independent state of their own.(7) An undivided Jerusalem forces the Palestinians living in East Jerusalem to live under the control of a state they do not wish to be a part of, a violation of their right to self-determination under international law. The 1993 Vienna Declaration, which reaffirmed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Charter (and so sets the standard in current international law), unequivocally gives all peoples the right to self-determination: \u201cAll people have the right to self-determination. Owing to this right they freely establish their political status and freely provide their economic, social and cultural development...World Conference on Human Rights considers refusal of the right to self-determination as a violation of human rights and emphasizes the necessity of effective realization of this right\u201d.(12) Because Israel captured East Jerusalem during the 1967 war, it is considered occupied territory under international law, and it is illegal for Israel to annex it.(7) This is why most countries do not recognise Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem and in fact keep their diplomatic missions in Tel-Aviv today and do not consider Jerusalem the official capital of Israel.(15) The fact that Arab states initiated the 1967 war does not justify Israel responding by annexing Palestinian territory or holding on to East Jerusalem, and so international law supports the return of East Jerusalem to the Palestinians.(8)"}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-con03b","title":"","text":"Dividing Jerusalem will not alienate Jews from their heritage. Dennis Ross writes in the book \"the Missing Peace\", that it is a myth: \"that all of Jerusalem, including the exclusively Arab neighbourhoods of Jerusalem, must remain Israeli lest the division of East Jerusalem rob Israel of its link to its Jewish heritage.\"(22) Furthermore, splitting Jerusalem will establish needed peace for economic growth. Without peace, it is impossible for Jerusalem to thrive economically as it should. If splitting Jerusalem is the best way to establish peace, then it is also the best way to stimulate economic growth. Finally, even if it would be damaging to Israeli society or culture to lose East Jerusalem, the fact that Israel illegitimately acquired it in a war means that this is a burden the Israelis should bear, instead of forcing the harm on the Palestinians."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-con01b","title":"","text":"The Palestinians will accept a peace deal that gives them East Jerusalem, and so the fears over 'Hamas' are misplaced as the conflict will end. In October 2010 Senior Palestine Liberation Organization official Yasser Abed Rabbo said that the Palestinians will be willing to recognize the State of Israel in any way that it desires, if the Americans would only present a map of the future Palestinian state that includes all of the territories captured in 1967, including East Jerusalem. \u201cWe want to receive a map of the State of Israel which Israel wants us to accept. If the map will be based on the 1967 borders and will not include our land, our houses and East Jerusalem, we will be willing to recognize Israel according to the formulation of the government within the hour. \u201d added Rabbo.(18) Moreover, Jerusalem has been psychologically and religiously divided since 1967. The walls may be invisible, but they are high and thick. Many Israelis never go to the Arab neighbourhoods or the Old City, because they know, even though Israel controls them, they are not welcome. Many Arabs don't go to the Jewish sections, because they too know they are not welcome. And tens of thousands of secular Israelis have fled Jerusalem for Tel Aviv, because they do not feel comfortable in a city dominated by the ultra-Orthodox.(1) Only formalizing these divisions can end the conflict."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-con02a","title":"","text":"Jerusalem belongs to Israel  Jerusalem became a city in 1010 B.C.E. when King David defeated the Jebusites. King David made that city his seat of government. In fact, King David loved Jerusalem that he brought the sacred Ark of the Covenant into that city and stripped the so-called twelve tribes of Israel of some of their spiritual and administrative functions. The Torah is the History of Israel. Jerusalem historically was created and founded by an Israeli and therefore remains the heritage of all Israelis forever, as it is irrevocably bound up not only in their history and culture but also in the Jewish religion.(19)  Moreover, Israel has fought for East Jerusalem and so has no reason it should give it up. Chris Mitchell argued in 2008: \"Despite any public warnings, the private negotiations continue for the November summit...In the midst of these plans, some see an irony of history...This year, Israel celebrated the 40th anniversary of the re-unification of Jerusalem...The battle 40 years ago during the 1967 Six Day War reunited a divided city between Jordan and Israel. And for the first time in more than 2,000 years, Israel controlled the city of Jerusalem...Some fear that what Israel won on the battlefield could be lost at the negotiating table.\"(16) Moreover, Israel has not lost its legitimacy to govern East Jerusalem, as it governs it was well as it can and does so democratically. Israel is a democracy and is doing a fair job in keeping the city open to all three main monotheistic religions. Despite the Inquisition which ruined the Jews and the city, Christians today have been welcomed to the city and their holy places have been given both respect and honour by the State of Israel. Even Muslims have been given the right to maintain their Dome of the Rock - or the Al-Aksa Mosque. There is no reason why this fair religious arrangement should be changed. Even Rome, the seat of the Catholicism has accepted and appreciated the manner by which Israel is keeping Jerusalem free for all religions.(2)  It is for such reasons that a 2011 poll showed that 35% of the inhabitants of East Jerusalem prefer Israeli citizenship, 30% prefer Palestinian citizenship, and 30% didn't know or preferred not to answer. This poll, conducted in all of East Jerusalem's 19 Arab neighbourhoods, shows that Palestinians are mostly satisfied with their present conditions. Their Israeli identity cards entitle them to all the rights of Israeli citizens except the right to vote in national elections, though they can still vote in municipal elections. They are also all entitled to citizenship upon request, in which case they may vote in national elections.(6) Israel offers the opportunity for Palestinians to become representatives of their local communities, but that Palestinians reject this opportunity out of fear of being seen as sympathizing with the enemy. They shirk the opportunity to govern themselves and inflame tensions with Israel. They are, therefore, largely responsible for the poor state of East Jerusalem. Israel should not be held solely responsible.(5) Therefore Israel has a superior claim to all of Jerusalem than the Palestinians do to East Jerusalem, and so the city should not be divided."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-con03a","title":"","text":"Dividing Jerusalem would harm Israeli society:  Besides the aforementioned security concerns, many other harms would also result to Israeli society if Jerusalem were divided. Jerusalem is simply too important to Israeli society to be divided. Ben Gurion explain in 1937, \"for the Jews, the millions of the Jews who do not know the difference between the Sharon [or the Jezre'el] and the Valley [or the difference between Rehavia and the Old City] the name Jerusalem means everything.\"(20) This remains true today: Soviet dissident Natan Sharansky said in 2000, \"Above all, Jerusalem is the base of our identity.\"(21) This is why sharing Jerusalem is forbidden under Israeli law. In 1980, Israel's parliament, the Knesset, passed the \"Basic Law\". This proclaimed, \"Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel.\" This makes it unlawful, under Israeli law, to now divide Jerusalem and share it as a joint capital with a Palestinian state, and shows how deep Israeli attachment to an undivided Jerusalem is.(15)  Dividing Jerusalem would destroy the city, Roni Aloni-Sadovnik argued in 2006: \"Yet there is a truth that has yet to be spoken: Any division of Jerusalem will bring about the city's destruction. Maybe, after 3,000 years of bloodletting and destruction, the time has come to understand that the road to peace does not run through Jerusalem.\"(18) A divided Jerusalem would also be less viable economically. Dividing a city in two means cutting off commerce between the two sides. It means cutting markets in half, reducing the market of suppliers for consumers and consumers for suppliers by 50%. This is highly problematic for a city that aims to become an global centre, and this is even more problematic when the city involved is considered to be a holy one by three faiths, all of whom want to see it prosperous and strong. Therefore dividing Jerusalem would be too harmful to Israeli society and to Jerusalem itself, and so it should not be divided."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-con01a","title":"","text":"Jerusalem cannot be neatly or peacefully divided  Dividing Jerusalem would simply draw up battle lines through the city. With layers of neighbourhoods so close, security is a very real concern. Former Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu addressed this issue: \"We've seen what happens when we leave. It's not an Arab majority. It's Hamas. Let's be very clear. It's an Iranian base,\" he said. \"If we leave here, Hamas comes here. They start rocketing. They don't have to rocket. They can use small arms fire right into every one of these neighbourhoods. Look how intertwined it is.\" Finally he complained, \"It's hard for me to see how people cannot see that instead of being the end of conflict, it would be the beginning of a conflict we cannot even imagine.\"(16) Nadav Shragai, a foreign affairs analyst, argues: \"The moment that we re-divide Jerusalem and divide up the Old City of Jerusalem, we're going to create chaos. Look what's happening in Iraq where mosques are getting blown up and churches are being attacked. Do we really want to put that in the heart of Jerusalem, with Hamas and a Palestinian version of the Taliban?\u201d(17)  Giving the Palestinians control over the Temple Mount, the \"outlying neighbourhood\" next to the Western Wall, will mean that Jews are no longer be able to pray in peace at the Wall, or hold Memorial Day ceremonies or induction ceremonies for paratroopers there; nor will they be able to ensure the safety of the president or prime minister should either wish to participate in such ceremonies. Imagine the street battles in the alleys of Sajiyeh and Beit Hanun, in the Gaza Strip, transferred to the ancient streets of Jerusalem, which today teem with Jews. Think about how bar-mitzvah ceremonies or wedding pictures could be held at the Western Wall, or even plain old visits to place a note in the cracks, if Palestinians \"controlled\" the area a few hundred meters away.(17) The examples of Rachel's Tomb, which the Oslo Accords turned into a half-abandoned border post on the outskirts of Bethlehem, and 19 years (from 1948 until 1967) years in which Jews were forbidden to visit their holy places, even though the armistice agreement with Jordan ostensibly guaranteed such visits, are pertinent here in demonstrating that religious rights would most likely not be respected in a divided Jerusalem.(17) Dividing Jerusalem will fail like all divided cities have failed historically. In the city of Nicosia in Cyprus, for example, they decided to build a wall to separate Turkish and Greek Cypriots, but this failed to solve the economic or political aspects of the conflict between the two peoples. And in Berlin, the wall brought no positive results, and was eventually toppled by residents themselves.(18) The idea of dividing Jerusalem between the Israelis and Palestinians presupposes that Jerusalem is capable of a neat division. But it is not. Somehow, any separation of the city into component parts has to recognize that there are myriad economic and cultural links among political adversaries. Moreover, the monuments and shrines of the Old City attract visitors from all over the world: Muslims who want to worship at al-Aqsa Mosque; Jews seeking to pray at the Western Wall; Christians keen to visit the Church of the Holy Sepulchre or follow the Stations of the Cross. Try as one might, it is not possible to count out the lanes of the Old City so that each of them is controlled by only one faith, one ethnicity. Dividing Jerusalem, says Daniel Seidemann, a lawyer and expert on Jerusalem affairs, is \"a political impossibility and a historical inevitability. It will take microsurgery, and I'm afraid the politicians will go at it with a hatchet.\u201d(5) For all these reasons dividing Jerusalem would not be a neat, peaceful process but rather a contested and bloody one which would let forth a new conflict on the very streets of Jerusalem."}
+{"id":"training-international-mehbjsbd-con02b","title":"","text":"While it is technically true that the first founders of Jerusalem were Jewish, this in no way established a de facto right to that city. While Jerusalem may have technically been founded by a Jewish king, the intervening years saw more rule by non-Jewish peoples than not. Furthermore, the communities living there, particularly the Muslim populations, also built their own religious monuments and sights there, most notably the Dome of the Rock (the site of the Prophet Muhammad's ascension to heaven is Islamic teachings). Arguing this ignores the many years of control that followed the founding of Jerusalem. It ignores centuries of cultural and religious heritage that subsequent, and more contemporary, populations have developed in Jerusalem, and it ignores the equally valid claims the Palestinians groups have to Jerusalem. While it would clearly be unfair to give the capitol entirely to the Palestinians, it must also be recognized that their claim must be recognized as having equal legitimacy as Israel's. If Israel claims it deserves the city because of history and religious significance, then the Palestinians can say the same thing right back.(19)"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro02b","title":"","text":"An apparently strong UN obligation to intervene in order to protect innocents will not necessarily provide a positive, deterrent effect. Rather, it could merely serve as an incentive for dictators and generals to commit their atrocities quicker. For example, when the United Nations first considered intervention in Libya, Colonel Qaddafi responded by strengthening the crackdown on protestors and preparing for an all-out assault on the Eastern town of Benghazi [1] . The intent to protect civilians in this case served only to increase the will of the leader to harm them. Furthermore, many of the nasty or failing regimes who might be fearful of intervention have a Security Council patron whom they can rely upon to prevent any action being taken against them. If the UN has an obligation to act to prevent atrocities such as genocide, then vetoes will be used to prevent the Security Council recognizing that such a situation exists in the first place. Though it has recently joined UN resolutions on Sudan, China blocked moves to impose sanctions on Sudan before 2007, largely due to favorable economic ties with the state [2] . Finally, this proposal may make atrocities more likely, by encouraging rebel groups to provoke ill-disciplined government forces into committing gross human rights violations, such as massacres, in the hope that such a response will draw in international forces on their own side.  [1] Buck, T. & Clover, C. (2011), \u201cGaddafi launches assault on Benghazi\u201d, Financial Times,   [2] BBC News (2007), \u201cChinese leader boosts Sudan ties\u201d, BBC News,   Al Jazeera, 'China bolsters economic ties with Sudan', 29 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro02a","title":"","text":"A strong United Nations commitment to the Right to Protect will create an effective deterrent to future atrocities.  Governments and leaders who are considering attacks on their own people, or who are wavering in their commitment to defend them from harm, will be aware that ignoring their own obligations could bring swift action from the international community. Only once their ability to hide behind claims to absolute sovereignty has been removed will human rights have to be taken seriously by dictators and extremist regimes. Thus by adopting a strong UN position on the Responsibility to Protect, we can hope to make states take their own responsibilities more seriously and make the need for any actual intervention rare. For example, Omar Al-Bashir of the Sudan has committed horrible atrocities against his own people. He is complicit in committing genocide against Darfur populations, yet remains in power. There is a warrant for his arrest from the International Criminal Court, but they have little ability to act upon their threats [1] . A strong commitment to the responsibility to protect would ensure leaders like Bashir think twice before permitting such atrocities to take place, through fear for their own grip on power.  [1] New York Times (2011), \u201cOmar Hassan al-Bashir\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro03b","title":"","text":"That creates a slippery slope. When does the UN draw the line that a government has revoked its sovereignty? How many people have to die? How can it be justified that only if x number of people die, then we will intervene? Additionally, as soon as the UN gets involved in a civil war or dictatorship and has deemed the government no longer sovereign, then who is in charge? Is the UN going to set up a new government and country in the aftermath? That is a large commitment that such a large organization may not be able to execute no matter how ideal."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro01a","title":"","text":"The United Nations has a responsibility to prevent genocide and mass atrocities.  Citizens should be protected by individual governments, however if governments are either partaking in or failing to prevent genocide and mass atrocities, then another global actor needs to take action. The United Nations should take on this responsibility to protect people when their governments are unable or unwilling to do so, in order to prevent mass killings, genocide and other atrocities [1] . If we believe human rights have any meaning at all, then they must be universal and therefore our obligation to protect citizens from such horrors must apply regardless of state boundaries. Moving from a situation where the UN placed the rights of states above those of their people, to one where individual rights are given the greater priority is surely morally essential.  [1] International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, \u201cImplementing the Responsibility to Protect\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is a procedural contradiction in the Proposition's position. If there is a universal responsibility to protect, why must this only be exercised through the United Nations, dependent upon Security Council recognition of a crisis and support for action? The United States believes that in some cases it would be right for individual states, or coalitions of the willing to take action to protect innocent life elsewhere in the world, even if the Security Council refused to deliver on its promises. Under the proposition, NATO's intervention in Kosovo in 1998\/99 was wrong, and so was Vietnam's in Cambodia against the Khmer Rouge, Tanzania's in Uganda to stop Idi Amin's bloodshed, etc. - none of these had Security Council support."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro04b","title":"","text":"Not all crises can be dealt with militarily. Often an invasion only creates more problems. Further is the UN ready to take on the underlying problems in cases of genocide and civil war. Those rifts may take decades to heal and is the UN truly invested because simply providing aid and military support will not solve the deep seated tensions in countries like the Sudan and Somalia [1] . Talk of prevention and of using non-military means to ensure states protect their own people properly is little different from existing UN commitments. The UN has failed in the past to head off humanitarian crises and there is nothing in the new Declarations to make it more likely to be successful in future. If the responsibility to protect means anything, it is to weaken the concept of sovereignty and make military intervention more likely.  [1] Genocide Intervention, \u201cSudan\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro03a","title":"","text":"Countries and governments have an obligation to protect human rights and defend their citizens from harm  We can no longer argue that sovereignty must be considered absolute. Sovereignty was created as the means by which states justified the control of their territory to prevent foreign aggression. Since the creation of the United Nations, sovereignty is no longer as necessary to protect states, as most wars are not about territorial acquisition. Now it is primarily a barrier to the international community intervening when the state is abusing its own population. A better principle is if governments today are unable or unwilling to perform the duty to protect their people from harm (including state-imposed harm), then their claims to sovereignty lose their moral force and intervention becomes justified [1] . For example, Qaddafi of Libya was likening his citizens to cockroaches and rats, threatening to kill them house-by-house whilst speaking of his intent to indiscriminately attack the population of Benghazi [2] . As such, there was significant concern that violence would have devastating impacts on Libyan civilians. The United Nations, in response, authorized NATO action [3] . Through unleashing state military assets to attack his own population, Qaddafi made it clear that he was not a fit leader. The United Nations, as the representative of the international community, has the responsibility to protect those whose leaders have let them down.  [1] International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, \u201cImplementing the Responsibility to Protect\u201d,   [2] BBC News (2011), \u201cLibya Protests: Defiant Gaddafi refuses to quit\u201d, BBC News,   [3] Chivers, C.J. (2011), \u201cIn Libya\u2019s West, Signs of Growing Frustration With NATO\u201d, New York Times,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro04a","title":"","text":"It is better to save lives than stand idly by.  It is immoral to let people die when something can be done about it. It inherently values the lives of victims of genocide and civil war less than other lives. The world and the United Nations have for too long stood by and watched atrocities unfold. Cambodia, Bosnia, Rwanda and Darfur are all horrible examples where genocide and other appalling violations of human rights were inflicted upon civilian populations while the UN failed to act [1] . Clearly in all the past cases where action might have saved lives and delivered hundreds of thousands of people from evil, no action was taken by the Security Council. Therefore those who argue that future challenges should be considered purely on a case-by-case basis must accept that this is likely to mean yet more refusals to act decisively and so more needless suffering. We must place an obligation to act on the Security Council so that they are predisposed to respond seriously and swiftly in future. If there is a known atrocity going on in the international community, the Security Council should no longer be allowed to ignore it based on their individual ties. For example China could not defend the Sudan even though they have close financial ties when intervention for human rights abuses is the norm [2] . The world responded to the holocaust saying \u2018never again\u2019, yet similar ethnic cleansing has happened over and over again, and in defense of human rights the UN needs to adopt a no tolerance policy. Countries who are not prepared for this obligation should step down from the Security Council.  [1] Prevent Genocide, \u201cPast Genocides\u201d,   [2] Aljazeera (2011), \u201cChina Bolsters Economic Ties with Sudan\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con03b","title":"","text":"The United Nations does have a problem raising sufficient money, troops and resources to meet its present needs for peacekeeping and humanitarian operations. This is precisely because all such operations are dealt with on a case-by-case basis - the approach so beloved of the opposition for dealing with any challenge. Without a clear global commitment to the Responsibility to Protect, the UN will always be scrabbling scrambling around to meet its needs in dealing with individual crises. Once there is clear agreement on the kind of situation which will in future prompt intervention, the UN can begin to plan ahead to build up resources, create contingency funds, and seek pledges of military units from member states, to be activated swiftly as needed. This could most easily be done regionally through the regional security organizations such as NATO and the African Union that it was originally intended would provide this kind of security. If the member states of one organization lacked some necessary equipment such as transport capacity they could borrow them from neighboring organizations."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con01b","title":"","text":"The UN is the organization best equipped to deal with these types of interventions. If individual countries take action there are automatically thoughts of motive, and they can never be seen as a pure unbiased actor. Further, countries don\u2019t want to take action because they do not want to become tied to the countries that they helped, whereas the UN does not have an aversion to commitment [1] . Having a strict framework directing intervention can prevent the UN from becoming the international government.  [1] Clarke, Walter; Herbst, Jeffrey (1996), \u201cSomalia and the future of humanitarian intervention\u201d, Foreign Affairs Magazine,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con02a","title":"","text":"Blanket commitment creates a slippery slope of when to intervene.  A blanket commitment could lead the United Nations and the word into great dangers. It must be considered whether intervention with force is always practical. For example, in the past China's government has committed horrific human rights abuses, such as the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution and the Tiananmen Square massacre. These surely show a state unable or unwilling to protect its citizens and would have invited intervention under this proposal. Or perhaps you feel these are purely historical examples - but what if the Chinese regime in future used horrific force to put down future risings by Uighur or Tibetan ethnic minorities? Or what about present Russian behavior in Chechnya? Would the UN really deliver on an intervention in members of the security council? Where do they draw the line? How do they decide which countries have revoked sovereignty with their actions? How many people have to die? One of the concerns with the NATO invasion in Libya is that it sets a dangerous precedent [1] . The UN would very likely be taking far too much on if they truly adopt the \u201cresponsibility to protect\u201d particularly because it is difficult to justly define when a government has gone too far.  [1] Bajoria, Jayshree (2011), \u201cLibya and the Responsibility to Protect\u201d, Council on Foreign Relations,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con04a","title":"","text":"Actions to intervene in internal situations need to be determined on a case by case basis.  We all have a moral duty to protect human rights and prevent atrocities, but we do not need to make a vague and open-ended commitment. In particular there is a big difference between a genocide pursued by a strong, centralized state victimizing its own people, and the inability of a failing state to protect its civilians in a time of civil war or ethnic unrest. For example the genocide in Sudan is inflicted by the government, yet the situation in Somalia is entirely different since they lack a government and violence stems from rebel groups in the country [1] [2] . Making decisions on a case-by-case basis recognizes that every crisis is different in character and requires a different and proportionate response be it military or humanitarian.  [1] New York Times (2011), \u201cSomalia\u201d,   [2] Genocide Intervention, \u201cSudan\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con03a","title":"","text":"The UN does not have the necessary funds or expertise.  The United Nations struggles to meet its current needs, in terms of funding for emergency relief, development work, health initiatives, etc. and also in terms of peacekeeping troops, military hardware and transport, etc. It is in no position to make sweeping promises about future commitments that might involve large-scale military interventions around the globe, perhaps sometimes in more than one place at the same time [1] . At the very best, such an extra burden would draw resources and funding away from the UN's vitally important current programs. At worst, intervention would be undertaken with too few troops, badly equipped and unable to fulfill their mandate. The United States intervention in Somalia failed miserably because it was at best half-baked\u2014the UN would be lucky if not every one of their interventions suffered from the same problems [2] . This would only worsen the situation. Additionally, taking on these conflicts also includes nation building and government development post conflict which may be difficult for the UN to organize and commit to.  [1] Schaefer, Brett, (2005) \u2018The U.N. Summit Document: At What Cost?\u2019, The Heritage Foundation,   [2] Clarke, Walter; Herbst, Jeffrey (1996), \u201cSomalia and the future of humanitarian intervention\u201d, Foreign Affairs Magazine,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con01a","title":"","text":"The UN would be turned into something that it is not.  From a group of cooperating but sovereign states, secure from external intervention if they live peaceably with their neighbors, the UN would be turned into some sort of global congress of humanity, where borders played no part. This may seem a utopian vision, but the nation state has a good record of delivering responsive, accountable government to which individual citizens can feel a strong personal commitment, and which is able to meet their particular cultural, religious, environmental and economic needs [1] . International institutions are at best impersonal and remote and at worst an unaccountable and undemocratic imposition. It is right to oppose any language and commitments which would advance the cause of those who would turn the UN into a world government.  [1] The Economist (1999), \u201cGaribaldi and the 1,000\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con04b","title":"","text":"Acting on a case-by-case basis does not establish an effective deterrent. If a leader does not know for certain that their action is going to lead to an intervention, they can\u2019t be deterred. In order for them to be deterred, they need to know by which standards their actions will be assessed and acted upon. On a case-by-case basis, there is no such consistency established.  The UN needs to adopt an equal treatment of every country and situation under a responsibility to protect clause so that the least powerful in this world do not go unprotected."}
+{"id":"training-international-glhrilhbunh-con02b","title":"","text":"It is not difficult to set up basic guidelines as to determining when a situation has gone too far. Even proponents of Responsibility to protect agree on certain criteria particularly right authority, just cause, right intention, last resort, proportional means and reasonable  Prospects. [1] The last of these criteria will rule out any intervention against a great power such as China where there would not be reasonable prospects of success unless disproportionate means (something like a preemptive nuclear strike) was used. Questions like \u2018how many have to die?\u2019 are therefore not asking the right questions because the loss of life could be relatively small (it also assumes that only killing matters) if all the criteria are fulfilled. While this would regrettably constrain any \u2018responsibility to protect\u2019 it would at the same time mean that R2P would not become an excuse for starting large scale wars.  [1] Evans, Gareth et al., The Responsibility to Protect, International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, December 2001, p.32"}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro02b","title":"","text":"A referendum would not be a legitimate use of government money, for it would not be practical. Holding a referendum on an issue the country already approved in 1975 would be a waste of time and resources. The expense of referendums is abhorrent to the UK taxpayer; the Alternative Vote referendum held in 2011 was believed to have cost \u00a3250 million, excessive at the best of the times, irresponsible during times of financial austerity.1 Moreover, the practice of holding national referendums must be stopped as it undermines parliamentary sovereignty and the parliamentary system. Regarding public will, referendums are not hostage to the demands of the public, for dissatisfaction with the status quo rarely leads to or justifies a referendum. If 71% would vote \u2018no\u2019, but 83% admit they know little about the EU, then a referendum on the issue cannot be deemed a legitimate representation of the United Kingdom\u2019s views on EU membership.  1PORTER, ANDREW. February 15, 2011. \u201cVoting referendum will cost \u00a3250 million claim campaigners\u201d, The Daily Telegraph , 201"}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro02a","title":"","text":"An in or out referendum would be legitimate.  Parliamentary and logistic precedents indicate that holding a referendum about an issue of sovereignty is practical and practicable. There have been two successfully-held national referendums, one the direct antecedent of this one (the 1975 EEC vote) and one recently (the 2011 AV vote). The history of national referendums therefore indicates that they are both constitutional and logistically viable. Furthermore, the referendum is legitimized by public desire. A BBC poll in 2009 indicated that 71% would vote 'no' to EU membership if a referendum was held, a level of dissatisfaction which indicates the need for a public discussion and vote.1  1 MORGAN, CHARLES. January 2, 2009. \"No change in British public opinion on Euro\" Cafebabel"}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro03b","title":"","text":"Referendums are not a right. Parliament has passed no law governing when referendums must be held. Because Parliament has set itself no guidelines on when to call referendums, the public has no right to one even if similar situations in the past have warranted them. Moreover, a system of representative democracy means referendums are not necessary -- it is MPs' job to make decisions. The public have the right to vote for leaders and hold those leaders accountable, not a right to vote on individual issues."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro01a","title":"","text":"A referendum will create a better political climate.  The general public will be appeased: 75% of voters want the vote held.1 MPs will fulfil their duty to represent constituent interests by calling the referendum. A contented electorate will be more supportive of government and feel included in political life. Not only individuals but also parties will be appeased: the far left and right each feel strongly about this issue. Euroskeptic parties like UKIP and the BNP have agitated for an in-or-out vote for years, and disguise racism and anti-immigrant sentiment as Euroskepticism in the process. A vote either way would settle the issue and make it harder for them to disguise antisocial aspects of their platforms. Pro-Europeans like the Lib Dems also want the referendum: leader Nick Clegg said that \"nothing will do more damage to the pro-European movement than giving room to the suspicion that we have something to hide\"2 by not holding one. Both sides of the political spectrum wants this issue definitively settled. Once it has been, politicians will be able to redirect focus and work on crucial issues like the economy.  1 LITOBARSKI, JOE. February 18, 2011. \"In or out? Labour shouldn't fear a referendum on Europe.\" The Guardian. accessed June 15, 2011.  2 CLEGG, NICK. October 15, 2003. \"We need an EU referendum.\" The Guardian.accessed June 14, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro01b","title":"","text":"A good political climate is one where government functions properly. In a representative democracy, decision-making is not intended to be majoritarian. Elected officials are in place to make decisions on behalf of constituents, as they continue to do with matters relating to the EU. As such, a referendum is a direct rebuke to their own power. Therefore MPs should not hold one, even if some constituents want it. It is not the job of government to neutralize radical voices, but to offer better alternatives while preserving freedom of expression. If parties want to resolve the Europe question, they should do so through established political channels."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro04b","title":"","text":"A vote will make the government look weak. The government will seem like it's avoiding a difficult issue by shifting responsibility for the Europe question to the public. Europeans will see the British government as an unreliable political partner willing to gamble EU membership at a volatile and dangerous time for the continent's economic and political future. To lose the trust and co-operation of Europe by permitting a referendum would be myopic at best, and replace long-term political co-operation and security with short-term appeasement of the general public."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro03a","title":"","text":"The public have a right to a referendum.  The public deserve to vote in this referendum because it regards a constitutional issue \u2013 sovereignty. Beyond constitutionality, referendums maintain democratic society when the public\u2019s views and MPs\u2019 clearly misalign, as they do in this case. This vote will also maintain the established precedent of holding referendums on EU issues. If the British people had to be consulted on EEC membership, as happened in 1975, they must be consulted on EU membership: the current EU barely resembles the EEC that the UK voted to join long ago, but has greatly magnified stature and power."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro04a","title":"","text":"The referendum is good PR for the UK.  A referendum, regardless of the result, will prove an effective public relations boost for the United Kingdom. UK citizens will feel more confident in their government, as some currently see EU membership as an illegitimate breach of the social contract and others argue that the UK is not doing enough to co-operate. Europeans also will improve their view of the United Kingdom: a \"Yes\" vote will minimize the perception of the UK as a foot-dragging, reluctant participant in Europe; a \"No\" vote will be seen to end a half-hearted charade. Either way, a more straightforward relationship with Europe will minimize UK-Europe mistrust, which will benefit each politically and economically."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-con03b","title":"","text":"The referendum will be legitimate. Referendums have become an important part of the UK's political process. They spark public discussion of important issues and lead to a more educated and engaged public. They also entrench the principle that the state is directed in its actions fundamentally by the wishes of the people. Representative democracy makes the further basic assumption that citizens are capable of making important and informed decisions when they vote. To suggest otherwise is elitist and undemocratic."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-con01b","title":"","text":"Referendums are a positive democratic force. The argument that the UK has always been a representative democracy does not preclude integrating elements of direct democracy into the political process. If referendums reinforce the legitimacy of government, strengthen the social contract and keep the citizenry engaged, to reject them because they are relatively new is simply reactionary. Those who decide to call a referendum can be held politically accountable, which means that the volume, expense, and quality of referendums will be held to standards. In addition, there is no reason why referendum use shouldn't or wouldn't be codified as it continues to be incorporated into the British political process. If the coalition government deserves to stay in power, it will find ways to cooperate and coexist: if not, the country will be better off with a more functional one."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-con02a","title":"","text":"EU membership is too important to gamble.  Membership of the European Union is too valuable to be cast aside. Prime Minister David Cameron refuses to hold a referendum for a good reason: he knows that leaving the EU would inflict great harm on the UK.1Economically, the UK is weaker on trade negotiations, especially with the US,2 as a lone entity. In international society, the country will be seen as unreliable, and the UK's already fractured relationship with Europe will sustain further damage. Keeping strong ties with Europe as well as the US is essential for UK well-being. If the UK left, the EU would be weaker and might collapse. The organization is at a crossroads given the collapsing Euro and it must weather this difficult time in order to prove its sustainability. If it lost the UK's financial support, the economic fallout in Europe would further weaken the continent's economies, which would in turn harm the UK, whose economy would necessarily remain tied to its European trading partners and financial service customers.  1 PHIBBS, HARRY. March 14, 2011. \"Is Cameron worried that withdrawal from the EU would be a foregone conclusion if a referendum is agreed?\" The Daily Mail., accessed June 20, 2011.  2 BOWLBY, CHRIS. November 16, 2009. \"If the UK left the EU what would the consequences be?\" The BBC, accessed June 16, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-con03a","title":"","text":"The vote will be illegitimate.  The public will not be properly informed: the issue is too complex for the average citizen to understand, and 83% of British voters know \"little or nothing about the EU.\"1 A referendum cannot be permitted when the public simply does not know the repercussions of its decision, for it only fosters misinformation and subjectivity on the behalf of campaigners. Racist far-right parties can easily exploit European issues by playing on public fears about immigration. The referendum lead-up would provide a megaphone for these parties' unacceptable views. The 2011 Alternative Vote referendum campaign showed that the public readily believes misinformation and scare tactics and meaningful discussion of issues is drowned out. Leaving the decision to elected representatives preserves the rationality of the debate.  1 LITOBARSKI, JOE. February 18, 2011. \"In or out? Labour shouldn't fear a referendum on Europe.\" The Guardian. accessed June 15, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-con01a","title":"","text":"The referendum is inconsistent with the UK's tradition of representative democracy EU membersh  Referendums are philosophically inconsistent with representative democracy. The public don\u2019t have the time or resources to govern as effectively as Parliament: MPs have access to expert advice and are paid to learn about issues: the resources their position affords are a major justification for representative democracy. The UK must reverse its recent referendum trend (which only began in 1973) to avoid undermining government legitimacy and stability. In the status quo, referendums are deployed inconsistently, used as a political tool to hedge on issues, and used by parties to avoid tough internal conversations. Referendums also harm governmental accountability, which is key for a functional representative democracy because it protects voters. MPs avoid being held accountable by their constituents and fulfilling their own role in parliamentary democracy by using referendums to avoid taking a stance on politically contentious issues. In addition, the overuse of referendums causes governmental paralysis: see the US state of California\u2019s initiative addiction. Referendums are a poor use of public funds: each costs \u00a380-100 million 1 -- especially unacceptable since MPs can call referendums on a whim with no guidelines. In the current political, the referendum might tear apart the coalition government. Lib Dems and Conservatives are deeply divided from each other and internally over the issue. If the parties campaigned against each other the divisions formed during the AV campaign would widen. A broken coalition and new general election would interrupt government in a time of recession when the country desperately needs new policies and programs.  1 BBC NEWS DESK. February 1, 2011. \u201cMPs reject Tory MP's call for 'in-out' EU referendum.\u201d The BBC, accessed June 15, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-epgvhwhrum-con02b","title":"","text":"EU membership is expendable. Being a member of the EU hurts the UK -- taxpayers contribute \u00a38.3 billion a year, much of which goes to programs that don\u2019t help the UK. 1 If it left the EU, the UK could keep that money to invest in its own economy. Furthermore, without the threat of the EU overruling, Parliament could pass bills that have the support of the British population but not the approval of the EU, like a ban on the rights of prisoners to vote. 2 The country could also negotiate better trade deals, as its economy is stronger than the EU average. Freedom from EU trade rules would also prevent farcical situations like EU residents being able to apply for London 2012 Olympics tickets despite their countries being allocated a proportion of tickets already. 3  1 DAILY MAIL COMMENT. March 14, 2011. \u201cEurope and the case for a referendum.\u201d The Daily Mail, accessed June 22, 2011.  2 CHAPMAN, JAMES. February 11, 2011. \u201cDay we stood up to Europe\u201d The Daily Mail. Accessed June 27, 2011.  3 Patrick Sawer, \u201cThousands of foreigners snap up Olympics tickets meant for Brits\u201d accessed June 27, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro02b","title":"","text":"Through the processes of committing to Aid programmes and the UN, the US has incorporated a certain amount of internationalism into its legal system. The power given to Congress by the War Powers Act must be balanced against the fact that the executive retains control over US foreign policy.  Secondly, a UN resolution that allowed the use of air power by countries to protect civilians.1 This means that fears of conflict escalation are unfounded and given that the UN resolution exists, the war powers act is not weakened significantly as it would still mandate a UN resolution to prevent conflict escalation.  Even if the U.S. government sought regime change however, it has moral legitimacy in doing so because of the demand for such changes from a large number of members of the international community.2  Lynch, Colum, \u2018Security Council passes resolution authorizing military intervention in Libya\u2019, Turtle Bay Foreign Policy, 17 March 2011,  \u201cWar Powers Act.\u201d Cornell University Law School."}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro02a","title":"","text":"US intervention is not consistent with other aspects of US law  Firstly, Libya did not attack US soldiers and did not harm US citizens. Given that this is true, then engagement with Libya to begin with goes against the spirit of US law. Given that the situation is not an emergency for the U.S. circumventing congress in order to prosecute the war is incredibly harmful as it undermines one of the core institutions in U.S. democracy.  Further, the use of international organisations such as the UN and NATO to circumvent congress has bad ramifications for the future as in doing this the U.S. government has significantly lowered the burden required to go to war should it wish to do so in the future.  This is problematic because the decision to go to war should never be one that is taken lightly. Should the U.S. wish to go to war again then it might end up in a situation such as Vietnam, the conflict that inspired the creation of the war powers act.1  Ackerman, Bruce. \u201cObama\u2019s Unconstitutional War.\u201d ForeignPolicy.com 24\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro03b","title":"","text":"The US has the authorization of NATO, the UN and has acted in concordance with the mandates that these organisations have put up.  The US does not harm the powers of the US constitution by helping the UN and NATO in this area because the US committed to these organisations with the knowledge that it might have to compromise sometimes in order to fulfil the responsibilities it has taken on within these organisations.  Libya is simply an example of one of these compromises and this does not harm the constitution any further than the US initially did by entering into these agreements and institutions. 1, 2  Editorial: \u201cObama\u2019s illegal war\u201d The Washington Times. 18\/03\/2011  Stone, Daniel. \u201cIs the Libya War Legal\u201d The Daily Beast. 22\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro01a","title":"","text":"The United States engaged in \"hostilities\" under War Powers  There are multiple arguments indicating why the U.S. might be engaged in hostilities under the War Powers Act, enough so that this single argument could make an entire two person case.  The U.S. has engaged in sustained hostilities in Libya which have resulted in regime change within the country. The President himself admits that causing regime change would be unjustifiable in his speech justifying the war by pledging that \u201cbroadening our military mission to include regime change would be a mistake.\u201d2 However, regime change was the result of the mission and NATO and U.S. played a significant role in facilitating that change.  Secondly, the War Powers act covers the U.S. fighting in a supportive role in wars. \"For purposes of this chapter, the term 'introduction of United States Armed Forces' includes the assignment of members of such armed forces to command, coordinate, participate in the movement of, or accompany the regular or irregular military forces of any foreign country or government when such military forces are engaged, or there exists an imminent threat that such forces will become engaged, in hostilities.\u201d3 Hence the U.S. is acting in violation of this condition.  Further, troops do not need to be on the ground to call the Libyan engagement hostilities. U.S. men and women have firstly died in the conflict, but secondly if troops were needed on the ground for a war, a U.S. president could potentially fire a thousand missiles at a country without the engagement being considered a war.  Further, even though the U.S. gave powers to NATO, it maintained a lead role in this coalition force. As such, the engagement should still be subject to U.S. laws and rules.  Finally, the sheer cost of the engagement to the U.S. taxpayer implies that it should be considered a war. The cost of the war has been more than $1 million per day.1  Greenwald, Glenn. \u201cThe illegal war in Libya.\u201d Salon. 19\/05\/2011  BBC News, \u2018Libya: Obama says US intervention will be limited\u2019, 29 March 2011,  United States Congress, 50 USC CHAPTER 33 - WAR POWERS RESOLUTION, 7 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro01b","title":"","text":"The president\u2019s office released this statement, justifying the engagement in Libya: \"The President is of the view that the current U.S. military operations in Libya are consistent with the War Powers Resolution and do not under that law require further congressional authorization, because U.S. military operations are distinct from the kind of \u201chostilities\u201d contemplated by the Resolution\u2019s 60 day termination provision. U.S. forces are playing a constrained and supporting role in a multinational coalition, whose operations are both legitimated by and limited to the terms of a United Nations Security Council Resolution that authorizes the use of force solely to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under attack or threat of attack and to enforce a no-fly zone and an arms embargo. U.S. operations do not involve sustained fighting or active exchanges of fire with hostile forces, nor do they involve the presence of U.S. ground troops, U.S. casualties or a serious threat thereof, or any significant chance of escalation into a conflict characterized by those factors.\" 1  As such it is justifiable to say that the conflict in Libya do not amount to legal hostilities. Secondly, the U.S. gave control of the operation in Libya to NATO on April 1st 2011. As such the U.S. government is not in violation of U.S. laws as it is not the U.S. prosecuting hostilities should they be considered to be happening. It is instead NATO doing it. Given that NATO is part of U.S. spending and that NATO commitments require contribution from all member states in some way, the U.S. does not have to justify the engagement in law as the U.S. is not culpable for its participation, NATO is.  Further, whilst regime change was a consequence in Libya, it was not the military objective of the campaign in Libya, which was to simply limit Gadaffi\u2019s ability to use aircraft to visit harm upon his citizens. Regime change was just a happy coincidence that benefitted the people in Libya. As such the conflict did not amount to \u201chostilities\u201d as U.S. participation in said conflict was incredibly limited. 2  BBC News, \u2018Libya: Obama says US intervention will be limited\u2019, 29 March 2011,  Obama Administration letter to Congress justifying Libya engagement, 15\/06\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro03a","title":"","text":"The Libya intervention lacks sufficient international authority  Firstly, the UN intervention in Libya wrongly rests on NATO authority. The use of NATO to circumvent congressional approval in this situation violates the initial agreement regarding the participation of the U.S. in NATO that was ratified by congress. As such, even if the U.S. is legitimate in going to war and the circumvention of war powers can be justified, the circumvention using NATO cannot.  Secondly, the use of UN approval to circumvent congress means that the UN charter and the ideals of the UN have been placed by the government at a higher level of value than of the US constitution. If this is the case then the government has undermined the validity of the US constitution and through doing that has undermined all laws within the U.S. which is harmful should the U.S. wish to project power in a way that is contrary to the UN\u2019s wishes.1  Editorial: \u201cObama\u2019s illegal war\u201d The Washington Times. 18\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-con03b","title":"","text":"Firstly, the Obama regime had plenty of time to get congressional approval. It would have been fairly easy for a bipartisan bill led by Senators John Kerry and John McCain to get through congress in time for the U.S. to successfully intervene in the area. The United States through a joint session of congress declared war on Japan within two days of the Japanese launching their attack on Pearl Harbor showing that declarations of war can be pushed through congress quickly when there is the need.1  Secondly, whilst some of congress, the leadership was consulted regarding the actions in Libya, all of congress was not. This harms the portrayal of congress as an important and representative body when more minor members are not consulted for very important decisions made by the state. As such, no discretion can be allowed in this area because to do so is to harm the institutions upon which the US is founded.2  \u2018Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War  Ackerman, Bruce. \u201cObama\u2019s Unconstitutional War.\u201d ForeignPolicy.com 24\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-con01b","title":"","text":"The intervention in Libya has run contrary to the interests of the US by giving the president stronger powers. When Bill Clinton intervened with NATO in Kosovo he had to gain the approval of congress following the 60th day, with the conflict ending on the 78th. In allowing Obama to do this, a fundamental part of the U.S. democratic system has been undermined and more powers have been given to the presidency. In the future this could lead to further bad decisions for the united states as presidents are required to prove less in order to take stronger action.1  Greenwald, Glenn. \u201cThe illegal war in Libya.\u201d Salon. 19\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-con02a","title":"","text":"Congress was appropriately and openly consulted  Firstly, the Obama administration did not truly have time to gain congressional approval for their actions. Obama\u2019s justification of the Libyan conflict claims: \"As his troops continued pushing toward Benghazi, a city of nearly 700,000 people, Qadhafi again defied the international community, declaring, \u201cWe will have no mercy and no pity.\u201d At that moment, as the President explained in his speech to the nation on March 28: \u201cWe knew that if we waited one more day, Benghazi could suffer a massacre that would have reverberated across the region and stained the conscience of the world.\u201d Stopping a potential humanitarian disaster became a question of hours, not days. The costs of inaction would have been profound. Thousands of civilians would very likely have been slaughtered, a ruthless dictator would have been triumphant precisely at a time when people across the region are challenging decades of repression, and key U.S. allies, including Egypt and Tunisia, would have been threatened by instability on their borders during a critical point in their own transitions toward a more promising future.\u201d1  Further, even if this is not true Obama did consistently consult congress regarding the mission, with Obama\u2019s justification claiming: \"The Administration has consulted extensively with Congress about U.S. engagement in Libya. Since March 1, the Administration has: testified at over 10 hearings that included a substantial discussion of Libya; participated in over 30 Member and\/or staff briefings, including the March 18 Presidential meeting with Congressional Leadership, Committee Chairs and Ranking Members; all three requested 'All Members Briefings' (two requested by the Senate, one by the House); and all requested 'All Staff Briefings;' conducted dozens of calls with individual Members; and provided 32 status updates via e-mail to over 1,600 Congressional staff.\"  Finally, the Senate was also consulted and passed a resolution that condemned the gross and systematic violation of the rights of the Libyan people by Gadaffi. As such, a large portion of the U.S. governing body was consulted by Obama and as such, a small amount of discretion in this area can be tolerated. 2  United States Activities in Libya, p.7,  Obama Administration letter to Congress justifying Libya engagement, 15\/06\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-con03a","title":"","text":"Humanitarian reasons prompted swift intervention  The US intervention in Libya was necessary because Gadaffi had shown and has shown before that he is willing to kill and abuse citizens en mass in order to preserve his power. The U.S. intervention was necessary in order to prevent the indiscriminate bombing of towns by Gadaffi\u2019s air forces. Such bombing attacks led to significant civilian casualties.1  Following the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 the United States placed on itself a moral mandate that \u2018never again\u2019 would such massacres be allowed to continue without intervention. Had the uprising been put down, reprisals by Gadaffi would have been swift and likely resulted in many innocents being killed. 2 The United States had to step in.  Obama Libya Speech Strongly Defends Intervention (FULL TESXT)\u2019 AP\/The Huffington Post, 28 March 2011,  Obama Administration letter to Congress justifying Libya engagement, 15\/06\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-con01a","title":"","text":"The intervention was necessary in order to protect US interests in the region  If it can be proved that the intervention was incredibly important to the US for both its own interests as well as for its moral imperative then the US bending the War Power Act can be seen as a legitimate exception to constitutional rules that has to be borne despite the harms such a breach might cause.  Violence and insecurity within the Libyan region would negatively affect US security. Firstly through the fact that poverty and conflict often breed religious radicalism and can often result in terrorism which directly harms the US as the most visible world power. Secondly, the US intervening is necessary to show members of the Middle East and North Africa that it is willing to support the region during a time of taxing transitions from old dictatorships to often weak democracies. Further, it shows that the US is compassionate in that it is unwilling to stand by and allow regions to descend into humanitarian crises.  The intervention also prevented a flood of refugees into Egypt and Tunisia.1 Egypt itself is currently undergoing democratic change and such a crisis might have forced that process backward. Tunisia is undergoing a similar transition and America needs to show support for these countries so that the governments that are established in the future will view America in a positive light.  Finally such an intervention is necessary owing to the role that the US and the people of the US feel that it should take in the world. Standing aside whilst a humanitarian crisis unfolds goes against the ideals that the US stands for. Further, given this revolution is likely seeking a democratic government it seems inconsistent that the US would not help countries aiming to become more like the US. 2,3  Wauquiez , Laurent, \u2018Libya\/no-fly zone\/sanctions\/refugees \u2013 NATO intervention\/Arab reaction\u2019, France in the United States, 8 March 2011,  Obama Administration letter to Congress justifying Libya engagement, 15\/06\/2011  Text of Obama\u2019s Speech on Libya: \u201cA Responsibility to Act.\u201d NPR.org 28\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-gmepwhbuil-con02b","title":"","text":"Firstly, the Obama regime had plenty of time to get congressional approval. It would have been fairly easy for a bipartisan bill led by Senators John Kerry and John McCain to get through congress in time for the U.S. to successfully intervene in the area. The United States through a joint session of congress declared war on Japan within two days of the Japanese launching their attack on Pearl Harbor showing that declarations of war can be pushed through congress quickly when there is the need.1  Secondly, whilst some of congress, the leadership was consulted regarding the actions in Libya, all of congress was not. This harms the portrayal of congress as an important and representative body when more minor members are not consulted for very important decisions made by the state. As such, no discretion can be allowed in this area because to do so is to harm the institutions upon which the US is founded.2  \u2018Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (1941)\u2019, ourdocuments.gov,  Ackerman, Bruce. \u201cObama\u2019s Unconstitutional War.\u201d ForeignPolicy.com 24\/03\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro02b","title":"","text":"Through the SIS the Schengen Area has been able to streamline immigration and asylum policy, thus making it easier to manage immigrants in a consistent manner across Europe [1] . However, countries are not wholly dependent on external borders for security and immigration checks, and so immigrants approaching from external countries can still be caught by individual countries within the Schengen area. Police are allowed to conduct random identity checks throughout the territory of any particular member state: travel advice for Schengen countries warns that while there are no longer any land border checks, you should not to attempt to cross land borders without a valid travel document because it is likely that random identity checks will be made in areas surrounding the borders [2] .  Fears over immigration and the Schengen area seem to be actually more an issue of perception than flows of people; the economic crisis has heightened anti-immigrant feeling across Europe. For example, the actual number of refugees arriving in southern Europe as a result of the 2011 Arab Spring has been fewer than expected: \u201cOut of more than 700,000 migrants displaced by events in the western Arab states of North Africa, around 30,000 (4-5%) have attempted to reach Europe,\u201d according to demography expert Philippe Fargues [3] . The other 95% have headed mainly for African and Asian destinations [4] .  [1] \u2018Legal instruments governing migration from SIS 1+ to SIS II\u2019, Europa, 13 July 2010   [2] \u2018Advice for travel to the Czech Republic\u2019, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 6 February 2012,   [3] European Affairs, \u2018EU haunted by fear of refuges, not reality\u2019, The European Institute, June 2011,   [4] European Affairs, \u2018EU haunted by fear of refuges, not reality\u2019, The European Institute, June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro02a","title":"","text":"The freedom of movement the Schengen area allows increases the difficulties of controlling immigration  The borderless nature of the Schengen Area makes it increasingly difficult to track and detain illegal immigrants. It is often easier for illegal immigrants to enter through countries such as Italy or Greece (and, as is feared when Bulgaria and Romania eventually join, Eastern European countries) and then continue on to countries like France and Germany [1] . For example, Italian Prime Minister Berlusconi's decision to grant temporary residence permits to more than 20,000 Tunisian migrants fleeing the violent uprisings in April, was made in the knowledge that many of the migrants would end up travelling to France, the former colonial ruler where many of the migrants have relatives [2] . France accused Italy of abusing the Schengen Agreement.  [1] Lipics, Laszlo, \u2018Focal points on the external borders of Schengen\u2019, AARMS, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2010 pp.229-239,  has a map of focal points of pressure of illegal immigration, all of which are in Eastern Europe  [2] \u2018France and Italy call for tighter border controls\u2019, theparliament.com, 27th April 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro03b","title":"","text":"While the EU is indeed a union, it is also a union of states with recognized rights to shape their own security and justice affairs. Unlike the continental members of the EU, Britain and Ireland have traditionally looked at borders not as sources of conflict but rather as natural mechanisms of defence, because of their position as islands. The Schengen agreement has allowed them to also collaborate within the SIS and EUROPOL, thus complementing the traditional framework of the Union, of which, ultimately, the Schengen Agreement is a part [1] . This means that Britain and Ireland are as included as they wish to be. The split in the Schengen agreement will not result in any new differences of interest between Britain and Ireland and the rest of the EU.  [1] Select Committee on European Union, \u2018Schengen Information System: New Functions\u2019, www.parliament.uk , 9 April 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro05a","title":"","text":"The Schengen Agreement is an anachronism of a safer age.  Since the Schengen Agreement was first designed and implemented the world has moved on and become a much more dangerous place. The war on terror has already brought bombings to a number of European cities, and this changed circumstance makes Schengen a luxury the EU can no longer afford. September 11th has created a preoccupation with the security of the Union\u2019s external borders. [1] Even before September 11th 2001 the drawbacks of open borders in terms of crime were obvious - which is why Paris controversially imposed stricter checks against drugs flowing into France from the more relaxed regime in the Netherlands using a broad interpretation of the rules for temporary issues of public order. [2] Since 9\/11 there is a pressing need for stricter border controls to catch international terrorists and prevent the movement of dangerous materials which could be used in terror attacks.  [1] Batt, Judy, \u2018The enlarged EU\u2019s external borders \u2013 the regional dimension\u2019, Partners and neighbours: a CFSP for a wider Europe, (September 2003), pp.102-118,  p.104  [2] Easton, Susan H., \u2018Honor Thy Promise: Why the Dutch Drug Policies Should Not Be a Barrier to the Full Implementation of the Schengen Agreement\u2019 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, Vol.23., Issue 1., (12-1-1999),   See also the Text of Schengen Agreement, especially Article 2.2"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro01a","title":"","text":"As the Schengen area gets bigger, it becomes more difficult to police and this increases the risk of rogue elements being able to move freely between countries  As new members are accepted and the Schengen area expands, it becomes more and more difficult to police. For example, once terrorists have gained access to the area, they are free to move within almost the entirety of Europe. The same applies for traffickers of people, drugs and arms. This was the rationale behind the blocking of Romania and Bulgaria from entering the zone at the same time as they entered the EU [1] ; they failed to curb organised crime before their accession and if they were join access routes would be opened to the whole of Europe.  This means that all countries are dependent on the security forces of countries monitoring external borders. It is key that Member States with an external EU frontier have a responsibility to ensure that proper checks and effective surveillance are carried out at the EU's external frontiers. It is vital that checks and controls at the EU's external frontiers be rigorous enough to stop illegal immigration, drug smuggling and other unlawful activities [2] . Given the different enforcement abilities of different member states, the security of one state is often not protected because of the carelessness of another. Dissolving the Schengen area gives countries responsibility for the protection of their own borders and thus makes Europe safer as a whole.  [1] Kelly, Tom, \u2018EU borders will stay shut to influx from Romania and Bulgaria over fears of crime flood\u2019, The Daily Mail, 23rd December 2010,   [2] The Schengen Convention: Abolition of internal borders and creation of a single EU external frontier, eurotool,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro01b","title":"","text":"The expanding Schengen area does not make it more difficult to police due to the lack of border controls. Anyone attempting to enter the Schengen area will be checked at least once, this is exactly the same as anyone entering an individual country. Americans do not consider themselves less safe because they do not have border posts between Maryland and Virginia. The key therefore is not to dissolve Schengen but to ensure that all countries border police are of equally high quality and that they share information as is being done through the Schengen Information System (SIS) [1] and Europol.  [1] Schengen Information System, Wikipedia,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro05b","title":"","text":"Scrapping the Schengen Agreement in the face of terrorism would be to give in to the terrorists. The Agreement is part of the open, free society which the extremists are attacking, with its aim of cooperation between different nationalities and the development of a peaceful European identity. Retreating behind national borders would only encourage them in their attacks, and would be ineffective in seeking to prevent future violence. Investigation of attacks in Madrid, London and Paris have all revealed that the terrorists were legal residents, free to come and go regardless of border restrictions. Rather than dissolving Schengen the solution to terrorism lies in better intelligence gathering and cooperation between states (not likely to be encouraged by a retreat behind national borders), and by addressing the problems of alienation and poverty within our societies which serve as breeding grounds for extremism."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro04b","title":"","text":"While having to get a Europe wide visa can be a problem for the countries that newly border the Schengen there are also benefits. The Schengen agreement often favours those who apply for Schengen visas since once a visa is granted, they can easily travel throughout all the countries that have signed the Agreement. This process not only saves money but it also allows for more freedom of movement for those who enter the Schengen area under a visa regime. Countries are free to choose whether they want to become part of the Schengen regime or not, and are thus making a rational and informed decision on whether the Schengen agreement serves them better than maintaining open borders with traditional allies that are not part of the Schengen area."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Schengen helps divide Europe as not all members take part.  The Schengen Area, adopted by some countries in Europe but not others, will create a difference of interest which will irrevocably divide the EU over time. The fact that not all the EU members are part of the Schengen agreement means that the EU is divided in two areas: one in which the free movement of people is achieved and one in which it is not. This threatens to create two different ways of approaching the questions of justice and security within the EU: one that is managed through the SIS system and Europol, and one that is managed through the traditional justice and home affairs legislation within the Union framework itself. This could turn out to be a particularly divisive force within a Union that is already faltering having failed to sign a common Constitution and settled for a watered down treaty instead."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Schengen tightens external borders, creating a \u2018wall\u2019 around Europe.  The Schengen agreement has opened internal borders within Europe, but externally the opposite is true. Thus, while citizens of the belonging countries enjoy complete freedom of movement, citizens of non-member countries find that it is more difficult to receive entry visas to enter the Schengen area. As the Schengen area continues to expand, it enforces more and more restrictions on countries that lie outside its borders, turning borders that have historically been open into real fortresses and thus significantly affecting the political and economic relations between long-term allies. For example, the eastern borders of East European States that already enjoy some Schengen privileges are hardening in order to be allowed fully into Schengen as the existing members need to agree that they are implementing border controls satisfactorily. [1] The result is that they are cutting their inhabitants off from neighbours such as Ukraine, Belarus and Russia in order to give them better access to western Europe. Former members of Yugoslavia that before Schengen was implemented could travel to all the members of the EC (such as Macedonia) have had travel restrictions imposed and this burden has been increasing as more of their neighbours, such as Slovenia, join the zone or make free travel arrangements with it (such as Serbia and Croatia). [2]  [1] Batt, Judy, \u2018The enlarged EU\u2019s external borders \u2013 the regional dimension\u2019, Partners and neighbours: a CFSP for a wider Europe, (September 2003), pp.102-118,  p.106  [2] Reactor, Taking Down the Schengen Wall, April 2009, pp.1-2,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-con03b","title":"","text":"Pan European crime fighting efforts would have occurred anyway. It was the increasing globalization of crime that has forced combined crime fighting efforts not the Schengen agreement. The first moves towards creating Europol came in the 1970s with the setting up of the Trevi group by the then European Communities\u2019 interior and justice ministries. This was long before Schengen was created. [1]  [1] Europol, \u2018About Europol\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-con01b","title":"","text":"Far from being a unifying force the Schengen Area has already led to disagreements between individual countries. Italy and France were involved in a major political dispute after Italy abused the spirit, if not the terms, of the Schengen Agreement to offload thousands of North African migrants onto France. In April 2011, French police even went so far as to stop an Italian train carrying migrants and prevent it from crossing the border [1] . France took the rare decision to temporarily re-establish border controls, adding more than 300 police to patrols monitoring roads and foot trails that lead into French territory, along with inspecting rail traffic [2] . It issued instructions stating that an immigrant who wishes to cross the French border must \u201chold a valid travel document recognised by France\u201d and a \u201cvalid residence document,\u201d \u201cshow proof of having sufficient resources\u2014that is, \u20ac31 per day if the person has accommodations, and \u20ac62 otherwise [3] . France\u2019s unilateral decision to restore border controls and stretch the boundary of the Schengen Agreement underlines the extreme fragility of the legal basis of the European Union. Further, Romania was angry at attempts to exclude them from the Schengen area, a move led by France and Germany, after accessing to the EU and technically meeting all the border conditions for the passport-free zone, calling it \u201cdiscrimination\u201d [4] .  [1] \u2018France and Italy push for reform of Schengen treaty\u2019, BBC News, 26th April 2011,   [2] Ira, Kumaran, \u2018France re-establishes border controls with Italy amid dispute over African migrants\u2019, World Socialist Website, 11th April 2011,   [3] Ira, Kumaran, \u2018France re-establishes border controls with Italy amid dispute over African migrants\u2019, World Socialist Website, 11th April 2011,   [4] Waterfield, Bruno, \u2018Romania accuses France and Germany of discrimination over Schengen exclusion\u2019, The Daily Telegraph, 22nd December 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-con02a","title":"","text":"The Schengen Area eases the free movement of goods and people that the EU strives for  The freedom of movement of goods and people is a fundamental aspect of the European Union [1] , and the Schengen Agreement is a crucial part of making that a reality. This is not just useful in terms of cutting the cost of conducting business across Europe; it also makes it easier to have holidays too. The Schengen Agreement paved the way for the Schengen visa [2] to come into being, which is what actually makes the EU free movement policy a reality; visitors to the 25 countries above now only need one visa to visit all of them. The Schengen visa also gives non-members of the European Union the ability to travel unimpeded through all of the countries that take part in the program. Obtaining the Schengen visa is the same as any visa process: you apply, send in your passport and then receive a stamp in it if you are approved. This process not only saves money \u2013 as you do not have to pay and apply for a visa for every country - but it also allows for more freedom of movement even for those who enter the Schengen area under a visa regime. All members of the EU believe that \u201cthe free movement of people is one of the Union's key achievements and we have to maintain and safeguard this\u201d [3] .  This is only a single point in favour of the Schengen area, but the freedom of movement clause is the very essence of the EU. Without the Schengen Agreement the most basic tenet of the European Union would cease to be. This far outweighs many of the technical disadvantages.  [1] \u2018Free movement of persons, asylum and immigration\u2019, Europa,   [2] \u2018The Schengen Agreement: History and Information\u2019, ACS, 2011,   [3] European Affairs, \u2018EU haunted by fear of refuges, not reality\u2019, The European Institute, June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-con03a","title":"","text":"Schengen has allowed cooperation in fighting global crime  Criminality has become globalized, particularly in areas such as drugs that have long supply chains. The response to these threats has to involve large numbers of countries as well and Schengen has provided the impetus for such cooperation. The Schengen Information System (SIS) has been a very successful tool for managing and curbing crime and illegal immigration in the Schengen area [1] . Between August and November 2008, in the first months since the introduction of the SIS database in Switzerland, Swiss authorities queried it about 130,000 times a day [2] . Of an average 30 hits a day, the SIS has found 25 people wanted by another European country in connection with serious crimes [3] . About 900 hits have been for people who have been denied entry into the Schengen area, while another 500 hits have been for missing persons [4] . The database produced about 600 hits for stolen property within its first few months in operation [5] . The Schengen members are now working on developing the SIS II system which will make it easier to manage a constantly expanding Schengen area [6] .  In addition, with the creation of a parallel European wide criminal intelligence agency, Europol, information can now be easily exchanged and tracked throughout the different member states, making it easier to catch and keep track of criminals across the Schengen zone [7] . Integration and unity is a better way of dealing with a global threat such as terrorism and trafficking [8] than unilateralism and nationalism. It must also be noted that countries are allowed to re-assume control of their own borders if there is a \u201cgrave threat to public order or internal security\u201d [9] .  [1] \u2018New functions for the SIS in the fight against terrorism\u2019, Europa, 22 August 2006,   [2] Brooks, Robert, \u2018Schengen Information System proves its worth\u2019, Swiss Info, November 15th 2008   [3] ibid  [4] ibid  [5] ibid  [6] Schengen Information System: SIS II, Wikipedia,   [7] Europol Public Information, \u2018EU Organised Crime Threat Assessment\u2019, Europol, 28 April 2011,   [8] Norwaygrants, \u2018Schengen Co-operation and Combating Cross-border and Organised Crime, including Trafficking and Itinerant Criminal Groups\u2019, European Economic Area, December 2010,   [9] European Affairs, \u2018EU haunted by fear of refuges, not reality\u2019, The European Institute, June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-con01a","title":"","text":"The Schengen Agreement is both a symbol of and fundamental means of upholding the unity of the European Union  The Schengen Agreement has been supported by the majority of EU members since its inception in 1985 (it covers all the continental states of the EU) and has not caused any of the feared divisions in the 20 years of its existence. Indeed, the idea of freedom of movement creates a united Europe. Most EU leaders, together with a majority in the European Parliament, oppose any major restrictions to Schengen, which they see as a core value of European integration \u2013 both as a potent symbol (ranking close to the euro) and a fundamental reality of European solidarity. European Parliament negotiator Carlos Coelho said \"Schengen is free movement and, like the euro, is one of the symbols of Europe\" [1] . There is thus little reason to believe that major divisions will occur any time in the future. Italy and France\u2019s disagreement actually produced a unified response about how to reform the Schengen Agreement for the good of all within it [2] .  [1] \u2018EU warned against changing Schengen deal on borders\u2019, BBC News, 3rd May 2011,   [2] \u2018France and Italy push for reform of Schengen treaty\u2019, BBC News, 26th April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilhwdsa-con02b","title":"","text":"Losing Schengen would have little impact on the goals of the European Union. The Schengen agreement is not necessary for economic or monetary union as goods will still be able to travel around the EU. Ireland by not being part of Schengen but very much a member of the European Union and Eurozone has shown that not being a part of the passport free area does not have any negative effects."}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-pro02b","title":"","text":"The only precedent for this is the disastrous Iraq war where the reason for the invasion was given as disarming Saddam of Weapons of Mass Destruction he turned out not to have. Most countries would therefore be justified in being skeptical of any country claiming the right to disarm another of WMD. Additionally when this is done by the major powers the action is likely to be seen as being hypocritical. In the case of Chemical Weapons the United States does not have a particularly clean record. The United States used less deadly chemical weapons, Agent Orange, in Vietnam in order to clear foliage, and in Iraq it used white phosphorus as an incendiary weapon. The United States has so far failed to decommission its own Chemical Weapons and instead keeps getting extensions. [1] Similarly both Russia and the United States had Biological Weapons programs, and although these have ended still maintain large smallpox supplies.  [1] Monbiot, George, \u2018Obama\u2019s Rogue State\u2019, monbiot.com, 9 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-pro02a","title":"","text":"Disarming illegal weapons  A second possible justification for intervention is when the state that is intervening against is itself breaking international law such as the Chemical Weapons Convention or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The intervention would then be to force compliance of the treaty; this would mean forcible disarmament of illegal weapons. In the case of Syria the country could be deemed to have violated its own legal obligations due to its having broken the 1925 Geneva Protocol [1] that bans the use of chemical weapons. Since manufacturing and possession of these weapons is banned if it is considered that having such weapons is a \u2018gross violation of international law\u2019 then a limited use of force to destroy these weapons could be considered to be legal. [2] This could be considered to be analogous to the police stepping in to confiscate a banned weapon, with no police internationally other states have to be the ones to step in.  [1] 1925 Geneva Protocol, League of Nations, 17 June 1925,   [2] Dr Wolff Heintschel, \u2018Viewpoints: Is there legal basis for military intervention in Syria?\u2019, BBC News, 29 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-pro03b","title":"","text":"Current international law does still matter, each time a state takes such action without consent other states object, they are simply not powerful enough to prevent it but this does prevent any norm being created by the aggressor.  If however international law does no longer matter then any war is legal, or rather at least not illegal. This potentially means going back to a situation where any state has a sovereign right to engage in conflict for almost anything it sees as an infringement of its sovereignty. The best we might hope for would be that states could agree that while war might be legal it has to be under the conditions of launching a just war under jus ad bellum. There are six requirements:  just cause \u2013 defence of oneself, allies, or innocents or punishment for wrongdoing  right intention \u2013 no ulterior motives beyond the stated cause  Proper authority and public declaration \u2013 must be open and done publically  Last resort \u2013 have expended all peaceful alternatives  Proportionality \u2013 must create more good than evil so that the action is worth the costs  Probability of success \u2013 there must be some likelihood of making a difference and concluding the conflict quickly. [1]  In most cases military action would not meet all of these requirements.  [1] Orend, Brian, \"War\", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition),   Also see the debatabase debate \u2018 This House believes there can be such a thing as a just war \u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-pro01a","title":"","text":"A moral imperative to intervene  When a massacre is about to happen it is legal to intervene to prevent that massacre. The \u2018Responsibility to Protect\u2019 which was accepted by the UN in 2005. Resolution 60\/1 at the 2005 World Summit stated, there was international responsibility \u201cto help to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. In this context, we are prepared to take collective action in a timely and decisive manner.\u201d Though this will only happen \u201cshould peaceful means be inadequate and national authorities are manifestly failing to protect their populations\u201d. [1] This is most certainly the case in Syria where the national authorities are the ones doing much of the killing.  It must be proved that the Syrian regime is responsible for the attacks; the US and UK say there is such evidence but so far the link is not crystal clear. Even the UK government accepts that there must be \u201cconvincing evidence, generally accepted by the international community as a whole, of extreme humanitarian distress on a large scale, requiring immediate and urgent relief\u201d. [2] As the doctrine states peaceful means must have been tried \u2013 and in Syria after two years of conflict we can safely say a peaceful resolution is not in sight. And the use of force must be proportionate \u2013 which since there is no plan for a full scale invasion in Syria it will be. [3]  [1] United Nations General Assembly, \u2018Responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity\u2019, Resolution 60\/1 2005, p.30   [2] \u2018Chemical weapon use by Syrian regime \u2013 UK Government legal position\u2019, gov.uk, 29 August 2013,   [3] Cassese, Antonio, \u2018Ex iniuria ius oritur: Are We Moving towards International Legitimation of Forcible Humanitarian Countermeasures in the World Community?\u2019, EIJL, Vol.10, 1999,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-pro01b","title":"","text":"In the case of Syria these conditions have not been met; the evidence has not yet been provided \u2013 the weapons inspectors have yet to report, there have been very few peace talks to try to reach a peaceful solution or attempts at peaceful coercion such as sanctions. Will the attacks be proportionate? They will simply cause more damage and unless they are very large will not stand a chance of halting the violence.  Moreover in general terms it is difficult to see whether a responsibility to intervene really exists. There does not seem to be much agreement that humanitarian distress and the need for urgent relief allows unilateral action if the state that is in need of relief does not want it. There is certainly very little state practice (well not since 19th century imperialism anyway) where it has happened. [1] Even in the last decade there have been failures to intervene against states killing their own civilians in Chechnya, North Korea [2] and Uzbekistan. [3]  It is notable that this was very much scaled back from a more general doctrine of humanitarian intervention. This doctrine does not allow for any nation to take it upon itself to \u2018protect\u2019 another\u2019s civilians rather it provides an opportunity for the United Nations to do so. [4] \u201cThe international community, through the United Nations, also has the responsibility to use appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful means, in accordance with Chapters VI and VIII of the Charter\u201d this simply provided a mandate for the UN Security Council to intervene in such situations.  [1] Booth, Robert, \u2018Syria: legal doubt cast on British government\u2019s case for intervention\u2019, theguardian.com, 29 August 2013,   [2] Ryall, Julian, \u2018Up to 20,000 North Korean prison camp inmates have 'disappeared' says human rights group\u2019, The Telegraph, 5 September 2013,   [3] \u2018Uzbekistan: No Justice 7 years after Andijan Massacre\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 12 May 2012,   [4] Thakur, Ramesh, \u2018Is America now becoming an international outlaw?\u2019, The Japan Times, 3 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-pro03a","title":"","text":"Current International law on the use of force no longer matters  The international prohibition on the use of force has always been honoured in large part in the breach leading to the question of whether it should really be considered to be binding international law at all. Almost every major country has launched an illegal offensive action at some point; The USA has been involved in Kosovo and Iraq, the UK and France in attacking Egypt in 1953, China in attacking Vietnam in 1979, and Russia (as the USSR) in attacking Afghanistan also in 1979. In each instance of unilateral offensive action there will be justifications and a \u2018smoke screen\u2019 to make the conflict appear to be legal when in fact it is not. Major powers should simply admit that they do not regard the prohibition of the use of force as binding on them. Even without admitting it because international law is based upon state behaviour the use of force is legal as Michael J Glennon suggests \u201cThe consent of United Nations member states to the general prohibition against the use of force, as expressed in the Charter, has in this way been supplanted by a changed intent as expressed in deeds.\u201d [1]  [1] Glennon, Michael J., \u2018How War Left the Law Behind\u2019, The New York Times, 21 November 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-con03b","title":"","text":"An international norm is being breached one way or the other the only question is which one is to be breached. Those in favour of intervention consider that lives saved is worthwhile compared to the problems the breach of a norm against humanitarian intervention might create. All of these norms are there with the intention of saving lives; that is what a norm of preventing any infringement of sovereignty without UN approval is supposed to prevent \u2013 conflict and the lives lost this causes. But Internal conflict and genocide has since become much more the problem than aggression between states requiring a rebalancing of which norms are kept."}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-con01b","title":"","text":"The problem with relying on the Security Council is that it effectively means that the world is saying that five states can decide what is legal and what is not. Should the five countries who are probably most inclined to interventions, and are usually at loggerheads really be the ones to decide in such situations?"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-con02a","title":"","text":"Uniting for Peace  One interesting possibility that could help short circuit the problems on the Security Council that prevents action either through UN Security Council action or through the Responsibility to Protect would be to take the case to the UN General Assembly. There was a resolution in 1950 that \u201cResolves that if the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members, fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security in any case where there appears to be a threat to peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression, the General Assembly shall consider the matter immediately with a view to making appropriate recommendations to members for collective measures, including in the case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression the use of armed force when necessary, to maintain or restore international peace and security.\u201d [1] The General Assembly is clearly the more legitimate body, and it also does not have the problem of vetos. It is however unlikely that UN Security Council members France, the UK, and the USA would want to create such a precedent. [2]  [1] \u2018Uniting for peace\u2019, General Assembly \u2013 Fifth Session, 377, 3rd November 1950,   [2] Dapo Akande, \u2018Viewpoints: Is there legal basis for military intervention in Syria?\u2019, BBC News, 29 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-con03a","title":"","text":"There is no point in defending some norms at the costs of breaching others  Intervention is almost always about upholding \u2018international norms\u2019. Thus the attack on Syria is to disarm Syria of its banned chemical weapons because it \u201crisks making a mockery of the global prohibition on the use of chemical weapons.\u201d [1] With Iraq it was once again a norm against WMD with Tony Blair arguing \u201cUN weapons inspectors say vast amounts of chemical and biological poisons such as anthrax, VX nerve agent and mustard gas remain unaccounted for in Iraq.\u201d [2] This means that the nation that is going to engage in offensive action is attempting to prevent the breach of one international norm against certain weapons by breaching a norm against unauthorised military action.  In Kosovo it was even more hypocritical; NATO acted to make sure Milsovic \u201chonor his own commitments and stop his repression\u201d with the intent that \u201cif President Milosevic will not make peace, we will limit his ability to make war.\u201d [3] So we will protect the norm against conflict by initiating a conflict of our own. Defending one international norm by breaching another is both pointless, because it undermines all norms, and hypocritical because it says those norms apply only to someone else.  [1] President Obama, \u2018TRANSCRIPT: President Obama\u2019s Aug. 31 statement on Syria\u2019, The Washington Post, 31 August 2013,   [2] \u2018Full transcript of Blair's speech\u2019, BBC News, 20 March 2003,   [3] Clinton, Bill, \u2018Statement on Kososvo\u2019, Miller Center University of Virginia, 24 March 1999,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-con01a","title":"","text":"Military action is only legal with UN Security Council approval  Traditionally (by this I mean since 1945!) there are only a couple of ways in which a war is legal. The first is simple; self defence. The UN charter allows \u201cthe inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations\u201d [1] but this does not fall into that category. Assad is attacking his own people, not another state that is entitled to self defence. No state is able to claim the right to provide self defence for those who Assad is attacking.  A much more viable proposition is to go through the UN Security Council. The charter allows that \u201cThe Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace\u2026 Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 [sanctions and other non-forceful methods of applying pressure] would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.\u201d So the UN Security Council certainly could authorise the use of force. Unfortunately a Security Council member, Russia, has already effectively ruled out authorizing military action with its foreign minister urging the US not to repeat \u201cpast mistakes\u201d (i.e. Iraq and Libya) and warning \u201cIt\u2019s a very dangerous slippery slope that our Western partners have gone on before. I hope common sense prevails.\u201d [2]  [1] United Nations, \u2018Chapter VII: Action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression\u2019, Charter of the United Nations, 1945,   [2] Meyer, Henry, \u2018Syria Is Headed for Western Strike, Russia Says\u2019, Bloomberg, 26 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-glilhbmai-con02b","title":"","text":"Uniting for Peace is well over sixty years old and yet has only been used once, to intervene against a full scale invasion of South Korea. This is hardly a good precedent for using against a state that is not involved in aggression against another state. The intent of Uniting for Peace is to restore \u201cinternational peace\u201d not domestic peace. It says nothing about intervening in internal conflicts without approval from the Security Council."}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-pro02b","title":"","text":"Stability could have been ensured without a military alliance like NATO. The European Union could have managed to create stability on its own, the EU itself since the Lisbon Treaty has gained the role of the West European Union security organisation. Additionally admission to NATO (and incidentally the EU) require social harmonisation and stability to occur before a new state can join, to quote the NATO Handbook directly; \u201cStates which are involved in ethnic disputes or external territorial disputes, including irredentist claims, or internal jurisdictional disputes, must settle those disputes by peaceful means in accordance with OSCE principles, before they can become members.\u201d [1] If these nations had to sort out their problems first what was the point of enlargement, it is not enlargement per se that is meaning that these disputes are solved.  [1] NATO, The NATO Handbook; The 1995 Study on NATO's Enlargement, 1995,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-pro02a","title":"","text":"NATO expansion was, and is, necessary for international stability  Enlargement was necessary to prevent Europe \u201creverting to type\u201d. The rise once again of the ethnic and religious causes of war. [1] And this is still a reason for NATO to expand to help stabilise Europe. The Balkans is only the worst area for Ethnic tensions; there are similar cases all over Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. The history of Eastern Europe has been one of empires not the nation state. Stalin had a policy of divide and rule; he made sure each soviet republic included substantial minorities in order to prevent the growth of nationalist movements. [2] Stalin only continued a long tradition of ethnic movements within empires in Eastern Europe. The Balkan problem for example is considered an effect of the Ottoman empire; hence the Christian\/Moslem divides in Bosnia and Kosovo. The Austrian Empire settled people on its frontiers in much the same way; the result is that none of the eastern European states is ethnically homogeneous. The Violent break-up of Yugoslavia showed the way many other states could potentially go, NATO wished to avoid this and enlargement was its best solution.  [1] Coker, Christopher, \u2018The Geopolitical Implications of the Expansion of Europe\u2019 pp5-12 NATO looks east ed. Piotr Dutkiewicz and Robert J. Jackson (Westport, Praeger publishing, 1998) p.8  [2] Keylor, William R., The Twentieth Century World (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001), p.460"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-pro03b","title":"","text":"Again NATO need not have been the method why which these were fulfilled; the EU could equally provide collective defence within Europe and create the trust between member state\u2019s militaries. It is also the European Union that has done most to turn Robinson\u2019s \u2018insecure and uncertain East\u2019 into being part of \u2018a prosperous, secure and self-confident West\u2019. While it may be able to unite East and West Europe NATO is itself a symbol of division to others \u2013 particularly to Russia."}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-pro01a","title":"","text":"NATO expansion would benefit eastern European and post Soviet states  The opportunity of NATO membership creates the incentive for the newly independent republics to achieve internal stability. The criteria for NATO membership include stable democracy; civilian control of the armed forces; a sufficient military capacity to make a meaningful contribution to collective security; and the absence of active disputes on or within the borders of the State. [1] This incentivisation is critical given the European Union was and still is expanding slower than NATO \u2013 many new NATO members such as Albania are years away from achieving EU membership. [2] NATO membership will help these fledging States to help themselves.  [ NATO, \u2018NATO enlargement\u2019, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 4 May 2011,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Albania applies for EU membership\u2019, 28 April 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-pro01b","title":"","text":"The objectives of creating stability in these fledgling democracies could be better achieved under the existing \u2018Partnership for Peace\u2019 (PFP) programme. The policy received strong support under the Clinton administration involves regular consultations, exercises and opportunities for education that seek to professionalize the civilian and military institutions of the republics of the former Soviet Union. Moreover this was individually tailored to each member based on their own requirements. [1] This policy of genuine aid is preferable to the wish-list of democratic ideals that compose the criteria for NATO membership. Paradoxically, if a country was actually able to achieve all the criteria delineated for membership, the necessity for their NATO protection would be marginal. Conversely, were the republics predictably unable to realize these goals, the protection of NATO through expansion or PFP would be genuine. Yet, it is in these situations of tenuous stability that States will be denied proper civilian and military aid from NATO.  [1] The NATO Handbook; Partnership for Peace, Aim and scope"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-pro03a","title":"","text":"NATO is a fundamental part of the international architecture used to further peace and prosperity in Europe  Peace has many foundations and no one international organisation can create all these foundations itself. NATO is therefore just as necessary to the peace of Europe as the OSCE or EU and all of these organisations need to expand to cover the states within Europe to promote peace. NATO therefore in its Message from Turnberry \u2013 its response to the end of the cold war - \u201cexpress our determination to seize the historic opportunities resulting from the profound changes in Europe to help build a new peaceful order in Europe, based on freedom, justice and democracy.\u201d [1] Collective defence is as necessary as economic cooperation in creating peace, this is something that in Europe only NATO can provide. Peace is also promoted by NATO through the security cooperation that it provides; building trust between the member states. This need for trust and equality between the parts of Europe was also explicitly stated by NATO\u2019s Secretary General when he stated \u201cWithout enlargement, we would permanently frustrate the ambitions of countries of Central and Eastern Europe for inclusion in the transatlantic security and defence community. That would perpetuate an unnatural and potentially dangerous division between a prosperous, secure and self-confident West and an insecure and uncertain East.\u201d [2] NATO enlargement helps heal this fault line and shows the cold war in Europe is really over.  [1] NATO, \u2018The Message from Turnberry\u2019, NATO website, 1990,   [2] Robertson, George, \"NATO: Enlarging and redefining itself\" Speech 18 February 2002"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con03b","title":"","text":"It ought to be accepted that the NATO alliance is already diluted. It should not be perceived as a standing military force, but a holding company whose individual members can draw upon a collective infrastructure and military support in the event of intervention in and around Europe. The expansion of NATO should be the opportunity to re-examine the current force deployment and strategic capability of the alliance. For example, the US maintains significant permanent deployment of infantry, aircraft and armour in Germany that could possibly be transferred to a more active role in protecting the borders of the newly independent republics. Similarly, the NATO \u2018After-Action\u2019 report into \u2018Operation Allied Force\u2019 in Kosovo highlighted the dependence of the offensive on the US capacity for strategic airlift. The acquisition of the requisite air transport by the Western European States would allow more credible guarantees of security throughout Europe. Forward deployment of NATO troops into the new republics is not a prerequisite for expansion. The core of the alliance is the pledge to protect which is undiminished by the addition of new members."}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con01b","title":"","text":"The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the protracted collapse of the Soviet Union into the Commonwealth of Independent States did remove the overwhelming threat of the USSR against Western Europe. However, the threat persists in a different form. The newly independent republics remain vulnerable to the vast political and military influence of Russia. The new threat is the destruction of stability of the new republics, and thus Russian expansion that is hostile to both the republics and the Western European states in their proximity \u2013 worry that this would occur lead to many eastern European states applying to NATO as soon as they could. [1] The solution is pre-emptive expansion in the other direction. The broadening of NATO to include the Eastern republics shall offer a bulwark against Russian expansion. NATO shall continue to perform the role of a defensive alliance against a putative military threat.  [1] Keylor, William R., The Twentieth Century World (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001) pp.455, 458, 461-2, 475"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con02a","title":"","text":"Further expansion of NATO will antagonise Russia  Russia considers NATO expansion to be very antagonistic towards it. Continued NATO expansion would only serve to manufacture the expansionist demon that NATO fears. The election of the ultranationalist Duma in 1996, the choice of the hardliner Yvegeny Primakov as foreign minister, and the failure of the reformist party \u2018Russia\u2019s Choice\u2019 under Yegor Gaidar even to clear the 5% hurdle for Duma membership was in whole or in part, due to the Russian sense of isolation from Western Europe. President Putin has also made a lot out of his opposition to NATO expansion which he has opposed since he was first elected President. [1] This sense is dramatically emboldened by such provocative actions as threatening to station NATO troops on its borders. The Russian people are unlikely to consider that the forward deployment is not directed against them, as is shown by Russia\u2019s worries about and threats in response to National Missile Defense which is not aimed at them, [2] but instead is only designed to maintain internal stability in the neighbouring republics. By inflaming Russian nationalism, NATO expansion is obstructs democratic development for Russia and undermines the security of its neighbouring republics.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Putin warns against Nato expansion\u2019, 26 January 2001,   [2] Quetteville, Harry de, and Pierce, Andrew, \u2018Russia threatens nuclear attack on Poland over US missile shield deal\u2019, The Telegraph, 17 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con04a","title":"","text":"The cost of expansion is prohibitive  The costs of NATO expansion are prohibitive at a time when the Western European members are scaling back their defence budgets and the reducing the size of their conventional forces. The Clinton administration estimated the costs of the initial expansion to be $27 to $35 to 2010, but this is mostly the costs restructuring and of making forces interoperable rather than the costs of protecting the new members. [1] The cost of stationing forces in Eastern Europe would be considerably higher and if NATO ever had to defend these countries the cost would be higher still. Given the fragile economies of the new republics, the existing NATO States will be obliged to absorb the expense of expansion. Even a decade after expansion the new members have mostly not succeeded in reaching the 2% of GDP the alliance targets and their combined defence budgets are only a third of Russia\u2019s. [2] The proper question is whether the taxpayers of the US and Western European States wish to pay to protect citizens of distant republics from phantom threats.  [1] \u2018Administration Releases NATO Expansion Cost Report\u2019, Arms Control Association, March 1997,   [2] The Economist, \u2018Scars, scares and scarcity\u2019, 12 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con03a","title":"","text":"Expanding NATO will overstretch the resources of its core members  NATO expansion can in the long term only lead to the overstretching of the organisation and thus the undermining of stability for the entirety of Europe. The credibility of the commitment of article V of the NATO Charter in which every member pledges to come to the defence of another has already been undermined by the inclusion of small countries that would be unable to defend themselves and are practically indefensible. [1] NATO runs the grave risk of becoming so large and diverse it resembles a political organisation rather than a military alliance. The military contribution of the new members would be by definition limited. Were these republics already capable of providing sufficient security to their borders, there would be no necessity for NATO membership. At the point where the NATO commitments become more declaratory than real, the security of every State including the new members is called into question. There are already worries, particularly from the United States, that the U.S. provides a free guarantee while Europe free rides, this is even more of a problem with smaller countries who cannot defend themselves even if they did spend NATOs agreed 2% of GDP on defence. [2] Thus NATO expansion might in fact assist any State eager for its own expansionism in Eastern Europe.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Georgia\u2019s prospects\u2019, 19 October 2006,   [2] Haddick, Robert, \u2018This Week at War: Moral Hazard at NATO\u2019, ForeignPolicy.com, 17 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con01a","title":"","text":"Russia is no longer a threat  Russia no longer presents a credible threat to Eastern Europe or the existing NATO States which NATO expansion could counterbalance. Russia can no longer offer the conventional military threat of the Cold War. The acceptance of this reality by the US is evidenced by the fact that troop numbers in Europe are much reduced from a peak of 277,000 troops and will be reduced further to 30,000 in the next few years. [1] This is the key question for a military alliance as defence is the key purpose. Expansion should therefore be decided based upon the yardstick of whether the expansion is necessary for the security of NATO members. If there is no credible threat then there is no reason to expand the alliance. At the same time while Russia is no longer a conventional military threat it still has its immense nuclear armament. This will remain a threat no matter how many of Russia\u2019s neighbours join NATO but Russia could feel increasingly obliged to focus on its nuclear arsenal to respond to NATO expansion \u2013 something which would create a threat to western Europe.  [1] Shanker, Thom, and Erlanger, Steven, \u2018U.S. Faces New Challenge of Fewer Troops in Europe\u2019, The New York Times, 13 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con04b","title":"","text":"The expense of NATO expansion is marginal when compared to the defence budgets of the major NATO States. The US defence expenditure alone for the fiscal year 2012 is $553 billion. [1] Further, the correct equation is not between the expense of stationing troops in these new States and the current saving from non-deployment. The balance is between the expense of forward deployment or other military investment and the prohibitive cost in dollars and lives from a conflict between NATO and Russia, or a conflagration in any of the Eastern republics. NATO expansion is nothing more than a cost-effective insurance policy against a very real risk.  [1] Department of Defence, US budget, gpoaccess,"}
+{"id":"training-international-agphwen-con02b","title":"","text":"NATO expansion is not the cause of nationalism in Russia, rather the Russian leadership stokes nationalism in order to direct attention away from the government. The Russian people are concerned about hardship and hazard within their own borders rather than without. Yes it is true that the expansion of NATO antagonises Russia but this should not be a major concern of NATO, any expansion of a military alliance is likely to worry those countries that are outside that alliance. Moreover, failing to expand NATO to countries that are potentially threatened by the same nationalism and belligerency of Russia would be implicitly rewarding that belligerency. NATO should not be teaching Russia the lesson that hostility in Eastern Europe gets results that lessen the security of all."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro02b","title":"","text":"Here the argument presented by the proposition is an attempt to deceive the opposition and the house. The act that the proposition has presented has not been passed by the US government and is highly unlikely to happen in the future as well. The argument is right if the assumption that the deficits are long term. And it is not so. The deficit as a proportion of GDP is still more than manageable and more spending is needed. The only current indication of this is long term interest rates on US treasury bonds and these have been falling.  Secondly from a purely economic viewpoint, the battle between US and Taliban is not entirely negative. Historically military spending can help boost growth as was shown by World War II pulling the US out of the great depression of the 1930s. What nations need when in a recession is more economic activity and the arms industry and the countless other industries a war necessitates makes this war as good as it gets for the economy. Of course there is a danger of the US budget deficit leading to higher long term lending costs but if we look at the date from the last ten years interest rates on US treasury bonds have been falling. Therefore the US can borrow cheaply, has 9 million plus unemployed and companies are not willing to hire as they are already reaping huge profits off labor cost cuts. Economically the war in Afghanistan is good for America."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro02a","title":"","text":"The war is too expensive, so a deal needs to be made to end it.  President Obama himself has said, \u201cUltimately as was true in Iraq, so will be true in Afghanistan; we will have to have a political solution.\u201d  At a time when fiscal policy has become a major concern among western legislatures and commentators, the increasing cost of the war is proving to be politically contentious. Therefore, a political solution to the conflict is no longer merely desirable, but necessary. Continuing the war will cost too much, both in political and budgetary terms. USA and UK have to make financial considerations in light of the continuing aftermath of the global financial crisis. One glaring estimate suggests that America will spend over 700 billion U.S dollars on the military in 2010. The conflict in Afghanistan cost approximately $51 billion in 2009 and was expected to hit $65 billion in 2010. The purchase of air conditioning systems for Afghani facilities accounts for more than $20 billion of this figure.  Obama's policy of deploying more and more troops has cost the American people significantly more than the status quo would have. Every extra thousand personnel deployed to Afghanistan costs about $1 billion. [1] In the current financial climate taking on such exorbitant costs is not in the economic interest of the USA. It is not only sending troops (and reinforcements) to Afghanistan, but also the medical treatment of war veterans when they return that is costing America huge sums of money. The number of psychologically ill soldiers; as well as those suffering from near-fatal and\/or debilitating injuries is still climbing tragically upwards, furthering the cost. To top that, war veterans feel that Americans are not paid enough. Mr.Obey, Rep. John P. Murtha and Rep. John B. Larson have proposed levying an annual tax of $30,000 on US citizens to 'share their(the military's) burden. [2]  [1] Doug Bandow, \u00abA War We Can't Afford The National Interests\u00bb, January 4, 2010,   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro03b","title":"","text":"How can the Taliban be included if they absolutely disagree on negotiating, but instead want to overthrow the government? So far the Taliban has always insisted that they will refuse to negotiate until all foreign forces are withdrawn from Afghanistan. [1] This means that we are actually making the problems worse for the people over there instead of better.  We really need to have a reliable partner in the region. Nowadays Pakistan is designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States with fighting Taliban. In 2007, the National Security Council of Pakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan and take up a number of political and administrative issues in order to control the \u201cTalibanization\u201d of the area. The meeting was chaired by President Pervez Musharraf and attended by the Chief Ministers and Governors of all 4 provinces. They discussed the deteriorating law and order situation and the threat posed to state security. The restoration of peace in North and South Waziristan will be a great challenge. The dilemma is not only that the local Taliban in North Waziristan are not ready to speak with the government, but they also disallow anyone else in the region from speaking with the authorities. In these troubled areas, political agents are seen only in their official functions and troops are limited merely to forts and bunkers. [2]  Yes, Pakistan already has nuclear weapon, but it is important to underline that legitimate government has it, not the terrorists group. If we go through, we can say, a \u2018blackmail\u2019 of terrorist having a nuclear weapon we are risked to have them a chance to capture the power and provide their cruel politics.  [1] Andrew Blandford, \u00abTalking with the Taliban: Should the U.S. \"Bargain with Devil\" in Afghanistan?\u00bb, Harvard Negotiation Law Review,   [2] Sohail Abdul Nasir, \u00abThe Talibanization of the North-West Frontier\u00bb, Terrorism Monitor Volume: 4 Issue: 12, June 15, 2006, 01:57 PM,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro05a","title":"","text":"We have successful precedents in Iraq and Africa, proving that a power-sharing approach works.  African countries and in Iraq have proved that power-sharing deal works. So, it means that it is possible to find a solution for Afghanistan. For example, Iraq seems to be no need for us to prove that power-sharing has worked to greatly improve conditions in the country. Conditions that horrifically grew at an incredible pace during the war in Iraq. [1] The Iraqi government comprises of many members of the late Saddam regime who have been granted amnesty for their crimes. Members of the Taliban can be instated in governments through power-sharing (not giving) deal; in the same way.  Talks in Kenya ensued during the Bush administration when funds for the recuperation of fourth world African affairs were channelled to the region, jointly by the USA and UK. Both Blair and Bush worked side by side with formerly corrupt and violent African leaders to pick the Countries up. South Africa, which is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank [2] (formerly a fourth world country) is now doing better than both India and China (third-world countries) on the economic front. [3]  [1] Obama: Time for Iraqis to 'take responsibility', NBC News and news services, updated 4\/7\/2009 1:29:02 PM ET,   [2] World Bank Data \u2013 South Africa,   [3] Bush urges Kenya power-sharing, BBC News, Last Updated: Saturday, 16 February 2008, 18:05 GMT,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro01a","title":"","text":"The campaign is unpopular among the majority of NATO countries citizens, so we should solve the Afghan problem in diplomatic way, specifically through a power-sharing deal with the Taliban.  The majority of citizens in the USA and the UK oppose the war in Afghanistan and want troops to come back home. As was the case in Iraq, a diplomatic solution is required to end the war as smoothly as possible. As at 12 August 2011, a total of 379 British forces personnel or MOD civilians have died while serving in Afghanistan since the start of operations in October 2001. [1] About 2000 coalition soldiers in total expired in Afghanistan. [2] More than 1340 British soldiers have been wounded in action. U.S opinion poll proclaims that 62% of Americans want troops home as soon as possible while the rest want a timetable for troop withdrawal. [3] According to Michael Moore, Obama is the new war president. He needs to prove that he is a peacemaker to retrieve the support of his people. [4] The media agrees that the war is unpopular and there needs to be an end creating sentiment like \u201cI wish they would bring them all home.\u201d Jonathan Freedland of The Guardian argues \u201cI think the people in Wootton Bassett [where UK soldiers are repatriated] are representative of a very widespread... feeling, actually, of outrage on their behalf that is quite new in British politics. A complete withdrawal is in public demand. This requires a power-sharing deal.\u201d [5]  [1] Ministry of Defense, Operations in Afghanistan: British Fatalities,   [2] Devin Dwyer and Luis Martinez, \u00abAfghanistan War Costs More Than 1,000 U.S. Service Members' Lives\u00bb, abcNEWS, May 28, 2010,   [3] CBS NEWS POLL, for release: July 13, 2010,   [4] Michael Moore, \u00abAn Open Letter To President Obama On Afghanistan\u00bb, Posted November 30, 2009 04:00 AM, Huffpost World,   [5] PBS REPORT War Weary British Seek An End in Afghanistan, Margaret Warner travels to the tiny English village of Wootton Bassett and finds growing unease about British involvement in Afghanistan, Dec. 8, 2009, Transcript"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro01b","title":"","text":"The argument here presented by the proposition that the majority of people in US are fed up with the war, true. But that is because they were not the ones facing abuse at the Taliban hands or fighting a civil war which resulted in the killing of 100,000, but the minority will be slaughtered if this is allowed to happen. [1] This genocide in the making should not be allowed to happen. This will also lead to a civil war. Though the minorities are exhausted but they broke it and have a moral imperative to fix it. A lot of people have come out in support of the \"western\" forces, they will face retribution and future attempts to win hearts and minds will fail when the fickleness of our resolve is exposed. This is a slippery slope if we slide down there is no telling how far down we will fall. This should be the centre of the discussion; our opponents want to put popularity before lives and security and which is wrong.  [1] Dexter Filkins, \u00abOverture to Taliban Jolts Afghan Minorities\u00bb, The New York Times, published June 26, 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro05b","title":"","text":"It should first be pointed out that all conflicts are unique, products of the political and social settings in which they arise. Geopolitics and foreign policy are not as dependent on precedent as most debaters would like to think.  The main objective of the USA and the UK behind the power sharing deal in Africa is to extract the resources of the African continent. The proposition is basically trying to deceive us with this point. The power sharing deals made by the USA (collaborating with the UK, at times) are all for their own selfish interests. Be it in Africa or Iraq, USA has applied its own vested interest in most cases. Africa is very rich in resources. The US saw all of these and then shared power with the nation just to earn some benefit in utilizing the resources. Furthermore, the United States went to war against Iraq because of the Middle East country's oil reserves, a greater concern to the USA than that of searching for weapons of mass destruction (WMD) [1] and taking Saddam Hussein out of power.  The power sharing in Afghanistan and Pakistan would not only to exploit the oil resources but also have a watchful eye towards China, India and Russia.  [1] Aryn Baker, \u00abAfghan Women and the Return of the Taliban\u00bb , The Time Magazine, July 29, 20,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro04b","title":"","text":"This is the weakest argument by far. It isn't logical. As all of us who've read about Karl Popper will attest that a historical trend is not an indication of future courses unless causality can be proven. Here it can\u2019t. It\u2019s a different war altogether. Historical parallels make sense in college classrooms, not when a Taliban fighter faces a drone attack; Did the soviets have drones? No, they didn\u2019t.  Also \u00abPakistan and Afghanistan are both pushing for talks including the Taliban\u00bb is factually incorrect. The Pakistan president said that talking with the Taliban is not an option \u00abunless we want to breed terrorism\u00bb.  The current scenario is completely different from the past, not only about the time factor but also political conditions. Previous battles were fought against not only the militia but also its supporting government. This time, the battle is against an independent Taliban force that is backing up the Al- Qaeda group."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro03a","title":"","text":"The threat of Talibanization is too great under the status quo to continue with current policy.  If a diplomatic solution is not reached or even proposed , the security situation in both Afghanistan and Pakistan will deteriorate and this is a matter of serious concern since the latter is a nuclear power. Violence in the region can only be disseminated if the Taliban feel they are not being attacked but are included; then peace has a chance of prevailing. If the region were to be left as is Increasing Taliban activity could further destabilize the border regions of Pakistan, while attacks mounted against the Afghan interior would cause significant damage and endanger thousands of live. [1]  An entrenched Afghani Taliban could support and embolden groups with similar ideologies elsewhere in central Asia and the subcontinent. For instance, groups ideologically identical to the Taliban effectively subdued the Pakistani military in the Swat Valley allowing them to impose their version of sharia law and institute measures that included closing girls' schools, banning music, and installing complaint boxes for reports of anti-Islamic behaviour. [2] Continue with the status quo and the Taliban will simply re-conquer Afghanistan when the coalition leaves.  [1] Amna Saboor, \u00abThe Waziristan problem\u00bb, December 14th, 2008,   [2] Jane Perlez and Zubair Shan Truce in Pakistan May Mean Leeway for Taliban, The New York Times, published March 5, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-pro04a","title":"","text":"Afghan history shows failings of foreign invasion, so this campaign is also doomed to failure.  No state has ever been able to impose alien political institutions on the Afghani people, whether by force or by flattery. The Russians tried and so did the British, but neither was successful. In fact, the greatest massacre of British soldiers happened in Afghanistan in 1842. The British then awarded these tribesmen with fancy titles and the Khyber pass was thereafter protected by Pakistani and Afghan tribes (the ancestors of the Mujahadeen & then the Taliban). The border between Pakistan and Afghanistan was thus never manned by British soldiers. More than 16,000 people had set out on the retreat from Kabul, and in the end only one man, Dr. William Brydon, a British Army surgeon made it alive to Jalalabad. [1] The Russians threw bombs, tanks, landmines and napalm at the Afghan guerrilla army, the Mujahadeen. They killed around half a million people, injured many more but they still faced dismal defeat in the Soviet war in Afghanistan in the 1980's. Therefore before the situation spirals out of control, the British and the Americans should commence a power sharing deal with the Taliban. [2] The opposition may argue that the Taliban cannot be trusted. Nine insurgents are very capable of fibbing about the Pakistani intelligence. There is no way that funds siphoned off from any clandestine secret intelligence agency can realistically be traced to it. Word of mouth, especially when the mouth belongs to the enemy is rarely credible. Therefore negotiating with the Taliban directly feels ineffective. They might argue that talks solely with Pakistani-Afghan government representatives is a rather more feasible and less dangerous means of achieving the coalition's desired end. However, such talks frequented have borne little fruit. In fact Pakistan and Afghanistan are both pushing for talks including the Taliban if any progression towards peace is to be made. The coalition's ancestors were wise.  [1] Robert McNamara, \u00abBritain's Disastrous Retreat from Kabul\u00bb,   [2] \u00abObama Will Vow Troops Leaving by July 2011\u00bb, CBSNEWS, December 1, 2009 9:35 PM, Updated 3:44 p.m. ET,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con03b","title":"","text":"It was not the fault of the Taliban that there were several years of drought in Afghanistan, something which would cause great suffering in any peasant economy. And while some Afghan refugees specifically fled the Taliban\u2019s austere regime, most were displaced during two decades of warfare that preceded it, or left the country for economic reasons. Nor is it surprising that the Taliban had difficult relations with the representatives of the United Nations, as it is not recognised by the UN, where the Afghanistan seat in the General Assembly was still held by the discredited regime the Taliban overthrew.  The opposition seems to think that negotiations equal to condoning human right's violations and handing over a sort of Carte blanche to the Taliban. Whereas talks pressurize such groups effectively to give up their evil ways.  The point of talks is to give very little power on very definite humanitarian conditions\/terms. To trade.  If there are no talks; then the Taliban will proclaim victory (as they do already) once the coalition forces are withdrawn and continue fighting local governments at the cost of civilian lives in the region. (The eventual withdrawal of coalition forces is not being debated).The war is in an economic loss and the people\/governments of the democratic nations of the UK and USA frankly care more about their\/our failing economies than the state of Afghan civilians who have been suffering with the coalition's knowledge since before 1989. To clarify further for the opposition seems to not be wary of this; in democracies, countries should and in time do; work according to the will of their people."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con01b","title":"","text":"The Taliban were not the only oppressive regime in the world and it was hypocritical to single them out, especially when many of their practices are shared by friendly, pro-western states such as Saudi Arabia. Their views were not an entirely alien imposition upon Afghan society, but were rooted in the traditions of the Pashtun, one of Afghanistan\u2019s largest ethnic groups.  The war has done nothing to improve the conditions of women and children in the war-zone! Women' rights are already being violated in both coalition countries and the war-zone. Rape, murder and theft are soaring the world over. While petty financial crimes are reduced. [1] Domestic violence especially against women and children is on a steep climb and remains largely under-reported. Only 35% cases are reported in the UK  The proposition has however provided evidence that the conditions of Afghan and Pakistani civilians have deteriorated as a consequence of the war: air strikes, drone attacks, physio-psychological trauma and so forth.  The proposition has time and time again asserted that the war must be put to an end and the only means to win it in real terms is to talk the Taliban out of it. Both the Americans and British have a history of accomplishing peace with groups that the Taliban roots from by bargaining with them to renounce their natural guerrilla-fighting instincts.  [1] Crime Statistics,  , Domestic violence statistics,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con02a","title":"","text":"The Taliban supports terrorist organizations, so they are not to be trusted.  The Times Square attack and the Twin Tower attacks are examples of how the Taliban are actually cultivating terrorists to carry out international terrorist acts. The Taliban sheltered international terrorists, of whom Osama Bin Laden and his Al-Qaida organisation were the most prominent. In addition to Al-Qaida\u2019s strikes against American targets worldwide, fundamentalist terrorists trained in Afghanistan have been active in Chechnya, Kosovo, Central Asia, Indian Kashmir and China. This has resulted in the destabilisation of the region and contributed to a great deal of human misery. Therefore, the US and UK cannot afford to risk their nation's security by leaving Taliban to raise, equip and fund terrorists. Even for their own safety, they cannot leave the Taliban in power. The Obama administration is working on establishing a stable government - a government that has trained police force, trusted government officials and better educational system. Therefore, letting the Taliban share power means they will try to reinforce their own system which means none of the above can actually happen. This is not acceptable. [1]  [1] The Economist, Debate: This house believes that the war in Afghanistan is winnable, May 17th 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con04a","title":"","text":"The Taliban manipulates the drug trade according to its will, so it should not be included into the government.  The Taliban are responsible for flooding the world with heroin produced from the opium grown there; over 90% of the heroin on the streets of the UK originated in Afghanistan.  In 2000, the Taliban issued a decree banning cultivation. [1] By 2001, production had reportedly been reduced from 12,600 acres (51 km2) to only 17 acres (7 ha). Opium production was reportedly cut back by the Taliban not to prevent its use, but to increase its price, and thus increase the income of Afghan poppy farmers and tax revenue. [2] Therefore, the regime relied upon levies on the movement of drugs as one of its principle sources of funding. No other government has ever been so complicit in a trade that kills and ruins lives all over the world.  [1] Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban, February 15, 2001 8:19 p.m. EST,   [2] Benjamin, Daniel, The Age of Sacred Terror by Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, New York: Random House, c2002, p.145) (source: Edith M. Lederer, \"U.N. Panel Accuses Taliban of Selling Drugs to Finance War and Train Terrorists,\" Associated Press, 2001-05-25."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con03a","title":"","text":"The Taliban failed to provide good government for Afghanistan.  The Taliban is more concerned with religious purity than the physical welfare of the people. As a result, millions of Afghans still live in refugee camps in Iran and Pakistan, while millions of others are desperately short of food and face starvation. The Taliban made the situation worse by harassing UN workers and aid agencies, in defiance of the usual diplomatic norms, imprisoning westerners on religious charges and impeding the flow of humanitarian relief to their own people.  During the five-year history of the Islamic Emirate, much of the population experienced restrictions on their freedom and violations of their human rights. Women were banned from jobs, girls forbidden to attend schools or universities. Those who resisted were punished instantly. Communists were systematically eradicated and thieves were punished by amputating one of their hands or feet. Meanwhile, the Taliban managed to nearly eradicate the majority of the opium production by 2001. [1]  [1] Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban, February 15, 2001 8:19 p.m. EST,"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con01a","title":"","text":"The Taliban is a cruel and undemocratic regime, and so it should not be given any power.  The Taliban oppressed their own people, especially women and ethnic or religious minorities. A very strict, distinctive interpretation of Sunni Islam was enforced zealously (with public executions and amputations) as they attempted to build the world\u2019s purest Islamic state. Television and music were banned, women had to be fully covered up and were forbidden from receiving an education or working (despite many families having lost their male members after years of warfare, and so rendering many families entirely dependent upon food aid for survival), and their access to healthcare was restricted.  The well-known story provided by Time Magazine: Aisha who ran away from her husband\u2019s house. Her husband was abusing her physically and mentally. When she was caught by the Taliban \u00absoldiers\u00bb, she was taken to the Taliban Court and given a punishment in their law. The punishment was, her ears and nose was cut. She was then left for dead however she survived because an Afghan Rights group managed to save her. She is just one example. Therefore, if we let the Taliban participate in power-sharing, they will try to implement their form of justice which is totally biased when it comes to women. We cannot afford to sacrifice women rights for peace in Afghanistan.  Another example of the violence is the massacre of Yakaolang in January 2001: Hazaras were victimized for 4 days, detained 300 civilian adult males, including staff members of humanitarian orgnisations. Men were shot at public places. Rocket launchers were fired at Mosques were 73 women and children were sheltering. In May 2000, 26 civilians of Hazara Shi\u2019as group were executed in robatak pass. In August 1998 Taliban captured Mazar- I- Sharif. Reports of killing of around 2000- 5000 people mostly of Hazara clan were presented. [1]  All of this shows the barbarity of the Taliban\u2019s activities, which so far hasn\u2019t stopped.  [1] Eyewitness accounts of Taliban massacre in Yakaolang, By RAWA reporters, June, 2001"}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con04b","title":"","text":"Intense international demand for opium has led to poppies becoming a preferred cash crop among Afghan farmers. Although historically known for its fruit and vegetable production, the high prices commanded by opium mean that it is regarded as financially resilient, immune to large price fluctuations and still offering decent returns, even if a large proportion of a crop fails. Although the Taliban profited from levies on the opium trade, so did the warlords they displaced. In fact, in 2000 the Taliban, responding to global concern over the heroin trade and its own religious impulses, issued orders that opium should not be grown. As a result, production dropped by over 90% with a noticeable impact upon street prices of heroin in Europe. This suggests both that engagement with the Taliban was potentially constructive, and that a collapse of central control would give drug runners a free hand."}
+{"id":"training-international-amehbncag-con02b","title":"","text":"The Taliban are not the only regime in the world to have sheltered terrorists \u2013 Syria, Iran, Iraq, Cuba and North Korea are all viewed by the USA\u2019s State Department as state sponsors of terrorism. Indeed, although the Taliban provide shelter for terrorist groups to train, the other states could be seen to go further, by actively initiating and funding terrorism. Moreover, given that Russia and the Central Asian former soviet states have been opposed to the Taliban from the start, and backed the Northern Alliance against it in the Afghan civil war, it is hardly surprising that the Taliban backed their own rebel movements. It could also be asked whether rebels in Chechnya, Kosovo and China should be seen as terrorists or freedom fighters.  The opposition cannot be expecting the proposition to defend the reinstatement of the pseudo-religious-extremist-fundamentalist Taliban regime. We are in fact calling for exactly the opposite: Please the Taliban by negotiating with them on the coalition's terms not theirs and avert the old form of Taliban rule in the region. If the coalition leaves without any talks whatsoever then an extremist Taliban takeover of both Pakistan and Afghanistan is a distinct possibility. If the coalition leaves after buying the Taliban out while imposing conditions imperative to human rights and western values (including respect for other ethnic\/religious\/ideological groups). Then we have a chance for peace. To claim that aggressively fighting on the ground will end racial conflict when 9 years of fighting have only exacerbated these problems; is rather ignorant. It entails learning nothing at all from history\/past-mistakes. If this kind of warfare which the Taliban are much better at; continues the war will be lost. If instead as the wonderful Obama has suggested we resort to peaceful talks this time directly with the Taliban, then we have a chance of winning."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro02b","title":"","text":"The example of Kosovo is not similar because of the terrible treatment including ethnic cleansing, mass murder and torture that Kosovars suffered within the former Yugoslavia and Serbia. Even if other examples are more similar, they are regrettable themselves, we should be seeking to bring nations together through means such as the EU and UN not split them apart.  The main reason for Kosovo's recognition stemmed from the fact that it was never really simply part of Serbia. Until the illegal constitutional changes made by Milosevic in 1989, Kosovo was a part of the Yugoslav federation in its own right, with its own seat on the Yugoslav presidency. One can't possibly claim the same constitutional status for RS, which is quite simply the areas of Bosnia which the Bosnian Serb forces were able to ethnically cleanse and keep after the war ended in 1995. Unlike Kosovo, the RS has no historical, legal or constitutional precident and is to a large degree the product of ethnic cleansing."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro02a","title":"","text":"There is legitimate precedent.  Kosovo became formally independent from Serbia in 2008 [1] and Montenegro became independent from Serbia in 2006 [2] as a result of referenda within those territories. If these states and the many, many others which previously achieved independence have a right to self-determination why doesn\u2019t RS? To deny some groups of people access to self-determination is hypocritical and unjust.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Kosovo MPs proclaim independence\u2019, 17 February 2008,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Montenegro declares independence\u2019, 4 June 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro03b","title":"","text":"This is just an argument for reforming state structures to reduce dysfunction, perhaps by moving to majority votes instead of each side having a veto. Additionally if the two sides have difficulty cooperating now, why would that cooperation become easier when they no longer share a state? This would at the minimum lead to two neighbouring states without a functional relationship and thus limited ability to act collectively on cross border crime or trade."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro05a","title":"","text":"Increased sense of identity with the state increases social solidarity.  Where groups of people do not identify with the state they are less likely to be willing to invest in more generous state services since they do feel that peoples with whom they have no affinity will benefit from them. Conversely, where people feel like the state is mostly composed of people like them, they are more willing to invest in education, healthcare and a welfare state. These things will ultimately significantly improve the lives of the people in each new state and lead to stronger states than the one that exists now. For example the Scandinavian states, Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Finland with their largely homogenous societies are also associated with very high levels of social happiness and generous welfare provision."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro01a","title":"","text":"Serbs have a right to Self-Determination.  The right to self-determination is a basic human right which underpins the legitimacy of the nation-state. Where a large group people do not feel represented or accepted by a state and thus do not consent to its rule, the states control over that people becomes illegitimate. The right to national self-determination is enshrined with the UN charter [1] and formed the basis for the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro.  [1] United Nations, \u2018UN Charter, Chapter I: Purposes and Principles, Art. 1, Part 2\u2019. 26 June 1945,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro01b","title":"","text":"Where does self-determination end? Do cities or towns have a right to self-determination, what about individuals within the state? Allowing further secessions will just lead to increasingly smaller and less viable states without producing benefits. Nations are invented human constructs with no inherent value. The right to self-determination is limited, the Supreme Court of Canada determined that there were only three circumstances in which external self determination to three circumstances (a) those under colonial domination or foreign occupation; (b) peoples subject to \"alien subjugation, domination or exploitation outside a colonial context;\" and, possibly, (c) a people \"blocked from the meaningful exercise of its right to self-determination internally.\" [1] None of these apply to RS.  In the case of RS there were Bosniaks and Croats who were already in the region and were expelled in the 1990s who in many cases formed a majority in many municipalities in what is now Republika Srpska. Should these smaller groupings have the same right? And if so would individual villages within these municipalities then be able to exercise their own self determination?  [1] Van der Vyver, Johan D., \u2018Self-determination of the p[eoples of Quebec under International Law\u2019, J. Transnational Law & Policy, Vol.10 No.1, p.12,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro05b","title":"","text":"Some groups of people will always not identify with the state, for class based, political and cultural reasons. State solidarity has to be based on a common humanity as that is the only fundamentally unifying factor."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro04b","title":"","text":"Areas of intermixing do exist, such as the capital, Sarajevo. Steps should be taken instead top encourage communities to live together for example with housing subsidies for mixed developments and with cross communal education."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro03a","title":"","text":"The present state structure does not work.  The existing state structure does not work, because it requires agreement between the representatives of RS and the FBH, Given the fundamentally divergent aims and opinions of the two sides compromise is almost impossible leading to perpetual gridlock on basic issues such as policing and education. This gridlock can be shown by the fifteen months it took for Bosnia and Herzegovina to form a government, and even then a compromise was only reached due to financial pressure from the IMF and EU. [1]  [1] Szpala, Marta, \u2018Bosnia and Herzegovina: the financial situation forces politicians to reach a compromise regarding the government\u2019, Centre for Eastern Studies, 4 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-pro04a","title":"","text":"The people within the state have no desire to live together.  The constituents peoples (Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks) live almost entirely in separate segregated areas with very little communal intermixing. They already essentially live in separate states but without the ability to actually direct their own affairs or receive international recognition. [1] It should be remembered that the Bosnian Serbs have already voted ponce for secession as in a referendum in November 1991 in areas which were Serb ethnic 96.4% voted for an independent State within the then Yugoslav federation. [2]  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina\u2019,   [2] Application of Genocide convention, \u2018Dissenting opinion of Judge Kreca\u2019, International Court of Justice, 11 July 1996, p.738,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con03b","title":"","text":"The region is no longer the powder keg of tension it once was. The independence of Kosovo did not lead to widespread fighting, but only to localised rioting for a period of days or weeks and the Montenegrin secession was entirely peaceful. The awareness of the possibility of escalation of tension will only to serve to make the new states and the international community even more focused on preventing violence and they are thus likely to react accordingly with peacekeepers, international monitors and aid."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con01b","title":"","text":"Whether or not Nations are imaginary, they are seen as being important and form a key part of individual\u2019s identity. Nationalism does not have to lead to a sense of superiority, nations can be proud of their identity without being disrespectful of other nation\u2019s culture and history."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con02a","title":"","text":"Secession will hurt minorities in the new state  This increased nationalism will hurt minority ethnic groups within the new states, both already existing minorities such as Jews, Roma, and foreign immigrants who will no longer be part of a largely diverse state with strong legal protections for minority rights, where there are mechanisms for preventing either side dominating, [1] but will instead be part of new ethnically defined states to which they will be perceived as not belonging. Additionally it will hurt the \u2018new\u2019 minorities, the Bosniaks and Croats in RS and the Serbs in the FBH, who will be physically and mentally cut off from the state which at least in some respects formerly represented them. Instead they would be made a minority within a group of people judged fundamentally different from them and incapable of living with people like them.  [1] Szpala, Marta, \u2018Bosnia and Herzegovina \u2013 an ongoing erosion of the state\u2019, Centre for Eastern Studies, 30 March 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con05a","title":"","text":"Republika Srpska cannot survive economically as an independent state.  The RS and FBH have very little industry and few exports, RS for example only exports 720million euros worth compared to imports of 1.25billion euros, [1] the economy is largely based on tourism and foreign aid both of which would likely be adversely affected by the turmoil of secession. A new RS would therefore likely quickly become economically dependent on Serbia and would be unable to make the investments needed to ensure a successful new state. The drop off in tourism revenue will also reduce the prosperity of the citizens and increase poverty in the area.  [1] Remikovic, Drazen, \u2018Devicit of Bosnia\u2019s Republika Srpska half billion euros\u2019, Balkans.com, 30 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con04a","title":"","text":"Secession will strengthen Nationalism in neighbouring states.  The upsurge in Nationalism would not be limited to just the two parts of Bosnia & Herzegovina, given the ethnic kinship between the Croats and Serbs of Bosnia and those of Croatia and Serbia, but would also in all likelihood lead to renewed nationalism in Serbia, Croatia and other FYRs as happened during the earlier rise of the nationalists before and during the Yugoslav wars [1] . This would jeopardise the progress made within and between these states and damage international cooperation. It would also likely set back the drive towards increased integration, the close cross national feeling and shared culture termed \u2018the Yugosphere\u2019 and ultimately being joined together again within the EU.  [1] Pesic, Vesna, \u2018Serbian Nationalism and the Origins of the Yugoslav Crisis\u2019, Peaceworks No.8, April 1996, United States Institute of Peace,  .26"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con03a","title":"","text":"Secession will lead to renewed conflict.  The combination of an increased nationalism and the plight of minorities trapped within states overwhelmingly composed of the \u2018other\u2019 people is likely to lead to low level tension, rioting and even potentially warfare particularly over areas which have large Serbs or Bosniak populations forming enclaves within the other state as has happened in many previous secession disputes such as the Croatian secession from Yugoslavia [1] This would plunge the area and the whole region back towards the catastrophic fighting of the 1990\u2019s and needlessly cost many lives as happened in the partition of India [2] . It would also likely lead to waves of refugees and decreased investment and tourism in the new states blighting their futures.  [1] Reuters, \u2018Roads Sealed as Yugoslav Unrest Mounts\u2019, The New York Times, 19 August 1990,   [2] Brass, Paul R., \u2018The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab 1946-47: means, methods, and purposes\u2019, Journal of Genocide Research, Vol.5, No.1, 2003, pp.71-101, p.75,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con05b","title":"","text":"Both Montenegro and Kosovo had similar economic situations and have subsequently prospered after independence. Even if there were economic problems they were also both still allowed to become independent. Independence can also lead to an economic boom with new investment and diaspora emigrants returning to the country as happened with the Baltic states after independence. [1]  [1] Fifka, Matthias S., \u2018The Baltics: Continuing boom or bursting bubble? A rocky short-run should not obscure a promising long run\u2019, Business Economics, October 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con01a","title":"","text":"Secession strengthen Nationalism in the new states  Nations and Peoples are invented human constructs that have no intrinsic value. [1] Self-determination merely reinforces the idea that different groups of people are fundamentally different and not part of a shared humanity. Nationalism leads to a belief that some groups of people are superior to others, which in turn leads to discrimination against groups of people who are not seen as part of the nation. [2]  [1] Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities, p.48,   [2] Ajnad\u017ei\u0107, Mirza, and Kamber, Ajdin, \u2018Bosnia\u2019s \u201cOthers\u201d Fight for Their Rights\u2019, Institute for War & Peace Reporting, 746, 19 June 1012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con04b","title":"","text":"The progress in the other former Yugoslav Republics is now largely irreversible as young people grow up without experience of fighting or significant ethnic division. The processes of education and increased prosperity that have led to this phenomena mean that it will likely be largely unaffected by events in Bosnia-Herzegovina."}
+{"id":"training-international-elilmhwars-con02b","title":"","text":"The constitutions of the RS and FBH already enshrine the protection of linguistic and religious minorities and the new states will be aware of the international focus on the \u2018new\u2019 minority groups and will thus focus resources on protecting them in order to protect the reputation of the new state."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro02b","title":"","text":"While it is undoubtedly true that some foreign aid money will flow into the hands of US firms it is wrong to argue that this is beneficial to the economy. What needs to be considered is not just whether some aid money ends up in the hands of Americans but whether that same money could be spent in such a way where more of it would. The answer is undoubtedly yes. The same money would benefit the economy much more if handed back to the citizen to spend themselves or directly invested in the United States. The developing world would then in turn benefit because more Americans spending means more purchasing of goods made in developing countries. The United States exports $2-3billion worth of goods to Africa every month while it imports around $6billion [1] clearly then Africa is benefiting from trade with the United States and more spending in the United States will benefit Africa.  [1] \u2018Trade in Goods with Africa\u2019, U.S. Department of Commerce United States Census Bureau, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro02a","title":"","text":"Foreign aid benefits the United States  While foreign aid is obviously for the benefit of the recipient country that country is not the only one that benefits; U.S. business is often a major beneficiary. It does this in two ways: First they benefit directly through carrying out the contracts for supplying aid, for example Cargill was paid $96million for supplying food aid in 2010-11. [1] Secondly there are also indirect benefits. Through the work of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Obama administration hopes to \u201cdevelop partnerships with countries committed to enabling the private sector investment that is the basis of sustained economic growth to open new markets for American goods, promote trade overseas, and create jobs here at home\u201d. [2] Essentially, through foreign aid, both the economies of the developing world and the United States come out ahead. Even Microsoft founder and philanthropist Bill Gates has been quoted as saying that the 1 percent the United States spends on foreign aid \u201cnot only saves millions of lives, it has an enormous impact on developing countries \u2013 which means it has an impact on our economy\u201d. [3]  [1] Provost, Claire, and Lawrence, Felicity, \u2018US food aid programme criticised as \u2018corporate welfare\u2019 for grain giants\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 18 July 2012.  [2] \u2018What we do\u2019, USAID, 12 September 2012.  [3] Worthington, Samuel, \u2018US foreign aid benefits recipients \u2013 and the donor\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 14 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro03b","title":"","text":"Everyone is for transparency when it is taxpayers\u2019 money that is being spent however transparency does not make it a worthwhile investment. Ban Ki-moon, the United Nations Secretary General says that \u201cLast year, corruption prevented 30 per cent of all development assistance from reaching its final destination.\u201d [1] This means huge amounts of money is not helping development as it is meant to. Obama\u2019s transparency initiatives will no doubt help show what the US is spending and where but will it tell us who else benefits? Moreover the administration\u2019s record on aid transparency is very patchy; some budgets like the Millennium Challenge Corporation, created by the Republicans during the Bush Administration, are very transparent while big departments like State and Treasury are just the opposite. [2]  [1] \u2018At high-level discussion, UN officials highlight costs of corruption on societies\u2019, UN News Centre, 9 July 2012.  [2] \u20182011 Pilot Aid Transparency Index\u2019, Publish What You Fund, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro01a","title":"","text":"The aid budget has to increase to meet rising commitments  Despite a large national deficit, the Obama administration has stated over [1] and over [2] again that they have no plans to cut Official Development Assistance (ODA), and the 2011 budget reflects that by putting the United States on a path to double foreign assistance by 2015. [3] The Obama administration has requested $56 billion for international affairs in Fiscal Year 2013 that would go towards USAID funding and programs. [4] This would go a considerable way towards the target, first pledged in 1970, of rich countries committing 0.7% of GNP to Official Development Assistance. [5]  This increase is necessary because Obama has increasing commitments to meet. The administration wants to embrace the United Nations Millennium Development Goals [6] to cut global poverty by 2015 in hopes that foreign assistance can help countries build \u201chealthy and educated communities, reduce poverty, develop markets, and generate wealth\u201d. [7] The Obama administration wants to increase foreign assistance to make investments to combat terrorism, corruption and transnational crime, improve global education and health, reduce poverty, build global food security, expand the Peace Corps, address climate change, stabilize post-conflict states, and reinforce conflict prevention.  In a speech promoting good governance in Ghana, President Obama stated, \u201cthe true sign of success is not whether we are a source of aid that helps people scrape by\u2014it is whether we are partners in building the capacity for transformational change.\u201d [8] The goal remains to expand diplomatic and development capacity while renewing the United States as a global leader.  [1] LaFranchi, Howard, \u2018Obama at UN summit: foreign aid is \u2018core pillar of American power\u2019, The Christian Science Monitor, 22 September 2010.  [2] Zeleny, Jeff, \u2018Obama Outlines His Foreign Policy Views\u2019, The New York Times, 24 April 2007.  [3] \u2018U.S. Department of State and Other International Programs\u2019, Office of Management and Budget.  [4] Troilo, Pete, \u2018Ryan VP pick could yield clues on Romney\u2019s foreign aid plans\u2019, devex, 13 August 2012.  [5] \u2018The 0.7% target: An in depth-look\u2019, Millennium Project, 2006.  [6] We Can End Poverty 2015, UN.org.  [7] \u2018The Obama-Biden Plan\u2019, Change.gov, 2008.  [8] Wallis, William, \u2018Obama calls for good governance in Africa\u2019, Financial Times, 11 July 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is wrong to be expanding the aid budget at a time of economic crisis when the government is dramatically failing to balance its books. The list of things that the Obama administration wants to do with aid are either things that are best left to the military and intelligence services such as combating terrorism and transnational crime, or are areas where the United States has no responsibility to be providing assistance such as global education and health. The reality is that there are not rising commitments for foreign aid; far from it. The number of people in absolute poverty (less than $1.25 per day) has declined from 1.91 billion in 1990 to 1.29 billion in 2008 despite a rapidly rising population. [1] Moreover it is not foreign aid that is bringing about this decline but trade and the resulting economic growth in developing countries. [2] It is therefore completely the wrong strategy to be increasing foreign aid to tackle these problems.  [1] \u2018Poverty\u2019, The World Bank, March 2012.  [2] Chandy, Laurence, and Gertz, Geoffrey, \u2018With Little Notice, Globalization Reduced Poverty\u2019, YaleGlobal, 5 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro04b","title":"","text":"Aid does not benefit national security; there are two ways to increase national security. First is to increase spending on those agencies that maintain national security; the Department of Defense and the intelligence agencies. Second is by expanding the economy which provides the necessary wealth to maintain national security. Foreign aid clearly does not benefit national security because the recipient will spend it how they want and often this will be in ways that are detrimental to U.S. security, whether this is though the aid being spent on products from China or being lost to corruption. Aid from the United States has often not been beneficial in the past the U.S. gave Egypt $1.5 billion per year in aid [1] yet is now controlled by the Muslim Brotherhood, Pakistan received $963 million and yet supports the Taliban fighting against the US in Afghanistan. [2]  [1] Holan, Angie Drobnic, \u2018Egypt got more foreign aid than anyone besides Israel, says New York Times Columnist Ross Douthat\u2019, Tampa Bay Times, 4 February 2011.  [2] Bajoria, Jayshree, \u2018The ISI and Terrorism: Behind the Accusations\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 4 May 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro03a","title":"","text":"The foreign aid budget can be made more effective and transparent  While a second Obama administration is not going to cut back on foreign aid the Obama campaign however, does argue for pragmatic budgetary approaches to foreign aid, [1] creating transparency measures [2] to ensure that \u201cassistance [is] more transparent, accountable and effective\u201d. [3] The Obama administration has signed the Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation [4] which makes transparency a key pillar of overseas development [5] and has succeeded in significantly increasing transparency; in 2010 the U.S. was ranked 24th [6] in Quality of Official Development Assistance rankings on transparency, by 2012 it had moved up to 9th. [7] It is also clear how beneficial transparency is for the recipients of aid; Uganda implemented Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys in 1996. Surveys had shown that only 13% of funds for schools was actually getting to the schools but the introduction of PETS increased this to between 80-90% simply because it was public that the school should have received money. [8]  [1] \u2018U.S. Foreign Aid By Country\u2019, Huffington Post, 30 August 2012.  [2] Foreignassistance.gov.  [3] Shah, Rajiv, \u2018Improving the Quality and Effectiveness of International Development Aid\u2019, The White House Blog, 1 December 2011.  [4] \u2018Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation\u2019, busanhlf4.org, 29 November \u2013 1 December 2011.  [5] Atwood, Brian, \u2018The Benefits of Transparency in Development\u2019, OECD Insights, 3 April 2012.  [6] Baker, Gavin, \u2018U.S. Scores Poorly on Transparency of Foreign Aid Spending\u2019, OMB Watch, 7 October 2010.  [7] \u2018Transparency and Learning\u2019, Global Economy and Development at Brookings, 2012.  [8] \u2018Empowerment Case Studies: Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys \u2013 Application in Uganda, Tanzania, Ghana and Honduras\u2019, World Bank."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-pro04a","title":"","text":"Aid benefits National Security  In Obama\u2019s 2012 campaign, promoting good governance through foreign aid makes sense for a range of foreign policy and development objectives. Through contributions in healthcare, education, poverty alleviation and infrastructure, investing in foreign aid and increasing the foreign aid budget will help create a more peaceful and safe global environment. Robert Gates, former US Secretary of Defense, has stated that \u201ccutting aid jeopardizes US national security. It also creates a greater vacuum in so-called fragile states, which can easily be filled by those who do not have US interests at heart. There is no doubt that foreign assistance helps ward off future military conflicts.\u201d [1] In much the same way as encouraging people to eat healthily will likely reduce expenditures on healthcare in the future so some spending on aid with resulting development and better perceptions of the United States can reduce conflicts in the future so saving money in the long run by preventing the need for expensive armed interventions.  [1] Worthington, Samuel, \u2018US foreign aid benefits recipients \u2013 and the donor\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 14 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-con03b","title":"","text":"The Obama administration accepts the need to maintain these global public goods. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has written \u201cStrategically, maintaining peace and security across the Asia-Pacific is increasingly crucial to global progress, whether through defending freedom of navigation in the South China Sea, countering the proliferation efforts of North Korea, or ensuring transparency in the military activities of the region's key players.\u201d [1] However it is wrong to maintain that this should be considered as a part of foreign aid instead the U.S. maintains the global commons because it gains most out of them, the U.S. military is the biggest beneficiary of freedom of navigation and of the maintenance of space as a global commons as they allow the military\u2019s global reach to be maintained. [2]  The United States may not be legally obligated to provide foreign aid and international development efforts but there are moral obligations as President Kennedy recognised when creating USAID: \"There is no escaping our obligations: our moral obligations as a wise leader and good neighbor in the interdependent community of free nations \u2013 our economic obligations as the wealthiest people in a world of largely poor people, as a nation no longer dependent upon the loans from abroad that once helped us develop our own economy \u2013 and our political obligations as the single largest counter to the adversaries of freedom.\" [3] Today this is just as true as it was then; the United States is still one of the richest states on earth. Moreover there is an international target of 0.7% of GDP being spent overseas development assistance which the United States has signed up to and has been repeatedly re-endorsed since it was first adopted in 1970. [4]  [1] Clinton, Hillary, \u2018America\u2019s Pacific Century\u2019, Foreign Policy, November 2011.  [2] Denmark, Abraham M., \u2018Managing the Global Commons\u2019, Washington Quarterly, 30 June 2010.  [3] Kennedy, John F., \u201990 \u2013 Special Message to the Congress on Foreign Aid.\u2019, The American Presidency Project, 22 March 1961.  [4] \u2018The 0.7% ODA\/GNI target \u2013 a history\u2019, OSCE."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-con01b","title":"","text":"Foreign aid is a minute part of the US budget as Obama has correctly argued \u201c[it is wrong to] suggest that we can somehow close our entire deficit by eliminating things like foreign aid, even though foreign aid makes up about 1% of our entire budget.\u201d [1] So very little of the money the US is borrowing is being spent on foreign aid.  It is also wrong to assert that the US government debt is borrowing money from China as most government borrowing comes from the US private sector. [2] China owns a mere 9.3% of US government debt with the majority being owed either to US individuals and institutions (41.7%) or to the Social Security Trust Fund (17.1%). [3]  [1] Geiger, Jacob, \u2018Barak Obama says foreign aid makes up 1 percent of U.S. budget\u2019, Tampa Bay Times, 13 April 2011.  [2] Krugman, Paul, \u2018Fear-of-China Syndrome\u2019, The New York Times, 30 August 2012.  [3] \u2018Who Owns U.S. Debt\u2019, RealClearPolicy, 2 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-con02a","title":"","text":"The focus should be on trade not on aid  Governor Romney does not prioritize encouraging good governance and stability abroad through foreign aid, and there have been no mentions of any plans to reduce global poverty, improve healthcare and engage in sustainable development. While foreign aid is not specifically mentioned in any campaign materials, \u201cMitt\u2019s Plan\u201d regarding Africa, for instance, declares, \u201ca Romney administration will encourage and assist African nations to adopt policies that create business-friendly environments and combat governmental corruption.\u201d Despite wanting to cut economic aid and contributions to the United Nations, World Bank and IMF, his campaign further argues, \u201cgreater market access across the continent for U.S. businesses will bolster job creation in Africa as well as in the United States.\u201d [1] It is notable that the countries that have been most successful in reducing poverty have been those that have focused on trade to create economic growth rather than relying on aid; China has succeeded in bring its poverty down from 84% thirty years ago to 16% today through economic growth. [2] In spite of Romney\u2019s calls for cutting foreign aid spending, his foreign policy is going to focus on international trade and job creation both domestically and abroad, which will benefit both the United States and international economies.  [1] \u2018Africa\u2019, Romney Ryan.  [2] Chandy, Laurence, and Gertz, Geoffrey, \u2018With Little Notice, Globalization Reduced Poverty\u2019, YaleGlobal, 5 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-con03a","title":"","text":"US spending should focus on defence rather than aid  Romney believes that the United States should be focusing more on national security; however this in turn does benefit other nations so could be considered aid. Governor Romney was quoted as saying \u201cforeign aid has several elements. One of those elements is defense, is to make sure that we are able to have the defense resources we want in certain places of the world. That probably ought to fall under the Department of Defense budget rather than a foreign aid budget.\u201d [1] When it focuses on its own national security the United States is providing public goods for the rest of the world. These include reducing the incentives for others to engage in the use of force \u2013 \u2018the global policeman\u2019, maintaining open global markets, maintaining a virtual commons in cyberspace, preventing weapons proliferation [2] and maintaining freedom of navigation just as the United States is doing in the South China Sea. [3] All of these to a greater or lesser extent need US military forces to maintain them.  The Romney campaign rejects the notion that the United States has an obligation to rely on foreign aid in its international development efforts, wanting to \u201c[cut] the ongoing foreign aid commitments\u201d and \u201c[you] start everything from zero\u201d. Vice Presidential candidate Paul Ryan, has proposed a budget that includes cutting international affairs and foreign assistance by 29 percent in 2012 and 44 percent by 2016, which would dramatically cut funds for USAID and their foreign aid programs. [4] The Republican party believes that cutting down all sorts of government spending, including international spending, would help bring the economy out of the deficit and back towards a balanced budget.  [1] Rosenkranz, Rolf, \u2018At GOP debate, presidential candidates vow to cut foreign aid\u2019, devex, 20 October 2011.  [2] Nye, Joseph S., \u2018America and Global Public Goods\u2019, Project Syndicate, 11 September 2007  [3] Cronin, Dr. Patrick M., \u2018Averting Conflict in the South China Sea\u2019, Center for a New American Security, 4 September 2012.  [4] Smith, Adam, et al., \u2018U.S. foreign aid is not a luxury but a critical investment in global stability\u2019, The Seattle Times, 17 April 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-con01a","title":"","text":"We should not be borrowing to fund foreign aid  As a fiscal conservative, Governor Mitt Romney believes that Americans and the United States economy will be better off cutting foreign aid expenses. In an October 2011 Republican primary debate, Romney passionately defended the GOP stance of questioning humanitarian assistance and foreign aid. He said, \u201cI happen to think it doesn\u2019t make a lot of sense for us to borrow money from the Chinese to go give to another country for humanitarian aid . . . . We ought to get the Chinese to take care of the people that are taking that borrowed money.\u201d [1] This was a reference to the size of the deficit; currently Obama\u2019s projected deficit for 2012 is $1.33 trillion [2] and much of that is borrowed from other countries and China has most holding $1.164 trillion as of June. [3] Romney\u2019s campaign often compares President Barack Obama\u2019s policies to those of Europe. He criticizes the Obama administration\u2019s foreign assistance efforts as largely squandered by a fragmented Washington bureaucracy.  [1] \u2018Full Transcript CNN Western Republican Presidential Debate\u2019, CNN, 18 October 2011.  [2] \u2018 Budget Overview\u2019, Office of Management and Budget, 2012.  [3] Capaccio, Tony, and Kruger, Daniel, \u2018China\u2019s U.S. Debt Holdings Aren\u2019t Threat, Pentagon Says\u2019, Bloomberg, 11 September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgovrsus-con02b","title":"","text":"Yes trade can help lift people out of poverty. But in order to do so there needs to be the right conditions; there needs to be infrastructure, an educated and healthy population, and of course the country must be able to feed itself. No country is going to be able to trade its way to growth if its goods cannot reach international markets. Freer trade has not obviously been a driver of growth; poverty has fallen while the Doha round of trade liberalisation has got nowhere. [1] Instead the policies that have succeeded for China have been mercantilist policies, China may rely on trade to export its goods but it succeeded in creating its manufacturing capacity because of currency manipulation and government subsidies, things that anyone for free trade would be against. [2]  [1] Chandy, Laurence, and Gertz, Geoffrey, \u2018With Little Notice, Globalization Reduced Poverty\u2019, YaleGlobal, 5 July 2011.  [2] Prestowitz, Clyde, \u2018China\u2019s not breaking the rules. It\u2019s playing a different game.\u2019, Foreign Policy, 17 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro02b","title":"","text":"Distinguishing between the different levels of elections is not a good thing. It would show that the European Union is different from national government so demonstrating how far away from the voter it is. Moreover European elections need to be held at the same time as, and therefore associated with, national elections if anyone is to actually vote in them."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro02a","title":"","text":"It would help distinguish between levels of elections  The number of different elections can be confusing; almost everyone has three, European, National, and local, and some have others added in such as Mayoral, or regional elections. As such there is much to be gained from helping to differentiate elections by not being concerned about being allowed to vote for them all at the same age. Having elections for the European Parliament at the age of 16 would clearly distinguish the elections from all the other elections within the country (with the exception of Austria). For the European Union this would be an opportunity to show that it cares for the youth vote and has their issues at heart as it is a chance to get teenagers involved in Europe before they can be involved in their own national elections. For the teenagers it provides a chance to engage with one election, and one electoral system, before all the others helping to keep things simple."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro03b","title":"","text":"This is in large part because we expect the people we vote for to be experienced rather than strictly representative of the population, simply lowering the voting age is unlikely to lower the age of the members of the parliament. Lowering voting age may have some impact on policy but in practice as Europe ages this gain would be rapidly eaten up by increase in the numbers of older people. It is however wrong to conclude that people vote by demographic or that the old will not support policies that benefit the young; loosening the security of permanent workers was used as an example \u2013 why should the elderly be concerned about this when they are already retired?"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro05a","title":"","text":"Votes by 16-17 year olds would not be protest votes  Throughout the European Union in the Parliament elections there is a problem with protest voting. Indeed studies have found that almost 40% of votes in European Parliament elections are protest votes; [1] this is clearly bad for the European Parliament as these are not the parties that the electorate really want when it comes to creating policy. It reflects the fact that voters don\u2019t believe that their vote for the European Parliament matters.  Yet because voting at 16 is two years earlier than voting in most national elections voting for the European Parliament will be 16 and 17 year olds first experience of voting; as they did not vote for the government they are much less likely to be using their vote simply as a protest against the national government. This is because it will be clear that they are not voting on the basis of national issues because they can\u2019t vote at that level. This then represents a good chance for parties to get their European policies across to the youngest voters so that they know what their vote at the European level means.  [1] Hix, Simon, and Marsh, Michael, \u2018Punishment or Protest? Understanding European Parliament Elections\u2019, The Journal of Politics, Vol. 69, No.2, May 2007, pp.495-510,  , p.506"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro01a","title":"","text":"The voting age should be the same across the Union  It is ridiculous and clearly unfair that some sixteen year olds should get to vote in an election while most are barred from participating. This is the case in European Parliament elections at the moment; young people in Austria are able to vote in elections at 16 while everyone else has to wait until they are eighteen. [1] This means that a tiny minority of the Youth in the European Union get to vote before the rest something which is clearly discrimination against the majority of the European Union\u2019s 16 and 17 year olds; \u2018universal suffrage\u2019 should be universal for the European Parliament across the whole of the Union. The age should therefore be lowered to sixteen so that voting age is universally recognised with no one group receiving the right to vote before the others.  [1] European Parliament, \u2018About Parliament - Members\u2019, europarl.europa.eu,  , accessed 3 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro01b","title":"","text":"By this argument we really should make eighteen the voting age for all countries so as to bring Austria into line with the rest of the European Union. It is unclear why the majority of countries should have to move their voting age to fit with the Austrians rather than the other way around."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro05b","title":"","text":"This would not stop teenagers from using their votes in the same way as a protest vote. Even people who are 16 and 17 will know the policy of their government and will be just as likely to vote on the basis of that policy regardless of whether they can influence it in national elections. Indeed teenagers tend to be rebellious against authority figures so it would seem much more likely that they would simply use their vote in protest, as a result they may well even be more likely to vote for parties that are extremist rather than simply going for the opposition to the government."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro04b","title":"","text":"While lowering the European Parliament voting age may provide an incentive to link in civic or political studies there is no guarantee that this will actually happen. There is also no reason why it should not happen already; there should not need to be an election to prompt schools into teaching students about their democratic rights and duties. What each democratic body does would seem to clearly be information that every student should learn as regardless of voting age it is going to be a civic duty for most of their lives."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro03a","title":"","text":"Youth are not represented in politics  Young people are not well represented in European national parliaments either in terms of the membership of those parliaments or the policies they produce. The average age in the Bundestag is 50 [1] and it is similar in most parliaments. Youth unemployment in Europe for the fourth quarter of 2012 was 23.2%, almost twice the unemployment rate as a whole. [2] This is because many countries do not implement youth friendly policies; northern countries like Germany are determined to impose austerity which increases unemployment, while southern countries when implementing reforms are not implementing labour reforms that would loosen the security of permanent workers in return for reducing unemployment. [3] This may in part be a result of demographics in Europe. Europe is aging; in 1991 19.3% of the EU 27\u2019s population was under 14 while 13.9% over 65, by 2011 this had changed to 15.6% under 14 and 17.5% over 65. [4] With an increasing contingent of elderly (who are anyway more likely to vote) the influence of young voters is declining. Reducing the voting age will help to redress this imbalance.  [1] Deutscher Bunderstag, \u2018Facts The Bundestag at a glance\u2019, Deutscher Bunderstag, August 2011,   [2] Eurostat, \u2018Unemployment Statistics\u2019, European Commission,  , accessed 3 May 2013  [3] Crook, \u2018Why Europe Really Must Pursue \u2018Structural Reform\u2019\u2019, Bloomberg, 1 February 2012,   [4] Eurostat, \u2018Population structure and ageing\u2019, European Commission, October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro04a","title":"","text":"An opportunity for civic studies  There would be clear advantages in having elections while young people are still in school as school could help prepare them for the elections. Schools would be able to teach their students in advance what the ballot is like, about the process of voting, and most importantly about the European Union and the function of the European Parliament. One of the biggest problems with the European Parliament is that voters don\u2019t understand what it does. To take a couple of basics from a Eurobarometer poll in 2011, 42% of European citizens did not know MEPs were directly elected and 57% did not know that they sit in the Parliament according to ideology not nationality. [1] This shows how necessary education about the European Parliament is. Having elections at 16 provides an ideal opportunity as it means that most will participate in a European election while they are at school.  Teaching about why voting matters would also help to improve turnout. When Austria reduced its voting age to 16 it was found that turnout from 16-17 year olds was significantly higher than turnout for 18-19 year olds when both groups are first time voters. [2] This suggests that 18 may simply be the wrong time to introduce people to voting for the first time. Since voting or not voting tends to be habit forming lowering the voting age could slowly increase turnout across the board.  [1] EP\/Eurobarometer - Public Opinion Surveys , \u2018Media recall and knowledge of the EP\u2019, European Parliament Information Office in the United Kingdom,   [2] Zeglovitis, Eva, \u2018Votes at 16: Turnout of the Youngest Voters \u2013 Evidence from Austria\u2019, \u00d6GPW Tagung \u201cTag der Politikwissenschaft\u201d, Salzburg, 2 December 2011,  p.13"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con03b","title":"","text":"This at worst going to make a very marginal difference. In practice since the number of first time voters is the same because we all vote for the first time once the errors are simply going to be moved from one election to the election before. Indeed having 16 and 17 year olds have only one ballot on their first attempt at voting may help increase their experience making it easier when they have numerous ballots to fill in so overall reducing voting error."}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con01b","title":"","text":"Different levels of government carry out different roles and have different impacts on the electorate. It therefore makes sense that they should have different voting ages to reflect the differences in their roles. While the European Union may not seem to be the most obviously Youth orientated level of government it is particularly concerned with encouraging \u2018Active citizenship\u2019 for which it makes sense that the European Union actually enable youth to exercise one of the main rights that active citizenship involves; voting. [1]  [1] European Commission, \u2018The Council adopts new EU youth policy framework\u2019, ec.europa.eu,  , accessed 3 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con02a","title":"","text":"A slippery slope to forcing all countries to allow the vote at sixteen for all votes  The European Union should not be interfering with individual member\u2019s electoral systems, it is clear that this is an area where it is up to the members to decide who can vote and when. Even when it comes to elections for the European Parliament it is up to each member to decide the form of the election within certain ground rules. [1] In this case the interference would not be direct; the European parliament would not be passing any legislation saying that national and regional parliaments must allow votes at sixteen because they don\u2019t have the power to do that but by allowing voting at sixteen they would be making national elections look inconsistent. It would quickly be seen as illegitimate to allow sixteen and seventeen year olds the vote in some elections and not others without a good justification. As the level of election that is most distant from the individual if there were to be a discrepancy in voting ages it should logically be the other way around with the most abstract vote being granted last.  [1] European Parliament, \u2018About Parliament - Members\u2019, europarl.europa.eu,  , accessed 3 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con04a","title":"","text":"EU elections would put young people off voting  Let\u2019s be honest; European Union elections are hardly exciting and certainly not the most obvious elections to start young people off with. The votes are on very broad issues that don\u2019t have a direct impact on the individual such as trade agreements or broad brush environmental legislation such as the carbon trading market. These may be important issues but they are also abstract and removed from the lives of voters. As Professor Cees Van der Eijk argues \"the media pays very little attention to European elections. EU actors are generally invisible, and the elections are labelled boring even before they take place\". [1]  To make matters worse each individual vote is worth much less in European than national elections making it more difficult to explain why the individual should vote. In Germany there are more than six times more Bundestag members than there are Germany MEPs. [2] By starting young people out on \u2018boring\u2019 elections that are about people and institutions they will never have heard of and have little relevance to young people\u2019s daily lives lowering the voting age would be damaging to turn out. This would be damage not just for European elections but also to other levels as young people will be scared off all levels of politics by their experience of the European elections.  [1] Miller, Vaughne, \u20182009 European Parliament Elections: parties, polls and recent developments\u2019, House of Commons, 29 January 2009,  , \u200ep.9  [2] Deutscher Bunderstag, \u2018Facts The Bundestag at a glance\u2019, Deutscher Bunderstag, August 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con03a","title":"","text":"Would complicate elections  Elections can be confusing enough already; there are numerous levels of elections which often all are voted for on the same day so that turnout is high for all the elections. As a result voters often get numerous different ballots to fill in; the system for voting in each may well be different and are often complex. Adding that sixteen year olds can vote in one election and not the other simply adds to this complexity in polling stations meaning more mistakes are likely to be made. Lack of knowledge of voting process, increased complexity of voting process, and long ballots decrease accuracy in voting. [1] The first, and possibly also the second are factors that this lowering of the voting age will influence \u2013 so this change would mean increasing the numbers of spoilt ballots.  [1] Bederson, Benjamin B., et al., \u2018The not so simple act of voting: An examination of voter errors with electronic voting\u2019, University of Maryland,  , p.3"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con01a","title":"","text":"There should not be different voting ages for different elections  There can be no legitimate moral reason for allowing someone to vote in one election and not another. Most of the arguments involved in when people can vote revolve around when they are mature enough, understand the issues, and are considered adult. All of these arguments make little sense if someone can vote in one election but not another on the basis of age. Why should someone be considered mature enough to understand the issues for a European election but not their own local elections? There are very few countries that have different voting ages for different elections \u2013 out of those Wikipedia lists only Germany, Israel, and Italy have differing ages for different elections. [1]  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Voting age\u2019, en.wikipedia.org,  , accessed 3 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con04b","title":"","text":"This may be a good opportunity to change this impression of the European Parliament being boring. Having young people voting will in itself make the election more interesting to the media who will then talk about the issues at the same time. Europe focusing on broad brush issues may actually be a good thing as young people tend to be idealistic they may be more rather than less interested in the big issues such as carbon trading. Moreover if this fails then there is little reason to think that apathy at the European elections will spill over onto other elections"}
+{"id":"training-international-epvhwav1ep-con02b","title":"","text":"While such a move might embarrass some parliaments into lowering their voting age there would certainly be no compulsion. And if it happened this would not necessarily a bad thing. If national parliaments feel embarrassed by the illogic of having differing voting age then it will be up to them to change it. In practice parliaments are unlikely to change their traditions simply because their peers have done so; they will look at all the evidence (which this change would provide more of) and then decide the best way forward for their democracy."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Although religions supported the anti-gay law, it is not solely a religious issue; the majority of Ugandans believe that homosexuality is contrary to their traditional values and all the anti-gay protests were inclusive regardless of religious denominations. It is therefore wrong to assert that the law was passed as a religious initiative. A separation of church and state does not mean the government should never run policies that the religious want simply that the government should not be favouring a particular religion."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Policy should not be dictated by religion  Article 7 of the Ugandan constitution is clear in its separation of church and state \u201cUganda shall not have a State religion.\u201d The government must serve all its people equally regardless religious and cultural orientation. But this bill has been created with a religious motive. In his interview defending the anti-gay bill, MP David Bahati lamented, that God doesn\u2019t accept homosexuality quoting a bible verse that the wages of sin is death[1]; as if the Ugandan parliament is filled with righteous souls! The constitution allows freedom of religion and prohibits the creation of political parties based on religion[2]. Laws and policies should therefore not base on bible verses as not everyone will share the same belief to such scriptures.  [1] Jack Mirkinson, \u2018Rachel Maddow Interviews David Bahati, Author Of Ugandan 'Kill The Gays' Bill\u2019, huffingtonpost.com,   [2] U.S. Department of State, \u2019Uganda\u2019, state.gov,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro03b","title":"","text":"In the same chapter, the constitution states that nothing within the article shall prevent Parliament from enacting laws that are necessary for implementing policies and programmes aimed at redressing social, economic or educational or other imbalance in society; or providing for any matter acceptable and demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society[1]. It is on this clause that most officials have based their support for the anti-gay law. The majority of Ugandans deem homosexuality immoral and unacceptable. There is therefore a democratic reason to enact such a law. The law is justified by democracy.  [1] DREDF, \u2018The Constitution Of Uganda; Chapter 4, human rights and freedoms\u2019, dredf.org,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Marginalising the minority  Human rights are fundamental and universal. They do not only apply to a certain group of people and invalid to another such as homosexuals. Criminalising homosexuality in Uganda considers all in the LGBT minority to be worse than second class citizens. Making them almost automatically criminal renders homosexuals sub human depriving them of their identity as Ugandans. The government has a responsibility to protect every citizen but in this case the Ugandan government has taken the first step in rejecting and mistreating its own people.  The new law infringes on fundamental rights to privacy, non-discrimination, equality and freedom from cruelty and inhumane treatment[1]. Even before the bill was introduced the government prevented there being room for LGBT activists to explain their cause showing their lack of freedom of expression. This and rights such as equality are universal and fundamental rights that the government of Uganda has on numerous occasions signed up for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights among other documents.[2]  [1] Reuters, \u2018Uganda's Anti-Gay Law Prompts Court Petition\u2019, huffingtonpost.com, 11 March 2014,   [2] Organisation of Africa Unity, \u2018African Charter on Human and Peoples\u2019 Rights\u2019, achpr.org,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Homosexuality has been illegal in Uganda since colonialism. It was signed into law and amended in Uganda\u2019s constitution but did not change after independence. The blame should therefore go to the British not Ugandan government. If it is a violation of human rights then it is a violation that has been occurring for decades. The long term effect has been that Ugandans now are agreed that LGBT people are not a minority but criminals who deserve punishment."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro03a","title":"","text":"The law is contrary to the constitution  Chapter 4 of the Ugandan constitution recognises fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual as inherent and not granted by the State. The constitution states; All persons are equal before and under the law in all spheres of political, economic, social and cultural life and in every other respect and shall enjoy equal protection of the law; Without prejudice, a person shall not be discriminated against on the ground of sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion or disability[1]. It defines \u201cdiscriminate\" as giving different treatment to different persons attributable only or mainly to their respective descriptions by sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion or disability.  The government has acted contrary to their own law, with President Museveni remarking that what homosexuals do is disgusting, un African and had no place in his country[2] and MP David Bahati, asserting that homosexuals do not deserve to be treated as humans. Breaching such a law while relying on such logical fallacies is a sign of how the government failed on human rights.  [1] DREDF, \u2018The Constitution Of Uganda; Chapter 4, human rights and freedoms\u2019, dredf.org,   [2] Mark Duell & Leon Watson, 'Gay people are unnatural and disgusting', says Ugandan president as he signs bill punishing homosexual sex with life in jail\u2019, dailymail.co.uk, 24 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con03b","title":"","text":"The fact that Ugandan government did not take measures to curb insecurities, harassment and threats towards the LGBT community, shows how reluctant it was in enforcing human rights. Unfortunately things have been even worse after the new law was passed with Uganda\u2019s tabloid the Redpepper exposing homosexuals[1]. The new law has given a green light to mockery, attacks and harassment towards the gay community, many have lost their jobs, other have quit school and some have left the country due to such threats. This all could have been avoided by the government if it were to accept LGBT as a minority that has the same rights as other minorities. Such an acceptance would be a first step towards tolerance in Uganda.  [1] The guardian, \u2018Ugandan tabloid prints list of 'top 200 homosexuals', thegurdian.com, 25 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con01b","title":"","text":"Democracy is not just about enabling a tyranny of the majority. It is about enabling everyone have a say in running the country and about protecting the rights of those minority viewpoints. Simply accepting that the majority is always right is the path to populist dictatorship; most people can be bought by promises of better times ahead and attempts to put the blame for any problems on minority groups. Human rights are intrinsic and cannot be determined on what the majority or civil society believes. The simple maxim \u2018do unto others what you would have them do to you\u2019 shows why minorities need to be protected. Everyone is a minority in something whether it is because they are a particular ethnic, sexual, language group or the views they hold we would not want to be discriminated on the basis of that aspect of ourselves. Where the majority wants to harm the minority the role of the government is to protect the minority. The bill was introduced to parliament individually by MP David Bahati[1] who spearheaded it through the end not the large Ugandan majority and the government should have stopped it.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Uganda\u2019s anti-gay law; Deadly intolerance\u2019, economist.com, 1 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con02a","title":"","text":"Traditional and religious beliefs  More than 90% of Uganda\u2019s population believe that homosexuality is not part of their culture and should never be accepted[1], its seen as indecency, criminality and a taboo in the community. This is something the government did not invent and not something it can simply wash out of society. Shelving the bill would not suddenly create tolerance from Ugandan society towards the gay community but instead would isolate and impose a threat to the LGBT community.  Others would have tried to create laws anti-gay laws. This \u2018kill the Gays bill\u2019 was originally intended to include the death penalty for some homosexual acts such as when one of the participants is a minor, HIV-positive, disabled or a \"serial offender\".[2] The bill is therefore considerably better than what the alternative could have been \u2013 the government has done its duty and moderated it. Any wider change to the culture of the country is not the duty of the government.  [1] Patience Akumu, \u2018It pains me to live in a country, Uganda, that hates gay people and 'indecent' women\u2019, thegurdian.com, 22 December 2013,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill: MPs drop death penalty\u2019, 23 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con03a","title":"","text":"Not passing the bill would bring a threat to the public peace  Homophobia in Uganda was not introduced by this law. Refusing to sign the bill into law would result in increased brutality and cruelty to the LGBT minority from the majority of citizens who were angry that president Museveni even considered vetoing the bill. Shortly after the president\u2019s letter to parliament requesting the shelving of the bill was revealed, thousands of Ugandans took on to the streets protesting against the move complaining that homosexuality will never be allowed in their society. Known gay Ugandans were forced not to move while others were attacked in their homes. Long before the bill was passed by parliament, homosexuals and LGBT activists were beaten, harassed and killed by their fellow Ugandans. David Kato a leading figure in demanding equal rights for the gay minority was killed in January 2011[1]. The situation may have worsened had the bill been shelved as angry Ugandans would attack the gay community seeking revenge, something that they made clear would happen during the anti-gay protests. Most Ugandans had supported a death penalty for homosexuals and clearly have few qualms about launching attacks, sometimes murderous against homosexuals.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Obituary: Uganda gay activist David Kato\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 27 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con01a","title":"","text":"Rule of the majority  As a democratic country, Uganda favours and runs according to the will of the majority. This is also part of the constitution that recognises the opinion of the majority where all policies and rules that govern the country should base. With more than 90% of Ugandans against homosexuality and speaking in support of the anti-gay law[1], it was therefore inevitable for the government to pass such a bill despite president Museveni\u2019s letter to parliament to ignore the law[2]. It is not the Ugandan government that has failed its LGBT citizens but the Ugandan people. A democratic government simply responds to what its people wants.  [1] Patience Akumu, \u2018It pains me to live in a country, Uganda, that hates gay people and 'indecent' women\u2019, thegurdian.com, 22 December 2013,   [2] Warren Throckmorton , \u2018Full Text of Letter From Uganda\u2019s President Museveni to Speaker of Parliament Kadaga Regarding the Anti-Homosexuality Bill\u2019, patheos.com, 17 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con02b","title":"","text":"The government is an impartial and independent body which should not be led by tradition but lead tradition instead. Governments don\u2019t just exist to let events flow but to lead, to create policy, and shape events. If government never takes a lead then it would cease to exist as another leader would take its place. Under Uganda\u2019s constitution, religions should be registered and accredited by the government and should adhere to law and government policies. The constitution recognises equality for all so the government should be encouraging a belief and tradition of such equality[1]. It is therefore wrong to argue that on a particular policy, tradition had to lead.  [1] Parliament of Uganda, \u2018CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA, 1995\u2019, parliament.go.ug,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Not allowing any meetings with the President does not mean no negotiations can take place. Groundwork can be done by diplomats, negotiators, third parties, and even high-ranking administration officials from the state department, like the Secretary of State. Such tactics can also strengthen moderates. However, a meeting with the President is a powerful symbol, and it should only take place if either significant headway has been made, or if the leaders of these regimes are fully committed to negotiating, which they can prove by agreeing to preconditions."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Preconditions are like granting a veto to the extremists.  No government is monolithic. In every regime there will be moderate forces willing to use diplomacy and negotiations and extremist elements that do not. By demanding that preconditions be fulfilled before a meeting, all power is given to the extremists. Israel-Palestine is an example of this. By often demanding that violence cease before negotiations can take place, the US and Israel give a veto over negotiations to Hamas, who are the perpetrators of violence. They get to decide if and when negotiations take place. Instead, the president of the United States should always try to engage and strengthen moderates within these regimes."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro03b","title":"","text":"That is true. But that is mostly the case with preconditions that are strategically flawed or an attempt at political gamesmanship, when a leader makes outrageous demands the other party cannot possibly meet in order to paint them as unreasonable and unwilling to negotiate. However, chosen carefully, preconditions can set talks and negotiations on the right course, and give a strong indication of the sincerity and commitment of both parties."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro05a","title":"","text":"The more the US waits, the stronger its opponents become.  Preconditions delay engagement and negotiations. Sometimes it can take years before the parties even start talking to each other. In that time, Iran will continue to enrich uranium [1] and North Korea will continue to expand its nuclear arsenal [2] . If the US waits for preconditions to be agreed on and met, by the time president Obama gets to talk and negotiate directly with the leaders of these states, he will have a much bigger crisis to deal with. It may have even gotten to the point where diplomacy can no longer be used effectively.  [1] Borger, James. \u201cIran\u2019s acceleration of its nuclear programme angers the west.\u201d Guardian. 19 July 2011.   [2] Neuman, Doug. \u201cNorth Korea expands nuclear relationships with outcast states.\u201d Examiner. 11 May 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Doing away with \u2018US arrogance\u2019.  From its early days, the Obama administration has strived to change the tide of US foreign policy, by moving away from America\u2019s unilateralism and dismissiveness of other nations. [1] Its treatment of its foes is a product of that same attitude. The general policy not to meet or negotiate without preconditions is akin to dangling a spot at the table like some sort of prize that foreign leaders need to work for. In international law, all states are sovereign and equal with no one having a right to interfere with other\u2019s internal affairs. This means that all leaders should treat each other with respect and deference.  [1] Harnden, Toby. \u201cBarack Obama: \u2018arrogant US has been dismissive\u2019 to allies.\u201d The Telegraph. 3 April 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro01b","title":"","text":"While legally all the world\u2019s leaders are equal, morally they are not. For decades, the US has been the standard of what it means to be a liberal democracy and have respect your citizens\u2019 rights and liberties. That is not arrogance; it\u2019s moral leadership. This is a vision that the US should aggressively promote in its foreign policy. The President of the United states should not meet as equals with tyrants and dictators who oppress their own people, and endanger world peace and security. Not unless these people give any indication they are even vaguely committed to moving toward some common goals."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro05b","title":"","text":"If talks don\u2019t take place, that doesn\u2019t mean no actions can be taken against rogue regimes. Diplomatic pressure, third party talks or even sanctions can be effective ways to deal with states like Iran, Syria, or North Korea. Neither of these requires the President himself to sit down with these leaders."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Meeting with the leader of the United States can equally bolster a leader\u2019s support and strengthen his or her position. After all, the US will always prefer and support a leader that is seen as reasonable and willing to compromise rather than a hard liner. Hosni Mubarak is a prime example of a dictator whose position was strengthened by his good relationship and close ties to the US [1] . Therefore, many of these dictators may see it in their interest to agree to preconditions, if that will buy them American favours.  [1] Murphy, Dan. \u201cJoe Biden says Mubarak no dictators, he shouldn\u2019t step down.\u201d Christian Science Monitor. 27 January 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Preconditions can damage a country\u2019s negotiating position.  No country is likely to agree to conditions that will significantly reduce its bargaining power once it gets to the table. It would be diplomatically foolish to agree to preconditions that would essentially be the subject of the negotiations and the reason why the negotiations were needed in the fist place [1] . If North Korea agreed to freeze development of its nuclear arsenal, or if Iran agreed to stop its nuclear enrichment programme, once the meeting between the two leaders took place, the position from which they started negotiating would be significantly weaker than the US\u2019s.  [1] Klein, Rick. \u201cObama\u2019s Evolving Take on Meeting with Iran.\u201d ABC News. 20 May 2008."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Agreeing to preconditions can damage a leader\u2019s position at home.  If, in order to meet with his counterpart, a \u2018rogue leader\u2019 needs to compromise on his and his country\u2019s position even before he gets to the table, this would be a signal of weakness to his opponents at home and those vying for his job. For example, in North Korea, which is going through a dynastic transition [1] , the new leader Kim Jong Un is yet to become established and consolidate his status as dictator. Any concession to the sate\u2019s designated mortal enemy, the US, might jeopardise the succession. Similarly, in Iran where Ahmadinejad has fallen from the graces of the supreme religious leader, the Ayatollah [2] , agreeing to preconditions in order to get a meeting with Obama would signal to the Iranian President\u2019s rivals that it may be a good moment to attempt to force a change of guard.  [1] \u201cProfile: Kim Jong un\u201d. BBC. 31 December 2011.   [2] \u201cAhmadinejad v Ayatollah: Who will win Iran dustup?\u201d BBC. 8 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con03b","title":"","text":"Sanctions will always be hanging in the background. It will also be obvious pretty soon whether the other party is really interested in negotiating or just stalling. However, diplomacy should always be tired before sanctions."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con01b","title":"","text":"Agreeing to sit down and talk can equally be seen as a gesture of good faith. The further requirement to prove themselves and their intentions can put off leaders who are on the fence about engaging the US on their differences. It should be remembered that the mistrust is not only one way; \u2018rogue\u2019 regimes leaders also mistrust US intentions. As a result demanding preconditions frames the negotiations, from the onset, from a position of mistrust"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con02a","title":"","text":"Rogue leaders can exploit such meetings to bolster their legitimacy  If no proper groundwork is done before such a meeting, and no preconditions are laid out, such events can easily be used by these foreign regimes as propaganda at home to try to bolster their own legitimacy [1] . A meeting with the leader of the free world would give an opportunity to Ahmadinejad or Chavez to portray themselves as great statesmen and leaders, equals to the president of the United States. The same is true of North Korea, which is a regime that rules almost entirely through the strength of state propaganda [2] . If they don\u2019t have to agree to any preconditions, there is no cost to these leaders exploiting a meeting with Obama to their own advantage, while having no intention to actually engage in genuine negotiations and diplomacy.  [1] \u201cClinton: Obama is \u2018na\u00efve\u2019 on foreign policy.\u201d Associated Press. 24 July 2007.   [2] Myers, B. R. \u201cThe Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters\u201d. Melville House. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con04a","title":"","text":"Meeting with these leaders today might jeopardize America\u2019s interests tomorrow.  The Arab Spring demonstrated just how unpredictable and unstable some of these regimes could truly be. And the new governments coming to power are unlikely to forget America\u2019s role in supporting their former dictator. For example, Egypt\u2019s transition from dictatorship has led to a rise in anti-American sentiment, as the US is perceived to have been a supporter of the Mubarak regime [1] . It may not be wise for President Obama to associate himself, and the US, so closely to leaders like Assad or Ahmadinejad who are susceptible to being deposed through the same type of massive demonstrations that swept through the Arab world in 2011. Doing so without preconditions would signal a trust and deference to these leaders that may be unforgivable to their successors, and to the people of Syria and Iran.  [1] Lee, Mathew. \u201cUS troubled by rising anti-Americanism in Egypt\u201d. Associated Press. 10 August 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con03a","title":"","text":"Rogue regimes can use such meetings as a dilatory tactic to stall sanctions against them.  Nuclear countries like North Korea and Iran have been keen to use such a meeting as a stalling tactic against the onslaught of sanctions prompted by its nuclear programme [1] . Negotiations can be continually spun out with very little result in order to keep the United States from taking action simply by encouraging the United States to believe that there will be action after a meeting. Again, if there is no cost to them sitting down to negotiate, then negotiations are an easy way to deflect pressure, while they continue to pursue their nuclear and WMD programmes. As a result the preconditions need to be met before the negotiations to prevent such tactics from being possible.  [1] Yeranian, Edward. \u201cIranian President Offers to Meet President Obama.\u201d Voice of America. 2 August 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con01a","title":"","text":"Preconditions are an essential gesture of good will.  Preconditions are not about posturing or scoring some easy, early points. They play an essential diplomatic role. By agreeing to make some concessions before negotiations start in earnest, a \u2018rogue state\u2019 would signal its good faith in the negotiating process and its willingness to compromise and work diligently toward a common goal and reaching an agreement. Without such proof of commitment, the US should have every reason to doubt the true intentions of leaders like Ahmadinejad."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con04b","title":"","text":"No president can sit and wait until the dice fall before making a move on foreign policy. Presidents have to deal with the here and now. If the situation changes, the US will have to reassess. However, at any given time the President has to do what is in the US\u2019s best national interest. And at times that may be meeting with unpopular dictators."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghbowramrlw-con02b","title":"","text":"The President does not just sit down with a foreign leader without previous groundwork. No preconditions does not mean no preparation. Diplomats can be dispatched in advance to gage the level of interest and the intentions of the other party. Intelligence can be gathered to take the pulse of the regime and understand what is going on in the country, whether the moment is auspicious for change and diplomacy or whether the rogue leader is just looking for a popularity boost. The President should always have a very good idea of what to expect when he or she meets with a foreign leader. They don\u2019t just find out once they get there."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-pro02b","title":"","text":"While distasteful, sometimes cutting deals with perpetrators is necessary to bring a quick end to the human suffering that conflicts cause [1] .  In advocating prosecutions, justice can simply ignore victims. Atrocities are more than likely to have been committed by more than one side in a conflict. As those leaders do not want to be prosecuted, justice can act as a bar to peace. Moreover if people are responsible and accountable to society then that society should be able to agree to forgo justice in order to create peace if it is deemed necessary.  [1] Grono, Nick and O\u2019Brien, Adam, \u201cJustice in Conflict? The IOCC and Peace Processes\u201d, Courting Conflict? Justice, Peace and the ICC in Africa, 2008, available at  , chapter 2"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Accountability  It is a fundamental principle of morality that individuals should be held responsible for their crimes \u2013 that is the reason why we, as societies, have criminal law.  Prosecuting people \u2013 holding them responsible for their crimes \u2013 is a moral imperative. We all wish to live in a society where everyone is equally accountable when they commit crime as one in which not everyone is held to account is fundamentally unjust; it creates one rule for the powerless and another for those who are \u2018needed\u2019 to help create peace. This would simply incentivise people to try to make themselves indispensable strongmen \u2013 not a sustainable basis for a peaceful society."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Holocaust denial does still exists today despite the Nuremburg trials and immense amounts of evidence. Also, Japanese denialism over forced prostitution in the Second World War is part of mainstream politics [1] .  Despite ICTY convictions, denial of atrocities in the Yugoslav wars continue.  [1] See Honda, Masakazu and Takada, Makoto, \u201cLDP Pressure led to cuts in NHK show\u201d, The Asahi Shimbun, 12 January 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Justice is needed for a lasting peace  By prosecuting perpetrators, justice creates a deterrent. The deterrent effect, as accepted in criminal law generally, is likely to make the peace more long standing and stable in the future \u2013 it will make those minded to perform atrocities think again. If those who committed atrocities \u2018get away with it\u2019 they will be much more likely to plunge the country back into violence.  The career of Laurent Nkunda is a good example of this; he fought in the Tutsi group that took control of Rwanda in 1994 ending the genocide and then was a rebel commander in both Congolese civil wars in which he was accused of atrocities before launching his own rebellion, only now after 14 years as an army commander is he under arrest. [1] Clearly Nkunda being locked up at some stage would have been better than regularly negotiating with him to try and create peace.  [1] BBC News, \u201cProfile: General Laurent Nkunda\u201d, 23 January 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-pro01b","title":"","text":"This fails for two reasons. Firstly, prosecutions are not always a deterrent to future crimes. Secondly that justice is not necessary in all cases to prevent recidivism \u2013 justice has not been needed in many cases, such as in Haiti after the 2004 coup, Haiti\u2019s subsequent problems being caused by natural disasters."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Justice is needed to help end denialism.  By creating a historical record through the investigations and trial proceedings [1] , International justice can create a narrative that helps fight denialism over events in the past. It creates an accepted version of events where both victim and accused have had their say.  Denialism can be dangerous because it is likely to create perceptions that are likely to make conflict more likely again. For example the post-First World War Dolchsto\u00dflegende (stab in the back myth) was used by the political right in Germany after WWI implied that the German Army had not lost but Germany had only done so due to the civilian leadership. This not only encouraged a belief that Germany could win in another war but also as the accusation was levelled particularly at socialists and Jews helped pave the way for the holocaust. [2]  [1] Goldstone, p422  [2] Holocaust Encyclopedia, \u2018Antisemitism in history: World War I\u2019, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 10 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-con03b","title":"","text":"Justice is not easy. However, it needs to be done \u2013 for its own ends, and for a lasting peace. In cases where there are a huge number of perpetrators then the obvious approach is to offer an amnesty to those who committed smaller crimes while prosecuting those who provoked or ordered the crimes."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-con01b","title":"","text":"Argentina did not prosecute for a long time after the collapse of the junta [1] , a 1986 law, commonly known as the Full Stop Law (also known by its number, Law 23492), prohibited prosecution of those involved in the dirty war which resulted in up to 30,000 deaths.  However, Argentina managed to build a lasting peace, and society without prosecutions.  [1] Kersten, Mark, \u201cThe Fallacy of Sequencing Peace and Justice\u201d, Opinio Juris, 29 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-con02a","title":"","text":"Justice can harm peace.  Former ICTR chief prosecutor, Richard Goldstone, argued that the indictments of Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic prevented them from attending the Dayton peace talks. The Russian government tried to get those indictments suspended, but Goldstone informed them that he did not have the power to do so. Slobodan Milosevic, the representative of Serbia also represented Republika Srbska. [1]  In 2006 thyere was an agreement by the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army to a ceasefire but before they would negotiate towards a final peace the LRA demanded the suspension of the ICC indictments. [2] Even six years on none of the LRA leadership have been caught \u2013 had peace been put first it might have occurred then rather than intermittent conflict continuing for years.  Peace is a valid goal. However, an overzealous pursuit of justice may impede negotiations.  [1] Goldstone, Richard, \u201cPeace versus Justice\u201d, Nevada Law Journal, 2006,  at p421-p322  [2] Otim, Michael, and Wierda, Marieke, \u2018Justice at Juba: International Obligations and Local Demands in Northern Uganda\u2019, in Waddell and Clarck eds., Courting Conflict? Justice, Peace and the ICC in Africa, pp.21-28"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-con03a","title":"","text":"Justice can be impossible  The Rwandan genocide one of the largest the world has ever seen since the Second World War. A large number of victims \u2013 at least half a million \u2013 means a large number of perpetrators. There are 100,000 alleged perpetrators in Uganda. While an informal Gacaca system has been criticized by human rights groups for not being able to provide fair trials, a full system of fair trials would be impractical [1] .  Rwanda is now relatively peaceful, with a functioning economy.  [1] Hannum, p492"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-con01a","title":"","text":"Peace has occurred without justice  Argentina did not prosecute for a long time after the collapse of the junta [1] , a 1986 law, commonly known as the Full Stop Law (also known by its number, Law 23492), prohibited prosecution of those involved in the dirty war which resulted in up to 30,000 deaths.  However, Argentina managed to build a lasting peace, and society without prosecutions.  [1] Kersten, Mark, \u201cThe Fallacy of Sequencing Peace and Justice\u201d, Opinio Juris, 29 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilphbp-con02b","title":"","text":"Dayton worked despite not inviting Karadzic and Mladic. Both of those are currently on trial for the most serious crimes imaginable \u2013 Karadzic for, amongst other things, his alleged role in ordering the Srebrenica massacre, and Mladic for Srbrenica and the Siege of Sarajevo.  These prosecutions have not caused problems for peace in the Balkans and Croatia, one of the participants in the conflict, has joined the European Union.  Similarly, despite the ICC indictment, coupled with better results obtained by the Ugandan military, has lead towards the prospect of surrender by the LRA, despite their leaders such as Joseph Kony being indicted [1] .  [1] BBC News, \u201cLRA leader Joseph Kony \u2018in surrender talks\u2019 with CAR\u201d, BBC News,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Integration through globalisation is not necessarily, or purely, positive. Globalisation can have desirable and undesirable effects. For example greater airline links may encourage educated Kenyans to leave creating a brain drain; the country already exports nurses.(Lehmann, 2004)"}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Liberalisation enables national development  The aviation industry is vital for economic growth for bringing Africa into the positive side of globalisation. The state-owned Ethiopian Airlines Enterprise is one example of a success story for an African airline. Ethiopian Airlines has the greatest amount of traffic as a result of air traffic liberalisation. The returns gained from Ethiopian Airlines have been central to promoting Ethiopia\u2019s national growth strategy. Governments can only gain from liberalisation in multiple sectors, including airlines. Liberalisation, and deregulation, of airlines acts creates cumulative causation, where one event causes multiple changes, for tourism, production networks, jobs, and infrastructure development. In Ethiopia, air networks are building industries and the pushing regions economic development [1] . In Kenya\u2019s case, deregulation of airlines may improve the speed and availability of key global commodities, such as tourism, and flowers [2] - booming industries that require rapid transport.  In Africa 20% of tourism-related jobs are supported directly by the aviation industry (World Bank, 2014).  [1] See further readings: Anna Aero, 2013.  [2] See further readings: Lawrence, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-pro03b","title":"","text":"We need to be critical of what foreign business and multinational corporations can do for Africa. Earnings from foreign airlines will likely leave the continent rather than being used for African development. There will be some benefit with some local workers, particularly in airports, but the degree of power inequality between foreign airline owners and local people implies benefits will be unequally spread.  On another hand, what will incentivise foreign airlines to stay? Markets are volatile; therefore a long-term vision is required. What will ensure foreign investors buying airlines are encouraged to stay and actually build a stable, functioning airline market rather than simply taking advantage of the few routes where they can make a quick profit?"}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-pro01a","title":"","text":"A competitive airline industry  The introduction of a Pan-African Open Sky agreement will ensure competition. A competitive airline industry will have a cumulative effect on prices and safety standards. First, prices will be reduced as the market is no longer monopolised by a few airlines. Currently national governments are able to place strict regulations, high fuel and passenger taxes on airlines. Liberalising the industry would mean that airlines are increasingly controlled by the hand of the market, not the state. Competitive airline prices will ensure air travel is no longer exclusively an elite luxury.  Secondly, introducing new competition will force airlines to implement higher standards - of service and safety. Power is redistributed to the consumer and traveller, who are able to pick and choose the best service. Therefore the companies need to be on the top of their game.  Evidence in Europe has shown the competitiveness of liberalisation, resulting in the rise of cheap air travel. Such low-cost carriers now account for a third of intra-EU travel (ECMT, 2010)."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-pro01b","title":"","text":"To what extent will a competitive industry emerge if direct problems are not resolved? The issue is not simply a need to introduce more airlines. Airline prices cannot be reduced unless fuel prices are lowered. The cost of buying fuel for airlines remains higher in Africa; suggesting that it is not just the airline market but also the market in fuel supplies that requires change. There will be no opportunity for European style budget airlines so long as fuel is expensive.  Additionally, can a competitive airline industry emerge without transparency and good governance first? The fact good governance remains debatable in many African states raises a question of how the market will work. As new business opportunities arise who will be setting up new airlines? It is likely to be government cronies or those with support from the government rather than those with the most innovative models."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Incorporating foreign airlines  Introducing a treaty whereby flights are liberalised across Africa, and foreign airlines incorporated, will provide benefits for Africa. For example, foreign companies will be able to tackle gaps in the market. Currently there is a lack of direct flights between key destinations. Direct flights mean direct interconnections to desired; and new, places. For example, with new business opportunities emerging in Nigeria a direct flight connecting Cape Town and Lagos requires investment.  Air traffic in the EU is a positive example. As a result of deregulation budget airlines have expanded throughout the continent EU air traffic and new flight routes introduced. There has been a 120% increase of intra-EU routes and 320% increase in the number of routes provided by at least two companies (ECMT, 2010)."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con03b","title":"","text":"Alliances create an oligopolistic market. The promotion of alliances creates two key market results \u2013 controlling supply and demand. Firstly, choice is restricted. Customers are restricted in what prices and services are available. Secondly, the market competitiveness is restricted. Different airlines are not able to compete with each other, but merely cooperate as the leading company takes the largest proportion of profits. Alliances fail to stimulate a competitive market or place companies on an equal platform to compete for profits.  Open skies are also seen as a means to ensure safety and reduce the rising accident rates. The World Bank (2014) note accident rates would fall if African states use bilateral sanctions to ensure airlines meet safety standards; currently Africa\u2019s aircraft hull-loss accident rate is more than 6 times higher than Asia and Latin America and 12 times Europe. Open-skies ensure bilateral collaboration and intervention."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con01b","title":"","text":"Sustainable development does not mean stopping development. The SDGs emphasise how a new perspective is required for future development. There is no evidence to suggest an open-sky agreement would increase environmental degradation, nor is there to say that if an open-sky agreement is not implemented we will develop in a more sustainable way. The introduction of open-skies will mean an introduction of better planes \u2013 more fuel-efficient and eco-friendly designs as a result of competition on quality and safety. Advancements have been made over time to improve the environmental performance of aeroplanes. Today\u2019s planes are 75% quieter, with carbon-monoxide levels declining by 50%, and increasingly more fuel-efficient [1] . An open-skies agreement enables new ideas and designs to be integrated, encouraging the implementation of sustainable models.  Sustainable development is about how we understand, appreciate, and implement future objectives. An open sky agreement is not necessarily unsustainable.  [1] See further readings: IATA, 2014."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con02a","title":"","text":"Terrorism  Terror remains a key concern both in and about Africa. A key issue with a potential open sky agreement is who will regulate it and how. Effective control to prevent terrorism is required; passengers and nations need to be ensured security. Liberalising airlines and markets potentially lays the foundation for a new risk of terror and insecurity. West African airports have been particularly criticised for their lax security which creates an insider threat (Brandt, 2011). More planes, more staff, and more passengers mean a higher probability of risk. Is liberalisation best when we consider the war on terror, and emerging security risks?"}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con04a","title":"","text":"Focusing on national development first  An open sky agreement will only act to reinforce the brain drain occurring in Africa. The level of development across Africa remains uneven, with disparities found across the continent based on GDP, PPP, FDI, and social development. An open sky agreement may act as cumulative causation for out-migration of trained professionals and white-collar jobs to more developed countries. One very obvious brain drain as a result of air travel is that there have been eight hijackings of Ethiopian Airlines by pilots attempting to get asylum in the last 25 years (Nadeau, 2014). The reality would bring detrimental effects for some countries, and prosperity for others. The unequal geography of development in Africa will persist."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con03a","title":"","text":"Alliances not open skies  The success of airlines such as Kenya Airways has emerged through alliances; not an \u2018open sky\u2019 agreement. The airline has created alliances with small airline carriers such as Precision Air to ensure more frequent coverage, competitive prices and provision of services to new destinations. Increased connectivity across Africa requires more alliances between individual airlines, not necessarily an open sky agreement. The alliances made ensure universal boundaries, rules, and regulations, are set through corporate ethics and responsibility. Alliances mean the corporate brand is at stake.  Alliances are a safer option when we consider who will set the rules with an \u2018open sky\u2019 agreement in Africa. Alliances can ensure safety measures remain central for airlines, and the private actors are held responsible. However, the definitions of, and decisions on, rules become blurred with an \u2018open sky\u2019. Who will have the last say? Whose decision will hold power? A regulatory board is required, which can be granted through alliances."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con01a","title":"","text":"Environmental Impact  Development is shifting from just GDP growth towards promoting a sustainable approach to growth. The UN has created the Sustainable Development Goals for development post-2015, which emphasise developmental policy and practice today has to meet the needs of the present without jeopardising future populations. Therefore how can a new Open Skies agreement be justified on environmental or sustainability grounds? Encouraging more air traffic will act to increase the human burden on the environment. Key concerns are noise and atmospheric pollution, deforestation, and the use of space. Flights produce around 628,000,000 tonnes of CO2 annually adding to climate change (Clean Sky, 2014). With numbers rising the pressures will too."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con04b","title":"","text":"Several points require countering. Firstly, the focus on the brain drain suggests air travel will continue to be dominated by an elite class, however, open-skies acts to enable a broader customer base. Secondly, migration brings a range of benefits \u2013 we cannot promote keeping people in their place as a developmental solution. Even if national development comes first people may still want to move. Finally, people will not be discouraged from moving if there is no open-skies agreement. Migration is historic in Africa, with multiple transport modes used. Migration will continue to operate with or without an open-skies agreement.  Therefore it is important to recognise the role open-skies can play for Pan-Africanism. An open sky will assist in dispersing access and availability to development opportunities. It will create new network hubs within Africa; and create new market opportunities by introducing frequent airlines to places previously inaccessible. The agreement would ensure capital is spread across Africa. Africa will begin to operate cohesively. The open-sky agreement sets the future agenda for Africa\u2019s development \u2013 a step towards Pan-African cooperation."}
+{"id":"training-international-ipeegiahw-con02b","title":"","text":"We need to be cautious in falling into the \u2018terror discourse\u2019. Since 9\/11 the cases of hijacking have not risen substantially. The discourse is a key concern among Western states. Terror is a risk, however Western states have implemented open-sky agreements \u2013 such as between the US-EU despite such threats. So why should the risk of terror stop Africa implementing open-skies when the Global North has done so? It returns to the relations of power in the global-political economy.  The global-political system is key in constructing a discourse of fear and using this to influence how we act, invest, and work. We need to deconstruct the terror discourse first, to understand what really are the risks and whether liberalising air networks will really make a difference either way. Once the specific risks have been analysed those that are concerns can be addressed including any concerns about terrorism."}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Poverty may have something to do with countries becoming dictatorships but little. That it is about the efficiency of government is much more credible, this is partially why India, with a large native civil service at independence is one of the exceptions. In practice the reason here is that these nations were subject to being downtrodden through colonialism. There was little opportunity provided to create native institutions so any cobbled together rapidly at independence collapsed.  Many of the countries that were poor at independence are still poor now, yet the story of Africa is no longer one of constant violent dictatorship but increasingly one of stable democracies with reasonably fair elections. The number of democracies in Africa has increased from three in 1989 to 24 in 2008.(1) This transition then benefits the economy. An analysis by The Economist finds that over the ten years to 2010, six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies were in sub-Saharan Africa.(2)  The Arab Spring meanwhile demonstrates that the population in poor countries can be organised enough to oust authoritarian leaders through large scale protest. Since they are the ones who suffer from corruption there is no inherent reason why poorer peoples should be more likely to submit to a dictatorship.  (1) Freedom House, \u2018Electoral Democracies in Sub-Saharan Africa\u2019, African Election Database, accessed 22 November 2013,   (2) Graphic detail, \u2018Africa's impressive growth\u2019, The Economist, 6 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Poverty creates a vicious circle  Unfortunately, there is a vicious circle, caused by poverty that many poor countries find themselves in. A poor country also means a poor, ill-funded government. Such an institution is either unhelpful in preventing poverty or a road block to poverty alleviation. A poor population is also unfortunately more likely to lead to an autocratic government. This phenomenon can be shown by looking at decolonisation. Poor countries when decolonised, even if they initially had democratic aspirations quickly fell to dictatorship. There are very few exceptions such as India that have managed to continually maintain a democratic government while poor. Wealthy countries when decolonised are much more likely to become democracies and once poor autocracies become rich the pressure for democratisation usually becomes unstoppable so countries like South Korea democratised as they became wealthy. There might be considered to be a wealth threshold about which states will become democracies.(1)  The reason why poverty is likely to lead to dictatorship is simple; a lack of an educated, effective civil service. When the government is very small it can\u2019t effectively control the whole country or ensure accountability. The result, especially when civil servants are poorly paid is corruption and an opening for the army, or any populist who appears to offer a solution to take power. Once dictatorship occurs it can usually be maintained by force until the population is educated and connected enough to engage in a democratic revolution.  There is then a free pass for those in power to exploit their position through corruption. Many dictators, including in Africa have become very rich indeed. Mohammed Suharto, Ferdinand Marcos and Mobutu Sese Seko( the former dictators of Indonesia, the Philippines, and DR Congo) extorted up to $50bn (\u00a328bn) from their impoverished people (2).  A vicious cycle is created whereby the government needs money, so corruption and extortion are rampant. Those in power are more concerned with their own wealth than the people which makes the government poorer and less efficient so providing more incentive to resort to illicit means of funding.  (1) Cois, Carles; and Stokes, Susan C., \u2018Endogenous Democratization\u2019, The University of Chicago, 3 June 2003,   (2) Denny, Charlotte, \u2018Suharto, Marcos and Mobutu head corruption table with $50bn scams\u2019, The Guardian, 26 March 2004"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Armed forces do not require large amounts of funding to be well disciplined forces that are subordinate to civilian governance. This was shown by many communist nations; Vietnam\u2019s army was immense, beat both the French and Americans and was firmly under party control. The importance of armed forces for security is universally recognised so foreign powers will help train armed forces to ensure these qualities. Thus for example as part of efforts to bring peace to Sierra Leone Britain provided training for the Sierra Leone Armed Forces helping bring stability to the country and allowing the Sierra Leonean army to engage in peace keeping missions elsewhere in Africa.(1)  (1) Clapson, Joe, \u2018Sierra Leonean army comes of age under British direction\u2019, Ministry of Defence, 6 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Poverty means more crime  Despite many problems that Africa has to face, one of the biggest is its extreme poverty. Currently more than 48.5% of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa lives on less than 1.25 dollars a day (1). As a result of this poverty people\u2019s security is being threatened on two main levels.  On the first level of analysis, poverty can lead to crime. Poverty can create desperation to provide for family or yourself. As poverty is widespread in Africa, there are many people who are willing to steal, threaten, abduct or kill someone, in order to have something to eat. At 17.4 per 100,000 citizens, more than double the world average, Africa has the highest homicide rate among all regions of the world.(2) The other side of this is that a poor state can\u2019t provide the level of policing that richer states can, a people in poverty usually results in a poor government. This in turn means that the police force is small, badly trained and underfunded so not fit for preventing crime.  On the second level of analysis, desperate people are much easier to manipulate. This makes them easy targets for military groups in Africa who are searching for members to fight for their causes. It is not coincidental that we have so many militias and juntas in Africa, such as Somali Pirates, AQAP, AQIM, Al-Shabab, Touareg( Mali), Boko Haram(Nigeria), M23 and dozens of others. The militias offer those in poverty what they need most, food, shelter, and protection in return for their \u201cservices\u201d. Poverty provides an additional benefit for these groups due to the stark difference between potential reward, such as from piracy or winning control of mines, and a normal income. As with the drugs trade the lure of the fast buck can be used to encourage risk-taking.  In conclusion, poverty both enables crime and encourages militia groups.  (1) The World Bank, \u2018Poverty\u2019, data.worldbank.org, 2013,   (2) Me, Angela, et al., \u20182011 Global Study on Homicide trends, contexts, data\u2019, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Does poverty cause crime, or does crime cause poverty? Poverty does not in all cases create crime. Bhutan is a poor country but the state department reports \u201cThere is relatively little crime\u201d (1). When there is crime skilled people are more likely to emigrate and trust relationships are destroyed making businesses risk averse. At the same time outside businesses won\u2019t invest in the country and neither will individuals because they fear they won\u2019t get their money back. Finally crime almost invariably means corruption which undermines state institutions, trust in the state and ultimately democracy (2). Crime therefore leads to poverty more than the other way around.  Neither does poverty have much to do with armed anti-government movements, terrorists or militia. Terrorism is an inherently a political struggle. Almost every major terrorist organization that exists has emerged from a conflict revolving around the subject of sovereignty and defending of their culture. Al Qaeda was created after the soviet invasion of Afghanistan and ETA fights for the independence of the Basque county so groups in Africa are ethically or religiously based. The needs and desires of the poorest are much more short-sighted, such as having enough to eat and somewhere to sleep. They would much rather stability. A 2007 study by economist Alan B. Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background (28% vs. 33%) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47% vs. 38%). Another analysis found only 16% of Palestinian terrorists came from impoverished families, vs. 30% of male Palestinians, and over 60% had gone beyond high school, vs. 15% of the populace.(3)  Moreover a rebellion, even if it involves potential financial gain, is not a good long term prospect. In the long term the government tends to win. For example with FARC in Columbia a security build-up over the past decade has reduced the rebels from 18,000 fighters at their peak to about 10,000 today (4) The idea of fighting a war against an army which is bigger, better funded and better equipped isn\u2019t exactly thrilling.  (1) U.S. Department of State, \u2018Bhutan\u2019, travel.state.gov, 2013,   (2) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Crime and Development in Africa\u2019, gsdrc, 2005,   (3) Levitt, Steven D.; Dubner, Stephen J. , Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance, (William Morrow 2009)  (4) \u201cTo the edge and back\u201d, The Economist, 31 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Poor states have trouble providing security  Poor nations find it difficult to sustain efficient and well-disciplined armies. Good training and regular pay is vital for this, something that is unlikely to be forthcoming with a cash strapped government. Yet such a disciplined army is one of the vital prerequisites for security and a stable country.  Discipline is needed to prevent the army turning on those it is supposed to protect, and it is need to secure the country from other groups both internal and external. Poverty therefore enables rebellions, civil wars, and local warlords by helping ensure that the poor states involved don\u2019t have the resources to control their territories. It should come as no surprise that of 12 major ongoing conflicts five are on the African Continent (and another one if the conflict in DR Congo were to be included despite it potentially being at an end).(1)  In addition to this, a poorly funded army is a threat in itself, as the lack of training of the soldiers may translate into unprofessional behaviour, such as engaging in crimes and rapes, or even worse launching a full scale coup in the hope that they will grip the power.  (1) list of ongoing armed conflicts\u2019, Wikipedia, accessed 21 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-con03b","title":"","text":"Ethnicity does not always cause tension, and it is not always difficult to solve. If Africa has thousands of ethnic groups and multiple religions the most noticeable thing has to be that the vast majority of these groups do coexist peacefully. There are at most a couple of dozen different conflicts in Africa compared to these thousands of divisions. Identity might therefore be considered to be an overblown cause of conflict here.  Moreover is an ethnic divide always difficult to solve? No. If it is not a particularly deep divide then it can be sorted out through education and creating a sense of community. There also needs to be a look at the underlying problems; in most cases ethnic conflicts are not simply about attacking the other group because they are the \u2018other\u2019 instead there is something that group wants. At base then the conflict is likely to be over land, economic resources, discrimination etc. not the simple fact that they have a neighbour that is not exactly the same as them. The solution then is the same as with poverty; encouraging economic growth and ensuring good redistribution.  Finally if there is no other choice and two groups within a state are irreconcilable then there is a relatively quick, if not particularly easy, solution; partition. Simply create separate homelands for both ethnic groups.(1)  (1) Zachary, G. Pascal, \u2018Africa Needs a New Map\u2019, Foreign Policy, 28 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-con01b","title":"","text":"At first glance western countries might seem to be the opposite of Africa with regards to ethnicity. Countries like France are ideal type nation states with \u2018national\u2019 borders based upon ethnicity. However in practice western states have large numbers of minorities whether this is through regions with local identities such as the Welsh or immigration. However despite such intermixing there is not the security threat as in Africa.  The most obvious reasons here is wealth. It is the state of the economy that is the main root of violence in Africa and that is the preserver of peace in Western liberal democracies. Rich countries can afford to use their wealth to paper over any cracks created by different identities. They can afford impartial civil services which have little incentive to favour one group over another. And when it come to religion there is a link between education and how religious someone is; one study has estimated an extra year of schooling leads to a 4 percentage-point increase in the likelihood that an individual reports having no religious affiliation at all.(1)  (1) Dubner, Stephen J., \u2018Does More Education Lead to Less Religion?\u2019, Freakonomics, 25 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-con02a","title":"","text":"Society cant function when the population is divided  Successful nations are those with a strong unified sense of purpose. They are states where it is allegiance to the state which is put first. Having different identities which are put first undermines the state. This is exactly what strong religious and ethnic identities do. If these sub state identities are put before the national identity then ethnic groups are likely to \u201cother\u201d anyone who is not a part of their group. If they do not consider themselves as being a part of the same polity there is little reason to cooperate, to pay taxes,  It is the failure to build a unifying framework and these conflicts of identity that split nations apart not poverty. The Rwandan genocide did not happen because Rwanda is poor but because it is split between two groups who, at least for that horrific period, looked at themselves as Hutus or Tutsi\u2019s first and Rwandans second. The rebels in Syria show how strong such divisions can be as rebels fight each other as well as Assad\u2019s regime.(1) In Ivory Coast a country that had previously been considered stable burst into civil war in 2011 after elections that went along ethnic lines.(2)  (1) Dettmer, Jamie, \u201cSyrian Rebel Groups Fight Among Themselves\u201d, Voice of America, 19 September 2013   (2) \u201cAfrican viewpoint: Blood and borders\u201d BBC News, 1 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-con03a","title":"","text":"Identity issues are very difficult to solve  Issues of identity are much more difficult to solve than issues of poverty. Poverty is primarily an issue of economics and can be solved in numerous ways; through aid, development projects, greater exploitation of natural resources, and through policies to encourage economic development. However none of this is likely to happen if there is ethnic conflict.  Where the problem is one of identity there is no fast solution. Ethnicity remains the same throughout someone\u2019s life. Religion is only rarely changed. Customs and traditions only slowly evolve. No matter how hard government tries, these artificial barriers cannot be changed or erased easily. The only solution then is to attempt to work around the problem by not eliminating identities but showing commonalities, itself a slow process.  Spain is an example of how a country can escape poverty but not identity. From the 1980\u2019s Spain enjoyed an economic miracle pulling the country up to being a developed nation. And again after the economic crash changes in policies have managed to halt decline and even move Spain towards recovery.(1) Yet despite a state that has constantly encouraged integration the regions of Spain are more determined than ever to get a chance to decide their own future. Catalu\u00f1a and the Basque Country in particular want independence.(2)  (1) Benoit, Angeline, \u201cSpain Exits Two-Year Recession as Rajoy Seeks Recovery\u201d, Bloomberg, 30 October 2013,   (2) \u201cNothing to lose but their chains\u201d, The Economist, 14 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-con01a","title":"","text":"Ethno-religious divides are a bigger security threat  Poverty is clearly an immense problem for Africa but it is not primarily a security problem. There are parts of the globe such as South Asia and parts of South East Asia that have comparable poverty but little conflict and violence. Moreover not every African country is plagued with conflict. We therefore must look elsewhere for why Africa has high levels of conflict. Religious and Ethnic divisions are a much more direct security threat and cause for conflicts.  To start with, it is extremely easy to blame people of other ethnicity or religion of your own problems. This occurs throughout the world, no matter if we are talking about immigrants coming into the EU and US, about the Kurdish population in Turkey or about Israel and Palestine. Africa has 3315 ethnic groups, a huge number (1). Unlike Europe these have not been formed into cohesive nations with colonial borders often arbitrarily cutting through ethnic groups. A conflict is 25 percent longer and has a has a higher casualty rate when an ethnicity is divided by a national border. Examples of divided (and conflicted) groups are the Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania, and the Anyi of Ghana and the Ivory Coast. (2)  Division also occurs between religions. Samuel P Huntington wrote a famous book \u2018The Clash of Civilisations\u2019 that highlights that conflict is often created between religions. In Africa this means conflict in a swathe of northern Africa where Islam and Christianity meet. For example, the Muslim terrorist organization called Boko Haram, which has a lot of support in Nigeria, is engaged in a massive against Christians which has been responsible for the deaths of hundreds of non-Muslims.(2)  (1) Wentzel, Dr. John, \u2018Who are the developing world\u2019, johnwentzel.com, 28 February 2013,   (2) Gilman, Azure, \u2018The Violent Legacy of Africa\u2019s Arbitrary Borders\u2019, Freakonomics, 12 January 2011,   (3) Stark, William, \u201cBoko Haram's Anti-Christian Violence Continues in Northern Nigeria\u201d, Religion Today, 13 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ygiadwmhb-con02b","title":"","text":"Fortunately the solution to this particular problem is exactly the same as the solution to poverty; fixing the dysfunctional state. There have been many multi-ethnic countries that have successfully created a sense of \u2018nationhood\u2019 and shared identity among people of different ethnicities and faiths. India, Indonesia, Brazil and the United States are all good examples. This needs to be done through education, government having an impartial presence in the population\u2019s lives, infrastructure, and through ensuring that different ethnicities see that working together provides benefits for all.  State building is necessary to prevent this internal ethnic conflict but having a strong state is also a foundation for creating a dynamic economy that reduces, and eventually eliminates poverty. Brazil is both a good example of integration of large numbers of ethnicities; the \u2018rainbow nation\u2019 and an example of state intervention reducing poverty through the bolsa familia, payments for sending children to school which coincidently helps educating so encouraging a sense of nation.(1)  (1) Nobrega, Camila, \u2018Bolsa-Fam\u00edlia: template for poverty reduction or recipe for dependency?\u2019 Guardian Professional, 5 November 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro02b","title":"","text":"The EAC is not yet ready to fully support its missions. The East African Community military command have not helped in prevention of terrorist attacks in Kenya nor has it been able to stop the prolonged insecurities and conflicts in Burundi, besides it still needs improvement. The unity between Kenya and Uganda did not stop conflicts arising over ownership of Migingo islands on lake Victoria; membership would not mean that South Sudan and Sudan suddenly have similar interests or ameliorate their conflict.  Rwanda and Uganda have been recently accused of supporting insecurity in Eastern Congo (1), and the peace keeping missions in Somalia and Darfur are both AU and UN initiatives not the EAC. In practice the bloc is not yet ready to embark on such wider missions.  (1) Louis, Charbonneau, and Michelle, Nicholls \u2018Rwanda, Uganda arming Congo rebels- UN panel\u2019, reuters.com, 17\/10\/2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro02a","title":"","text":"Conflicts and insecurity in the region will be resolved.  Widening the East African Community will help provide a strong force and voice against insecurities, conflicts and insurgencies that have torn apart much of the region.  The current EAC member states have been at the fore front of maintaining peace and security in the region, with Burundi, Kenya and Uganda sending troops to Somalia and Rwanda sending troops to Darfur and CAR.  In March 2012, the USAID assessment on East Africa regional conflict and instability highlighted that the revival and expansion of the EAC would favour a vision of promoting peace in the region (1) pointing out the Lamu project aimed at creating a transport corridor linking South Sudan to northern Kenya and the coast. Widening the bloc will make it easy for member states to support their peacekeeping missions through the East Africa community military command and also help reduce interstate invasions like Sudan and South Sudan or Rwanda and DRC as they will now be united with more closely aligned interests.  (1) USAID, \u2018East Africa Regional conflict and instability Assessment, usaid.gov, March 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro03b","title":"","text":"Widening the EAC will affect the emerging education systems. Most of the countries with interest to join the EAC are characterised by poor education systems. Bringing Somalia, South Sudan and DRC, into the community would bring a huge challenge to the existing systems. The inter university council of education is a new established body, policies like harmonising the education curricula are still in process of implementation and this cannot be rated a success at the moment let alone be expanded to millions more children and youths. Additionally, there are still current member states like Burundi with crippled education systems (1), why not first focus internally and deepen these institutions before expanding?  (1) Concern worldwide, Burundi, \u2018education\u2019, concernusa.org"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro01a","title":"","text":"Economic Development will be boosted in the entire region.  Widening the East African Community, will help enlarge the common market, increase production and improve regional trade as people will be able to freely do business across more than five countries.  Prior to Rwanda and Burundi\u2019s membership to the bloc in 2004, Kenya\u2019s exports and imports to the EAC were Kshs 64 billion and Kshs 3 billion respectively this however increased after the two countries joined creating a single market of 133.5 million people. In 2009 Kenya\u2019s exports had risen to Kshs 90.5 billion and imports to Kshs 12.5 billion [1].  Ethiopia, DRC and South Sudan are all mineral rich countries and are big potential markets for East Africa. Welcoming them to the community is predicted to double the production, imports and exports among member states [2] due to policies policies like the EAC trade facilitation, customs union and competition policy and law [2].  [1] Mary, Odongo,\u2019Institute of Economic Affairs; Towards an East African Community common market\u2019, ieakenya.or.ke, 30 Jan 2011,   [2] Ernest & Young, \u2018The East Africa boom\u2019, ey.com,   [3] East African Community Customs, \u2018market size, access and trade policy\u2019, eu.int,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro01b","title":"","text":"Widening the bloc will also widen the burden of satisfying all member states which will affect economic development. The discovery of oil in Uganda has prompted concerns about how it will be extracted as a result of a green light to foreign companies to do the job [1], and Rwanda\u2019s natural gas remain untouched due to a lack of skilled labour despite the EAC freedom of movement policies. Why then bring a bigger burden of un-extracted mineral resources that cannot be handled by EAC? And the fact that Kenya has been able to profit from such integration has not done much to lift Burundi from extreme poverty Or prevent Tanzania\u2019s slow growth [2]. When all members are looking to export natural resources there are few benefits to the bloc, the members find themselves competing in export markets.  [1] Oil review, \u2018Uganda to sign oil drilling agreement with international oil firms\u2019, oilreviewafrica.com, 15 April 2013,   [2] IMF, \u2018Truly integrated market would bring benefits to East Africa\u2019, imf.org, 15 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro04b","title":"","text":"Pan-Africanism is more a dream than a reality. Widening the East African Community would actually alter and destroy the meaning of Pan-Africanism because of the many challenges that come with such integration (1). Currently there are disputes within the EAC itself with Tanzania and Burundi claiming to be sidelined from the other three states. People will never at any moment feel more East Africans than citizens of a particular country; recently Rwandans who had lived in Tanzania for years were forcibly deported by the government (2) despite the fact that both countries are member states of the EAC and signed free movement into law. This is enough to explain how things would be a mess if rival countries like DRC, Sudan and Somalia were to join the bloc.  (1) United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, \u2018Assessing regional integration in Africa\u2019, uneca.org, Vol.V,   (2) Catherine, Byaruhanga, \u2018Thousands deported from Tanzania to Rwanda\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 2 Sept 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro03a","title":"","text":"Education standards will be improved across the region  improvement of education among member states. It has policies such as the introduction of the inter University council of education to ensure the quality of University education, and an ongoing process of harmonising education curricula in all member countries (1). However, Africa still remains the continent with poorest quality of education and has the lowest skilled\/educated labour. A large number of children fail to access basic education (2). Enlarging and deepening the EAC will therefore enhance education standards on a large part of the African continent; such policies will lift weak academic institutions in DRC, South Sudan and Somalia which are typical of their poor education systems.  (1) East African Community Education, \u2018Harmonisation of education and training curricula in East Africa\u2019 eac.int,   (2) Kevin Watkins, \u2018Narrowing Africa\u2019s Education deficit\u2019, brookings.com, January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-pro04a","title":"","text":"It will serve an example of Pan-Africanism and encourage many to join the movement.  Nkwame Nkurumah, one of the famous African heroes said \u201cAfrica must unite or perish\u201d. This has been taken up by the African Union which is calling for integration across the continent (1). Widening and deepening the EAC will therefore shine a light to the ideology of Pan Africanism. Bringing more African states together under one bloc with the same vision and institutions will help people to work together regardless of ethnic or cultural differences. Citizens will feel more East Africans rather than citizens of a particular country as every citizen of the EAC member state is allowed to freely travel in the region with no difficulties or discrimination as a result of the East African Community\u2019s freedom of movement(2). This will therefore encourage other blocs like the ECOWAS and SADC to actively perform and widen hence creating a more united Africa.  (1) African Union, \u2018Celebrating Pan \u2013Africanism and African renaissance\u2019, au.int, 10 May 2013,   (2) East African Community, Towards a common market, \u2018Annex on the free movement of persons\u2019, eac.int,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-con03b","title":"","text":"The EAC does not have a general rule that membership is only reserved for countries in the Eastern region of Africa, and the presence of the African Union does not deem other regional blocs useless. To achieve growth and integration on the continent, there is great need to unite regionally[1]. Having members that are also members of other regional organisations simply helps bring those organisations together to the benefit of all.  [1] Michael, Rettig, Anne W. Kamau and Augustus, Sammy, Muluv,\u2019 The African Union can do more to support regional integration\u2019, brookings.edu, 17 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-con01b","title":"","text":"Initially the EAC comprised of only three countries but after only 7 years, Rwanda and Burundi joined the bloc [1]. The new members however did not hamper the progress of the EAC but instead increased the rate of performance and improvement. If anything the two new countries added momentum in the operations of the bloc despite the fact that they were both economically weak. It is therefore not valid to assume that enlargement would hinder progress.  [1] East African Community, \u2018About EAC\u2019, eac.int,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-con02a","title":"","text":"The potential entrants are still weak and pose a threat to the growing EAC  Most of the countries showing interest in joining the EAC are still economically weak, politically unstable, and socially divided. Somalia is the poorest state in the world; it is unstable with a high rate of terrorism [1]. DRC has yet to fully end its civil war, and has large social divides [2]. And South Sudan is a newly independent country that has not yet finished forming its governing institutions but already faces conflicts both internal and external. Accepting all these countries to the East African community now would create instability; it would clear the way for more Al shabab attacks in both Kenya and Uganda due as the borders would be open, it would clear a path for the FDLR (a rebel group that includes some of those responsible for Rwanda\u2019s genocide) from Congo to Rwanda, a threat that the EAC is not ready to manage.  [1] Ludger, Schadomsky, \u2018No stability in sight for Somalia\u2019, dw.de, 20 June 2013   [2] Jason, Stearns, \u2018The Congo; a revolution deferred\u2019, sscr.org, 8 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-con03a","title":"","text":"The EAC is not different from the AU which aims at integrating all African states.  All countries that have shown interest in joining the EAC are member states of the AU which oversees integration in African countries; there is no reason then for them to join another bloc that has the same aim as the African Union unless it is no longer functioning.  Countries like DRC and Sudan are geographically located in different regions than East Africa and this would breach the meaning of the bloc. Additionally, these individual countries are members of other regional organisations like COMESA and SADC which puts a challenge of flexibility in adopting different policies from separate blocs. [1] For example how could a customs union operate if DRC were to be a member of two separate customs unions? any external barriers between the two could be bypassed by going through the DRC.  [1] Dinka,T,Kennes,W, \u2018Africa\u2019s regional integration arrangements; history and challenges\u2019, ecdpm.org, 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-con01a","title":"","text":"The EAC is not yet a strong bloc to be widened  The EAC, though a progressing bloc, is premature for widening. 48% of its budget is derived from the EU and 22% from other donor agencies and governments. Membership subscriptions barely suffice to cover staff remuneration and other administrative costs leaving no funds to support development oriented programmes [1]. 71.3% of Congolese [2] and 50.6% of South Sudanese [3] live below the poverty line; how would the EAC support such regions with a crippled budget? Creating a common market would mean bringing together poor countries that have nothing to offer or learn from each other unlike the EU which has strong economies to support weaker ones and provide role models and expertise for development.  There is a greater need to deepen the bloc by ensuring that member states are able to meet the pledged costs towards the budget. The EAC needs to make sure planned initiatives like the monetary union, customs union, and unifying education systems are well coordinated and successful before widening.  [1] Dr. Khoti, Kamanga, \u2018EAC Integration; progress achieved, challenges and opportunities\u2019, ippmedia.com, 3 Nov 2013,   [2] The World Bank, \u2018Data; Congo,Dem Rep, world development indicators, worldbank.org,   [3] The World Bank, \u2018Data;South Sudan,word development indicators,worldbank.org,"}
+{"id":"training-international-ahwweac-con02b","title":"","text":"Al shabaab attacks have continued to be a huge threat to both the Ugandan and Kenyan governments with the recent attack on Westgate shopping center in Nairobi [1] and the Lugogo cricket ground in Kampala [2] despite the tight immigration policies towards Somalis. FDLR has also continued to carry out attacks in Rwanda regardless Rwanda\u2019s efforts to prevent them [3]. Tighter immigration controls therefore has been shown not to provide solution to these threats. Instead uniting all these countries would give ground for the East African Military Command to handle such threats.  [1] AFP, \u2018Westgate mall, Alshabaab gunmen were suicide commandos\u2019, telegraph.co.uk,12 Nov 2013,   [2] BBC world news, \u2018Somali militants behind Kampala world cup bombings\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 12 July 2010,   [3] Reuters, \u2018Rwanda says FDLR cross from Congo attack wardens\u2019, reuters.com, 2 Dec 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-pro02b","title":"","text":"We may agree that an active civil society may be good for the economy. However, there is no need for African governments to ensure CSOs have a wider participation in the political life of the country to do this. As long as the government respects and protects the existence of such organizations, their positive economic by-products are preserved. Societal actors can work autonomously and independently of the political system."}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Civil society is good for economic development  There is increasing evidence that a more active and involved Civil Society is good for economic development [1] . Specifically, CSOs are believed to have a crucial role for African development prospects. The Local Economic Development Network of Africa argues that \u2018In particular, they often know what are the employment and income generation needs of different groups within the population and what could stimulate better outcomes for them. It is very important, therefore, that they are involved and consulted\u2019 ( LEDNA, 2013). In addition CSOs autonomously implement development programmes. Only to give an example, in Nepal CSOs in the Education for Income Generation program have played a crucial role in building up workers skills resulting in 80% being in employment many striking out entrepreneurially on their own5. It is therefore necessary for African governments to guarantee such organizations and grant them a wider participation.  [1] Panth, Sabina, (25 February 2011) \u2018What Role Does Civil Society Play in Economic Development?\u2019, blogs.worldbank.org"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The idea that CSO\u2019s involvement in political life equals good governance is essentially an oversimplification. In extremely corrupt semi-democracies, there is no guarantee that societal actors will not be co-opted within the system and become corrupted themselves [1] . This would result in a legitimation of the non-democratic powers in the public eye, rather than a promotion of better practices and good governance. We could say that a wider role for civil society is desirable only for those countries that are well ahead in the path of democratisation. The risk is, otherwise, to trigger a counterproductive reaction.  [1] Mogalakwe and Sebudubudu (2006) \u2018Trends in state-civil society relations in Botswana\u2019, Journal of African Elections, 5:2, pp. 207-224"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Civil society\u2019s involvement in political life is necessary to strengthen democratic accountability  The involvement of civil society in political life is all the more crucial in Africa, where newborn democracies need to be strengthened and consolidated. Active CSOs function as a watchdog for political power and as alternative channels for citizens\u2019 political participation, thus strengthening democratic accountability. Indeed, several scholars highlight that a \u2018prostrate civil society\u2019 is to be identified as a fundamental factor in determining the region\u2019s democratic instability (Scott, 1998, as quoted in Lewis, 2002: 576). \u2018Civil society is a hitherto (missing key) to sustained political reform, legitimate states and governments, improved governance, viable state-society and state-economy relations, and prevention of the kind of political decay that undermined new African governments a generation ago\u2019(Harberson, 1994: 1-2). The sustainability of African democracies thus depends on the promotion of a more active and participative civil society."}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is no consensus on the assumption that CSOs may function as alternative channels of accountability. This, in fact, would require CSOs to be democratically accountable themselves. Yet, this is not the case. There is no form of direct accountability between Civil Society Organizations and the communities they claim to represent. In other words, no one \u2018elects Oxfam\u2019 [1] . Moreover, CSOs are not even representative of the people they are supposed to give voice to. In fact, wealthy and highly educated men are overrepresented in CSOs [2] . It is therefore hard to understand how civil society can guarantee or increase democratic accountability in African countries.  [1] The Economist, 23rd September 2000, p. 129  [2] Talberg and Uhlin (2011) \u2018Civil society and global democracy. An assessment\u2019, in Archibugi, Koenig Archibugi and Marchetti, Global Democracy: Normative and Empirical Perspectives, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-pro03a","title":"","text":"The involvement of CSOs promotes good governance practices  Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan has stated that \u2018good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development\u2019 [1] . It is therefore impossible to ignore the claim that CSOs involvement in political life is crucial to promote good governance practices. Civil Society is able to create additional pressure on the government to ensure good governance, as well as to contribute ideas about what good governance practices should entail in the specific local context, and to \u2018bridge the gap between the law and its actual implementation\u2019( Zivanovic, 2007). \u201cGood governance in Africa is ultimately going to come from civil society in the countries themselves\u201d, declared Jendayi Frazer, former U.S. assistant secretary of state for African affairs [2] . An article in The Guardian shows how CSO\u2019s can help: \u2018In the Ileje district of southern Tanzania, expectant mothers about to give birth had to cross a crocodile-infested river into Malawi because a local medical centre did not have enough money to pay for a midwife.  It took a campaign by civil society organisations and citizens to uncover that there was money available, but that it had somehow been diverted\u2019 [3] . CSOs involvement ultimately permitted the solution of the issue.  [1] Kofi Annan, Partnerships for Global Community: Annual Report on the Work of the Organisation (UN, 1998)  [2] Cannon, H. Brevy, (4 May 2009), \u2018Diplomat: Civil Society Is Key To Good Governance in Africa\u2019, UVA Today  [3] Kilonzo, Semkae, (30 September 2013) \u2018Tanzania has shown how civil society can contribute to economic justice\u2019, theguardian.com"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-con03b","title":"","text":"Two crucial counterpoints can be opposed to the above argument. First of all, we may agree that western NGOs organize, support or fund African CSOs. However, this does not mean that African civil society is not independent in its action and able to defend its own interests and values. Secondly, even if we accept that western actors may interfere with the activity of African CSOs, we must consider if this is the worst of evils. Someone may argue, and we certainly do, that it is still worth ensuring civil society has a voice in African politics, even if this brings the risk of western interference."}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-con01b","title":"","text":"Despite the arguments underlining the differences between Western and African contexts, there is evidence that civil society may play in Africa the same crucial and positive role it had in Western political history. Indeed, the EU commissioner for development, Andris Piebalgs, has issued a press release specifically analysing the role civil society may play in African politics [1] . The conclusions highlight that a wider involvement of civil society in Africa\u2019s political life is crucial for the prospects of democratization and development in the continent.  [1] Piebalgs, Andris, (24 October 2013), \u2018Civil Society Organisations, a key role to play in Africa-EU relations\u2019, Europa.eu"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-con02a","title":"","text":"An excessively active civil society would increase political instability and paralyse African states  CSOs involvement in the political life does have positive and relevant consequences, but only if the state is strong and the political power is stable. In the African context, several scholars argue, an excessively active civil society may instead increase political instability and paralyze an already weak state. Blair (1997), for example, affirms that CSOs may advance so many different claims and interests that the result is a political paralysis. A weaker state, rather than a deeper democracy, results. Similarly, Foley and Edwards (1996), analysing the \u2018paradox of civil society\u2019, point out that conflicts may arise among groups in civil society. \u2018These conflicts, in the absence of specifically political settlements, may spill over into civil disruption and violence\u2019 (1996: 40). The example of India reported above is extremely relevant in this regard. In addition, several scholars argue that Trade Unions and CSOs in general have represented an obstacle for both economic development and political stability in Latin America. African states must stabilize and consolidate before integrating civil society in their political life"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-con03a","title":"","text":"The promotion of civil society is yet another form of the Western imperialism  CSOs in Africa are constituted by western NGOs or funded by western actors. It has even been argued that the involvement of western actors in African civil society cannot be avoided, since western NGOs need to function as intermediaries between funders and local groups [1] . In addition, western NGOs are easily co-opted by western governments, and tend to promote western interests and values rather than local ones [2] . In short, CSOs\u2019 wider involvement in African political life would result in an increased western influence on African affairs. Sseremba, A journalist from Uganda, even claims that western NGOs are \u2018indoctrinating young African politicians to serve western interests\u2019 [3] . It is therefore necessary to find another way to ensure African citizens are actively involved in the policy making process.  [1] INTRAC, (2012), \u2018Supporting civil society in Africa\u2019, baringfoundation.org.uk  [2] Talberg and Uhlin (2011) \u2018Civil society and global democracy. An assessment\u2019, in Archibugi, Koenig Archibugi and Marchetti, Global Democracy: Normative and Empirical Perspectives, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.  [3] Sseremba, Yahya, (10 May 2012), \u2018THE NEXT PUPPETS: How NGOs are indoctrinating young African politicians to serve western interests\u2019, The Campus Journal"}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-con01a","title":"","text":"Western European experiences do not demonstrate that civil society\u2019s involvement in politics would be positive in the African context  The idea that CSOs involvement in political life would have positive consequences has been generated by a western-centric literature. However, there is no evidence that the same results would materialize in a completely different context such as the African one. Maina (1998), for example, claims that relations of class and ethnicity are so important in Africa that it is hard to imagine civil society would work in the same way it has in the west. CSOs could form along ethnic or religious lines, thus damaging the fabric of society and jeopardising the stability of divided countries. Ashutosh Varshney (2001), for example, analysed how CSOs formed exclusively along ethnic lines in certain areas in India, thus causing an increase in ethnic violence and political instability. We must therefore be very careful in applying western paradigms to non-western countries, the risk being otherwise to do more harm than good."}
+{"id":"training-international-algsfmhbc-con02b","title":"","text":"The opposite may actually be the case. Several authors in fact claim that an active civil society can improve political stability. A weak state consolidates its power by democratising and acquiring legitimacy. Civil society is crucial in this regard. \u2018Civil society contributes directly to stability by encouraging citizens to address their concerns through democratic political processes, including elections. It also challenges abuses of power that fuel instability \u2019, Freedom House reports [1] . Indeed, the Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA) (2000) [2] identified an increased participation of Civil Society in African states as essential to promote stability in the continent. A wider involvement of CSOs in the political life must therefore be pursued all the most in the African context, where the political power needs both consolidation and democratization.  [1] Calingaert, Daniel, (11 July 2013), \u2018Resisting the Global Crackdown on Civil Society\u2019, Freedom House  [2] OHCHR, \u2018Compilation of documents\u2026\u2019, ohchr.org"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro02b","title":"","text":"The G8 countries are the world\u2019s most powerful countries. As such most of the powers involved in the G8 have at some point been involved in aggressive foreign interventions. The Iraq invasion did not lead to calls to throw the US and UK out, neither did the bombing of Libya lead to France\u2019s expulsion. Using Russian actions in Ukraine as an excuse would be simple hypocrisy."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro02a","title":"","text":"Aggressive acts violate the meaning of the G8  The focus of the G8 is on economic, monetary, financial and globilisation issues. Aggressive actions scare the markets \u2013 as shown by the rouble reaching new lows against the dollar and Euro \u2013 so run counter to the focus of the G8. [1] Russia has in the past also used its gas supplies as an economic weapon, this and acts of aggression such as in Crimea are repudiating the idea of globilisation. The G8 is important because there is \u201ca good understanding among G8 members\u201d clearly when one of those members is engaging in conflictual acts that understanding is damaged. [2] The G7 members on 2nd March 2014 in a statement responding to Russia\u2019s aggression in the Crimea stated \u201cRussia\u2019s actions in Ukraine also contravene the principles and values on which the G-7 and the G-8 operate\u201d. [3] Any member that does not follow the principles of an organisation should be suspended as a member.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Russian rouble hits new low against the dollar and euro\u2019, 3 March 2014  [2] Government of France, \u2018The G8\u2019, g8.fr, 2003  [3] Office of the Press Secretary, \u2018G-7 Leaders Statement\u2019, whitehouse.gov, 2 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is wrong to say that Russia is not an industrialised country, it is considered by the World Bank to be a high income country. [1] It is also a democracy that holds regular elections. President Putin is held in high regard by Russians 67.8% of Russians approve of Putin\u2019s job performance [2] \u2013 far higher than any other member of the G8.  [1] The World Bank, \u2018Russian Federation\u2019, data.worldbank.org, accessed 7 March 2014  [2] Luhn, Alec, \u2018Ukraine crisis and Olympics boost Vladimir Putin\u2019s popularity in Russia\u2019, The Guardian, 6 March 2014 , note however the pollster is state run!"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro01a","title":"","text":"There needs to be a response to bad behaviour internationally  The intention of international institutions is to bind countries together, to ensure they speak to each other and resolve differences, and to ensure they feel they cannot engage in aggressive actions. However when a state breaks these norms there needs to be a reaction. Russia has been willing to engage in aggressive acts time and time again. The recent occupation of Crimea is very similar to Russia\u2019s war with Georgia in 2008; in both conflicts Russia used the excuse of Russians being in danger, in both cases Russia was there as a \u2018peacekeeper\u2019, and in both cases the action was in another sovereign country whose government did not wish Russian troops there. The result is an expansion of Russian influence and some form of annexation. [1] There was no action after the Russian conflict with Georgia except a mediated peace. [2] There now needs to be a response to actions in Crimea; throwing Russia out of the G8 is the least response.  [1] Friedman, Uri, \u2018Putin\u2019s Playbook: The Strategy Behind Russia\u2019s Takeover of Crimea\u2019, The Atlantic, 2 March 2014  [2] King, Charles, \u2018The Five-Day War\u2019, Foreign Affairs, November\/December 2008  Traynor, Ian, Luke Harding and Helen Womack, \u2018Georgia and Russia declare ceasefire\u2019, theguardian.com, 16 August 2008"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro01b","title":"","text":"If there needs to be a response to Russian actions it does not need to be this response. Much more useful would be economic sanctions against Russia; either targeted freezing of state assets and the assets of leaders, or more comprehensive sanctions that would damage Russia\u2019s economy. Such actions would provide a real cost to aggressive action, not simply a symbolic cost. [1]  [1] Verhofstadt, Guy, \u2018Russia will bow to economic pressure over Ukraine, so the EU must impose it\u2019, theguardian.com, 6 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro04b","title":"","text":"Sanctions by necessity harm both sides. However Russia is a much smaller economy than either the EU or US (both of which are seven-eight times bigger). Any economic retaliation and escalation will therefore harm Russia more. The threat to cut off gas supplies is a major threat but Russia can\u2019t simply sell the gas elsewhere because its pipelines mostly go to Europe. In the 2009 \u2018gas war\u2019 which involved supplies to Europe being restricted (though not completely cut off) for 20 days Russia\u2019s state gas company Gazprom lost $1.1billion in revenues. [1] A more complete cut off would have higher losses.  [1] Pugliaresi, Lucian et al., \u2018Is it time for Gazprom to hit the reset button?\u2019, Oil&Gas Journal, 3 September 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro03a","title":"","text":"Russia should never have been a member  The G8 has been meant to be a group of industrialised democracies. Russia is neither particularly industrialised, nor particularly democratic. Russia remains reliant on natural resources for much of its wealth; 30% of its GDP and 70% of exports. [1] Its most recent presidential election \u2013 that voted in Putin for a third term \u2013 was not exactly free and fair. The OSCE election observers concluded \u201cThere was no real competition and abuse of government resources ensured that the ultimate winner of the election was never in doubt\u201d. [2] Its qualifications for membership have been questioned from the very beginning, when Russia joined the G7 were able to argue inclusion would bring it closer to the west. Yet Russia remains essentially an outsider in the group, it does not share western values and goes its own way. [3]  [1] Aron, Leon, \u2018The political economy of Russian oil and gas\u2019, American Enterprise Institute, 11 April 2013  [2] Eschenbaecher, Jens-Hagen, \u2018Russia\u2019s presidential election marked by unequal campaign conditions, active citizens\u2019 engagement, international observers say\u2019, OSCE, 4 March 2012  [3] Dempsey, Judy, \u2018Judy Asks: Is Russia Relevant in the G8?\u2019, Carnegie Europe, 19 June 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro04a","title":"","text":"The biggest action the west can take without sanctions  European states, which make up half of the members of the G8, have been reluctant to take stronger economic steps against aggressive Russian actions. Russia has warned the US \u201cWe will encourage everybody to dump US Treasury bonds, get rid of dollars as an unreliable currency and leave the US market.\u201d [1] The European countries have more reason to be concerned because they rely on Russia for their gas supplies; 39% of German gas and 9% of total energy consumption is reliant on Russia. [2] If Russia were to retaliate to sanctions it could seriously damage the European economy. This means that throwing Russia out of the G8 or other institutions is the biggest sanction that does not have any risk of economic retaliation and escalation that damage everyone.  [1] RIA Novosti, \u2018Putin Adviser Urges Dumping US Bonds In Reaction to Sanctions\u2019, 4 March 2013  [2] Ratner, Michael et al., \u2018Europe\u2019s Energy Security: Options and Challenges to Natural Gas Supply Diversification\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 20 August 2013, p.10"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con03b","title":"","text":"But Russia, as with any country \u2013 particularly any powerful country \u2013 is interested in symbolism and international prestige. Many analysts suggest that Putin\u2019s takeover of Crimea may be about revenge for having \u2018lost\u2019 Ukraine, or out of a desire to set up a new greater Russia. [1] In each of these cases it is about prestige as the practical gains to Russia are small. Russia wants to be seen as a great power, kicking it out of one of the globe\u2019s top clubs damages that ambition.  [1] Speck, Ulrich, \u2018Opinion Putin planning \u2018Soviet Union lite\u2019\u2019, CNN, 4 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con01b","title":"","text":"The address by Putin was before Russia\u2019s illegal intervention into Crimea and as such \u2018settling regional conflicts\u2019 almost certainly refers to Syria, not Crimea. Russia\u2019s role in Syria has hardly been constructive, it has until recently stopped any resolutions on Syria [1] , but not so onerous as to require throwing the country out of the G8. With Putin in charge of the summit and so setting the agenda we can be sure that discussion of Crimea will be kept off the agenda so ensuring that any discussion is purely informal. Putin is hardly likely to make concessions at his own summit.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Syria crisis: UN Security Council agrees aid resolution\u2019, 23 February 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con02a","title":"","text":"Allows strength in numbers  Russia was originally allowed in to the G8 to encourage it to reform, or rather to provide a place where Russia\u2019s leader can be backed into reforming. The G8 is a western institution, a forum in which an aggressive Russia has no natural allies. This means that it is the perfect place for the western democracies to voice their concerns; Russia will find itself isolated at the table and on the back foot. While at its own summit it will be even more likely to give concessions in the interests of making its own summit a success. At the last G8 summit Putin hosted in 2006 Russia made some concessions to the US in order to try and obtain WTO membership. [1]  [1] Rutland, Peter, \u2018Russia and the WTO: deal, or no deal?\u2019, National Bureau of Asian Research, Special Report no.12, March 2007. Pp31-36, p.32"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con04a","title":"","text":"Simply narrows the G8 making it irrelevant  The G8 has been losing its relevance with the rise of other countries economically. It can no longer claim to be the top eight economies as Canada is the world\u2019s eleventh largest economy with India, Brazil and China all bigger. It is even lower (14th) if done by Purchasing Power Parity. [1] Newer more inclusive institutions such as the G20 that include other vital economies like China have been taking over its primacy on the economy. The G8 is no longer the best grouping to steer the global economy as was recognised during the 2008 financial crisis where the G20 took the lead. [2] Throwing out Russia would simply be making the G8 narrower and less important globally so reducing the institution\u2019s influence.  [1] The World Bank, \u2018GDP (current US$)\u2019, data.worldbank.org, 2012 figures  [2] Cooper, Andrew F., \u2018The G20 as an improvised crisis committee and\/or a contested \u2018steering committee\u2019 for the world\u2019, International Affairs, Vol.86, No.3, 2010 pp.741-757"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con03a","title":"","text":"Will make no difference to Russia  Throwing Russia out of the G8 to punish the country \u2013 whether for aggressive acts in its near abroad, for human rights violations, or simply for corruption and economic crimes \u2013 is unlikely to make any difference to Russia. [1] Being in the G8 provides very little tangible benefit; it is all about the symbolism of it being the top club. Russia however has created its own top club in the BRICS conferences that are very similar to the G8 as a series of informal gatherings of major world leaders. Russia could rightly argue that despite having fewer members it is broader and more inclusive as it includes members from the Americas (Brazil), from Africa (South Africa), and the important players from of Eurasia (Russia, China, India). Since these powers are the rising countries why would Russia want to be associated with the declining west?  [1] Judah, Ben, \u2018Why Russia No Longer Fears the West\u2019, Politico, 2 March 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con01a","title":"","text":"There needs to be a place to talk  German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier argues that \"The format of the G8 is actually the only one in which we in the West can speak directly with Russia\". [1] Russia\u2019s proposed priorities for the G8 summit included \u201cfighting the drug menace, combating terrorism and extremism, settling regional conflicts, safeguarding people's health, and establishing a global management system to address risks associated with natural and man-made disasters\u201d [2] since Russia is clearly willing to discuss regional conflicts then it makes sense to use the summit to discuss Ukraine. Since Russia has not turned up to other suggested talks, such as a meeting of the Budapest agreement group [3] (UK, US, Ukraine, Russia \u2013 the agreement guarantees Ukraine\u2019s territorial integrity [4] ), it makes sense to go to Russia\u2019s summit which Russia can\u2019t avoid.  [1] kms\/ccp, \u2018Putin agrees to Ukraine 'fact-finding' mission after talk with Merkel\u2019, Deutsche Welle, 2 March 2013  [2] Putin, Vladimir, \u2018Address by President Vladimir Putin on Russia assuming the G8 Presidency\u2019, en.g8russia.ru, 1 January 2014  [3] G uardian Staff, \u2018Only talks between Russia and Ukraine can solve crisis, say US and UK\u2019, theguardian.com, 5 March 2014  [4] Presidents of Ukraine, Russian Federation and United States of America, and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, \u2018Budapest Memorandums on Security Assurances, 1994\u2019, cfr.org, 5 December 1994"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con04b","title":"","text":"Getting rid of Russia would not make the G8 irrelevant; it would simply return it to its core. The remaining members would me much more likely to agree and actually come up with meaningful outcomes to the summits. It might be a less effective steering committee for the global economy but at the same time it could ensure greater unity between the western powers."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpglhwtrog-con02b","title":"","text":"While strength in numbers may seem to be useful when there are conflicts between Russia and the other G8 members this is not what the G8 should be about. Using the G8 in such a way will simply encourage Russia to dig its heels in and encourage the growth of other rival institutions. An example would be the BRIC summits between Brazil, Russia, India and China; would these have happened at all if the G8 has been more inclusive and recognised that these nations need to be involved in the G8? It is notable that the very first summit included discussion of the desire by India and Brazil to play a greater role in world affairs. [1]  [1] Presidents of Russia, Brazil, China and Prime Minister of India, \u2018Joint Statement of the BRIC Countries\u2019 Leaders\u2019, kremlin.ru, 16 June 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is claiming exactly the opposite of the previous point on U.S. demand for drugs; is not Mexican demand for guns as much to blame for guns in Mexico as U.S. supply? The US has put considerable effort into making sure that the Mexicans are able to counter cartels armed with guns with U.S. Army Special Forces soldiers training Mexican army commandoes. Similarly the Marine Corps also is working on an exchange program with the Mexican Marine Corps that will include sharing experiences on urban warfare. The US also arms the Mexican armed forces to prevent them being outgunned by the gangs. [1]  [1] Bowman, Tom, 'CIA And Pentagon Wonder: Could Mexico Implode?' NPR."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro02a","title":"","text":"U.S. supplies the guns used by drugs cartels  While the US complains about the Mexico\u2019s inability to stop drugs flowing north the USA seems equally unable to stop guns and weapons flowing south into Mexico. As Clinton says \u201cOur inability to prevent weapons from being illegally smuggled across the border to arm these criminals causes the deaths of police officers, soldiers and civilians.\u201d Clinton argues that one problem is that the bad guys outgun the law enforcement officers and so is supplying Mexico with better equipment such as night vision goggles, [1] however at least in the short term the only result can be an arms race and more violence as shown by the increasing violence in 2010 and 2011. [2] So long as the cartels are able to easily buy guns then the problem will not be solved. Here again the United States is to blame. The United States has 54,000 licenced gun dealers while Mexico only has one heavily guarded compound so the cartels smuggle their weapons in from the U.S. [3]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Clinton admits US blame on Drugs\u2019, 26 March 2009.  [2] AFP, \u2018Mexico drug death toll rising again in 2011\u2019, Fracne24, 11 January 2011.  [3] Beaubien, Jason \u2018At Mexico\u2019s Lond Gun Shop, Army Oversees Sales\u2019, NPR, 24 June 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro03b","title":"","text":"There will always be two ways to solve the problem of illegal drugs, focusing on demand and focusing on supply. Focusing on supply is a valid strategy, as the US pushes the price of drugs on US streets up so it pushes the drugs beyond the ability of most people to afford the drugs and will as a result mean less drug addicts in the United States. This in turn could result in a drop in supply."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro01a","title":"","text":"U.S. demand for drugs  It is the rich US that creates the demand for drugs in the first place. Without this demand the price of drugs would be low and the profits of drugs trafficking through Mexico to the USA would disappear. In 2010 an estimated 22.6 million Americans aged 12 or over were illicit drug users. [1] And this immense drugs market was estimated to provide Mexican cartels with earnings between $13.6 and $48.4 billion. [2] Drugs are therefore a problem that is best dealt with from the perspective of reducing demand. Hillary Clinton accepted this when she said \u201cOur insatiable demand for illegal drugs fuels the drug trade\u201d. However the US' answer to the drugs problem has so far been the 'war on drugs' concentrating massive investment on trying to reduce supply and this includes funding the Mexican government in its war as well and at the same time as making this admission Clinton was giving $80 million to provide Mexico with Blackhawk helicopters. [3]  [1] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, \u2018Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings\u2019, NSDUH Series H-41, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4658. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2011.  [2] Cook, Colleen W., \u2018Mexico\u2019s Drug Cartels\u2019, CRS Report for Congress, 16 October 2007, p.4  [3] BBC News, \u2018Clinton admits US blame on Drugs\u2019, 26 March 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Mexico has its own problems with drugs consumption so the demand problem can\u2019t all be blamed on the US. Mexico City's former chief of police, Gertz Manero has said there are now 4.5 million crimes a year committed in Mexico. \"90% of those are stealing or are related to stealing. And 90% of those are for less than 8,000 pesos (about US$727). Mostly this is for drugs.\" Unemployment due to liberalisation of the economy has led to mass drug consumption so drugs would continue to flow into Mexico and enrich the cartels even if the U.S. drugs market dried up. [1]  [1] Evans, Leslie, 'Electoral Democracy Has Yet to Shake Mexico's Corrupt Bureaucracy', UCLA International Institute, 16 March 2005."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro04b","title":"","text":"These were alien criminals who should never have been in the United States in the first place. The blame for these people being able to create drugs cartels in Central America should not lie with the United States for deporting these people but with the Central American states for not then monitoring and controlling these returnees."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro03a","title":"","text":"U.S. anti-drugs policy focuses on the supply of drugs not the root problem of demand  For the last two decades the USA has been focused on the supply side of reducing the drugs trade. Making it a 'war on drugs' forces a fight back from the drugs cartels leading to gunfights and instability in the countries en route. This happened in Columbia, in Peru and now in Mexico. The focus on supply, or else the containment of drugs in Mexico, is shown by the Obama's US-Mexico border policy press release that devotes a lot more space to extra boarder security to catching the drugs as they reach the US compared with one small paragraph on demand. [1] The U.S. war on drugs focusing on supply and transit routes has clearly failed and has been failing for decades. Back in 1992 Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori declared the war a failure while claiming that between 1980 and 1990, when the U.S. was engaging in military efforts to stop production and transportation, coca production increased tenfold. [2]  [1] Napolitano, Janet et al. \u2018Administration Officials announce U.S.-Mexico Border Security Policy: A comprehensive response & commitment\u2019, The White House, 24 March 2009.  [2] Williams, Ray B., \u2018Why \u201cThe War on Drugs\u201d Has Failed\u2019, Psychology Today, 6 June 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-pro04a","title":"","text":"U.S. policies have helped create the cartels  A change in US immigration law in 1996 meant that non-citizens and foreign born citizens sentenced to more than a year in jail are deported. This moved the problem from the USA\u2019s cities to cities in Central America creating new gangs that were already bound by ties created in the US. Effectively gangs created in the US thrived in central America where they were able to overwhelm the local government and spread north to Mexico and back into the USA helping create the network of gangs and drugs traffickers that plague Mexico today. [1] Similarly the problems in Mexico represent the success of the US in cutting of the routes through the Caribbean used previously by drugs traffickers. Colombian criminals as a result simply switched routes and began smuggling cocaine and heroin through the Central American isthmus and Pacific routes. Both smuggling routes led through Mexico. The successes of the war on drugs in Columbia has reduced the size of the drugs groups in Columbia reducing their ability to control the whole route to the USA making room for the Mexicans to take the role of middleman through Central America. [2]  [1] Wolfe, Adam, 'Central America's Street Gangs Are Drawn into the World of Geopolitics', Power and Interest News Report, 25th Aug. 2005.  [2] Logan, Samuel, ''Mexico's Internal Drug War'', Power and Interest News Report, 14th August 2006."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-con03b","title":"","text":"As Mexico\u2019s biggest trading partner the United States always has a major role in the state of the Mexican economy. The United States is also partially to blame for the Peso crisis. Wall St in particular played up a \u2018Mexican miracle\u2019 helping to create a bubble, and idea that was also boosted by the US government which was making the case for the North American Free Trade Agreement at the time. [1]  We should also not be too quick to blame the economy as there is always some uncertainty in the figures; using different statistical methods you get different results. A study implies a growth rate of household income for Mexico of 4\u00bd-5\u00bd percent per year in 1984-2006, which is substantially higher than the 2 percent implied by standard methods. [2] If this was the case then a poor economy could not be seen as much of a factor in the increase in violence and drugs trafficking.  [1] Edwards, Sebastian, \u2018The Mexican Peso Crisis: How much did we know? When did we know it?\u2019 NBER working paper series, Working paper 6334, p.4  [2] Carvalho Filho, Irineu de, and Chamon, Marcos, \u2018The Myth of Post-Reform Income Stagnation: Evidence from Brazil and Mexico\u2019, IMF working paper, (Aug. 2008), p.27."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-con01b","title":"","text":"Mexico\u2019s government is no weaker than any other government. The country in Central America which has the lowest homicide rate is Costa Rica, [1] a country which has no standing army. [2] Yet it suffers from many of the same disadvantages that Mexico has, for example, like Mexico it is on the drugs route to the United States. This implies that at the very least having a weak government is not the whole cause of Mexico\u2019s conflict.  Yes there is a weak government in Mexico, particularly at the local level, but we need to ask ourselves how the government becomes so subverted. The answer is money. There have been allegations that President Vicente Fox allowed the most powerful drug lord to escape prison in 2001 in return for $20 million. [3] If the very top of the governmental hierarchy can be subverted for money then the rest is as well.  [1] Schwarz, Isabella Cota, \u2018Homicide rate drops to lowest in region\u2019 The Tico Times, 8 June 2012.  [2] \u2018Costa Rica\u2019, The World Factbook, 24 May 2012.  [3] Rohr, Mathieu von, \u2018A Nation Descends into Violence\u2019, Spiegel Online, 23 December 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-con02a","title":"","text":"Violence creates a downward spiral of violence  Just as the United States cannot be blamed for weak governance in Mexico it cannot be blamed for the spiral of decline that occurs as a result of that weak government. Once the police and local government are infiltrated it becomes very difficult to stop the violence. The gangs gain enough control and power that they can no longer be stopped without a massive investment by the central government. Any who do stand up to the traffickers are killed as, for example, was Alejandro Dom\u00ednguez when appointed to serve as the city police chief of Nuevo Laredo. Dom\u00ednguez made it clear that he would not negotiate with the cartels. As he was leaving his office on June 8 2005, his first day on the job, he was ambushed and killed by gunmen. [1]  A culture of fear exists in Mexico, as in other countries where the government fails to suppress gang warfare. Fear within the government and police force paralyses both into inaction Municipal and state officials insist that the problem is not theirs to solve, since drug trafficking is a federal crime, or they engage in denial, claiming that the situation is improving and that the violence will soon end. While journalists report the death and violence they fear to report on who caused them, the background or the causes of the violence; the media self-censors itself. [2]  [1] Althaus, Dudley, and Buch, Jason, \u2018Nuevo Laredo police chief killed on street\u2019, Houston Chronicle, 3 February 2011.  [2] Laurie Freeman, \u2018State of Siege: Drug-Related Violence and Corruption in Mexico Unintended Consequences of the War on Drugs, WOLA Summer report (2006), pp.5-7."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-con03a","title":"","text":"Mexico is poor; it is the economic conditions that drive conflict not the U.S.  Declining real income drives social unrest and instability. Real incomes for workers in Mexico's manufacturing sector declined by a cumulative 2.6 percent between 1995 and 2005. It is likely that the decline in the informal economy is larger. The Government keeps a tight control over the minimum wage preventing it from rising. Although this does not affect many Mexicans directly a lot more have their wages set at a multiple of the minimum wage. At the same time there has been high unemployment and lower benefits. [1] In 1994-5 Mexico was hit hard by a financial crisis known as the \u2018peso\u2019 or \u2018Tequila\u2019 crisis. The peso depreciated by 47%, inflation went up to 52% and GDP fell by 6% not reaching its 1993 level until 1997. Unsurprisingly household income fell substantially; by 31% between 1994 and 1996, those in poverty rose from 10.4% of the population to 17% [2] Since 1996 although Mexico has experienced growth not only has it been slower than most developing countries this has been significantly cut into in real per capita terms by population growth. Mexico has large disparities in income between urban and rural areas and the gap between rich and poor has been widening. [3] The inequality leads people to be more willing to engage in the potentially lucrative drugs trafficking and the informal economy. Unemployment meanwhile makes them more likely to take drugs themselves as an escape.  [1] Gundzik, Jephraim P. , \u2018As Elections Approach, Mexico Faces Internal Instability', Power and Interest News report.  [2] Baldacci, Emanuele, Luiz de Mello and Gabriela Inchauste, Financial crises, Poverty and Income distribution, IMF Working paper, pp.20-21.  [3] Economy Watch, \u2018Mexico Economy\u2019, 24 March 2010."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-con01a","title":"","text":"Weak Mexican government is to blame not the U.S.  When there is an internal conflict such as this it is almost always a weak government that is to blame for not preventing an escalation of violence. The government is to blame as it is meant to have a monopoly on the use of force, conflicts such as this drugs war occur when that monopoly on violence is broken. In Mexico the election of Vicente Fox as president may have been a democratic triumph for ending the 70 year one party rule by the P.R.I. but in terms of the effectiveness of the central government it was not a success. The National Action Party has been weak in the lower house and senate so unable to advance a legislative agenda. [1] An inability to legislate significantly reduces the ability of the federal government to respond to the drugs crisis. This reduces the ability of the Federal government to step in and sort out local problems. There has been an upsurge of social unrest of all types, not just drugs violence but protests, riots and strikes as well. [2]  Drugs traffickers have taken over many local areas, the local government, police and even some of the army has been penetrated by the drugs traffickers. This leaves the local government unable to do anything against the traffickers. It was not the drugs traffickers who created the institutional problems that allowed the government to become penetrated in the first place; corruption, inefficient police forces and a weak judiciary were already a problem. [3]  [1] The Economist, \u2018The siesta congress\u2019, 21 January 2012.  [2] Gundzik, Jephraim P. , \u2018As Elections Approach, Mexico Faces Internal Instability', Power and Interest News report.  [3] Freeman, Laurie, \u2018State of Siege: Drug-Related Violence and Corruption in Mexico Unintended Consequences of the War on Drugs, WOLA Summer report (2006), p.2."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbusr-con02b","title":"","text":"The United States can be blamed for the downward spiral. There would not be a downward spiral of fear and violence if the United States was not a source of arms for the cartels."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro02b","title":"","text":"Language politics exist, and this is a consideration for any politician, not to be ignored. States may find it politically wise to encourage multilingualism. For example, Nicolas Sarkozy wants France to be a bilingual country. This is indeed a tall order, but we must not dismiss and avoid challenges simply because of the effort they entail. Sarkozy\u2019s desire to make such efforts is commendable and other EU Member States should follow suit by becoming multilingual."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro02a","title":"","text":"The status quo is impractical, because we expect MEPs to be multilingual in order to be effective.  It is highly demanding to request all MEPs to be multilingual and translation and interpreting time takes time out of the meetings when vital issues could and should be discussed and addressed and in which problems should be solved. They have been elected on the strength of their political abilities, not their language skills. If we require all MEPs to be multilingual, we are actually excluding many politicians who could be very skilled, but don\u2019t speak enough languages for the EU."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro06a","title":"","text":"Working through many languages in the European Union costs money that could be spent on EU\u2019s projects rather than unnecessary conversation.  It is very expensive to employ translators and interpreters, and to publish all documents in French as well as English. Ireland Business News reported that the EU\u2019s translation (excluding interpreting) costs were 800 million Euros in 2006. This money is better spent on the EU\u2019s actual practices."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro03b","title":"","text":"There are often no direct translations for indispensible EU-specific vocabulary, so Member States should refer to it in their native language. The European Union uses in its debates and practices lots of technical jargon. For such vocabulary, there is often not a direct translation. The Member States must be able to speak about such important issues effectively and, while there exists no direct translations for much EU jargon, the best way to do this is through their native languages."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro05a","title":"","text":"There already exists a pan-European identity across all EU Member States, and a single working language would help to strengthen that identity.  There is no need for any prefixed or specified Europeans anymore. Given that the continent of Europe is merging into one single identity, there is no need to have more than one working EU language in operation; this could create divisions and even tensions within the overall identity of \u2018European\u2019. The Euro coins are no longer specific to each nation, goods are bought and sold between EU nations without restrictions. The seams between the European nations are fast disappearing as they merge ever closer together. Therefore, one singe language for managing all the EU Member States\u2019 communal affairs makes perfect sense."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro01a","title":"","text":"The EU ought to make English its working language in order to be a more transparent democracy for the rest of the world.  If the EU uses the global language of English as its working language, other governments, parliaments and Unions will be able to understand its activities and methods of operation. 27% of the world\u2019s population speak English. In the EU Member States alone, there are 61, 850,000 native English speakers and 168,000,000 non- native speakers of English. [1] It is a medium that could reach so many people and through which the EU can influence other governments to take similar positive action. So many of the world\u2019s large problems stem from a lack of communication. War is often the result of two sides being unable to communicate and mediate, and so violence is resorted to. It is often described as \u2018the only language the enemy understands\u2019 because of a failure to work out differences in a non-violent way. When fighting breaks out, it brings with it all manner of other issues such as famine and trauma. English is a global language and the EU should use this to its advantage. The EU brings democracy and should serve as a great example thereof for the rest of the world. Populations of all other countries need to be able to understand the EU\u2019s activity and the way to operate a democracy as demonstrated by the EU, and the way to achieve this is for the EU to use the global language of English so as to render transparent the running of a democracy, so that it can spread. If the EU can communicate its good ideas successfully, it can influence other organisations, providing them with the antidotes to their own problems.  [1] Wikipedia, List of countries by English-speaking population, en.wikipedia.org"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro01b","title":"","text":"So many of the world\u2019s problems stem from a lack of communication. War is often a result of two sides unable to mediate, and one side often refers to resorting violence as \u2018the only language the opponent understands\u2019. This is what prompted Sir Winston Churchill to say \u2018To jaw-jaw is always better than to war-war\u2019. [1] He meant that communication and compromise are always better than resorting to conflict, not least of all because it brings with it new problems of poverty, mentally scarred people and famine.  However, communication works both ways: what is said and how well it is heard. The EU cannot simply assume its activities will be well listened to. Its own issues and actions have little in common with the governments in the developing world who truly need help and improved strategies. For example, the EU deals with those problems facing a developed world; health, education, governmental services. By contrast, those governments in the developing world are faced with a whole array of problems that bear no resemblance to these, and far more serious ones; child soldiers, the setting up of schools, as opposed to making improvements therein. Therefore, listening to the EU will not inspire, advise or help the governments of those countries who really need it, regardless of how easily accessible and understandable the information is.  [1] Platt, Suzy ed., Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations, 1989."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro05b","title":"","text":"Europe is only an umbrella identity; the diverse elements that form it must not be ignored. European identity is comprised of many elements, these being the many different countries within the continent. These different countries assert their individual identities through culture, people, traditions and languages. These must be acknowledged so that the EU is aware of the identities of the very Member States that comprise it. Keeping languages alive in the face of language death is a very emotive issue. Such response to one\u2019s own language is what makes us human. To deny people affection for their own language is to dehumanise them. In the whole, if the EU tried to strengthen its identity by choosing one language, it would harm its true identity, as a group of diverse states, joined together."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro06b","title":"","text":"It is favourable that the EU employs people and one large way it does so is by hiring linguists and translators. Unemployment needs to be kept down and is an issue the EU claims to take seriously.  The EU has the largest translation unit in the world. It employs some 1, 650 permanent onsite linguists and 550 support staff, as well as freelance translators all over the world. [1] A Connect Euranet debate took place in France in which the EU representatives and ministers spoke of the urgent need to address the pressing issues of employment and unemployment. It is unjustifiable for the EU to fight unemployment and also render a large proportion of its staff- the linguists- out of work.  [1] Nitobe Centre for language democracy, \u2018FAQ \u2013 Translation\/interpretation\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro04b","title":"","text":"Politics touches on emotional issues. Emotional issues specific to a country are best expressed by that country in their native language. If the EU Member States must communicate through a foreign language, this means there is a barrier between a) what is said and the emotion contained therein and b) the act of actually communicating it. When forced to express one\u2019s true opinions through a foreign tongue, its true meaning or the level of its importance may become diluted, misinterpreted or otherwise compromised. It is better for EU Member States to communicate using their native languages, for this way there is a much closer emotional proximity between a) what is said and b) the emotion contained in saying it. Thus, the emotions and desires of the people are more faithfully expressed."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro03a","title":"","text":"It is more practical to work through one language that all Member States understand in order to ensure the effectiveness of communication.  Multilingualism could lead to several breakdowns in communication, which only give rise to further problems. This is especially likely between French and English where there are many \u2018false friends\u2019. For example \u2018actuellement\u2019 in French translates into English as \u2018currently\u2019, not \u2018actually\u2019. Using only one working language will eradicate confusion and reduce the number of errors. This is especially important in the realm of international politics, where small errors can breed long-term consequences."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro04a","title":"","text":"One working language understood by all Member States is a more practical way of communicating often untranslatable yet vital EU-specific vocabulary.  The EU does use technical jargon for which there is often not a direct translation. Therefore, it makes more sense to only have one name for each concept, by which that concept shall be known, in order to economize effort and to not waste time creating translations for EU-specific jargon. It is not chauvinistic, or even a matter of preference, to use English as a working language over other languages; it just so happens to be a language that is understood throughout the EU Member States. It is better and more effective to spend the time addressing the issues rather than deciding by which names to call these entities that give rise to issues within the EU."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con03b","title":"","text":"Prioritising translation may well have negative results. A mistranslation can lead to severe confusion and when such sensitive information is being handled, this is not at all desirable. Further, confusion can result if one entity becomes known by two different names. The practice of translation may only create tensions and divisions between bodies within the EU. Some may be angered that their literature is not being translated, when another organisation\u2019s literature is, and is thusly getting a higher profile and receiving more attention. Therefore, one single WORKING language makes sense."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con01b","title":"","text":"Press freedom is a separate issue from EU language politics. The press must have reasonable freedoms, and so they are perfectly within their rights to express anti-Europe opinions; provoking debate and discussion on political issues is essential to a well-informed readership. The anti-EU arguments get more coverage than pro-EU ones, but there are many arguments in favor of the EU within the British press. Freedom of the British press to express anti-EU opinion is their right and should not affect the use of English as the single working language within the EU at all. It should not impinge upon improving the strength and effectiveness of communication within the EU at all."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con02a","title":"","text":"Translation is an intercultural activity that the EU must embrace if it continues to hold \u201cUnited in diversity\u201d as its motto.  Ernst-August Gutt observes the use of translation \u201cacross boundaries\u201d. [1] As a body dedicated to being \u201cUnited in diversity\u201d, the EU should practice translation in order to affect this intercultural activity. The linguist Laurence Venuti observes this: \u201cTranslation is the \u2018trial of the foreign\u2019. But in a double sense. In the first place, it establishes a relationship between the Self-Same (propre) and the foreign by aiming to open up the foreign work to us in its utter foreignness \u2026And this trial, often an exile, can also exhibit the most singular power of the translating act: to reveal the foreign work\u2019s most original kernel, its most deeply-buried, most self-same\u2026most distant\u201d. [2]  Governmental bodies such as the EU have to mediate and compromise when discussing issues and debating. Translation is simply another type of mediation. The linguist Laurence Venuti describes it as \u201ca bilingual mediated process of communication\u201d. [3] Translation in a political setting is therefore simply an extension of this political mediation strongly present in the European Union.  [1] Venuti, L. (ed) The Translation Studies Reader, 2000, p.378  [2] Ibid p.284  [3] Ibid p.161"}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con04a","title":"","text":"If the EU \u2018elects\u2019 a single working language, it will be deliberately contributing to the narrow-minded, anglicising of the entire world, despite being a union of diverse cultures with the power to fight it.  A \u201csingle working language\u201d implies English, a global language, and already one of the two key EU languages, the other being the lesser understood French. That English could be the default language worries the French where they fear the rise of what the French call anglosnoberrie ; the anglicising of the world at the expense of other languages including French.  The EU would become one more example of English dominating the world at the expense of the many cultures and languages of Europe. This is indeed an extremely hypocritical stance to take, when the EU is a body that seeks to strengthen intercultural activity and give all the cultures within it a voice. This cannot be done when the overwhelming majority- twenty-six- of the languages, \u2018voices\u2019, of the Member States are silenced and only one is given a platform on which to speak."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con03a","title":"","text":"There is no need to translate absolutely everything, but prioritising translation is favourable.  EU citizens do not have to translate everything; to keep the costs of interpreters and translators down, we can just interpret and translate the most important information. This policy of \u2018prioritising translation\u2019 has been adopted by the Welsh Assembly. The Assembly translates into Welsh only the information and literature that is most relevant and will actually be read. Translation IS a realistic solution and should be considered over the EU working through one single language."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con01a","title":"","text":"Britain is the country of Euroscepticism, and its official language is English. For English to be the medium, the mouthpiece for the EU communications is wholly wrong.  English, the language which would likely be selected as the single European language, is also the language of Euroscepticism, as perfectly demonstrated by the British press. Anderson and Weymouth explain in Insulting the public?: The British Press and the European Union, \u201dEven those aspects of Euroscepticism which are perceived to be founded on less mythical stuff, such as the economic arguments against the single currency, get a better coverage than any arguments in favour.\u201d [1] Right-wing tabloids publish very anti-Europe articles, scapegoating the German Parliament, the Bundestag, for what they see as the depletion of Britain\u2019s say in her own politics, and using vocabulary with WW2 undertones. Even The Times, the UK paper of record, has voiced highly anti-Europe sentiments. It is through such articles and press coverage as this that the derogatory term Europrat has been coined.  For English, the language of Euroscepticism, to be the official and single working language of the EU is unthinkable; it is ironic at best and ridiculous at worst.  [1] Anderson, P.J, and Antony Weymouth. Insulting the Public? The British Press and the European Union. London: Longman, 1999."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con04b","title":"","text":"To work through one single global language that is understood by all cultures makes perfect sense; it is a medium through which they can all communicate within the context of EU operations. The EU is not asking the MEPs (Members of the European Parliament) to address their own people nor their parliament at home through the medium of English. The use of a single working language is just to ensure effectiveness when discussing and debating EU matters between Member States."}
+{"id":"training-international-ehbeusaswl-con02b","title":"","text":"The use of English does not mean Anglo-snobbery; that is a prejudice against Anglophones. The two EU official languages are English and French. If the EU were to adopt a single WORKING language, in all likelihood it would be English, but this is not to be seen as Westminster snobbery. English is not directly synonymous with Britain. It is also the official language of the former British colonies such as America, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and is, to a large extent, a global language. Britain itself is a very Eurosceptic nation, and so the use of its official language cannot logically be taken as British rule over the EU. However, all the more Europhile countries should not feel unfairly treated in using this language to communicate; if all these pro-EU countries communicate through English i.e. a global language that is not their own, they are less likely to show any extreme bias toward their own country and culture. Embracing English, a foreign method of communication, means that in the EU debating chamber, a Member State\u2019s arguments will not be contaminated by the connotations held within their mother tongue, and the ideas cemented within that culture. As explained by Laurence Venuti in The Translation Studies Reader, \u201cdeficiency of the receiving code has to do with\u2026such things as individuality\u2026and geographical origin of the speakers\u201d. [1] Eradicating individuality reduces bias and deficiency of expression.  [1] Venuti, L. (ed) The Translation Studies Reader, 2000, p.344"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro02b","title":"","text":"Vernet sought the permission of the British consulate before establishing his colony \u2013 clearly even he thought there was ambiguity over the status of the islands.  Moreover the British and Spanish settlements ended not because of commercial failure but because of indirect pressure caused by war. If Argentinian sovereignty survives expulsion through war then presumably British sovereignty could survive temporary abandonment due to war.  It is also difficult to describe a settlement as permanent when it was on the point of collapse when the British took it over."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Argentina created a permanent settlement  Argentina formally took posession of the islands in 1820 and established permanent settlements in that decade. Previous settlements by Spain and Britain had been military in nature (garrisons). Britain did not protest to these acts of sovereignty. The Argentinean settlements were only ended by illegal military force, the first strike by an American warship, acting on its own initiative and encouraged by the British charge de affairs in Buenos Aires, and the second and last blow by a British taskforce."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro03b","title":"","text":"If military costs are excluded, the islands are self-supporting. They are of great value because they bring rights to fishing and oil exploration. If the oil that has been detected in the islands\u2019 territory can be extracted economically, the islands will be an even greater asset to Britain. [1] Strategically, they provide NATO with an airbase in the south Atlantic. Port Stanley was used as a supply base for the Royal Navy in WW1, resulting in the Battle of the Falkland Islands. [2]  Moreover \u2018value\u2019 means more than products and services \u2013 the value of the inhabitant\u2019s right to self-determination is priceless  [1] Swint, Brian, \u2018Oil Grab in Falkland Island Seen Tripling U.K. Reserves: Energy\u2019, Bloomberg, 25 January 2012,   [2]"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro05a","title":"","text":"International relations  Returning the islands would vastly improve Britain\u2019s relationship with Argentina and Latin America as a whole. This would help Britain\u2019s diplomatic and economic ties with the region. It would also be consistent with Britain\u2019s post-war policy of decolonisation, which has seen it withdraw from almost every other colonial possession since 1945. Not only has Britain withdrawn from India, Africa, Malaysia and much of the Caribbean, it has also handed back Hong Kong to China \u2013 surely a similar case to that of the Falkland islands and Argentina."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Argentina inherited Spain\u2019s claim to sovereignty  Both Argentina and the islands were under Spainish sovereignty. Spain ruled the islands from Argentina \u2013 they were therefore part of the same territory \u2013 doing so free of British intervention (or complaints) from 1770 until 1811, i.e. 41 years.  Upon independence from Spain, Argentina rightfully asserted sovereignty over the former Spanish territory, a principle that would latter be known under international law as uti possidetis juris. Britain did not claim sovereignty over the islands when Spain left them in 1811. Nor did Britain immediately challenge Argentina\u2019s assertion of sovereignty in 1820, when David Jewett claimed the islands for Argentina, or in 1825, when the first treaty between the new country and Britain was signed."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro01b","title":"","text":"The fact that Spain never formally renounced sovereignty is irrelevant \u2013 when Britain asserted its territorial claim Spain acquiesced.  Additionally if Spain\u2019s claim did not lapse when it evacuated its colony then surely neither did Britain\u2019s. Nor is it obvious that Argentina should have inherited the Spanish claim to the Falklands \u2013 they lie 250 miles off the coast of mainland South America.  Britain was of course not going to immediately contest the 1816 claim as she did not yet recognise Argentina so far as Britain was concern the Argentines were not sovereign and did not have sovereignty over any of their territory \u2013 at the time the UK recognised Spanish sovereignty over the mainland that Argentina claimed."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro05b","title":"","text":"Britain already has a working relationship with Argentina. In 2001, Tony Blair became the first British prime minister to visit Argentina since the 1982 conflict. [1] The agreements made with the Menem government show the potential for peaceful cooperation without returning the islands.  In any case, direct relations with Argentina are of little strategic or economic importance to Britain, except where they affect the Falkland Islands. Trade policy is handled on both sides at a supra-national level, through the EU and Mercosur respectively.  The Falkland Islands are simply not like other examples of decolonisation. Elsewhere Britain has given independence to the indigenous peoples of its former colonial possessions, responding to their desire for self-determination. The Falklands have no indigenous population \u2013 their inhabitants regard themselves as British in identity and have no desire to be ruled by Argentina, indeed Britain\u2019s Prime Minister has gone so far as to say the Argentines are the ones who are sounding colonial. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Blair\u2019s historic Argentina visit\u2019, 2 August 2001,   [2] BBC News \u2018Argentina outraged at Cameron\u2019s \u2018colonialism\u2019 remarks\u2019, 19 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro04b","title":"","text":"Proximity is a poor reason to make a claim to sovereignty as the Falklands lie outside the 200 mile limit that Argentina claims in the southern Atlantic. [1] The Falkland Islands today have effective self-government. They have their own elected legislature and an independent judiciary. The islands are also economically self-sufficient but for the cost of the Military Garrison \u2013 which is only necessary because of the Argentinian claim. Moreover with advances in communication the location of the settlement being thousands of miles away from Britain no longer makes much difference when it comes to governing the islands.  [1] R. Reginald & J.M. Elliot, 'Tempest in a Teapot : The Falkland Islands War', The Borgo Press, 1983,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Value  The islands are of minimal value to Britain. In an era of satellites and long-range ships and aircraft, the islands no longer have strategic value. Maintaining a garrison there is an unnecessary expense. Jorge Luis Borges (an Argentinean writer) likened the 1982 conflict to \u2018two bald men fighting over a comb\u2019. [1]  [1] \u2018Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986)\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Distance  The Falkland Islands are 8000 miles from the UK \u2013 in the modern age it is absurd that one country can claim sovereignty over land halfway across the globe from it.  The needs and wishes of the Falkland islanders would be much better served if the government responsible for them was local."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con03b","title":"","text":"Britain sent its soldiers to fight an unjust war. Their sacrifices do not make British occupation of the islands legal."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con01b","title":"","text":"The British colony was established only though the expulsion of the Argentinian colony. It does not matter how long ago this happened - as the legal maxim goes \u2018title does not pass with theft\u2019.  Colonists do not have a right to self-determination. It would be absurd if a group of people could invade some land, drive off the people living there; and then state that they have acquired the right to decide for themselves to stay there. The natural consequence of that principle would be that anyone could gain property through ethnic cleansing and long enough adverse possession."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con02a","title":"","text":"Moral Hazard  Returning the islands would imply that violence and threats are legitimate ways to conduct diplomacy. Britain would be giving in to the invasion of 1982 and Kirchner\u2019s more recent rhetoric. This would set a dangerous precedent that Britain will abandon its interests if threatened.R"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con05a","title":"","text":"The islanders are the only ones who can decide.  It is the Falkland Islanders themselves who have to decide whose sovereignty they should fall under; British, Argentine or even potentially their own. The Falkland Islands are a democracy with a democratically elected Legislative Assembly and Executive Council (made from members of the Legislative Assembly). Similarly it has its own courts. The self-determination of the islanders is prominent in their constitution. [1] The Falklands have therefore been recognised by the British government as a nation just like the Scots, Welsh and Irish. This means that the decision on any change of sovereignty in the future will be up to the islanders alone to make. [2]  It is no longer up to Britain to simply cede the islands even if they wanted to.  [1] The Falkland Islands Constitution Order 2008, Statutory Instruments, 2008 no. 0000,   [2] Ivanov, Lyubomir, \u2018The Future Of The Falkland Islands And Its People\u2019, February 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con04a","title":"","text":"Length of occupation  The primary means of acquiring title to territory is through the effective exercise of the functions of a state within that territory. This means that Britain has a right to the territory under either \u2018occupation\u2019 (if Argentina is not considered to have occupied previously) or \u2018prescription\u2019 if it has. [1] The ICJ has stated that the claim must be  I, the possession must be exercised in the character of a sovereign  II, the possession must be peaceful and uninterrupted  III, the possession must be public  IV, the possession must endure for a certain length of time. [2]  Britain would not have difficulty arguing that it has continuously exercised sovereignty for over 170 years. It has also been peaceful (no attacking native tribes, no unrest etc). It would seem silly to transfer sovereignty to Argentina on the basis of Argentina having only occupied the islands for at most five years compared to the long period of British occupation both after and before the Argentine colony.  [1] Dixon, Martin, Textbook on International Law, 6th ed., Oxford, 2007, p.155,   [2] International Court of Justice, \u2018Reports of Judgements, Advisory Opinions and Orders Case Concerning Kasikili\/Sedudu Island (Botswana\/Namibia)\u2019, 23 December 1999,  p.62\/1103"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con03a","title":"","text":"Blood has been spilt  If Britain returned the islands, it would be a profound insult to the soldiers who fought and died to liberate them in 1982. The campaign was honourably fought in defence of the rights of the people of the Falkland Islands to determine their own future. It was fought against a military dictatorship which used the campaign in a cynical attempt to divert domestic attention away from its oppressive, corrupt and incompetent rule. One of the positive consequences of British victory was that the military junta fell from power and Argentina became democratic. So Britain, Argentina and the Falkland islanders all have cause to celebrate the outcome of the 1982-83 war."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con05b","title":"","text":"If Britain did not have legitimate sovereignty over the Falklands to begin with then it is illegitimate for Britain to hand that sovereignty over to the islanders."}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con01a","title":"","text":"Popular sovereignty  The people of the Falklands are an established community with a right to self-determination. They are not a transitory population \u2013 many of them can trace their origins in the Islands back to the early 19th Century. They are the only successful colonists of the Falklands.  The Argentinian claim of sovereignty through inheritance of the Spanish title (uti possedetis [1] ) is not accepted as a general article of international law, and even if it was it would have to be subordinate to the Islander\u2019s right of self-determination.  It is absurd that Argentina claims that the Islanders do not have a right to self-determination because they replaced an indigenous Argentinian population 200 years ago when Argentina consists largely of Spanish colonists who replaced the indigenous Native American population in roughly the same time period.  [1] That newly independent nations inherit the claims of the old colonial states along the colonial boundaries. Dixon, Martin, Textbook on International Law, 6th ed., Oxford, 2007, p.163,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con04b","title":"","text":"It would not be possible for the UK to argue that it has a claim through prescription and the length of occupation because the original taking over the Argentine colony was not legitimate, as the islands were not res nullis.  In the Chamizal Case (Mexico vs United States), the ICJ rejected the right to title by prescription invoked by the United States because \"the physical possession taken by citizens of the United States and the political control exercised by the local and Federal Governments, have been constantly challenged and questioned by the Republic of Mexico, through its accredited diplomatic agents.\" [1]  [1] The Chamizal Case (Mexico, United States), Reports of International Arbitral Awards, 15 June 1911, Vol.XI, pp.309-347"}
+{"id":"training-international-aglilhwccf-con02b","title":"","text":"Returning the islands would not be a sign that violence and threats are legitimate. It would be recognition of the justice of Argentina\u2019s claim and the illegality of Britain\u2019s occupation of the islands. In fact, it would show that illegal acts of violence, like that of 1833, will eventually be overturned."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Fundamentally, the topics raised by Nollywood are commercialising accepted views. The industry is building a business founded on distributing images of witchcraft, abuse, and domestic violence.  First, a majority of the films are politically incorrect and provide negative portrayals of women and sexuality. Gender roles are reinforced as women become sexualised objects, male possession, and the source of trouble - required to be put in their \u2018place\u2019. In the case of LGBT representations, homosexuality has been represented as Satanic in films such as 2010\u2019s \u2018Men in Love\u2019 [1] . Second, in the case of witchcraft, dramas have made society more accepting of, and open to, sorcery. The films show how it remains prevalent in society and can provide a tool to access riches. With the audience interested in watching stories on witchcraft the industry is feeding such demands. Witchcraft sells; and continues to remain a prominent theme justifying why people make their decisions and action.  This is not the kind of perception change Africa needs.  [1] In Nigeria homosexuality is illegal and continues to be criminalised."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro02a","title":"","text":"A new perspective, raising topical issues  The first film created in Nollywood - \u2018Living in Bondage\u2019 - raised fundamental issues concerning marriage, wealth and spirituality. The film indicates the need to be aware of cults and what they can drive individuals to do. Furthermore films such \u2018Street Girls\u2019 and \u2018Mama\u2019s Girls\u2019 provide insight into the lives of prostitutes and the sex industry. \u2018Street Girls\u2019 is enabling awareness of why girls are forced into prostitution and why they may be forced to commit criminal offences. Poverty is identified as a key driving factor.  The range of topics covered - from immigration, women, witchcraft, corruption, terrorism, and infrastructure deficits - counteract historic silences in the public sphere. The films are raising awareness to viewers by presenting the stories in a new light - understandable, humorous, and relatable; and will encourage citizens to demand change.  Nollywood is showing the limits of believing in a single perspective, the Western perspective, to stories on Africa."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Although the industry has encouraged entrepreneurialism we need to recognise it is also promoting risky businesses. Firstly, the individuals working in the industry are required to produce a quick turnover. The fact that no security and support is provided by the government or state means the risk of failed entrepreneurial strategies falls on the individual. The producers and directors may be forced to borrow money from loan sharks and at high interest-rates to get capital quickly; and need to be able to ensure profits are generated rapidly. Such a tenuous industry is clearly not in a position to change opinions of Africa and may instead be creating a negative perception of risk-taking and cutthroat capitalism."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Development from within  Nollywood is showcasing Nigeria\u2019s capability to sustain, build, and finance its own economy. Recent estimates suggest around 50 films are produced weekly, selling between 20,000 to 200,000 units, and creating jobs for around one million individuals (Moudio, 2013). The industry is initiating vital development, enabling Nigeria to have capital to change perceptions.  Nollywood is following previous cultural industry paths. Hollywood developed from low-budget films, and in 2013 the entertainment industry generated around $522bn in revenue, and is continuing to be one of America\u2019s biggest sources of tourism (Statista, 2013). In Nollywood\u2019s case, the industry is already proving to be of vital importance for regional and domestic tourism."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Opportunities for development are limited as the industry continues to function informally. The informal structure means there is no legal institution controlling transactions, there is no governing body ensuring taxation is paid and revenues collected, and finally, there is little security to the workers within the industry. Financial records are limited in the industry, which makes it hard to predict the developmental scope of Nollywood and the real revenues produced.  Informality prevents legitimacy; capability to assist national development; and fundamental capital losses. It also prevents it becoming a force for changing perceptions of those outside Africa. Formalisation is required for the industry to assist developmental potential [1] .  [1] See further readings: McCall, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro04b","title":"","text":"First, the narrative of whether Africa is 'rising' has been debated, and requires reflection. Second, if Africa were rising will Nollywood push Nigeria to rise in the wrong direction? Nollywood is a private-sector organisation, with concentrated profits. Inequality in Nigeria has continued to rise since 1985 as shown by the GINI coefficient (Aigbokhan, 2008); and with lavish lifestyles being created for famous actresses and directors who hit \u2018big money\u2019 will Nollywood only act to benefit elites and create a new elite class? Economic growth and revenue production cannot solve the issue of poverty without tackling inequality."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Encouraging film entrepreneurs  The Nollywood industry is providing solutions to pressing issues - including high rates of unemployment. The dynamic industry provides an opportunity for youths to explore interests and invest in their talents and creativity. The recognition gained for Nollywood has shown how Nigeria's youths can initiate, and develop, a sustainable industry. Rather than seeing the rising young population as a potential threat [1] , the rise of Nollywood showcases the talent of the young population and helps overthrow perceptions of Africa just being about natural resources.  Additionally, the growth of Nollywood is continuing to encourage individuals to enter the creative industry \u2013 whether to work in production, acting or distribution, the rise of Nollywood is creating an entrepreneurial spirit, drive, and motivation to create change. Individuals are no longer relying on the government or international community to provide funds, support and infrastructure, but moulding their own futures.  [1] See further readings: Urdal, 2006."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Epitomising rising Africa  Nollywood epitomises Africa, and life in African spaces. The fast-pace nature of production shows how quickly things changes and everything is on the move. The structure of production shows the dynamic nature of everyday life, action, and flow of ideas. As Rem Koolhaas\u2019 (2002) film documentary - Lagos - showed the congestion, informality, and buzz of the city needs to be viewed positively and a sign of entrepreneurialism. The documentary suggested African cities were setting a new trend to be followed by the West, and developing a rising economy. Africa is not simply in need of assistance, but rather a fast-pace environment that needs greater understanding.  Africa is rising [1] and Nollywood acts to reinforce this reality. With more films being produced, bigger revenues made, and new investors emerging, Nollywood shows Africa's economies are changing, growing, and emerging. Interest and collaborative investments being made by the World Bank shows the industry will continue to rise. Nollywood\u2019s growth provides an alternative to the dominant Afro-pessimism.  [1] See further readings: The Economist, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-con03b","title":"","text":"New funding sources are emerging. The diasporic community for example are playing a central role in funding the long-term growth of the industry. Recognising potential, and being a major consumer base for the films produced, the African diaspora is investing in Nollywood."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-con01b","title":"","text":"The issue of piracy is being tackled. Recognising the potential benefits Nollywood can bring to Nigeria and the scale of the piracy problem, investments are being made to stop piracy in the growing industry.  Investments have been proposed by the World Bank to tackle piracy, and ensure profits are not lost. Further, Nollywood UP, the Nollywood Upgrade Project, is providing funding to control piracy. Nollywood UP is improving the capacity of the innovative industry - by providing solutions for distribution and vital training in high-quality film making."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-con02a","title":"","text":"Small audience viewings  In reality, Nollywood\u2019s audience is constrained - questioning the extent to which stereotypes can be changed. First, language acts as a barrier. 56% of Nollywood films are produced in local languages - such as Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa (UNESCO, 2009). Although English accounts for 44% of films produced, the linguistic diversity may limit who sees which film and what issues are therefore discussed. Second, a majority of the films are sold in hardcopy - whether on cassette or pirate DVDs.  Finally, the industry is characterised by fast and cheap production. Quantity over quality limits popularity and audience viewings. Further, the limited attention to quality means Nollywood remains at the bottom of the global value chain for film production. It is difficult to change perceptions with poor quality films."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-con03a","title":"","text":"Short term hype  Despite the boom in Nollywood\u2019s industry it remains hard to get investment. With funding issues prevalent the hype surrounding Nollywood is temporary.  The difficulties in getting funding, mean films produced are often safe and politically popular - aware that funds can be gained for backing. For example, the controversial film \u2013 Boko Haram \u2013 aimed to provide an alternative perspective into the Islamist extremist group. The core subject matter was to explore terrorism; however, following the controversial story and topic, marketers dropped out, fearing a political backlash. Titles had to be changed and the film adapted to be more sensitive. The ideas behind the films, and the stories told, are being altered due to funding constraints [1] . Perspectives, on and in Africa, cannot be changed if the topics raised are altered to meet sensitivity regulations. Hegemony will persist.  [1] See further readings: Hirsch, 2013."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-con01a","title":"","text":"The problem of piracy  Pirated copies of Nollywood films are a key issue. Piracy emerges as an issue for two key reasons. First, the lack of the lack of legal structure - the lack of formal regulation. Legal systems and strict copyright controls are needed to ensure piracy is stopped. Second, the production system is slow - therefore alternative means of production are used to meet the growing demand for films released. New methods for distribution are required.  Calls have been made for the government to take action against piracy. However, with corruption prevalent little action has been made. Half of the film profits are lost through piracy (CNN, 2009), and piracy acts to reinforce the image of bad governance, and inadequate structures, within African states. The industry is being undermined and undervalued, through the piracy market, with high costs to the entrepreneurs."}
+{"id":"training-international-mciahbncb-con02b","title":"","text":"Nollywood films are viewed globally. Channels are dedicated to the films - such as South Africa\u2019s MultiChoice and BSkyB\u2019s Nollywood Movies. BSkyB distributes programmes and films directly to airlines, instantly broadening the audience. Furthermore, YouTube subscribers have sought to enhance the global viewing popularity; and recently developed iROKO Partners is ensuring internet users can access Nollywood films. iROKO Partners shows the biggest markets are based in the US, UK, Canada, Italy and Germany (Kermeliotis, 2012).  New partnerships are being formed with Hollywood and global film festivals [1] , which show the future shift of broadcasting Nollywood films in cinemas. A recent film produced by Pat Nebo - \u2018Dead broke\u2019 - is set to be premiered in Lagos, Accra, and London.  [1] Cannes (2013) recently showcased \u2018La Pirogue\u2019; and in the summer of 2013 France hosted its first Nollywood Week in Paris, showcasing seven of the best Nollywood films."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro02b","title":"","text":"This sounds rather like an ultimatum to the UN \u2013 if you don\u2019t like what we give you and complain we won\u2019t give you anything. The question here is that the UN really does need more money in order to give the necessary assistance to countries, which strive for basic things like food, water, protection - \u201cWe are here today on behalf of people the world has all too often forgotten: the weak, the disadvantaged, those suffering the effects of climate change, violence, disaster and disease,\u201d Mr. Ban told those gathered in Geneva for the \u201cprogramme kick-off\u201d for the Appeal.\u201c [1] The whole concept of the organization is to provide help; however, of course, this help cannot come for free it has a certain cost. The UN general secretary should not constantly ask and appeal for funding, this is not his job, although it happens all too frequently.  The UN protects the whole world and the fact that the US gives the most money for this protection should not be considered harmful to the American people.  [1] \u201cBan Ki-moon urges early funding for $3.8 billion UN humanitarian appeal\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro02a","title":"","text":"The United Nations needs the United States.  The United Nations is a voluntary body and reflects global realities, including the role of the USA as the dominant superpower. Without the consent of the USA, the UN can achieve nothing, and active US opposition to the UN could destroy the organisation along with all its potential for good. It is better for the UN to accept US demands for budgetary restraint and reform than to provoke the USA by unrealistic demands into withdrawing from its councils.This means that the UN should reflect the views of the United States as a result \"Policy of the United Nations should be based on three fundamental questions: Are we advancing the American interests? Are we upholding American values? Are we being responsible towards for the American taxpayer dollars?\" According to Josh Rogin \"Unfortunately, right now, the answer to all three questions is no.\" [1]  [1] Rogin, Josh. \u201d House Republicans' next target: the United Nations\u201d 26\/01\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro03b","title":"","text":"UN money is spent responsiblyOf course the American taxpayers' money should not be spent promiscuously, but that's not the case. The United Nations spends the money it gets on solving global problems and helping the needy, both of which are useful to the United States as it is a role the US would otherwise have to perform.Furthermore international organizations such as the UN are highly advantageous to the US and its population. Sarah Margon and John Norris argue \"Withholding funds from the United Nations would fail to reap significant savings, make it more difficult for our nation to lead, and seriously undermine our highest foreign policy and national security priorities \u2026restricting U.S. support for the United Nations ultimately has a much higher price tag than it does savings as doing so substantially decreases our political legitimacy while costing America money and jobs.\u201d [1]  [1] Margon, Sarah; Norris, John. \u201cWithdrawing from the United Nations: A Misguided Assault\u201d 2\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro01a","title":"","text":"There has been a serious inequality in the funding of the UN budget.  The phrase \u201cgive them an inch and they\u2019ll take a mile\u201d is appropriate here. It is noteworthy that Russia has a Security Council veto, but does not even appear in the top 15 nations contributing to the budget. The UN has become dependent on the USA and other industrialized nations to foot an enormous amount of the bill for UN operations. While the proportions of other states\u2019 economies are markedly smaller, other nations sometimes reap far more of the rewards of UN existence than they contribute - \u201cThe United States is far and away the biggest single contributor to the U.N. system. In 2006, the total U.S. contributions came to at least $2.7 billion \u2014 and that excludes the private sector, which by most independent estimates, draws most of its $1.5 billion in U.N. contributions from U.S. sources.\u201d [1]  Should the US remain a consistent donor and allow itself to be asked for more and more as the UN budget becomes more bloated, or should it assert itself and say that, in real dollars, a line must be drawn?  [1] Russel, George. \u201cThe U.N.: Even More Expensive Than It Looks\u201d 06\/11\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro01b","title":"","text":"While it is true that the United States pays a substantial portion of the UN\u2019s budget, it does so for historical and pragmatic reasons. Its economy and budget are significantly larger than other member states. It holds a veto over actions taken in the UN Security Council. It benefits from its size and position. As much as the UN is an influential player, this influence is transferred to the US automatically.  \u201dThere is nothing that restrains the United States from using the U.N. to defend and promote American interests abroad\u2026 As a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council , the U.S. holds veto power over 70% of the U.N. budget. As a country with citizens in senior U.N. leadership positions, we work to shape and influence U.N. activities.\u201d [1]. Therefore the US has only to gain from its rather big contributions to the UN budget.  Furthermore this allows the US to insist on some UN decisions, which it feels are important such as the Palestinian issue \u2013 \u201c\u2026 The United States has the leverage to prevent this diplomatic disaster if the Obama Administration wants to use it: we are by far the largest donor to the U.N., financing roughly a quarter of its entire budget.\u201d [2].  [1] Danfor, John. Why the U.S. should keep the U.N. in business\u201d 27\/05\/2011   [2] Kleefeld, Eric. \u201cGingrich: Cut Off U.N. Funding If They Recognize Palestinian State\u201d  palestinian-state.php"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro04b","title":"","text":"No-growth budgets actually undermine fiscal accountability and discipline. While the USA has held the line on growth, it and other nations have simultaneously asked for the UN to do more in areas such as peacekeeping and nation-building. As the demands on the UN grow, and the budget does not grow with it, UN administrators are forced to move money around the budget to pay for basic overhead (even electric bills) and cover shortfalls in one program or another. Thus the basic goal-setting and accountability the US strives for is undermined. For example there have been complaints about taking money from the peacekeeping fund. The United Kingdom has objected \"Resolution 50\/218 on the Working Capital Fund did not give the Secretary-General a \"blank cheque to fund the deficits of major contributors through enforced borrowing from peace-keeping accounts\". Borrowing from peace-keeping funds to finance the regular budget is unacceptable,and if a memberstate goes so far as to refuse to pay the accumulation of more arrears could only increase the financial risk to the Organization. Cuba also felt that \"the spirit that guided the founders\" of the UN had not been reflected in the new budget. Instead, it had responded to the \"hegemonic\" and political interests of the major contributor and could be \"the first in a series of measures leading, in essence, not to the reform but to the destruction\" of the UN.\"1  1 \"Tough, no-growth budget for 1996-1997\" 1996"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro03a","title":"","text":"The US has a right to expect that its taxpayers' money is spent responsibly.  The United States has made a significant investment in the institution. Not only was it a founder, but it plays host to the body in New York and makes the largest contribution of any nation each year. \"The debate over whether the United Nations will continue to overcharge American taxpayers is over \u2014 and the U.S. wound up on the losing end. In a dramatic turnaround from steady declines since 2001, the percentage that the U.S. will be charged for U.N. peacekeeping has been sharply increased for the next three years, and U.S. taxpayers will end up paying roughly $100 million more each year than they would have if the 2009 assessment rate had been maintained.\u201d [1] This is not acting responsibly in a time where Americans are feeling the pinch from the economic downturn. American taxpayers recognize that their society faces a great many problems that could be addressed with the dollars that are annually spent on the UN. While Americans are generally supportive of the institution, they have a right to know that their investment is used appropriately and pays dividends in good policy.  [1] Schaefer, Brent. \u201cU.N. Dues: Obama Lets American Taxpayers Down\u201d 6\/01\/2010  ."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-pro04a","title":"","text":"No-growth funding policy results in better operation of the finances and will improve financial discipline.  UN reform has been a major objective of the United States, and government leaders assert that six years of no-growth budgets and pressure from the United States have resulted in reforms of the General Assembly, budget preparation procedures, the creation of sunset provisions for UN programs and improvements in staff security. It is argued that these reforms could not have been accomplished without the carrot and stick approach of the no-growth policy. The UN has a budget in the billions of dollars which it can spend more efficiently if it sets goals and priorities, evaluates outcomes and eliminates waste and corruption. This has already been proven in 1996-1997 \u2013\"\u2026Although this budget is not as lean as my Government originally proposed, it is perhaps the most austere ever adopted by the General Assembly\", the United States representative said. The budget included a number of significant reform measures and marked \"another in a series of significant steps towards a more effective, efficient and accountable United Nations\", he declared, calling the Organization \"unique and indispensable\".\u201d [1]  The fact that the US has succeeded in keeping the UN to a no-growth budget for the past six fiscal years is indicative of the workability of the approach.  [1] \u201cTough, no-growth budget for 1996-1997\u201d 1996"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con03b","title":"","text":"It is not clear who is a debtor to whom. First of all \"The United Nations' Tax Equalization Fund (TEF) owes the United States nearly $180 million\" [1] Furthermore Cliff Kincaid, a journalist who writes frequently on UN affairs states: \"Claims that the United States owes the United Nations more than $1 billion are false. No legal debt exists or can exist. The UN Charter does not empower the organization to compel payment from any member state. Even the notion that the United States owes money in the sense of a moral obligation is fallacious. It ignores the military and other assistance that the Clinton administration has provided the UN and for which the United States has not been properly credited or reimbursed. Over the past five years, that assistance has amounted to at least $11 billion, and perhaps as much as $15 billion. The administration has been diverting funds from federal agencies, especially the Department of Defence, to the United Nations. \" [2] We cannot claim the US does not pay enough to do the UN and therefore it \"threatens\" it.  1 Shaeffer, Brett. \"The U.S., the U.N., and a $180 Million Debt\" 9\/02\/2011 2 Kincaide, Cliff. \"THE UNITED NATIONS DEBT Who Owes Whom?\" 23\/04\/1998"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con01b","title":"","text":"In times of big environmental crises or military conflicts it is true that more funding is necessary. However this funding must come on a voluntary ad hoc basis, rather than from the regular budget of the UN. Because otherwise this would mean even a bigger financial burden on developed countries and especially on the US. The UN determines how much more money it needs in a certain operation in extreme unexpected situations. As the general secretary Ban Ki-moon appealed for more financing to tackle Haiti's cholera epidemic \u2013 \u201cMr. Ban told a conference at the UN headquarters in New York that Haiti was in desperate need of more medical supplies and personnel\u2026He appealed for he international community to dig deep to help stem the cholera epidemic in Haiti\" 1.  Inflation is an economic matter and in most of the cases it is taken into consideration when determining the UN budget. However in hard financial times \u2013 as they are since the financial crises (2008) and the complicated problems the US has with its public debt (2011) increasing the budget is simply unrealistic.  1. \u201cUN appeals for more money to aid Haiti\u2019s cholera epidemic\u201d 3\/12\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con02a","title":"","text":"The current global problems constantly require more funding.  The UN is in a fiscal (budget) crisis that can only be alleviated by regular contributions from the US. Growth in funding has not met the demand for growth in programs\u2014including demands placed on the UN by the US and its allies. During the Cold War, the UN was a largely impotent institution. With the Cold War over, and faith in multilateralism growing, the need to recruit and organize vast organisations to run many new programs has proven to be far more costly than the UN budget is able to handle.  Today major problems occur in a global level, which cannot be solved without extra funding - Somalia famine, reproductive health in Africa, Pakistan floods, Myanmar cyclone and many others. Global issues are constantly expanding and they demand more attention. Expanded commitments also require expanded funding so the UN needs \u201crobust financial support from the United States\u201d to carry on its global-security, development, education, and health work, Mr. Ban told reporters on a day of meetings with congressional leaders.  In order for the UN to continue fulfilling its duty and primary role it needs the relevant support and financial assistance."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con04a","title":"","text":"US inflexibility diminishes its leadership role in the world body.  The potential exists for the United States to appear as a bully to the other UN member states by demanding the institution bend to its will or lose support. An appropriate analogy can be found in a country's taxation policy. Individuals cannot simply withhold their taxes because they disagree with a government's policies. That usually lands them in jail. The US faces no such threat for non-compliance and thus makes a show of its leverage over the UN. Such an attitude potentially undermines the desire of other nations to be receptive to serious US needs, resolutions and reforms.  The US therefore needs to be very careful when exercising its power in the UN and deciding how much money to set apart; otherwise countries may start to question the role and importance of such a big international organization."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con03a","title":"","text":"Non-payment of dues is an infringement of international law.  Members of the UN are obligated by treaty to contribute. In fact, ten nations (all in Africa, Central Asia or the Caribbean) are being threatened with the loss of their General Assembly votes for arrears this year. These states are required to make far smaller contributions in total than the gaps often left unfilled by the USA. As of 2009 the US debt to the UN exceeds $ 1.5 billion [1]. Therefore the UN is more or less dependent on US payments. While the US does eventually contribute its dues, and the UN voluntarily complies with its demand to keep a level budget, the threat they hold over the UN is essentially a breach of treaty and should be treated as such.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con01a","title":"","text":"A no-growth budget for the UN lacks flexibility  Circumstances can change rapidly. In one year there might be a significant need for peacekeeping or humanitarian needs, while in another, these needs might be less pronounced. This is the case in 2011 with conflicts in Africa \u201cThe United Nations refugee agency warned today that a lack of funding could undermine its ongoing efforts to provide humanitarian assistance to tens of thousands of people displaced by the unrest in Libya, saying it has so far received slightly over half of the funding it requested for the operation.\u201d [1] In times of serious political unrest the UN assistance is of essential importance. Therefore it needs sufficient funding, which cannot be unalterable since the situation and conditions alter.  Furthermore pressures like inflation affect the UN as much as they impact the consumer in the streets of New York. Especially when inflation rates are rising. The current US inflation (as of 2011) is nearly 4% [2]. Inflation has meant a real-terms decrease in the UN budget\u2014not a level budget. It is not realistic to assume that the same level of funding as six or more years ago is truly adequate for today or tomorrow.  [1]) \u201cLibya: UN warns funding shortfall could slow aid effort for victims of conflict\u201d 15\/04\/2011   [2] \u201cCurrent Inflation Rates: 2001-2011\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con04b","title":"","text":"US leadership is enhanced when it asserts itself in the UN. America has the potential to shape developments in the world for good through its involvement in the UN. However, the UN is a representative body, and at times in its history smaller non-aligned states (with notably minimal contributions to the UN budgetary pie) have been able to trample on policies the United States feels are in its and the world's best interests. Inflexibility by the US shows these states that they need to toe the line with the US so enhancing the US leadership role. While Smaller states play an important role in the United Nations, as they represent a large majority of the membership. In recent years, they have emerged as important players in the international community. Their influence is not determined merely by the size of their territory, economy or military power, but also by their ability to achieve their goals. If these rising states wish to achieve their goals having the United States and the UN helping towards these goals, or at least not thwarting their attempts, is necessary. A passive approach by the United States to issues of reform would not serve the interests of either party."}
+{"id":"training-international-ghwfunb-con02b","title":"","text":"Again - in order to meet the financial demands of the UN, a growth budget doesn't need to be set. Even if there are problems, whose solving costs a lot today, this doesn't mean that it will continue to be so in the future. Every year problems of the status quo are different. A UN budget is determined to an extent that it can be met by the state parties. There is not an unlimited amount of money, which can be allocated to international organizations. Of course in times of deep global challenges, the more advanced and developed part of the world will try and do the best they can to help the ones in need. But a continuous increase of the UN budget is not the way to cope with the problems. It just creates a fund-consuming machine, which is becoming more and more expensive. Furthermore the US already donates too much money to the UN - \"The U. S. State Department yesterday announced that the Obama Administration has agreed to contribute $4 billion to the United Nations Global Fund to fight AIDs, Tuberculosis, and Malaria from 2011 to 2013. The $4 billion represents a 38% increase over the previous U.S. commitment to the fund.\"1  1 Williams, Paul. \"President Donates $100 Billion to the United Nations\" 6\/10\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Landmines are an excellent way of defending a wide area for very little money. They permit the defence of an area without requiring large numbers of personnel. This is a legitimate aim both in warfare, when military personnel are spread too thinly to protect all civilians and in poor countries during peacetime, who would rather invest in their infrastructure than funding the military capacity that would otherwise be required to defend the same ground.  They can be easily removed, but not quickly, which is what provides their military utility.  The fact that landmines can be easily removed (if someone actually goes about that process) highlights the real root of the suffering caused by landmines \u2013 it is the on-going military conflicts which prevent removal and cause more mines to be planted which are the true cause of civilian suffering. If those conflicts ended then the harm to civilians would dissipate anyway."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro02a","title":"","text":"The difficulty of removing Landmines far outweighs their usefulness  The usefulness of landmines is significantly over-represented. They are easily removed by quite low-technology military equipment \u2013 which means that they are not very dangerous to armed forces whose mobility is not significantly restricted, this is after-all the purpose of the mines, but are incredibly harmful to civilians. [1]  A significant problem is that many minefields have been left unmarked and that they can remain active for more than 50 years. Removing a landmine can be fairly easy, but detecting them is not.  [1] ICRC, \u2018Anti-personnel mines: not an indispensable weapon of high military value\u2019, 28 March 1996,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Banning landmines disproportionately punishes small, underdeveloped countries unable to develop the higher-technology military capacity that has made mines less useful to richer nations. Because of this, banning landmines harms precisely the kind of nation most likely to need them for defensive purposes."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Banning Landmines is a step towards reducing the horror of war  Landmines are a terrible and immoral tool of war. America should neither practise nor condone this kind of warfare. Unlike other weaponry, landmines remain hidden in the ground long after conflicts have ended, killing and maiming civilians in some of the world\u2019s poorest countries years, even decades later. [1] In Afghanistan 17% of victims are children. [2] Even if other weaponry has similar effects, it doesn\u2019t mean landmines are acceptable \u2013 it means they are bad, too. But we must start somewhere \u2013 we can make a difference by capitalising on the global movement against landmines, and we should.  [1] United Nations cyberschoolbus,   [2] Mine Clearance Planning Agency, Landmine Impact Survey Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, August 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Landmines do great harm to people that trigger them \u2013 but so do all weapons of war. They are not uniquely unpleasant and the debate about them has distorted the public perception of landmines \u2013 in truth, they are little different to a hundred other types of weaponry that remain legal under the Ottawa ban.  In particular, landmines are an entirely defensive weapon. They can render large areas un-enterable until cleared but in this they are analogous to the long term harm of a chemical spill \u2013 the harm can largely be mitigated by simply avoiding the area until it can be cleared."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro04b","title":"","text":"These mines, used in peacekeeping initiatives, protect US troops and present little danger to civilians. Stopping their use would endanger the lives of peacekeepers and make the USA less likely to enter into such operations \u2013 part of the reason the USA refused to sign the Ottawa treaty in 1997, and has declined to do so since."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Landmines provide a false sense of security  Landmines provide a false sense of security. They are often purchased and placed by nations that are fearful of their surrounding neighbours, rather than entering into diplomatic arena to improve relations. They are the symbol of exactly the wrong approach to international affairs. Small, underdeveloped countries should channel their efforts into improving their economies \u2013 they should not be encouraged (or frightened by scaremongering) by the USA into buying the USA\u2019s military equipment."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro04a","title":"","text":"The US army does not need landmines  It is absurd to suggest that landmines are the prime protector of US forces, or even an important one. It is well known that the principal benefit the USA\u2019s troops (as opposed to those of other nations) have in peacekeeping is the threat of the deployment of overwhelming force if they are defied. Landmines are nothing to do with it. US troops have not been pinned down in the way the opposition suggests since World War Two, except in Iraq: and there, as elsewhere, the damage done to relations with the civilian community would far outweigh any narrow military benefit garnered from landmine deployment. Indeed the use of landmines by the US has slowly been changing, since 2004 the US has only allowed the use of landmines with deactivation mechanisms however it has not actually used landmines in more than 20 years. [1]  [1] Good, Rachel, \u2018Yes We Should: Why the U.S. Should Change Its Policy Toward the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty\u2019, Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights, Vol. 9, Issue 2, (Spring 2011),"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con03b","title":"","text":"Faith in these so called \u2018smart\u2019 mines is hugely misplaced. Conditions under testing will always vary from those in the field, where all is confusion and areas of deployment are often not properly recorded or marked. Even if they work as claimed, there is no guarantee that regimes that use them will wish to deactivate them upon ceasefire, if left in the territory of a neighbour or enemy with whom a dispute still smoulders. The equipment required for deactivation may be lost or destroyed. The best way to ensure that these weapons aren\u2019t left in the soil is never to put them there in the first place.  That some users might be responsible is not good enough, since if anyone has landmines everyone will. Even that assumes that it is possible to be a \u2018responsible\u2019 user of landmines \u2013 once they are in the ground the user has lost all practical control over them. The only way to take back control is to disarm them."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con01b","title":"","text":"Chemical weapons are also cheap and highly effective. The use of chemical agents was widespread in the First World War and domestic terrorists groups have been able to manufacture and use Sarin gas in attacks. [1]  These weapons are banned despite being cheap and effective because of the unnecessary suffering they cause and because of their indiscriminate nature. Mines and gas are both \u2018area denial\u2019 weapons whose effects can linger long after the conflict in which they were employed has faded into history.  [1] Wikipedia, Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con02a","title":"","text":"Landmines are easy to use illegally anyway  Landmines are merely a convenient way of providing what can be rigged in many ways \u2013 an explosion triggered when movement occurs in a particular area. Without landmines being legally available, troops will improvise landmines \u2013 they will wire up pressure plates and hand grenades and trip wires and high explosive charges, with much the same result. These will then be much more difficult to disarm as they will not have a standard design and they may also have much more explosive power. [1] This behaviour was widespread in the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. The only differences are that these weapons are less efficient, and more dangerous to the user that prepares them.  [1] Maresca, Louis, Maslen, Stuart, The Banning of Anti-Personnel Landmines, International Committee of the Red Cross, 2004, p.316,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con04a","title":"","text":"Landmines are necessary to protect South Korea  The defence of South Korea from Communist aggression depends upon the thick belt of landmines that lines the demilitarized zone. Without it, North Korea\u2019s million man army could easily cross into South Korea and take Seoul before defences could be organised. [1] South Korea is a key ally of the USA and to join in the ban on landmines would be to betray that ally. The failure of the Ottawa Convention to grant an exception for the Korean peninsula was the key reason for USA non-participation.  With regards to the tunnel network: North Korea would never be able to perform an invasion through a dozen half-finished tunnels just big enough for a man to pass though. Troops passing under the DMZ without any heavy equipment or armour would have to assemble in the open with no protection from RoK and US firepower and air support. The main force of any invasion would have to travel over ground.  [1] Marin, \u2018Peacemakers Along the DMZ\u2019, 2002"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con03a","title":"","text":"The ban fails to distinguish between different kinds of mines  The ban fails to distinguish between different kinds of mines. The Americans have mines that can deactivate themselves and can self-destruct. America only manufactures smart mines, and since 1976 the USA has tested 32,000 mines with a successful self-destruction rate of 99.996 per cent. [1] The ban also fails to distinguish between responsible and irresponsible users. Under American deployment, only smart mines are used, and they are used responsibly, being set and removed in a methodical manner.  [1] Hillen, John and Spring, Baker, \u2018Why A Global Ban On Land Mines Won\u2019t Work\u2019, Heritage.org, 17 January 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con01a","title":"","text":"Landmines are a useful military tool  In the future, landmines may not be needed. However, whilst armies still depend on conventional weapons and movement \u2013 moving tanks and large infantry groups \u2013 and borders are weak, the defensive tactic of landmines is highly appropriate: it is cheap, affordable, and maintains borders. Their existence can slow or stop an advance by breaking up an attack and forcing attackers to go certain routes, [1] delaying or even halting conflict; they can deter invasion in the first place. [2] By guarding wide areas from swift armed advance  [1] ICRC, Anti-personnel Landmines. Friend of foe? A study of the military use and effectiveness of anti-personnel mines, 1996, pp.14-15   [2] Marin, Albert and Litzelman, Michael, \u2018Peacemakers Along the DMZ: Non-Self Destruct Landmines in the Republic of Korea\u2019, Journal of Mine Action, Issue 6.1, April 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con04b","title":"","text":"North Korea has an extensive tunnel network under the DMZ that will facilitate the circumvention of the largest minefield on Earth, if the North Koreans were ever stupid enough to attempt invasion (and there is nothing to suggest that they are going to). This fact demonstrates the uselessness of landmines \u2013 the world\u2019s biggest minefield is militarily redundant, a danger only to those that will live in this area in future years. The USA knows this \u2013 the defence of South Korea is a hollow, false excuse offered in defence of landmines \u2013 the real reason is the unwillingness on the part of the military machine to relinquish the capability of any weapon, no matter how horrible. Of course, there is a healthy profit to be made in their distribution, too."}
+{"id":"training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con02b","title":"","text":"That is true if we are discussing a single tripwire or booby trap. But the argument avoids the real point of landmines \u2013 blanket deployment over very wide areas, making them impassable for military units in the short term, and deadly for the indigenous population in the long term. Nobody rigs up a few thousand pressure plates at a time. Removing landmines from the available military options would mean that this kind of deployment would become impossible \u2013 it would mean the end of the mine field."}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro02b","title":"","text":"France and the UK might have declined in relative power since 1945, but even today only Japan and Germany among non-P5 states rank ahead of them economically. In any case, France and the UK are still amongst the world\u2019s foremost military powers, with the world\u2019s largest nuclear arsenals after the USA and Russia, [1] and the world\u2019s highest military expenditure after the USA and China with France spending $61 billion and the UK $57 billion in 2010. [2] By contrast, the EU has no significant military to speak of, and is thus unable to project power across the globe. The EU launched a Rapid Reaction Force meant to be 60,000 troops in 2001, but it is still a paper tiger without even this many men and with many capability shortfalls. [3] Given the mission of the UNSC to maintain international peace and security, eligibility for a permanent seat should be based on military power, not just economic or demographic power.  [1] Federation of American Scientists, 2011,   [2] SIPRI, 2011,   [3] Defence Dateline, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro02a","title":"","text":"The world has moved on since 1945.  The permanent seats for France and the UK are based on the fact that they were among the great powers and victors of World War II. However, the global balance of powers has shifted significantly since then: France and the UK have declined; Britain\u2019s manufacturing exports dropped from 25% of world manufacturing exports in 1945 to 5% in 2000. [1] And the UK was 6.52% of the world economy in 1950 [2] but down to 3.56 in 2010. [3] Moreover both had large empires which were lost in the decades after 1945. At the same time the EU has emerged as a major player in the international arena. The EU is one of the world\u2019s largest trade blocs, has the world\u2019s largest GDP, and represents almost half a billion people. A permanent seat for the EU would reflect those new power dimensions.  [1] Schenk, 472,   [2] Maddison,   [3] World Bank,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The European Union might be an economic powerhouse and might want to coordinate foreign relations in regards to external economic policy, but at heart it is intended to be an economic union, not a political union. Most of its founding treaties and the daily workings of its institutions focus on creating and maintaining a single market, not on creating a shared foreign and military policy. Giving the EU representation at what is an institution for foreign and military policy is misreading what the EU was intended to be."}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro05a","title":"","text":"France and Britain should be willing to give up their seats for the European Union.  The most practical way to reform the United Nations is for France and Britain to give way to a European Union seat. Although there would inevitably be some loss of influence for both nations the pain would be minimised by retaining one seat between them. The European Union often decides what countries get what jobs based upon internal politics, so for example Catherine Ashton became High Representative for Foreign and Security Policy because Tony Blair did not get the presidency. [1] It would therefore be possible through an internal agreement in the European Union to make sure that France and the United Kingdom retain control of the UNSC seat through having control of the foreign minister post and the post of Ambassador to the United Nations.  [1] Meade, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Only a more representative United Nations Security Council is legitimate.  The United Nations is a global body that must represent the whole world. Just as democratic governments need to remain representative to be legitimate so the same is true of intergovernmental organisations. If the UK and France hang on to their permanent seats forever, the UNSC will lose its legitimacy, as the United Nations will no longer be seen to be representative. The result will be an increased risk of war and conflict because the world\u2019s major powers have no legitimate shared arena for discussing their interests. This is exactly what happened to the League of Nations after World War I. As many of the most powerful nations, USA, USSR and Germany were unwilling to join or barred from joining the League never had much legitimacy. As a result the League was unable to prevent conflicts in Manchuria and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) eventually leading to World War II. [1] Since their interest in a stable world through the legitimacy of the UNSC outweighs their interest in a formal veto-power, France and the UK should be willing to give up their veto power.  [1] Kissinger, Diplomacy"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is a good reason why previous attempts at reforming the United Nations Security Council have not succeeded. Reform has been attempted several times since 1992 when Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali called for a renewal of the United Nations by 1995. [1] The \u2018G4\u2019 made up of Germany, Japan, Brazil and India has been lobbying to become permanent members but are opposed by others who want more non-permanent seats. [2] Kofi Annan in 2005 suggested two options either 6 new permanent members with no veto or eight four year renewable terms, [3] but this too has gotten nowhere. No matter who is on the council some countries will feel aggrieved. If Brazil becomes a member Argentina and Mexico will object, China might object to India becoming a permanent member and Pakistan certainly would. [4] In Africa it is not even certain who should represent the continent as there is no single leader, whoever is chosen some countries would not like the result. It is therefore better to leave things how they are. The current UNSC has been recognised as legitimate for more than sixty years this is not about to change.  [1] Boutros-Ghali, \u2018An Agenda for Peace\u2019, 1992,   [2] Ariyoruk, \u2018Players and Proposals in the Security Council Debate\u2019, 2005,   [3] United Nations Secretary General, \u2018In larger freedom\u2019, 2005, V,   [4] Muns, 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro05b","title":"","text":"Even if UNSC reform is perfectly logical in theory, in practice they would never work. The UK and France have a veto in the UNSC, which means they can halt any kind of reform of the UNSC which is not in their interest. Losing a permanent seat without getting a clear benefit in return is definitely against their interest. Even if they were to retain control over foreign policy no nation would want to move from having sole control of a seat to having to negotiate with its partners which way it will vote. As such the UK and France would veto any such proposal."}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Europe may now have a president but as he has few independent powers the Lisbon Treaty has not answered Kissinger\u2019s apocryphal question \u2018who do I call if I want to dial Europe\u2019. [1] The US president or Secretary of state would still need to call round the major capitals of Europe as Van Rompuy would need to get the agreement of the Prime Ministers and Presidents of the continent before he could do anything.  [1] Rachman, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro03a","title":"","text":"The European Union is meant to prevent war being on the UNSC would allow it to actively promote peace.  The EU might function as an economic union, but its original goal was to prevent war from ever happening again on the European continent. The political resolution of the Congress of Europe in 1948 said \u201cit is the urgent duty of the nations of Europe to create an economic and political union in order to assure security and social progress\u2026 the creation of a United Europe is an essential element in the creation of a united world.\u201d [1] The Economic integration is a means to this goal, by making member states economically too dependent on each other for them to want to declare war on each other. Given this history, the EU can contribute a lot of knowledge and experience on how to use \u2018soft power\u2019 in a foreign policy context. Europe has been successful in creating peace on a previously warlike continent. It has also had successes in encouraging reform in the countries of Eastern Europe and is continuing to do so in the Balkans through enlargement. [2] Croatia was at war with its neighbors fifteen years ago and part of Yugoslavia twenty years ago but will become the 28thmember of the EU in 2013. [3]  Being a member of the UNSC would deepen Europe\u2019s commitment to international peace-keeping and peace-making missions, something which currently varies very widely between member states, and push them to spend sufficient on equipping their militaries for such missions. The UNSC could turn the EU\u2019s soft power outwards to help the world. As a result it should have a seat at the world\u2019s foremost foreign policy institution.  [1] Congress of Europe at the Hague, 1948,   [2] Bildt, 2005,   [3] BBC News, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro04a","title":"","text":"The EU now has the necessary foreign policy organs.  In the past the European Union has not had the necessary foreign policy bureaucracy and decision making capabilities to be able to control a UNSC seat. Since the Lisbon treaty this has changed. The Treaty created a President of the European Council, currently Herman Van Rompuy. [1] And a European External Action Service (EEAS) which will eventually have a staff of 5,400. The EEAS is a functionally autonomous EU body with a large number of embassies around the world. [2] This will give the EU representation in most countries, 54 with ambassadors out of a total of 136, [3] and the ability to coordinate a foreign policy. A seat at the United Nations Security Council would be a natural extension of this.  [1] European Council,   [2] BBC News, 2010,   [3] Waterfield, 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con03b","title":"","text":"Until now, the member states of the European Union have never been able to coordinate their foreign policies effectively. This has led to divided positions amongst member states, for example towards Russia, China and other global players, allowing them to play a \u2018divide-and-rule\u2019-strategy against European interests. Giving the EU a single seat would give the Member States a clear incentive to harmonize their policies: a coordinated policy can then be expected to actually take effect, instead of it being a supplement to domestic foreign policy. Interests are guided by who decides what the interests are. With a unified voice from a unified external action service and President Europe will be able to define what the interests of the Union as a whole are."}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con01b","title":"","text":"The European Union has already been gaining power at the United Nations. The European Union gained what could be considered super-observer status in May 2011. Van Rompuy will be able to address the United Nations as the heads of other states can and the EU also has the right to speak, the right to make proposals and submit amendments, the right of reply, the right to raise points of order and the right to circulate documents. Europe will be represented by the High Representative and the EEAS. [1]  [1] Phillips, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con02a","title":"","text":"The only way the United Nations Security Council can be reformed is through expansion.  Current UN Security Council members will never give up their seats. As well as Britain and France Russia could equally be considered to be no longer worthy of being a member of the UNSC. Russia\u2019s economy is significantly smaller than either of the other European members. However no one seriously thinks Russia will give up its seat. Instead the United Nations Security Council will have to be expanded to make it more representative. This will mean bringing in Brazil, India and an African representative. There is precedence for expanding the council as Article 23 of the charter was amended in 1963 to enlarge the security council membership from eleven to fifteen. [1]  [1] United Nations, 1945, Introductory Note,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con05a","title":"","text":"More is more.  While the in number of EU members in the Security Council is obviously beneficial to the EU and its members the influence of the European Union is also beneficial to the UN system as a whole. European powers that are enthusiastic internationalists and proponents of international organisations act as a counterweight to other powers that still act like great nationalist powers from the 19thCentury such as Russia and China. [1] They are therefore enthusiastic about working through the UN rather than acting unilaterally. The European Union\u2019s international goals also dovetail well with the United Nations on a whole range of issues; development, peacekeeping, human rights, the environment, humanitarian aid and culture are all areas where there is a lot of cooperation; this means that the European Union is often acting in the interest of the United Nations. [2] This interest can obviously be best served by the European Union having more seats rather than only one.  [1] Ojanen, 2006, p5,   [2] Ibid, p.10, 36"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con04a","title":"","text":"There are disputes about enlargement of the Security Council.  Reforming the UN Security Council is very difficult as no one can agree which new powers deserve representation, whether they should have a veto, and even whether permanent membership should continue to exist in any form. Japan and India seem obvious candidates for permanent status, but their candidacies are fiercely opposed by a variety of other Asian countries, while Nigeria and Egypt both feel they have a good claim to an \u201cAfrican\u201d seat. Africa with no obvious leader could be the most difficult to resolve, already there are six countries which say they would want to be Africa\u2019s permanent member; Senegal, South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Egypt and Libya. [1] These disputes may in the end lead to a much enlarged permanent membership, so if the EU did taken over the UK and France\u2019s seats, there would be a much greater likelihood that European interests will be outvoted on the Security Council.  [1] Okumu, 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con03a","title":"","text":"Even if other countries such as Russia are unwilling to give up their own seats Britain and France have an alternative in the form of joint European Union membership. Both countries are therefore much more likely to agree to lose their seats than Russia w  The member states of the European Union haven\u2019t harmonized their foreign policies so far simply because they have vastly divergent interests in the arena of global power politics. The interests of Germany vis-a-vis Russia are a world apart from France and the UK\u2019s interests, let alone Poland\u2019s. For example in the brief war between Georgia and Russia in 2008 France, Germany and Italy tried to avoid confrontation with Russia while Eastern Europe and Britain demanded a much tougher stance with sanctions. [1] And France and the UK famously took very different positions over the Iraq War, while their different experiences of empire and decolonisation give them a wider international perspective than most other EU states. Handing the EU a single seat does nothing to change those interests, and thus would actually harm every member state\u2019s individual foreign policy interest, instead of furthering it.  [1] Waterfield, 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con05b","title":"","text":"The European States are obviously going to benefit from having large numbers of their members on the UN Security Council, and the United Nations itself is not harmed by it this overrepresentation comes at the expense of other regions. No other regions are so closely integrated \u2013 so countries in them don\u2019t have allies who they can rely on in the Council, and some of which don\u2019t have any members who have veto power. When compared to Europe that is not only integrated enough that the European States will most of the time take a common line and protect each other but who also have two states that can wield a veto the situation is grossly unfair."}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con01a","title":"","text":"The United Nations is meant to be a body of nation states.  The United Nations is an international organisation whose members are nation states, not other supranational organisations such as the European Union. \u201cMembership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states\u201d [1] The European Union is however not a state and is unlikely to become one in the near future.  Recognising the European Union as a member would pose other problems as it would clash with article 9 of the UN charter \u201cEach Member shall have not more than five representatives in the General Assembly.\u201d And Article 18 \u201cEach member of the General Assembly shall have one vote.\u201d [2] As the European Union member would have 27 votes, and potentially well over 100 representatives in the General Assembly. The European Union is at present an observer [3] and that is how it should remain.  [1] United Nations, 1945, Article 4,   [2] United Nations, 1945, Article 9, 18,   [3] The Telegraph, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con04b","title":"","text":"It is widely recognised that the current Security Council set-up lacks legitimacy and requires reform. Major states such as Japan, and rising powers such as Brazil, South Africa and India deserve recognition and giving them permanent status would provide representation for a much broader cross-section of humanity. In such a reformed UN it is much harder to justify permanent places for the UK and France alone, two essentially similar western European countries. They should instead agree to be represented through an EU seat as part of an overhaul of the whole international system."}
+{"id":"training-international-eghwgepsusc-con02b","title":"","text":"Even if other countries such as Russia are unwilling to give up their own seats Britain and France have an alternative in the form of joint European Union membership. Both countries are therefore much more likely to agree to lose their seats than Russia would be."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-pro02b","title":"","text":"The prize is too narrowly defined. At what scale should the change be defined? For example civil-society and community leaders can make significant changes to governance at a smaller-scale; promoting democratic governance from a bottom-up initiative can work as well as top down. On another hand, should we only be focusing on the very top? What about the government officials who are not heads of state but make a change to people\u2019s lives? The narrow focus on the head of a party or state neglects the body - such as finance ministers - that maintains that system of governance and work hard to ensure a democratic transition. The focus on heads of state may deter the state body from ensuring effective governance due to the fact their hard work is not rewarded or recognised.  Due to the relatively young nature of democracy and multi-party rule across Africa, the criteria of potential prize candidates needs to be expanded. The number of former heads of states having left in the past three years is small. Therefore the criteria for nomination needs to change."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-pro02a","title":"","text":"Focusing on the leaders of good governance  Previous winners - such as Nelson Mandela and Pedro Pires - made significant changes to their nation-states, ending apartheid and promoting social development. The former leaders provided equality and a functioning democracy to their people. Such needs to be the aim of leaders today.  Providing a prize to the highest achievers provides an example. It highlights leaders from even small countries \u2013 such as Cape Verde\u2019s Pires \u2013 that can serve as role models for Africa\u2019s leaders. Without the prize the most likely role models would simply be those of the biggest states who are highest profile. Mo Ibrahim (2013) has stated the prize is for \u201cexcellence, it\u2019s not a pension\u201d. This is why it is not always awarded. The prize is only be awarded when high-standards of good governance are replicated, and maintained, by leaders. Focusing on the top of government encourages a top down implementation of good government. When the leader acts others will follow; a comparatively small amount of money can therefore make a big difference."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-pro03b","title":"","text":"Although the prize has gained recognition in the Western world or \u2018Global North\u2019 to what extent is the prize, its reward, and meaning, known and understood by African citizens? If the prize is recognising African leadership citizens need to be aware of the prize in the first place - whether their country is up for nomination or not. Awareness is the only way the apparent transparency can hold power and become a reality. Citizens cannot demand change or hold the state to account when they are not aware of the index, the prize, and the so-called changes being made."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-pro01a","title":"","text":"Recognition when credit is due  The past few years have seen African governments, and heads of state, reluctant to leave office; driving political coups; and leading violent crimes against humanity. Mugabe, Kabila, and Kenyatta are but a few articulating the years of sustained bad governance. The prize is only awarded when credit is due - if leaders have made a significant positive impact this will be recognised and rewarded. The prize is therefore for absolute gains in governance, not relative to other countries.  As the prize is not always awarded it avoids the pitfall that distributing a financial prize where no change has been made to political institutions would reinforce a system. The state would continue to function on undemocratic governance, and the reward would become a new example of dead money [1] . Instead it encourages improved control over aid and money transferred to African states, it shows that rewards are given based on merit. The Mo Ibrahim prize therefore encourages the good institutions that are necessary for prosperity (Acemoglu and Robinson, 2013).  [1] See further readings: Moyo, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-pro01b","title":"","text":"The prize by focusing on leaders ignores the areas where money is needed; not lining already rich people\u2019s pockets but providing money and advice to actually set up these institutions. This means for example ensuring the police and civil servants are well enough paid they don\u2019t resort to corruption etc. Acemoglu and Robinson (2013) highlight that there is also a \u2018vicious cycle\u2019 whereby the presence of bad institutions - authoritarian, unaccountable, with limited economic innovations - reinforce poverty and bad governance. Although offering rewards where significant change has happened is a positive model, in reality, many African states require funds to be able to enforce change in the first place and break this vicious cycle.  For good governance to be promoted rewards should not only go to the best, but also the good in a continent where bad governance dominates. For any progress to be made in governance the prize needs to lower standards of expectation, recognise where improvements are made, and use the reward to change the vicious cycle. Some change is better than none; focusing on picking the best with high standards limits any change."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-pro03a","title":"","text":"Transparency  The prize is helping citizens to be aware of good governance, and bad, occurring within their state. By granting the prize citizens are shown what leaders have done right; and the publication of the index - the Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) - shows where improvement may be required. The prize is forcing transparency between governments and society. Information on how states are doing means citizens can take action, and demand change where change is needed. The prize is calling for African citizens to get the leadership they deserved, desired, and have a right to.  By maintaining strict standards on when, and to whom, the reward is provided gives a realistic picture of governance in Africa. It showcases the continued need for good governance; and also doesn\u2019t give citizens and the international community a false illusion that governance is good in Africa when it is not."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con03b","title":"","text":"The committee nominating, and choosing, the final candidates remains un-bias and their expertise within multiple aspects of governance means the high standards can be maintained. Having votes would open the prize up to corruption and attempts to influence the outcome by those who are eligible. A technocratic standard is needed for good governance."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con01b","title":"","text":"One of the criteria for awarding the prize is \u2018demonstrated exceptional leadership\u2019. This clearly allows the IIAG to be fed into the process as it is the IIAG that can show if the leader being considered has demonstrated this leadership. The IIAG provides a useful tool to assist in deciding the prize winner, and nominees."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con02a","title":"","text":"Bribing good governance  The Mo Ibrahim Prize is bribing African leaders to shift towards good governance. The financial incentive is being distributed to entice leaders to follow good governance approaches and models. The fact that no questions are asked on where the money provided goes; how it is used; and what the former leaders spend it on raise further questions. Most importantly to what extent can we claim elaborate bribery is an effective means to enforce good governance within the continent? For a start having what is essentially a bribe to encourage good governance is hypoctitical. Secondly a bribe for an individual relies on that one individual\u2019s actions. Thus in 2007 the prize was granted to Mozambique\u2019s President Chissano. However, since 2007 declines have emerged in the scores concerning law and rights (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2013).  Additionally for those motivated by money the money provided cannot compete with potential returns that can be gained from natural resources, tax evasion schemes, and capital flight. The bribery incentive does not compete with potential profits gained through alternative forms corruption (Bedell, 2009)."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con04a","title":"","text":"A contradictory approach  The prize will fail to promote good governance due to the contradictory approach it undertakes. Good governance cannot emerge and be sustained by rewarding former presidents. Having a good former president does not mean their successor will encourage their legacy to continue. Why celebrate good former leaders when we need to focus on what is happening now?  Moreover why reward someone just when they can no longer do any good? The prize suffers from the contradiction of regarding giving up power as a necessary criteria to obtain the prize. This ignores that Africa does not want those who are being successful at promoting good governance to leave their post \u2013 potentially to someone who will move backwards. Having a prize for someone who could have done more good had they stayed is contradictory.  Finally the prize is not good for Africa; the prize has raised negative stereotypes of African states, leaders, and systems. The attention gained by the prize not being granted for 3 out of 6 years is maintaining negative stereotypes of African leaders. This will only act to reinforce the global system of power - whereby the West intervene to implement a \u2018good\u2019 model of governance, not suited to Africa."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con03a","title":"","text":"Who's on the committee?  Who decides whether governance is going in the right direction within the African continent? The prize committee includes six individuals who make the decision of who is worthy of the reward, and whether it is granted. The panel includes leading figures, not all of whom have held elected positions such as Mohamed ElBaradei, and not all of whom are African, such as Martti Ahtisaari and Mary Robinson (Mo Ibrahim Foundation Prize Committee). Among these distinguished panellists the voice of Africa\u2019s population is missing. A prize about good governance should incorporate a people\u2019s vote as good governance is only relevant if it helps the people. Moreover without a public voice there is a lack of transparency in the workings of the committee and the decisions made. Hardly a good standard for a governance prize."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con01a","title":"","text":"Is the IIAG a good measure of \u2018good governance\u2019?  How do we define, classify, and recognise good governance? The Mo Ibrahim Foundation has created the Ibrahim Index. The IIAG calculates governance across Africa and assesses it over time. The IIAG shows governance has improved across the continent since 2000; and in 2013 classified Mauritius with the highest rank and Liberia as showcasing the greatest positive change over 13 years. But does the index have the right weighting? Where \u2018good governance\u2019 is found changes depending on the weighting applied. Even odder is that although the foundation has this index it is not actually used when awarding the prize, this is awarded by a committee to those who pass the criteria that don\u2019t include the IIAG (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2013). The prize is therefore methodologically unsound as a way of looking at and promoting good governance"}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con04b","title":"","text":"It is not contradictory to offer a reward for good governance after the leader has left office. Dictators holding onto power for long periods are one of Africa\u2019s biggest problems. Rewarding those who step aside shows that an important part of good governance is having presidents who stick to constitutional terms. A stable transfer of power is vital in a democracy. This is something that is even more important when the transfer is to a political opponent. One of the most important advances in governance that can be made is to make be considered normal that the opposition is as loyal to the country as the government. When this happens power can easily be transferred without conflict or resulting disorder."}
+{"id":"training-international-appgglhbm-con02b","title":"","text":"The reward is an incentive, not a bribe; consider it as being similar to performance related pay. The prize shows how if excellent leadership is promoted and good governance encouraged the leaders will be praised, recognised and rewarded. The prize is not a bribe, but a way of incentivising leaders to follow a path towards good governance. By highlighting cases where good governance has excelled the prize draws attention to the benefits of good governance through a cost-benefit appraisal. The social, economic, and political returns are highlighted; and other African governments encouraged to follow the trend."}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro02b","title":"","text":"If terrorism is the concern then the French intervening is one of the worst possible options. Having France fighting in Mali may well result in the internationalization of the conflict bringing in jihadists. [1] Already the islamists are saying the conflict is a holy war as \u201cFrance has attacked Islam\u201d and they will in response \u201cstrike at the heart of France\u201d. [2]  [1] Welsh, Jennifer, \u2018Sending soldiers to Mali may be the only solution\u2019, The Globe and Mail, 14 January 2012,   [2] Bamat, Joseph, \u2018Mali-based Islamists pledge attacks on French soil\u2019, France 24, 14 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro02a","title":"","text":"Fighting terrorism  While it was Tuareg separatists who first sparked the insurrection wanting to split Mali but now the North has been taken over by Islamists and al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb presenting a terrorist threat that cannot be ignored. France\u2019s Defence minister Jean-Yves Le Drian says \"France's goal is to lead a relentless struggle against terrorist groups,\" and that \"We have to eradicate this terrorism\". [1] The United States was already clearly worried about Mali becoming a center of terrorism having on the 7th December designated the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa a terrorist organisation while other groups involved in Mali such as al-Qa\u2019ida in the Islamic Maghreb were already designated as such. The State department highlights several terrorist attacks the group has conducted such as \u201ca March 2012 suicide attack on a police base in Tamanrasset, Algeria, which wounded 23 people\u201d. [2]  [1] CNN Staff, \u2018France determined to \u2018eradicate\u2019 terrorism in Mali, official says\u2019, CNN, 13 January 2013,   [2] Office of the Spokesperson, \u2018Terrorist Designations of the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa, Hamad el Khairy, and Ahmed el Tilemsi\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 7 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro03b","title":"","text":"Ban Ki Moon has also stated that \u201cI am profoundly aware that if a military intervention in the north is not well conceived and executed, it could worsen an already fragile humanitarian situation and also result in severe human rights abuses\u201d [1] so French military intervention is not necessarily the right course to take if the intention is to be helping the people of northern Mali. Equally we can ask if this will really end the civil war? Mali has suffered from several Tuareg rebellions in the past. In particular there was a civil war between 1990 and 1996 [2] which has had over a decade of sporadic peace negotiations while a cease fire held. So while outside intervention may end the civil war unless the French propose to remain in place for decades or work instead on a diplomatic solution in the long run Mali will be no better off.  [1] Tisdall, Simon, \u2018UN urges caution over military intervention in Mali\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 29 November 2012,   [2] Humphreys, Macartan, and Mohamed, Habaye ag, \u2018Senegal and Mali\u2019, January 2003,  pp.19-28"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro01a","title":"","text":"France was asked to intervene by Mali\u2019s government  \u201cFrance has answered\u2026 a request for assistance issued by the interim president of the Republic of Mali\u201d. France is therefore not coming in uninvited. Mali\u2019s President Traore directly appealed to French President Hollande to provide \u201cFrench military assistance against these terrorist groups\u201d that have \u201cattacked our front lines of defense\u201d. [1] As the former colonial power in much of West Africa, including Mali, France is the obvious country to turn to for help. As a result of this colonial past Mali is a member of the French led Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. [2] Mali is therefore fully within its sovereign rights to ask for assistance and Hollande is right to agree to provide it.  [1] Lynch, Colum, \u2018France\u2019s U.N. envoy: French military intervention in Mali is open ended\u2019, Foreign Policy Turtle Bay, 11 January 2013,   [2] \u2018Welcome to the International Organisation of La Francophonie\u2019s official website\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro01b","title":"","text":"Mali should be asking for diplomatic help to resolve the crisis not asking for a military force. France meanwhile should not be accepting a request from an unelected President to attack his own people. A request to intervene in a country does not make that intervention legitimate it simply provides a fig leaf to protect France from accusations of colonialism."}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro04b","title":"","text":"This might be an excuse to send a few soldiers to help evacuation and possibly a commando raid to free hostages but it is not a reason for all out intervention. If it was such a justification then in almost any conflict some state would have just cause to intervene because some of their citizens were in danger."}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro03a","title":"","text":"It is a humanitarian intervention  Fundamentally at its heart this is a humanitarian intervention by the French. The Islamists who took over Northern Mali have been imposing a severe, austere form of Islam demanding \"No cigarettes, no CDs, no radios, no cameras, no jewelry\" and beating those who disobey the rules. Men and women have to sit in separate areas in buses. With Sharia being more strictly enforced with increasing number of amputations despite opposition from the local population. [1] Much of the population of the North had already fled to the south with the UN High Commissioner for Refugees saying 200,000 have fled since January 2012. [2] Those who have, like Moussa from Timbuktu, clearly welcome the intervention, he told a French radio station \u201cWe have been suffocating and [France] has given us a breath of oxygen. We are ready to fly Malian and French flags alongside each other.\u201d [3]  [1] Mben, Paul Hyacinthe, \u2018A Trip Through Hell Daily Life in Islamist Northern Mali\u2019, Spiegel Online, 29 October 2012,   [2] Caux, Helene, \u2018IDPs struggle to survive after escaping fighting in northern Mali\u2019, UNHCR, 12 December 2012,   [3] Bamat, Joseph, \u2018Mali-based Islamists pledge attacks on French soil\u2019, France 24, 14 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-pro04a","title":"","text":"French interests  This intervention is not all about terrorism and a humanitarian desire to end a civil war. France does have a stake in the conflict and a reason to deploy military forces. There are 6,000 French citizens living in Mali who are obviously at risk to a rebel advance; even without a full scale intervention France would almost certainly have had to deploy forces to protect an evacuation. Already there are seven French citizens being held hostage in Mali and rescuing them is one of the three main objectives for the French intervention. [1]  [1] Welsh, Jennifer, \u2018Sending soldiers to Mali may be the only solution\u2019, The Globe and Mail, 14 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-con03b","title":"","text":"The French have rejected any parallel with Afghanistan and other quagmires. Fabius, France\u2019s Foreign Minister, has said that \"Later on, we can come as back-up, but we have no intention of staying forever,\" [1] the handover may be slower than anticipated but there is no evidence the French will be in Mali for an extended period.  [1] \u2018Mali: France pledges \u2018short\u2019 campaign against Islamists\u2019, BBC News, 14 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-con01b","title":"","text":"Self-determination should first be internal rather than external. [1] In other words self-determination means autonomy within the existing state not a new state unless there is no other way of resolving the conflict. In Mali therefore the rebels need to put down their weapons and accept the authority of the central government, whose will the French and others are trying to enforce. It is clear that the people of northern Mali would prefer a solution within the state of Mali as half the population has fled to the south [2] and Ansar Dine and MNLA have walked back their declaration of independence promising \u201crespect for Mali's national unity and territorial integrity\u201d in December. [3]  [1] \u201cReference re Secession of Quebec\u201d, Supreme Court of Canada, 1998, 2 S.C.R. 217,   [2] Fessy, Thomas, \u2018Mali Tuareg rebels declare independence in the north\u2019, BBC News, 6 April 2012,   [3] Agencies, \u2018Mali rebels agree to respect \u2018national unity\u2019, AlJazeera, 5 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-con02a","title":"","text":"African organisations should have lead the way  The United Nations charter is quite clear that it should be African Nations leading the way in this conflict. It says \u201cThe Security Council shall encourage the development of pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies\u201d [1] and since there are several African Security Organisations there is little reason why these could not have taken the lead. The African Union in particular has undertaken interventions in similar situations before; notably in Somalia. [2] This has been recognised right up until the French intervened and the UN Security Council resolution in December mandated for \u201cthe deployment of an African-led mission to support efforts by national authorities to recover the north.\u201d [3]  [1] Article 52,   [2] Jowell, Marco, \u2018Kenya: Intervening in Somalia \u2013 Risky Business With No End in Sight\u2019, All Africa, 17 January 2012,   [3] Security Council 6898th meeting, \u2018Security Council authorizes deployment of African-led international support mission in Mali for initial year-long period\u2019, United Nations, Resolution 2085, 20 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-con03a","title":"","text":"Quagmire  Western states seem to so often be willing to get involved in conflicts without thinking about how to get out of them. Interventions are difficult operations that need a lot of planning and the United Nations has previously said that in the case of Mali \"Nothing could be done before September, October,\" and there should be diplomatic talks and a rebuilding of the Malian army first. [1] Unless there is a clear exit plan then there is the risk that the conflict in Mali will turn into a Quagmire from which French and other Western forces cannot easily extradite themselves.  The conflict has not resulted in many French casualties although they did have a helicopter shot down. [2] However there is still a question of how long France will have to keep a military presence in the country. The French initially said they would be pulling troops out in March; [3] the first troops did not leave until May. They said they would only have 1000 there by the end of the year [4] but in January 2014 still had 2500. [5]  [1] Irish, John, \u2018No military intervention in Mali before September: U.N. peacekeeping chief\u2019, Reuters, 5 December 2012,   [2] Chrisafis, Angelique, \u2018Mali: high stakes in \u2018Hollande\u2019s war\u2019\u2019, The Guardian, 13 January 2013,   [3] Schofield, Hugh, \u2018France action in Mali is real war, says Le Drian\u2019, BBC News, 6 February 2013,   [4] BBC News, \u2018Mali crisis: French troops begin withdrawal\u2019, 9 April 2013,   [5] Al Jazeera Staff, \u2018Interactive: Mali Speaks\u2019, Al Jazeera, 21 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-con01a","title":"","text":"Western countries should not be interfering in African internal affairs  Western nations should clearly not be interfering in African affairs. Not only is this conflict outside of NATO\u2019s remit but it is internal to an individual African state rather than a war between states. By intervening France and other nations are taking part in a civil war in which they are aiding a government that was placed in office by a military coup in March 2012 so does not have a democratic mandate. [1]  This intervention is an example of France once more playing the role of gendarme and considering that it has some kind of divine right to intervene in Africa. [2] This war is of course in large part France\u2019s fault in the first place; it is trying to hold together a nation that should be split in two as a result of artificial colonial borders that fan conflict by dividing communities. [3] In this case France is intervening to deny a legitimate people\u2019s, the Tuareg, their right to self-determination. The Tuaregs are divided between Algeria, Kibya, Mali, and Niger but without a majority in any. [4] The Turegs when they took control of Azawad made a declaration of independence. [5] While this has not been recognised this simply shows how existing states are worried about accepting the logic of self-determination when they themselves have groups that may want independence.  [1] Felix, Bate, \u2018Mali junta sees civilian government \u201cin days\u201d\u2019, Reuters, 8 April 2012,   [2] Diop, Boubacar Boris, \u2018La Vie en %$!\u2019, Foreign Policy, July\/August 2010,   [3] Zachary, G. Pascal, \u2018African Needs a New Map\u2019, Foreign Policy, 28 April 2010,   [4] 10% in Mali \u2018Mali\u2019 The World Factbook, CIA,  9.3% in Niger \u2018Niger\u2019, The World Factbook, CIA,   [5] Fessy, Thomas, \u2018Mali Tuareg rebels declare independence in the north\u2019, BBC News, 6 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aptwhbfri-con02b","title":"","text":"This is ignoring both that African nations are taking a leading role in this intervention and that it is them who have asked for intervention by western states.  First of All Nigeria is going to send 600 troops, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Togo 500 each, and Benin 300. These numbers far outweigh the 550 being sent by France and logistical support provided by other countries such as the UK and US. [1] It can therefore be said that this is an African mission.  Secondly the resolution in December did call for \u201ccoordination with the European Union and other partners\u201d. [2] ECOWAS had already in December called for the United Nations to intervene [3] and \u201cthanks the French Government for its initiatives to support Mali.\u201d [4]  [1] \u2018Mali: France pledges \u2018short\u2019 campaign against Islamists\u2019, BBC News, 14 January 2013,   [2] Security Council 6898th meeting, \u2018Security Council authorizes deployment of African-led international support mission in Mali for initial year-long period\u2019, United Nations, Resolution 2085, 20 December 2012,   [3] AP, \u2018ECOWAS calls for UN-backed intervention to reclaim north\u2019, France 24, 7 August 2012,   [4] Ou\u00e9draogo, Kadre Desir\u00e9, \u2018Statement of the President of the ECOWAS Commission on the Situation in Mali\u2019, Reliefweb, 12 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-pro02b","title":"","text":"Cutting aid payments to the governments of states that are aid dependent would severely restrict the provision of public services and undermine public and international confidence in fragile political settlements. This dependence therefore prevents the aid being cut off.  Israel, for instance, would arguably be unable to survive without its foreign aid from the USA. Similarly, those states such as Micronesia or Tokelau which are almost exclusively aid dependent are essentially protectorates of those states that aid them, giving them political independence and the ability to develop.  The approach suggested by the resolution would also have a negative impact on nations that are politically stable but in need of reliable, uncomplicated economic support. Between 45 to 50% of all foreign aid goes to nations such as Argentina, Botswana and Brazil. Indeed, sanctions levelled against politically unstable or oppressive states such as Angola and Zimbabwe tend to restrict the aid payments they receive. Reducing aid to politically mature and conflict-free \u201cemerging economies\u201d reduces certainty and sustainability in development. We should deliver the aid which we have promised, the results of which- for many states- are now coming to fruition."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Preventing dependence  Direct aid creates dependence and a dangerous client culture among recipient states. ODA is entwined with foreign policy to the degree where aid is no longer allocated on the basis of need, but according to the political and policy objectives of donor states. The USA can muster the political will to provide military aid to Israel totalling nearly $3bn a year [i] , but even in the wake of Live8, real aid (payment of fresh funds to recipients, as opposed to funds acquired by rescheduling existing aid obligations) to the poorest nations in Africa is not as large proportionately.  Not only is ODA increasingly being used to incentivise compliance or non-interference with America\u2019s objectives in the war on terror, as shown by the aid provided to Pakistan for its cooperation in the stationing of US military bases. When ODA is administered in this way, there is an increased risk that recipient governments will be seen by their people as less independent \u2013 as stooges of colonial interlopers.  Reliance on ODA can become entrenched but ODA has also created dependent nations such as Micronesia where 4\/5 of the population are employed in \u2018aid-created\u2019 jobs and the government receives 90% of its revenue from the USA [ii] . It encourages a culture of aid-dependency where nations such as Kenya have come to believe that aid is the only way to lift themselves out of poverty.  [i] Washington Report on Middle East Affairs.   [ii] \u201cBackground Note: Micronesia.\u201d U.S. Department of state. 31 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-pro03b","title":"","text":"Using central government spending to encourage growth is still a viable development strategy.  Whilst the important role that local markets play in the development process should be recognised, they are not capable of generating widespread economic change.  NGOs serve a different purpose to governments. They construct local infrastructure projects such as schools and wells, in addition to augmenting skills practiced by established communities by providing access to up-to-date tools and tuition that would normally be unaffordable to the citizens of developing states. However, economic growth also requires significant central spending, in order to develop national infrastructure such as roads and universities. Indian well-drilling efficiency has increased by 70% since the nascent Indian national space programme was tasked with using satellite technology to identify water pockets.  The diverse origins, policies and skillsets of NGOs tend to prevent them from collaborating in an effective fashion. Brazil\u2019s hydroelectric power network could only have been constructed by a single, coherent organisation. A national education policy could not be formulated by NGOs. To reduce government aid would be to remove the backbone of central spending needed for national development."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Combating corruption  Changing the way money is given will reduce corruption, embezzlement and manipulation. Centralised government structures control aid distribution in many recipient countries. As a consequence, embezzlement by government officials has become more frequent and easier to conceal. Linking aid to specific projects is ineffective at solving this problem due to difficulty in tracking individual project accounts within the recipient nation. The need to monitor which individuals and institutions receive donated funds, and to confirm that funds have been applied according to agreed plans and schedules still presents a difficult and intractable auditing problem.  Recently the Netherlands has halted its $148m development aid programme to Kenya in protest at aid embezzlement in the wake of multiple \u2018graft\u2019 scandals there [i] . Similarly Sao Tome\u2019s Prime Minister was arrested for aid embezzlement in 2004 [ii] .  Corruption inside government means that aid is also often directed to supporters of the government when eventually spent. Aid may be channelled to particular individuals or political organisations, a trend which has been observed in Zimbabwe [iii] . Similarly, aid may be channelled to favoured social, ethnic or religious groups. This is particularly likely to happen in highly plural states that are affected by underlying cultural tension and strict physical divisions between communities and territories. Discriminatory treatment of Arab Israelis in Israel and the exclusion of Christian and Animist communities from aid schemes in the former Sudan illustrate this trend [iv] .  [i] \u201cAnti-corruption profile \u2013 Kenya\u201d Trust.org.   [ii] \u201cSao Tomean PM steps down after coup.\u201d Afrol News Online. 01 August 2003.   [iii] \u201cZimbabwe: Corruption Timeline.\u201d Global Integrity Report.   [iv] \u201cBackground Note: Sudan.\u201d U.S. Department of State. 08 April 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Advocates of government-to-government aid do not have to defend such out-dated portrayals of ODA. Since at least 2000, many DAC member nations have tied their aid entirely or in part to political, economic and environmental reform. The burden is now on recipient nations to prove that aid payments are not being squandered. An onus is placed on recipients to invest in the creation of a political culture that tackles corruption, as has been seen with the founding of an \u2018anti-graft task force\u2019 in Kenya in 2006. Linked aid promotes political stability, development policies conscious of the limitations of national resources and a consistent economic framework.  Moreover, there is no guarantee that charities and NGOs will be any less corrupt or more able to prevent corruption. Easy access to large amounts of capital creates an environment that can foster corruption within any type of organisation, whether governmental institutions in the developing world or non-governmental institutions based in wealthy states. Passing aid to multiple NGOs, many of which may not be governed by accounting standards as strict as those applied to onshore organisations in the UK and the US, creates a system in which it is far harder to monitor and prevent embezzlement. In 2003, the Indian government placed 800 NGOs operating within its north eastern states under a regime of strict observation. Many of the organisations identified were suspected of having links to north eastern separatist and insurgent fighters; it was believed that funds donated to these NGOs, either privately or by the state itself, were being channelled to armed rebel groups [i] .  [i] NGO Regulation Network."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Supporting domestic development and domestic markets  Direct aid undermines local markets within developing states. Many economists believe that economic growth needs to occur at a local or micro level, with private industry spurring growth and providing employment opportunities [i] that act to elevate consumer demand. Chile is often given as an example of a country which has grown in this way.  Government aid frequently results in the growth of large, state-owned corporations which undercut the creation of local markets, preventing the development of private enterprise. This can be compared with the deskilling effect that long term food aid has caused within developing nations [ii] . Lacking the will or economic resources to expand land cultivation schemes, formally and culturally acquired farming have dropped out of use in a range of developing states. Dependence on centrally distributed aid is slowing reducing the number of skilled, practiced agricultural labourers able to work to grow food.  Similarly, state-owned resource extraction and processing firms can influence an economy\u2019s real exchange rate, making cross border trade in the commodities produced by farmers and local craftsmen uncompetitive \u2013 a situation known as the Dutch disease. This is a significant hazard in continents with a high proportion of interdependent sovereign states, such as Africa.  State owned industry frequently undercuts local, privately owned industry in both the domestic and export markets of developing nations. Further, these processes raise the spectre of corruption in state institutions and state owned businesses [iii] , with large revenues tempting individuals to engage in graft, nepotism and patrimony.  The risks inherent in state supervised industry and micro-economic stimulus can be avoided by supplying aid funding to microbanking and microcredit institutions. Businesses of this type specialise in creating a large supply of low cost credit that small firms, farmers and households can borrow in order to fund the purchases and investments that will bring them closer to prosperity.  [i] \u201cDirect aid: A dollar a day keeps the donor away.\u201d Wahega.net. 23 January 2007.   [ii] The Development Effectiveness of Food Aid. The OECD. 2006, OECD Publishing.   [iii] The Political Economy of Foreign Aid. Hopkins, R F. Swarthmore College."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-con01b","title":"","text":"Direct Aid creates an international welfare trap. ODA incentivises states to restrict development spending, in order to avoid the cuts in aid donations that would accompany rising productivity, public health and growth indicators.  This is made worse by the fact that one of the primary measures of poverty is income below $1 or $2 a day (depending on the region), so governments have an incentive to channel aid to the elites or to schemes that incentivise or entrenched foreign investment, whilst leaving the very poorest members of their population below this poverty line. The construction of hydroelectric facilities, for example, may reduce the amount that private industrial plants and manufacturers pay for their power. However, an improved power distribution network may also be irrelevant to the needs of ordinary citizens within a state, unable to afford tools, medication or education, let alone electronic equipment.  Tax breaks and lax wage protection laws implemented in order to encourage foreign direct investment in a developing economy may act as a further incentive to stratify spending. Moreover, the suppression of average earnings in such environments tends to concentrate wealth among the owners of large amounts of land and other capital.  Further, a large proportion of direct aid is simply recycled by developing states\u2019 governments as debt servicing. A significant proportion (over 60%) of aid donated to the poorest nations is spent to service interest (not even capital repayments) on debts incurred during the short post-colonial investment booms of the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s [i] , often by dictatorial governments. Payment of aid to NGOs would shift priorities, adding impetus to large scale developments and stimulating further growth via multiple, smaller-scale schemes. Increases in tax revenue resulting from a general increase in economic prosperity throughout a state will enable faster repayment of sovereign debts.  [i] \u201cDebt relief under the heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC) initiative.\u201d International Monetary Fund. 06 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-con02a","title":"","text":"NGOs do not deliver aid effectively  The idea that NGO\u2019s are better able to deliver development aid has become received wisdom \u2013 accepted uncritically, repeated unthinkingly. Because charities do not have the political staying power of governments, nor a government\u2019s ability to mobilise force or request assistance from intergovernmental bodies (such as the UN), they are often the first to withdraw when dormant war zones turn \u2018hot\u2019. Inevitably, and understandably, NGOs will always prioritise the lives of their staff and volunteers.  Problems also arise when faith-based NGOs attempt to involve themselves in development projects in poorer parts of the world. Even large, well-funded charities such as Christian Aid [i] or Saudi educational charities are perceived as partisan actors in certain states and territories. The presence of such groups has frequently exacerbated community tensions where access to political power, wealth or land is divided unequally among plural religious or cultural groups.  Most importantly, whilst organisations such as the Red Cross may be able to deliver emergency aid to areas where national governments are unwelcome, it is all but impossible to deliver development aid to conflict zones. Long term solutions to economic deprivation or agricultural failure are rendered meaningless in an environment where the destruction of infrastructure is widespread and unpredictable. Even the most basic forms of aid delivery may be diverted to rebel forces, perpetuating conflicts. The kind of peace that only national governments can impose is needed before serious development can commence.  [i] \u201cChristian Aid: Continued Bias and missing context in Palestinian agenda.\u201d NGO Monitor. 13 July 2006."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-con01a","title":"","text":"Protecting sovereignty  The international community should respect the sovereignty of developing nations. Side proposition has attempted to mischaracterise states in receipt of aid as undemocratic, authoritarian, kleptocratic or Hobbesian wastelands. Side proposition has done precious little to acknowledge that many states that are reliant on ODA are functioning or emerging democracies. Kenya, despite its growing wealth and increasing trade with Asian states still makes extensive use of aid donations. In 2012 Kenya will hold elections for seats in its national legislature \u2013 its first since a presidential election degenerated into political violence in 2007. However, even this extended period of civil disorder was brought to an end when the main contenders in the presidential ballot agreed a power sharing deal \u2013 a peaceful compromise that has now been maintained for almost five years [i] .  Reducing government aid to developing democracies prevents these states from allocating aid in accordance with their citizens\u2019 wishes. In the world created by the resolution, aid distribution will be carried out by foreign charities that may have objectives and normative motives at odds with the aspirations of a government and its citizens. There is a risk that governments will abandon heterodox or non-liberal approaches to democracy in an effort to obtain tools and support from NGOs that they would otherwise be unable to afford. State actors will be placed in a position where any action they take will entail a significant sacrifice of political authority. A state that capitulates readily to the demands of a foreign NGO will not be seen as a robust representative of the national political will; it will be considered weak. Similarly, a state that refuses to accepting funding or the donations of new infrastructure materials will be forced to deal with the consequences of prolonged fiscal and economic deprivation within its borders.  NGOs are, as a general rule undemocratic, unaccountable interest groups. Like any other private organisation, they are not bound by the transparency and freedom of information regimes that western governments have submitted to. In many states, especially India, NGOs are subject to less regulation and less stringent accounting requirements than for-profit businesses. The American or European origins of the wealthiest NGOs, along with the large numbers of western professionals that they employee make auditing and judicial supervision of their activities difficult for poorer states. It can be complicated and expensive to challenge international conflicts in private law regimes; it can be equally complicated for new governments to renege on agreements that their predecessors may have concluded with NGOs.  Popular concern about the safety of western citizens working for NGOs in foreign states can lead to unbearable diplomatic pressure being applied to governments that attempt to discipline organisations that exceed the authority they have been granted or adopt a lax attitude to national laws or social taboos. An attempt by a French charity to evacuate one hundred and three children from Chad to Europe was subject to wide spread criticism [ii] when it emerged that the charity had produced fake visas for the children and had attempt to conceal the operation from Chadian authorities. The charity had previously published press material that contained open admissions that it was acting without the support of any national government or international organisation. Nonetheless, the French government attempted to influence the outcome of the criminal investigation that was mounted against the Charity\u2019s workers [iii] .  The resolution would remove control over development policy from emergent representative institutions created at great financial and political cost. The resources and political capital normally bound up in ODA would then be transferred to NGOs that may be less accountable than national governments, that may sow conflict within divided communities, and may act unilaterally and without respect for the laws of aid receiving states. The message that the resolution would communicate is directly contradictory to the ethos of responsible, accountable and democratic intervention in marginalised or failing states that has underlain the last twenty years of development policy.  [i] \u201cDeal to end Kenyan crisis agreed.\u201d BBC News Online. 12 April 2008.   [ii] \u201cProfile: Zoe\u2019s Ark.\u201d BBC News Online. 29 October 2007.   [iii] \u201c\u2019Families weren\u2019t duped\u2019, Zoe\u2019s Ark duo tell court.\u201d Sydney Morning Herald. 24 December 2007."}
+{"id":"training-international-aaghwsddf-con02b","title":"","text":"NGOS are better at delivering aid. Governments in those nations most in need of aid are often the least able or willing to deliver that aid. This is particularly true in those states where the line-drawing of colonialism has pitched ethnic groups into conflicts over resources, territory and political recognition. For example, the central government of the former Sudan consistently refused to apportion aid to the country\u2019s restive southern region. Khartoum\u2019s conduct prolonged conflicts in the area and hastened South Sudan\u2019s secession. Similarly, the Nigerian government has no credibility in the Niger Delta region. The Somali government, barely able to assert control over the city of Mogadishu, is unable to distribute aid to other areas of the country. The same is true of south American and south east Asian nations that have been affected by regional insurgencies.  Under these circumstances, many first world states have been forced to withdraw ODA. By contrast, charities have the credibility of not being associated with governments; they can cross national borders and have a presence in rebel controlled areas such as the enclaves of northern Sri Lanka. NGOs are simply more effective at aid delivery in many of the poorest nations."}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro02b","title":"","text":"Biological weapons are indiscriminate. This is why they are so horrific, but also why they are not a concern in this instance. Any use of biological weapons in Syria would likely affect not only rebels but also government supporters. The Syrian government can\u2019t afford to use such a weapon if it wants to ever have a chance of regaining control of the country."}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro02a","title":"","text":"What about biological weapons?  Chemical weapons are a horrifying weapon of mass destruction but they are by no means the only such horrific weapons. James Clapper, the U.S. director of national intelligence says \u201cWe judge that some elements of Syria\u2019s biological warfare programme might have advanced beyond the research and development stage and might be capable of limited agent production, based on the duration of its longstanding programme\u201d. [1] Biological weapons could potentially be even more devastating than chemical weapons as they don\u2019t necessarily affect just a localised area then disperse. As with other viruses they can be passed from person to person. In a country like Syria where the health services have broken down, and basically don\u2019t exist in opposition areas the result could be huge numbers of deaths. It is inconsistent to disarm one type of weapon while leaving another type of WMD available to the Syrian regime.  [1] AFP, \u2018Syria \u2018may be able to produce biological weapons\u2019\u2019, The Telegraph, 29 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro03b","title":"","text":"That progress is difficult and slow is not a good reason to leave the country entirely and instead make no progress."}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro01a","title":"","text":"Inspectors don\u2019t solve the real problem  The biggest difficulty with the weapons inspectors being in Syria is that they are a sideshow to the real problem. Yes chemical weapons use is horrific but their use in Syria has caused far fewer casualties than conventional weapons. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights put the total death toll at 115,000 at the end of September 2013 [1] by comparison the chemical weapons attack that triggered the threat of intervention and therefore the inspections caused somewhere between 136 and 1300 deaths. [2] Syria\u2019s having joined the chemical weapons convention and allowed in inspectors may prevent more deaths as a result of chemical weapons but it has not stopped the conflict. Many thousands more will die as a result of the conflict while the international community looks on patting itself on the back that it has somehow managed to find a solution.  [1] Stampler, Laura, \u2018Group Says Syria Death Toll at 115,000\u2019, Time, 1 October 2013,   [2] Mroue, Bassem, \u2018The United Nations is seeking clarity over the alleged chemical attack in Syria\u2019, USA Today, 22 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is a limit to what can be done in internal conflicts such as the Syrian civil war. There is a chemical weapons convention that almost every nation has signed so there is an international norm against their use and agreement on their disarmament. This is not the case with conventional internal conflict. The Syrian regime will agree to disarm its chemical weapons to prevent bombing by NATO but removing conventional weapons or ending the conflict would be completely different; a much bigger operation which the Syrian regime could not agree too as it would mean signing their death warrant."}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro04b","title":"","text":"Withdrawing the inspectors is hardly going to make Syria live up to its commitments. Instead more pressure is needed on Syria when it does drag its feet."}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro03a","title":"","text":"Unlikely to make any progress  Weapons inspectors are unlikely to actually be able to totally disarm Syria. The OPCW has been given a target of dismantling Syria\u2019s arsenal by the middle of 2014 but has admitted that it is a tight deadline that will require temporary ceasefires if the target is to be reached. This is because \u201cFor any particular move that the team has to undertake, the security situation is assessed. Unless we get the clearance from our UN colleagues, we don't move.\u201d [1] Clearly if the weapons inspectors won\u2019t go where there is a high risk to themselves they are unlikely to get the job done. Already inspectors have encountered situations where they can\u2019t gain access to sites due to safety concerns. [2] Moreover in a conflict situation it will be extremely difficult to verify that all of Syria\u2019s chemical weapons have been dismantled. There are two potential problems \u2013 will the Syrian government really be honest about the size of its stockpiles or will it quietly keep some back, and will the inspectors be able to gain access to all areas both government and rebel held? So long as there is conflict there will clearly be a chaotic situation in which weapons could be buried, or hidden, or simply never found.  [1] Ensor, Josie, \u2018Chemical watchdog chief calls for Syria ceasefire\u2019, The Telegraph, 9 October 2013,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Syria chemical weapons inspectors hail progress\u2019, 17 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro04a","title":"","text":"Syria has not lived up to its commitments  Syria is falling well behind on handing over its weapons. The deadliest chemicals were supposed to be removed by 1st January and the rest by 6th February. Neither happened. The Syrian government blamed the lack of protective equipment as well as the security situation but the OPCW says it has handed over the necessary equipment. [1] Under a new timetable Syria has pledged to remove all chemical weapons by 13th April, but by the end of March had only removed just over half. [2] If Syria continues to fail to meet deadlines there have to be consequences, including abandoning the mission.  [1] Blanford, Nicholas, \u2018Months of stalling preceded Syria\u2019s latest chemical weapons handover\u2019, CS Monitor, 4 March 2014,   [2] AlJazeera, 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con03b","title":"","text":"The chemical weapons inspections take the pressure off Syria. When there was a threat of intervention by an outside power there was a reason for the Syrian government to negotiate with the rebels to find a peaceful solution. It is clear that it was coercion that got the weapons inspectors in as the White House said \u201cIt was the credible threat of U.S. military action that led to the opening of this diplomatic avenue.\u201d [1] But it halts future coercion. With weapons inspectors in the country the possibility of using coercion is non-existent; no country is going to consider an attack while they are there and the Syrian regime knows this. The inspections may be considered a diplomatic victory for Russia and the USA but it has come at the expense of the bigger prize of peace. For which there is now almost no prospect.  [1] Zenko, Micah, \u2018Would the Syria Deal Be a Coercive Diplomacy Success?\u2019, CFR, 12 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con01b","title":"","text":"Conflict would not break out if the inspectors left; that point has passed. Now if the inspectors left it is likely that nothing would happen. Clearly the better option is for there to be significant pressure on Syria and Assad to bring about peace in the country \u2013 through sanctions, help for the rebels, even limited military action. This can then allow much more comprehensive weapons that don\u2019t provide a chance for the Syrian regime to hide some amidst the chaos."}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con02a","title":"","text":"Inspectors are ending a chemical weapons threat  Unless you are a warmonger, or you have a particular hatred of the United Nations, then there is no reason to throw the weapons inspectors out. They do no harm in their mission in Syria and have the potential to do a lot of good by destroying one of the world\u2019s biggest stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction. 189 countries representing 98% of the world\u2019s population have signed up to the chemical weapons convention, which means getting rid of these horrifying weapons. [1] Clearly the world is in agreement that they must go and this is what the inspectors are endeavouring to do. Getting rid of the inspectors simply halts this vital work to no end.  [1] United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, \u2018Chemical Weapons\u2019, un.org,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con04a","title":"","text":"A point on the path to peace  Sometimes peace comes from one big agreement. But most of the time there are lots of small steps on the path to peace. This involves finding areas where deals can be made to help build trust that the negotiating regimes will carry out their promises. A cease fire is worthless if neither side believes the other will stick to it as it becomes a race to break it first. But the progress of weapons inspectors shows Syria can be trusted to fulfil its commitments. Peace talks have followed the agreement on chemical weapons. There have been conferences at Montreaux\/Geneva, they have not brought breakthroughs, but neither have they broken down so progress on other issues such as prisoner exchanges, humanitarian access, or safe passage deals, are likely at some point. [1]  [1] Williams, Michael C., \u2018Negotiating a path to peace: from Geneva to Aleppo, via Moscow\u2019, New Statesman, 13 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con03a","title":"","text":"Nobody can afford to have the weapons inspectors leave  There were three main actors in the deal that allowed the chemical weapons inspectors into Syria; The United States, Russia, and the Syrian government, none of whom have any reason to want to see the inspectors leave. Russia took the initiative to create the deal having leapt upon Secretary of State John Kerry\u2019s remarks and so has a lot of international prestige tied up in making the deal work, it also shows that Russia can be constructive as well as simply a spoiler in the international arena.  If the deal collapsed then the United States would almost certainly be back to where it was when there was agreement on sending the weapons inspectors in; days or weeks away from military action. Such military action would be costly and unlikely to work; attacking chemical weapons from the air would be difficult and would risk chemical releases. [1]  Because of the risk of attack it would clearly be in Syria\u2019s interest to stick with the current situation. So far it has given no indication that it will hinder the weapons inspectors in any way. This has been confirmed by Sigrid Kaag, the Special Coordinator of the Joint OPCW-UN Mission, who in late October stated \u201cTo date, the Government of Syria has fully cooperated in supporting the work of the advance team and the OPCW-UN Joint Mission.\u201d [2]  [1] Hambling, David, \u2018How the US may try to destroy Syria's chemical weapons\u2019, New Scientist, 3 September 2013,   [2] Kaag, Sigrid, \u2018Statement of Sigrid Kaag, Special Coordinator of the Joint OPCW-UN Mission\u2019, un.org, 22 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con01a","title":"","text":"Inspectors were the only way to avoid international conflict  Before the deal on allowing in weapons inspectors the course was set for an international conflict in Syria; the United States and allies, such as France, would have bombed Syria. The only way to prevent such a conflict becoming a reality is to keep weapons inspectors on the ground. Syria crossed President Obama\u2019s \u2018red line\u2019 when chemical weapons were used and despite initial reluctance on the part of the Obama administration this was always likely to lead to some form of military response. Syria's Foreign Minister when accepting the Russian suggestion to disarm its chemical weapons suggested this was why it accepted as Walid al-Moallem said they accepted to \"thwart U.S. aggression\". [1] If the weapons inspectors leave the United States is once more left with the question of how to get rid of the chemical weapons, the weapons inspections are the only non-military option.  [1] AP, 'Syria Accepts Russian Proposal To Surrender Chemical Weapons, Foreign Minister says', Huffington Post, 10 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con04b","title":"","text":"The deal that allowed weapons inspectors into Syria may have made peace further away not closer. By allowing Assad\u2019s government to sign up to an international treaty while its legitimacy was contested by other groups showed that other governments accept only Assad as the legitimate government of Syria. This undid two years of attempts to delegitimise Assad; more than 30 countries had recognised Syria\u2019s opposition as the country\u2019s \u2018legitimate representative\u2019. [1]  [1] Freedman, Joshua Meir, \u2018Don\u2019t let Assad sign the Chemical Weapons Convention on Syria\u2019s behalf\u2019, AlJazeera, 29 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con02b","title":"","text":"Taking the weapons inspectors out of Syria need not be permanent, simply until there is peace and hopefully a new regime."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro02b","title":"","text":"African states have been happy with the ICC in the past \u2013 they referred ICC cases to the court themselves.  If African states were to set up their own court, it would be unclear how it would work with the existing framework of the ICC as some African states may wish to remain ICC members. Also, a regional body would still lead to allegations of a \u201cforeign court\u201d, while at the same time placing the decisions in the hands of judges who may be less insulated from regional geopolitical pressures."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro02a","title":"","text":"Regional court is \u201cbest of both worlds\u201d  A regional court would be a good way to balance the competing issues between the legitimate concerns of the African states and the International Criminal Court.  It would be able to provide an African solution to African problems, with no accusations of external interference or colonialism. Similarly, it would have some of the advantages of the ICC particularly its independence from individual states, meaning those in high places are more likely to be held to account. With this accountability to an African court there would be an impression of being held to account by peers not outsiders."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro03b","title":"","text":"There isn\u2019t such a balancing act \u2013 without justice there cannot be peace as it is simply likely to lead to attempts at retribution or vigilante justice. Justice is a universal value, an end in itself. It is not something that can be given away as a bargaining chip."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro01a","title":"","text":"ICC is biased against Africans  All of the ongoing ICC prosecutions are based on events in Africa, and all those on trial are Africans.  The ICC has not brought actions following the invasion of Iraq, or the conflicts in Sri Lanka and Colombia. The lack of action in any matter outside sub-Saharan Africa shows that the international community are happy to allow the ICC to exclusively prosecute Africans. The UN Security Council, which contains no African permanent members, can veto any possible prosecution [1] and refer a case to the ICC [2] ..  Replacing the ICC with an African Criminal Court would stop this bias, or perception of bias. This would be done by withdrawing from the Rome statute and the ICC which has been labelled as Western imperialism by people such as Rwandan president Paul Kagame [3] .  [1] Rome Statute, Article 16  [2] Rome Statute, Article 13  [3] Du Plessis, footnote 36 (dead links)"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro01b","title":"","text":"Almost all of the cases where people have been indicted before the ICC \u2013 DR Congo, Uganda, Central African Republic and the Ivory Coast \u2013 have been referred to the court by African nations themselves. Those that have not were referred to the UN Security Council. The only case where the Office of the Prosecutor started a case leading to incitement was the Kenya case, Kenya having signed and ratified the Rome Statute. The ICC can only act where it has jurisdiction [1] - it is not a kangaroo court for particular cases.  The ICC has looked in to cases outside Africa, including in Afghanistan, Honduras, the Mediterranean sea (an Israeli attack on Comorosian, Greek and Cambodian ships), Korea, Colombia, Georgia and Palestine [2] .  [1] Rome Statute, Article 22  [2] Office of the Prosecutor, Report in to Preliminary Examination Activities, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro04b","title":"","text":"Drugs trafficking was considered as a role for the ICC, but rejected as unworkable \u2013 an ACC would face the same problems. \u201cUnconstitutonal change of government\u201d would be open to rampant political abuse, allowing existing governments to cling on to power.  No other supranational regional body has tried having its own prosecution system or criminal courts \u2013 not even the European Union. Regional bodies can \u2013 and should \u2013 have courts to deal with treaty interpretation or human rights treaties, but regional criminal courts are a major step into the unknown. Criminal cases are best served by one nation, or all of them \u2013 not a regional bloc with its own tensions."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro03a","title":"","text":"ICC doesn\u2019t strike right balance between peace and justice for Africa  The balance between peace and justice is a complex issue. The ICC has disregarded peace as a priority in cases, focusing exclusively on justice by indicting individuals, which reduces the diplomatic leeway and drives those indicted towards a bunker mentality. The result then may be the conflict goes on longer and more crimes are committed. Peace and preventing future crimes should come before justice for past crimes. The ICC have focused on prosecuting Omar al Bashir, but it may be a better option to focus on diplomatic alternatives to trials for dealing with the conflict in Darfur."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-pro04a","title":"","text":"ACC could deal with pan-African problems that the ICC does not address  It has been suggested that offences such as \u201cunconstitutional change of government\u201d, drug trafficking, piracy and corruption [1] should be added to the jurisdiction of an African Criminal Court.  The ICC is limited to only a small number of crimes. However, an African Criminal Court could not only deal with the existing crimes, but create pan-African solutions in terms of dealing with a number of issues where Africa needs particular solutions.  An ACC could deal with piracy off the coast of East Africa, where there is no effective court system, due to Somalia amounting to a failed state. Similarly, \u201cunconstitutional change of government\u201d prosecutions could amount to a deterrent to coups.  [1] IRIN, \u201cAnalysis: How Close is an African Criminal Court?\u201d, IRIN (Integrated Regional Information Networks), 13 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con03b","title":"","text":"An African Criminal Court instead of African ICC membership would not lead to impunity \u2013 just more local courts. The principle of complementarity, allowing national courts to take appropriate action \u2013 is already enshrined in the ICC. In a particularly bad case, the UN Security Council could still refer a situation to the ICC.  Running an African Criminal Court in tandem with the ICC would allow another layer of regional justice to bring the Nuremberg precedent \u2013 leaders held criminally responsible for criminal actions \u2013 in to fruition in Africa."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con01b","title":"","text":"By being a court for the African continent by the African continent, there will not be room for allegations of imperialism and\/or racism that already exist against the International Criminal Court.  In addition, the African states that are members of the International Criminal Court have chosen to do so \u2013 it is not a violation of state sovereignty for a state to voluntarily sign a treaty even if that treaty restricts the actions of future governments."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con02a","title":"","text":"ACC could destabilize Africa  Depending on how the treaty is drawn up, an African Criminal Court could be open to abuse. If it has too broad powers, it could lead to political trials thanks to judges following orders from their domestic governments, and complaints to it by governments in diplomatic spats rather than actually resolving serious international criminal law crimes.  The same disputes that exist now within the ICC over issues such as interference with national sovereignty could just be replicated on a smaller scale \u2013 but rather than resembling a failure of any international body, it would be a regional body and lead to greater problems. If the ICC indicts a leader there is anger at the international community, if an ACC does the same there is a split in the AU."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con04a","title":"","text":"An African Criminal Court would be a waste of money  International trials are expensive \u2013 14% of the AU\u2019s annual budget for an ICC trial [1] .  The ICC is cheaper than the cost of the tribunal system \u2013 the cost of the Charles Taylor trial was roughly two and a half times that of the $20M figure for ICC trials. Africa already contributes little to the budget of the ICC. The ICC will be cheaper than standalone tribunals thanks to economies of scale.  The African Union has a track record of failures as well \u2013 NEPAD, the New Partnership for African Development tried to have a quasi-judicial element aiming to create rulings against corruption, but failed [2] .  [1] IRIN, \u201cAnalysis: How Close is an African Criminal Court?\u201d, IRIN (Integrated Regional Information Networks), 13 June 2012,   [2] Editorial, \u2018African Criminal Court Not Viable\u2019, the Star, 17 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con03a","title":"","text":"Anti-ICC sentiment is a simple desire for impunity  The sole motive for the anti-ICC arguments raised by organizations such as the African Union is a drive towards impunity \u2013 particularly for heads of state. The prosecutions of Uhuru Kenyatta and Omar al-Bashir, so viciously opposed by the AU, are a show that heads of state are and should be subject to the international criminal law \u2013 a principle that dates back to Nuremberg.  An African Criminal Court would simply be granting African leaders\u2019 carte blanche to perform crimes against humanity, as there would be a ready-made court to acquit them."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con01a","title":"","text":"Just as much of a violation of sovereignty as the ICC  Part of the calls for an African Criminal Court are based on the perception that the national sovereignty of African nations is being attacked in some way before the International Criminal Court.  However, an African Criminal Court would be just as much of a violation of the sovereignty of individual African nations as the ICC; it is a system of courts outside the control of the nation of those it is trying.  European states object to courts outside their control dictating even when they are regional courts \u2013 consider the reactions to the European Court of Human Rights on areas like voting for prisoners or to the European Court of Justice. That these are regional not global courts makes little difference to national opinion. It is no surprise then that not even the EU with its close relations has attempted a supra national criminal court system."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con04b","title":"","text":"Peace is cheaper than war \u2013 however much a court case costs, in both human lives and money, it is better for there to be a trial.  Even if it is more expensive, justice is priceless \u2013 it is not something that can be subjected to cost-benefit analyses or bean counting.  The reason why Western countries fund the ICC is not some form of imperialism \u2013 simply a desire for global peace, justice and security so they would likely be willing to keep paying much of the cost."}
+{"id":"training-international-alhrilhwca-con02b","title":"","text":"If it is a damp squib, so be it \u2013 other international organizations have fallen in to disuse \u2013 UN institutions that only exist on paper such as the Trusteeship Council are not doing any harm and there would be the fallback of returning to the ICC if things go wrong."}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is only fair that the US should have some say on domestic drug policy considering the extent of their military assistance. The offers of assistance are optional and the conditions of compliance are known by both parties. The US gave $6,495 million in military assistance to the Columbian government between 1998 and 2008 to counter the narcotics trade and the rebels who were reliant on the business1. Since this funding comes from the USA\u2019s federal budget, the US should be able to dictate how the money is spent.  1) Acevedo,B. \u2018Ten Years of Plan Colombia: An Analytical Assessment\u2019, The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme, September 2008"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro02a","title":"","text":"Sacrifice of sovereignty  Guinea-Bissau would have to sacrifice its autonomy if it became the new front for the war on drugs. In order to receive assistance from the US, a state must adhere to US policy on drugs. If it fails to do so, like Bolivia did in 2009, then aid is severed under the certification system1. This restricts the recipient state\u2019s ability to respond to the drug threat in a way that they deem suitable to their own circumstances. As a state should be free to form domestic policy without influence by external actors, the USA\u2019s certification process is a violation of national sovereignty.  1) Walsh,J. \u2018U.S. Decertification of Bolivia: A Blast from the Past\u2019, Washington Office on Latin America, 17 September 2009"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro03b","title":"","text":"The judicial system is not capable of handling narcotics cases fairly. Corruption and civil war have left Guinea-Bissau\u2019s judicial system broken. Military leader General Antonio Indaj, who has alleged links to the drugs trade, has vetted all political and judicial appointments1. Considering that Guinea-Bissau has no prison, it is unlikely that those in the drug trade will be properly prosecuted. The US\u2019 judicial system is seen as far more impartial and is, therefore, a more logical choice.  1) Reitano,T. & Shaw,M. \u2018Arrest of Guinea-Bissau\u2019s Drug Lords Just the First Step in the Battle Against Trafficking\u2019, Institute for Security Studies, 12 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro01a","title":"","text":"Gives power to military coup leaders  Assistance from the US would ensure that the coup leaders of Guinea Bissau remain in power. The securitisation of issues such as drugs and \u2018terror\u2019 is encouraged by the United States. A major problem with this policy is that it provides undue power and legitimacy to those countering the threat1. In early 2014, the military were still unconstitutionally ruling over the country. The drug war provides an external threat for the military to justify their leadership position. Considering the military has refused to allow democratic elections to occur and has regularly committed coups2, the US drug war could be a perfect excuse for to remain in power until the \u2018threat\u2019 subsides.  1) Crick,E. \u2018Drugs as an existential threat: An analysis of the international securitization of drugs\u2019, International Journal of Drug Policy, 2012  2) BBC, \u2018Guinea-Bissau drug trade \u2018rises since coup\u2019, 31 June 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro01b","title":"","text":"Part of the financial assistance received by countries on the front line of the drug war is a fund for \u2018strengthening of democratic institutions\u2019. Plan Columbia, the USA\u2019s attempt to reduce drug cultivation, saw 27% of all funding going towards democratic initiatives1. In a review by the Congressional Research Service of US drug control policy, the strengthening of the rule of law and democratic institutions is a priority for the US2. If the US drug war was brought to Guinea-Bissau then funding would most likely go towards promoting democratic institutions and a transition of power from the military to the civilians.  1) Acevedo,B. \u2018Ten Years of Plan Colombia: An Analytical Assessment\u2019, The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme, September 2008  2) Wyler,L. \u2018International Drug Control Policy: Background and U.S. Responses\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 13 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is a stronger focus on alternative development in drugs policy compared to the beginning of the drug war. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), historically influenced by US drug policy, has taken an increasingly alternative development-orientated stance. The UNODC has committed itself to effective alternative incomes, gender mainstreaming and community participation which demonstrates a global shift towards beneficial development1.  1) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime \u2018Making a difference through Alternative Development\u2019 data accessed 30 January 2014"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro03a","title":"","text":"Judiciary are undermined  Should Guinea-Bissau become the new front of the US drug war then their judiciary will be furthered undermined. The US has frequently tried offenders from other countries in the US, superseding the local judiciary1. While this is usually due to formal agreements between states, extradition can cause indignation amongst the local population. Guinea-Bissau\u2019s ex Naval chief Na Tchuto was arrested by American forces and, rather than allowing his home state to prosecute him, was tried by the New York District Court. This caused resentment in Guinea-Bissau towards the US2.  1) Aronofsky,D. & Qin,J. \u2018U.S. International Narcotics Extradition Cases\u2019  2) Reitano,T. & Shaw,M. \u2018Arrest of Guinea-Bissau\u2019s Drug Lords Just the First Step in the Battle Against Trafficking\u2019, Institute for Security Studies, 12 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro04a","title":"","text":"War on the poor  The war on drugs has turned in to a war on the poorest in society. Through heavy handed techniques of enforcement and militarisation, the American war on drugs has failed to identify to key motivating factor for many of those involved in the trade; poverty1. Guinea-Bissau is the 5th poorest nation in the world, and other primary exports such as cashew nuts are starting to fail1. Due to lucrative profits, many of the poorer in society turn to the drug trade. US policy does not put enough of a focus on alternative development projects which can provide a livelihood through licit means. Instead they are treated as criminals and, in turn, are pushed further away from reconciliation.  1) Falco,M. \u2018Foreign Drugs, Foreign Wars\u2019, Daedalus, 121:2, 2007, pg4  2) The Guardian, \u2018Guinea-Bissau\u2019s dwindling cashew nut exports leave farmers facing hardship\u2019, 23 August 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con03b","title":"","text":"Corruption is still present in many states which have joined the US drug war. The war on drugs has done little, and perhaps exacerbated, Columbia\u2019s corruption despite US assistance. In 2011, Columbian ex-government ministers were jailed and prosecuted for corruption and co-operation with paramilitaries.1Judicial reforms have also met with varied success. The Merida Initiative in Mexico, designed at removing the corruption of the cartels, has failed to address corruption in the judicial system which is still rampant. 2  1) Bogota,S. \u2018Closer and closer to the top\u2019, The Economist, 29 July 2011  2) Corcoran,P. \u2018Mexico Judicial Reforms Go Easy On Corrupt Judges\u2019, In Sight Crime, 16 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con01b","title":"","text":"Interdiction rarely works. If Guinea-Bissau were to remove illicit drug operations from within its territories then the cartels would move elsewhere. Known as the hydra effect, once one potential drug route is cut off then another one is found and the trade continues1. This was the case for interdiction efforts between the US and Mexico. Initial government operations were successful at interdicting drugs being shipped between South American and Florida. In retaliation, traffickers began to use the US-Mexico border. The border witnesses large volumes of trade and interdicting the drugs proved to be nearly impossible2. It is logical to conclude that traffickers would find a new way to ensure drugs reached the Western markets if Guinea-Bissau sought US assistance.  1) Boaz,D. \u2018The Hydra-Headed Drug Business\u2019, CATO institute, 30 June 1998  2) Morton,D. \u2018The War on Drugs in Mexico: a failed state?\u2019, Third World Quarterly,39:3, pg.1639"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con02a","title":"","text":"US will provide equipment  Guinea-Bissau should join the US drug war as they do not have the means to fight the war themselves. The local law enforcement is underfunded and ill-equipped to deal with the international threat. Guinea Bissau has one ship which patrols 350km of coastline, their officers have little in the way of land transport, petrol, phones or hand cuffs1. The limited reach of the law has allowed the cartels and gangs to prosper which, in turn, further damages law and order in Guinea Bissau. US military assistance will therefore help restore law and order to Guinea Bissau.  1) Parkinson,C. \u2018LatAm Drug Traffickers Set Up in Guinea-Bissau, Expand in Africa\u2019, In Sight Crime, 29 August 2013  2) Acevedo,B. \u2018Ten Years of Plan Colombia: An Analytical Assessment\u2019, The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme, September 2008Shirk,D. \u2018The Drug War in Mexico\u2019, Council of Foreign Relations, March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con04a","title":"","text":"Becoming a narco-state  Guinea-Bissau\u2019s social fabric is being destroyed by the presence of the drug trade and requires international support. Guinea-Bissau has been named as Africa\u2019s first Narco-state; a country controlled by drug cartels and gangs. Violence committed by these gangs has escalated since the arrival of the Columbian cartels in 20071. Addiction, a consequence of the cocaine and heroin use, is prevalent throughout much of the country. It was estimated in 2012 that around 20-30% of the population use crack, an extremely addictive form of cocaine, and there is only one clinic in the country2. The only people who are visibly profiting from the presence of drugs are the Columbian drug lords who have extravagant mansions and modern cars3. Guinea-Bissau cannot hope to fight the prominence of these gangs by themselves and require aid.  1) Time, \u2018Guinea-Bissau: World\u2019s First Narco-State\u2019, data accessed 28 January 2014  2) Hatcher,J. \u2018Guinea-Bissau: How Cocaine Transformed a Tiny African Nation\u2019, Time, 15 October 2012  3) Vulliamy,E. \u2018How a tiny West African country became the world\u2019s first narco state\u2019, The Guardian, 9 March 2008"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con03a","title":"","text":"Deal with Corruption  Guinea-Bissau\u2019s institutions have become too corrupt to deal with the drug problem and require support. The police, army and judiciary have all been implicated in the drug trade. The involvement of state officials in drug trafficking means that criminals are not prosecuted against. When two soldiers and a civilian were apprehended with 635kg (worth \u00a325.4 million in 2013), they were detained and then immediately released with Colonel Arsenio Blade claiming \u2018They were on the road hitching a ride\u20191. Judges are often bribed or sent death threats when faced with sentencing those involved in the drug trade. The USA has provided restructuring assistance to institutions which have reduced corruption, such as in the Mexico Merida Initiative, and could do the same with Guinea Bissau.  1) Vulliamy,E. \u2018How a tiny West African country became the world\u2019s first narco state\u2019, The Guardian, 9 March 2008  2) Corcoran,P. \u2018Mexico Judicial Reforms Go Easy On Corrupt Judges\u2019, In Sight Crime, 16 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con01a","title":"","text":"Prevent drugs from reaching Western markets  By joining the war on drugs, Guinea-Bissau will be in a better position to thwart the transportation of cheap cocaine and heroin to Europe and North America. Guinea-Bissau\u2019s position makes it ideal for the cocaine trade, where drugs can be unloaded from Latin America and then distributed more easily to the West1. Around 18 tons of cocaine (worth $1.25 billion) passes through West Africa annually, most of it travelling through the state2. US assistance and interdiction operations would help prevent illicit drugs from reaching the profitable Western markets.  1) Smoltczyk,A. \u2018Africa\u2019s Cocaine Hub: Guinea-Bissau a \u201cDrug Trafficker\u2019s Dream\u201d, Spiegel, 8 March 2013  2) Hoffman,M. \u2018Guinea-Bissau and the South Atlantic Cocaine Trade\u2019, Centre for American Progress, 22 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con04b","title":"","text":"Considering that many of the military leaders have an invested interest in the drug trade, it is unlikely that Guinea-Bissau will seek help on these grounds. Antonio Indaj, the army\u2019s Chief of Staff, was accused in 2013 of acting as a middle man in transactions between the South American cartels and the Western markets1. Not only has he been involved in drugs transactions, but Indaj has also been accessed of supplying weaponry to the FARC. This makes it unlikely that these leaders would want US assistance which would disrupt their profits and possibly leave them open to prosecution.  1) Hoffman,M. \u2018Guinea-Bissau and the South Atlantic Cocaine Trade\u2019, Centre for American Progress, 22 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con02b","title":"","text":"US assistance does not guarantee success against illicit drug organisations. Despite the militarisation of the drug war in the Reagan-era, armed gangs are still prominent throughout the drug world. In Columbia, the left wing FARC still remains despite decades of war against the Columbian and USA governments1. The FARC, who use drugs for much of its income, still control large territories in the South Eastern territories. The effectiveness of military aid is consequently uncertain.  1) Acosta,N. \u2018Colombia\u2019s FARC rebels end holiday ceasefire\u2019, Reuters, 15 January 2014  2) Vulliamy,E. \u2018How a tiny West African country became the world\u2019s first narco state\u2019, The Guardian, 9 March 2008"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Modern society discriminates itself against the principles of individuals choosing self-determination and parental rights when it comes to the opposite case. There are high double standards when for example a couple chooses that their child should be deaf, just as they are.  This was the case with Tomato Lichy and his partner Paula, who wanted IVF in order to produce a child that was deaf- just as they are. The \u201cembryo bill in 2008 (UK)\u201d passed with a clause that exactly prohibits such actions as the deaf couple in limits of their right to self-determination and parenting requested.  Clause 14\/4\/9 states that, \"Persons or embryos that are known to have a gene, chromosome or mitochondrion abnormality involving a significant risk that a person with the abnormality will have or develop a serious physical or mental disability, a serious illness or any other serious medical condition must not be preferred to those that are not known to have such an abnormality.\" (1)  Specifically this means that in cases of embryos the law makes parents choose the healthy embryo over the embryo of their decision. It is unjust to appeal towards the rights of self-determination and parental rights if they are not applicable to all parents and if the distinction is made based on arbitrary definitions of valuable physical characteristics.  1 Dominic Lawson, Of course a deaf couple wants a deaf child, 03\/11\/2008,  , accessed 05\/23\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Parents have a right to acquire and act upon medical information  This argument comes from the idea, that a body is the property of its owner, as well as a fertilized egg is the property of the couple that created it whom also have parental rights  a) Self-determination  Some proponents of genetic screening might go as far to create the distinction between an embryo and a child: considering an embryo not to be a living being, but rather just a mass of cells, makes it possible to avoid entirely considering the \"screening\" process as a selection process between living human beings. Rather, it could be interpreted merely as a selection between different organizations of cells that have differing potential to become healthy \"life\".  b) Parental rights  Currently we allow couples to choose not to have children due to their own genetic deformations. We allow them to tie their tubes, get sterilized due to their own decision not to have children with genetic defects or children at all.  Experts suggest, that due to the sanctity of parental rights, the principle decision making should be in the hands of the parents, also regarding the power over the future of their DNA. With this, the society respects the principal decision making right of the individual to control their family and the destiny of their offspring (1).  Mainly making it a next step in deciding what their course of action regarding children will be.  1 Renee C. Esfandiary, The Changing World of Genetics and Abortion: Why the Women's Movement Should Advocate for Limitations on the Right to Choose in the Area of Genetic Technology William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law, published 1998,  , accessed 05\/23\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Seen from a philosophical point is that if a child is not brought into the world, it has not benefited of the community and in that sense you can never harm a person by bring it into existence, unless the person's life is so dreadful that nonexistence is preferable.  That life with a disability or chronic illness is predictably worse than non-existence is not plausible for most of the defects for which we test, even Down syndrome, which is the most tested for and common reason for abortion, Where in fact a happy disposition is actually a characteristic trait. Hence, bringing a child into existence cannot count as harming it. (1)  1. Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy,  , accessed 05\/24\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Genetic testing ensures the best quality of life for children vulnerable to heritable diseases  We have a duty to the child to give it the best possible start in life, and if the technology is available to determine whether a baby is brought into the world with or without a genetic neurological disease such as Huntington\u2019s, cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia, we should exercise that right.  A child that has Cystic Fibrosis (CF) produces too much fluid and mucus in the lungs, pancreas and passage ways, which then become thick, sticky and hard to move. This means that germs get stuck in the mucus and the child suffers from a lot of infectious diseases. Thus lead to reduced life expectancies (1).  For the gene detectable blood disease Thalassemia in its moderate and severe forms children may need very frequent blood transfusions, which over time lead to damage of heart, liver or other organs. Or may need stem cell transplants (bone marrow transplants) in order to get these transplants children will usually need to undergo radiation and need to have the luck of a well matched donor (2).  Congenital malformations, deformations, chromosomal abnormalities are the leading causes of 20% of infant deaths in the US. More than 6,000 single-gene disorders - which occur in about 1 out of every 200 births - such as cystic fibrosis, hemochromatosis or sickle cell anemia.  Dr. Gregor Wolbring (University of Alberta in Canada) sees embryo selection as \"a tool for fixing disabilities, impairments, diseases and defects\"(3).  If we have ways to prevent children from such suffering and can manipulate only with those genes so that they do not have to suffer, we should do so.  1. KidsHealth,  , accessed 05\/21\/2011  2. Mayo Clinic,  , 05\/21\/2011  3. MedicineNet.com  , accessed 05\/23\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro01b","title":"","text":"The genetic test does not prevent or cure anything. It merely asserts whether someone is a carrier of a genetic disorder. The testing would be paid for by couples to see if they are both carriers of this disorder. The decision then a couple can make based on the screenings is then to:  a) not have children together  The idea of these tests preventing people from marrying is mental. In our liberal society surely it is love that counts in a relationship, not how well your genes fit together to make the perfect child.  b) choose in vitro fertilization  In order to make them prevent the disease, so that the defected genes (in some cases) can be manipulated.  c) abort the present fetus  We pressurize and take away choices of the parents, by giving them the knowledge, regarding their children.  A professor of Law at Harvard University, Paul Freund also takes up the position that an unborn child has the right to random genes. Freund states, 'The mystery of individual\u2019s personality, resting on the chance combination of ancestral traits, is the basis of our sense of mutual compassion and at the same time, of accountability.\"  Professor Freund suggests that the ethical approach to advances in genetic technology allows the random assortment of genes to take effect, thereby protecting the sanctity of the human individual (1).  Further on with the advances in medicine genetic conditions and disorders no longer present such a burden on the children and enable them to live a good lifestyle and have high survival rates.  1. Renee C. Esfandiary, The Changing World of Genetics and Abortion: Why the Women's Movement Should Advocate for Limitations on the Right to Choose in the Area of Genetic Technology William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law, published 1998,  , accessed 05\/23\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Liberal societies have a duty to minimise avoidable suffering that might affect their members  Some of the genetic diseases tested include great suffering for the individual, one of them is the Tay Sachs syndrome. Where nerve cells become fatty from reoccurring infections.(1) This is a disease, where even with the best of care; a child dies at the age of 4.  Another is also Down Syndrome, where half of the sufferers have heart defects, increased risks of types of leukemia and high risks of dementia. Physical and mental limitations are also a feature of such a defect which causes many children to die early. (2).  So it is the duty of any society to prevent such sufferings for both child and parents at any cost or method. A similar view is shared among the Jewish community, who has problems with a high prevalence of Tay Sachs syndrome. They believe that due to the psychological and physical repercussions of the birth of a child with the genetic disorder it is better to screen and choose a healthy embryo (or abort the present pregnancy). (3)  So because such diseases cause great distress for the involved parties and we could prevent it, it is morally right for society to engage in genetic screening.  1. National institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke,  , accessed 05\/24\/2011  2.Medline Plus 10\/18\/2010,  , accessed 05\/24\/2011  3. Daniel Eisenberg, A Jewish perspective on issues related to screening Tay-Sachs disease,  , accessed 05\/24\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con03b","title":"","text":"Most genetic screening tests can also be performed at home, with results sent only to the user and so kept secretly \u2013 away from insurance companies and health institutions. It is then the domain of the individual itself if he or she wants to disclose this information. Discrimination based on the genetic pool currently seems to be rare but since thousands of Americans are accustomed to a health insurance system in which known risks carry financial penalties, they do not disclose this information (1).  Regarding genetic screening in the UK, there is a voluntary ban among members of the Association of British Insurers from being able to access the results of genetic tests (apart from Huntington\u2019s disease). This ban will be again reviewed in the year 2014 (2).  1. Amy Harmon, Insurance Fears Lead Many to Shun DNA Tests, 02\/24\/2008,  , accessed 22\/05\/2011  2. Impact,  , accessed 22\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con01b","title":"","text":"Genetic screening allows for parents to give their children the possibility of living a life without a debilitating genetic condition. Surely those who live with these conditions would not want to have other endure their pain, when there is an option not to.  By having these genes that cause such pain, and short life expectancy eventually removed from the gene pool we are also increasing the strength of the human race.  Genetic screening is only to be used to prevent and let families know about genetic defects. It is not discrimination to want humans to not bear genetic defects that debilitate their life, or end it premature through pain and suffering."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con02a","title":"","text":"A screening culture may lead to the value of human life becoming distorted  Genetic engineering treats embryos like commodities: \u201cif the product isn\u2019t sufficiently equipped, doesn\u2019t produce the desired results \u2013 we will not launch it\u201d. Even if we weren't considering embryos to be \"human life\", it is inappropriate to treat them as commodities with an \"option to purchase\". This cheapens at least the potential life-forms these embryos can become.  Views of doctors and also future parents regarding the value of their unborn children\u2019s lives are changing.  In a survey taken in New England (USA), there was a substantial majority in favor of genetic screening for a wide range of disorders. About 11 per cent of the couples have also admitted to wanting to abort a child that was genetically predisposed to obesity. A condition with which it is possible to live a good lifestyle (1).  With allowing more and more genetic screening and abortions \/ manipulations based on genes we are making life more of a commodity.  1.Jim Leffel, Genetic Technology, Engeneering Life: Human Rights in a Postmodern Age,  , accessed 05\/23\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con04a","title":"","text":"Genetic destabilisation  Natural selection is the process whereby people mate, have children and those children enrich the gene pool \u2013 if they survive. Occasionally genetic mistakes are made in that reproduction. As long as the result is not fatal, that mistake can begin to infiltrate the gene pool. More people may come to have this mistake in built into their genome. Whilst we may see it as a mistake in our current living conditions, that mutant gene may be a defense to future conditions.  For instance, the spread of sickle cell anemia in Africa. This disease causes red blood cells to carry less oxygen due to the squashed nature of all the red blood cells. This condition causes people to die younger, in 1973 life expectancy for a sufferer was 17, and it is now 50 and above. However, sickle cell anemia is a natural immunity against malaria. The life expectancy for someone with malaria is far lower.[[Sickle cell disease, QualityHealth, 13th January 2011,  accessed 25\/05\/11]]  We need different genes in the human gene pool even if we do not see the benefit of them now."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con03a","title":"","text":"Genetic screening may lead to the pooling and centralised storage of genetic information  Most diseases people will not have heard of. Such tests can be used also to store DNA in a database. The hotly debated idea of a DNA database has received much criticism. By framing the question of the ethics of a DNA database in this light is much more positively received by the public, and this is a way governments and insurance companies will change the public perception of a DNA database.  Health insurance companies in America and life insurance companies in Britain will be very keen in the use of this data in order to give higher premiums to those who show positive for certain diseases.  Such genetic screening then may lead to companies demanding information about clients before ensuring them.  This fear of insurance in the US being denied due to genetic predispositions is not groundless. A study conducted by Georgetown University Health Policy Institute in 2008 proves a similar point. In 7 of 92 underwriting decisions, insurance providers (hypothetical cases) decided, they would deny coverage, charge more or exclude certain conditions from coverage based on genetic test results (1).  1. Amy Harmon, Insurance Fears Lead Many to Shun DNA Tests, 02\/24\/2008,  , accessed 22\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con01a","title":"","text":"Genetic screening may lead the marginalisation of those living with genetic disorders  Seen from a philosophical point is that if a child is not brought into the world, it has not benefited of the community and in that sense you can never harm a person by bring it into existence, unless the person's life is so dreadful that nonexistence is preferable.  That life with a disability or chronic illness is predictably worse than non-existence is not plausible for most of the defects for which we test, even Down syndrome, which is the most tested for and common reason for abortion, Where in fact a happy disposition is actually a characteristic trait. Hence, bringing a child into existence cannot count as harming it. (1)  1. Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy,  , accessed 05\/24\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con04b","title":"","text":"Side proposition are not suggesting that natural selection would not still occur, but that seriously debilitating genetic diseases would no longer lead to the death of many infants, or the poor quality of life. In 1973, we did not have the technology to prevent malaria which we have now. With the technology we have today we can manage and treat many more illnesses than previously thought possible."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con02b","title":"","text":"In 2006 already Baroness Ruth Deech, the former chairwoman of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority in the UK explained, that it is far more ethical to choose an embryo before implantation, than getting pregnant, deciding there\u2019s something wrong with the baby and then aborting it.  Mainly it is the duty to impose the right restrictions that would enable a distinction on what is necessary for a normal lifestyle and where to draw the line for genetic predispositions (so for example to not abort or not implant babies with genes for obesity).  Also it is in the human nature to abort fetuses from the uterus if they are not healthy, it is a help to the natural process. Because during every cycle of a sexually active female fertilized eggs if not found to be healthy enough to survive get aborted naturally (1).  1. Head to head: Genetic screening, 05\/10\/2006,  , accessed 05\/23\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Reality is a lot murkier than theory. How are we to determine a state\u2019s intent? Sometimes good intentions are bound up with bad; public justifications for war may not always represent the real reasons. And who is determine if a peace is just or a wrong has been committed? The nation initiating the war will use its own values to justify its intentions, and these values may be at odds with those of the other party to the conflict. Furthermore, it is altogether possible to fight a war for selfish motives and nevertheless protect civilians and reduce suffering in so doing."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Right Intention  The intentions behind the war must be good. States have the right to use war to restore a just peace, to help the innocent, or to right a wrong. For example, the US and NATO were justified in using force in Bosnia and Kosovo. Waging war was far more ethical than standing by and permitting genocide and \u201cethnic cleansing\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro06a","title":"","text":"Prospect of Success  The war must have a reasonable chance of success. War always involves a loss of life, but expending life with no possibility of achieving a goal is unacceptable. Thus, if a fighting force cannot achieve its goal, however just, it should not proceed. Charging an enemy\u2019s cannons on horseback or throwing troops at a pointless occupation are clearly not just actions."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Many nations wage war without official declaration (e.g. the USA\u2019s involvement in Vietnam) and act unilaterally instead. Such unilateralism does not necessarily lead to an inevitable circumvention of the Geneva Conventions, it merely avoids the bureaucracy necessary to draw authoritative approval. Moreover, who is to decide which entities can and cannot issue calls to arms? Legitimate authorities have sanctioned some of the most horrific wars in history."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro05a","title":"","text":"Proportionality  The goal of the war should be proportional to the offense, and the benefits proportional to the costs. For example, when an attacker violates a nation\u2019s border, a proportionate response might extend to restoring the border, not sacking the attackers\u2019 capital. A war must prevent more suffering than it causes.  The Coalition that formed under the aegis of the United Nations to repel the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait fought a proportional conflict to the extent that they did not march on Baghdad after they had pushed the Iraqi Army out of the occupied territory."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Just Cause  Wars are just if the cause is just. Nations should be allowed to defend themselves from aggression, just as individuals are permitted to defend themselves against violence. In the UN Charter, signed in the wake of World War II, article 2, paragraph 4 altogether prohibits the use or threat of force with only self-defence, as stated in article 51, permitted as a justification to the resort to arms. [1]  [1] United Nations. (1945, June 26). Chapter I: Purposes and Principles. Retrieved May 9, 2011, from Charter of the United Nations:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Just cause is an elastic concept. Who determines what is \u201caggression\u201d? Could violating a disputed border region (e.g. Ethopia-Eritrea, Pakistan-India) or imposing economic sanctions (e.g on North Korea) be aggression? And if a state is unable to defend itself, can another state intervene militarily on its behalf? These borderline cases make invoking this criterion very problematic."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro05b","title":"","text":"We have seen that a proportional response frequently doesn\u2019t work. Suicide bombers continue to blow up victims in the Middle East despite the response. Why should a nation tolerate continued aggression for the sake of proportionality? And if a nation knows it is likely to be attacked, why should it wait to disarm the aggressor? Is not pre-emptive action justified to prevent the loss of innocent life? Finally, what of deterrence: a vigorous response to an aggressive act may not be strictly proportionate, but by making all potential aggressors think twice about future actions, it can be justified as saving more suffering in the long run."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro06b","title":"","text":"Sometimes it is morally imperative to fight against overwhelming odds, as resistance fighters did in World War II. Also this condition may give large nations free rein to bully small ones because they could not win a war. It also may cause a country to surrender in a war it might actually win. Weak countries have won wars against powerful ones \u2013 look at the American Revolution. Finally, the point at which a war became unwinnable, and therefore unjust by this definition, is often only identifiable with hindsight \u2013 consider the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, or the American involvement in Vietnam."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Sometimes going to war before all alternatives are exhausted is the most moral action. For example, a nation might decide to go to war if it determines that waiting would enable to the enemy to increase its strength and to do much more damage than an early war would have inflicted. This, after all, is the bitter lesson of the failure of appeasement in the 1930s. Waiting might allow an invading state to entrench itself so that far greater force would be necessary to remove it at a later date."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Legitimate Authority  The war must be lawfully declared by a lawful authority. This prevents inappropriate, terrorist-style chaos, and ensures that other rules of war will be observed. For example, when states declare war, they generally follow specific legislative procedures; a guaranteed respect for such procedures is likely to ensure that the nation will respect international humanitarian law, formally codified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and updated in the Additional Protocols of 1977."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Last Resort  War must be a last resort. The state is justified in using armed force only after it has tried all non-violent alternatives. Sometimes peaceful measures \u2013 diplomacy, economic sanctions, international pressure, or condemnation from other nations \u2013 simply do not work, but they must at least be tried in order to give every chance for a peaceful resolution to a crisis."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con03b","title":"","text":"The traditional just war framework may be difficult to apply to the contemporary war on terror, but whilst war remains, we must possess the just war framework as a strategic tool to both prevent and regulate its occurrence. Whilst they may involve the alteration of certain criteria, as has happened throughout its history, it does not suggest it has lost all use. The Bush administration\u2019s attempts to circumvent the jus in bello principles of non-combatant immunity were stalled, albeit belatedly, by widespread public disapproval, proving the basis for just war thinking is not in vain idealism but moral intuition. Therefore the just war doctrine is not only necessary but to an extent, innate."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con01b","title":"","text":"War is a necessary element in international affairs when there is no scope for diplomacy and conditions dictate that force is necessary to prevent or stop suffering. Few would argue that the United States was acting unjustly in entering the 2nd World War, or that more generally the defeat of the Nazis was an unjust act on the behalf of the Allies.  Furthermore, just war theory has little to say on the overall existence of war, but merely seeks to regulate war as a permanent feature of international society. War, as an institution and a human activity, has existed for as long as there have been political communities. The resort to force is therefore not one made due merely to a belief in its legitimacy but a belief in its utility. Just war theory acts therefore as a series of moral criteria to regulate the resort to warfare in order to prevent, rather than exacerbate, war for war\u2019s sake. It recognizes the \u2018war is hell\u2019 mentality and is, if anything, born from it, encouraging a resort to force only in cases where diplomacy is unable to function and war is strictly necessary. Even then, jus in bello principles apply to regulate the conflict itself, ensuring that a just war does not descend into the use of illegitimate means and methods of warfare. It does not purport to comment on the matter of the existence of warfare, merely recognises its occurrence and seeks to regulate both its regularity and bloodshed."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con02a","title":"","text":"The just war doctrine encourages resort to war  The just war doctrine establishes a framework for leaders to justify the resort to force in any given situation whereby they can find ostensible evidence for all the necessary criteria. It, in other words, leaves war on the table constantly as an option; diplomatic negotiations and bargaining must succeed with the constant shadow of war looming as not only a realistic eventuality, but an eventuality that could potentially be deemed \u2018just\u2019 by either side. Any such doctrine therefore renders the resort to war as far too permissive, and encourages the false presumptions of aggressive states that their motives are not only self-serving but legitimate."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con03a","title":"","text":"Just war doctrine is an anachronism  The \u2018Global War on Terror\u2019, according to the Bush administration and its legal team, ushered in a new \u2018paradigm\u2019 of warfare. [1] Characterised by non-state actors, acting across international borders, often from failed states, just war theory is arguably out of its depth in dealing with it. The United States\u2019 war in Afghanistan was not proportional, had little prospect of success in eradicating the ideology of Al-Qaeda itself and certainly was not a last resort, but nevertheless many felt it was \u2018just\u2019 in 2001.  [1] Lukach, T. (2005, March 17). War on Terror creates New Paradigm for Guard, Reserve. Retrieved May 9, 2011, from U.S. Department of Defense:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con01a","title":"","text":"War is always unjust  The formulation of the just war doctrine, a moral framework for the institution of war, inadvertently serves to legitimise its activities and inherent barbarity. It undermines the intuitive norm against warfare by emphasizing the \u2018just\u2019 and undercutting the \u2018war\u2019, leading to a framing of public discourse whereby anti-war campaigners can be presented and ostracized as traitors and soldiers, even of aggressor nations, heroes.  In many religions war can never be legitimised for example in Buddhism \u201cWar happens. Buddhism does not deny such facts. It tries to understand how war happens. But Buddhism never accepts or legitimizes war as necessary or \u201cjust.\u201d One naturally defends oneself when attacked. One may prevent someone from doing harm to others. Neither, however, justify harming the alleged or imagined perpetrator\/aggressor.\u201d [1]  [1] Bhikkhu, S. (2003, March). \"Just War\" is an oxymoron. Retrieved May 9, 2011, from Liberation Park:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con02b","title":"","text":"War has always been an option in international affairs; few rulers before just war theory was developed felt constrained by the absence of such a moral framework. What the just war criterion provide for is a regulatory framework whereby war cannot break out before at least one side satisfies the criterion. As such, this ensures a temporal space for diplomatic negotiations to play out and if necessary, for either top-down pressure from more powerful states or bottom-up pressure from the public to alleviate any desire for war."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Some forms of elite manipulation will be much worse under direct democracy. Media barons, for example, influence politics primarily by influencing public opinion. Whereas elected politicians can sometimes resist public opinion, this is not possible if the public make political decisions directly. Under direct democracy, owners of newspapers and other media outlets would be much more powerful because their power over the public mind could be translated directly into political decisions. This influence would even be outsized when individuals opinions are sought, as in the wiki constitution model, as people\u2019s opinions are shaped by the media many will simply follow the lead set by the members of the elite who are setting the agenda through their media networks."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Representative Democracy Enables Rule by Elites  Representative democracy is less legitimate because it empowers unelected elites. Representative democracy is systematically biased against ordinary people, particularly poor people. Unelected elites like wealthy businessmen, trade union leaders, civil servants, party officials and media proprietors are able to bypass the democratic process and exert direct pressure on elected politicians. This happens because decisions are made behind closed doors by individual politicians who can be easily bullied or bought out. This allows elites to effectively wield public power even when they are not elected themselves. If decisions were made more directly by the people there would be less scope for elites to manipulate the process by simply appealing to a politician\u2019s self-interest. Elite influence is a systematic problem because it is self-reinforcing: elites lobby for laws to preserve their own power and disempower the public. A good example of this is Rupert Murdoch\u2019s behind-the-scenes lobbying for the repeal of regulations preventing him from dominating the media market. [1] Considering that at any past time in the human history the conditions of equality in labour division, education and technological tools were not as favourable as nowadays in terms of allowing citizen political involvement, a more participatory political decision-making must be now taken into account. [2] A clear example is the Iceland's \"wiki constitution\" (2011). [3] Then, although the classic criticism against direct democracy formulas based on the premise that size creates problrms \u2013referring to the difficulties to shape participatory citizen deliberation in our enormous current nation-states\u2013 may still be true, cultural, social and technological conditions for participation have become much more favourable.  [1] Toynbee, P. (8 July 2011). \u201cThe game has changed. The emperor has lost his clothes\u201d, The Guardian.   [2] Resnick, P. (1997). Twenty-first Century Democracy. Montreal & Kingston; London; Buffalo: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 84  [3] Siddique, H. (9 June 2011). \u201cMob rule: Iceland crowdsources its next constitution\u201d, The Guardian."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro03b","title":"","text":"The problem of domination by elites and assertive minorities will be exacerbated because they are the only people who will be able or willing to make the time to play politics. Participatory democracy demands much more involvement than representative democracy \u2013 indeed that\u2019s the whole point. Every single issue is the subject of its own debate, campaign and even referendum, and most voters will lose track. It\u2019s a simple question of motivation: people with extreme views will tend to be strongly driven to impose their beliefs, whilst people whose special interests are at stake will be prepared to go out and fight for them. Ordinary working people or people without strong political views will not have the time or the inclination to put in the high level of involvement participatory democracy requires."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro05a","title":"","text":"Participatory Democracy Produces Better Decisions  Participatory democracy will lead to better decisions because laws will only be passed if they can be justified to the people. Professional politicians are disproportionately drawn from the privileged classes and are often ignorant of the effects their policies will have on ordinary people \u2013 as are the civil servants who advise them. Moreover, professional politicians are susceptible to corruption, lobbying or bullying by powerful vested interests seeking to direct government policy away from the general interest represented by the vast majority of the individual citizens, who generally lack such a determinant influence over the decision-making. Participatory democracy will therefore make sure that the legislation that is passed will help the people as much as possible; for example they will limit unecessary bureaucracy and make sure that policies are fair. Thus for example Switzerland has passed with 68% of the vote in a referendum a proposal that prevents big payouts for managers known as \u2018golden handshakes\u2019 and \u2018golden parachutes\u2019 and shareholders will have a veto over saleries. [1]  [1] Willsher, K., and Inman, P. (3 March 2013) \u201cVoters in Swiss referendum backs curbs on executives\u2019 pay and bonuses\u201d The Guardian."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Participatory Democracy Preserves our Natural Liberty  Representative democracy is oppressive because it takes more power away from the people than is strictly necessary. Whilst a completely direct democracy is impractical, we should nevertheless recognise that there is no reason not to have as much direct democracy as possible. In the words of Herbert Marcuse, \u201cFree election of masters does not abolish the masters or the slaves\u201d. [1] The key point is that merely holding an election every four years does not fundamentally alter our state of subservience: at election time, we are given a choice of three or four manifesto programmes on an all-or-nothing basis, manifestos which may never be honoured. The only power over our government we as citizens have is the power to punish politicians retrospectively, by voting them out after years of obeying them. It is quite possible to create an authoritarian system that has regular representative elections, even with several competitive candidates and yet still not be giving power to the people, as is shown by Iran. [2] This is wrong. The presumption should always be that the people keep as much power over their own lives and hand as little to their masters as possible because they never get to consent to the powers that rule them. Given that we are born under governments which exist whether we like it or not, it as an offense to our natural liberty and equality that those governments should hold any more power over us than is absolutely necessary. Besides, when the interests of the state are not the interests of the people, we have the government of the few over the rest. [3]  [1] Marcuse, H. (1991). One Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon Press  [2] Gedmin, J. (1 March 2013) \u201cNot All Elections Are Worthy of the Name\u201d Foreign Policy.   [3] Pocock, J.G.A. (1975). The Machiavellian moment: Florentine political thought and the Atlantic republican tradition. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton University Press"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro01b","title":"","text":"First elections are not just a retrospective vote on how the government did, it is also about what political parties want to do. Yes a few elction promises get dropped but the vast majority stick to their promises because they know that not doing so will result in them losing the next election. It is simply not true that representative democracy is oppressive. If people aren\u2019t happy with the way the government is using its power they can vote for a candidate who promises to undo what the previous government has done, or they can even enter politics themselves. The people can always take back powers that they don\u2019t want the government to have by forming and supporting a party or a lobby specifically for that purpose. The reason why this hasn\u2019t happened yet is that most people are happy with the representative system and do not feel like their liberty is being violated."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro05b","title":"","text":"Professional politicians know that they will be held accountable if they pass policies that are ineffective or damaging. This gives them a big incentive to carefully research all the options before making an important decision, and they have the time and the resources to do so (making decisions is their only job). Ordinary citizens do not have a big incentive to get a policy right unless they can directly see how it affects them, and even if they had the inclination to make an informed decision, they will lack the time and resources. Participatory democracy is therefore much more likely to lead to a muddle of contradictory legislation as different groups focus on different legislation without an overarching vision that advances the nation\u2019s interests."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro04b","title":"","text":"This point only stands if participatory democracy actually involves more participation. In reality, when taking the example of referendums, for most voters all that changes under a participatory system is that they get to vote more regularly \u2013 which given how turned off voting many people are this may simply lead to them ignoring all the new votes. In any refer\u00e9ndum all the electors have to do is decide to vote yes or no. There\u2019s hardly any intellectual stimulation at all. This binary choice is much more basic than choosing which political party to vote for, and encourages even sloppier thinking \u2013 just look at the misleading claims the \u201cNo to AV\u201d campaign spread in the 2011 UK referendum on electoral reform. [1] Then, participatory democracy is not the be all and end all, we should not ask only for more participation but we must move towards a more deliberative democracy, where the public debate and consequent consensus is an important issue to pass new political decisions. [2]  [1] Newman, C. (25 February 2011) \u201cFactCheck: the AV campaign gets dirty\u201d 4 news.   [2] Elster, J. (Ed.). (1998). Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Participatory forms of Democracy Can Restore Trust in Politics  Representative systems struggle to sustain popular trust, which is bad for democracy. Public trust in politics always tends to be dented by three specific features of representative systems. Firstly, the perception of elite influence over the political process is a largely unavoidable feature of electoral democracy because such elites are easily placed to manipulate politics, even if they do not actually do so. Secondly, the spotlight in representative democracy is on individual politicians (rather than on policies) and consequently exposing scandals and smearing the characters of politicians is an essential part of the political game: media coverage of politicians is largely hostile (particularly problematic if it diverts discussion from the merits and demerits of particular policies). A third feature of the system is that, since public opinion has no direct power, unpopular decisions don\u2019t have to be properly justified. Governments often defy public opinion when they think a policy will pay off in the long run, and often they don\u2019t really bother explaining why they are doing so (a good example of this is Gordon Brown\u2019s signing of the Lisbon treaty in 2007). These three factors all tend to undermine trust in politics in representative systems. Trust is essential for democracy because without it people will not bother following politics or voting, leaving the door open for elites and aggressive minorities to wield undue influence. A clear example of this phenomenon is in the United States, where Christian fundamentalists \u2013 despite being a minority \u2013 wield enormous power. The reason for this is that turnout in American elections is very low, whilst fundamentalist Christians are politically very active and organised, allowing them huge influence."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro04a","title":"","text":"Participation Is Good In Itself  Giving people more responsibility for making political decisions is itself a good thing. Participating in political decision-making allows citizens to achieve a higher state of intellectual and moral maturity, letting them lead better and wiser lives. Since the difficult business of government forces them to learn how to make tough choices and compromise they will quickly abandon their simplistic prejudices and assumptions. Representative democracy is the opposite: it treats the public as if they are incapable of making important choices themselves, and thus denies most citizens a chance to meaningfully participate. Representative democracy often implies a mercantile vision of the political performance, where the politicians play the role of the sellers and the voters act as a simple buyers of political options. [1] This means that the vast majority of voters remain ignorant at best, and apathetic at worst. This leaves them vulnerable to manipulation by deceitful politicians and political commentators. Furthermore, since many government decisions involve major moral dilemmas, citizens who participate in such decision-making will develop a more nuanced moral understanding and more thoughtful personal conduct. Thus, all democratic participation is beneficial. Participatory forms of democracy allows people to participate more than they otherwise would. Evidence for the impact of democratic participation is that radical and intolerant views are frequently expressed in young democracies but fade away as participation in democratic politics implants in the people respect for due process and different points of view. A good example of this is that intolerant far-right parties are much more successful in the young democracies of Eastern Europe than the old democracies of Western Europe. [2]  [1] Macpherson, C.B. (1977). The Life and BTimes of Liberal Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press).  [2] The Economist (12 November 2009) \u201cRight on down\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con03b","title":"","text":"The more experience of participatory democracy the people have, the better they will get at it. In particular, common wisdom will learn from past mistakes. Whilst the Californian example cited is true, it is also true that in 2000, just six years after the \u201cThree Strikes\u201d law was introduced, the 1978 tax amendment was partially repealed in response to money shortages. [1]  [1] State of California (7 November 2000) \u201cProposition 39 School Facilities. 55% Local Vote. Bonds, Taxes Accountability Requirements.\u201d Smart Voter."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con01b","title":"","text":"Under participatory democracy people can participate as much or as little as they like. They are not obliged to vote in every referendum or attend every public meeting, but they have the right to. If they only care about a few political issues, they can just vote on those and ignore everything else. That way they get to have their say on just the issues they care about without becoming part-time citizen-politicians. Moreover, that would be more effective than simply voting for a politician once every five years because it would allow them to specifically vote on the issues they cared about rather than having to support an all-or-nothing manifesto that they will probably only partially agree with."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con02a","title":"","text":"Referenda Produce Snap Decisions  Referendums will lead to poor-quality snap decisions. The problem with referendums is that they are called and voted on quickly, without a series of lengthy parliamentary debates or review by committees. This means that decisions are essential made by short-term popular opinion. This is a problem because there are many policies that are painful and unpopular in the short term but essential in the long run, such as cutting unaffordable public debts. Under representative democracy, governments can make these tough decisions and hope that they pay off before the next election. Harmful short-termism is particularly likely because voters, unlike professional politicians, may lack the technical or economic expertise to realise the necessity of adopting long-term solutions. A clear example is the effect of referenda over the fiscal policy in California. [1] Then, when short-terminism is at the heart of political decisions in a given society, it becomes very difficult to govern. Furthermore, it establishes a more instable political ground for the future generations, who may suffer from the irresponsible political measures adopted by their predecessors, for example inheriting disproportionate amounts of public debt.  [1] Plunkett, J. (18 April 2010) \u201cWould California-style referendums be good for Britain?\u201d guardian.co.uk."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con04a","title":"","text":"Representative Democracy Prevents Domination by Special Interests  Governments often have to pass decisions which anger small, well-organised special interest groups \u2013 like teachers unions \u2013 but are in the long-term interest of the country. Under representative democracy, the government can simply make the decisions it has to, and resist the political pressure these groups put on them. But under more direct forms of participatory democracy, the special interest groups can organise their members to campaign and vote against proposals which are good for the country but against their private interests. The reason why they are likely to be successful is that most voters won\u2019t have the technical knowledge to recognise the importance of the proposal (curbing unaffordable public sector pensions, for example), they may be uninterested if they do not see how it directly affects them, and will probably be exhausted and bored of referendums if they are held very regularly \u2013 an effect observed in Switzerland called \u201celection fatigue\u201d. [1] As a result, turnout amongst regular voters is likely to be low, but the unions or interest groups will be well organised and will be active in campaigning and voting, since they know that they are fighting for their interests. The effect of this will be to enable organised interest groups to dictate policy on issues where they have a major conflict of interest. An example of this is a Californian initiative in 1990 to raise billions of dollars on the bond markets to invest in railways. The initiative was passed after a campaign funded by railway companies. [2]  [1] Buhlmann, M. et al. (2006) \u201cNational Elections in Switzerland: an Introduction\u201d Swiss Political Science Review, 12(4) 1-12   [2] The Economist (17 December 2009) \u201cThe tyranny of the majority\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con03a","title":"","text":"Participatory Democracy Facilitates the Misrepresentation of Issues  An intrinsic problem with participatory democracy is that issues are easily misrepresented to the public. Whilst most voters may be intelligent and informed enough to understand a single issue in isolation, they will almost certainly not understand its complex relationship with other issues, and what a \u201cyes\u201d or \u201cno\u201d vote would mean for everything else \u2013 this is because only a full-time politician has the time and the resources to properly understand how dozens of different government policies fit together. An example of this effect is that in 1978 Californians voted to pass an amendment making it almost impossible to raise taxes, and then in 1994 voted for the \u201cThree Strikes\u201d Law that tripled their prison population. As a result, California is now almost bankrupt. [1] The reason why this happened was that these issues were presented in isolation from one another and from other issues as a simple yes-or-no choice \u2013 the public just didn\u2019t connect the fact that if they were going to lock up more people for life, they would need higher taxes.  [1] Adams, G. (18 February 2009) \u201cJobs terminated as California goes bankrupt\u201d The Independent."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con01a","title":"","text":"Representative Democracy Lets People Get On with their Lives  People should be free to get on with their private lives, but they can\u2019t do that if they\u2019re expected to also be their own government. The reason why we delegate powers to politicians is that we want to have a say in government and still be free to get on with our lives. The business of government is tremendously complex and most people just don\u2019t care about having total control over the details of policy \u2013 they just want the power to kick out governments that are no good. Think about it: how many people actually have time, on top of all the other things they have to do, to attend weekly meetings and committees, research technical policy details to decide which policy they will support and then go out and vote on a dozen issues every week? You\u2019ll notice that all the ancient direct democracies \u2013 like ancient Athens \u2013 were societies in which there were more slaves than citizens. It is only because the slaves did all the work that the citizens were free to spend their time playing politics. The key point is, under the status quo, people who deeply care about politics can get involved in politics \u2013 they can join a party, write to politicians, canvass for issues etc \u2013 and the people who don\u2019t care about politics that much but still have an opinion are free to vote and then get on with their lives. But under a more direct democracy people have to choose between devoting half of their lives to politics or losing all possible influence over the curse of the decision-making. It\u2019s not right that ordinary citizens should be forced to choose between having any say in politics and having a private life. This makes the difference between the \"liberty of the ancients\" and the \"liberty of the moderns\". [1]  [1] Constant, B. (1816). The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns. See online at:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con04b","title":"","text":"This point assumes that there will be no organisations capable of campaigning against special interests, and this is plainly false. Political parties, taxpayer\u2019s organisations and even rival special interest groups already run counter campaigns against perceived special interest lobbying. Furthermore, special interest groups are naturally disadvantaged in the battle for public opinion because it is very easy to paint them as selfish or greedy. A good example of this is the hostility with which the public usually greets strikes and industrial action. [1] In addition, governments in liberal democracies might pay special attention to particular issues precisely because of the existence of powerful lobbies. In such case, they would be under-representing other groups or individual citizens becoming, then, the cause of the domination of the public decision-making by special interests.  [1] Smithson M. (21 June 2011) \u201cComRes finds little support for public sector strikes\u201d, PoliticalBetting.com."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pphsipd-con02b","title":"","text":"That is just a case for having a cooling-off period in between the proposal of a new law and the referendum on it. There is no reason why referendums cannot have a lengthy public debate before the vote takes place. It is not clear that the voters will only look at the short-term consequences: in the 2010 UK General Election the British voters backed the Conservative Party and their long-term deficit reduction plan, for example. [1] Furthermore, professional politicians may also take decisions thinking in the short term in order to raise their popularity. In such case, referenda would not be worse than the representative system.  [1] Glover, J. (21 June 2010) \u201cBudget 2010: Three quarters of voters back spending cuts not tax rises \u2013 Guardian\/ICM poll\u201d guardian.co.uk."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"A medical procedure is not a product that should be excluded from those who cannot afford it. Either it is beneficial enough to be subsidized by the state and therefore available to all, or it is the start of a slippery slope towards designer babies and therefore should not be available to anyone. Furthermore, the investment and expertise required to develop such technology are resources that should be utilized for causes that are far more important, under-funded and under-developed than gender selection. To allow the private sector to provide such a gender selection service would not only encourage further investment in a unnecessary technology but tempt medical professionals away from their government-funded research with the promise of more money."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"The private sector can provide parents, who can afford to and want to, with gender selection technologies  Gender selection technology should be available, at whatever cost the market dictates, to those who can afford the process and wish to choose the sex of their children. There should be no other restrictions on the couples wishing to go through with the process, other than an assurance that the mother is physically able and willing. As it is not an essential procedure, the state should not be expected to subsidize either the process or the development of the technology. Nevertheless, the private sector should be encouraged to develop the technology and continue to provide the public with a path to maximise their own happiness."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Freedom of choice is an important principle generally, but it should not be granted at the expense of unconditional love for one\u2019s children. The pre-selection of gender \u2018is a threat to the core value of parenthood that is usually expressed by the commitment to unconditional love\u2019, according to a Georgetown professor 1. Children should not be loved because of who they are, not because they are exactly what we wanted of them. As Harvard professor Michael Sandel notes, \u2018consider the father who wants a boy in hope of having as a son the athlete he had never been. Suppose the son isn\u2019t interested in sports\u2026what sorts of expectations will burden a child who has designed with certain purposes in mind?\u2019 1. For that reason, parents should not be permitted freedom of choice in this regard, but encouraged to love their child equally, regardless of gender.  1. Stein, R. (2004, December 14). A Boy for You, a Girl for Me: Technology Allows Choice.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from The Washington Post:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Gender selection will prevent incidents of infanticide  Some cultures place great importance on having at least one child of a particular gender. We can help realise this aim. We can prevent the trauma and stress of not having a child of a particular gender, which can have negative cultural connotations. If a state's population became seriously imbalanced, one might have to rethink: but given that most countries, including all in the West, have balanced populations, and given that many families in most countries will choose to have roughly as many of the other sex, this should not stop this proposal being put into effect in many countries. Even in China, the problem is largely due to the \"one-child\" policy which has been relaxed in many areas since the mid-1990s. Over time, a scarcity of one gender will in any case produce new pressures to rebalance the population, for example the paying of dowries may change, and women will achieve higher status."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"This argument veils the likely result of the policy: reinforcement of already unhealthy cultural practices. Selective abortion has meant that gender imbalance in China and India is already very, very high \u2013 914 girls for every 1,000 boys in India \u2013 demonstrating the likely result of such policies in some countries 1.  \u2018Parents choose to abort female foetuses not because they do not want or love their daughters, but because they feel they must have sons\u2019 (usually for social reasons) 1. Even in western countries some minority groups' gender preferences may result in serious imbalances in some communities. These imbalances are socially harmful because in time many young men will be unable to find a partner; in China this is already linked to a rise in sexual violence, kidnapping and forced marriage, and prostitution.  1. The Economist. (2011, April 7). Add sugar and spice. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from The Economist:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Sex-specific, generic diseases are only avoided a majority of the time, the process is not near 100% accurate and therefore the medical benefits cannot be used without considering of the medical costs. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis involves the development of embryos outside the womb, which are then tested for gender. One or two of the desired gender are then implanted in the womb. Those that are not of the desired gender, or are surplus to requirements are destroyed (typically, over a dozen embryos are used to select a single one to be implanted). A human life has been created with the express purpose of being destroyed. This is another form of abortion \u2013 only the conception is deliberate. Ultimately, it will be these technologies and not MicroSort that is used, since whilst the latter has a 93% accuracy rate if a girl is desired (itself a lower result than genetic diagnosis), its accuracy falls to 82% for boys, and the vast majority of selections will inevitably be for males 1 . Thus, given that they are so keen to have a child of a particular gender and so unwilling to risk having one of the other gender, parents will not risk using MicroSort. Even if they do choose it, whilst there have not been overt problems thus far, scientific experts like Lord Winston express the fear that the process damages sperm, making genetic mutation much more likely. Both techniques are therefore to be condemned.  1. Genetics and IVF Institute. (2008, January 1). Microsort. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Genetics and IVF Institute:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Parents should have freedom of choice  People should have freedom of choice. Why shouldn\u2019t would-be parents be able to do this, given that no harm is done to others by their decision? Article 16 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that: \"Men and women of full age\u2026 have the right to marry and to found a family\" and this right should be understood to cover the right to make decisions over how that family should be formed 1.When a family have a large number of boys or girls, why should they be deprived of the opportunity to have a child of a different gender if the technology exists? As the Director of the Fertility Institute notes, \u2018these are grown-up people expressing their reproductive choices\u2026(they) are really happy when they get what they want\u2019 2.  1. U.N. General Assembly. (1948, December 10). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from United Nations:  >  2. Stein, R. (2004, December 14). A Boy for You, a Girl for Me: Technology Allows Choice.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from The Washington Post:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Sex-specific, generic diseases can be avoided  Some parents are carriers of known sex-specific diseases. It is obviously in the child's interests that they don't have such a condition. Determining its gender can ensure that. Many families have predispositions towards certain common conditions that are more likely in one gender in another, and these can be avoided too. Nearly all neurodevelopmental diseases are either more common in one gender or more severe among one gender. Arthritis, heart disease and even lung cancer also seem to be influenced by a person's gender. Males disproportionately suffer from X chromosome problems because their body has no copy to fall back on 1 These range in nature from baldness and colour blindness to muscular dystrophy and haemophilia. Women are disproportionately affected by diseases of the immune system 2. Genetic modification is not the only technology available. The MicroSort technique uses a 'sperm-sifting' machine to detect the minute difference between y and double x chromosome-carrying sperm: no genetic harm results from its use. Over 1200 babies have been born using the technology 3.  1. Macnair, D. T. (2010, August). Fragile X Syndrome. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from BBC Health:  2. Doe, J. (2000, December 18). Immune System Disorders. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Time:  3. Genetics and IVF Institute. (2008, January 1). Microsort. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Genetics and IVF Institute:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con03b","title":"","text":"It is hardly shattering the mystery of childbirth, given how common ultrasound scans are. Sharla Miller, who went through gender selection, refutes the suggesting it is like playing God, arguing 'it's just like every other procedure the medical field can do for you. When our eldest child had spina bifida, they fixed that. Were they playing God?' 1. Moreover, knowing what gender a child will be is tremendously helpful for parents in planning for the future (picking clothes, colour schemes, toys, names etc.). Why not extend that ability to plan? Moreover, in many countries and cultures gender selection happens already, usually by selective abortion or abandonment of unwanted babies. Everyone can agree that this is a terrible waste of life and potentially very dangerous for the mother concerned, and of course many people object strongly to abortion on moral grounds. The use of new technologies to allow gender selection at the start of pregnancy will reduce and hopefully eventually end the use of selective abortion.  1. Leung, R. (2004, April 11). Choose the Sex of Your Baby. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from CBS News:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con01b","title":"","text":"It is for the individuals to decide whether this treatment is worth the expense. The anecdotal evidence from parents who have gone through the process suggests that pre-selecting the sex of their children was not a \u2018frivolous purpose\u2019. Asked whether her three boys had not been enough, Sharla Allen replied \u2018They are. They\u2019re totally everything I could ever want\u2026but why not have two daughters that will be just as wonderful as they are?\u2019 1. No-one is harmed in this process, the parents know the risks beforehand and it should be their prerogative to have the treatment.  1. Gajilan, C. (2005, November 17). Gender selection a reality, but is it ethical? Retrieved May 20, 2011, from CNN Health:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con02a","title":"","text":"Children should not be designed to specifications  Children are not toys. They are not meant to be designed to specifications most convenient to the \u2018owner\u2019. \u2018It runs the risk of turning procreation and parenting into an extension of the consumer society\u2019 argues Harvard philosopher Michael Sandel 1. If we allow parents to choose gender, soon some will want to choose eye colour, or hair colour. That is only the beginning. We are, in allowing this, encouraging false ideas of \u2018perfection\u2019 \u2013 damning those that don\u2019t look a certain way. Furthermore, since of course there\u2019s no justification for allowing such indulgence at public expense, the divide will grow ever-larger between rich and poor, as the rich tailor not only their clothes and belongings to reflect their wealth, but also the bodies of their children. If a \"gay gene\" is discovered, would parents be permitted to weed out embryos with it, using the technology this proposal would condone? We really should be encouraging the idea that when it comes to children, you get what you are given \u2013 otherwise, people be more and more likely to reject their own child when they don\u2019t get exactly what they want\u2026  1. Stein, R. (2004, December 14). A Boy for You, a Girl for Me: Technology Allows Choice.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from The Washington Post:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con03a","title":"","text":"The lottery of childbirth should not be interfered with  Having a child is a process of wonder and awe. These proposals make having children to something more like pre-ordering a car. To many people the moment of conception is the start of life, touched by God and not to be interfered with or abused out of selfish human motives. Dr. Mark Hughes, who helped pioneer the procedure, intended it to be used to prevent disease and 'your gender is not a disease, last time I checked. There's no suffering. There's no illness. And I don't think doctors have any business being there' 1.Furthermore, In the view of many, the new technologies are not morally different from abortion - in all cases a potential life is taken. These new technologies are likely to make selective abortion more common, as if they are legalised they will appear to legitimise throwing away a human life simply because the parents would prefer a specific gender.  1. Leung, R. (2004, April 11). Choose the Sex of Your Baby. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from CBS News:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con01a","title":"","text":"Pre-selection of gender uses expensive medical care for frivolous purposes  The treatment required for the pre-selection of gender was initially designed for the prevention of disease. Many of the patients now using the revolutionary new treatment are perfectly capable of conceiving healthy children naturally. Dr. Mark Hughes, a director the Genesis Genetics institute, says that 70% of patients wouldn't have needed IVF in the first place, meaning 'healthy, fertile couples are choosing this higher risk, expensive, sometimes painful process when they could conceive otherwise' 1.  1. Gajilan, C. (2005, November 17). Gender selection a reality, but is it ethical? Retrieved May 20, 2011, from CNN Health:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con02b","title":"","text":"Parents have every right, if the technology is present, to choose the gender make-up of their family. Guaranteeing (or improving the chances of) a child being of the gender they want means that the child is more likely to fit into the family's dreams. He or she is, bluntly, more likely to be loved. Talk of designer babies is scaremongering nonsense. 'All babies are, to some extent, designed. Individuals do not procreate randomly: they choose their partners, and often choose the time of conception according to their own age and prosperity' 1. Parents give so much to children. They invest years of their lives and a large amount of their earnings in their upbringing. Isn't it fair that in return, they get to decide something like this if they want to? This is an extension of reproductive rights.  1. Meek, J. (2001, July 5). Baby Blues. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro02b","title":"","text":"The alternatives to either invasion or atomic bombing are covered in the previous counterpoint. It can only be said that none of them are without a high human cost, though invasion spearheaded by an atomic barrage is surely the worst. The principle of advantage of the conventional bombing option being that it would be easily justifiable as only quantitively different to what the Japanese had already meted out themselves. The blockade similarly has easy justification in not being a deviation from any accepted standards as well as only indirectly attacking the home islands while putting the onus on the Japanese government to avoid starvation. Really in order to find a less costly alternative then diplomacy has to be raised for which refer to the second response argument."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro02a","title":"","text":"The continuation of a conventional war would have been much costlier than an atomic attack  The US was planning for a massive invasion of the Japanese Home Islands (Operation Olympic). Nine divisions were to land on the southern Japanese island of Kyushu. However the Japanese had ten divisions in southern Kyushu by August, and 600,000 troops on the whole island. [1]  The US army widely disseminated a figure of half a million casualties for the conquest of Japan. This was however only the figure for public consumption and some calculations went much higher. [2] On top of the US losses the same amount and probably considerably more Japanese deaths would have to be added. The estimates of US losses were so bad that atomic bombs were actually considered for use in clearing the landing beaches.  Chief of Staff George C. Marshall argued \u201cWe had to visualize very heavy casualties unless we had enough atomic bombs at the time to supplement the troop action.\u201d [3] Invasion was therefore not really an alternative to the A-bomb use at all. Although the use of the bomb in a battlefield situation might be more justifiable that it was considered shows the ignorance of the radiation effects that might well have been a disaster for US forces as well as Japanese.  [1] Edward J. Drea, \u2018Intelligence Forecasting for the Invasion of Japan: previews of Hell, Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, (Columbia, 2007) p.59,71  [2] D. M. Giangreco, \"A score of bloody Okinawas and Iwo Jimas\": President Truman and casualty estimates for the invasion of Japan\u2019, Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, (Columbia, 2007), p.88  [3] Edward J. Drea, \u2018Intelligence Forecasting for the Invasion of Japan: previews of Hell\u2019, pp.74-5."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro03b","title":"","text":"Having a weapon is hardly a good argument for using one, society would fall apart if \u2018I have a gun thus I must shoot someone\u2019 became an accepted maxim. Since war is policy by other means the ultimate weapon is one that achieves its policy objectives without the need to be actually be used. As to the cost, the $2.2bn translates to a little below $7,000 for each Japanese life taken."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro01a","title":"","text":"The use of atomic bombs was the only was to persuade Japan's rulers to surrender  From late 1944 Japan\u2019s defeat was certain. The Japanese leadership knew this, but this knowledge did not equate acceptance nor did it translate into action. The Americans felt that some sort of game changer was needed to push the Japanese into surrender.  According to Henry L. Stimson \u201cWe, [the administration] felt that to extract a genuine surrender from the Emperor and his military advisors, they must be administered a tremendous shock which would carry convincing proof of our power to destroy the Empire.\u201d [1]  The United States Strategic Bombing Survey reckoned that to cause equivalent damage done by the Atomic Bombs using conventional weapons would require 345 B29\u2019s. [2] However it is not the fact that the Atomic bombs saved hundreds of B29 missions that is the crucial element. That is the sheer terror that the destructive power of the atomic bombs. This made the Atomic bombs of a different order to any number of conventional B29 missions and was a crucial factor in bringing about the Japanese surrender. If the fact that a city could be levelled in a single night could make the Japanese surrender they would have done so many months previously, and many times over. Important members of the Japanese government agreed with Stimson\u2019s assessment of the importance of shock. Prime Minister Suzuki said \u201cThe atomic bomb provided an additional reason for surrender as well as an extremely favorable opportunity to commence peace talks. I believed such an opportunity could not be afforded by B-29 bombings alone.\u201d [3]  [1] Secretary of War, Henry Stimson quoted by Rudolph A. Winnacker, \u2018The Debate About Hiroshima\u2019, Military Affairs, vol.11, no.1, Spring 1947, p.27.  [2] United States Strategic Bombing Survey: Summary Report (Pacific War),  p.24.  [3] Suzuki Kantaro quoted by Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, (Columbia, 2007) p. 35"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro01b","title":"","text":"It can be argued that conventional bombing could have brought about a Japanese surrender without the recourse to the use of the atomic bombs. Compared to conventional bombings the atomic bombs caused disproportionate amounts of civilian casualties. The Strategic Bombing survey estimated that in the 9 months prior to the surrender there were 806,000 Japanese civilian casualties inclusive of A-bombs, of which 330,000 were deaths. Therefore nearly a third of civilian deaths were as a result of the atomic bombings (and that is only counting those who died immediately). In Hiroshima 72% of buildings were destroyed, in Nagasaki 37.5% of buildings were destroyed. However in a conventional raid Yokohama was 47% destroyed in an hours bombing, for the comparatively light cost of 5,000 civilian fatalities. [1] Of course some conventional raids, particularly fireraids caused very heavy casualties, in particular the Tokyo firebombing of March 9th 1945 killed 100,000 and destroyed 15.8 square miles. However that is still three times the area destroyed of Hiroshima. Since the only possible justification for attack on cities is the destruction of infrastructure conventional bombing was similarly effective while being the cause of many fewer civilian deaths.  According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey \u201cBased on a detailed investigation of all the facts, and supported by the testimony of the surviving Japanese leaders involved, it is the Survey's opinion that certainly prior to 31 December 1945, and in all probability prior to 1 November 1945, Japan would have surrendered even if the atomic bombs had not been dropped, even if Russia had not entered the war, and even if no invasion had been planned or contemplated.\u201d [2] The accuracy of this prediction has since been called into question, [3] after all the allies dropped far more bombs on Nazi Germany without securing surrender. However the fact remains that the conventional bombing campaign was only just starting to get going and might have achieved decisive results.  Possibly even more important for the prospects of a conventional victory, and one not clouded by the stigma of massive bombing campaigns against civilians, was the maritime blockade. By the end of the war Japan had only 700,000 tons of shipping remaining, she had started the war with 6,337,000 tons. Of 122,000 sailors in the merchant marine 27,000 were killed 89,000 wounded. For an island nation reliant on imports not just to run its industry but also to keep its people fed this was devastating. The result was starvation in the Japanese home islands. After the war it was reported that up to 10 million would die of starvation without American food aid, as a post war report to the Diet (Japanese Parliament) put it \u2018the greatest cause of defeat was the loss of shipping\u2019. [4]  [1] United States Strategic Bombing Survey: Summary Report (Pacific War),  pp.20, 23-24.  [2] United States Strategic Bombing Survey: Summary Report (Pacific War),  p.26.  [3] Gian Peri Gentile, \u2018Advocacy or Assessment? The United States Strategic Bombing Survey of Germany and Japan\u2019, in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, (Columbia, 2007) pp.123-4.  [4] Joel Ira Holwitt, \u201cExecute against Japan\u201d: The US decision to conduct unrestricted submarine warfare, (College Station TX, 2008) pp.166-9"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro03a","title":"","text":"The United States need to maximise the effectiveness of its atomic weaponry program before it could be compromised  There was no possibility of keeping nuclear weapons under wraps; scientists from several countries had been working on them. They were ripe for discovery. Robert Oppenheimer pointed out \u201cit is a profound and necessary truth, that deep things in science are not found because they are useful; they are found because it was possible to find them\u201d [1] If Atomic bombs were going to be developed anyway there was a compelling reason to be the first to own these weapons, even to be the first to use them. Deterrence, would not work if suspected to be a bluff or a dud, having used the bomb twice it could not be doubted that the US was willing to use it again in extremis.  The cost of building the bomb was enormous. At 2.2 billion dollars the Manhattan project cost about the same as the drive to get to the moon in the sixties, but the comparison is not adjusted for inflation. [2] The vast majority of the cost, and of the 130,000 employed in the project, was not in the development but in the building of the factories to produce the fissile material. The opportunity cost of that 2.2 billion is surely huge, how many more bombers and tanks or how many more medicines and bandages could it have bought? Not using the bomb and squandering that investment would bring that opportunity cost to life; the question is not just how many would die in months more war but how many might not have to build something unused.  [ 1 Robert Oppenheimer quoted by Richard Rhodes, \u2018The Atomic Bomb in the Second World War\u2019 in C. C. Kelley (ed.), Remembering the Manhattan Project : Perspectives on the Making of the Atomic Bomb and Its Legacy, (River Edge NJ, 2005), p.18  [2] ibid p.22"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con03b","title":"","text":"Before Hiroshima and Nagasaki the use of the Atomic Bomb did not raise profound moral questions with allied policymakers. Civilians had been intentionally targeted from the air since the start of the war and both Japanese and German cities had been already subjected to relentless bombardment. There was no compelling reason for politicians to view the Atomic bomb any differently from the London blitz or the Dresden raid. [1]  The Hague conventions had been systemically honoured only in the breach for the previous six years and so would not have given Truman or his advisors any particular heartache. The radiation effects were as yet unknown and so there was no reason to treat atomic bombs as anything more sinister than a mighty conventional bomb would be. Had the radiation been known about then it might have moved them into a category akin to chemical or biological weapons, which were already frowned upon. Chemical weapons were banned by the Hague convention in 1899. [2] This did not of course prevent their widespread use in WWI but the horrified reaction to the use of mustard gas and other agents lead to the Geneva Protocol [3] which came into force in 1928 although the US was not a signatory. In practice Atomic weapons have not been since treated as equivalent to poison gas or other \u2018analogous devices\u2019 and thus the International Court of Justice has said that they do not breach the Hague conventions or the Geneva Protocol. [4] Therefore as these were the only international laws in force at the time of the action the dropping the bombs were not illegal acts.  [1] Barton J. Bernstein, \u2018The Atomic Bombings Reconsidered\u2019, Foreign Affairs, vol.74, no.1, Jan.- Feb., 1995. p.135.  [2] Declaration on the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases; July 29, 1899;   [3] Geneva Protocol to Hague Convention   [4] International Court of Justice advisory opinion of 8 July 1996 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, paragraphs 54-6."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con01b","title":"","text":"The justification for the second bomb relies principally upon the argument that Japan would presume there was only one A-bomb if another was not dropped, so the destruction of Nagasaki was a necessary evil to force surrender just as much as that at Hiroshima. Indeed senior Japanese figures did argue that there was only one bomb, and even in one case that the bomb dropped on Hiroshima was not atomic at all, simply a very big conventional bomb. The Chief of the Naval General Staff Toyoda Soemu thought \u201cit is questionable whether the United States will be able to use more bombs in rapid succession.\u201d [1] This was a view that Anami Korechika, the army minister, shared until it was shattered by the second bomb although even then he said \u201cThe appearance of the atomic bomb does not spell the end of war\u201d [2]  [1] Admiral Toyoda quoted by Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, p.37.  [2] Army Minister Anami quoted by Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, p.40."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con02a","title":"","text":"A negotiated peace would have been preferable to the dropping of the atomic bombs  It is conventional to argue that Japan was defeated already and so the bombings were unnecessary as Sadao Asada points out this confuses defeat with surrender. However such a position seems equally to confuse surrender with peace. That there had to be an unconditional surrender seems almost unquestioned. Most wars do not end in an unconditional surrender of one side or the other, Japanese defeat was plain so a negotiated peace would normally have been set in motion when the US saw the terrible casualties it might be forced to take in its push for total victory. The Americans learnt of Japanese willingness to negotiate in July, on the 13th Secretary of the Navy Forrestal wrote in his diary \u201cThe first real evidence of a Japanese desire to get out of the war came today... Togo said further that the unconditional surrender term of the Allies was about the only thing in the way of termination of the war\u201d [1] Stimson, Grew and Forrestal aimed at persuading president Truman to offer the Japanese promise of the preservation of the monarchy as an alternative to unconditional surrender. [2] Ultimately the Potsdam declaration set the unconditional surrender policy in stone. [3] Offering such a condition would certainly have strengthened the peace party within the Japanese cabinet and allowed them to present further resistance by the generals and admirals as endangering the monarchy. [4] However, on its own this would probably not have lead to peace, the cabinet would still have been split 3-3 with the Army and Navy ministers both opposed and with vetoes on policy. Even the most belligerent of the Japanese Cabinet, Army Minister Anami\u2019s conditions were preservation of the Imperial institution, no military occupation of the home islands, Japanese forces were to demobilize and disarm themselves and war criminals were to be prosecuted by the Japanese themselves. [5] While these conditions are obviously ripe for exploitation, would they really disarm and try war criminals? they are not unreasonable. Just because there was no hope that the US would accept these conditions, they fly in the face of the Potsdam Declaration from which the allies would not deviate, does not mean that another alternative to unconditional surrender should not be considered as an alternative to the dropping of the Nuclear bombs.  [1] Secretary Forrestal quoted by Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the enemy: Stalin, Truman and the surrender of Japan, (Cambridge MA, 2005) p134.  [2] Campbell Craig and Sergay Radchenko, The Atomic Bomb and the Origins of the Cold War, (New Haven, 2008) p.69  [3] Potsdam Declaration,   [4] Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the enemy: Stalin, Truman and the surrender of Japan, (Cambridge, 2005) pp.290-1.  [5] Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, p. 39."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con03a","title":"","text":"The bombing was immoral and illegal  The use of the Atomic bomb raised immediate moral questions as to its use.  Albert Einstein argued \u201cThe American decision [to use the bomb] may have been a fatal error, for men accustom themselves to thinking a weapon which has been used once can be used again... [on the other hand] Our renunciation of this weapon as too terrible to use would have carried great weight\u201d [1] So far Einstein has been proved wrong and the precedent thus set has not been followed. That the bombs are \u2018to terrible to use\u2019 does seem to have sunk in.  The use of the bombs was also illegal as it would have breached the Hague conventions of 1899 and 1907, signed by the US. Of Hague IV The Laws and Customs of War on Land it probably breached articles 23, forbidding the use of weapons that cause \u2018unnecessary suffering\u2019, and article 25 forbidding the attack of undefended towns. It would certainly by its indiscriminate nature have breached article 27 \u201cIn sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes\u201d [2] as well as the attendant declaration forbidding attack from aircraft!  Clearly such sections forbidding attack from aircraft, or balloons in the 1899 version make the Hague convention seem antiquated but the laws of war in general remain even now as they were codified in 1907. [3] The International Court of Justice has referred back to these precedents \u201cIn the view of the vast majority of states as well as the writers there can be no doubt as to the applicability of humanitarian law to nuclear weapons. The Court shares that view.\u201d [4] That humanitarian law included the Hague conventions. The court reconfirmed the view that \u201cStates must never make civilians the object of attack and must consequently never use weapons that are incapable of distinguishing between civilian and military targets\u201d [5] It is noteworthy that dissensions from a position of banning the use of nuclear weapons entirely focus on the possible use with minimal civilian casualties. [6] Since the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings did not attempt to minimize civilian casualties the implication is that their use was illegal based upon the Hague conventions that were already in force.  [1] Albert Einstein, quoted by Rudolph A. Winnacker, \u2018The Debate About Hiroshima\u2019, Military Affairs, vol.11, no.1, Spring 1947, p.25.  [2] Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907   [3] Malcom H. Shaw, International Law (Cambridge, 1997), p.807.  [4] International Court of Justice advisory opinion of 8 July 1996 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, paragraphs 85-6.   [5] ibid. para. 78.  [6] ibid. para. 91."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con01a","title":"","text":"It was not necessary to use atomic weapons on a population centre  The first bomb, on Hiroshima was sufficient to achieve the objective of surrender without the use of the second bomb after only a very short period of time. There was only three days between the two bombings, an unpardonably short period. Communications between Hiroshima and Tokyo had unsurprisingly been severed, so the full effect had yet to sink in on some policy makers by the time \u2018Fat Man\u2019 was dropped. It had however already convinced Foreign Minister Togo, Prime Minister Suzuki and crucially the Emperor himself. He said upon hearing the news of Hiroshima: \u201cNow that things have come to this impasse, we must bow to the inevitable. ... We should lose no time in ending the war so as not to have another tragedy like this.\u201d [1] The rest of the cabinet was as yet unmoved, but even if they had been it is unlikely they would have been able to actually surrender before the second bomb was dropped.  There were significant other factors in play as well. Before the second bomb was dropped the Japanese had learnt of the Soviet attack which dashed their last hopes of mediation for a favourable settlement and they were not optimistic of their chances in that conflict, even the army\u2019s planners expected Manchukuo\u2019s capital Changchun would fall in two weeks. [2] Although the Cabinet was deadlocked 3 to 3 this was the case both before and after the news of Nagasaki came in, the point of fact that the US had more than one bomb although a shock to those opposed to surrender did not alter their position. Ultimately the Emperor was forced to intervene on the side of the proponents of peace, his mind had been made up even before the first bomb. It is arguable that Hiroshima was necessary to push him into acting, which was unprecedented but the Nagasaki bombing was entirely superfluous. Historian Sadao Asada\u2019s opinion is that the second bomb was unnecessary. [3]  [1] Emperor Hirohito quoted by Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism p.33.  [2] Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, p.36.  [3] Sadao Asada, \u2018The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan\u2019s Decision to Surrender - A Reconsideration\u2019 in Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism, pp.38, 41-2."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con02b","title":"","text":"Offering the preservation of the Monarchy was unlikely to have altered the outcome of the conflict by bringing peace before August 6th. This was the only concession to the Japanese that was even considered by the US government. It was thought that even this would be very hard for the American public to swallow. Truman\u2019s personal feeling was also that nothing short of an unconditional surrender would do to avenge Pearl Harbour. [1]  [1] Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the enemy: Stalin, Truman and the surrender of Japan, (Cambridge, 2005) p.291."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro02b","title":"","text":"The American system is one that can be changed with a popular vote. Further, the competition between the two parties and the bid to be re-elected causes them to make decisions that are good for the country so that they are credited for that by the people.  Whilst the process does have flaws, it is illegitimate to call decisions made by the process unjust when the process is a clear process that can be accessed by everyone and can be changed if results are seen to be consistently unjust.  If the Republican voting base acts in the way that the proposition suggests it might simply be that the Republican voting base dislikes tax increases for reasons the proposition has not considered, such as a slippery slope effect where tax increases for the rich eventually make it more acceptable to increase taxes for the poor."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Tax Cuts Only Exist Due to An Unjust System  The tax cuts that were created under a Republican government can be strongly linked with the Republican power base. The Republican party relies on a relatively small number of very rich and powerful donors. A tax cut for these people often leads to an increase in funding for the Republican party. Republican representation among the other classes generally comes from other conservative policies as opposed to one fiscal policy.  Further, there is an attitude in the U.S. among many poorer communities that tax regardless of the actual purpose is a bad thing. As such, the Republicans can often reduce taxes for the wealthy without significantly harming their voting base among other communities, despite the fact that these changes often harm poorer communities a great deal.  This means that implementation of the tax cuts was due to a political system that focuses on parties winning elections as opposed to doing what is best for America as a country. As such the system forces the Republicans to pander to the rich for funding and this leads to a worse situation for the country overall. Given that this is true, the tax cuts are unjust and should be removed. [1]  [1] Creamer, Robert \u201cWhy Congress Must End Bush Tax Cuts for the Rich.\u201d Huffington Post. 28\/07\/2010\/"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro03b","title":"","text":"As is mentioned in argument two of the opposition, if tax increases for the rich cause them to leave the country then it is entirely possible that this will lead to even less parity between those left behind and the poor who have to make do with even less tax revenue through redistribution.  Further, the rich are often the people who provide work for the poor through investments in enterprise and new products. Given that this is true, lower taxes for the rich often benefit the poor by allowing the rich to invest more and take more risks with their money. This often leads to innovations and the creation of new goods and services that often the poor may buy into and this allows them to improve the quality of their lives in the long run. [1]  [1] Ortman, Johnathan, \u201cTax Incentives for Entrepreneurship and Innovation.\u201d Entrepeneurship.org"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Removing Tax Cuts Would Reduce the Deficit  Maintaining Bush tax cuts would cost the government $680 billion in revenue over the next ten years according to Paul Krugman.  Given the downgrade in the U.S. credit rating by some credit agencies, it seems prudent to choose to roll back at least some of these cuts in order to please those agencies and convince them that the U.S. is taking serious action to tackle its debt. If this is the case, then they are likely to upgrade or maintain the U.S. credit rating. This is beneficial for the U.S. as it means that in the future it has smaller repayments to make on its current debt and can more readily take on debt in the future.  Further, given that the rich spend a smaller percentage of their money than the poor on consumption, an increase in taxes for the rich will firstly not cause a significant downturn in consumption and secondly, if spent responsibly by the government, will lead to further growth in the future which might cause the government to be able to recoup the money that it spends through higher tax revenue from a growing economy in the future. [1]  [1] Krugman, Paul \u201cNow That\u2019s Rich.\u201d New York Times. 22\/08\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Under current economic circumstances, the deficit is bad, and a downgrade of the credit rating has bad effects. However, stimulation of the economy during a recession is needed more.  If the economy is stimulated through lower taxes, it might cause it to recover faster and move into a boom period earlier. If this is the case, then even if the lower credit rating results in higher repayment costs, the economy returning to growth earlier will mean tax revenue is higher earlier. If that is true then it is possible that the government will recoup the cost of the tax cuts later on with higher growth.  Secondly, the extension of Bush tax cuts for a two year period is unlikely to have any lasting impact on such a large deficit. Whilst the rich have a lot of money, it is entirely within their power to use accountants and other means such as offshore bank accounts to ensure that they do not bear the full brunt of the change. Bush tax cuts caused more rich people to keep their money in the U.S. This meant that despite the lower taxes, the greater amount of money kept in the U.S. meant that overall there was a net profit from the change. [1]  [1] Twerkel, Amanda \u201cCantor Admits Extending Bush Tax Cuts Would \u201cDig The Hole Deeper on the Deficit \u2013 But He Doesn\u2019t Care.\u201d\u201d Think Progress. 02\/08\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Removing Tax Cuts for the Rich Promotes Equality.  The removal of tax cuts for the rich will help create greater equality in the U.S.  Firstly it can do this by direct means, taxing the rich to a greater extent than is currently done would mean, obviously that the rich have less money and are thus more equal to the poor in income. However, further to this, money gained from such tax cuts that is not being reserved for deficit reduction can be redistributed to the poor in order to allow them to progress further in society.  Income inequality within the U.S. is significantly worse than in most other Western liberal democracies. It often leads to problems of the poor feeling disenfranchised within a society where they feel that the rich have all the influence. Poverty can lead to crime, motivated either by want and pure physical need, or by a distorted sense of entitlement fostered by consumer culture. A lack of parity in an economic system may be interpreted as justifying participation in crimes with an economic component, such as drug dealing, fraud or involvement with organised crime. [1]  [1] Garofalo, Pat, \u201cStephen Moore Calls for raising taxes on the poor in order to pay for tax cuts for the rich.\u201d Think Progress. 08\/07\/2010."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con03b","title":"","text":"There are a number of social ties that the rich have to the U.S.A. with many of them having inherited wealth or having families in the U.S.  Moving to another country is inconvenient as it leads to the removal of all of these social ties, further the actual cost of moving is often enough to prevent them from doing so.  Further, many rich Americans have an attachment to America itself, either as a land where their parents prospered or as a land where they managed to earn their own wealth. As such, there are emotional ties to the country. Many have political influence in the U.S. which they would be unable to take advantage of should they leave the country. [1]  Finally, it should be noted that states which routinely impose extremely low rates of personal income tax, or which refrain from taxing the bonuses paid to businesses\u2019 senior managers obtain the majority of their state funding from natural resources revenues. Saudi Arabia is one of the largest and most active oil extractors and exporters in the world. It can make up for shortfalls in personal tax revenues by controlling the price and supply of the oil that it drills.  [1] Confessore, Nicholas, \u201cTaxes Not Seen as Making Rich Flee New York,\u201d New York Times, 18\/03\/2009"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con01b","title":"","text":"As mentioned, tax cuts for the rich offer the least direct stimulus owing to the small percentage of their income that the wealthiest Americans spend on consumption. Often what is taxed is money that simply sits in bank accounts accruing interest. Given, then, that the super rich are a tiny portion of the population, despite their wealth, the immediate change the policy will have on the economy is fairly negligible.  Opposition may talk about investment in businesses, however the risks that businesses take and their benefits are only truly reflected in long term statistics, which are irrelevant in the case of recession prevention as in a few years it is likely that there will not be fears of another recession. [1]  [1] \u201cA Real Debate On Taxes,\u201d New York Times, 23\/08\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con02a","title":"","text":"Expiring the Tax Cut Would Harm Small Business  A number of small businesses are owned by individuals who pay taxes as individuals. However, being small business owners they often earn enough to put them in the highest tax brackets. Given that this is true, the tax rate that these business owners would face following the abolition of the Bush tax cuts would be a rate higher than most big business. It seems unjust that small business owners would pay rates of tax at 36% or 39.6% given that businesses such as Goldman Sachs pay lower tax.  Further, the expiration of a tax cut for these small businesses means that the owners will often project less personal gain from projects that the business might undertake. A simple example (for use in a debate) is of a project that costs $100 to invest in and has a 10% chance of success, returning $1100. A tax rise could theoretically cause the return for the owner to fall from $1100 to $1000. This means that now a project that would have been profitable is no longer so and thus the owner won\u2019t risk taking the project up.  This means that fewer projects are taken up in the thousands of small businesses that exist throughout the economy. As such, excess taxation stifles the innovations that small businesses often provide,costing the economy a great deal more in lost profits and lost market-share than is returned in tax revenue in the long run. [1]  [1] Murdock, Deroy, \u201cHalt Reckless Spending and Extend Bush Tax Cuts,\u201d Deseret News, 26\/07\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con03a","title":"","text":"Expiring the Tax Cuts Would Cause Investor Movement Abroad  As mentioned in the previous arguments, the expiration of Bush tax cuts would firstly cause investors and people in the upper brackets to resort to tax avoidance methods, such as placing money in foreign accounts and using legal lacunae to reduce their tax liability.  However in a world where the upper management of most businesses can be handled from other countries, it is prudent for those facing higher taxes in the U.S. to move away to avoid them. Most countries in the U.A.E, for example, have incredibly low tax rates for the entire population.  The reason that many American taxpayers in upper brackets have not moved away to take advantage of this is because the tax cuts and the Republican government have kept them satisfied enough that there is no reason to go through the inconvenience of moving.  The removal of the tax cuts could easily provide this impetus owing to the fact that they might result in further higher taxes for the rich down the line. As such, tax increases of this nature could cause the rich to leave the country and cease paying tax altogether. [1]  [1] Bruner, John, \u201cWhere America\u2019s Money is Moving,\u201d Forbes, 14\/06\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con01a","title":"","text":"Expiring Tax Cuts Would Cause a Double Dip Recession  Whilst the rich spend proportionately less of their income than the poor, the rest of their income is often invested in other areas and financial vehicles, boosting the economy in both the short and long term. In the short term this money allows businesses to take more risks owing to a greater pool of money to offset the risk, alongside lower interest rates. In the long term, these risks often lead to innovations that help the economy overall.  In increasing the tax burden on the rich, the spending and investment that wealthy individuals partake in is cut off, preventing these areas of the economy from growing. Recessions and recession prevention are often reliant upon public perception of an economy\u2019s general health and the extent of its exposure to less stable economies. Due to this feedback mechanism, it is possible, therefore, that an unfounded belief that tax rises could obstruct economic growth might cause panic amongst the media and the populace. A recession might come about through the mere expectation that there will be a recession.  In fact, given that the majority of the media is controlled by the rich, it is within their best interest to report that there will be a crisis if there is a tax increase so that they can claim the policy was at fault in the future. [1]  [1] Vaughan, Martin and Mckinnon, John, \u201cDemocrats Dissent on Bush Cuts,\u201d Wall Street Journal"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con02b","title":"","text":"Firstly, the harm to small business from such tax cuts could easily be mitigated by providing some measure of exception for small business owners. The U.S. already provides subsidies for small businesses that show signs of innovation and as such it seems logical that another exception could be added to prevent harm to small businesses.  Further, less that 2% of tax returns citing small business revenue come from the top two tax brackets. Most small business owners simply aren\u2019t part of the top income bracket and further most investors in the top income brackets do not rely on small business revenue as their primary source of income. The harm should this policy go through without exception is much smaller than portrayed by opposition.  Further, the focus on small business is also a result of a \u201csupply side\u201d economic policy that has failed. Whilst the Bush system focused mainly upon supporting the private sector in order to create jobs, it has emerged after eight years to have had almost no effect on the number of Americans being employed, with most changes coming from government hiring. Small business makes a contribution to the economy, but nowhere near the level that opposition need for the argument to hold water. [1]  [1] Gale, William, \u201cFive Myths About the Bush Tax Cuts,\u201d Washington Post, 01\/08\/2010"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Having children enriches parents emotionally. The experience of parenting triggers deep and genuine emotions, which parents would not experience otherwise. Attachment, caring, compassion, understanding, moral outrage, joy, and wonder are all inevitably a part of parenting. Many parents claim that they have never loved anybody as much as their children. Thus, having children actually enlarges both the spectrum and the intensity of emotional experiences for parents. Worrying for kids is a natural consequence of praising them so much. The more valuable something is, the more attention we pay to it. The fact that parents worry about their children that much is only a further evidence of how much children\u2019s contribution means to parents."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Having children is emotionally draining for parents  The level of emotional involvement in bringing the child up is immense. Parents pour all their souls into children, who, in turn, often leave them disenchanted and exhausted. Parents also have to share their child\u2019s problems, fears and traumas, so that the amount of grief that parents take on themselves doubles (or even triples, depending on how troublesome the child is). Not only that, but those who have offspring also become more vulnerable. They worry about their kids from the moment they are born until the day they themselves die. Parents\u2019 to-worry-about list is endless: from child\u2019s nutrition to summer camps, from accidents to social acceptance, from choosing a school to moving out. Having raised children, parents become emotional wrecks. All parents agree that it is emotionally draining and stressful, in 1975, advice columnist Ann Landers asked her readers, \u201cIf you had it to do over again, would you have children?\u201d seventy percent of respondents said \u201cno.\u201d*  *Goldberg, 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro06a","title":"","text":"Not having children promotes gender equality  Social and economic inequalities between men and women stem primarily from the fact that women are the child bearers, and mothers overwhelmingly spend more time on childrearing tasks than do their male spouses. Not surprisingly then, many employers still discriminate against women when recruiting to work. They view females as those responsible for parenting and thus not reliable, devoted or loyal as employees. Even when there is little or no discrimination in recruitment women often hit a \u2018glass ceiling\u2019 due to breaking their careers in order to have children, in the UK a recent report by the Chartered Management Institute found it would take until 2109 to close the pay gap.* On a social level, not having children will mean more gender equality as there will be no ground for justifying an unequal labour division.  *Goodley, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Any money spent on children is well used. Is there a better way to invest money than to use them to support future generations? The more we spend on children\u2019s health care, the more productive our society will be; the more we spend on their education, the wiser our society will be; the more we spend on their cultural awareness, the more conscious of art our society will be. There is no better use of money than spending them on our kids."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro05a","title":"","text":"Not having children is environmentally friendly  The more people consume in the world, the greater the environmental damage. An average American produces 52 tons of garbage by the age of 75.* However, producing extra litter and pollution is not the only hazard that every child poses to the planet. Increasing world\u2019s population also places incredible stress on Earth\u2019s resources. It is estimated, for instance, that by 2025 three billion people will live in water-scarce countries. By reducing the number of human beings we will manage to avoid numerous overpopulation crises and reverse the damage done to the environment.  * Tufts Climate Initiative., 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Having children has a devastating effect on lives of parents  Parenting effectively prevents people from pursuing their own interests and fulfilling their own goals. The child becomes the center and the only valid part of parents\u2019 lives. By having kids, people turn from free individuals into servants. They often have to abandon their careers in order to take care of the offspring. Women\u2019s careers are most heavily affected, as women usually end up being the major childcare provider. Furthermore, people with children have much less time for socializing resulting in losing friends. Couples\u2019 relationships are also bound to deteriorate as mother and father become more interested in a baby than in themselves. It has also been proven that couples with kids engage in sexual activities far less often than those who are childless. All of these reasons contribute to general dissatisfaction of parents who feel they have lost their own lives. As the evidence for that we can quote Daniel Gilbert, who holds a chair in psychology at Harvard. Based on his research findings, he reports that childless marriages are far happier.* Such a view is supported also by Madelyn Cain, a teacher at the University of Southern California, who says \"Statistics show childless couples are happier. Their lives are self-directed, they have a better chance of intimacy, and they do not have the stresses, financial and emotional, of parenthood.\"**  *Kingston, 2009,   **Goldberg, 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Having children is one of the most fulfilling and rewarding experiences in life. When people become parents obviously they experience a major change in their lives. However, change doesn\u2019t mean a change for worse. Raising children is not easy, but it brings about a feeling of fulfillment. For many people, having children is the main purpose in their lives. Kids enable parents to rediscover the world around them. Additionally, parents feel empowered as they can shape another human being to a previously inexperienced extent. Relationships with kids seem to be the deepest, most enduring ones. These are the very reasons why people become so upset when they cannot have children. The development of treatments such as in vitro fertilization proves how much we want to have babies. There is also substantial evidence supporting the claim that having children has a constructive rather than destructive influence on parents. Dr. Luis Angeles from the University of Glasgow in the UK has just published in the Journal of Happiness Studies, claiming that the research he has conducted suggests that having children improves married peoples' life satisfaction, making them happier.* A recent Newsweek Poll also found that children add to general levels of parents\u2019 happiness. Fifty percent of surveyed Americans said that adding new children to the family tends to increase their happiness levels. Only one in six (16 percent) said that adding new children had a negative effect on the parents' happiness.** The evidence that having children has a devastating effect is mixed at best and in many cases outright wrong.  *Bayaz, 2009,   **Newsweek, 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro05b","title":"","text":"Not having children is not a good way to combat environmental problems. The real answer to environmental issues is developing clean technology and promoting ecological awareness. If we start to produce energy from renewable resources, switch to electrical transportation, recycle waste etc. we won\u2019t need to reduce population in order to sustain the environment. Furthermore, a higher population living in a more eco-friendly manner would be less harmful than the current level of population with its lifestyles."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro06b","title":"","text":"There are better ways of eliminating gender inequality. First of all, inequality between sexes is far more complex of an issue than the proposition would like us to believe. There are many reasons why gender inequalities prevail in the society. They are grounded in different physical, psychological and social features of males and females. Moreover, they date back to prehistoric times when men and women occupied themselves with different tasks and had different responsibilities. It is too simplistic to say that by not having children gender inequalities will be eradicated. Furthermore, there are other more effective and less damaging ways of heading towards equality between sexes, such as education, affirmative action and social policy encouraging men to participate in childcare on equal basis with women."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is no better present for somebody than to give him a life. Our lives are not just about money. There are so many valuable emotions, situations, experiences that have nothing to do with wealth level, for example falling in love or simply being enchanted by the world\u2019s beauty. Even if the child is born to an impoverished family that doesn\u2019t mean he won\u2019t be able to rise out of the poverty. There are numerous sponsored programmes that encourage social mobility in both developing and developed countries. However, we need to accept this simple truth that life is not a sequence of only joyful events, and sometimes we have to experience a difficult situation to be able to appreciate all the good out there. Additionally, positive experiences in lives usually outweigh those negative, that\u2019s why a vast majority of us would never change our lives for not being born. Therefore, giving a child a life is more than morally right."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Having children is extraordinarily expensive  For majority of people children are the biggest expenditure they ever undertake. The United States Department of Agriculture reported in 2008 that the average annual expenses associated with raising a child can be as high as $22,960.* If we assume that a child will live with their parents until the age of 18 and add average cost of sending a child for 4 years to college, we arrive at the conclusion that bringing up a child in a developed country costs around $500,000. This money can be far better spent, for instance, on enhancing the standard of education or health care, subsidising economic initiative in developing countries, investing in green technologies, etc.  *Boy Scouts of America, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro04a","title":"","text":"It is morally wrong to bring children to this cruel and miserable world.  Four out of every five children will be born to families whose members survive on less than $10 a day. Around one third of children in developing countries is estimated to be underweight or stunted.* Research suggests that even in the USA, 20% of children live in poverty. And such an extreme plight of the child is only the beginning. Even if a child is born into a relatively well-off family, there are endless devastating situations he has to face during his life: war, death of family members, chronic illness, divorce, crime, and social exclusion. The list can go on and on forever. Having children is the equivalent of forcing innocent people, against their will, to experience the misery of life. Thus, it is inhumane.  *Shah 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con03b","title":"","text":"There is no causal link between having children and being supported later in life. After children leave home they become fully independent individuals. They haven\u2019t chosen to be born and so they shouldn\u2019t be burdened by the parents. If kids do look after their parents it should be out of choice as it is not their duty to do so. It is government\u2019s responsibility to take care of its citizens, so that the elderly can spend their last years in fair conditions with the possibility to live in decent old people\u2019s homes if necessary."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con01b","title":"","text":"People are free to choose whether or not to have children. Human beings are granted freedom of choice. The decision to have offspring is, like many others, only a matter of personal choice and there is no duty here that we can talk about. The only real responsibilities towards society that people have are those imposed on them by law. (Paying taxes or protecting a country being prime examples of these). Because society has not chosen to create a law forcing everybody to have children, we see that choosing not to bear offspring is accepted by society."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con02a","title":"","text":"Having children is the essence of existence for every creature  The most basic purpose of every human being, like of any other animal, is to reproduce, thus ensuring the continuity of ones species. Reproduction is even included in our very definition of life \u201cthe state or quality that distinguishes living beings or organisms from dead ones and from inorganic matter, characterized chiefly by metabolism, growth, and the ability to reproduce and respond to stimuli\u201d.* Our bodies (physiological features), behaviour (flirting, dressing up) and sexual drives all point to that fundamental aim of our lives. It is only by having children that we can fulfil the most natural goal of our existence. Until very recently the family and ensuring its continuance has been the goal of almost every human. This is shown by how hereditary has been one of the defining features of almost every society in history, whether it is in government; through monarchy or an aristocracy, in the economy; through passing wealth down from one generation to the next.  * Collins English Dictionary, 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con04a","title":"","text":"The act of having children makes people more desirable citizens.  Not only does parenting teach responsibility, but it also triggers such feelings as love, compassion and helps develop such features as patience, devotion, tenderness, understanding. For instance, if parents learn the benefits of being patient towards their children, they are more likely to react patiently in other life situations, which in turn will lead to less aggressive society. Therefore, the more people have children, the more desirable our society becomes."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con03a","title":"","text":"Having children guarantees support for parents  From parents\u2019 point of view it is also beneficial to have children as they are the only guarantee of help and support when parents get old. It has been one of the most prevailing practices around the globe for children to return their parents care and dedication. When they become elderly, parents that have lost their spouse often come and live with their children. Additionally, kids tend to look after their parents when they get chronically ill towards the end of their days. It is also the child that visits its parent in hospital. Moreover, many kids support their parent financially, which may become crucial in an era of population ageing, which will bring about drastic reductions in pensions. In China a traditional saying is \u201cRaise children in preparation for one\u2019s old age\u2019 as families often have to care for senior citizens but with a declining population each person may soon be caring for two parents. There is very little in the way of social care there are old-age beds for only 1.8% of the population in China, compared with 5% to 7% in most developed and 2% to 3% in developing countries.* The best way to secure a safe future is to have children to care for you rather than assuming an overburdened state will provide.  *Worldcrunch, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con01a","title":"","text":"Having children is our duty and responsibility  We cannot live without the society; it is that very society that provides us with basic goods and services such as education, health care, transportation, work. We can only interact with other people and fulfil our most basic needs if we live within the society. Therefore, we owe it to the society to ensure its continuation. It is only by having children that we can do this. Falling rates of population growth in developed countries highlight how dire the need for reproduction is. If people don\u2019t have children today, the society will run into an enormous economic crisis tomorrow, as there will not be enough citizens to work for the growing numbers of the elderly. In the long run, not having children will lead to human beings\u2019 extinction. If present trends continued it would only be 25 generations before Hong Kong\u2019s female population shrank from today\u2019s 3.75 million to just one. Similarly on current trends Japan, Germany, Russia, Italy and Spain will not reach the year 3000.* It is therefore clear that by not having children people fail to fulfil their most fundamental duty.  *The Economist Online, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con04b","title":"","text":"Having children can be counterproductive in achieving a desirable society. First of all, having children is by no means necessary for possessing all those valuable traits. All of them can be developed though other experiences as well. Secondly, having kids may actually lead to society being less desirable. For instance, parents being exhausted by constant absorption with their children become less productive. They can also become disillusioned or frustrated by their offspring, which will result in their general bitterness."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con02b","title":"","text":"There is a lot more in humans\u2019 lives than having children. There are numerous differences between humans and other animals. While it may be true that the purpose of animals\u2019 lives is to produce offspring, it is not the case when we talk about humans. People, being much more complex creatures, can contribute to society in many other ways than by having kids (for instance by artistic or scientific activities). So, although our physiology and behaviour may point to reproduction as the main purpose of our lives, these indicators are simply misleading."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is no clear reason why a 'desire' must be a 'right', even if it were universal. Merely wishing for something does not establish the existence of rights, but merely creates a 'wish list' which may not actually be possible in reality. For example humans may universally desire a life of leisure without hard work, but it would be impossible to meet this desire for everyone, as then there would be no work done and therefore no resources to support leisure."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Universal individual desires  Certain desires, such as the desire for happiness, are universal to all human beings. Even if they actively deny them to others, every individual works towards the fulfilment of these desires for himself, and recognise that the denial of this fulfilment is harmful to himself. For example historically slave-owners still desired freedom of movement and labour for themselves, even if they denied it to their slaves on the basis of selfish interests. Therefore, because all humans desire happiness for themselves, and also desire the means to this end such as freedom of speech and the freedom to make their own choices, there exists a universal basis of desire for human rights in every individual. The enshrinement of 'fundamental human rights' simply universalizes what every individual acknowledges for himself: that the denial of certain rights is always harmful. This already even has a basis in the 'Golden Rule', to not do what is harmful to yourself to others, which can be found in some form in almost every ethical tradition. [1]  [1] Blackburn, Simon. \u201cEthics: A Very Short Introduction\u201d. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. p.101"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro03b","title":"","text":"The recognition and enforcement of fundamental human rights would and does not benefit everyone equally. For example a strong man in a society where he can use the threat of his strength to cause others to serve him against their will stands to lose his comfortable life, in which he is happier, if the weaker men's right to security of person is guaranteed. This loss is a far greater harm to him than the small potential that he might be replaced by an even stronger man who appears. Therefore not everyone benefits from the recognition of fundamental human rights, and so they cannot be termed either fundamental or universal, as they advance the interests of some at the expense of others. Similarly the international examples show how those in famine-prone areas benefit at the expense of those in more prosperous areas. Moreover, the excuse of 'protecting human rights' can be used as easily to advance neo-colonial or imperial ambitions on the part of one nation against another as it can be used to justify intervening in famines, so the net gain is far from clear-cut. [1]  [1] Bosco, David \u201cIs human rights just the latest utopia?\u201d Foreign Policy Magazine. Tuesday, July 5, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Universal human nature  Fundamental human rights exist and are founded on universal human needs. Certain needs are necessary to human life in every instance and circumstance. These include food, water, shelter and security of person. Human life is not possible without any one of these things, and so these needs may be termed 'fundamental rights' necessary to the continued existence of that person. Every person has a right to the fulfilment of these needs as the alternative is non-existence, which is contrary to our basic human nature to survive. Because all humans everywhere possess at birth a drive to survive and all share these requirements, they are clearly fundamental to our nature and we have a right to their fulfilment and protection."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Not all 'human rights' are necessary for existence. The so-called 'right to free speech' and 'right to liberty' can both be removed from a person forcibly without ending their existence, and so cannot be justified on the basis of a 'universal drive to survive'."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Universal benefits of human rights  All humans benefit from the protection of the human rights of others. For example, a society which guarantees the security of person for all its inhabitants means every individual can feel assured of their safety and thus live a happier and more productive life, whereas in a society where this was not guaranteed to all, everyone would have to live in fear of their person being violated in the present if they cannot guarantee their own security, or in the future if they should lose the ability to protect themselves which they may enjoy in the present. This fear would lower the quality of life for all, and make society worse. Therefore, it could be argued that, even if fundamental human rights do not exist, it is still beneficial for us to believe in them and protect them, as we are all better off as a consequence. This applies internationally as well; the conception of universal human rights which everyone possesses has meant that many modern instances of humanitarian disasters, such as the 1984-1985 famine in Somalia, have been met with a vigorous response by nations, groups and individuals concerned with human rights, helping to alleviate the human suffering there. [1] This can be compared to historical examples in times when there was less concern with universal human rights and where therefore much less action was taken to alleviate famines and human suffering, such as occurred in the Irish Potato Famine between 1845 and 1852. [2]  [1] de Waal, Alex. \u201cFamine Crimes: Politics & the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa\u201d African Rights and the International African Institute, 1997  [2] Kinealy, Christine. \u201cThis Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845-52.\u201d Gill & Macmillan 1995"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con03b","title":"","text":"The labelling of a right as 'fundamental' ensures it is protected against opportunistic or populist attacks which may not fully consider the long term. As long as we limit our definition of 'fundamental rights' to those things needed and desired by all humans universally, we should avoid enshrining 'rights' which are only needed in some times and places."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con01b","title":"","text":"Fundamental human rights were 'new' to all cultures once, but this does not mean that they have not always been an underlying fact. Arguments surrounding different cultural perceptions of rights and 'cultural relativism' are almost universally used by the powerful interests in certain cultures to justify their abuse of the human rights of those with less power in their cultures, for example leaders of authoritarian regimes who protect their own power at the expense of the freedom of their people and justify it on the basis of 'Asian values'. The recognition of fundamental human rights will always require change in a culture or locality that did not previously recognise them, but this does not mean that they are not universal on the basis of needs and desires that do exist in all cultures."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con02a","title":"","text":"Human rights contradictions  Many human rights are not compatible with each other. If two things are both 'fundamental' then they must both be equally true and important. However the protection of any human right requires the violation of others. For example the right to security of person requires the existence of a police force, which must be funded by taxes coercively obtained, which violates the right to property. Similarly the right of a wife to divorce her husband to protect her own happiness may compromise his own happiness. A right cannot be 'fundamental' if it must be weighed up, balanced against and possibly compromised in light of another 'fundamental' right, as this would mean they exist in conflict with each other."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con03a","title":"","text":"Danger of dogma  Having a fixed set of fundamental human rights makes it harder to adapt to changing circumstances. As we have already seen conceptions of human rights vary by culture and time, and should be properly seen as a product of those specific factors, not as universal fundamentals. What was seen as a 'fundamental right' in the 18th Century may not be appropriate for the 21st, and what is seen as a right in the 21st Century may be actively harmful to recognise as a right in the 24th. For example it could be argued that the right to keep and bear arms was more useful in the America of the 18th Century, when there was no police force and hunting for food was more important, than in the 21st Century, where it could be argued that gun ownership results in higher gun crime rates for America than for other industrialized nations. [1] Enshrining rights as 'fundamental' makes it much harder to remove or modify them as circumstances change and they become less useful.  [1] Gumbel, Andrew \u201cThe Big Question: Can America ever be weaned off its love affair with guns?\u201d,The Independent, Wednesday, 4 October 2006."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con01a","title":"","text":"Relative perceptions of human rights  If fundamental human rights really existed, then they would be equally and identically recognised in all cultures, localities and times. This clearly is not and never has been the case. Firstly there are differing conceptions of what fundamental rights are originating from different cultures and traditions, which often contradict each other. For example the former Prime Ministers of Singapore and Malaysia Lee Kuang Yew [1] and Mahathir bin Mohamad have both cited 'Asian values' which differ from Western conceptions of human rights by having a greater focus on community stability, order and loyalty at the expense of personal freedoms. [2] Even within similar historical traditions conceptions of 'fundamental' human rights differ. The 'right to keep and bear arms' is considered fundamental under the constitution of the USA [3] but is not found in either the UN's Universal Declaration on Human Rights [4] or the European Union's European Convention on Human Rights. [5] Therefore no fundamental human rights exist, as if they did they would be recognised in all cultures, but they are not. This furthermore makes their application across different cultures highly difficult, and such culturally-relative conceptions of human rights may be used as excuses by more powerful cultures to control less powerful ones in the name of protecting 'fundamental' rights.  [1] McCarthy, Terry. \u201cIn Defence of Asian Values: Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew\u201d. TIME Magazine U.S., 16\/03\/1998.  [2] bin Mohamad, Mahathir. \u201cAgenda for a New Asia\u201d. Address at Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Fall Gala Dinner 28\/10\/2000.  [3] United States, Constitution of the United States, May 1787.  [4] United Nations General Assembly, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948.  [5] Council of Europe, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. 1 June 2010."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con02b","title":"","text":"It is possible to establish a hierarchy of rights whereby only the most important are the 'fundamental' human rights. The fulfilment of the needs we all cannot live without, such as food, shelter and security of person, should be given the greatest priority, as they are all equally necessary for life, and need not be balanced against each other as they are all equally necessary."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro02b","title":"","text":"There are many reasons to doubt the deterrent effect of the death penalty. For one thing, many criminals may actually find the prospect of the death penalty less daunting (and thus, less effective as a deterrent) than spending the rest of their lives suffering in jail. Death by execution is generally fairly quick, while a lifetime in prison can be seen as a much more intensive punishment. Moreover, even if criminals preferred life in prison to the death penalty, it's not clear that a harsher punishment would effectively deter murders. Heinous crimes often occur in the heat of the moment, with little consideration for their legal repercussions1. Further, for a deterrent to be effective, it would have to be immediate and certain. This is not the case with the death penalty cases, which often involve prolonged appeals and sometimes end in acquittals2. Finally, the empirical evidence regarding the deterrence effect of the death penalty is at best mixed. Many of the studies that purport to show the deterrence effect are flawed, because the impact of capital punishment cannot be disentangled from other factors such as broader social trends, economic factors and demographic changes in a region2. Other studies have even suggested a correlation between the death penalty and higher crime rates. States such as Texas and Oklahoma, which have very high execution rates, also have higher crime rates than most states that do not have the death penalty2. 1 Amnesty International. \"Abolish the Death Penalty.\" Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 \"Saving Lives and Money.\" The Economist. March 12, 2009. Accessed June 5, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The death penalty deters crime.  The state has a responsibility to protect the lives of innocent citizens, and enacting the death penalty may save lives by reducing the rate of violent crime. The reasoning here is simple- fear of execution can play a powerful motivating role in convincing potential murderers not to carry out their acts. While the prospect of life in prison may be frightening, surely death is a more daunting prospect. Thus, the risk of execution can change the cost-benefit calculus in the mind of murderers-to be so that the act is no longer worthwhile for them1. Numerous studies support the deterrent effect of the death penalty. A 1985 study by Stephen K. Layson at the University of North Carolina showed that a single execution deters 18 murders. Another influential study, which looked at over 3,054 counties over two decades, further found support for the claim that murder rates tend to fall as executions rise2. On top of this, there are ways to make the death penalty an even more effective deterrent than it is today. For instance, reducing the wait time on death row prior to execution can dramatically increase its deterrent effect in the United States1. In short, the death penalty can- and does- save the lives of innocent people. 1 Muhlhausen, David. \"The Death Penalty Deters Crime and Saves Lives,\" August 28,2007. Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 Liptak, Adam. \"Does Death Penalty Save Lives? A New Debate.\" The New York Times. November 18, 2007. Accessed June 9, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Escapes from prison, though sensationalized by the media, are relatively rare occurrences1. In 1998, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, 6,530 people escaped or were AWOL from state prisons. Given a total prison population of 1,100,224 state prisoners, that figure represents just over half a percent of the total prison population. On top of this, it is not impossible for people to commit further crimes while on death row. Those sentenced to death may be even more eager to escape prior to their execution than those awaiting life in prison, so it is not true that execution necessarily prevents further crimes. 1 Suellentrop, Chris. \"How Often Do Prisoners Escape?\" Slate. February 1, 2001."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro05a","title":"","text":"Execution helps alleviate the overcrowding of prisons.  POINT  The death penalty can help ease the problem of overcrowded prisons in many countries, where keeping people for life in prison contributes to expensive and at times unconstitutional overcrowding1. In 2011, California prison overcrowding was so problematic that a district court panel ordered authorities to release or transfer more than 33,000 inmates. This decision was held up by the U.S. Supreme Court, which argued that the conditions in the overcrowded prisons are so overwhelming that they constitute cruel and unusual punishment2. Similarly, in the United Kingdom two thirds of prisons in England and Wales have been deemed overcrowded3. As such, the death penalty may be preferable to life in prison since it helps alleviate a pressing problem in the criminal justice system. It is better to execute those who deserve it than to be forced to release dangerous offenders into society because prisons are overcrowded by people serving life sentences. 1 Sanchez, Mary. \"California prisons: Cruel and unusual.\" The Miami Herald. May 30, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2011. 2 Martinez, Michael. \"California officials: We'll fix prison crowding, won't free 33,000.\" CNN. May 24,2011. Accessed June 9, 2011. 3 \"Two-thirds of prisons overcrowded.\" The Guardian. August 25, 2009. Accessed June 8, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro01a","title":"","text":"It helps the victims' families achieve closure.  The death penalty can also help provide closure for the victim's family and friends, who will no longer have to fear the return of this criminal into society. They will not have to worry about parole or the chance of escape, and will thus be able to achieve a greater degree of closure. Mary Heidcamp, a Chicago woman whose mother's killer faced the death penalty before the State Governor commuted the sentences to life in prison, stated 'we were looking forward to the death penalty. I'm just so disappointed in the system'1. Other victims' families deemed the decision a 'mockery', that 'justice is not done'1. 1 Goldbery, Michelle. \"The Closure Myth\". Salon. January 21, 2003.Accessed June 30,2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Many victims' families oppose the death penalty1. While some might take comfort in knowing the guilty party has been executed, others might prefer to know that the person is suffering in jail, or might not feel comfortable knowing that the state killed another human being on behalf of the victim. Furthermore, Stanford University psychiatrist David Spiegel believes 'witnessing executions not only fails to provide closure but often causes symptoms of acute stress. Witness trauma is not far removed from experience it'2. Even if it was the case that capital punishment helped the victims' families, sentencing is simply not about what the victims' families want. Punishment should be proportionate to the crime committed, and not the alleged preferences of victims' families. 1 Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation. Accessed June 9, 2011. 2 Rahka, Naseem. \"Capital Punishment: Muhammad and the 'Closure' Myth.\" November 1, 2009. Accessed June 29, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro05b","title":"","text":"Executions are rare enough that they do not have a significant impact on prison populations, which are largely composed of people who would not be eligible for the death penalty. Even if large numbers of people could be executed instead of serving prisons, resources would not be saved due to the expenses associated with death penalty cases1. Instead of execution, there are better, more humane solutions for alleviating overcrowded prisons. One could increase community service requirements, build more prisons, or target broader crime reduction programs2. Principally, whether or not a convict deserves to live or die should not be contingent on factors as arbitrary as the availability of prison spots in a given region. Justice is about the proportionality of punishment to crime, not of prisoners to prisons, so it is not fair to use crowded prisons as a justification for the death penalty. 1 \"Saving Lives and Money.\" The Economist. March 12, 2009. Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 Death Penalty Information Center. Accessed June 8, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is no fairness or consistency in an eye-for-an-eye attitude towards justice. Justice should remain above the petty retributive justice that marks street or community warfare, whereby the murder of one family member justifies a revenge attack against the murderers' family. Furthermore, it is inconsistent with other areas of the law. As New York University Law Professor Anthony Amsterdam notes, 'we don't burn arsonists' houses'1. Capital punishment 'attempts to vindicate one murder by committing a second murder. And the second murder is more reprehensible because it is officially sanctioned and done with great ceremony in the name of us all'1. The Christian logic of an eye for an eye is undermined not merely by the Pope himself, who advocated 'clemency, or pardon, for those condemned to death', but scripture itself, which preaches mercy just as vigorously as it does retribution1. 1 Time Magazine. \"The Death Penalty: An Eye for an Eye\". Time. January 24, 1983. Accessed June 30, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Execution prevents the accused from committing further crimes.  POINT  The death penalty is the only way to ensure that criminals do not escape back into society or commit further crimes while in prison. While in prison, it is not uncommon for those receiving life in jail sentences to commit homicide, suicide, or other crimes while in jail, since there is no worse punishment they can receive1. Putting dangerous murderers in prison endangers other prisoners and the guards who must watch them. The other advantage of execution is that it prevents the possibly of an escape from prison. Even the highest security detention facilities can have escapees2. Thus, the only way to be absolutely certain that a convicted murder can no longer hurt others is to execute them. 1 Murdock, Deroy. \"A Sure Way to Prevent Prison Escapes.\" March 30, 2001. Accessed June 9, 2011 2 Davis, Laura. \"Crime and Punishment: the view from a convicted criminal.\" The Independent. May 19, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2001."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro04a","title":"","text":"The death penalty should apply as punishment for first-degree murder; an eye for an eye.  The worst crimes deserve the most severe sanctions; first-degree murder involves the intentional slaughter of another human being. There are crimes that are more visceral, but there are none that are more deadly. Such a heinous crime can only be punished, in a just and fair manner, with the death penalty. As Time put it, 'there is a zero-sum symmetry to capital punishment that is simple and satisfying enough to feel like human instinct: the worst possible crime deserves no less than the worst possible punishment'1.Human life is sacred; there must be a deterrent mechanism in place that ensures that those violating that fundamental precept are punished. Capital punishment symbolizes the value and importance placed upon the maintenance of the sanctity of human life. Any lesser sentence would fail in this duty. 1 Time Magazine. \"The Death Penalty: An Eye for an Eye\". Time. January 24, 1983. Accessed June 30, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con03b","title":"","text":"Wrongful convictions are particularly rare in cases where the death penalty is sentenced. The lengthy and thorough procedures associated with death penalty cases offer sufficient protection against wrongful convictions. If there is any reasonable doubt that a person is guilty, they will not receive the sentence. Finally, even in cases where there is a wrongful conviction, there is generally a lengthy appeals process for them to make their case. For example, in 1993, Alex Hernandez was sentenced to death for the kidnapping, rape and murder of a 10-year old girl in Chicago; he was released a number of years later due to his lawyers proving both a paucity of evidence and the confession of her actual killer1. As a result, very few innocent people receive the death penalty, and the legality of capital punishment does not increase wrongful or prejudicial convictions2. 1 Turow, Scot. \"To kill or not to kill,\" The New Yorker, January 6, 2003. Accessed June 3, 2011, 2 Murdock, Deroy. \"A Sure Way to Prevent Prison Escapes.\" March 30, 2001. Accessed June 9, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con01b","title":"","text":"A just state regularly abrogates people's rights when they intrude upon the rights of others. By sentencing people to prison, for instance, the state takes away rights to movement, association, and property rights from convicted criminals. The right to life should be no different. When you commit certain heinous crimes, you forgo your right to life. This does not devalue life, but rather affirms the value of the innocent life taken by the criminal. Certain crimes are so heinous that the only proportionate sentence is execution. As for the executioners themselves, there are methods of execution that involve multiple executioners which might reduce the associated psychological burdens. At any rate, no one is forced to become an executioner, and people who choose to take on that role do so with full awareness of the risks involved."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con02a","title":"","text":"The death penalty is a financial burden on the state.  Capital punishment imposes a very high cost on taxpayers, which far outweighs the costs of alternative punishments such as life in prison1. A single capital litigation can cost over $1 million as a result of the intensive jury selection, trials, and long appeals process that are required by capital cases2. The cost of death row presents an additional financial burden associated with the death penalty. Savings from abolishing the death penalty in Kansas, for example, are estimated at $500,000 for every case in which the death penalty is not sought1. In California, death row costs taxpayers $114 million a year beyond the cost of imprisoning convicts for life2. This money could instead be better spent on measures that are of much greater benefit to the criminal justice system- greater policing, education, and other crime-preventing measures that are far more cost-effective. 1 Liptak, Adam. \"Does Death Penalty Save Lives? A New Debate.\" The New York Times. November 18, 2007. Accessed June 9, 2011 2 \"High Cost of Death Row.\" The New York Times. September 27, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con04a","title":"","text":"The death penalty can produce irreversible miscarriages of justice.  Juries are imperfect1, and increasing the stakes of the verdict can pervert justice in a couple of ways. First, implementation of the death penalty is often impacted by jury members' social, gender-based or racial biases2, disproportionately impacting certain victimized groups in society and adding a certain arbitrariness to the justice system. A 2005 study found that the death penalty was three to four times more common amongst those who killed whites than those who killed African Americans or Latinos, while those who kill women are three and a half times more likely to be executed than those who kill men2. Regional differences in attitudes towards the death penalty can also introduce elements of randomness into sentencing. For instance, in Illinois, a person is five times more likely to get a death sentence for first-degree murder in a rural area than in Cook County2. Finally, the fear of wrongful execution can also pervert justice by biasing juries towards returning an innocent verdict when they would otherwise be deemed guilty3. When they are told that the consequence of a guilty verdict is death, they are likely to find some kind of reasonable doubt to avoid being responsible for the death of that criminal. This means that more criminals who would've otherwise been convicted do not get charged. In this sense the death penalty can pervert the goals of justice and prolong the difficult process for victims' families. 1 \"Saving Lives and Money.\" The Economist. March 12, 2009. Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 Turow , Scot. \"To kill or not to kill,\" The New Yorker, January 6, 2003. Accessed June 3, 2011, 3 Death Penalty Information Center. Accessed June 8, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con03a","title":"","text":"Wrongful convictions are irreversible.  There are an alarming number of wrongful convictions associated with the death penalty1. So far, more than 130 people who had been sentenced to death have been exonerated2. In many cases, unlike those who have been sentenced to life in prison, it is impossible to compensate executed prisoners should they later be proven innocent. The state should not gamble with people's lives. The chance of wrongful execution alone should be enough to prove the death penalty is not justifiable. 1 European Union Delegation to the USA. \"EU Policy Against the Death penalty.\" October 10, 2010. Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 \"Saving Lives and Money.\" The Economist. March 12, 2009. Accessed June 5, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con01a","title":"","text":"State-sanctioned killing is wrong.  The state has no right to take away the life of its citizens. By executing convicts, the government is effectively condoning murder, and devaluing human life in the process. Such acts violate the right to life as declared in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights1 and the right not to be subjected to cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment2. On top of this, the state forces executioners to actively participate in the taking of a life, which can be unduly traumatizing and leave permanent psychological scars. Thus, a humane state cannot be one that exercises the death penalty. 1 Amnesty International. \"Abolish the Death Penalty.\" Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 European Union Delegation to the USA. \"EU Policy Against the Death penalty.\" October 10, 2010. Accessed June 5, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con04b","title":"","text":"The fact that juries are prone to several biases is not a flaw inherent or unique to capital punishment. If there are racial or prejudicial issues in sentencing, these are likely to present themselves just as often in cases where the punishment is life in prison. It is equally problematic for people to die or spend decades in jails for crimes they did not commit. These errors suggest that the judicial process may need some reform, not that the death penalty should be abolished. Implementation errors that result in discrimination can and should be corrected. Moreover, there is little evidence that these biases are even present in most death penalty cases1. A study funded by the National Institute of Justice in the US found that differences in sentencing for white and non-white victims disappeared when the heinousness of the crimes were factored into the study1. Thus, factors relating to the crime, not the race, of the accused accounted for some of the purported racial disparities that were found. Finally, jurors must be \"death- qualified\" in such cases, meaning that they are comfortable sentencing someone to death should the fact indicate their guilt2. Thus, it is unlikely that many jurors will abstain from a guilty verdict because they are uncomfortable with the death penalty. 1 Muhlhausen, David. \"The Death Penalty Deters Crime and Saves Lives,\" August 28,2007. Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 Haney, Craig. \"Juries and the Death Penalty.\" Crime and Delinquency. Vol 26 no 4. October 1980."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con02b","title":"","text":"Justice is priceless. Even if the death penalty is more expensive than other punishments, that is not sufficient reason to ban it. Fair and proportionate punishments should be independent of financial considerations. Further, there are ways to make the death penalty less expensive than it is today. Shortening the appeals process or changing the method of execution could reduce its costs1. 1 \"Saving Lives and Money.\" The Economist. March 12, 2009. Accessed June 5, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Excluding cases of rape, the woman exercises any right to choose in causing conception initially. Afterward, even if a woman has a right to her body and to \"choice\", this right is overridden by the fetus's right to life. And, what could be more important than life? All other rights, including the mother's right to choice, surely stem from a prior right to life; if you have no right to any life, then how do you have a right to an autonomous one? The woman may ordinarily have a reasonable right to control her own body, but this does not confer on her the entirely separate (and insupportable) right to decide whether another human lives or dies."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Women have a right to choose  Women should have control over their own bodies; they have to carry the child during pregnancy and undergo childbirth. No one else carries the child for her; it will be her responsibility alone, and thus she should have the sole right to decide. These are important events in a woman\u2019s life, and if she does not want to go through the full nine months and subsequent birth, then she should have the right to choose not to do so. There are few \u2013 if any \u2013 other cases where something with such profound consequences is forced upon a human being against her\/his will. To appeal to the child\u2019s right to life is just circular \u2013 whether a fetus has rights or not, or can really be called a \u2018child\u2019, is exactly what is at issue. Everyone agrees that children have rights and shouldn\u2019t be killed; a fetus is not a life yet."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Denying someone life because of the circumstances of their conception is unfair. They had no say in these circumstances, and were, instead, simply given life. It does not matter what the conditions of this life were. It is still wrong to kill life, particularly an unborn baby. The child has a right to life just as much as that woman had the right to not be raped. The rapist violated her rights. Aborting the child would be violating the child's right to life. In 2004, only 1%1 of women cited rape as their reason for abortion, so this is more an exception than a reason for legalizing abortion.  1 L.B Finner et al"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro01a","title":"","text":"There are practical problems with banning abortion  Not only is banning abortion a problem in theory, offending against a woman's right to choose, it is also a practical problem. Enforcing an abortion ban would require a quite degrading and inhumane treatment of those women who wished to have their fetus terminated. Moreover, if pregnant women traveled abroad, they would be able to have an abortion in a country where it was legal. Either the state takes the draconian measure of restricting freedom of movement, or it must admit that its law is unworkable in practice and abolish it. The middle way of tacitly accepting foreign terminations would render hypocritical the much-vaunted belief in the sanctity of life. The demand for abortions will always exist; making abortion illegal, will simply drive it underground and into conditions where the health and safety of the woman might be put at risk.1  Example: Polish women, living in a country with extremely restrictive abortion laws often go abroad to the Netherlands, Germany and Austria for abortions.2 Women who are not lucky enough to live in environments such as the EU may be forced to go to foreign countries and undergo underground, unsafe abortions.  1 WARSAW BUSINNES JOURNAL"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Practical considerations should not influence the legislation of an issue of principle.  Many laws have difficulties pertaining to implementation, but these do not diminish the strength of the principle behind them: people will kill other people, regardless of your legislating against it, but it does not follow that you shouldn't legislate against it. Even though the Netherlands had more liberal drugs' laws than in England, this did not lead, and nor should it have led, to a similar liberalization here.  As far as underground abortions are concerned, the problem is one of the implementation of the law. If the law were properly enforced, underground abortions would not be offered in the first place."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro04b","title":"","text":"What right does anyone have to deprive another of life on the grounds that he deems that life as not worth living? This arrogant and sinister presumption is impossible to justify, given that many people with disabilities lead fulfilling lives. What disabilities would be regarded as the watershed between life and termination? All civilized countries roundly condemn the practice of eugenics."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Rape victims have no choice when it comes to getting pregnant, therefore they should have the right to terminate the pregnancy  Women, and in some cases girls, who have been raped should not have to suffer the additional torment of being pregnant with the product of that ordeal. To force a woman to produce a living, constant reminder of that act is unfair on both mother and child.  In cases where the rape victim cannot afford or is not ready to have a child, abortion can do both the victim and the unborn baby a favor. There are cases where school students are impregnated through rape. Pregnancy itself is a constant reminder of the sexual assault they underwent and might cause emotional instability, which will affect their studies, and subsequently their future. Babies born to unready mothers are likely to be neglected or would not be able to enjoy what other children have, be it due to financial reasons or the unwillingness of the mothers to bring up the \"unwanted children\".  1 SECASA"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro04a","title":"","text":"There can be medical reasons for terminating a pregnancy  There are cases in which it is necessary to terminate a pregnancy, lest the mother and\/or the child die. In such cases of medical emergency and in the interest of saving life, surely it is permissible to abort the fetus.  Also, due to advances in medical technology it is possible to determine during pregnancy whether the child will be disabled. In cases of severe disability, in which the child would have a very short, very painful and tragic life, it is surely the right course of action to allow the parents to choose a termination. This avoids both the suffering of the parents and of the child.1  1 PRO-Life Information"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con03b","title":"","text":"Yes, our societies do strive to affirm life as much as possible, and to make the quality of life of our citizens as high as possible. Foetuses do not apply here because they:  a) are not lives, are not human until fairly late  b) if they are born as unwanted children, and the mother is effectively forced to give birth, the quality of life of both the child and the mother will be lowered, and that is what really goes against the principle of life affirmation."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con01b","title":"","text":"Women do not \"want\" abortions. They find themselves in a position in which abortion is the less bad between bad alternatives. This argument is important in explaining that abortion is not about a malicious desire to \"kill babies\" or even to express their right to choose; it is about allowing women to make the best choice."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con02a","title":"","text":"Legalizing abortions leads to irresponsible sexual behavior  Abortion shouldn't be a form of birth control when other forms are readily available. With contraception being so effective, unwanted pregnancies are typically a result of irresponsible sexual behavior. Such irresponsible behavior does not deserve an exit from an unwanted pregnancy through abortion. In Mexico City, a year after abortion was legalized, the frequency increased.1  1 LIFESITE NEWS"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con04a","title":"","text":"A fetus is a life from conception, therefore abortion is murder  It is unquestionable that the fetus, at whatever stage of development, will inevitably develop the ability to feel and think and be conscious of its own existence. The unborn child will have every ability, and every opportunity that you yourself have, if you give him or her the opportunity. The time-restrictions on termination had to be changed once, when it was discovered that feeling developed earlier than first thought, so they are hardly impeccable safe-guards behind which to hide: In the UK, the restriction was moved from 28 weeks to 24 weeks in 1990, due to scientific discoveries.1 Human life is continuum of growth that starts at conception, not at birth. The DNA that makes a person who they are is first mixed at conception upon the male sperm entering the female egg. This is when the genetic building blocks of a person are \"conceived\" and built upon. The person, therefore, begins at conception. Killing the fetus, thus, destroys a growing person and can be considered murder. Ronald Reagan was quoted in the New York Times on September 22, 1980 saying: \"I've noticed that everybody that is for abortion has already been born.\" in the 1980 presidential debate.2  1 THE TELEGRAPH"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con03a","title":"","text":"Legalizing abortion defies the principle of life affirmation  Every life presents an inherent value to society. Every individual has the potential to contribute in one way or another, and taking the child's life before it has even had a chance to experience and contribute to the world undermines that potential. Even more, the underlying philosophical claim behind abortion is that not every life is equally valued and if a life is 'unwanted' or 'accidental' it is not worth enough to live. That kind of thinking goes directly against the life-affirming policies and philosophies of most countries, and peoples themselves."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con01a","title":"","text":"Most abortions are performed out of convenience  Most abortions are performed entirely voluntarily by women that have the means to raise a child, but simply don't want to. While emergency abortions or abortions under trying circumstances such as rape are held out as reasons to continue to have abortions, they are infrequent and serve more to provide cover for voluntarily \"life-style\" abortions. This is wrong. For example: In 2004, only 7% of women in the US cited health risk as the reason for abortion. Most had social reasons, i.e. were not ready, did not want a baby, a baby would interfere with their career etc.1  1 L.B Finner et al"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con04b","title":"","text":"Are we really talking about a 'life?' At what point does a life begin? Is terminating a foetus, which can neither feel nor think and is not conscious of its own 'existence,' really commensurable with the killing of a 'person?' There rightly are restrictions on the time, within which a termination can take place, before a foetus does develop these defining, human characteristics. If you affirm that human life is a quality independent of, and prior to thought and feeling, then you leave yourself the awkward task of explaining what truly 'human' life is. A foetus is not a life until it fulfils certain criteria. Before 24 weeks, a foetus does not feel pain, is not conscious of itself or its surroundings. Until a fetus can survive on its own, it cannot be called a life, any more than the acorn can be called a tree."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con02b","title":"","text":"The assertion that obtaining an abortion is always the result of irresponsible behaviour is disrespectful to every woman undergoing an abortion. Using birth control is a completely different decision from getting an abortion. Besides, contraception, though effective, is still not accepted, available or affordable for women in certain countries. Moreover, even when legalized, abortion will only be a last resort in the cases where the quality of life of the baby or mother or both will be in danger."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro02b","title":"","text":"Experience teaches us that if you simply remove the government then those who are currently strong get stronger and those who are weak get destroyed. Tackling issues such as prejudice in the workplace, health and safety, protecting the vulnerable, managing immigration and a million others require not only the involvement of the state but for a government that is actively engaged in countering private interests. To allow the market to run unfettered seems unlikely to protect the rights of the individual but, rather would cede hard fought rights to the rapacious interests of corporations.  Without compulsion by government, it is unlikely that the disadvantaged in society would be paid much heed [i] .  [i] \"Libertarianism\". Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro02a","title":"","text":"A growing alliance that defies party lines and the definitions of the last century  A libertarian agenda is one that draws people from across the political spectrum. The crisis in the financial sector has confirmed for many that government and large financial institutions have simply got too close. Republicans say they can reduce the size of government but never do, Democrats say they can regulate corporations but show no sign of doing so.  The primary reason why people can approach libertarianism from across the political spectrum is that, as a philosophy, it doesn\u2019t seek to judge individual policies. So policies traditionally associated with the left \u2013 the legalization of drugs or gay rights \u2013 as well as those of the right - independence for schools and reducing taxation \u2013 both fall within a Libertarian agenda that simply says that none of these issues are any business of the state [i] .  [i] Brian Micklethwaite. \u201cHow to Win The Libertarian Argument\u201d. 1990"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro03b","title":"","text":"The appropriate response, in a democracy, to a hegemonic political class is not to scrap the State altogether but simply to vote for someone else.  It is also interesting to note the large number of people who are claiming that \u2018nothing can be done\u2019 or that \u2018voting never changes anything\u2019 are themselves elected representatives.  In those countries where there is a dominance of two major parties, those parties also tend to reflect a wide diversity of views, thus in the United States and Britain there can be as much division within the parties as between them.  The fact that there is a broad consensus on certain key issues, such as the general structure of the economic model, reflects not the imposition or a worldview but the assumption of a worldview shared by the vast majority in those societies."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro01a","title":"","text":"Neither citizen nor subject, consumer nor customer: the supremacy of the individual  A sensible Libertarian position accepts the rights of people to do whatever they like as long as it doesn\u2019t infringe upon the life of anyone else. That may sound like something that anyone could sign up to but the reality is not so simple. The Right may defend corporate greed and the Left government intervention but there is a clearer principle; I have the right not to have my air poisoned by your chemical company which means I don\u2019t have to pay for any government body to clear up the mess.  The Oglala Sioux activist and actor, Russell Means has argued that \u201cA libertarian society would not allow anyone to injure others by pollution because it insists on individual responsibility.\u201d  All too often the line between consumer and citizen is blurred because the interest of both state and private actors have become conjoined leaving little or no room for the individual between them. A libertarian approach would break that cozy consensus."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is impossible in any modern state to pretend that the state simply isn\u2019t there or that individuals on their own can act against multinationals or government departments and agencies.  The Libertarian perspective is the stuff of fantasy; neither taxes nor markets are going anywhere anytime soon however much a ragbag of theorists may wish for it.  Benjamin Franklin argued that \u201cAll property, indeed, except the savage's temporary cabin, his bow, his matchcoat and other little Acquisitions absolutely necessary for his Subsistence, seems to me to be the creature of public Convention. Hence, the public has the rights of regulating Descents, and all other Conveyances of Property, and even of limiting the quantity and uses of it. All the property that is necessary to a man is his natural Right, which none may justly deprive him of, but all Property superfluous to such Purposes is the property of the Public who, by their Laws have created it and who may, by other Laws dispose of it.\u201d [i]  The point is that an individual cannot walk up to a chemical plant and tell them to move it, only a government, elected through collective action can do that.  [i] Franklin, Benjamin, \u2018Benjamin Franklin to Robert Morris\u2019, 25 December 1783, in The Founders\u2019 Constitution, Vol. 1. Chapter 16, Document 12,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro03a","title":"","text":"There is very little meaningful choice left in many societies with the major parties all singing from the same score  One of principal reasons for the growth of libertarian parties, especially in the West, is the dominance of one particular ideological viewpoint that is broadly shared by all the major parties.  As a result anyone who does not share this viewpoint are effectively disenfranchised and have the world view of a de facto governing class imposed upon them. The only sensible response is to reduce the impact of that government altogether.  Indeed in the United States, where the libertarian argument has been made most vociferously, the entire political system is designed on the predicate of a minimalist state and is poorly designed to deal with the behemoth that the Federal Government has become."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con03b","title":"","text":"The reduction in the size of the state is a process and not an event. Rolling back the state can be done over time giving people responsibility and power over their lives on a growing range of issues. The presumption that the state should only act when individuals can\u2019t, however, would reverse the direction of legislation which has tended to see the intervention of the state into the lives of its citizens as beneficial in and of itself \u2013 not just the nanny state but the further assumption that \u2018nanny knows best\u2019.  The role of government should only to be that all have equal access to the available freedoms and that those freedoms are not abused. These principles are known as the law of equal liberty  and the non-aggression principle between the two of them they comfortably control and define the role of the state."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con01b","title":"","text":"Libertarianism is not about abolishing the state, simply about returning it to an appropriate size. In the era following WWII the state in most Western nations expanded into almost every area of citizen\u2019s lives. In the USA in 1929 government expenditures accounted 9.46% by 2008 this had risen to 35%, this is mirrored elsewhere, in Sweden at the beginning of the 20th century government expenditure was 7% of GDP, it has now risen to over 50%. [i] The period of high expenditure is the historical anomaly, not the norm.  The libertarian movement seeks to return the level of governance to the more traditional \u2018night watchman state\u2019 where the government has responsibility for protecting the borders, maintaining domestic security and the provision of a level of support that prevents destitution.  Beyond that the state should not really have a role. It certainly does not have the moralising, semi-parental role it has taken on.  [i] Hyman, David N., Public Finance A Contemporary Application of Theory to Policy, Tenth Edition, South Western Cengage Learning, 2010,  pp.15-16"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con02a","title":"","text":"Libertarianism is really a coalition of the unwilling; the fringes of the left and right, happy to criticize but without a single policy on which they can agree  The alliance supporting libertarianism is an interesting one, consisting mostly of right-wing pragmatists who don\u2019t want to pay taxes and left wing idealist who think that everyone would be kind and helpful in a free society.  What both groups simply ignore is that there are many issues, such as the redistribution of income or prohibition of drugs, where there is a settled will of society that supports the status quo. Even the very presence of, for example, wide-spread drug use would be an offence to very large numbers of people and unfairly impinge upon their lives which is why so few people actually vote for libertarian parties once they find out the realities."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con03a","title":"","text":"Libertarianism only works \u2013 even in theory \u2013 if you start off with a level pl  It is entirely possible, if one were constructing a hypothetical society from scratch, that you wouldn\u2019t end up with one looking like an actual society that has evolved over centuries or millennia. However in the real world there are interest groups and those who to a greater or lesser degree are advantaged or disadvantaged, everyone may have equal rights but we do not always naturally have an equal capability to defend our rights. The role of the state is to provide some degree of balance. Simply removing the mechanisms in place would accentuate those differences that existed within society at the time of their removal."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con01a","title":"","text":"Libertarians would return society to a state of nature where \u2018life is cruel, bloody and short\u2019.  There is no denying that government is ultimately responsible for maintaining the series of compromises that we all adopt as part of the social contract. Destroying that capacity would, in effect, destroy the contract it underpins. The process of governance may at times be cumbersome and apparently interventionist but the results of those interventions are collective security. Without it society as we know it would return to a state of nature where all except those with the means to pay for their own protection \u2013 physical and financial \u2013 would be at risk."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con02b","title":"","text":"It is absolutely the case that an individual has the right not to be harmed by the actions of another but it would be impossible to argue that they have the right not to be offended.  The presumption should always be in favour of the fact that people are free to do in their own lives whatever they wish so long as it doesn\u2019t cause harm. That is an attractive position to many but, inevitably, those interested in lifestyles or policies that do not fall within the \u2018standard model\u2019 as a result libertarian policies have tended to receive their most vociferous support at the margins of the policy agenda, that does not mean however, that the approach is not equally beneficial to those with a more mainstream view."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro02b","title":"","text":"States may not be perfect but they are better than a stateless society.  Whilst states do not have a perfect track record a stateless society would have all sorts of negative consequences. The laws in modern countries are designed to protect the weak from theft and harm. Property laws protect people's property that, in the case of houses they may have worked for 20 years or more to acquire. A stateless society is one that cannot enforce these laws and must always be more unjust than a society with a state."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro02a","title":"","text":"The state is a meaningless metaphysical entity that is unnecessary and indeed detrimental for our lives.  There is nothing that states provide for us that we cannot provide for ourselves by working together as communities. All the state seeks to do is oppress the people, forcing us to obey laws and pay taxes we did not consent to. In many cases the state goes out of its way to deprive people of their basic needs, for instance when the state evicts squatters from houses that were being left unused, the UK for example is moving to criminalize squatting [1] ; or when the state has property laws that keep wealth in the hands of the few whilst the many struggle to survive as has been the case in the United States, particularly in the 19thCentury when President Hayes argued \u201cThere can be no republican institutions with vast masses of property permanently in a few hands, and large masses of voters without property\u201d. [2]  [1]   [2]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro03b","title":"","text":"Democracies are not perfect but they are better than the other options.  Whilst democracies are not perfect they are the best way we have of aggregating the interests of society. People might not always get what they want but this is inevitable where there are differences in opinion and one course of action must be taken.  Heads of state may not be demographically representative at the moment but we are seeing an increase in the numbers of minority groups in positions of power in many countries. Removing the state to solve this problem is using a sledgehammer to crack a n"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro05a","title":"","text":"Community action is a more powerful tool than the state for providing goods.  Forcing people into community action, as the state tries to do, detracts from real community action. People naturally try to help one another out and do what they can for their communities but when the state tries to undertake this action itself it always wastes a huge amount or resources and sends the message that the job is done. In a stateless society people would know that they have a responsibility to care for their fellow man and take all the steps they possibly can to do so. This action will be more direct, enthusiastic and relevant than any taken by the government because those organising it will inevitably be in closer contact and have more of a stake with the problems they are trying to solve."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro01a","title":"","text":"Even in societies with a state, anarchist groups provide a voice for the oppressed.  Even if the state is never overthrown anarchism will always have something important to say. Anarchist groups were at the forefront of resistance groups in world war two, and today they are at the forefront of protests against the state whenever it tries to take even more from the worst off in society, for example in anti cuts protests in the UK. [1]  Anarchist communities like Freetown Christiana in Copenhagen exist as centres of peace and culture, by standing outside of society it provides a useful commentary on society as well as being an example for how people can live more freely without a state.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro01b","title":"","text":"Anarchists in fact often have a negative effect on protests, they regularly use far more extreme measures than any other protester at the demonstration and this can often distract from and distort the message behind the protests. Anarchist groups are infamous for trying to hijack protests that were not about anarchism; trying to use extreme and often violent measures to get an anarchist message across when the original protesters have no interest in anarchism whatsoever. Even Christiana cited by the proposition has seen violence in 2009 when 1500 people were arrested after setting fire to barricades and throwing fire bombs at police. [1] Anarchist groups have their own ideology, not the interests of oppressed groups at heart.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro05b","title":"","text":"Community action is good, but the state is always necessary. Community can make a big difference but it can make a bigger difference with state help, states fund many organisations which would not be able to operate.  Organisations like state health services would not be able to function as community projects; they require a huge amount of funding, specialist training and facilities and organisation that would simply not be available without the state."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro04b","title":"","text":"States have done much good as well; World War Two was fought because states wanted to prevent Nazi conquest; states intervened in the Kosovo war to prevent ethnic cleansing; and the American Civil War was fought to stop slavery, it is clear that states use their military power for good as well as bad, in a stateless world there would be no actors who would be there to prevent people from taking advantage of their fellow man.  While states can do bad things the solution is not to dismantle states, we need a better international court system to help prevent atrocities and hold those responsible accountable for their actions."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro03a","title":"","text":"States are never truly representative of the people.  Even if we ignore all of the totalitarian regimes in the world, democracies do not truly represent the people. Politicians all too often promise progressive changes and then fail to deliver, for example Obama\u2019s failure to close Guantanamo Bay [1] and Nick Clegg breaking his promises over tuition fees [2]  The interests of politicians in democracies are far too often tied to the interests of the rich and powerful; people like Rupert Murdoch have unprecedented access to politicians which is quite simply not available to the average person [3]  Demographically heads of state are very rarely representative, The USA has never had a female or Hispanic president, the UK has never had a non white Prime Minister and 66% of UK ministers have been privately educated [4] . These people can never truly have the people\u2019s interests at heart.  [1]   [2]   [3]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro04a","title":"","text":"The state has far too often been an instrument for facilitating wars and other acts of violence.  The state has, throughout history, been responsible for an immeasurable amount of violence and destruction. From ancient times where states were the primary instrument of enforcing laws so that people could keep slaves, to the actions of imperial nations like Britain, to the holocaust to all of the pointless wars fought throughout history, states have a long record of slaughtering and ruining the lives of countless numbers of their own and other states people. William Eckhardt estimates battle deaths since 3000 BC at 151million while Beer came out with a much higher figure of 1.1 billion battle deaths (NB both use dodgy calculations and of course in either case the total military deaths let alone civilian would be much higher).1  These actions are always taken because they are in the interest of the ruling class, but the ruling classes are never the ones directly involved in these conflicts, they instead use the state as an instrument to coerce other people to fight their battles for them. In a stateless society the people might need to fight against oppression but they would never be forced to fight for causes that have nothing to do with them.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-con03b","title":"","text":"This is an unfair portrayal of Freetown Christiana. Soft drug use is something that the people of Christiana have decided is not immoral or illegal and is something that they tolerate in their society. They should not be criticised for people who do things which are totally within the rules of Freetown Christiana society."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-con01b","title":"","text":"COUNTERPOINT  These could still be provided in a different way. These issues can be dealt with quite sufficiently within small communities, in the case of a fire people the whole community would likely assist in fire-fighting duties whilst equipment could be owned communally.  Anarchist communities do not necessarily have no rules, these rules can be adequately enforced by the community and the community can collectively decide what to do about rule breakers."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-con02a","title":"","text":"Anarchy has nothing to contribute but violence.  Anarchist groups may claim to contribute to political discussion and propose a viable alternative to states, but too regularly they contribute very little more than violence, they regularly hijack legitimate peaceful protests and by acting in a violent way detract from those protests. [1] In order to be able to contribute to society they need to be able to show that they have something to contribute. People will not listen if the movement is associated with violence so anarchism will never have an opportunity to contribute while it practices violence.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-con03a","title":"","text":"Anarchist Communities have a very poor track record.  Without the state there is very little in the way of protection against immorality, if one looks at Freetown Christiana, supposedly an anarchist utopia, it has actually been a blight on Copenhagen society; it has only thrived because of the cannabis trade, and is a haven for biker gangs [1] where the police have been attacked with petrol bombs [2] . If a small community like Christiana cannot survive without becoming a hotbed of immorality then what hope is there for a totally stateless world?  [1]   [2]"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-con01a","title":"","text":"The state provides functions which are utterly essential.  Anarchist groups are very naive in believing that we could survive without states, states provide a countless functions that would not exist otherwise. Things like the fire service would be very hard to organise as a community, it is likely that that very few people would volunteer to perform such a dangerous job. There are many vital services that require economies of scale to exist in order to provide the specialized services. This means that something larger than a local community is needed to provide it. For example communities could provide basic healthcare but could they provide the cutting edge research necessary to improve it, and then the expensive treatments to be able to take advantage of that research?  Legal systems are dependent on the state for their existence, without a centralised system of law and a state to appoint judges and organise and fund courts and the police. Under anarchy law and order is likely to look a lot more like mob justice. Without any sort of police force or judiciary it would be highly likely that a community would be able to prevent crime."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-pgppghba-con02b","title":"","text":"Violence is not intrinsic to Anarchy Whilst there are many violent anarchists there is nothing about anarchy that means that violence need be a part of it. Many anarchists identify themselves as Anarchist-Pacifists and are against any and all violence."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Ignoring the law some of the time undermines the state. The opposition believe that this legislation goes much further than showing solidarity between the government and religion, and is actually the government showing submission to religion. This legislation sets religion as a higher authority than the government and, as such, undermines the government\u2019s power as the ultimate authority.  The likely effect is that religious groups will begin to see themselves as above the law and will begin to disregard to government to an ever greater extent."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Relationship between state and religious population  People who are caused distress and have their religious freedom limited by their government are likely to feel disillusioned with and sidelined by their government. They will wonder why other religious groups can follow all the teachings of their faith while the government limits theirs. This kind of limitation of how to worship or what traditions and beliefs to follow can be part of the cause that leads to members of that religion feeling not welcome and discriminated against, ultimately leading to extremism. Allowing religious beliefs to override government laws would relieve these feelings and dramatically improve religious people\u2019s relationship with the state.  This improvement in relationship would severely reduce the likelihood of anti-government feelings and general civil unrest."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Undermines the state. Similarly to the point above, the opposition believe that this legislation will actually be seen by organised religion as a sign of submission from the government. It shows organised religious groups that they hold power over the government whenever they choose to use it.  In terms of international diplomacy, it shows theocratic states and the like that we are moving to become more like them. This legitimises their position, which the opposition thinks is an inherently harmful one as the voice of the people is not heard in non-democratic countries."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro01a","title":"","text":"People have a right to freedom of religion.  Freedom to religion is widely considered to be a fundamental human right. Freedom of religion is very similar to freedom of expression and is an inalienable right that cannot be taken away by the state. Article 18 of the universal declaration of human rights states \u201cEveryone has the right to freedom of\u2026 religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.\u201d [1] In addition to this, many people consider religion to be the single most important thing in their life.  Under the status quo, many people are inhibited in their ability to practise their religion to its fullest degree. This not only causes them great distress due to how important this is to them but is a breach of their human rights.  The government has an obligation to provide people with a basic standard of life and thus must pass this legislation.  [1] \u201cThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights.\u201d The United Nations Article 18"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Rights only exist so long as they do not harm others. Like all rights, the right to practise your religion to its fullest extent, regardless of the consequences for other people and the laws of your state is only a right in as far as it does not affect other people. The opposition believes that laws are in place to stop people from causing harm to one another and allowing religious people to break these laws is putting the rights of the religious people ahead of the rights of everyone else in society.  The government has a responsibility to respect the rights and standard of life of all people, not just religious people."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Religious extremism is not currently considered \u2018legitimate\u2019. The community at large have a great disdain for terrorism and similar activity and mainstream religions desperately try to disassociate themselves from extremism, all the while condemning it. [1]  The opposition believes that this good will be so barely perceptible that it does next to nothing to outweigh all the harms that this legislation will bring.  [1] Iannaccone, Laurence R. \u201cReligious extremism: Origins and consequences\u201d Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20. 1996."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Relationship between state and organised religion.  Currently, the state and organised religion are often seen as diametrically opposed. [1] For example the state often worries about the threat of religious extremists. This causes a lot of tension between the government and religious communities within the country, as well as between the state and states which hold religion more highly. As the Bishop of Liverpool puts it \u201cChurch and politics are not two parallel lines; rather they are two live wires, side by side, which when they touch should ignite and explode.\u201d [2] Thus when Rowan Williams suggested Sharia might be accommodated his comments created a political storm.  This legislation would show that we do value and respect religious freedom and rights and would improve our relationships on both of these fronts.  [1] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press 1992  [2] The Bishop of Liverpool, \u2018Church and Politics: \u201cMy Kingdom is not of this world\u201d Really?\u2019, St Wilfrid Lecture, 18th February 2010."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Delegitimises religious  Currently, bombings and attacks in the name of religion are a big problem. These are mostly caused by people feeling that their religion is being discriminated against. [1] For example Dr Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury believes that \"There's a place for finding what would be a constructive accommodation with some aspects of Muslim law, as we already do with some other aspects of religious law.\" He believes this would help maintain social cohesion because Muslims would not need to choose between \"the stark alternatives of cultural loyalty or state loyalty\". [2]  If the government is seen to be supporting all religions then these attacks will lose their credibility and will inevitably be reduced in both severity and frequency.  [1] Iannaccone, Laurence R. \u201cReligious extremism: Origins and consequences\u201d Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20. 1996.  [2] BBC News, \u2018Sharia law in UK is \u2018unavoidable\u2019\u2019, 7 February 2008."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con03b","title":"","text":"This treats everyone the same rather than treating people differently. The proposition does not accept that people will perceive this as one set of rules for one group of people and another set of rules for another. This legislation does not create divisions in society but relieves them by ensuring that everyone is allowed to practise their religion to the fullest extent that they wish to.  The status quo is that some religious groups are allowed to practise their religion to its fullest extent and others are not. The proposition believes that this is far more divisive than this legislation."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con01b","title":"","text":"This is a weak slippery slope argument. The proposition does not accept that this legislation puts religion above the law. Religious people and movements do not see the potential to practise their religion to its fullest degree as a way to get one over on the state but a right that they deserve as a human being.  This legislation will not be seen as weakness but as tolerance.  As for honour killings, they are not religious but cultural and are denounced by leaders of all the world\u2019s major faiths [1] as such they have nothing to do with this legislation and would not be perceived as having anything to do with this legislation.  [1] \u201cHonour Crimes.\u201d BBC Ethics Guide. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con02a","title":"","text":"Makes the affected laws effectively inoperable in their totality.  If people wish to carry knives in public or smoke marijuana, the rational thing for them to do under this legislation is to falsely claim to be Sikh or Rastafarian respectively so that they are not subject to these laws. This logic applies to all laws affected by this legislation.  The government would first have to work out what religions count for this legislation, the government would likely want to exclude at least some extremist cults and would not want to allow individuals or small to make up their own religions. Equally problematic would be that the government would need to regulate what all these beliefs are so as to prevent new beliefs from springing up to get around laws. The government would then have to work out ways of working out if someone is legitimately part of a religion or not, this would be practically impossible. The ultimate effect would be that all laws affected by this legislation would be so easy to get around that they may as well not exist.  Instead the government should look to accommodate religious values within British law by making the necessary changes in specific instances rather that introducing a carte blanche to override the laws of the land. [1]  [1] Petre, Jonathan et al, \u2018Bishop: Impossible to have sharia law in UK\u2019, The Telegraph, 8 February 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con03a","title":"","text":"Causes divisions in society.  One of the most fundamental things in any democracy is equality between those in that society. Many minorities have been struggling for this equality for decades. This includes religious minorities for example between the reformation in the 16th Century and 1829 Catholics were second class citizens. [1] This demand that religious beliefs should override government laws switches things around and once again means that not everyone is equal before the law.  Moreover making it law that certain groups of people are allowed to behave in a way that other groups of people are not inevitably leads to social divisions. This means people who are unaffected by this legislation will see religious people as getting special treatment, feel side-lined by the government and see religious people as their enemy in this.  This will promote tension between religious and non-religious communities and will thus create divisions in society as well as deepening pre-existing ones.  [1] Living Heritage, \u2018Religion and Belief\u2019, parliament.uk."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con01a","title":"","text":"Sets a standard for religion as it being above the law.  This legislation essentially indicates that anything to do with religion is not subject to the same laws as everyone else and removes the state from his position as ultimate authority over its subjects. The limits will be very difficult to draw \u2013 there are some things that everyone would agree is based upon religious belief such as the Sikhs carry knives but there may be other cases where a minority of the religion believes that something is required by their religion, should this still be allowed? Similarly would this apply to every single religion and sect or would the state have to define what it counts as a religion and limit it only to major religions?  By extension, this legitimises actions like honour killings, which are killings done in the name of religion. Although they would not be directly allowed by this legislation, they would be implicitly encouraged and those carrying it out would try to claim that it was carrying out a religious belief in order to get protection from the law. Already 1 in 10 young British Asians back honour killings, they do not need any encouragement from changes to the law like this. [1]  [1] BBC News, \u2018One in 10 \u2018backs honour killings\u2019\u2019, 4 September 2006."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con02b","title":"","text":"This harm can be avoided very easily. Avoiding these laws becoming completely inoperable would actually be quite simple. People who observe nothing but the potentially illegal parts of the religion would not be considered part of that religion, particularly if they only began identifying as part of that religion once this legislation was passed."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro02b","title":"","text":"Term-limiting legislators insults the intelligence of the electorate. Individuals can make prudent decisions about who to vote for, and it so happens that that decision is often to keep incumbents in power. If the reason for such high reelection rates is due to an uneducated or disaffected electorate, then the problem is not be solved by simply instituting term limits. Rather, such results mean an effort must be made to educate voters and to fight voter apathy. Neither of those things is accomplished by limiting the choice of the voters."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro02a","title":"","text":"Term limits create more competitive elections for public office that empower new leaders and ideas:  Incumbency provides a huge election advantage. Politicians almost always win reelection. The frequency with which they win varies over time and between states, but incumbency is always a powerful advantage. This is seen most visibly in the United States Congress of the past 30 years, in which it has become virtually impossible to unseat an incumbent legislator. Legislators are reelected because they have better name recognition both with the electorate and with lobby groups. People have a tendency to vote for whom they recognize, and firms tend to support past winners who will likely continue to benefit their interests. Term limits actually increase voter choice by making elections more competitive and encouraging more candidates to run. In areas where term limits have been instituted there is far higher turnover amongst legislators, giving voters far more choice in who should represent them. In California, the institution of term limits on state legislators caused a rush of retirements, which led to 50 percent more candidates than would otherwise have been expected, as well as a marked increase in the diversity of the backgrounds of those elected [1] . Ultimately, old legislators using election machines to retain power do their country and constituents a disservice. Power is best used when it changes hands over time in order to allow for dynamic new solutions to be mooted in a changing world.  [1] Bandow, Doug. 1995. \"Real Term Limits: Now More Than Ever\". Cato Institute Policy Analysis."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro03b","title":"","text":"People are intelligent enough to recognize whether a representative is benefiting them or not. They will not vote for someone who is using his privileged position in the legislature to enrich himself or build a fiefdom of influence. Rather, legislators will only be able to stay in office so long as they do what their constituents want. If legislators are maintaining their power by other means, such as institutionalized corruption and force, it is not because there are no term limits on them, but rather because of other fundamental problems of government in those states."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro01a","title":"","text":"Term limits restore a concept of rotation in public office, and reestablish the concept of the citizen legislature:  It is gravely unfortunate that politics has become an accepted career path for citizens of democratic states. It is far better that participation in government be brief. To end politics as a lifetime sinecure, thereby making legislative service a leave of absence, rather than a means of permanently absconding from a productive career in the private sector, requires that there be term limits 1. Without term limits, the temptation to remain in office for life will keep people seeking reelection long after they have accomplished all the legislative good of which they are capable. It does not take long for legislators to become more occupied with their relationships with each other and with lobbyists, than with their constituents. Representative assemblies work best when they function as citizen legislatures, in which people who pursue careers other than politics enter the legislative forum for a brief time to do their country service, and then leave again to reenter society as private citizens2. Such citizen legislators who enter politics to make their mark and then leave are far more desirable than the career politicians of today who focus only on building their own power influence, rather than considering the people they were elected to represent. US states with 'citizen legislatures', where the state legislature is part time with short sessions so allowing its members to hold other jobs, were at the top of freedom indexes. New Hampshire was both the most minimal parliament and the state with most fiscal freedom according to the Ruger-Sorens Index.3 1 Will, George. 1993. Restoration: Congress, Term Limits, and the Restoration of Deliberative Democracy. New York: Free Press. 2 Bandow, Doug. 1995. \"Real Term Limits: Now More Than Ever\". Cato Institute Policy Analysis. 3 Rugar, William and Sorens, Jason. 2011. \"The Citizen Legislature: How Reasonable Limits on State Legislative Salaries, Staff and Session Lengths Keep Liberty Alive\" Policy Brief, Goldwater Institute,"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro01b","title":"","text":"If people wish to pursue a career in politics, then it is their right to do so. There is nothing wrong with career politicians so long as they obey the will of their people and accurately represent the desires of their constituents. While there should be no bar to people seeking to enter politics on a temporary basis, placing that form of political participation over a more lasting one makes no sense. Furthermore, career politicians have valuable experience that can be extremely useful in the forming of legislation and the conducting of public business. Term limits destroy this valuable resource by casting people out of the halls of government at a fixed point, regardless of the worth they might still impart to the legislative process."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro04b","title":"","text":"A term-limited legislator suffers from the effects of being a lame duck. A final term legislator will not be able to command the same degree of leverage as one who can potentially serve another term. Building the necessary support for worthy legislation might thus prove far more difficult than it would have had the legislator not been a lame duck. Furthermore, with regard to lobby-group support, a politician on the way out who cannot seek another term has an incentive to favor groups and firms that will place him on their boards, a potentially highly lucrative retirement package for outgoing legislators, paid for often at the expense of the public."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro03a","title":"","text":"The longer a politician remains in office, the more entrenched his grip becomes, and the more likely he is to use his office to his personal advantage:  Power is highly intoxicating; it can corrupt even the most scrupled individual given enough exposure over time. For this reason, power should not be left in the hands of specific individuals for too long. When a politician is firmly entrenched, he may seek to enrich himself at the expense of the public. He may seek to shower benefices on family and allies in order to maintain and strengthen his powerful position. Without term limits legislators often become self-serving individuals, more interested in craving out personal power bases than with serving the people who elected them. Because legislators are so likely to be reelected, lobbyists and special interest groups find the lines of power in states' capitals largely predictable, and are thus able to buy the influence of the permanent power nexuses in the legislature with relative ease1. Term limits serve to limit the ability of individuals to put forward self-serving legislation and to retain power indefinitely 2. Instead, by maintaining term limits, legislators have only a limited time in power, which tends to shift their focus toward genuinely benefiting the public.  1 Bandow, Doug. 1995. \"Real Term Limits: Now More Than Ever\". Cato Institute Policy Analysis. 2 Green, Eric. 2007. \"Term Limits Help Prevent Dictatorships\". America.gov."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro04a","title":"","text":"The need to constantly fight elections compromises a politician's ability to make the difficult and unpopular decisions that may be needed at a given time:  A major focus of a legislator hoping to serve another term is on the next election and on vote getting. It is often the case that hard decisions need to be made by legislators, but it is difficult for them to do so when they are fixated on being reelected. Legislators have an incentive to put tough decisions off if they can retain power by doing so. An example of such seemingly perpetual procrastination is observable in the United States Congress's attitude toward social security. The fund is set to become insolvent, by some estimates, in less than two decades, yet congressmen and senators have chosen time and again to put off enacting painful, but necessary reform to the system. They find it easier to delay a decision until the next Congress, preferring their own reelection to the good of the nation. When constrained by term limits, legislators must make the most of their limited time in office, resulting in greater prioritization of difficult decisions and reform1. Furthermore, the need to constantly fight elections places politicians in the pocket of lobby-groups and election supporters to a greater degree, as they will always need to go back to them for support, and thus cannot make decisions that are in the national interest alone. While there will always be some of this behavior, it is curtailed by term limits, as legislators will, in their final term at the very least, not be beholden to as many special interests as they cannot run again. Bolder legislative action is observed from retiring legislators in the United States Congress, for example. When a congressman or senator does not intend to seek reelection, his tendency to vote along strict party lines diminishes substantially. Term limits, just like voluntary retirement, leads legislators to vote more on the basis of principle than on party stance2. The result of this is a more independent legislature, with a greater interest in actually serving the people.  1 Chan, Sewell. 2008. \"Debating the Pros and Cons of Term Limits\". New York Times. 2 Scherer, Michael. 2010. \"Washington's Time for Bipartisanship: Retirement\". Time."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con03b","title":"","text":"Legislators may gain skill in maneuvering in the legislative arena with time, but they also gain a propensity for power grabbing and self-advancement. Politicians of long standing use their knowledge of the working of the legislature as much for the lobbyists and interest groups, who they prefer to work with rather than young, inexperienced legislators. The power of lobbyists is magnified by the solidity of the channels of political influence created by high rates of incumbency. Term limits actually serve to restrict the power of interest groups, and instead places emphasis on the production of progressive legislation."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con01b","title":"","text":"Term limits promote greater choice in candidates and protect democracy1. While people may not be able to vote for a legislator again who has reached his limit of service, they can still vote for a continuation of his policies by voting for his chosen successor or for his political party's candidate. Limiting individual politicians to specified terms, however, prevents them from becoming too powerful and damaging the democratic system through efforts at self-enrichment and influence-peddling.  1 Bandow, Doug. 1995. \"Real Term Limits: Now More Than Ever\". Cato Institute Policy Analysis."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con02a","title":"","text":"The incentive for corruption and self-enrichment in office is increased by term limits:  With term limits, a legislator will, after he enters his final permitted term of office, not have to face the electorate again, meaning he can do whatever wants, to an extent. This encourages corruption and self-enrichment on the part of legislators in their final term of office when they do not need to face the people to answer for poor management. There is likewise less incentive to follow through on election promises to supporters, since their withdrawing support can have little tangible impact on a lame duck. A study into term limits in Brazil found that \"mayors with re-election incentives are signi?cantly less corrupt than mayors without re-election incentives. In municipalities where mayors are in their ?rst term, the share of stolen resources is, on average, 27 percent lower than in municipalities with second-term mayors.\"(Ferraz, 2010) Furthermore, lame duck politicians can devote time to buddying up to businesses and organizations in order to get appointments to lucrative board seats after they leave office. This has often been the case in Western democracies, where former parliamentarians, cabinet ministers, senators, etc. find themselves being offered highly profitable positions upon their retirement (Wynne, 2004). Imposing term limits necessarily increases this sort of behavior, as politicians look more toward their retirement during their final years of office, rather than to the interests of the people. 1 Ferraz, Claudio and Finan, Frederico, (2010). \"Electoral Accountability and Corruption: Evidence from the Audits of Local Governments\" Berkeley, 2 Wynne, Michael. 2004. \"Politics, Markets, Health and Democracy\". University of Wolongong."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con04a","title":"","text":"Term limits tend to increase partisanship between political parties and factions:  Term limits on legislators serve to exacerbate partisan tensions between political parties1. This is due to several causes. First, the increased iteration of primary elections, caused by politicians being forced out of office by term limits, in which there tends to be low voter turnout, and higher voter apathy when they happen to regularly. This leads to the selection of more conservative candidates from the right, and more radical candidates from the left. These more opposed groups forming large portions of political parties' representation will lead to more tension in the legislature. Second, newly elected politicians are often more likely to readily take the party whip when they enter the legislature. These results in more disciplined voting, which restricts the ability of moderates on either side to build consensuses on legislation. Third, the ability to build consensus and support from other parties relies on experience and deft political acumen, which are usually garnered through lengthy participation in the legislative process.2 Term limits exclude many skilled politicians from being able to use their expertise in the building of such consensus efforts. Fourth, concerns for their post-legislative career can lead to greater partisanship from retiring legislators. This is due to their need to court appointments to positions at party-affiliated, or party-leaning, think tanks, and on corporate boards favorable to their party. All of these factors lead to a less cooperative legislature when term limits are instituted. 1 Marcus, Andrew. 2010. \"Dodd and Other 'Retiring' Democrats Show Why Term Limitsare a Bad Idea\". Big Government. 2 Kouser, Thad. 2004. Term Limits and the Dismantling of State Legislative Professionalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con03a","title":"","text":"Experienced legislators who understand the workings of the legislative system are needed for their expertise and wisdom:  The process of drafting legislation and shepherding it through the legislature often requires a delicate and practiced hand, especially when the issue under discussion is of a controversial nature. By forcing politicians out of the legislature on the basis of term limits, the depth of knowledge and experience available to the assembly is reduced, often to its serious detriment [1] . Seasoned politicians are also needed to help newcomers acclimate to the environment of the legislature; something first-time elected individuals are completely unused to. Naivet\u00e9 on the part of new policymakers who are unused to the system will leave them vulnerable and exploitable. Lobbyists and special interest groups will seek to influence politicians while they develop their first impressions of life in the legislature, and will immediately capitalize upon any perceived vulnerability. Luann Ridgeway a Republican senator in the Missouri senate argues that term limits mean \u201cwe rely more on the trustworthiness of those established -- government relations individuals and staff persons -- because we have to\u201d, [2] this would include more taking advice from the long standing lobbyists. Furthermore, legislation often requires lengthy periods of negotiation, that require not only the experienced hand of long-standing legislators, but also the continuity they offer. If legislators are constrained by term limits their time horizons are narrowed causing them to put too much emphasis on near-term, rather than long-term legislation. Clearly, term limits undermine the effective operation of government and deny the legislature an invaluable source of experience and ability.  [1] Kouser, Thad. 2004. Term Limits and the Dismantling of State LegislativeProfessionalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  [2] Coleman, Emily and Bushnel, Michael, (2009). \u201cLegislators attribute heightened partisanship to term limits\u201d, Missourian, 16th May 2009"}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con01a","title":"","text":"Term limits are undemocratic and suggest, falsely, that voters cannot make intelligent decisions about their representatives without guidance:  Term limits are flagrantly undemocratic. If a legislator is popular and desired by the people to continue to represent them, then it should be their choice to reelect him. The instituting of term limits assumes voters cannot act intelligently without proper guidance. This is a serious insult to voters' intelligence. The electorate can discern for itself whether a legislator is doing a good job and will vote accordingly. Preventing a potentially popular candidate from standing for reelection simply removes the right from people to make important political decisions. It is not the duty of the state to encourage more candidates to run in elections to replace politicians who are already popular and doing a suitable job1. Should the US people have not been allowed to elect Franklyn D. Roosevelt for his third term? FDR was a very popular and successful president who brought the United States out of depression and won the Second World War and it was those very successes that lead the American people to reelect him. The people, if they have the freedom to choose who should represent them, should have the freedom to choose incumbents, and to do so indefinitely if that is what the popular will demands. 1 Marcus, Andrew. 2010. \"Dodd and Other 'Retiring' Democrats Show Why Term Limitsare a Bad Idea\". Big Government."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con04b","title":"","text":"The dynamics of party primaries are not the same in all jurisdictions, and efforts at promoting moderate and capable candidates can still be made after the institution of term limits. Furthermore, new politicians may in fact be more willing to work on bipartisan projects, as they are not inculcated in the culture of confrontation that predominates between political parties in many legislatures. For this reason politicians of longer standing might actually be a hindrance to bipartisan compromise. It is far better to allow for a preponderance of political views by making the legislature more open. The best way to accomplish this is clearly to impose term limits."}
+{"id":"training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con02b","title":"","text":"A politician who has to constantly concern himself with reelection has a much greater likelihood of being beholden to special interest groups and lobbyists than one who is term-limited so will actually engage in more corruption. While a term-limited legislator may suffer to a degree from lame duck status, the need to continuously seek electoral support is far more damaging to his ability to do what is right for the nation. Politicians who are not term-limited will spend more time doing what is popular than what is necessary. It is far better to have a representative who has only a limited time to enact the policies he envisions, so that he actively seeks to implement his vision, rather focusing on the short-term goal of reelection."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is wrong to simply make drones \u201ca default strategy to be used anywhere\u201d. Yes some of the time drones will be the right choice for catching terrorists and other militants but much of the time they won\u2019t be. Instead of spurning institutions like the ISI and Pakistan\u2019s Military we should be relying on them to fight extremism. This targeting of terrorists is happening in other countries sovereign territory. Their sovereignty should be respected wherever possible meaning that the Pakistanis, the Somalis and the Yemenis should be the ones who carry out these engagements.  Again here there is the difficulty of not knowing how many were killed in drone strikes (see counter to prop 1). We cannot compare other types of strikes unless we have more reliable figures. This is something that sending special forces in would help with; they would have much more accurate figures of who they kill and could check whether they really killed the person they were supposed to be targeting. This would prevent any attempt to inflate the kill count through including those they are not sure of as terrorists. [1]  [1] Becker, Jo, and Shane, Scott, \u2018Secret \u2018Kill List\u2019 Proves a Test of Obama\u2019s Principles and Will\u2019, The New York Times, 29 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro02a","title":"","text":"UAVs are the best possible weapon for the job.  We need to eliminate terrorists somehow and UAVs are the best possible equipment with which to carry out this mission. All the other options either would result in significantly more casualties or would have other problems that would likely allow terrorists to escape.  First there is the collateral damage that would be caused by using other alternatives to striking terrorists. Professor Plaw of the University of Massachusetts says that when terrorists were being confronted by the Pakistani Army, who were attacking at the behest of the United States, 46% of casualties were collateral damage. A similar number of 41% was the figure when Israel was targeting Hamas. [1] When compared to the 16 or 28% collateral damage figures for UAVs the choice should be easy.  Moreover other options have other disadvantages. Sending a hit squad in to eliminate terrorists may mean little collateral damage but would cause a diplomatic crisis as it would be tantamount to invading another country. Using a missile or local support on the other hand significantly increases the chances of the target escaping. Pakistan\u2019s ISI, military intelligence, has for example been accused of helping the Taliban \u2013 they could hardly be trusted to kill them. [2]  [1] Shane, Scott, \u2018The Moral Case for Drones\u2019, The New York Times, 14 July 2012.  [2] Perlez, Jane, \u2018Pakistan Scorns U.S. Scolding on Terrorism\u2019, The New York Times, 23 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro03b","title":"","text":"This is incorrect; It makes the assumption that UAVs could not be used at all if they were not being used to attack targets. They could still be used in a surveillance role so providing the same amount of time to deliberate before striking in a different fashion, one that is appropriate to the situation."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro01a","title":"","text":"UAVs cause less collateral damage.  There are only two things that really matter when targeting terrorists; is the terrorist eliminated, and is collateral damage kept to a minimum? In Pakistan there have been a total of 334 strikes by UAVs between 2004 and June 2012 with the total reported killed at 2496-3202 of which only 482-832 were civilians according to the Bureau of Investigative Journalism. [1] Moreover the number of civilians killed in strikes is falling; 28 percent of casualties in 2008 were civilians but by 2011 this had fallen to 16 percent [2] and this is a figure that is likely to continue falling as drones improve technologically making identification easier and making strikes more precise. These figures show that the United States in its use of drones is not only hitting a lot of terrorist targets and eliminating them but is causing very little collateral damage in comparison to the number of strikes made.  [1] Woods, Chris, and Serle, Jack, \u2018June Update \u2013 US covert actions in Pakistan, Yemen and Somalis\u2019, The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2 July 2012.  [2] Shane, Scott, \u2018The Moral Case for Drones\u2019, The New York Times, 14 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro01b","title":"","text":"Because drones are not on the ground and can\u2019t check the identities of those who are killed there is no way of knowing if they really do cause less civilian casualties; what the proposition calls \u2018collateral damage\u2019. We also do not know what damage would be caused by other forms of attack on the same targets. It is however definitely open to question whether these attacks really do cause less civilian casualties. Local activists believe that around 3,000 people have been killed in Waziristan of whom only 185 were named al Qaeda operatives \u2013 a very poor ratio of 16 civilians for every al Qaeda man killed. [1] The Brookings institution meanwhile estimates that for every al Qaeda and Taliban militant killed there are ten civilian casualties. [2] If either of these estimates are anywhere near the mark then there are very large number of civilian casualties, much higher than proposition believes, and probably higher than other forms of strikes would cause.  [1] Shackle, Samira, \u2018Drones and the \u201cbugsplats\u201d they cause\u2019, New Statesman, 13 June 2012.  [2] Byman, Daniel L., \u2018Do Targeted Killings Work?\u2019, ForeignPolicy.com, 14 July 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro04b","title":"","text":"Today most forms of conflict do not have much risk to western militaries. While the attacks were carried out from high in the sky NATO did not suffer a single loss in combat operations over Kosovo in 1999. [1] Moreover this lack of danger with UAVs is potentially immoral; we no longer have a war in which both sides are at risk rather a shooting range for drones to kill \u2018terrorists\u2019. Having at least some danger is needed as a restraint on the use of force. A good litmus test to use for the authorisation of lethal force would be whether the public would find the goals of the action worthwhile even if it did result in the loss of several soldiers.  [1] Gallis, Paul E., \u2018Kosovo: Lessons Learned from Operation Allied Force\u2019, CRS Report for Congress, 19 November 1999, p.8"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro03a","title":"","text":"UAVs allow more care and safeguards before shooting.  When engaging in covert operations it is essential that the right target is identified so that the correct target is eliminated. This is something that using UAVs allows as they are able to track their target, sometimes for days, before attacking. This means there is much more time for scrutiny of targets and possible collateral damage.  This also means that there is plenty of room for the decisions to be made right at the top. Every person on the kill list gets discussed at a weekly meeting of more than 100 members of the US government\u2019s security apparatus. President Obama himself signs off on strikes and can change the decision if the situation on the ground changes. Former National Security Advisor Jones says \u201cMany times\u2026 at the 11th hour we waved off a mission simply because the target had people around them and we were able to loiter on station until they didn\u2019t.\u201d [1]  While UAVs may be \u2018unmanned\u2019 they are certainly heavily monitored as each drone has 43 military personnel rotating in three shifts. They include seven joystick pilots, seven system operators, and five mission coordinators, there is also from the CIA 66 people, including 34 video crew members, and 18 intelligence analysts. [2] This means that there are a large number of eyeballs to make sure that the right person is being targeted, to check he is with as few others as possible before the strike. None of this would be possible with other forms of attack where the emphasis has to be on the speed of the operation.  [1] Becker, Jo, and Shane, Scott, \u2018Secret \u2018Kill List\u2019 Proves a Test of Obama\u2019s Principles and Will\u2019, The New York Times, 29 May 2012 .  [2] Kaplan, Fred, \u2018Who\u2019s Afraid of the Kill List\u2019, Slate, 15 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro04a","title":"","text":"Using UAVs prevents soldiers from being killed.  To put it bluntly any military or intelligence service wants to keep its own men safe while carrying out its missions; Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are the ultimate capability with which to manage this. No military or civilian personnel are going to be killed if the delivery vehicle is controlled from the United States. This means that unlike in other methods of attack the UAV can take its time even if it is at risk. In the war in Kosovo NATO air forces had to launch their attacks from 15,000 feet due to worries they would be shot down. [1] Attacking from such a height from a fast moving aeroplane makes missing the target much more likely.  [1] Thomas, Timothy, \u2018Kosovo and the Current Myth of Information Superiority\u2019, Parameters, Spring 2000, pp.13-29."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con03b","title":"","text":"This is a conflict situation, a war, pure and simple. While this is a new kind of conflict; when the opponent is a non-state actor states have to be able to strike at these groups that intend to attack them even when they are sheltering in other states. Such attacks should also not include the state where those groups are sheltering unless that state is supporting that group as was the case in Afghanistan.  Yes the distinction between civilian and combatant is blurred by this conflict but this is something that happens regardless of whether the United States uses UAVs. It is the terrorists themselves who through their horrific attacks by \u2018civilians\u2019 on civilian targets that strip away the distinction. The United States has to be able to respond with whatever method is most likely to prevent more of these terrorist attacks."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con01b","title":"","text":"Getting special forces or allies on the ground is not always an option. In countries like Somalia and Yemen where there have been conflicts between factions the authorities will not always cooperate and even if they do they may not control the territory where the strike team would need to operate. There will also be many times where it is simply too dangerous to try and snatch someone. If that person is a danger they need to be stopped in the quickest way possible; and that will be by the use of the UAV that is already far above monitoring the target."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con02a","title":"","text":"The use of drones makes the use of force easier to sanction.  Using drones encourages the use of lethal force rather than alternatives. The reason for this is obvious \u2013 it is much easier to resort to violence if you know there is no risk to yourself. With the operators thousands of miles away in the United States the only risk of using drones is the loss of equipment. As Christof Heyns, the UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial killings, has said \u201cThe term 'targeted killing' is wrong because it suggests little violence has occurred. The collateral damage may be less than aerial bombardment, but because they eliminate the risk to soldiers they can be used more often.\u201d [1]  The use of drones is also politically expedient in a way that otherwise the use of force would not be. Dennis Blair, the former director of national intelligence, points out that the strike campaign is dangerously seductive as it is \u201clow cost, no U.S. casualties, gives the appearance of toughness\u2026 It plays well domestically, and it is unpopular only in other countries. Any damage it does to the national interest only shows up over the long term.\u201d [2] The use of force therefore becomes the first choice not the option of last resort. Even those within the U.S. administration such as Secretary of state Clinton have worried about a drones-only approach that ignored other options and does not look at solving the larger problems. [3]  [1] Bowcott, Owen, \u2018Drone strikes threaten 50 years of international law, says UN rapporteur\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 21 June 2012.  [2] Becker, Jo, and Shane, Scott, \u2018Secret \u2018Kill List\u2019 Proves a Test of Obama\u2019s Principles and Will\u2019, The New York Times, 29 May 2012, p.8  [3] ibid, p.8"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con04a","title":"","text":"The use of drones creates a precedent that other states may use.  The United States is the first state with a large number of drones and other unmanned military vehicles. It is also the first country to use them. This inevitably means that the US is creating the precedent for how they will be used in future. The United States is aware of this potential and President Obama\u2019s counterterrorism adviser John Brennan has stated \u201cOther nations also possess this technology, and many more nations are seeking it, and more will succeed in acquiring it. President Obama and those of us on his national security team are very mindful that as our nation uses this technology, we are establishing precedents that other nations may follow, and not all of those nations may \u2014 and not all of them will be nations that share our interests or the premium we put on protecting human life, including innocent civilians.\u201d [1] This is exactly the problem; do we really want to live in a world where any country can carry out targeted killings of people who are in another nation? Such a world would have the ever present risk of a covert conflict becoming a much more open shooting war.  [1] McNeal, Greg, \u2018Is the U.S. Setting Precedents in its Drone Wars\u2019, Forbes, 6 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con03a","title":"","text":"Using drones blurs the distinction between war and peace.  The use of drones further blurs the already worryingly indistinct line between a state of war and a state of peace. The drone attacks are taking place in countries where the United States does not have any legal authority. The United States is not officially at war with Pakistan, Yemen, or Somalia, yet has launched hundreds of attacks on these countries and their citizens. The assumption is that a state can be at war with a non-state actor such as a terrorist group and therefore is free to target them wherever this group may be found. This means that the US is prosecuting a war in which only it thinks it is at war while sovereign countries like Pakistan are targeted despite believing they are at peace. It is the use of drones that makes it easy to circumvent sovereignty and attack targets on another country\u2019s soil so creating the ambiguity.  Equally worryingly is the blurring of the distinction between civilian and combatant. Firstly the U.S. has decided to define any adult male in the target area as a terrorist when many are most likely nothing of the sort. [1] Secondly the Geneva conventions and their 1977 additions at their heart have the assumption that civilians cannot engage in a war \u2013 they are innocent bystanders. This however has been changed by the use of drones; it is a civilian agency, the CIA, which controls the drones and pulls the trigger. This makes the CIA combatants so breaking the obligation not to engage as soldiers. This means that U.S. civilians lose their protected status and the U.S. can\u2019t complain if U.S. citizens are targeted in retaliation as the terrorists can no longer distinguish between those who are targeting them and those who are not. [2]  [1] Hammond, Jeremy R., \u2018The Immoral Case for Drones\u2019, Foreign Policy Journal, 16 July 2012.  [2] Hallinan, Conn, \u2018CIA\u2019s Drone Wars Blurs Distinction Between Military and Civilian Combatants\u2019, Foreign Policy In Focus, 6 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con01a","title":"","text":"The use of drones means shoot to kill is the only option.  Using drones cuts down the options on the ground. A drone can only keep circling or go in for the attack; their only option is to kill a target or let them escape. Using ground forces; either your own, or in this case the Pakistani or Yemeni military, provides the third option of capturing the target. This is ethically a much better position for the United States to be in as it means that the terrorists can be given the option to surrender rather than simply being killed. This in turn would provide the benefit of allowing a trial helping to show the justice of the operation. Moreover these captured militants would likely be valuable intelligence assets who could be questioned which may well lead the intelligence services to other terrorists.  Finally using drones is a very aggressive and provocative stance as it prevents any possibility of a peaceful resolution. The usage of drones immediately eliminates the possibility of negotiation because drones are remote from their operators. This means that drones are unlikely to be useful in the many situations that could be helped by any form of contact."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con04b","title":"","text":"Any other nation seeking to take a precedent from the use of drones would have to be involved in a conflict against a terrorist organisation that poses a credible, clear, and present danger and not be able to fight those terrorists by other means. The situation in Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia is in many ways unique in that these are states that have either failed or are near failure. As a result the sovereign government cannot be relied to combat terrorists on their own soil."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con02b","title":"","text":"It is absolutely not the case that UAVs will mean unnecessary attacks that would not otherwise be made; all the targets are checked by a large number of national security experts and the attacks are signed off by the President himself. The attacks are therefore taken very seriously by the administration. Moreover that the attacks are low cost is exactly what we want \u2013 the capability to strike our enemies without losses to ourselves or any collateral damage should be prized not shunned."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro02b","title":"","text":"This again assumes that there is no additional harm attached to the perpetrating of such a crime by an individual who holds these ideas, which there demonstrably is (though the inflicting of terror on one specific community). Moreover hate crimes themselves are a violation of the right to freedom of speech; a person does have the right to express themselves, but not in a way that would prevent others from exercising their own rights.  A hate crime is the ultimate attempt to limit another's freedom of expression. A hate crime is an attempt to silence the very idea that a particular person has the right to exist or to live a particular lifestyle. Therefore, in order to uphold the first amendment, hate crime enhancements are not only just, but are in fact necessary."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro02a","title":"","text":"Hate crime enhancements are an attack on free speech  Hate crimes are crimes that are based on an idea that the perpetrator had prior to the crime. The crime itself is no different from any other crime except that it is punished more harshly. Why is this so? Because we are punishing an idea. All forms of violent crime, whether they are murders, rapes, or beatings are an expression of hatred toward another human being.  To add more punishment to a crime because it represents a particular kind of hate (an idea) is to unfairly distinguish between different violent acts and trivialize those violent acts that do not appear to be motivated by prejudice hate. This is unjust because the idea itself does not cause harm, and is in fact legal in most cases (with the exception of direct incitement to violence), as racist or prejudiced statements and ideas are not illegal in most western liberal democracies.  We allow extreme and prejudiced ideas to be legal because we recognise the value of free speech and open discourse in debating and discussing ideas, so as to best allow for progress in human thought. Hate crime enhancements constitute an attack on this as they make an individual liable for harsher punishments for his actions if he holds certain views, and thus the law unfairly discriminates against these particular viewpoints and not against others, and so hate crime enhancements are unjust."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro03b","title":"","text":"In almost every case where hate crimes are committed, the communities involved already perceive themselves as distinct and opposed, mostly because they already believe that their communities have been sundered by structural inequalities and hate-motivated crimes. Simply ignoring hate crimes will not make these communities stop perceiving them. Rather, it could lead to some communities feeling that their concerns and grievances are not being properly addressed, and lead to more inter-community violence as they seek to ensure 'justice' is done by their own hands."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro01a","title":"","text":"Hate crime enhancements unfairly punish equal offences differently  Hate crime enhancements are unjust because they respond to two equal results (i.e. assault vs. racial mugging) with different punishments. We need to judge solely on the concrete actions of the aggressor in order to prevent punishments from being based on arbitrary judgements as to an offender\u2019s \u201cintent\u201d, which can be very difficult to prove. Otherwise \u201cintent\u201d may be supposed or argued in cases where it did not exist, leading to perverse sentencing whereby a crime is punished more harshly despite the true absence of intent. There is a danger of unjustly branding someone as bigoted and punishing them excessively, e.g. for their involvement in a bar fight where the victim coincidentally belonged to a minority group.  Juries might also be willing to make the logical leap that, because the aggressor was proved to hold bigoted views in general towards his victim's ethnic group, these views must have motivated his actions in this individual incident, despite the absence of any evidence linking the specific brawl in a bar to the aggressor's views. Therefore it is unjust to punish two crimes with equal effects differently on the highly subjective basis of \u201cintent\u201d, and thus hate crime enhancements are unjust."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro01b","title":"","text":"This presupposes that hate crimes are equal in their effects to non-hate crimes, which they are not as hate crimes cause harms in terms of terror directed at, and felt only by, specific groups.  Moreover, intent is considered in trials in many other circumstances, such as in differentiating between manslaughter (killing without intent to kill) and murder (killing with intent to kill), or when deciding whether a murder was premeditated or not. There is no reason to suppose intent cannot also be judged in possible hate crime cases."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro03a","title":"","text":"Hate crime enhancements cause inter-community tensions  By defining crimes as being committed by one group against another, rather than as being committed by individuals against their society, the labelling of crimes as \u201chate crimes\u201d causes groups to feel persecuted by one another, and that this impression of persecution can incite a backlash and thus lead to an actual increase in crime.(1) These effects spread beyond the hate crimes themselves.  By prosecuting high-profile cases of white hate crimes against blacks, for example, it encourages blacks to see themselves as part of a distinct community different from the white community and whose relations are marked by crimes committed by one against the other. This is especially true when one community seems to perpetrate more hate crime (or at least more convictions thereof are secured) against another community than visa-versa.  An analysis of hate crime date from the USA examining how hate crimes against whites are viewed with respect to hate crimes against blacks has hypothesised that the prevailing view in the minds of the public is that the crime that whites are most likely to commit against blacks is a hate crime, and that it is hard for most Americans to envision a white person committing a crime against a black person for a different reason. The only white people who commit crimes against black people, goes the public belief, are racially prejudiced white extremists, and in contrast the very idea of hate crimes committed against whites is met with scepticism and disbelief.(2)  There have been several high-profile cases in the USA where some individuals have argued actual hate crimes against whites were not treated as such as a consequence of such public disbelief.(3) This can lead to an unjust situation where hate crime enhancements are (or are perceived as being) only applied \u201cagainst\u201d one community by another, despite hate crimes actually being committed by individuals within both communities against other individuals. Therefore hate crime enhancements are unjust."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-con03b","title":"","text":"Victims of violence may be prone to accusing their assailant of hate-motivated crimes. Victims frequently seek revenge, and hate crime laws create a very easy avenue for doing so. Thus hate crime enhancements may serve to fuel the fires of inter-community tensions as people perceive them as being used to exact communal vengeance."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-con01b","title":"","text":"Much of this symbolism and \u201cmeaning\u201d attributed to hate crimes is deeply subjective and open to (mis)interpretation, especially in a politicized environment where hatred against one group is perceived as being the \u201cusual\u201d motivation behind any crime by any individual from another community against that group, and where the idea of hatred motivating a crime against another community by a different individual (based on his own background) is treated with scepticism."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-con02a","title":"","text":"Hate crime enhancements help prevent hate crimes  The additional punishment given to hate crimes under enhancements can help deter people who hold hateful views from acting on them, as they fear going to prison for any amount of time, and so any additional punishment affects their risk calculation before they commit a hate crime.  Moreover, increased punishments help prevent those who have perpetrated hate crimes from re-offending through rehabilitation in prison. In cases of crimes motivated by deep hatred, rehabilitation may require increased time and increased effort in order to provide criminals with the correct focus and concentration, and a longer sentence is necessary for this to happen.  Hate is not an essential human trait, we are not born hating people, it is a learned factor that can be unlearned when correctly rehabilitated. Therefore hate crime enhancements are just because they help prevent hate crimes and help prevent hate crime recidivism."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-con03a","title":"","text":"Hate crime enhancements can help emphasize tolerance and inter-community relations  Hate crime laws can teach society that hatred is highly condemnable and mould society into a streak away from racism, sexism, etc. Most governments have already taken this turn with the advent of segregation laws, discrimination laws, etc. To simply leave these issues unaddressed would be to make many communities, especially minority communities, feel that their grievances were ignored and that the state allowed discrimination and violence against them. Such feelings would further polarize communities against each other and make racial tensions and further hate crimes more likely.  Therefore hate crime enhancements should be maintained as a way for the state to send a message that it desires tolerance and will not allow crimes based on prejudice to stand un-addressed."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-con01a","title":"","text":"Hate crimes uniquely harm through terror  Hate crimes should be given a more severe penalty because the harm done to the victim and society is greater. Given that the intent of hate crimes is more malicious than simple premeditative murder; it is just to enhance hate crime laws to reflect stronger punishment. Hate crimes don't merely victimize the individual upon whom violence is inflicted, they also victimize a community or minority group that the hate crime was intended to terrorize. This is why hate crimes frequently include highly public acts such as lynchings in town squares, dragging hate crime victims behind cars along streets inhabited by certain communities, and graffiti on significant buildings -they are intended to send a message.  Hate crime-delivered messages limit the freedom of expression and group association of the victim community, thus violating their liberties. For this reason, hate crimes have more victims than other crimes, and subsequently deserver greater punishment. Moreover, as hate crimes are generally perpetrated against minority groups, and because these minority groups are always in a state of social disenfranchisement; it could be argued that hate crime enhancements are the state's way of attempting to arbitrate equality to minorities by compensating them with laws that will better favour their interests, thus forcibly \"balancing the scale\" of social equity."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppsmhbhce-con02b","title":"","text":"It isn't necessarily true that hate crime enhancements really do deter hate crimes or help fight recidivism. Those committing hate crimes would face significant deterrents (in the form of legal sanctions, including prison time) for the crimes they commit even without the enhancements, so it seems unlikely that the addition of a few more years on their sentence, for example, would make a large difference to them when considering committing a crime. Moreover most hate crimes are based on irrational hatred and prejudice, and thus are unlikely to be rationally considered in a risk analysis as this argument supposes. In terms of rehabilitation, it should be noted that prisons are frequently places of racial and sectarian tension, with violent prison gangs built on ethnic and other identities, and thus hardly seem the place to counteract such prejudices.(4)"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro02b","title":"","text":"Just as some people have difficulty remembering so many passwords, so some people have difficulty remembering where they misplaced their belongings. This motion offers no solution if somebody should lose their identity card; given that it may be used to have access to a bank account, act as a travel card or simply be used to grant general access to the bearer, how could they possibly survive if they lost it? It is reasonable to assume that a biometric identity card might take as long or longer than a passport (which contains some biometric data) to be replaced. Given that in the UK it takes three weeks to receive a new passport if you lose it [1] and can cost between \u00a377.50 and \u00a3112.50, this is simply too expensive and too slow for the average citizen to be able to continue with their daily life. A week without access to daily necessities such as your own bank account is too long to wait.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro02a","title":"","text":"Identity cards confer advantages on their users  The average person is faced with numerous requisitions for identification every day, whether trying to access their own bank account, prove their age or prove their address. The identity card could easily incorporate all of this information to become one convenient for of identification and save the user the hassle of carrying so many documents around with them. Given that \u2018the average person now has to remember five passwords, five PIN numbers, two number plates, three security ID numbers and three bank account numbers just to get through everyday life\u2019 [1] , there is evidently a need for a single, concise form of identification. Moreover, it would help them to identify the people they have to interact with. There have been numerous cases of criminals posing as company officials such as gas workers in order to gain access to somebody\u2019s home and steal from them [2] [3] . These identity cards would particularly help vulnerable citizens who are the most at risk of this kind of injustice. For this reason these cards should be compulsory, they would not be much use as identification if not everyone had one that could be checked by anybody.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro03b","title":"","text":"Many illegal immigrants already take steps to avoid official identification. For example, they frequently take jobs which pay cash-in-hand [1] so that they do not have to set up and authorise a bank account, or have a social security number. There is not reason why this would not continue. Moreover, this measure simply provides more fuel for injustice. These is already a problem of police officers targeting minority groups for \u2018stop-and-search- checks [2] ; under this motion, this injustice would be amplified under the guise of checking for illegal immigrants. This measure is contradictory to the notion of democracy.  [1] BBC. \u2018The British illegal immigrants\u2019. Published 02\/02\/2005. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] BBC. \u2018Police stop and search powers \u2018target minorities\u2019. Published 15\/03\/2010. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro05a","title":"","text":"Only those who are guilty have anything to fear from systems that monitor and confirm identities  Law-abiding citizens who have not and do not intend to commit any crimes should not have a problem with this motion. Carrying a single card is not a huge burden to an individual. Rather they can reap the benefits of convenience to them personally, alongside the added security benefit to their whole nation which will help to keep them safe. As it is to be issued to everyone there will not even be the inconvenience of having to spend a long time applying for the card as it is in the government\u2019s interest to make it as simple as possible with mobile offices taking the relevant biometrics where the people live so as to have the least impact on individual\u2019s lives as possible."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro01a","title":"","text":"Identity cards improve public safety  Identity cards could prove a key instrument to combat crime, terrorism and fraud. Given that terrorists have used fake passports to cross borders in the past [1] , a sophisticated identity card, possibly containing specific biometric information which cannot be easily faked, could be crucial in preventing terrorist acts in the future. In cases where the police were suspicious, they could rapidly check the identities of many people near a crime scene, which would make their investigation much swifter and more effective. The CBI also believes that \u2018the creation of a single source of identity data\u2019 [2] in the form of biometric identity cards would also decrease identity fraud. Given that identity fraud currently costs the UK \u00a32.7 billion per year [3] , Canada over 10 million Canadian dollars per year [4] , and in America identity fraud relating to credit cards alone costs around $8.6 billion per year [5] , this is obviously a serious problem under the status quo. These crimes would be much more difficult if biometric data was required for financial transactions and other activities such as leaving or entering a country; identity cards are the best way forwards. The value of ID cards in combating terrorism and crime is much reduced if not everyone has them as the guilty would be less likely to want to get such cards unless they could somehow fake them.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [4] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [5] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro01b","title":"","text":"Many countries \u2013 including America [1] and Britain [2] - already use biometric chips in passports to reinforce proof of identity when crossing national borders. If this data does not work in this case, especially since security has increased hugely since 9\/11 [3] , there is no evidence to support the idea that it would suddenly be improved if this chip was in an identity card instead of an official national passport. Moreover, the biometric information on these cards has already been proved faulty. Experts have demonstrated that they could copy the biometric information provided on identity cards \u2018in minutes\u2019 [4] . Identity cards are unnecessary and will not help to prevent the crimes mentioned.  [1] The Economist. \u2018Have chip, will travel.\u2019 Published 17\/07\/2009. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [3] Accesssed from  on 10\/09\/11  [4] The Times. \u2018 \u201cFakeproof\u201d e-passport is cloned in minutes.\u2019 Published 06\/08\/2008. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro05b","title":"","text":"It is perfectly legitimate for an innocent citizen to oppose identity cards on the grounds of how they threaten to alter society. The oppressive measure of gaining and essentially holding to ransom everybody\u2019s intimate personal details and biometric data is hardly a soft measure; it is radical and may completely change the way in which society functions. Moreover, the fear that their card will be lost or stolen [1] , or that their information could be hacked and used by somebody else, is more than ample reason to fear or oppose the introduction of identity cards.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro04b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s perfectly fine to acknowledge that medical emergencies require fast action \u2013 but that\u2019s the exact reason why we use medical alert bracelets [1] . We already have a simply, non-intrusive way of ensuring that somebody who suffers from an illness such as epilepsy or diabetes can be quickly identified \u2013 without the need for an expensive and illiberal measure such as identity cards. Moreover, in the need to contact a relative, why not simply use their mobile number? Even if mobile umbers were now required by the government at all times, this is still far less intrusive than the scheme which proposition proposes.  [ 1 Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro03a","title":"","text":"Identity cards can assist in the efficient monitoring of immigration  Illegal immigration is an enormous problem in Western nations. The UK estimates that there are more that one million illegal immigrants living in Britain [1] , likely around 2.2 million [2] . For America, this number could be as high as 11 million [3] . Identity cards would mean that, even if illegal immigrants did succeed in crossing the border, they would most likely be found out because they could not pass routine security checks required on an everyday basis because they would not have been issued an identity card. Given that illegal immigration is frequently linked to international crime such as trafficking [4] , this is clearly a problem which we need to address in a new way.  [1] The Times. \u2018UK home to 1m illegal immigrants.\u2019 Published 25\/04\/2010. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [2] The Times. \u2018UK home to 1m illegal immigrants.\u2019 Published 25\/04\/2010. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [3] The New York Times. \u2018Number of illegal immigrants in US fell, study says.\u2019 Published 01\/09\/2010. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [4] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-pro04a","title":"","text":"Identity cards can be used to locate individuals who are in danger  As biometric identity cards would be able to store medical data, they could be instrumental in saving somebody\u2019s life. For example, if somebody suddenly suffered an epileptic fit, it would be much faster for medical staff to find out their illness and medical history no matter where there medical records are held as everyone\u2019s records would be linked to their ID card [1] , allowing them to be treated faster and more efficiently. It would also be easier to contact a friend or relative if they knew the last place where they had used their identity card, allowing faster unity of family in a medical emergency.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con03b","title":"","text":"While these crimes are obviously a problem, it doesn\u2019t mean that other crimes which can be challenged by this scheme should be allowed to continue. Identity cards would at least make it more difficult for fraud to occur, which in cases of petty criminals would provide an active deterrent for them to try it in the first place."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con01b","title":"","text":"Governments already have the majority of this information through passport applications [1] , social security numbers [2] and so on, without enormous objections by the public. Moreover, many have called for increased security since the rise of terrorist attacks [3] and comply with increased security at places like airports. This isn\u2019t pre-emptively condemning people for criminal activity; it is, like all other security checks, a routine check to enhance the safety of the general population. There is not reason not to identify with that as a common aim.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [3] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con02a","title":"","text":"An identity card scheme is open to subversion and abuse  Demanding identity cards has already been shown as a way for police officers and officials to harass minority groups by singling them out for questioning and searches [1] . This motion would simply serve as a thinly-veiled excuse for more intrusive searches which the law would not otherwise allow. This motion could also lead police to believe that those with a criminal record on their identity cards who just happen to be near a crime scene when a crime happens must be involved. This would lead to an unfair perversion of justice as those individuals are seen as the \u2018usual suspects\u2019, perhaps blinding the police eye to the real culprits if they did not previously have a criminal record.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con04a","title":"","text":"The scheme would cause inconvenience and public discontent  The more information which is incorporated into identity cards, the greater the problems if they are misplaced or stolen. You would be \u2018required to report the theft at a police station\u2019 [1] rather than being able to cancel by phone, because the only way to prove that you are the owner of the card would be to have your biological information \u2013 like your fingerprints - scanned [2] . Moreover, if your details were stolen online and used without your knowledge, the \u2018illusion of security\u2019 [3] surrounding the cards would make it very difficult to probe that it was not in fact you who was using the card. Jerry Fishenden of Microsoft also pointed out that \u2018if core biometric details such as your fingerprints are compromised, it is not going to be possible to provide you with new ones\u2019 [4] . It is also unreasonable to expect someone to carry this card on them at all times, particularly if police or other authorities are able to stop and search on demand. Overall, the introduction of biometric identity card would create enormous problems for the everyday user if the slightest thing went wrong.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [3] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [4] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con03a","title":"","text":"The scheme does not prevent forgery or identity theft  The entire premise of national security and crime prevention falls when biometric identity cards are in fact incredibly easy to falsify. Microchips have already been forged in a matter of minutes in an experiment to determine their security [1] , and biometric information can be gained remotely by computer through \u2018cracking\u2019, \u2018sniffing\u2019 and \u2018key-logging\u2019 [2] . Moreover, common crimes which would not require any kind of identification to be committed \u2013 vehicle theft, burglary, criminal damage, common assault, mugging, rape and anti-social behaviour [3] \u2013 would not be combated at all by this measure. Given that hackers have managed to penetrate even the highest-security sites such as the CIA database [4] , there is not only a danger that individual cards would be hacked, but that the greater database of information could be hacked. There is no such thing as an impenetrable security system. We would be far better off using the money which would potentially be funnelled into identity cards to increase computer security and police presence.  [1] The Times. \u2018 \u201cFakeproof\u201d e-passport is cloned in minutes.\u2019 Published on 06\/08\/2008. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [3] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [4] The Telegraph. \u2018CIA website hacked by Lulz Security\u2019. Published on 16\/06\/2011. Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con01a","title":"","text":"This motion represents an unacceptable intrusion into individual liberty  Introducing identity cards, and particularly biometric identity cards, would create a \u2018Big Brother\u2019 state where each individual is constantly being watched and monitored by the government. An identity card could potentially monitor the movements of each citizen, particularly if it had to be swiped to gain entry to buildings. Moreover, requiring the biometric information of each individual defies the principle of innocent until proven guilty. Under the status quo in the UK, biometric information is only taken during the process of creating a criminal record [1] - in short, we only take biometric data after somebody has been convicted of a crime. This motion presumes that everybody is or will become a criminal. This is obviously a huge injustice to the millions of innocent, honest and law-abiding citizens who would have their data pre-emptively taken. The need to carry this card at all times will only agitate the current problems of prejudicial stop-and-search programmes which already demonstrate bias against racial and ethnic minority groups [2] . Using such an extreme measure without due cause \u2013 as most nations are currently in peacetime \u2013 is an enormous overreaction and infringes upon individual rights.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con04b","title":"","text":"This point alludes to a potentially tiny minority of incidents. It is likely that most people, realising the importance of their card, would not lose it. In cases where it is used properly, it could be an enormous benefit to the user and increase their convenience."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrpghwicic-con02b","title":"","text":"If anything, this is a reason to introduce better police training, not to abandon the concept of identity cards altogether. An unfortunate fact is that immigrants, who often come from poor backgrounds or have low levels of education, are more statistically likely to be involved in crime [1] . This \u2018disproportionate\u2019 [2] level of crime among immigrants provides a reason for the seemingly disproportionate targeting of minority groups by police authorities.  [1] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11.  [2] Accessed from  on 10\/09\/11."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Obviously the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan was an atrocity, it may have been aimed at a particular group, Buddhists, but it is hard to see how their destruction was crime against humanity because of this. It may have come as a grave harm and insult to Buddhists around the world, however none can be said to have been physically harmed in any meaningful way that would constitute a crime against humanity. The oppression during the Chinese Cultural Revolution may be a better example for the proposition, however even in this case it is hard to compare the crime of destroying old Chinese art and monuments, to the mass killing and imprisonment of Chinese civilians during the same period!"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro02a","title":"","text":"The desecration and destruction of cultural property is often discriminatory and attacks peoples\u2019 identity.  Items and sites of cultural heritage are often destroyed for discriminatory and oppressive reasons. The Maoist onslaught on all \u201cold\u201d aspects of Chinese culture is a prime example while the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan by the Taliban in 2001 is another recent example. These were violent, ideologically driven attacks on the part of the state against segments of that states own society. The Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban simply because they were not part of the Islamic society they were trying to create. Such explicitly discriminatory attacks are particularly harmful to cultures that are the victims of the attacks for two reasons. Firstly because the cultural property in question has increased cultural, religious or historical value for them, and secondly because such discriminatory acts attack the very identity of people part of that cultural group. The international community has a duty to protect cultural groups (especially minority groups) from discrimination. The international community in the form of the United Nations General Assembly has recognised attacks on religious sites as being discrimination based upon belief.[1] Moreover, the ICTY treated discriminatory attacks against cultural property during the break-up of Yugoslavia, as a crime against humanity. Once again, therefore, international precedent facilitates the prosecution of those responsible of those responsible for the desecration or destruction of cultural property.  [1] United Nations General Assembly, \u2018Elimination of all forms of intolerance and of discrimination based on religion or belief\u2019, 19 December 2006, Resolution 61\/161,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro03b","title":"","text":"The kinds of people or groups that attack and destroy sites of cultural heritage are not likely to care much about international law. If anything, making the destruction of cultural property a crime against humanity would further radicalise extremist groups. One only has to look at the proposition\u2019s example of the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas to see this point. The Taliban ordered their destruction in direct defiance of international law, but what\u2019s more, they did it as a direct response and retaliation to sanctions imposed upon them by the international community for hosting and fostering terrorist training camps. [1] A similar sort of retaliation may occur if threats were to be made explicitly regarding the treatment of cultural property. This would then put more precious cultural property in danger.  In respect to the example of US forces in Iraq, their actions would not actually fall under crimes against humanity even under this proposition anyway. Setting up a base in an archaeological site would not be a crime against humanity, while small scale damage would not either, so it is unclear what effect the proposition will have.  [1] Francioni, Francesco and Lanzerini, Federico: \u201cThe Destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and International Law\u201d, EJIL (2003), Vol. 14 No. 4, 619\u2013651, Oxford Journals,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Our world cultural heritage is extremely important and its destruction would constitute a crime against humanity.  Cultural property is important for many reasons. In this argument, its significance as part of our world cultural heritage will be assessed, while in the second argument, its local significance is examined.  Sites of cultural heritage often carry a large degree of aesthetic value. Renowned World Heritage sites like the Coliseum in Rome or the Pyramids of Giza or the Forbidden City in Beijing are truly stunning and constitute a masterpiece of architecture and a celebration of what the human mind and human culture are capable of. Their stunning beauty alone is sufficient to warrant their protection. However cultural property is more than just aesthetically valuable \u2013 they tell a story of human existence. Everything that makes up our society (our moral and aesthetic values, our language, our traditions, our way of life etc.) derives from our ancestors. Cultural property \u2013 be it in the form of archaeological sites, monuments or texts and art, provide our only means of connecting with our past. This is invaluable because of the enormous potential for understanding different cultures around the world and how they interact and often conjoin with each other. It offers opportunities for us to learn from the past and forge a better future. Recent atrocities such as the looting of museums in Bagdad and the damage caused to parts of ancient Babylon during the recent Iraq War are hugely harmful to the international community. The loss of part of our world heritage is even greater when one realises that the harms do not only affect our present day society, but all of future humanity.  The far-reaching and global nature of this harm is sufficient for it to be considered a crime against humanity. Indeed, \u2018international practice in this \ufb01eld indicates deliberate extensive destruction of cultural heritage may be included among international crimes\u2019. [1] The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), for example, \u2018places the destruction of buildings dedicated to religion, or of historical and artistic monuments among war crimes (that are part of the broader concept of crimina juris gentium , or crimes against the peace and the security of mankind\u2019. [2] It is therefore evident that despite the lack of a global mechanism (such as the ICC) that currently condemns the destruction of cultural property as crimes against humanity, international precedent with the ICTY suggests it would be perfectly reasonable to do so.  [1] Francioni, Francesco and Lanzerini, Federico: \u201cThe Destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and International Law\u201d, EJIL (2003), Vol. 14 No. 4, 619\u2013651, Oxford Journals,   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro01b","title":"","text":"The proposition are not contentious in their claims that our world cultural heritage is valuable. However it is not true that if an item or site of cultural heritage is destroyed, it ceases to have any educational value. If the Taj Mahal were destroyed, of course it would be a great loss in terms of aesthetic value, but its footprint in the world would still exist in the form of the myriad of photographs and academic literature on it. The Dodo may be extinct, but we have sufficient academic records to still have in depth knowledge of how it lived, what it looked like etc. It is evident that the proposition are exaggerating the harms that would result from the destruction of cultural property.  Regarding the ICTY, the precedent it sets is not the one identified by the proposition. Rather than supporting the prosecution of destruction of cultural property as a crime against humanity by the ICC, it suggests that such issues should be dealt with on a case by case basis. This is the case with the ICTY which was set up specifically to deal with crimes committed during the breakup-war of Yugoslavia. This is particularly important with respect to the protection of cultural heritage, because the issues vary immensely in each situation. The looting of museums in Yugoslavia is a very different crime in nature and motive to that committed by the Taliban in their destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and the damage caused to ancient Babylon by US forces in Iraq. Damage to cultural property should be looked on a case by case basis; it should not fall under a blanket-protection of crimes against humanity by the ICC."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Making destruction of cultural property a crime against humanity would ensure it is protected.  Were the desecration and destruction of items and sites of cultural heritage to be an internationally recognised crime against humanity, people would be more reluctant in causing either intended or collateral damage (in a conflict) to them. Under the status quo, UNESCO conventions alone are insufficient to protect cultural property. Firstly, it provides insufficient protection, since even high-value cultural property under \u201cenhanced protection\u201d can be legally targeted in a conflict, if it is being used by opposition forces. Moreover, the current conventions lack sufficient deterrents to back-up its protective measures. For example, US forces set up military bases in and around ancient Babylon during the Iraq war and even used parts of the ancient site to make sandbags. This constitutes a violation of the UNESCO conventions, because US forces actively caused damage to the cultural property and also, in locating their forces there, made the site of ancient Babylon a legitimate military target for opposing forces. [1] US forces were not concerned with potentially damaging cultural property or going against UNESCO conventions, simply because there were insufficient penalties in place to deter them from doing so. By treating the destruction of cultural property as a crime against humanity, rather than simply a violation of UNESCO conventions, the protection of cultural heritage is seen as an increased moral imperative. Making such crimes punishable by the ICC alongside crimes like genocide would add a deterrent factor and make it less likely people would deliberately destroy cultural property.  [1] CENTCOM Historical\/ Cultural Advisory Group: \u201cThe Impact of War on Iraq\u2019s Cultural Heritage: Operation Iraqi Freedom\u201d, accessed 20\/9\/12,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con03b","title":"","text":"Firstly, it is not true that human beings are not harmed with the destruction of cultural property. When committed on a systematic and large scale as was seen in China during the 1960s, such attacks are very harmful. The harm comes more from the motivation and symbolism of the acts of desecration and destruction, rather than from the acts themselves. This is because such acts are committed in a highly discriminatory manner. They attack peoples\u2019 culture, their beliefs, their traditions and their very identity and brand them as illegitimate and often as enemies of the state. This is a form of oppression could certainly class as serious \u201cmental injury\u201d which the ICC holds as a criterion for an act to be a crime against humanity.  Furthermore, the fact that the prosecution of such crimes does not under the status quo fall under the duties of the ICC is not a reason for why this should not be changed to include them within their duties. The kind of crimes the proposition has been talking about are sufficiently serious and sufficiently harmful to humanity as a whole such that they should be classified as crimes against humanity and they should be prosecuted by the ICC."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con01b","title":"","text":"Making the destruction of cultural property a crime against humanity is mainly targeted at the wanton destruction of sites of immense value or the systematic destruction on a gross scale, such as that witnessed in the 1960s in China. For the majority of cases, the current UNESCO conventions regarding the protection of cultural property in times of conflict would apply. It is not as though insurgents would be able to hide inside any mosque or museum or ancient site and be totally untouchable.  It is true, however, that situations are conceivable where military necessity would normally dictate an attack on a high value site or object of cultural heritage, but the proposed legislation would not allow. This is not as peculiar as the opposition suggest. International law has created a vast number of limits on warfare that could potentially be used to gain a vital strategic advantage. There are existing limits on what constitute legitimate military targets (civilian populations are not, for example), and with respect to the kind of weapons that can be used (chemical weapons, cluster bombs etc. are banned). Given the immense cultural value of certain sites and objects, they deserve to receive special protection, even in times of war."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con02a","title":"","text":"Military objectives are more important than that of protecting cultural property.  Ultimately the debate between conservation of cultural heritage and the need to secure a military advantage in times of conflict, comes down to a comparison of two different kinds of goods. One the one hand we have cultural goods that are beneficial for aesthetic and educational purposes, and on the other we have more tangible goods that are often sough through military endeavours. When the latter are particularly pressing and important goods, such as the need to prevent genocide, or distribute famine relief or defend one\u2019s security, these benefits far outweigh the benefits of preserving our world cultural heritage. Although it is regrettable that cultural property of significant value may be damaged, it is incomparable to the damage caused by mass killing of individuals or mass curtailing of human rights. The safeguarding of basic human rights such as the right to life, the right to be free from fear, enslavement or torture etc. is a prerequisite for one to be able to appreciate and learn from items, sites and monuments of high cultural and historical value. For these reasons, military and humanitarian objectives must come first, ahead of the need to safeguard cultural property."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con03a","title":"","text":"The protection of cultural property is not within the scope of the ICC.  Though it is true the international Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutes and investigates crimes against humanity, the destruction and desecration of cultural property cannot be categorised as a crime against humanity. This is quite simply because human beings are not directly harmed when cultural property like ancient monuments or old scripts are destroyed. According to the ICC, the following would consist of crimes against humanity: \u2018Murder, extermination; enslavement; deportation or forcible transfer of population; imprisonment; torture; rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity; persecution against an identifiable group on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious or gender grounds; enforced disappearance of persons; the crime of apartheid; other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering or serious bodily or mental injury\u2019 [1]. The common factor with all these crimes is that they are committed as part of a \u2018widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population\u2019. [2] Thus, it is evident that crimes against humanity possess a very real human element to them. This is simply because the ICC and the international community recognise that the most serious crimes that fall under the category of crimes against humanity are crimes of this nature that violently and systematically attack the wellbeing of civilians on a gross scale. The destruction or damage to any property, be it homes, government buildings, or sites of cultural heritage may well be a crime and a heinous act, but cannot come under the category of crimes against humanity.  [1] ICC website: \u201cWhat are crimes against humanity?\u201d, accessed 20\/9\/12,   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con01a","title":"","text":"Making destroying cultural heritage a crime against humanity would create severe strategic disadvantages for our armed forces.  The current UNESCO conventions are correct in allowing for the possibility of a waiver on our international duty to protect cultural property should a case of military urgency arise. The Proposition argue for the implementation of overly-rigid international legislation. Although, of course, world cultural heritage should be protected, it is short-sighted to not even allow the possibility of military necessity to outweigh our duty to protect high-value cultural property. The UNESCO conventions already dictate that one can only be justified in attacking or targeting a site of cultural heritage if \u2018there is no feasible alternative available to obtain a similar military advantage\u2019 [1] Therefore, the proposition are only making a difference to cases where there is no feasible alternative available. This could prove disastrous and create a significant limitation on the capacity of a state\u2019s armed forces.  The danger becomes increasingly apparent when one considers that it is highly unlikely that extremist opposing forces and insurgents like the Taliban will adhere to such international law. This is particularly crucial given that the majority of wars fought now by the west are against insurgencies. Such opposing forces will disregard the new international law and endeavour to exploit this to gain a strategic advantage over Western forces. Insurgents may deliberately choose to hide, locate their base or just pass through sites of high cultural value to ensure their safety from western airstrikes and attacks. Allowing this to take place would severely hamper the ability of the west to fight against insurgencies (an already incredibly difficult task in itself). For example in 2000 Lashkar-e-Toiba militants attacked the Red Fort, which was at the time was in part a barracks for the Indian army, killing three in a shootout within the fort. [2] The Red Fort is itself today a world heritage site; would this mean that were a similar attack to happen the Indian security services could do nothing to counter the attack? [3]  [1] UNESCO, \u201cDeclaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage\u201d, 17 October 2003, accessed 20\/9\/12,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Police hunt Red Fort raiders\u2019, 23 December 2000,   [3] UNESCO, \u201cRed Fort Complex\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con02b","title":"","text":"The opposition present us with a false dichotomy here. It is not true that we have to make a choice between saving lives and protecting cultural property. The hypothetical situation where a site of high cultural and historical value would have to be destroyed in order to provide famine relief or prevent genocide seems slightly far-fetched.  However, even if such a choice had to be made, we should still ensure that the destruction of cultural property was a crime against humanity. It is important to set an international precedent for rules of conduct during warfare in order to minimise harms on a large scale, despite the possibility of small, minority cases where going against that law would be beneficial. This is the case, for example, with the laws about targeting civilians in warfare. In order to safeguard the precedent, the law must apply to all situations despite the fact that in certain cases a war could be won more easily by targeting civilians."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-pro02b","title":"","text":"The Lubanga case took 6 years to reach a verdict owing to problems with the reliability of testimony and the sheer number of witnesses and victims involved in the proceedings. [1]  Although the Prosecutor sought a harsher sentence, these problems with the weight of evidence and difficulties ascertaining the number of child soldiers required the Trial Chamber to impose a more modest sentence. [2]  Therefore, even if the Lubanga conviction might not have a strongly deterrent effect by itself, the ICC is pursuing many other cases and it is these constant and cumulative investigations that deter others from committing similar crimes.  [1] Kammer, \"Deconstructing Lubanga\"  [2] Human Rights Brief"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-pro02a","title":"","text":"In the decade since its formation, the ICC has only one successful conviction  Since becoming operational in March 2003 the ICC has only had one case resulting in a conviction and it is currently being appealed. Despite being found guilty of the war crime of recruiting and forcing child soldiers to fight and kill, Thomas Lubanga was sentenced to just 14 years imprisonment. Lubanga was arrested and sent to the Court in March 2006. This single ICC conviction and the light sentence imposed are hardly sufficient to deter other warlords from using child soldiers. Six years later, in the same country where Lubanga\u2019s crimes occurred, thousands of child soldiers are being recruited by various armed groups. [1]  [1] UN News, \"Child recruitment remains endemic.\""}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-pro03b","title":"","text":"Precisely because many rank and file perpetrators are easily controlled or manipulated by group leaders, their criminal responsibility is diminished. While Article 26 of the Rome Statute prevents prosecution of those under 18 years of age, this is designed to prevent injustices towards those who are often themselves victims of those in command. Article 33 specifically rejects the \u2018Nuremberg defence\u2019 that following orders absolves a person from criminal responsibility. But in keeping with International Humanitarian Law (Rule 155 of Customary IHL), child soldiers should not be prosecuted for crimes committed under severe coercion by leaders. Prosecuting those responsible for that coercion is the most powerful deterrent. [1]  [1] IRIN News, \"Should child soldiers be prosecuted for their crimes?\""}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-pro01a","title":"","text":"The ICC lacks the power to ensure arrests  While the ICC has the power to issue arrest warrants, it does not have the coercive powers to ensure that those warrants are followed. Despite the fact that States that are parties to the Rome Statute are obliged to co-operate with the directions of the Court, there have been many instances where such States have failed to pursue those indicted. Cases that have been referred to the ICC by the United Nations Security Council allows the Court to extend its jurisdiction to include UN member States that are not parties to the Rome Statute. This enabled the ICC to issue an international warrant for the arrest of Sudan\u2019s President Al-Bashir. Yet several of these countries obliged to arrest him have refused when the opportunities have arisen. [1]  [1] Rothe & Collins, pp.198-9"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-pro01b","title":"","text":"The fact that the Sudanese president has been able to travel freely to several countries without being arrested does not indicate that he or other would-be criminals are undeterred by the threat. Though the African Union has strongly advised its member states to ignore the arrest warrant and most have obliged, more recently Malawi and Kenya prevented Al-Bashir from attending summits. Even when Nigeria allowed his attendance at an AU summit last year, Al-Bashir fled within a day of arriving, after local human rights groups filed a court action.  The Democratic Republic of Congo has surrendered several suspects to the ICC and this was enough to induce another suspect to surrender. [1]  [1] Roth, \"Africa Attacks the International Criminal Court.\""}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-pro03a","title":"","text":"As the ICC intentionally limits its prosecutions to group leaders, many of those who actually commit atrocities need have no fear of prosecution  By prosecuting only those leaders deemed \u2018most responsible\u2019 for the crimes in question, the ICC is effectively allowing lower-ranked perpetrators to commit crimes with impunity. These rank and file troops generally have little awareness or understanding of international criminal laws. Furthermore, just as local domestic laws fail to deter offenders who often commit crimes with little thought of being punished, distant ICC threats are even less likely to deter those whose actions are easily manipulated and controlled by militia leaders. Child soldiers, in particular, have often been drugged before going into combat. [1]  [1] Mullins & Rothe, pp.782-4"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-con03b","title":"","text":"Many of those 122 States Parties have repeatedly shown their reluctance to co-operate with the ICC. Among the African Union states, only Botswana has shown its complete commitment to the Rome Statute. It appears that even South Africa may ultimately be more supportive of the AU than the ICC. [1]  [1] Miruthi , p.4"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-con01b","title":"","text":"The actions by Columbia and Sri Lanka do not alter the fact that, as noted earlier, the recruitment of child soldiers in Africa and elsewhere is still endemic in 2013.  And while the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army and its leader Joseph Kony have indeed been muted, that is largely due to the initiative of the U.S. government which has itself refused to ratify the ICC\u2019s Statute. [1]  [1] Schomerus, Allen and Vlassenroot"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-con02a","title":"","text":"Potential prosecution by the ICC encourages local authorities to improve their own judicial systems.  As an international court of \u2018last resort\u2019, the ICC\u2019s very existence serves as a constant reminder of the failings of national and regional governments to effectively curtail crimes against humanity in all their forms. Therefore, the Court exerts a strong deterrent effect by implicitly challenging the adequacy of those governments whose judicial systems allow such crimes to be committed with impunity. Seeking to avoid such international embarrassment has itself been enough to motivate many countries to both join the ICC Assembly and aim to improve their own domestic judicial systems. A clear example of this direct effect was the Kenyan government\u2019s judicial and electoral reforms that followed from the ICC\u2019s indictments over the post-election violence in 2007 which made the judiciary and election commission constitutionally much more independent. [1]  [1] Kimenyi"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-con03a","title":"","text":"The ICC\u2019s widely endorsed authority extends its deterrent effects.  The ICC\u2019s investigative and prosecutorial powers are endorsed by 122 States Parties to the Rome Statute. This broad reach and agreement not only provides a strong disincentive for individuals and groups who would attempt to evade prosecution, but also has the effect of deterring states that might otherwise ignore the Court\u2019s authority. Furthermore, even non-member states have recognised the importance of co-operating with the Court\u2019s investigations. In 2013, one of the most wanted war criminals, Bosco Ntaganda was forced to surrender to the ICC while hiding in Rwanda. Though a non-member state, \u201cRwanda's aid-dependent economy was damaged by the allegations of links to Mr Ntaganda's rebels.\u201d [1]  [1] The Economist"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-con01a","title":"","text":"The ICC\u2019s investigations have already deterred potential crimes.  There is compelling evidence that the ICC\u2019s past or current investigations have caused potential perpetrators as well as those already indicted, to abandon their plans. For example, as the ICC\u2019s first Prosecutor noted, even before the Court had convicted Thomas Lubanga for the recruitment of child soldiers, its African investigations were enough to prompt responses in Columbia and Sri Lanka, resulting in children being released. [1] At the same time, there has been a notable decrease in crimes by those already under investigation, such as the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army in Uganda. [2]  [1] ICC Prosecutor's Address to Council on Foreign Relations , p.9  [2] Bosco , p.176"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilphbined-con02b","title":"","text":"Even if Kenya\u2019s recent reforms were motivated by the ICC\u2019s indictments, the 2013 elections were still marked by violence which \u201cas of February 2013, had claimed more than 477 lives and displaced another 118,000 people.\u201d [1]  Despite many African governments\u2019 initial enthusiasm for the ICC, the African Union has since openly challenged the Court\u2019s investigations and Kenyan authorities have been doing their utmost to obstruct the ICC\u2019s investigations. [2]  [1] Human Rights Watch  [2] Evenson"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro02b","title":"","text":"Although prisoners may associate closely with other criminals within jail, many more offenders were introduced to crime outside prison. A deprived social background, a family life disrupted by domestic violence and family members with histories of criminal behaviour can all lead an individual to become involved with crime.  For many young men, prison can become a sanctuary from links with gangs or a chaotic and damaging home life. Once placed within the regulated, disciplined environment of the prison, they can be introduced to the essential skills and educational opportunities that they may have been denied in the outside world.  Prison can give an individual the opportunity to develop the practical and psychological skills they require to escape social alienation. Many prisons in Europe, the UK and the States achieve this objective. US prisons may also operate special units that offer help and protection to offenders who want to leave gangs.  Under-staffing and a poor understanding of inmates\u2019 needs are arguments for reform of the prison system, not arguments against incarceration itself. Where these issues are addressed, rehabilitation programmes have had many successes. Once political prejudices about building and funding rehabilitation oriented prisons are overcome, the benefits of penal supervision will become more accessible."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro02a","title":"","text":"Prisons create criminals  The prison environment is harmful to many offenders. Consider the risk of developing a drug or alcohol addiction while incarcerated in the UK (15% of the inmates of one of the UK\u2019s largest jails tested positive for drugs in 2006) [i] ; the risk of being subjected to sexual violence in an US prison (217,000 prisoners were subjected to sexual violence in American prisons in 2008) [ii] ; the rise in gang motivated violence and killings within prisons on both sides of the Atlantic.  Prison brings together individuals with a wide range of social and behavioural problems that incline them towards deviance and violence. These individuals are placed in closed conditions with restricted access to productive activities. In many western nations, a lack of funding and staff means that most prisoners have little to fill their time, and may be confined to their cells for up to twenty three hours a day. The privations of prison make prisoners more, rather than less likely to engage in violent or exploitative behaviour. Prisoners in overcrowded, understaffed jails are more likely to develop mental illnesses and less likely to have such conditions diagnosed and treated. The brutality of their surroundings makes prisoners more likely to seek the protection and comradeship offered by gangs or the comfort of intoxicants.  Furthermore, the shame and isolation associated with incarceration cause prisoner\u2019s non-criminal social networks to decay. Relationships with partners or spouses may break down. Contact with children may be limited. Families may shun the offender, leaving him with a social circle comprised mainly of fellow inmates. These associations can prove toxic, leading offenders to validate each other\u2019s behaviour and share knowledge about criminal activities.  Finally, the stigma of criminality extends to employment. Businesses may be unwilling to employ those with criminal records, limiting ex-offenders\u2019 opportunities for social reintegration.  [i] \u201cInspector finds gangs and high level of violence in jail\u201d, The Guardian, 11 July 2006,   [ii] \u201cCombating rape in prisons\u201d, The Economist, May 5 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro03b","title":"","text":"As noted above, the consequences of non-violent crimes can be just as damaging as those of violent crimes. More over, non-violent criminals can also present an immediate danger to society.  The cost of constructing a prison is outweighed by the benefit of preventing individuals from committing crimes. Rehabilitation programmes are not a panacea \u2013 they are not instantly or reliably effective. Even if an individual refuses to engage with any rehabilitative activities in prison, they are still restrained from engaging in further criminal activity.  Consider the senior members of organised criminal syndicates. These individuals may only be involved in using deceptive accounting or front-companies to conceal the activities of their colleagues, but by doing so they enable and encourage multiple violent offences.  Similarly, drug dealers may create conditions in which social deprivation and family break-down flourish. As noted both above and on side proposition, these same conditions can cause others to turn to criminality. In this instance, drugs dealers can present a danger to their communities, and an obstacle to the rehabilitation of addicts. Arguably, the most effective solution to this particular form of criminal behaviour is the removal of the dealer from that community."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro01a","title":"","text":"Proportionality  A recent study conducted among prisoners in Florida found that from 1997 to 2010 the proportion of new inmates who had committed violent crimes (collating both state and federal prisons statistics) fell by 28% [i] . Meanwhile, the number of first time prisoners who had committed non-violent offences rose by 189% [ii] .  It is argued that imprisoning individuals found to be guilty of non-violent crimes is a disproportionate response to their actions and does not serve the objectives of criminal sentencing set out above.  Criminal sentences must deliver a punishment in proportion to the crime an offender has committed. A disproportionate sentence- using the death penalty to punish theft, for instance- is less likely to be perceived as a fair or rational response to criminal behaviour. An offender who is punished excessively is more likely to see himself as the victim of injustice, and less likely to consider the impact of his own conduct. A law abiding individual who that fears that jaywalking may result in jail time will have no confidence in the criminal justice system, and may begin seeking other sources of security.  There are many alternatives to penal sentences available to magistrates and judges. Using fines and curfews to restrict financial and personal liberty, alongside restorative forms of punishment such as community service, can provide a much more efficient way of condemning an individual\u2019s criminal behaviour.  [i] \u201cRough Justice in America\u201d, The Economist, July 22 2010,   [ii] \u201cRough Justice in America\u201d, The Economist, July 22 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro01b","title":"","text":"The victims of non-violent offences may suffer as much as the victims of violent offences. A large scale financial fraud, such as that perpetrated by Robert Maxwell or Bernard Madhoff, may deprive thousands of individuals of their savings and pensions, condemning them to a life of poverty. A petty drugs dealer may be supplying a habit that drives an addict to steal and attack others in order to find money.  Moreover, fraud, deception and drug dealing draw on the same predatory, cynical and exploitative attitudes that motivate violent theft, organised crime and violent rape. An individual who has committed only non-violent offences is not necessarily in a better position to appreciate the harm that violence may do, or to understand that others may suffer as a result of his actions.  It may be proportional to hand down a severe prison sentence to a \u201cwhite collar\u201d criminal, who has abused a position of trust or wealth for personal gain. Such crimes are aggravated by the fact that their perpetrators have often led privileged, secure lives, free from the deprivation and poverty that drives most criminals. Confidence in the justice system may be harmed if it is felt that those of professional standing or a high social class are subjected to softer punishments."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro04b","title":"","text":"It is unrealistic to expect the police to act as the sole deterrent to criminal behaviour. The majority of police work concerns the detection rather than the prevention of crime. Only a massive and unfeasible expansion of police numbers and powers could provide a real deterrent to criminality.  The purpose of deterrence is to reduce the likelihood of damaging behaviour without dramatically raising the cost of enforcing the law. Deterrence relies on individuals acting in a rational manner and being able to regulate their own behaviour. Property crime often results from the offender performing a rational balancing of his likely gains against the likely costs of incarceration. Limiting the use of prison sentences means that calculating offenders will be much more likely to engage in property crime.  Finally, the proposition is unable to deal with the threat posed by habitual and compulsive petty criminals. The actions of such individuals often straddle the boundary between outright criminality and anti-social behaviour. Their offences may never be severe enough to attract a penal sentence, but it is the continuous and repeated nature of their criminal acts that causes harm. Once again, the best response to such conduct is the forcible segregation of the offender inside a prison."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro03a","title":"","text":"Incarceration is expensive, rehabilitation is not  Many of the rehabilitation and intervention schemes made available in prison are replicated in community settings by social services and charities. The cost of delivering these programmes in prison originates from the concept of prison itself. The expense of building, equipping, staffing and monitoring a prison vastly outweighs the cost of rehabilitative activities. Research conducted by Steve Aos has shown that rehabilitative programs designed to reduce crime can be cost-effective [i] .  Prisons should be used only where the imperative to protect society from criminal behaviour cannot be met by the imperative to rehabilitate. A minority of offenders will be incorrigibly violent and uncontrollable, but under the status quo, these dangerous offenders not represent the majority of the prison population (see statistics above).  The yearly cost of incarcerating a young offender in the UK is now \u00a3140,000, almost three times the annual fee charged by an elite public school [ii] . Diverting this money to intervention programmes delivered to families, in homes and in schools would avoid the harms of incarceration (described above), while retaining the benefit of rehabilitation. The focus should therefore be prevention and early intervention rather than punishment.  [i] Aos, S., The Comparative Costs and Benefits of Programs to Reduce Crime, Washington State Institute for Public Policy, May 2001,   [ii] \u201cPunishing Costs\u201d The New Economics Foundation, 2010, p18"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro04a","title":"","text":"Deterrence is a myth  The deterrent effect of prison is uniformly overstated. It is popularly thought that the indignity and strictness of the prison environment will discourage criminal behaviour. Further, exposure to the harsh realities of prison is thought to discourage former inmates from re-offending. These assumptions do not reflect most offenders\u2019 reasoning, nor do they reflect the contexts in which most criminal behaviour occurs. Punishment of the type offered by prisons doesn\u2019t meet the criteria for reinforcement of behaviour that one would associate with behaviour change; the punishment happens long after the behaviour, and is therefore futile [i] .  Firstly, it should be noted that among many inmates, especially young men, criminal actions, including public order offences, assault and petty theft, are carried out on impulse. Impulsive behaviour is often influenced by alcohol and peer pressure. Under these circumstances, deterrence is ineffective.  Secondly, empirical evidence indicates that it is the likelihood of being caught performing a criminal act, rather than the sentence for that crime, that deters potential offenders. If a potential offender believes he is more likely to be caught and convicted, he is less likely to engage in criminal behaviour. Meta-analyses such as the Cambridge Study on Deterrence [ii] have shown that the severity of a sentence only has a marginal effect on an offender\u2019s decision to break the law.  In the light of these findings, deterrence can be seen as a matter of policing and detection, rather than a set of misleading assumptions based on an over-simplification of rational-actor theory.  [i] Andrews, D.A. & Bonta, J., \u201cRehabilitating Criminal Justice and Policy\u201d in Psychology, Public Policy and Law (2010, Vol. 16, No.1). Page 42  [ii] \u201cCriminal deterrence and sentence severity: an analysis of recent research\u201d, von Hirsch, A, and others"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-con03b","title":"","text":"A modern liberal state\u2019s duty is to pursue policies and promote values that will have a real and lasting impact on its citizen\u2019s lives. The resolution is such a policy. The opposition\u2019s argument has been tried and failed; in the US, \u2018increasing punitive measures have failed to reduce criminal recidivism and instead have led to a rapidly growing correctional system that has strained government budgets\u2019 [i] .  Pandering to populist thinking in the name of maintaining confidence in a particular government is a short-term strategy. It is an approach designed to win elections rather than bring about social change. The most effective way for a government to fulfil its obligation to protect its citizens is to reduce deviance effectively and efficiently, even if that change has to come at the expense of political capital.  The penal system operating under the status quo brutalises individuals and entrenches criminality in communities in the name of law and order.  [i] Andrews, D.A. & Bonta, J., \u201cRehabilitating Criminal Justice and Policy\u201d in Psychology, Public Policy and Law (2010, Vol. 16, No.1). Page 39"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-con01b","title":"","text":"The opposition argument assumes that punishment must be proportional only to the suffering caused to the victim of a particular crime. Opposition state that for a sentence to be truly proportionate, it must reflect the subjective responses of the victim. This analysis fails to acknowledge that the definition of proportionality extends beyond the victim.  The four objectives of criminal sentencing are complimentary, not mutually exclusive. The aspect of a sentence that seeks to punish should be proportionate to offender\u2019s crime, but in addition, it must not obstruct the functioning of the other objectives of sentencing.  A burglary may be upsetting for the victim, and incarceration of the burglar may seem a proportionate response. However, when that sentence is weighed against the imperative to rehabilitate the burglar, we discover that rehabilitation in prison would be less effective than rehab in a community setting. When custodial punishment is weighed against the imperative to protect the public, we discover that non-violent criminals who have been incarcerated are more likely to engage in violent crime following their release. The greater cost of incarceration- to the criminal and to the efficacy of the rehabilitative process- renders the sentence disproportionate.  The comparative popularity of imprisonment has distorted our understanding of which criminals it is most suited to."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-con02a","title":"","text":"Rehabilitation can only succeed in prison  Rehabilitation programmes are not a panacea \u2013 nor are they instantly or reliably effective. The risk of an individual committing crime can only be reduced by long-term engagement with such schemes.  Under these circumstances, the best location in which to rehabilitate offender is prison. Prison serves, in some cases, to separate prisoners from poverty and desperation, and to help them access training and education that they may have failed to engage with previously. Prison can also quarantine offenders from the influence of gangs and other sub-cultures that may compete with the positive behaviours fostered by rehabilitation. This is particularly the case for high risk offenders.  It seems ridiculous to assume that dramatic changes in an individual\u2019s behaviour can be brought about without a correspondingly dramatic change in their environment and lifestyle. Criminality frequently develops as a survival strategy within hostile or chaotic social environments.  For many crimes, family may also be the root cause. Problematic relationship with relatives can further hinder the rehabilative process. How can we still expect family members to help facilitate the rehabilative process when they may be the reason reason why the offender committed crimes.  If there are minimal restraints put on an offender\u2019s freedom while he rehabilitates, it will be easier for him to avoid complying with rehabilitation programmes. It will also be easier for the offender to avoid complying with other, more punitive measures, such as fines and community service orders.  As a last resort, a prison term prevents offenders who refuse to engage with rehabilitation from committing crimes for the length of their sentence. Given that a UK home office survey conduct in 2000 found that, on average, offenders committed 140 crimes a year, even a brief sentence represents a significant disruption of criminal activity [i] .  [i] Civitas, Fighting Crime: Are Public Policies Working?, February 2010, p.1,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-con03a","title":"","text":"Incarceration has symbolic value  A custodial sentence has strong symbolic value, for offenders, for victims and for society as a whole.  Exclusion from society and confiscation of freedoms that the state would normally protect at any cost is a powerful message, one that can be understood easily by both white collar fraudsters and semi-literate muggers. There are few more effective ways of communicating society\u2019s disapproval and indicating the boundaries of its tolerance.  For all side proposition\u2019s talk of long term consequences and proportionality, there remain a significant number of offenders and potential offenders who would perceive the resolution as a weakness to be exploited. We give up the symbol of incarceration at the cost of emboldening criminals.  Confidence in the state is founded on the state\u2019s ability to protect its citizens and their property from physical harm. This is something on which all but the most extreme ends of the political spectrum would agree. Even if the state is no longer willing to wield violence against a criminal minority in protection of a law abiding majority, it should still be prepared to project the power that contemporary constitutional settlements have allowed it to retain. If it does not, the state risks being accused of forgetting its core duties in favour of more abstract notions of \u201charm\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-con01a","title":"","text":"The false distinction between \u201cviolent\u201d and \u201cnon-violent\u201d crime  Distinctions between violent and non-violent offences are not useful when deciding which offenders should be imprisoned and which should receive more lenient, rehabilitative sentences. The severity of a crime can only be defined by its context and consequences, not by semi-arbitrary labels such as violent and non-violent.  All forms of criminality, and not just violent crimes, can have disturbing and traumatic consequences. The effect of a robbery on the physical health and psychological stability of an elderly person can be as pronounced as the effects of a violent assault on a healthy young man.  It is disingenuous to claim that the nature of a criminal act can be separated from that act\u2019s effects on a victim. As the widely known common law maxim states, a victim should be taken as he is found. A reasonable adult citizen will not be excused from responsibility for what he knew to be a harmful criminal act simply because he did not foresee the extent or type of harm he would do.  A judicial system that takes the concept of proportionality seriously should be free to decide that the consequences of a robbery committed against an impoverished, frail widow should result in a more severe sentence than a teenager\u2019s impulsive attempt to shop-lift alcohol.  Similarly, the outcome of a wide ranging financial fraud is likely to be more harmful than the outcome of a fist fight between two drunken football fans.  Judges are allowed to exercise discretion so that they can adapt the broad rules and objectives of sentencing to the nuances of each case brought before them. The context and consequences of criminal activity should inform sentencing decisions, not an artificially narrow definition of \u201cviolence\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpphwlpvo-con02b","title":"","text":"Families and other social networks can play an important role in supporting and encouraging an offender as they rehabilitate. Wives, husbands and children can effectively monitor the behaviour of an offender when trained staff are unavailable. Given that the imprisonment of an adult family member is emotionally traumatic and financially damaging, families have a strong incentive to ensure that rehabilitation is successful.  Disruptive family environments are also catered for by the proposition resolution. Where family breakdown is a cause of criminality, social workers and rehabilitation specialists will be able to \u201ctreat\u201d the family alongside the offender. Underlying drug or alcohol addictions can be addressed. \u2018Therapeutic programs\u2019, as they are termed, enable offenders to be rehabilitated by and within the community in a \u2018living-learning situation\u2019 [i] .  Prison on the other hand is an unsupportive environment where offenders are blamed for their behaviour and sometimes coerced into rehabilitation programs [ii] . In a prison context, an offender would be treated in isolation, without the opportunity to address underlying familial issues that might cause reoffending. Prison can be iatrogenic (increase risk) by removing offenders from their source of social support, families, jobs and accommodation; rehabilitation is more likely to be effective when it is used in conjunction with those factors, not apart from them. Furthermore, the available evidence suggests that prison staff hold \u2018rather unsympathetic\u2019 attitudes towards prisoners [iii] , inferring a culture unfavourable to effective rehabilitation.  Although an offender may be prevented from committing crime for the duration of a prison sentence, this does not represent a significant advantage over the proposed resolution. For the reasons set out above, a prisoner released from a custodial sentence is likely to be incentivised to engage in crime (due to a lack of employment opportunities and social isolation), and will commit more serious types of crime.  [i] Day, A., Casey, S., Vess, J. & Huisy, G., \u201cAssessing the Social Climate of Prisons\u201d, February 2, 2011 from Australia Institute of Criminology, Page 8\/Page 32  [ii] Day A. & Ward T., \u201cOffender Rehabilitation as a Value-Laden Process\u201d in International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology (June 2010: Vol 54. N.3) Page 300  [iii] Day A. & Ward T., \u201cOffender Rehabilitation as a Value-Laden Process\u201d in International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology (June 2010: Vol 54. N.3) Page 294"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is no moral duty to respect the humanity of terrorists. Terrorists themselves do not respect human rights. By attacking civilians, they breach the terms of the Geneva Conventions and international human rights law. They do not deserve to be protected by the laws of war because they do not behave like a military organisation. If they do not comply with the laws of war there is no reason why they should enjoy the benefits of the Geneva Conventions when they are detained."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro02a","title":"","text":"The moral duty to respect a basic level of humanity, which the Geneva Convention embodies, must be retained  Even if we think the terrorist cause is illegitimate we have a moral duty to respect a basic level of humanity. There are certain acts, such as torture, to which no individual should be subjected, regardless of their own behaviour. The Geneva Convention is about universal respect for human dignity (International Committee of the Red Cross, 1949), not merely for those who show it in return. Civilised nations can and should be expected to act in a humane manner, regardless of the barbarity of their adversaries. Only by acting in such a manner can states prove the superiority of their own humanity."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Poor treatment is not a significant recruitment tool: whilst some people may be encouraged to join terrorist groups as a result of such behaviour, those who are outraged by human rights abuses in this context should be equally concerned about the violation of human rights which occurs when a terrorist detonates a bomb, or flies into a building, killing large numbers of innocent civilians. The ideology invoked exists independently of the way in which suspects are treated and indoctrination with such beliefs is the real tool in the recruitment process."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro05a","title":"","text":"The United Nations can punish those states who refuse to subject its prisoners of war to the Geneva Conventions  The United Nations, as the institution that formed and maintains the Geneva Conventions and other restrictions on warfare, is able to use its structures to punish states that do not adhere to its protocols. The International Criminal Court, established by the Rome Statute of 1998, is able to prosecute those specific persons who are charged with war crimes. Such defendants, if convicted, can be ordered to pay the victims. Furthermore, the International Court of Justice is able to bring cases against specific states that are clearly identified as having broken the protocols of war. As such, the United Nations is both legally and institutionally capable of ensuring that the dictates of the Geneva Conventions are upheld, specifically the right of a combatant captured in a conflict zone to be granted prisoner of war status. While this would provide a degree of protection for captured terrorists, it also means that terrorist organizations are subject to standards of conduct in war. Making them subject to the Geneva Conventions would uphold an incentive of restraint which might sometimes influence their conduct."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Terrorists are engaged in war, which much remain subject to the Geneva Conventions lest it become unrestrained  Terrorists are engaged in a war like any other: they unite as a political actor to undertake military action in favour of a specific cause. The fact that they do not represent one individual nation and that they are not at war with a specific list of states does not undermine this: Al Qaeda, for example, has clear goals including eliminating American influence within Muslim nations, destroying Israel and re-establishing the Caliphate (Blanchard, 2007). The fact that we may not view these causes as worthy or legitimate is irrelevant: we do not assess the merits or legitimacy of a conflict between states before deciding whether to apply the Geneva Convention. It should therefore apply equally to soldiers and terrorists. The Geneva Conventions were formed to ensure that future wars would not result in the barbarity and wanton violence that mired World War II; to deny it to terrorists would risk the undermining of norms that have developed to restrain warfare. If we don\u2019t treat terrorists as prisoners of war therefore, we risk a return to the barbarity of warfare in the first half of the 20th century."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro01b","title":"","text":"Terrorists are not engaged in a war. Their actions are aimed at destruction of civil society and of nations across the globe. The Geneva Conventions exist to control wars between nations in a way which respects human dignity and minimises long-term harm. Wars between nations have a foreseeable end, and the Convention is an important means of aiding reconciliation and cooperation in the future: it is harder to build a relationship with a state which has brutally tortured your soldiers upon capture. However, a war against terrorists will often have no end: it is inconceivable, for example, either that Al Qaeda will successfully achieve the reestablishment of the Caliphate or that the West will quash all terrorist activity. Reconciliation and future cooperation are meaningless here."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro05b","title":"","text":"The United Nation has the potential to punish parties that do not abide by its protocols, including the Geneva Conventions. However, its ability to do so is limited even when it comes to states since that power is itself granted by its member states. For example, the International Criminal Court is only able to bring cases which the Security Council approves. Therefore, the contemporary targets of terrorists, most notably the United States and the United Kingdom, are inevitably going to veto any proposition to persecute themselves for violating the Geneva Conventions. The circular process of asking a state whether it will approve the prosecution of itself betrays the absurdity of the United Nations as an institution enforcing the protocols of war. As for the behaviour of terrorist groups, their members are subject to prosecution for actions equivalent to war crimes whether or not they are subject to the Geneva Conventions."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro04b","title":"","text":"Harsh interrogation is indeed necessary, due in part to the unique efficacy of harsh interrogation in dealing with the new threat. The interrogation of a terrorist is qualitatively different to that of a soldier, due to the nature of terrorist attacks and the importance of information in their prevention. Michael Hayden, former Director of the CIA, argues that there is no other way for the CIA to have acquired information from them, \u2018given their character and given their commitment to what it is they do\u2019 (Martinez, 2009). The effectiveness of harsh interrogation may vary, but an absolute prohibition based on the few exceptions would be too high a price to pay. Protecting civilian lives must come before maintaining any moral high ground."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Poor treatment of terrorists affirms terrorist ideology and provides a recruitment tool, therefore the Geneva Conventions must be applied to prevent this.  Poor treatment affirms terrorist ideology: regardless of what is morally right, it would be beneficial to treat terrorists in the ways prescribed by the Convention. Terrorist ideology is often predicated on the behaviour of those countries against which it is targeted. Treating captured terrorists or terror suspects in a way that ignores their human dignity only reinforces negative perceptions of the West and encourages the radicalization of the youth (McCarthy, 2007). In addition, such behaviour can be used to justify terrorist actions to less radicalised members of certain communitie"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro04a","title":"","text":"Harsh interrogation is not necessarily an effective tool for extracting valuable information.  Harsh interrogation of captives has not been shown to be effective (White, 2007). Those who are prepared to die to advance their cause are unlikely to yield information, no matter how much they are threatened or tortured. Where captives do provide information, they often state simply what they think that the interrogators want to hear, rather than anything that is true (Mazzetti, 2007). In addition, given the cellular nature of many terrorist organisations, those captured often have very little useful information to begin with. Even if they have been involved in a plot, they may only have information about a very small part of that plot. Furthermore, winning the trust of prisoners can lead to more effective information than the use of torture."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con03b","title":"","text":"Special interrogation methods are not necessary to combat the terrorist threat. It is always easy to imagine extra lengths that states could conceivably go to in order to protect their soldiers or civilians. However the ambition of the Geneva Conventions in the wake of World War II was to establish limits. The \u2018unlawful combatant\u2019 legal loophole created by the United States threatens to erode the restraint on warfare built up over half a century. The high-profile case of waterboarding involving Al-Qaeda suspect Abu Zubaydah casts serious doubt on any claim that such methods are effective, and by extension, necessary in combating the terrorist threat. Water-boarded 83 times in one month, Zubaydah\u2019s treatment demonstrates that the absence of the constraints of the Geneva Conventions is a slippery slope to the use of wanton, sadistic violence with no justifiable end (Shane, 2009). Though Zubaydah\u2019s interrogation is believed to have been fruitful in terms of intelligence gathered, there is little reason to believe ordinary interrogation methods would not have been similarly successful over time."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con01b","title":"","text":"The re-definition of terrorists as unlawful combatants threatens to encourage the use of the evolution of war as an excuse for human rights abuses. The refusal to apply the Geneva Conventions allows states to use tactics such as indefinite detention without trial and enhanced interrogation techniques such as water-boarding, which are seen by many as a form of torture (UN General Assembly, 1984). These practices are cruel and significantly harm the physical and psychological wellbeing of detainees. Even if these techniques were effective in the war on terror, they should not be practiced because they are a violation of both the laws of war and international human rights law (ICRC, 1948). Moreover, under Protocol 1 (1977) Additional to the Geneva Conventions, non-state forces engaged in wars aiming at self-determination are permitted to operate without use of uniforms or carrying arms openly (except during combat and while visibly deploying immediate prior to attack)."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con02a","title":"","text":"With no hope of reciprocity, adherence to the Geneva Conventions would undermine the fight against terrorism  There is no moral duty to respect the dignity of terrorists. States should do whatever possible to protect their own citizens. The Geneva Convention is about reciprocity: it is in the interest of our own citizens to treat enemy combatants in a humane manner so that if our soldiers are caught they will receive similar treatment. There can be no guarantee of reciprocity from \u2018terrorists\u2019 as a whole, or even specific terrorist groups given the cellular nature of the organisations and the disparate nature of the command structures. Furthermore, terrorists specifically use poor treatment of hostages as a tool in their campaign. Given this, it is in the interests of our own citizens to use whatever means possible to fight terrorism; compliance with the Geneva Convention undermines this."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con04a","title":"","text":"There are other means by which to protect the rights of terrorists without needing to apply the Geneva Conventions  Under the auspices of the Geneva Conventions, prisoners of war can be detained for the duration of hostilities, and are only entitled to return home at the end of the war (International Committee of the Red Cross, 1949). Given the open-ended nature of the war on terror, it is very likely that treating terrorist detainees as POWs will mean they are never released. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that the Geneva Conventions protect human rights any better than existing domestic law or policy. In democracies, the accountability of elected politicians and judicial review by independent judges can instead be trusted to ensure that detainees are not abused or mistreated."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con03a","title":"","text":"Special interrogation methods are necessary in order to combat the terrorist threat  The war on terror is unlike any other war and so different tactics are necessary in order to win. There is no point maintaining a moral high ground where this leads to more civilian deaths. The Geneva Conventions put barriers in the way of winning the war on terror because tactics such as indefinite detention are necessary. For example, Israel\u2019s practice of targeted killing of terrorists was restricted by the Israeli Supreme Court on the grounds that it did not comply with the Geneva Conventions (The Public Committee against Torture in Israel v. The Government of Israel, 2006). Often there is no other way to combat terrorists and the Geneva Conventions restrict tactics that save hundreds of lives. Governments would also not be able to gain as much intelligence if they had to adhere to the Geneva Conventions when interrogating terrorists. It is dangerous to put the west at an operational disadvantage in the war on terror just to maintain a moral high ground."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con01a","title":"","text":"Terrorists are not lawful combatants, therefore they not do not acquire prisoner of war status  Prisoner of war status is only granted to those who legally and morally deserve its protections. Therefore, those who wish to seek the protection of the Geneva Conventions, the laws of war, have a duty to distinguish themselves from the civilian population (Detter, 2007, p.1063). Terrorists who absolve themselves of this responsibility in the pursuit of wanton violence, who flagrantly ignore the laws of war, cannot thereafter appeal to its protection once captured. Such a norm is required in order to preserve the sanctity of the Geneva Conventions, including the immunity of civilians, and prevent the encouragement of using civilians as means to ends. Terrorists who operate outside of the law and attempt to thereafter use it to their advantage should be denied that opportunity. Attempts to permit the use of non-uniformed soldiers in Protocol 1 lack authority as several key states are not party to it (including the USA and Israel)."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con04b","title":"","text":"The Geneva Conventions provide the only fair, impartial and strong mechanism for protecting the human rights of detainees in the war on terror. Applying the Geneva Conventions would allow the Red Cross to inspect prisons where detainees are held (Anonymous, 2002). Breaches of the Geneva Conventions also give rise to State Responsibility, as seen in the USA and Israeli courts\u2019 supervision of the treatment of terrorists and terror suspects. Individuals can also be held criminally responsible for breaches of the Geneva Conventions, for example the Charles Taylor trial at the Special Court for Sierra Leone and the trial of Radovan Karadzic at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (Dworkin, 2003). The Geneva Conventions are therefore a useful way of ensuring that states respect human rights, rather than simply promising to treat detainees well as a matter of policy."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con02b","title":"","text":"Treating terrorists with respect for their human rights allows those fighting the war on terror to take the moral high ground. By failing to comply with the Geneva Conventions, countries such as the USA are no better than the terrorist groups that they are fighting. The objects of war have changed, states no longer seek territory purely through force but by cultivating popular support, \u2018hearts and minds\u2019 (Kilcullen, 2009). The values that the West stands for are exactly what terrorists are attacking and the West needs to show that it can win the war on terror while still respecting fundamental values such as the rule of law and human rights. Applying the Geneva Conventions is therefore a vital part of winning the war on terror, regardless of whether the terrorists choose to apply them."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Hate speech can encourage dialogue and be positive. Allowing hate speech provides an opportunity to combat and change the views of those who are promoting hatred. In the long term this will lead to a reduction in violence through helping air and then solve the underlying causes.  (See Op Argument 1)"}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Reduced dialogue  While hate speech is a form of expression, it is not one that encourages dialogue. By promoting hatred based on immutable personal characteristics it is by definition anti-dialogue. Hate speech does not contribute anything; it merely provides a justification for violence and discrimination. Extreme messages, be they in words or through symbols, deter moderates from voicing their opinions, either because they do not want to legitimize the message or out of fear of reprisals. This reduces the net dialogue on university campuses and injures the quality of the dialogue that remains."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro03b","title":"","text":"The need for interaction is all the more reason to ensure that all ideas are in the marketplace. This way, the veracity of all ideas are questioned. For example, if someone brings bigoted ideas with them as a freshman, perhaps because these ideas were prevalent in the community they grew up in, if they cannot express these ideas and be challenged they may never attempt to integrate. Instead, they will gravitate to those who share their ideas and remain isolated."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Danger to students  Hate speech poses a clear danger to students and other members of the campus community. Often, the hatred is directed towards minority groups that are easily identifiable based on skin colour, clothing, or behaviour. Because these minorities are easy to identify, they can be targeted by those swayed by the speaker\u2019s message. Every hate crime is a tragedy and an attack against the principles of WLDs. Even when the message doesn\u2019t provoke violence, it can have a deep emotional harm on members of the targeted community. As such, the government has a duty to intervene to ensure that individuals are safe. [1]  [1] Kaminer, Wendy and Femi Otitoju, \u201cProtecting free speech is more important than preventing hate speech\u201d (Debate) Intelligence2. Retrieved 2011-08-24."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro01b","title":"","text":"The government\u2019s primary duty is to protect the constitutional rights of its citizens. Censoring speech is a clear attack on the right to free expression. Governments can use the criminal code to ensure people are protected. Acts that physically harm people or directly encourage others to use violence are already illegal and these laws can be enforced without violating an individual\u2019s constitutional rights. [1]  [1] Kaminer, Wendy and Femi Otitoju, \u201cProtecting free speech is more important than preventing hate speech\u201d (Debate) Intelligence2. Retrieved 2011-08-24."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is the potential for massive harm should universities become places where individuals continuously need to contain their thoughts and ideas for fear of sanction. It is far easier to actively promote open dialogue and tolerance as this will lead to more diversity."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Allowing Hate Speech Discourages diversity  Members of groups that find themselves the targets of hate speech will be less likely to attend universities where they feel targeted. As a result, those campuses will become less diverse which will decrease the most effective deterrent of hateful ideas: understanding through interaction. Less Muslim, gay, Jewish, etc. students on campus is exactly what those promoting hatred are trying to achieve. Less students of the targeted group makes them easier to target because there are less people speaking out against the hate speech. A downward spiral is created that, if not checked, can drastically reduce campus diversity which is a massive harm to social integration and social harmony. Speech codes or other censorship sends a signal to minorities that they are welcome in the university. [1]  [1] Seaman, Julie, \u2018Hate Speech and Identity Politics\u2019, Florida State University Law Review, Vol. 36:99,  p.107"}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro04a","title":"","text":"Discourages education of minorities  When individuals feel that they will be targeted at a university based on who they are, they are less likely to attend that university either out of fear they will be discriminated against or because they believe that they will not be allowed to express themselves freely without being discriminated against or assaulted. No group should be discouraged from attaining higher education because of immutable personal characteristics. Tertiary education is at the heart of social mobility and self-actualization. Even if no attack ever takes place, because hate speech can create an atmosphere which deters members of society from attending university the state is justified in banning it."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con03b","title":"","text":"As stated, hate speech can have significant harm on certain individuals\u2019 abilities to attend university and engage in campus life. Their rights to education must balanced against any potential harms that may befall someone who has to think twice before saying something hateful about a member of their university community."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con01b","title":"","text":"It is wrong that obnoxious and hateful views should be given an airing and individuals left to their own devices to decide if those views are right or wrong. Accepting that these views can be voiced on campus and opponents of these views can make their own case implies that these views have equal standing; which is not the case, while there may be freedom of speech there is not freedom to hurt one and other. It is wrong to suggest that hateful ideas will spread faster if banned as if they are not banned those who are preaching such ideas have greater access to others so have more opportunity to persuade"}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con02a","title":"","text":"Universities are bastions of free expression  Historically, universities have been centres of free speech and expression. The idea of tenure for professors was developed to ensure academic freedom both for teachers and students. [1] Censorship of any type of expression is a direct assault on the principles of a university. As Oliver Wendell Holmes commented, \"The very aim and end of our institutions is just this: that we may think what we like and say what we think.\" Free speech on campus is responsible for producing, or at least fostering many of the progressive ideas of the 20th century even though these ideas were threatening and caused emotion distress to many people.  [1] American Association of University Professors (AAUP), \u20181940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure\u2019, 1940,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con04a","title":"","text":"Freedom of expression is a political right  Freedom of expression is enshrined in the constitutions of all WLDs because it is a necessary political check on the government. For example article 10 in the European Convention on Human Rights [1] and The First Amendment in the United States. [2] The protection of this right is most severely tested when the ideas are abhorrent to our morality but when one person is denied their freedom, it is a harm to everyone\u2019s freedom.  [1] \u2018Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms\u2019, June 2010,   [2] \u2018Amendment I\u2019, Cornell University Law School Legal Information Institute,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con03a","title":"","text":"Freedom of expression is a means to education  Students need to be able to take chances and express unpopular ideas in order to maximize their personal growth and development. Speech codes, even ones designed to only censor hate speech, have a chilling effect on all speech as students become afraid to say anything that is not politically correct. For example a student at California Polytechnic State University underwent a day long disciplinary hearing for posting a flyer publicising a talk \u201cIt\u2019s O.K. to Leave the Plantation\u201d. [1] It would not be surprising if students are less willing to organise such events after such a dressing down. Students also need to learn to respond to ideas they don\u2019t like because even if censorship of hate speech is effectively controlled on campus, it still exists in the outside world. Students will only be able to maximize their ability to ask questions, state opinions, and respond to ideas on a free campus.  [1] Berger, Joseph, \u201cFilm Portrays Stifling of Speech, but One College\u2019s Struggle Reflects a Nuanced Reality\u201d New York Times, June 27, 2007. Retrieved 2011-08-24."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con01a","title":"","text":"The marketplace of ideas  The truth can only emerge from competition between various ideas in free, transparent discourse. To silence any idea is to remove ideas from the marketplace thus reducing the individual\u2019s ability to use his\/her reason and intellect to arrive at a conclusion. [1] Silencing ideas also creates separate marketplaces thereby reducing the legitimacy of both and making it easier for someone espousing hate speech to use censorship as a justification for not engaging their ideas in open debate. When this happens, it becomes more likely that individuals who feel alienated from main stream society will find meaning in the hateful ideas which have also been excluded from the mainstream. This is very similar to the concept of the free market in economics where the freer the market the better off everyone is. [2]  [1] Wikipedia, \u201cMarketplace of Ideas\u201d,  Retrieved 2011-08-23.  [2] Lee, Steven P., \u2018Hate Speech in the Marketplace of Ideas\u2019, D. Golash (ed.), Freedom of Expression in a Diverse World, 2010,  p.15"}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con04b","title":"","text":"All rights have to be balanced. Universities have a duty to ensure that everyone is protected and if one person\u2019s right to free speech is infringing on another person\u2019s right to safe access to education in a non-hostile environment then it is just to slightly infringe the first party\u2019s right rather than entirely eliminate the second party\u2019s right."}
+{"id":"training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con02b","title":"","text":"Whatever value the expression of hate speech has can be discussed in classrooms where the ideas can be discussed in their social context rather than promulgated from a platform. Banning hate speech will not transform universities into factories of rote learning or crush a progressive atmosphere. Hate speech isn\u2019t about affirming rights, it is about limiting rights. There is no analogy here to the feminist or gay rights movements."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is better that people be afraid of what is really happening than to be blissfully ignorant and thus vulnerable. Crime can be frightening, but people need to know about it so they can prepare themselves to deal with it. Furthermore, if violence is growing within communities, there may well be a need for better policing, so calling for such provisions is not necessarily just treating the symptoms of social illness, but rather is holding society together and maintaining necessary order. [1] Fear may cause people to do irrational things, but so too can ignorance.  [1] Jones, Stephen. Understanding Violent Crime. London: Open University Press. 2000."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Reporting generates a constant iteration of fear in the public, and precipitates a ratchet effect toward crime  Constant reporting on violent crime makes people more fearful. This not a deliberate effort on the part of the media to keep people afraid, but rather is a corrosive negative externality; violence sells, so media provides, resulting in the scaring of audiences. The result of the media\u2019s reporting on violent crimes is a constant iteration of fear, which makes people wary of each other, and of the world. [1] Furthermore, such reporting creates a feeling in people of other individuals and groups most often reported as committing crimes as being \u201cother\u201d from themselves. For example, reporting on extensive crimes in inner-city areas in the United States has caused middle class suburbanites to develop wariness toward African-Americans, who are constantly reported in the media as criminals. This is socially destructive in the extreme. The heightened senses of insecurity people feel leads to vigilance in excess. This is bad for people\u2019s rationality. All these problems yield very negative social consequences.  The constant reporting on violence leads to people demanding immediate law enforcement, and politicians quick to oblige, which leads to a ratchet effect, a precipitous increase in punishments for crimes. This results in a severe misallocation of resources; first in terms of irrationally high spending on extra policing, and second in terms of the excessive allocation of resources and authority to the state to solve the problems of crime through force. This is observed, for example, in the enactment of the PATRIOT Act, which was acclaimed in a state of fear after 9\/11, and which gave extensive, even draconian powers to the state in the name of security. The media fuels this hysteria. Without its influence, cooler heads can prevail. The end result of all this is a treating of symptoms rather than the cause. Putting more police on the streets, and getting tough on crime fail to address underlying issues, which are often poverty and the social ills arising from it. [2] Citizens and governments should instead face the actual problem instead of choosing flashy option.  [1] Rogers, Tom. \u201cTowards an Analytical Framework on Fear of Crime and its Relationship to Print Media Reportage\u201d. University of Sheffield.   [2] Amy, Douglas J. \u201cMore Government Does Not Mean Less Freedom\u201d. Government is Good. 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Some journalists and media outlets are despicable in the way they treat people. Preying upon victims and their families is absolutely wrong, but a ban is not the way to solve this problem as it would simply move the media frenzy to whenever the ban on a case is removed and the details become public. Instead better regulation of the press is needed in such emotional cases in order to make sure that the media is respectful of families and also to make sure that those accused are seen to be innocent until proven guilty."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Reporting on violent crimes compromises the integrity and fairness of law  Judges and juries have to be neutral when they preside in court, and no bias can enter the court\u2019s discourse and deliberation if justice is to be done. This is especially true of violent crime, for two reasons. First, in such cases, the court is dealing with people\u2019s lives, as violent crime convictions yield high sentences, and the court\u2019s decisions often have a lasting effect on the physical wellbeing of both victims and perpetrators of such crimes. Second, the visceral nature of violent crime naturally causes an emotive response from people hearing about it, which can cause them to act less rationally. [1]  Opinion is thus more easily colored in deliberations over violent crime than with any other kind. In light of these facts it is necessary to analyze the behavior of the media when it reports on violent crimes. The media is a commercial enterprise. It prioritizes sales over truth, and always wants to sell the good story and to get the scoop. For this reason the media relishes the opportunity to sell the \u201cblood and guts\u201d of violent crime to its audience. Furthermore, the race to get stories first causes reporters and media outlets to jump to conclusions, which can result in the vilification of suspects who are in fact innocent. The media sensationalizes the extent of crime through its extreme emphasis on the violence; it builds its stories on moving imagery, emotive language, and by focusing on victims and their families. At the same time the media seeks to portray itself as being of the highest journalistic quality. [2]  This behavior on the part of the media is tremendously bad for the legal process. The media circus surrounding violent crime necessarily affects potential jurors, judges, lawyers, and the general public. This has been observed on many occasions; for example, after the OJ Simpson trial some jurors admitted that the pressure generated by the media added significantly to the difficulties of deliberation. The inescapable consequence of the media reporting on violent crimes is that people cannot help internalizing the public opinion when it stands against a person on trial. Thus court judgments in the presence of a media circus must be held suspect. By restricting reporting on violent crime, however, the pressure can be relieved and the legal process can function justly.  [1] Tyagi, Himanshu. \u201cEmotional Responses Usually Take Over Rational Responses in Decision-Making\u201d. RxPG News. 16 February 2007,   [2] Lee, Martin and Norman Solomon. Unreliable Sources. New York: Lyle Stuart. 1990."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Law should be just and unbiased. That is not a controversial position. However, it seems difficult to imagine that reporting on violent crimes has so tremendous an effect on the public that judges and jurors cannot be unbiased in their deliberations. Rather, the process of jury selection as it stands is designed to guarantee that there is no bias with both prosecution and defence being allowed to examine and object to a juror. Furthermore, most reporting on violent crime is about simple facts rather than any attempt to influence opinion on specific crimes. This is the essence of what news is, people have a right to know what is going on in their society, even if what is going on is brutally violent."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Terrorists and serial killers make up a tiny proportion of murders and violent criminals in Western countries. In the United Kingdom for example there have been less deaths due to terrorism between 2000 and 2010 than due to bee stings. [1] As a result the very few copycat attacks are not really the issue at all when the question of reporting on violent crimes in the media is under discussion. Talk about these rarities serves only to distract people from the reality that most violent crime is not so bizarre as these cases. [2] Rather, the need to report on violent crime stands for all the violent crimes committed in every society, and fears of terrorists and serial killers can do little to challenge that need.  [1] Anderson, David, \u2018The Terrorism acts in 2011\u2019 Report of the Independent Reviewer on the Operation of the Terrorism Act 2000 and Part 1 of the Terrorism Act 2006, June 2012,   [2] Morton, Robert. \u201cSerial Murder\u201d. National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime. 2005."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro03a","title":"","text":"The state owes a duty of protection to victims, victims\u2019 families, and those accused of committing crimes  Victims of violent crimes and their families face an emotional and vulnerable time in the wake of such crimes. People need time to recover, or mourn. The media\u2019s fixation on violent crimes subjects these vulnerable people to the assault of reporters. In fact, there exists a perverse incentive for the media to badger families until they break down, as tears sell. Such exploitation must be stopped, and the best way to do that is to deny the media the ability to report on such things. The media does not care about hurting feelings, and bad behavior on the part of reporters never hurts readership of media outlets, as is indicative of such tabloids as the National Enquirer. Outlets can always deflect any backlash that might occur for their excesses by cutting loose \u201crogue reporters\u201d.  Furthermore, families and victims usually do not want the media's, and the nation\u2019s eyes upon them. Rather they tend to seek support from family and community, not the faceless masses. [1] People generally want to mourn in their own way. They may not want to become part of a media-driven narrative, and certainly not to become symbols for a new social crusade to reform communities. Removing violent reporting removes these perverse incentives to irritate victims and families, and instead leads to more respectful and considerate treatment.  As for those accused of crimes, it can be hard for someone acquitted after a trial or accusation to get on with life. Some people may find themselves roundly accused by the media and public, even portrayed as monster, making it very hard to move on, even when their names are officially cleared. This is completely contrary to how the legal system should function, where acquittal is meant to deliver absolution. Allowing the media to construct narratives of guilt in the absence of evidence undermines the very fabric of justice. The media\u2019s incessant coverage of violent crimes and its alacrity to make accusations and jump to conclusions can destroy someone\u2019s life, more than even having to stand trial does. Justice must prevail and be fair to those to whom it judges in court, and this can only be done by not allowing the media to turn the mob against people even after their names are cleared.  [1] Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime. \u201cVictims and the Media\u201d. 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro04a","title":"","text":"The contagion effect of reporting on violence leads to increased impetus for terrorist attacks and serial killings  The media has been consistently demonstrated through empirical evidence to aid in the exacerbation of premeditated violence. There is an observable contagion effect, as the media serves to spread the virus of violence. Studies have shown that the greater the level of media coverage, the shorter the lag time between initial crime and emulations of them. In the case of terrorism, there is a demonstrable clustering effect. The 1970s embassy takeovers in Middle East, for example, show how media coverage can encourage terrorists to emulate past actions that gained attention in the past. [1] People see success of certain kinds of attacks and seek to repeat them. For example, the successes of Fatah in Israel led to the formation of the German Red Army Faction that would be responsible for many terrorist activities.  In the case of serial killers and mass murders, the media generates the \u201chot death story\u201d of the moment, leading to an observable clustering effect, much as occurs with terrorism. For example, the Virginia Tech shooter cited the Columbine shooters as his inspiration. Serials killers are often attention-seeking individuals who crave media attention, which they are obligingly given. An example of this is the Unabomber, who ramped up his parcel-bombing campaign as a result of the media attention given to Timothy McVeigh\u2019s mass murder in Oklahoma City. The media not reporting on violent crimes means eliminating the problem of emulation, and stops feeding killers\u2019 pathologies.  [1] Nacos, Brigitte. \u201cRevisiting the Contagion Hypothesis: Terrorism, News Coverage, and Copycat Attacks\u201d. Perspectives on Terrorism 3(3). 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con03b","title":"","text":"Political will to affect change in areas riddled with violent crime is not generated by media reporting on the violence. Rather, the way the media reports, prioritizing the sensational, blood and guts, aspects of crimes, results in frightened voters clamoring for something to be done. This usually just results in more policing and more draconian sentencing laws. Neither of which solve the underlying problems of poverty and poor provision of essential state services. Rather, they serve merely as stand-ins for real action, resulting in no efforts to genuinely reclaim troubled communities. By excluding media reporting on the most visceral goings on in these areas, namely violent crimes, politicians and the people affected can enter into rational dialogue that is not perverted by media sensationalism."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con01b","title":"","text":"It is not necessary for people to know the extent of criminal activity in order to be able to take precautions, everyone regardless of whether they know the amount of crime in an area should take what precautions against being attacked that they can. For example they should stick to walking on well-lit streets at night. Local groups on the other hand do not need to be informed by the newspapers if there is crime in the area, they will already know because they live there how safe the area is. The police will certainly give residents the information if there is a threat to them even if they are not giving that information to the media."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con02a","title":"","text":"To not promote the truth of events is contrary to the duty, and to the right of free speech, of a responsible media  The media has two jobs; first, it has a duty to report on what people care about, and second, it has a duty to report on things that seriously influence society. Muzzling the media\u2019s ability to disseminate information by preventing reporting on violent crimes can only do harm to society. The media has a fundamental duty to report on anything that may influence the lives of the citizens it reaches. This is particularly true of the state-run media, which is meant to be free of political influence and is not as dependent upon ad revenues and thus not as prone to sensationalist reporting. Beyond its duty to inform, the media, like all bodies and individuals in society have a right to freedom of speech. This must extend to the right to report on things that are ugly and that frighten people. It is better that people be informed of the truth by a free media and be terrified than to leave people without knowledge of the real seriousness of criminality. Fundamentally, the right to freedom of speech and of expression must be protected. If the media should give way on the issue of violent crimes it loses all credibility as a genuine font of truth. [1] To protect the basic rights of citizens, the right of the media to report on violent crimes must be upheld.  [1] PUCL Bulletin. \u201cFreedom of the Press\u201d. People\u2019s Union for Civil Liberties. July 1982."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con04a","title":"","text":"The mainstream media is essential for the accurate reporting of information; without it reporting on violent crimes, they would simply be reported by less accountable, less accurate freelance reporters and blogs  The media is regularly accused of being sensationalist and of hyping up the extent and gruesomeness of violent crimes. In some cases this may be true, but the media generally reports facts in a sober and informative, if also exciting, way. Without the mainstream media, however, news about violent crimes will still spread. The news will be disseminated within local communities and across the Internet via email and blogs. The result is lessening of journalistic quality, as bloggers are not bound by any exacting requirements in terms of the need for factual bases of stories. [1] The mainstream media provides a largely credible source of news that new media still lacks. In the absence of mainstream reporting, especially on such a hot button issue as violent crime, will only serve to spread disinformation, leading people to draw inaccurate conclusions and make decisions based on inaccurate knowledge.  [1] Rouse, Darren. \u201cIs New Media a Threat to Journalism?\u201d. ProBlogger. 15 October 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con03a","title":"","text":"The media\u2019s reporting and investigating acts as a check on the behavior of the justice system  The state often does not want to deal with serious social issues in politically disenfranchised areas, where crime rates tend to be higher and the populations poorer This is because such areas cannot be counted on for electoral support as they often have low turnout rates and can be too complicated to be worth dealing with from a political perspective. Without the media, no one will report on criminal activity in these areas, meaning there will be no political will to reform them. This gives the police the opportunity to abrogate their responsibility to these communities.  In the absence of media reporting, authorities would also be able to hide the true extent of crime in misleading statistics. For example, police in parts of the United States have been caught publishing deliberately false crime statistics, often understating levels of violent crime in poorer communities. [1] The media has served to uncover the truth of these police abuses of the facts. Only with a free media can people truly be informed about what is happening in society, and that extends to information about violent crimes.  [1] Thompson, Steve and Tanya Eiserer. \u201cExperts: Dallas Undercount of Assaults Builds \u2018Artificial Image\u2019\u201d. Dallas Morning News. 15 December 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con01a","title":"","text":"It is necessary for people to understand the extent of criminal activity in order for them to coordinate an effective response  People have a right to know, for the sake of their own safety, about violent crimes being committed. Otherwise they will be unable to prepare themselves adequately for the possibility of being attacked. However people cannot make rational decisions about how to react and respond to violence in society if they do not have an accurate picture of not only the frequency of crime, but also their nature. Everyone should take necessary precautions to prevent themselves being victims of crime, as part of this they should know what areas are for example safe to walk through at night. If there is little or no reporting of where and when crime occurs the public will not have this necessary knowledge to keep themselves safe. Local groups will also be less able to protect their neighborhoods. For example in Pimlico, London, local groups have set up patrols in order to deal with an increase in muggings, if these muggings were not reported such local action would not have been possible. [1]  [1] Davenport, Justin, and Moore-Bridger, Benedict, \u2018Vigilante patrols set up to beat Pimlico prowlers\u2019, London Evening Standard, 8 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con04b","title":"","text":"Bans and restrictions on the old media would equally affect the \u2018new\u2019 media of the internet age. Bloggers could just as easily be taken to court for their reporting as conventional journalists so the news would still be restricted. While individuals may still report crimes this would become limited to the local area where people do have a genuine interest in the crime rather than it being reported nationally."}
+{"id":"training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con02b","title":"","text":"There is no such thing as these two duties that the opposition asserts for the media. The media is a business like any other, because its business is information and news it will report on violent crime as it is something that the people care about so will purchase news about it, but it does not have a duty to do such reporting. Similarly there is no duty to report on things that influence the lives of the citizens of the state, again the media does so but only because it sells. Indeed large amounts of media do not report things that are either things that most people care about or things that seriously influence society. There are lots of magazines and newspapers on things like hobbies, such as toy models, but it is absurd to suggest that this is what most people care about or that the issues that affect toy model hobbyists influence the rest of society. It would be equally absurd to suggest that such a magazine or newspaper should have a section devoted to violent crime because that is what is important."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro02b","title":"","text":"Prison is the harshest possible way to prevent the offender from continuing to bully. As the crimes were committed online the offender can be cut off from the internet, or simply banned from the sites where he was committing the offence."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro02a","title":"","text":"Jail prevents continued harassment  Part of the point of time detained in jail is to prevent the offender from reoffending while inside. Being in jail prevents the offender from continuing to engage in cyberbullying by denying unsupervised access to the internet or telephones. It is the most reliable way to prevent reoffending for the duration of the sentence."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro03b","title":"","text":"Punishment does not have to be the complete loss of freedom that is prison. The loss of freedom as punishment should be interpreted more broadly than not being able to move from a particular location. Losing the freedom to use the internet or social networks can be as much punishment when these are activities that the offender enjoys."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cyberbullying ruins lives just like any other bullying; age of the culprit does not matter  Punishment must fit the crime. Cyberbullying by a young person can be just as damaging to a victim as a similar crime by someone older. As a result should be equally punished. When cyberbullying has ruined someone\u2019s life, and possibly led them to commit suicide, there were 9 teenage suicides as a result of bullying on Ask.fm in 2012 alone, [1] then not only the victims but their loved ones lives have been ruined as a result of the offender\u2019s actions. Such a consequence deserves jail time to pay for the actions.  [1] Broderick, Ryan, \u20189 Teenage Suicides In The Last Year Were Linked To Cyber-Bullying On Social Network Ask.fm\u2019, BuzzFeedNews, 11 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro01b","title":"","text":"Sentencing a criminal should not just be about punishing them for the magnitude of the result of the crime. Instead it should be about reformation and reintegrating the offender so that they can continue their life in future without engaging in any crime. While cyberbullies bear much responsibility for what they have done when the victim commits suicide it was not a direct action by the offender."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Prison is punishment  While rehabilitation and prevention are important parts of sentencing there also needs to be punishment. There being a punishment, is necessary to ensure there is a deterrence to prevent the offender reoffending, and to prevent others carrying out the same crime. This applies equally to young offenders as to older criminals."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con03b","title":"","text":"The other options are much less likely to be effective at stopping the bullying from taking place than jail time. 58% of ASBOs handed out between 2000 and 2013 were breached. 43% were breached more than once. [1]  [1] Home Office, \u2018Anti-social behaviour order statistics: England and Wales 2013 key findings\u2019, gov.uk, 18 September 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con01b","title":"","text":"Many children under the age of 18 both know the consequences of their actions and know that bullying, whether on or offline, is wrong. We cannot simply let these people get away with little punishment simply because they are under 18. If they have a lower mental age then there is already the possibility of the defence pleading diminished responsibility."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con02a","title":"","text":"Should not damage a normal childhood with jail  Putting young offenders in jail does not work, it increases not decreases crime. Going to jail makes children more likely to offend again with young offenders 67% more likely to be in jail again by 25 than those young offenders who did not go to prison. At the same time they are 13 percentage points less likely to finish high school. [1] These statistics shows the damage that jail has on a young life; instead of completing high school and eventually getting a job jail usually means those who have spent time before continue on a self destructive criminal path.  [1] Beauchamp, Zack, \u2018Study: Throwing Kids in Jail Makes Crime Worse, Ruins Lives\u2019, ThinkProgress, 17 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con03a","title":"","text":"There are other options besides jail  Jail or time in a Young offenders institute is an extreme reaction to a problem that can be solved by other measures. As an online crime the offender could be denied access to the internet or a mobile for a set period. Cutting off access would not only physically prevent reoffending but would have a similar \u2018denial of liberty\u2019 to jail. There have been suggestions that there should be internet ASBOs (Anti Social Behaviour Orders) to block people from particular sites in response to racism online, this would be similar. [1] Any other option would be cheaper than prison which costs on average \u00a338,000 per prisoner per year in the UK. [2]  [1] Syal, Rajeev, \u2018Punish hate crime on social media with internet asbos, say MPs\u2019, The Guardian, 9 February 2015,   [2] Ruskin, John, \u2018Why has prison emerged as a prominent form of punishment for most crime and what are its functions in relation to wider society?\u2019, Internet Journal of Criminology, 2011,  , p.3"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con01a","title":"","text":"Children should not be sent to jail  Children under 18 should not be sent to jail. Children are considered less responsible for their crimes and the age of criminal responsibility is arbitrary with some countries having much higher ages than others; in the UK it is 10 however in some such as many Latin American countries it is as high as 18. [1] Children are often not able to understand the full damage of their actions or why it is wrong. This is not something that comes at a set age but is a slow change. As such children at younger ages should not be punished to the same extent as adults.  [1] \u2018Defense of infancy\u2019, Wikipedia, checked 29 April 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con02b","title":"","text":"The key here is to provide the educational opportunities and care inside a young offenders\u2019 institute that they would be engaging in outside. This will allow learning and development to continue as normal while still providing punishment. The UK has from 2014 been increasing learning to 24 hours a week [1] \u2013 very close to what many British secondary schools provide.  [1] Fazaeli, Toni, \u2018Securing education for young offenders \u2013 learning first, detention second\u2019, FE Week, 24 January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro02b","title":"","text":"The ICC has itself said that \u201cNo country in the world has a right to ask the ICC to prosecute certain people\u201d and highlighted that even after ratification \u201conly the court\u2019s prosecutor can decide whether there is sufficient ground for conducting an investigation\u201d. Once ratified Ukraine may ask, but the ICC is not bound to prosecute him because of the request. [1]  [1] ITAR-TASS, \u2018Ukraine not able to prosecute Yanukovych through International Criminal Court\u2019, en.itar-tass.com, 26 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro02a","title":"","text":"Would mean Ukraine signing up to the ICC  Having the ICC prosecute Yanukovych currently faces a major difficulty; Ukraine has not ratified the Rome statute. [1] It is therefore outside the jurisdiction of the court. Technically this means the parliament can\u2019t ask for ICC prosecution as there is no State Party to refer the situation to the prosecutor. [2] Clearly there is an easy solution to this; Ukraine should ratify the statute. This would have the benefit of reaffirming international criminal law, showing that it can be beneficial in a crisis, and increasing it as an accepted norm.  [1] ICC, \u2018The States Parties to the Rome Statute\u2019, icc.cpi.int, accessed 28\/2\/2014,   [2] Rome Statute, Article 14"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is little evidence that Yanukovych still has much support anywhere in Ukraine. However an ICC trial could simply inflame the other side; those who have overthrown Yanukovych are likely to want a trial to take place as soon as possible (which may be a long time off considering he is in Russia) and want it to take place in the Ukraine. The ICC would almost certainly be willing to give in to popular opinion; previously in Libya the prosecutor did not act when it was clear that public opinion did not want an international trial of Saif Gadaffi. [1]  [1] Kersten, 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro01a","title":"","text":"Yanukovych committed crimes against humanity  Even before most of the violence by riot police in February some experts were suggesting that Yanukovych had committed crimes against humanity \u2013 crimes committed by a state against a civilian population. Professor Alexander J Motyl argued \u201cThe Yanukovych regime may already be guilty of \u201cimprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law\u201d and \u201cpersecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender \u2026 or other grounds.\u201d\u201d [1] Now at the very least murder can be added to that count.  [1] Moryl, 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro01b","title":"","text":"Simply committing murder, or imprisonment, or persecution is not enough to make a crime a crime against humanity. It must be \u201cwidespread or systematic\u201d. A great many states are involved in individual killings or unjust imprisonments so there has to be a threshold for ICC intervention. Unfortunately this is undefined so it will be up to the prosecutor to decide whether these crimes meet that threshold. [1]  [1] Kersten, 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro04b","title":"","text":"International help would be available to ensure an impartial trial in the Ukraine. The OSCE has offered \u201can OSCE role as impartial witness and guarantor to the implementation of concrete steps agreed between the parties\u201d which could also extend to any trial. [1] With other international organisations involved in gathering evidence and providing legal assistance there could be certainty of an impartial trial without having to go to the ICC.  [1] Burkhalter, Didier, \u2018OSCE Chair-in-Office welcomes Ukraine agreement\u2019, osce.org, 21 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro03a","title":"","text":"Would prevent division  Justice is about the past. But when prosecuting someone there also needs to be a thought for the present and the future of the country. In the case of prosecuting Yanukovych there could be serious consequences as he had support in one half of the country. Ukraine is a divided country with many in the East considering themselves to not be Ukrainian, and certainly look to Moscow not the EU. [1] The new administration has already abolish a law that made Russian a second language in the country so infringing the rights of many in the East. [2] Trying a former leader in Kiev would be similarly provocative to those who believe Yanukovych is still the legitimate president, or even those who may not agree with Yanukovych but dislike the westward movement even more. While it would be unlikely to cause conflict on its own the action would certainly be an aggravating factor if other actions against the east of the country are being taken.  [1] Jamison, Alastair, \u2018Can Ukraine Avoid an East-West Split and Bloody Civil War?\u2019, NBCnews, 26 February 2014,   [2] RT, \u2018Canceled language law in Ukraine sparks concern among Russian and EU diplomats\u2019, RT.com, 27 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro04a","title":"","text":"The Ukrainian justice system is broken  Justice for Yanukovych should be international simply because it would be a much better guarantor of a fair trial. The Ukrainian justice system is unfortunately corrupt, and at the behest of prosecutors; it has an amazing conviction rate of 99.8%. This is because judges are they are only appointed for five years then the government confirms tenure if it believes they have been voting the right way. Yulia Tymoshenko, an opponent of Yanukovych, was imprisoned for making a deal with President Putin to ensure gas supplies \u2013 something that was a humanitarian necessity to ensure Russia did not freeze Ukraine into submission. [1]  [1] Robertson, Geoffrey, \u2018Yulia Tymoshenko's trial was a travesty of justice\u2019, The Guardian, 23 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con03b","title":"","text":"The Ukraine is perfectly at liberty to decide that it wants its former president to be tried at the ICC rather than at home. The crimes may have taken place in Ukraine but the reasoning behind the need for the ICC is that some crimes \u2013 including crimes against humanity \u2013 are so great that they are the responsibility of all, they affect other nations. The Ukrainian people would see justice done just as well by it being carried out in The Hague as in Kiev."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con01b","title":"","text":"Even if the former President cannot be prosecuted at the ICC for his corruption there can still be investigations into his wealth, his assets can be frozen and the money found repatriated to Ukraine without specifically indicting him for corruption. Switzerland has already said that it is freezing any of Yanukovych\u2019s assets in the country while the EU is considering an inquiry into his embezzlement. [1] Clearly there will be action taken against corruption even as Yanukovych is being tried for other more serious crimes.  [1] Fraher, John, \u2018Yanukovych to Appear in Russia Tomorrow as Swiss Freeze Assets\u2019, Bloomberg, 27 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con02a","title":"","text":"Does Yanukovych really qualify for the ICC?  It is questionable whether Yanukovych\u2019s crimes, as abhorrent as they may be, really qualify for the ICC. It is clear that he does not qualify for three of the four crimes the ICC charges; genocide, war crimes, and the crime of aggression (this is for attacking other states not your own people). This leaves crimes against humanity. Crimes against humanity can include murder when \u201ccommitted as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population\u201d [1] so the ICC will need to decide whether less than 100 dead is widespread and grave enough to justify the charge \u2013 and this is something that is up to the prosecutor. [2] Moreover as yet we don\u2019t know if Yanukovych himself was directly responsible for ordering attacks on the protesters in the last couple of days before the fall of his government.  [1] States Parties, \u2018Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court\u2019, icc-cpi.int, A\/CONF.183\/9 17 July 1998,  , Article 7  [2] Kersten, 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con04a","title":"","text":"The ICC is slow  has resulted in a conviction is against Thomas Lubanga \u2013 the trial took eight years from arrest to conviction. [1] The option of trying Yanukovych in the Ukraine with outside help in the process is therefore a better idea. The Council of Europe\u2019s Secretary General has already offered \u201clegal\u2026 expertise\u2026 by the International Advisory Panel (IAP), which will oversee investigations into recent acts of violence. I expect the IAP to start its work in Ukraine as early as next week.\u201d [2] The OSCE too will help \u201cefforts to establish facts on acts of violence and human rights violations.\u201d [3] Clearly the Ukraine would be in a good position to provide a free and fair trial for its former president that could bring justice much faster than the ICC while also showing justice being done in the right place.  [1] Open Society Foundations Justice Initiative, \u2018background\u2019, lubangatrial.org,   [2] Jagland, Thorbj\u00f8rn, \u2018Secretary General Jagland welcomes the Agreement on the Settlement of the Crisis in Ukraine\u2019, coe.int, 21 February 2014,   [3] Burkhalter, 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con03a","title":"","text":"Should be tried at home  The ICC recognises that a case is inadmissible where \u201cThe case is being investigated or prosecuted by a state which has jurisdiction over it\u201d. [1] The state of which Yanukovych is a national, and where the crimes took place has precedence. Ukraine therefore has first right to try Yanukovych, indeed the ICC will only act if Ukraine is unwilling or unable to do so itself. As the crimes he is alleged to have committed took place entirely in Ukraine, over Ukrainian issues he should be tried in Ukraine. This would allow the Ukrainian people to see justice done themselves rather than relying on others to do it for them.  [1] States Parties, \u2018Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court\u2019, icc-cpi.int, A\/CONF.183\/9 17 July 1998,  , Article 17"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con01a","title":"","text":"Could not be tried for all his crimes  The International Criminal Court only tries a few international crimes. This means that other crimes that Yanukovych has committed that are not covered by \u2018international criminal law\u2019 cannot be prosecuted at the ICC. It is possible that not all the charges of violence against protesters may count as the crimes against humanity that the court can charge. Equally Yanukovych\u2019s financial crimes cannot be prosecuted at the ICC. It was already known that Yanukovych became very rich as a result of corruption during his time as president but it is only now beginning to become clear how much corruption there was. Yatsenyuk the new Prime Minister \u201cOver $20bn of gold reserve were embezzled. They took $37bn of loans that disappeared. Around $70bn was moved to offshore accounts from Ukraine's financial system in the last three years\u201d with much of that money finding likely finding its way to Yanukovych or his friends. [1] Considering the hole in Ukraine\u2019s finances it would be far better to pursue these crimes.  [1] Walker, Shaun, and Grytsenko, Oksana, \u2018Ukraine\u2019s new leaders begin search for missing billions\u2019, The Guardian, 27 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con04b","title":"","text":"Slow might potentially be beneficial in this instance. It would mean that there is time for the worst of the scars of the protest, crackdown and change in power to heal so reducing the chance of any instability or violence when the outcome \u2013 whichever way it goes \u2013 is announced."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwsyh-con02b","title":"","text":"Clearly whether Yanukovych was directly responsible for the deaths and injuries by ordering assaults is something the prosecutor will need to investigate. It is likely that Yanukovych authorised attacks, there have already been leaks that he was planning to go much further with a large military \u201cantiterrorist\u201d operation to break up the protesters. [1] It seems almost certain that one of the three that the parliament voted to send to the ICC will be responsible for the deaths. It would be far better that the ICC were to be the one who decided who is directly responsible for what than an interim administration that has every reason to dislike Yanukovych and therefore influence the charges.  [1] Robins-Early, Nick, \u2018Ukraine\u2019s President Yanukovych Planned Crackdown As He Fled Documents Show\u2019, The Huffington Post, 25 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is not true that the human rights situation for women is deteriorating. The Social Institutions and Gender Index has found between 2009 and 2012 there has generally been improvement for example \u201cThe number of countries with speci\ufb01c legislation to combat domestic violence  has more than doubled from 21 in 2009 to 53 in 2012\u201d. Women rights can be improved through the United Nations. This has the legitimacy to convince governments to change their policies and liberalize them. Also, the power of the United Nations comes form the number of countries involved, adding besides the EU, the powerful US, China, Russia, and South Africa etc. More than that, the UN has a lot of experience in dealing with these kind of cases. A perfect example is the economic and diplomatic sanctions imposed on the South African government in order to convince them to leave behind the apartheid regime. Moreover one of the reasons for the United Nations is the promotion of universal human rights, and this applies to women as well as anyone else; there are 187 states that are a party to the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.  SIGI, '2012 SIGI', OECD, 2012,   Reddy, Enuga S., \u2018The United Nations: Partner in the Struggle against Apartheid\u2019, un.org,   United Nations, \u2018Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women\u2019, United Nations Treaty Collection, Status at 9 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro02a","title":"","text":"Asylum is the only way to protect women  The European Union is not able to protect women in other countries that are not a part of the union. Countries that have legislation discriminating against women are clearly not listening to European urgings on human rights. They will not respond to these urgings social and cultural traditions are deeply ingrained and only slowly change. Where women are seen as second-tier citizens it is seen as a natural part of the society can barely walk to the corner of the street without the consent of their husband. Moreover, the situation in countries with legislated discrimination against women is not improving, in countries which were previously secular there is increasingly a challenge from Islamism as in Libya and Egypt during the 'Arab Spring'. Moreover the influence of the European Union is declining; it has always been primarily financial, through aid which is declining, and through investment which, at least in the MENA, region has reversed as a result of those same revolutions. By granting asylum we can help them escape a legal system that clearly is against them and replace it with a European Union legal system that grants them those rights they never had.  Kausch, Kristina, 'If Europe is to preserve influence in the Middle East and North Africa, it must move on from technocratic policies towards more flexible cooperation.' LSE European politics and Policy, 21 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro03b","title":"","text":"With regards to a life threatening situation under which women might face severe consequences upon their return, it should be noted that the European Union will not send someone back if it is believed their life is at risk if they are sent back. They will not be forced to leave the country even if asylum is not granted as they will be granted humanitarian protection or discretionary leave to remain which will allow them to remain until the threat is lifted. If the country in question wishes to return the asylum seeker then it will take steps to negotiate with the asylum seeker's country of origin in order to obtain guarantees that the asylum seeker will not be harmed upon their return.  UNHCR, \u2018The Facts: Asylum in the UK\u2019, unhcr.org.uk, June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro05a","title":"","text":"We would allow discriminated women to reach their full potential  Women who are constantly threatened by their husbands or who are in societies where they are considered to represent less than a man will most certainly lack ambition to achieve their full potential \u2013 or even if they do have the ambition will be restrained from fulfilling it. When you live under a system that considers you inferior to the other gender and denies you opportunities on the basis of gender \u2013 sometimes including education the individual is clearly never going to have a chance to make their life worthwhile for its own sake. They won\u2019t be able to take up jobs that will have an impact on the world, they won\u2019t control their own economic circumstances as their husband is the only breadwinner, and they will be denied the opportunity to express their ideas and views. By giving them asylum in a place where women and men are treated equally, we give them the opportunity to do whatever they wanted to do before. Besides the security that they will gain, they will be able to go to school or get a job more easily than in their native country. There is no reason for which we don\u2019t want these women to be a part of our European cultural identity. It is shameful to give this opportunity only to your citizens when women from countries that discriminate against them might be able to contribute so much more than they are able to under their circumstances in their native country."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro01a","title":"","text":"The EU needs to help those suffering from human rights abuses  Everyone is equal. Women who live under legal system that permits discrimination against them are being denied of basic human rights whether this is the right to vote, to a fair trial, or bodily integrity. Sharia Law, for example, clearly denies them human rights like equality before the law, a basic human need according to Universal Declaration of Human Rights. \"All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law.\" Under Sharia a woman\u2019s testimony is worth half a man\u2019s and she gets half the inheritance of her male siblings. Second of all, bodily integrity is affected when women are stoned to death or beaten by their husbands without them even being punished. The importance of self-determination and autonomy are neglected in Saudi Arabia where women are not allowed to drive or go alone in public. Female genital mutilation, which causes bleeding, infections and infertility, and is almost always done without the girl's consent, is a big problem in many African countries. Asylum given by the EU shall be the only way for these women to leave the system that persecutes them and be able to have their human needs respected and therefore creating a healthier, safer and better environment.  Kaitlin, \u2018Women\u2019s Rights Under Islamic Law\u2019, Inside Islam: Dialogues & Debates, 25 November 2008,   Pizano, Pedro, \u2018Where Driving Is a Crime and Speaking About It Leads to Death Threats\u2019, Huffington Post, 6 June 2012,   United Nations, \u2018The Universal Declaration of Human Rights\u2019, un.org, 10 December 2948,   World Health Organisation,\u2019 Female genital mutilation\u2019, WHO Fact sheet, no.241, February 2013,   Mahmoud, Nahla, \u2018Here is why Sharia Law has no place in Britain or elsewhere\u2019, National Secular Society, 6 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro01b","title":"","text":"The EU is responsible for its own citizens and not for those that live in other countries or regions. Its burden is to protect human rights for European citizens and not for the entire world. At the moment, because of the economic crisis and austerity measures imposed, all the EU attention should be focused on delivering basic human rights (in terms of basic necessities such as food, shelter and employment) for people in Greece, Spain, Italy and other countries in distress. The burden lies here because the government of a country serves the people of that country and as a union each country accepts some of the burden for others in that union. Others that are outwith that union are not giving any direct benefits for the European Union and therefore should they not be our focus. Any more egregious violations of human rights in these countries would already be sufficient cause for granting asylum without a further offer presented to women who are discriminated against.  Douglas-Scott, Sionaidh, \u2018The European union and Human Rights after the Treaty of Lisbon\u2019, Human Rights Law Review, Vol.11, No.4, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro05b","title":"","text":"Rather than being selfish and wanting for these women only to be able to achieve their full potential in the European Union, we should consider doing something in order to change the way they are treated at home. Most women are not able to run away from home, or travel hundreds of miles in order to get into Europe to apply for asylum and have this opportunity for development. Even if they were the EU could not take every woman in. The European Union needs to look at the bigger picture and encourage those countries that discriminate against women to become much more liberal in their attitudes to women. This can be done by aid, sanctions, and diplomacy. The EU simply needs to persuade these countries of the massive loss they are sustaining by not allowing half of their population to realize their potential."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro04b","title":"","text":"The image of the European Union, even on human rights, does not result from how they treat the foreign citizens of some distant country but more on how they treat their own citizens. As with any nation or union of countries the EU\u2019s primary responsibility is to fulfill its duties towards its own citizens. More than that, the social balance and economic stability are much more important factors in the European Union\u2019s image abroad than how the union is treating women in faraway countries. So if we decide to talk about image, granting asylum will not improve nor damage the unions. On the other hand, its duty is to protect the European citizens and many things can still be done in this direction. There is no reason in wanting to help people abroad when you can do so much for your own."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro03a","title":"","text":"The status quo involves sending women back to the threat of persecution  Sometimes, women who are persecuted by their government end up running from their country just to be sent back from the EU when their asylum application is rejected. Under the current legal system, the problems of women from countries that implement Sharia Law and other forms of discrimination are often not considered sufficient grounds for asylum. This is because refugees are only considered to be refugees \u2018owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion\u2019, so it does not include persecution for gender. The consequences can be of two kinds. The first and the worst is sending them back home where to face harsh punishment for trying to leave. This was the case with two women who applied for asylum in Great Britain in 1997 and were denied this right even though they faced death by stoning upon return.  Even if the women are not sent home immediately due to a prolonged appeals process they are left in detention centers, in uncomfortable conditions and unable to get a job or do anything while they wait. Those who are denied entry are left with nothing only a long depressing wait to be returned to the horrible conditions from which they thought they had escaped.  Cleaver, Olivia F., \u2018Women Who Defy Social Norms: Female Refugees Who Flee Islamic States and Their Fight to Fit into American Immigration Law\u2019, Rutgers Journal of Law & Religion,   Women for Refugee Women, \u2018Refused: the experiences of women denied asylum in the UK\u2019, refugeewomen.com, 2012,   The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, \u2018Convention and Protocol relating to the status of refugees\u2019, unhcr.org, 1951,  p.14"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro04a","title":"","text":"The EU\u2019s reputation can only benefit from a strong policy on women\u2019s rights  There is a moral obligation for such a powerful and diverse group of nations to protect not only their own citizens but also people in desperate need all around the world. All the countries in the EU have signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and therefore stand behind its principles. As the world biggest economic power the EU is fully capable of doing so. The Union is wealthy enough that it can take in the extra migrants that would occur as a result of taking in women from countries where they face discriminatory legislation.  The European Union\u2019s international image is not based on its military might but upon its economy and on being upstanding in its promotion of a human rights agenda. Granting asylum to women that live under discriminatory legal system reinforces this image of being concerned for human rights. The European Union has signed up to the United Nations\u2019 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women by which signatories \u201cagree to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women\u201d while the convention is calling for the elimination of discrimination internally it is fully in the spirit of the convention to undertake actions that encourage others to fulfill the Convention. By being willing to grant asylum to women from countries that have not lived up to the standards of the convention \u2013 which includes \u201cTo adopt appropriate legislative and other measures, including sanctions where appropriate, prohibiting all discrimination against women\u201d \u2013 the European Union will put pressure on these regimes, helping to highlight their unequal systems.  \u2018Article 2\u2019, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, UN Women, 1979,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con03b","title":"","text":"No violence or incitement to violence can be justified by changes in legislation. It is not a cultural attack of any kind towards the Islamic religion or a certain culture. We must acknowledge that even the Quran clearly states, \u201cBoth men and women should be equal\u201d. Implementing such a measure is simply highlighting that these nations are not living up to their obligations and applying rights that they themselves have accepted are universal by signing up to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is a reminder that every country has the duty to respect its citizens and offer equal opportunities disregarding sex, religion, skin color etc. The intention of the European Union is simple and clear: you have to respect the international law and common sense. Furthermore with the example of South Park there is a fundamental difference in that portraying Mohammed is a fundamental attack on a religion where encouraging equality for women is simply encouraging change in a country\u2019s legislation. The latter is considerably less inflammatory."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con01b","title":"","text":"At a first glance this might be true but let\u2019s take a deeper view upon these societies. The example of Saudi Arabia where women are slowly being given the vote is true but this is not much of a gain in a country where the parliament has almost no power. In a culture where it is normal that they require the approval of their husband or father in order to be able to vote or do anything the result is simply another vote for the man. More than that, in countries like Saudi Arabia, basic rights like the right of movement are denied to women who cannot get a driving license. That there is progress in some areas does not mean that there is no reason for a policy of welcoming women asylum seekers. Far from it, such a policy would increase the pressure on these countries to step up their reforms. We should also remember that progress can go into reverse \u2013 thus the trend towards more governments that are less secular in the Middle East should be a worrying reminder of why the EU needs to let these women in.  Goss, Crystal, \u201910 of the World\u2019s Worst Countries to Live in as a Woman\u2019, Take Part, 20 August 2012,   Shane, Daniel, \u2018Saudi in new crackdown on female drivers\u2019, Arabian Business.com, 25 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con02a","title":"","text":"The response will be to impose more control over the movement of women.  While it is clich\u00e9 that every action has an equal and opposite reaction in this case the reaction is likely to be bad. If the European Union wants to open up to women from countries that discriminate against women then the clear recourse for those countries is to make sure their women can\u2019t leave. More government and family control will mean more rights will be infringed and leaving the country will be impossible even for tourism. If men are worried about their wives claiming asylum when on holiday why would they give them the opportunity? The state could respond by taking away, or regulating the possibility for women to leave the country. If in the present day, where the EU is not offering asylum, countries in the Middle East and Africa have the certainty that women will come back after their visa expires, this certainty will no longer be in place after we approve the motion. It is in no interest for national governments to lose population and therefore they will act towards infringing this right and many others to keep women at home."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con04a","title":"","text":"Allowing women asylum will damage feminist movements  In order to drive social change, these regions need women who are open-minded and want to be part of feminist movements. By giving them the \u201ceasy way-out\u201d, social change will be delayed in countries with a legal system that discriminate against women. Females will have two options. First of all, they can leave the country and come in the European Union where the situation is already better. Second, they can choose to remain in their national country and fight for their rights. It is only human to take the easy way out. Movements for women\u2019s rights will therefore lose many of those who want to change something and are willing to take action and as a result a lot of power. Those who migrate will be those who are more independent, more willing to do something to change their situation. Their energies will be directed outwards to leaving their home rather than to improving their situation where they are which would help millions of other women as well as themselves. This is the case with emigration more generally those who leave are those who are more entrepreneurial and are more likely to be leaders \u2013 in the United States 18% of small businesses were owned by immigrants, higher than the 13% share of the total population that are immigrants. As such movements for women\u2019s rights will not only be deprived of numbers, but they will lose the leadership of the women who would be most likely to push for change.  Editorial, \u2018Immigrants and Small Businesses\u2019, The New York Times, 30 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con03a","title":"","text":"Offering asylum for women will be seen as a case of cultural imperialism  Offering asylum to women who live under Sharia Law or other forms of discriminatory systems will be seen as a cultural attack made by the West against Islamic and Africa values. The European Union\u2019s actions will be seen as neo-colonialism meant to influence foreign states population. Ultraconservative Islamic countries are already suspicious of the west of social and cultural issues; this will simply show that they are correct in their concerns. Let\u2019s take the example of South Park, an American comedy TV-Show that portrayed Muhammad as a bear during one of its episodes. A website known for supporting jihad against the West published a warning against the creator, threatening to kill them if they don\u2019t remove the episode. Despite being a cartoon for a western audience it was seen as an attack on Islam. A policy which would appear to be in large part directed at Islamic states would be needlessly inflammatory.  The European Union would be showing that they do not care for the cultural values of others. Instead it would be promoting an imperial notion that western values are superior to those of other cultures. This is then legitimizing any notion that there is some kind of clash of cultures as it draws a line between the European Union and these states, a notion that would then be used by extremists on both sides as a propaganda tool and justification for violence.  Leo, Alex, \u2018South Park\u2019s Depiction of Muhammad Censored AGAIN\u2019, Huffington Post, 22 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con01a","title":"","text":"The situation in these countries is improving, no need for a new policy.  Such an extreme measure as granting asylum to all women from these countries is not required as the situation in countries that discriminate against women is improving. Moreover, such an approach might be seen as an attack and make Middle Eastern and African countries react badly. Most of these countries are moving towards a more liberal approach and starting to promote the rights of women and reduce legislated discrimination. They already have an interest in aligning with western conditions in order to increase their international reputation. More than that, people in these societies are becoming more liberal demanding more and more rights as we see in the Arab Spring. In Kuwait, female suffrage has been allowed since 2005, whereas Saudi Arabia permitted women to vote and participate in municipal election from 2011. The right for national election will follow in 2015, with King Abdullah changing his country\u2019s ultraconservative approach. The wind of change has left Europe and is heading toward the Middle East and Africa, promoting social reform and equality between men and women. If practices like female genitalia mutilation were widely used ten years ago, now they are enforced only in tribal parts of Africa, affecting less and less women. In conclusion, there is no need to worry about female that have residence in these countries because they are becoming more liberal and along with that, the whole country is changing. Diplomacy is working, there is no need for a new asylum policy.  Ajami, Fouad, \u2018The Arab Spring at One\u2019, Foreign Affairs, March\/April 2012,   BBC News, \u2018Kuwaiti women win right to vote\u2019, BBC News, 17 May 2005,   BBC News, \u2018Women in Saudi Arabia to vote and run in elections\u2019, 25 September 2011,   Stewart, Catrina, \u2018Saudi women gain vote for the first time\u2019, The Independent, 26 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con04b","title":"","text":"Women will chose to remain in their country because they have a family, a husband, friends and most likely a place to live. Not every woman who is a leader will simply think of helping themselves, many will want to stay and help their country overcome its discrimination. And we should not suggest that those who do go to start a new life in the EU will not benefit the cause of women\u2019s rights at home. They can learn from the example of the state they end up in, learn to lead organisations and mobilise people so that they can be more effective at promoting social change at home."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilsgihbes-con02b","title":"","text":"It is wrong to suggest that the EU should not take an action because some countries might use it as an excuse to clamp down on women\u2019s rights. Europe needs to respond to its own problem that in the Status Quo women who get to the European Union are denied asylum even when they have every reason not to wish to return home. The UK asylum system represents an example of a system that regularly denies women asylum even when they have been persecuted. Second of all, it is absurd to believe that countries like Saudi Arabia or Yemen will definitely close their borders for women to leave as to do so would likely bring retaliation from the EU, these countries if proposing such a move clearly don\u2019t think much of the value of their women so why would they wish to lock them in when to do so will result in less trade. Second refugees are for the most part those fleeing persecution \u2013 not those leaving under a passport. Many are already travelling without the permission of their state. If their state revokes their right to leave it will simply demonstrate the appropriateness of the EU letting them in.  Women for Refugee Women, \u2018Refused: the experiences of women denied asylum in the UK\u2019, refugeewomen.com, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is doubtful whether genocide such as this is based on rational calculations. For instance, the diversion of resources into the \u2018Final Solution\u2019 was a major reason why Hitler lost the war. In the same way, war criminals are unlikely to be deterred by legal threats such as these; they are driven by a fanatical hatred, not common sense. Furthermore, in wartime situations the immediate threats are so pressing that the hypothetical, long-term prospect of justice won\u2019t affect the actions of lower-ranking officers."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Justice needs to be seen to be done in order to provide a deterrent to others.  An accepted tenet of most justice systems is the achievement of deterrence. Without the prosecution of war crime, its perpetrators have to consider no tangible cost to their actions. This applies to those who claim to have \u201cjust followed orders,\u201d who now face a counter-motivation to refuse or defect. In the case of high-level war criminals it becomes effective when they realise they are losing a conflict. If they fear prosecution they are more likely to seek to negotiate rather than going on a final destruction spree. In the final days of the Nazi regime, Himmler stopped committing atrocities and attempted to negotiate peace because he realised his own vulnerability to prosecution. [i]  [i] Allen, Martin, Himmler's Secret War: The Covert Peace Negotiations of Heinrich Himmler."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Firstly, in many instances the victims of war crime want to move on with their lives. Being forced to testify and therefore relive their suffering can be deeply traumatic. Secondly, for victims to achieve catharsis or receive compensation the prosecution has to be successful, which they rarely are. If a prosecution fails to achieve a conviction, an even worse message is sent to the victims of those crimes."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro01a","title":"","text":"War criminals need to be prosecuted in order to provide justice.  In the instances of small-scale crime we accept that if a community condemns a person\u2019s action, our sense of justice demands that they be punished. However, it is often the case that those who commit the most heinous crimes at the highest levels of responsibility are not prosecuted because of the complexities of the process. For example Slobodan Milo\u0161evi\u0107 the former leader of Serbia\u2019s trial took four years and he died before the verdict was given. According to ICTY Chief Prosecutor Carla Del Ponte \u201cThe death of Slobodan Milosevic deprived victims of justice\u201d. [i] As an international community we have repeatedly pledged to prevent war crimes, in recognition of the fact that they are beyond the scope of local courts. When they occur it is a collective failure to protect, so the responsibility to prosecute and make amends falls with the international community. An admission of our inability to prosecute war crime undermines the decades of work we have done to prevent them.  [i] Online NewsHour, 'Milosevic Death Precedes War Crimes Verdict', PBS, 13 March 2006"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro01b","title":"","text":"The very scale of war crimes means that courts are inadequate vehicles for prevention or punishment. To achieve the international community\u2019s goal of \u201cnever again\u201d other methods, like sanctions, diplomatic engagement and the appropriate use of military deterrent and intervention must be employed. These pragmatic methods are unquestionably more effective and more likely to achieve long-term change."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro04b","title":"","text":"After war, the primary need of the affected community is to regain day-to-day functionality, create prosperity and achieve reconciliation. While a Truth and Reconciliation Commission might help to air grievances with positive purpose, trials only serve to rake up old hatreds and prolong social divisions."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Prosecution provides closure for the victims of war crimes.  The intention of many crimes of war is to destroy and demoralise individuals and communities. As a result, they often cause on-going harm to victims who cannot feel safe in their communities even after the conflict has ended. For victims, prosecuting war criminals has a vital cathartic function in helping them, to some extent, to come to terms with the crimes committed against them and their families. While full compensation is impossible, both the symbolic realisation of justice and the illustration of real commitment to prevention allows people to rebuild their lives to some extent. Failure to prosecute sends victims a message that the attacks on their freedoms were somehow acceptable."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Trials help bring divisions into the open to help heal them.  For post-conflict societies to function, the tensions and divisions of the conflict must be brought out into the open and dealt with in order to be fully put to rest. Those most responsible for war crimes must be brought to justice, those involved in the regime but less culpable must have opportunity to make amends and victims must feel that they have been compensated. This allows compromise and the potential for effective governance. The alternative is to allow undiscussed, simmering hatreds and resentments to persist, which undermine growth and create a risk of further conflict."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con03b","title":"","text":"Firstly, more prosecutions take place in developing nations because in recent decades more war crimes have been committed in developing nations. Western nations have been equally committed to prosecutions in the former Yugoslavia, in an increasingly prosperous European region. Secondly, although the refusal of the United States to become a signatory to the ICC is problematic, an inability to prosecute every war crime should not prevent us from prosecuting any."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con01b","title":"","text":"Proving the commission of crimes on this scale beyond reasonable doubt must take a great deal of time and expertise. The end is so important that the cost must be borne. The successes at Nuremburg and the ICTY convictions prove that it is possible to bring war criminals to justice. While the ICC has had limited success, it is a young institution and is likely to streamline its processes and achieve more convictions in the future."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con02a","title":"","text":"Post-conflict reconciliation  These trials are not always in the best interests of people on the ground in post-conflict societies. Victims may feel great trauma at having to testify and revealing information might inflame tensions. This is particularly true when large numbers of people in the society had connections to the war criminals. For instance, many high-ranking Cambodian businessmen and officials had Khmer Rouge connections [i] and in Rwanda, Hutus make up 85% of the population. Prosecution is intended to allocate blame not to encourage progress and reconciliation. If any official process is necessary, Peace and Reconciliation Commissions are more suitable.  [i] Justice of a Kind, The Economist,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con04a","title":"","text":"Problems with symbolic justice  There is no such thing as symbolic justice. While full justice is an admirable aspiration, its value is undermined by consistent failure. If prosecutions cannot be completed, the international community is seen as toothless. This undermines its deterrent value and trivialises the trauma of victims, who may feel their suffering is subordinate to esoteric legal principle. Furthermore, the prosecution of war criminals could use up political capital, thereby preventing more effective preventative measures, or real commitment to post-conflict rebuilding."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con03a","title":"","text":"Double Standard  While proposition may claim that prosecution of war criminals is a moral imperative, the reality is that geo-political factors determine which prosecutions are taken. For example, all of the ICC\u2019s prosecutions have been against African leaders. [i] Furthermore, although the United States is strongly suspected of war crimes in Iraq and Afghanistan, it is too powerful to be prosecuted. Fair justice should apply equally to everyone. Because it doesn\u2019t, these prosecutions are often seen as Western impositions. This aggravates international tensions and reduces willingness to take any action on war crime in the developing world. For example, the African Union has refused to uphold the ICC\u2019s arrest warrant on Omar Al Bashir. [ii]  [i] Case reports of the ICC   [ii] BBC News, 'Warrant issued for Sudan's leader', 4 March 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con01a","title":"","text":"The prosecution of war criminals is generally very ineffective.  The scale of crimes being prosecuted cause very slow trials, and a high likelihood of technical acquittals. International Courts rarely have police forces of effective methods of enforcing rulings. The ICC has never achieved a successful conviction, the ICTY has been criticised for inadequate sentencing [i] and the current trials in Cambodia have become mired in court and national politics, to the point that it is expected that no further Khmer Rouge officials will be tried. Given the improbability of success, the cost and trauma of these trials is unjustifiable.  [i] \"Ten years in prison for Miroslav Deronjic\". The Hague: Sense Agency. March 30, 2004. Retrieved 8 May 2011. \"Judge Schomburg however thinks that the punishment is not proportional to the crime and is not within mandate and spirit of this Tribunal. According to him, the crime to which Deronjic pleaded guilty \"deserves a sentence of no less than twenty years of imprisonment\". In a brief summary of his dissenting opinion that he read after pronouncing the sentence imposed by the majority, Judge Schomburg criticized the prosecution for having limited Deronjic's responsibility in the indictment to \"one day and to the village of Glogova.\" Secondly, Judge Schomburg adds that the \"heinous and long-planned crimes committed by a high-ranking perpetrator do not allow for a sentence of only ten years\", which in light of his possible early release could mean that the accused would spend only six years and eight months in prison. At the end of his dissenting opinion, Judge Schomburg quoted a statement by one of Deronjic's victims. The victim said that his guilty plea \"can heal the wounds\" that the Bosniak community in eastern Bosnia still feels - \"provided that he is punished adequately\". According to the victim, \"a mild punishment would not serve any purpose.\"\""}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con04b","title":"","text":"Justice is always aspirational. International law is a work-in-progress and while there is no question that a lot of work remains to be done, abandoning the effort will cause stagnation. While many failed prosecutions may come before International Courts, as commitment to international law strengthens so will the success-levels of prosecutions."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhwpwc-con02b","title":"","text":"In most instances, victims support the progress of prosecutions and are willing to testify. If many people in the society had connections to criminal regimes then that has to be acknowledged and addressed through official means. If not, the tensions will still exist. Even if they are driven underground, the risk of violent tension re-emerging continues to exist. While Peace and Reconciliation Commissions may be useful in tandem with prosecutions, by themselves they risk appearing as mere talk shops that do not provide either punishment or compensation."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro02b","title":"","text":"Those who satisfy these demands by citizens are more likely to be voted back into office. It is in their absolute interest to keep their focus on relevant emails or phone talks, as if they don\u2019t do that, there is another person qualified for the job who will.  Secondly, it is clear that in this quest for protecting society, it is in the government\u2019s interest to obey the law. As recent events have proven, the population is allergic to any state agency\u2019s violation of law, especially when it comes to warrantless tapping. They won\u2019t risk breaking the law in the hope they will catch more criminals as they know there would be a society and media backlash. If anything, it is in any politician\u2019s interest to search and investigate if any government agency is conducting such abuses and to reveal it with the resulting plaudits and votes it will bring. A politician will gain much more if it takes a public stance against that agency by imposing tighter controls and inspections rather than secretly supporting it. Let us not forget that it is the people who keep politicians in office.  Thirdly, we must remember that there is a lot of pressure from different NGOs and even whistleblowers that is put on these officials not to make any wrong steps. They know that if the population finds out that they focused on anything else but catching wrong doers, their career is over and there is no coming back.  As a result, we have every reason to believe that the government will maximize its efforts of protecting us, but abusing its powers won\u2019t benefit it on any level."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro02a","title":"","text":"Warrants are needed to prevent abuse  In the light of the recent NSA events(1) , we must try and see past this curtain of fog the government has put in front of us, trying to make us believe that everything it does, it does for our own good and that in this process the law is being respected to the letter. Unfortunately, if the necessary system of checks-and-balances between the government and the masses or judicial courts is lacking, it will always find ways to abuse its powers and violate our rights. Even with the warrant currently being mandatory when trying to tap one\u2019s phone, we see that Justice Department\u2019s warrantless spying increased 600 percent in decade(2). If the government is currently invading our lives when we have specific laws banning it from doing so, why should we believe that this phenomenon won\u2019t escalate if we scrap those laws?  The government's biggest limitation when actively trying to spy or follow a large group of people was technological; it was difficult - if not impossible - to follow a lot of people for days at a time. But with surveillance tools it\u2019s becoming cheaper and easier, as is proven by the astounding 1.3 million demands for user cell phone data in the last year \u201cseeking text messages, caller locations and other information\u201d(3.) Without the resource limitations that used to discourage the government from tracking you without good reason, the limits on when and how geolocation data can be accessed are unclear. A police department, for example, might not have the resources to follow everyone who lives within a city block for a month, but without clear rules for electronic tracking there is nothing to stop it from requesting every resident's cell phone location history.  Considering these facts, it is clear that, as we live in a time when it would be extremely easy for the government to engage in mass surveillance of the population, we must enforce and harden the current laws for our own protection, rather than abandoning then for good. No matter what, George Orwell\u2019s books should not be perceived as a model for shaping our society.  At the end of the day, without any oversight, it would be extremely easy for the government to abuse this power given to it by electronic surveillance tools, without us ever knowing it. This system is the only thing left that prevents government agencies to violate our rights.  (1) Electronic Frontier Foundation   (2) David Kravets\u201d Justice Department\u2019s Warrantless Spying Increased 600 Percent in Decade\u201d, \u201cWired\u201d 09.27.12   (3) Trevor Timm , \u201cLaw Enforcement Agencies Demanded Cell Phone User Info Far More Than 1.3 Million Times Last Year\u201d, \u201cElectronic Frontier Foundation\u201d July 9, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro03b","title":"","text":"Undeniably, any government needs confidence and trust from the population in order to implement reforms in an efficient way. You need the citizens to be on the same side with the elected officials rather than trying to impede them from doing their job. Despite this, there won\u2019t be any lack of trust as a result of scraping warrants.  In order to prove this fact, one must look at the source that makes the population trust the government. There might be some mistrust in the beginning as a result of the protests that will come as soon as the scrapping occurs, but this won\u2019t last long. In time, as society becomes safer, as terrorist attacks and crimes become scarcer, there government\u2019s good image will return. Results are what people care about. Let us not forget that the biggest blow that a state\u2019s image can receive happens when it is unable to protect its citizens. No matter if we are talking about 9\/11, London Metro Bombings or the ones which happened at Domodedovo Airport in Moscow, each and every time the government was held responsible for its failure to prevent the attacks.  If we are to talk about the state\u2019s image and legitimacy, as the numbers of these types of regrettable events will decrease, the influence of the government and the way it is perceived can only rise."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro01a","title":"","text":"Freedom from government intrusion  One of the most important pillars on which every single western liberal democracy has been founded is freedom. Allowing the government to be able to track and monitor individuals through mobile or internet connections is against everything we, as a western society, stand for.  First of all, it is undisputable that liberty and freedom are indispensable to our society. Every single individual should and must be the master of his own life, he should have the capacity of controlling how much the government or other individuals know about him, the right to private life being the main argument in this dispute.  Secondly, it is clear that phone and internet tracking potentially allow the government to know almost everything about you. Most phones have a GPS incorporated and a lot can be deduced about ones habits by the photos or updates on his social network profile. One who knows all of another\u2019s travels, can deduce whether he is a weekly church goer, a heavy drinker, a regular at the gym, an unfaithful husband, an outpatient receiving medical treatment, an associate of particular individuals or political groups, basically about every activity you have in your life. Remember this data is extremely precise, as your cell phone sends your location back to cell phone towers every seven seconds\u2014whether you are using your phone or not\u2014potentially giving the authorities a virtual map of where you are 24\/7.  Finally, we, as individuals, created this artificial structure, i.e the state, to protect our human rights, but also to protect us from each other. We admitted that some rights can be taken away if there is serious concern about the security of other people. Therefore, it is absolutely normal to allow the government to track and follow certain individuals who are believed to have taken part in criminal activities, but there is no ground on which you can violate the right to privacy of a law-abiding citizen, especially if we are talking about such an intrusive policy. If we did so, it would come as a direct contradiction with the very purpose the state was created."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro01b","title":"","text":"What is imperative to understand is that principles are never the end result; they are simply the means to an end. We rely on certain principles like the philosophy of liberty and freedom because in general they have positive outcomes on our lives. The question which rises on this point is what principle, protection freedom, brings more benefits to us.  The freedom of no one knowing your whereabouts and the right to privacy may sound good in theory, but the truth is they don\u2019t have any effect on the individual. No matter if my phone is connected to the NSA headquarters or not, my day remains exactly the same and nothing changes. I face the same obstacles and joys and I feel the same emotions, as I am not aware of this tracking. But if we prioritize protection over freedom we see that there is significant change in someone\u2019s life. As the government will stop and prevent more crimes happening by tracing and intercepting calls and e-mail s, the lives of the citizens will be drastically improved. Any stopped crime means that the potential victim of that crime has a dramatic improvement in their safety and quality of life.  In the end, we clearly see that protection must be prioritized over freedom as it has more practical benefits upon the population."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro04b","title":"","text":"In order to fully understand the impact of such measure would have over the human mind we must take into consideration that generally people have a very complicated and busy life starting from going to work, taking care of your kids, paying the bills and many more.  Maybe this won\u2019t be the case initially, but as time goes by and as you don\u2019t feel any kind of physical effects from being under surveillance, slowly, this feeling of anxiety would fade away. Individuals will reach the conclusion that nobody is tracking them. Or at least they won\u2019t care about it. This takes place because a person is more likely to focus on the things they love, they do or which generally surround them and have a visible effect on their life like their families, jobs or passions rather than on an uncertain possible action performed by a distant actor, especially which isn\u2019t palpable.  Second, even if some people do feel this anxiety and can\u2019t seem to be able to find a way to get rid of it, it would still be a small price to pay in order to have a more protected society. It is better to live your life, albeit with some moments when you feel stressed than not being able to live it at all."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro03a","title":"","text":"Reducing trust in the state  In a world where state agencies would have the possibility of tracking everyone\u2019s moves without any person knowing it, we would reach a point in which the population lose their trust in their elected officials. The consequences could then be very damaging to democracy. This phenomenon took place right after the NSA leaks, as the confidence in the US government was near record\u2019s low.(1)  First of all, the population would know that the government is spying and tracking their moves, but they wouldn\u2019t know how much. This general lack of information on this matter will create a lot of scepticism relating this process, and inevitably the population will reach the conclusion that the government is conducting massive phone tapping and spying campaigns as no one is checking on them.  Despite potential official document trying to give certain facts regarding this, due to the previous incidents when the state has been releasing little or misleading information, these will have little influence over the population. As a result, trust in the state will suffer a massive blow.  This is extremely problematic, as you want and need the general population to trust and listen to what the government, and more particularly law enforcement agencies, say in a lot of instances. When promoting non-discrimination, gender equality or increased social welfare contributions for the poor, you need the population to see the state as someone who is on the same side with them and someone who they can trust. Unfortunately, the scepticism with which those beneficial government proposals will be received will drastically reduce their impact and the chances of them being implemented. If I do not trust that the government is looking after my own good, but rather in a lot of instances its interests are mutually exclusive with mine, then I would most probably lose my respect towards authority.  When talking about law enforcement agencies, i.e the police, the NSA, etc., it is clear that we have trusted them to protect us and our rights. When it is those very agencies that are conducting these warrantless spying campaigns, it comes as a direct contradiction with their very purpose and thus the impact and the loss of trust is higher on this level.  Moreover, in the long term, the whole electoral process could suffer a lot from this lack of confidence, as individuals aren\u2019t particularly inclined to go to elections any more if they see that no matter what they do, their rights will still be breached.  As you need the population to trust the government, so that its reforms are being met with positivism and not reluctance, you must not portray the government as an intrusive, harmful and ill-willing element of the society.  (1) Harry J Enten \u201d Polls show Obama's real worry: NSA leaks erode trust in government\u201d, The Guardian, 13 June 2013"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro04a","title":"","text":"Changes in behaviour  Surveillance changes the way we make daily decisions\u2014the same way that a rapidly approaching police car in your rear-view mirror may make you feel nervous even when you are driving completely lawfully. The very existence of a mass surveillance system will negatively influence the behaviour and emotions of a significant majority of the population.  First, surveillance affects emotions and mental performance, as it leads to heightened levels of stress, fatigue and anxiety due to the constant feeling that you are being watched.(1)  Secondly, it creates conformity to social norms. \u201cIn a series of classic experiments during the 1950s, psychologist Solomon Asch showed that conformity is so powerful that individuals will follow the crowd even when the crowd is obviously wrong. A government that engages in mass surveillance cannot claim to value innovation, critical thinking, or originality.\u201d(2)  This is of extreme importance as first of all, it is the state\u2019s duty to create the most peaceful and harmonious environment in which the individual can reach its full potential (this one clearly not being it) and second if we don\u2019t feel free to do things that are perfectly legal because we think someone might think it suspicious or out of character then it is difficult to say we are really free.  (1) M.J. Smith, P. Carayon, K.J. Sanders, S-Y. Lim, D. LeGrande \u201cEmployee stress and health complaints in jobs with and without electronic performance monitoring\u201d, 1992   (2) Chris Chambers \u201d NSA and GCHQ: the flawed psychology of government mass surveillance\u201d, The Guardian, 26 August 2013"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con03b","title":"","text":"It is clear that the population has high demands and high expectations from the government, but that is because it should do. It is clear that every time the state fails to protect us, every time it breaks the law and every time it violates our constitutional rights, the state needs to be held to account. But that doesn\u2019t mean the state\u2019s job is impossible and unfeasible simply that it needs to learn and improve from its mistakes, and the only way this will happen is if it is open and transparent about its systems.  In addition, crime has fallen in the western world, governments can and do both protect the civilians and respect their rights at the same time. Such a system requires warrants and check and balances on government. The population may sway in terms of its demands but this is mostly driven by events; when there is a large terrorist attack there is a response, when government goes too far again the people will respond. This ensures that the government strikes the right balance."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con01b","title":"","text":"It may be true that we gave the state the burden and the duty to protect us and it is a very high-ranking priority. But this doesn\u2019t justify sacrificing day-to-day freedom just for the state to fulfil its duty a little bit more.  We cannot say that the state can do whatever it wants as long as it does that for the safety of our safety. On that logic, it would be OK for the government to have a bodyguard stand next to us without our consent for every single minute of our lives, as that way, we would be more protected. The Supreme Court ruled on this in 2012 and held that police need a warrant to attach at GPS device to a car.(1) One cannot say specifically what the main purpose of the state is, as it\u2019s rather a combination of protecting us and serving us. As it is the population who controls the government and not vice-versa, it must be up to them to decide where to draw the line between security and privacy.  What we see on this level is that by engaging in these sorts of operations, the government is not fulfilling its purpose as there are a lot of harmful effects that the citizens would feel if large scale tapping will take place. Maybe some people don\u2019t mind being spied on, but there is a significant majority of people who do. This constant feeling that you are followed translates into fear, anxiety, restlessness or stress. In turn, these emotions affect your day to day life prohibiting you from enjoying it. So on this level, the state is failing at its purpose to improve the lives of the mass population.  (1) Trevor Timm , \u201cLaw Enforcement Agencies Demanded Cell Phone User Info Far More Than 1.3 Million Times Last Year\u201d, \u201cElectronic Frontier Foundation\u201d July 9, 2012"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con02a","title":"","text":"A safer country  On this point, there are two levels on which a government which isn\u2019t forced to obtain warrants protects the population better. In 2011 violent crime went up for the first time since 1993 data collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics in telephone surveys showed a 22 percent increase in assaults so something clearly needs to be done to stop violent crime.(1)  First of all, let\u2019s not imagine that there are people hired by the government who will listen to every single word of every single conversation and that every email will be read word for word. In this type of situation, the police uses special software designed to identify certain key words like \u201cmurder\u201d, \u201cAl Qaeda\u201d, etc as well as more subtle combinations which could possibly be a clue towards finding certain criminals. If someone is talking or emailing about certain wanted criminals belonging to military militias or terrorist organizations, I would want to know what they were talking about. Now, we have the possibility of doing that, as, last year, for instance, the FBI requested help to develop a social-media mining application for monitoring \"bad actors or groups\".(2) The problem is the initial search needs to be general to find these individuals in the general mass of the world\u2019s population.  This is an efficient way of discovering new previously-unknown criminals. In the past, there would have been no way of ever discovering these individuals and they would continue to be a threat to innocent civilians.  Secondly, this improved government control over phones and the internet would be an immense deterrent. It would prevent people from engaging in planned crime as the chances of them getting caught are drastically improved. Deterrence relies on the criminal knowing that they are likely to be caught, knowing your communications are monitored will make people believe they are more likely to be caught. So, not only will the police be able to catch active criminals but will prevent other persons from engaging in this type of actions.  (1) Terry Frieden \u201d U.S. violent crime up for first time in years\u201d, CNN ,October 17, 2012   (2) Ryan Gallagher \u201dSoftware that tracks people on social media created by defence firm\u201d, The Guardian, 10 February 2013"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con04a","title":"","text":"Warrants are ineffective  One of the main reasons for scraping the warrant-system is because of its ineffectiveness. This system of checks-and-balances was created in order to prevent the government from over monitoring the population, but unfortunately, lately, they have just become another administrative and bureaucratic step in achieving that surveillance.  If we look at the statistics which revolve around the FISA court, the one which emitted warrants for the NSA, we see that it \u201chas rejected .03 percent of all government surveillance requests\u201d(1). This is absolutely preposterous, as one cannot reasonably assume that no abusive requests were submitted. As a result, even if there was a so-called preventive purpose of warrants, they are far from achieving it.  (1) Erika Eichelberger \u201cFISA Court Has Rejected .03 Percent Of All Government Surveillance Requests\u201d Mon Jun. 10, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con03a","title":"","text":"The public can\u2019t decide what they want  Sadly, we reached a point in our desperate quest for perfection where the population, through its mutually exclusive demands, has ended up putting the government between a rock and an anvil. The population then blames the government for not being able to fulfill these demands, when actually we are at fault.  We demand our government protects us from terrorists, criminal organizations and in general people who want to harm us. If it fails to do this job, we blame it and throw dirt at it for being inefficient. But what we see is that although the state has the power to launch a full campaign against wrong-doers through electronic surveillance means, we deny him the possibility of doing that. If, by chance, the government is breaking this law when trying to stop and prevent crimes from happening, like in the example of the NSA, again we launch meaningless offenses and start accusing state agencies for being too intrusive. This fickleness is shown by polling; in 2010 47% of Americans thought that anti-terror programs had not gone far enough to protect the country, three years later that figure had dropped to 35% while those thinking the programs restrict liberties had risen from 32% to 47% with little change in how much was actually being done.(1)  (1) \u201cFew See Adequate Limits on NSA Surveillance Program\u201d July 26, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con01a","title":"","text":"Purpose of the state  We as individuals created the state in order to protect and improve our lives. We gave it the burden of improving our lives from multiple points of view, economically, socially, environmentally, etc. But before these, in order for one to benefit from this advantages that the state brings, he must be alive, therefore the main burden and purpose of the state is the protection of its citizens\u2019 lives. As a result, when judging a principle, one must mainly look if it is helping or preventing the state from reaching its ultimate purpose.  As a result, it is legitimate to risk sacrificing your right to private life in order for better protection. The existence of mandatory warrants can bring, as an advantage, only a vague feeling of safety and happiness, as there is no real harm for you if someone is tapping your phone, as long as you are a law-abiding citizen.  On the other hand a world in which the government wouldn\u2019t be forced to obtain warrants would be much safer for the individuals, as the government would be able to intercept and trace more criminals. If one life is saved by this policy, it will be worth it!"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con04b","title":"","text":"It is absolutely clear that there exists a need for a system to keep the government in check. We can\u2019t just stand and do nothing, while hoping for the best. There are two reasons why it is justified to keep the warrants.  It is cases like this that shift opinion and force Government to reverse course. As a result everyone, including FISA and other courts will be much more careful, even with no new laws when scrutinising warrants as nobody is willing to risk another scandal happening.  Secondly, this is an argument for tightening up the warrant system not against warrants themselves. It there is such a problem, let\u2019s make warrants harder to obtain with more scrutiny before they are granted, along with more punitive punishments for abuse, more controls and a higher number of inspections. If so few warrants are being rejected there clearly needs to be more done to prevent the government from abusing its powers."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con02b","title":"","text":"It is obvious that warrantless tracking of citizens is not the only way to fight crime. There are other ways which do not negatively impact the citizens to such an extent.  When talking exclusively about protection, the government could have better trained police officers, harsher laws in other to deter criminals from committing infractions, improved gun control regulations and a more efficient judicial system. There a lot of alternatives to this, as the elected officials must understand that they need to choose a path which does not hurt the population.  Moreover, if we look at statistics (1), in most of the western world, the crime rate has been decreasing. Slowly but surely, crimes are falling and our societies are becoming safer and safer. Thus, not only we have other ways of fighting crime, but crime is becoming less of a problem, so do we really need new intrusive measures to deal with it?  (1) Eurostat Statistics,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro02b","title":"","text":"For every expert who advocates the use of intercept evidence there is another who fiercely warns against it, particularly those who are experts in law [1] . Despite the use of wiretapping in the USA, many people advocate against intercept evidence by pointing out its past failures [2] and questionable authorisation [3] [4] . In the UK, MI5, MI6 and GCHQ have voiced concerns that wire-tapping would expose the methods used by intelligence services [5] . This is not purely a debate about whether wire-tapping works, but whether it is in line with the legal principles held by those countries and states who currently do not allow it to be used in court. Just because it could be used does not make it legitimate \u2013 in fact, there is often heavy criticism against wiretapping within the legal profession itself [6] [7] .  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [6]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [7]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro02a","title":"","text":"Intercepted evidence could be incredibly useful for both prosecution and defence cases in many trials.  Intercept evidence offers the opportunity to speed up court trials and stop wasting time and money by providing information which could lead to a faster, more accurate verdict. Other western democracies who use wire-tap evidence believe that is has or will help to achieve criminal convictions [1] [2] [3] , which demonstrates popular support for it as an effective and swift method of justice. Given that the UK has allowed wire-tapping in some specific cases [4] , it seems to be that it is not the principle of intercept evidence itself which is viewed as unacceptable by these countries, but perhaps a need to set up a formalised system of the conditions when and where intercept evidence can be used. David Bickford, the former chief legal adviser to MI5, has stated \u2018I know we have lost cases as a result of not using such evidence\u2019 [5] and other experts have called for the wide use of intercept evidence in court [6] . Allowing the use of intercept evidence in the first place may well ensure that wire-taps are better carried out in a standardised, regulated manner  [1] In Sweden:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2] Widely in the USA:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3] In Australia:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [6]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro03b","title":"","text":"The more obvious solution to this problem (from the opposition\u2019s view) would be to maintain a clear policy where no intercept evidence is admissible in court. However, this particular case becomes an anomaly for good reason. Individual countries \u2013 in this case Britain \u2013 cannot dictate whether foreign intelligence services \u2013 the Dutch \u2013 choose to reveal their intelligence-gathering methods or not. In this case, the crossover between national policies on information intelligence [1] led to this anomaly.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro01a","title":"","text":"Wiretapping is a highly effective method which helps to prevent serious crime and secure convictions for criminals.  Wiretapping helps to make society safer; we have the opportunity to prevent serious crime and to uphold the principle of prosecution in the justice system [1] by catching criminals and convicting them. For example, in the UK in 2003, intercepts led to the seizure of 26 tonnes of drugs and also detected wide-scale fraud and money laundering, resulting in 1680 arrests [2] . Without this evidence, these criminals may have escaped the justice system and remained free in society to commit other crimes. It is nonsensical to reject evidence which clearly implicates this individuals who would otherwise be released without charge. As the threat of terrorism escalates and had already damaged many countries [3] [4] [5] [6] , refusal to use this evidence in court puts the public at serious risk and fails to act in the defence of the country in question. For example, if the Norwegian authorities had kept closer tabs on information passed through eBay, they might well have been able to apprehend Anders Breivik before he committed the massacre on Utoya island [7] . Wiretapping is unique in the variety of information it can provide; it can show locations [8] , times [9] , the relationships between those involved [10] and even record specific details of conspiracies [11] . Accordingly, it can also be used to prove the innocence of somebody who might otherwise be wrongly accused or even wrongly imprisoned [12] [13] . The obvious benefits to this motion demand that intercept evidence and wiretapping should be held as legitimate evidence in court.  [1] Page 65:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3] In the UK:   [4] In Norway:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [5] In the USA:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [6] In Europe and Belgium:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [7]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [8]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [9]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [10]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [11]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [12]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [13]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro01b","title":"","text":"If the use of wiretapping and intercept evidence was as simple as proposition makes out, undoubtedly it would be a common tool. However, there are also serious flaws in how this intelligence is gathered and interpreted. For example, a phone call might seem unduly incriminating when taken out of context and heard in a court of law which has already projected suspicions upon a particular individual [1] . Focusing only on one form of communications as is normal when authorisation is given for these interceptions fails to take in the wider picture and continues to be heard without the context [2] . Whether this unfairly incriminates somebody who has not acted in a crime, or falsely \u2018proves\u2019 the innocence of somebody who is not in fact innocent, intercept evidence is limited in its scope and as such should not be admissible in court.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro04b","title":"","text":"While intercept evidence may well show links between people, it does not necessarily accurately show what they were doing. In this way, intercepts make good intelligence, but poor evidence. There is no guarantee that intercept evidence will \u2018prove\u2019 anything in court rather than simply creating unfounded implications which could actually serve to confuse, rather than clear, the case in question. Until intercept intelligence can prove itself reliable enough to be routinely used as genuine evidence \u2013 and it is unclear that it ever will [1] \u2013 it certainly should not become an established part of the wider legal system.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro03a","title":"","text":"Countries which do not allow intercept evidence have created a contradictory, rather than transparent, set of legal boundaries.  Britain in particular seems to hold a paradoxical set of values in relation to intercept evidence. For example, British courts have allowed intercept material which has been lawfully obtained by foreign police forces. One notable example of this was the conviction of the Merseyside drugs squad chief Elmore Davies when it was discovered that he had a corrupt relationship with drug baron Curtis Warren [1] . The information which led to his conviction was collected on Dutch mobile phones by the Dutch police force, despite the fact that some of the conversations took place wholly within the UK. However this \u2013 bizarrely \u2013 was allowed as evidence in a British court [2] , despite the systematic rejection of intercept evidence in other cases. When a country seems to recognise and even capitalise on the potential of intercept evidence in some cases but simultaneously reject it in others, the result is inconsistent legal standards which damage accountability and transparency of the entire state.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro04a","title":"","text":"Intercept evidence deals particularly well with cases of conspiracy and criminal gangs which have a widespread network.  Intercept evidence can be very useful for showing associations between groups of people [1] , which can be incredibly helpful in cases such as conspiracies to link people and events together. It can also expose inconsistencies or falsity in an individual\u2019s alibi [2] or personal character if they deny contact with a certain party where intercept evidence proves that they had communicated [3] . However, under the status quo the defence lawyer may not be authorised to intercept evidence which would prove their client\u2019s innocence [4] . Allowing such techniques would help to equalise the prosecution and defence; after all, the aim of court is not to blindly prosecute the defendant, but to ascertain whether he or she is in fact guilty before any prosecution occurs. Widening the array of tools which can be used by both prosecution and defence helps to encourage a wider view of the case and arrive at a more accurate verdict.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con03b","title":"","text":"More established forms of evidence \u2013 even those as sophisticated as DNA testing \u2013 also have their weaknesses. Following the death of British student Meredith Kercher, her supposed killer Amanda Knox was imprisoned after DNA evidence proved that Knox\u2019s DNA was found on the handle of the murder weapon (a kitchen knife) while Meredith\u2019s blood was on the blade [1] . However, an appeal has declared that the DNA evidence \u2018was so small it should have been considered \u201cinadmissible\u201d\u2019 [2] , and the original forensic team have been branded as incompetent [3] . This is an example of an extremely high-profile case which hinged a conviction on the use of \u2018reliable\u2019 DNA evidence, and may potentially be proved wrong \u2013 the appeal is currently ongoing. There is no evidence which is utterly, 100% certain; it is always open to interpretation. However, allowing intercept evidence in court gives another chance at finding out the truth. Given that intercept evidence would work in combination with expert cross-examination, there is no proof that intercept evidence cannot be as effective as any other form of evidence \u2013 or perhaps even more so.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con01b","title":"","text":"As criminals and terrorists adapt to modern times, so should the law. If the principles of law are responsible for a failure to act which ultimately leads to criminals walking free and crimes being repeatedly committed, then the law has failed to serve the society it was built for [1] . The principles of law are meant to uphold justice [2] , but in this case they become an obstacle to it. Considering that the law in countries like Britain has already acknowledged intercept evidence as a tool in specific cases [3] , it cannot oppose the underlying principle of intercept evidence \u2013 rather, the practicalities. This undermines the opposition\u2019s argument that intercept evidence is fundamentally out of joint with legal practice. Problematic practicalities will be better regulated [4] [5] and monitored if this motion is granted, but until then we risk allowing crime to go unhindered because of an imaginary obligation to the past.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  ,, accessed 30\/08\/11  [4] Regulations in American states:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [5] Regulation of wiretapping in Australia:  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con02a","title":"","text":"Wiretapping can actually threaten the success of intelligence services in preventing crime and helping to prove criminals guilty.  Regular use of wiretap and intercept evidence poses a danger to the evidence-gathering capabilities of intelligence agencies. There are concerns among experts that terrorists, far from being apprehended, will simply learn new techniques for \u2018listening in to calls made over the internet\u2019 [1] and know exactly who and what the intelligence services are monitoring. In this way, they could actually evade intelligence services and the police by using different forms of communication, such as encrypting messages or using disposable mobile phones. Revealing the capabilities of our intelligence agencies could create harms which far outweigh any potential benefits of intercept evidence [2] . This makes intercept evidence self-negating; if it is used, the very revelation of its use will alert criminals to it and make it vulnerable to manipulation and tampering \u2013 therefore, the evidence actually becomes less reliable and less effective [3] . Ultimately, it does not provide a tangible benefit.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con04a","title":"","text":"Common authorisation for wiretapping would result in misallocation of resources.  Wiretaps are not only unreliable, but incredibly expensive [1] [2] . Intelligence agents also often find themselves inadvertently listening in on \u2018irrelevant, non-incriminating aspects of the target\u2019s life\u2019 [3] which not only breaches the privacy of innocent people but is an obvious waste of time and money for all involved. Given that many countries are considering or have cut their funding for police forces because of the recession [4] [5] [6] , this money could be put to a better use: preventing crime and terrorist activity by a stronger police presence.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [4] In the UK:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [5] In the USA:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [6] In New Zealand:  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con03a","title":"","text":"Intercept evidence is simply not reliable enough to be effective evidence in court.  Wiretap evidence is not as reliable as other forms of evidence which we currently have at our disposal, such as DNA evidence which has \u2018sent thousands of people to prison and . . . has played a vital role in exonerating men who were falsely convicted\u2019 [1] . Many potential aspects of intercept evidence lack this reliability. Voice analysis, for example, has been shown to be unreliable in exploring messages supposedly spoken by Osama Bin Laden [2] . Video intercept evidence notably failed when a video which purported to show Morgan Tsvangirai (the Zimbabwean opposition leader) conspiring against the government, when in fact he was somewhere else at the time [3] . The poor quality of intercept evidence is a threat within an individual trial, but also more widely; reliance on intercept evidence by prosecutors might lead to more cases collapsing after the evidence is proved unreliable, and wasting time and money for all involved.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con01a","title":"","text":"The controversy which surrounds intercept evidence is far-reaching and very complex.  This debate is not contained within the courtroom but also spans wider principles of legal justice and the rules which uphold democratic law. Even countries which currently allow this evidence, such as certain US states [1] , have noted that it can be difficult to use successfully and without violating past Acts and wider legal principles [2] . Bodies such as MI5, MI6 and GCHQ argue that revealing the \u2018evidence\u2019 necessitates revealing how that evidence was garnered; as such, intercept evidence can compromise the security status of intelligence services and their techniques [3] . This kind of method should be reserved, if used at all, for singular, extreme cases such as terrorist activity where all other possibilities for collecting evidence have truly been exhausted. Finally, wiretapping and intercept evidence has been criticised or deemed illegitimate by many legal professionals [4] [5] . For this kind of evidence to be admissible in court, it needs to follow legal principles which have already been set up. There is little evidence that it can do so.  [1]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con04b","title":"","text":"If wiretapping and intercept evidence can stop large-scale conspiracies [1] and potentially stop terrorist actions [2] , as it has done and has the potential to do, then price becomes irrelevant. The price of preventing perhaps hundred of people from being harmed in terrorist action should and will always outweigh a financial argument. Wiretapping could in fact lift the burden on over-stretched police forces as they do not have to physically apprehend criminals to attain evidence of their guilt. Wiretapping and intercept evidence is a step towards greater efficiency in our justice system.  [1]  ,, accessed 30\/08\/11  [2] www.parliament.uk\/briefing-papers\/SN05249.pdf , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con02b","title":"","text":"This argument is made irrelevant by the fact that the UK and other jurisdictions have rules of evidence which prevent the release of sensitive information from intelligence services [1] . There is no reason why playing a few minutes of recorded conversation in a courtroom automatically means that criminals and terrorists know the exact mechanisms used to record that information. Furthermore, if a trial is being held anyway, then the suspects involved already know that they have been monitored by intelligence services \u2013 otherwise they would not have been brought to trial. Similarly, high-risk terrorist cells already protect their communication by using things like encrypted messages [2] and disposable mobile phones [3] . Dangerous criminals and terrorists are already one step ahead of our current justice system; implementing this motion is the only way to have a genuine chance at apprehending them.  [1] The Official Secrets Act of 1989:  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 30\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 30\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-pro02b","title":"","text":"Via legal precedent, [1] Habeas Corpus protections extend to foreign nationals detained in the US. Furthermore, to focus solely on the immigration status and purported guilt of suspected terrorists ignore the fact that Habeas Corpus exists to protect us all. Eliminating the rights for \u201cbad people\u201d necessarily eliminates them for the innocent as well.  [1] Supreme Court of the United States, Boumediene v Bush, 553 U.S. 723 (2008),"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Enemy combatants are not US citizens and as such they should not enjoy any protection which a US citizen enjoys under the Constitution.  Unlawful enemy combatants are not US citizens. The only connection they have to the US is the desire to destroy it. As such, they do not fall within the group of people the Constitution is intended to protect. [1]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Guantanamo appeal denied\u2019, 12 March 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-pro03b","title":"","text":"The current war on terror is not comparable to past wars during which Habeas Corpus was suspended. Both the Civil War and World War II were openly declared wars of limited duration following invasions by hostile forces. The \u201cwar on terror\u201d is nebulous and open-ended. In any case, history has harshly judged arbitrary detentions during wartime. Lincoln\u2019s Civil War detentions and Roosevelt\u2019s Japanese internment camps of the 1940s are embarrassing chapters in US national history. The fact that former presidents improperly suspended Habeas Corpus is all the more reason to exercise caution now. Additionally, the suspension of Habeas Corpus by the UK in 1971 arguably strengthened the cause of the IRA, and made it easier for the organisation to recruit members. Western governments should be careful not to repeat the mistakes of the past"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-pro01a","title":"","text":"Restricting Habeas Corpus is necessary in the face of the new and dangerous threat which modern terrorism poses.  Restricting suspected terrorists\u2019 rights to challenge their detention is necessary to ensure that that individual cannot participate in future terrorist activities. The attacks of September 11th constituted a catastrophic and unprecedented attack on US soil, and the measures undertaken by the US at Guantanamo Bay, in holding many terrorist suspects without trial, are necessary to prevent future attacks of that nature. Terror suspects still have recourse to military tribunals, which contain many of the same safeguards as the federal court system"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is no reason why the United States cannot uphold constitutional protections such as Habeas Corpus and effectively combat terrorism at the same time. The two are not mutually exclusive. In fact, ensuring that suspected terrorists have access to Federal courts will save much-needed resources and ensure more accurate administration of justice. In the present case, it is unclear which of the Guantanamo detainees actually committed the acts that are used to justify their indefinite detention. Allowing detainees to challenge their detention would bring clarity to this uncertain situation and free up resources in the war against terrorism."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Habeas Corpus has often been suspended in times of conflict, when it has been deemed necessary.  There is a longstanding tradition of suspending Habeas Corpus protections during times of war and conflict. For example, President Lincoln suspended Habeas Corpus during the Civil War. [1] Habeas Corpus was also suspended briefly in the Hawaii during World War II, immediately after the attacks on Pearl Harbour. [2] In the UK, Habeas Corpus was suspended in 1794, after the French declared war on Britain, [3] and in 1817, [4] in order to arrest parliamentary reformers. In 1971 Habeas Corpus was again suspended in the UK in order that IRA suspects could be arrested and detained. [5] 9\/11 and other Al Qaeda plots require that Western countries respond in just as determined a way. The war on terror may not follow the rules of traditional warfare, but it is a war nonetheless. These precedents show that, in certain circumstances, the suspension of Habeas Corpus is both necessary and justified.  [1] Lincoln, Abraham, \u2018Proclamation Suspending the Writ of Habeas Corpus\u2019, teachingamericanhistory.org, 24 September 1862,   [2] Anthony, J. Garner, Hawaii under Army Rule, Stanford University Press, p.5,   [3] Holmberg, Tom, \u2018Great Britain: Suspension of Habeas Corpus. 7 May 1794\u2019, The Napoleon Series, July 2002,   [4] \u2018Habeas Corpus Suspension Bill\u2019, Hansard, 24 June 1817, vol.36, cc1145-55,   [5] Wilkinson, Paul, Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response, 2nd ed., Routledge, 2006, p.82,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-con03b","title":"","text":"The hatred that terrorists feel for the US and its Allies does not depend on details of their respective legal systems. Their hate stems from our success in building a tolerant, democratic society at odds with their narrow vision of harsh conformity. Their propaganda seeks to radicalise young Muslims across the world not by arcane appeals to Habeas Corpus, but by twisted portrayals of Allied military actions against civilians in countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Somalia. If the prisoners currently held without trial in Guantanamo Bay were released, they could untold damage to the US and its Allies. The risk of this occurring clearly outweighs the ethical issues concerning the suspension of Habeas Corpus protections."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-con01b","title":"","text":"Global terrorism calls for aggressive responses. We cannot allow our respective nations to be besieged by terrorists while we stand aside and do nothing. Our enemies are well aware of the legal framework in which the US authorities and their Allies operate, and will exploit it wherever possible. Constitutional freedoms are extremely important, but the security and continued existence of our nations must come first. The US and its Allies must make a stand and demonstrate that terrorism will not be tolerated."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-con02a","title":"","text":"Disregarding Habeas Corpus protections sets a dangerous precedent for the treatment of the soldiers and citizens of the US and its Allies when captured by foreign forces.  If the US disregards Habeas Corpus protections, it sets a dangerous precedent for the rest of the world to follow. If other countries follow suit, the citizens and soldiers of the US and its Allies abroad could also be indefinitely detained and denied legal recourse if captured by foreign forces. This is especially relevant when considering journalists covering foreign conflicts, such as those currently occurring in the Middle East. [1]  [1] Staff reports, \u2018USA TODAY writer, 3 other journalists captured in Libya\u2019, USA Today, 8 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-con03a","title":"","text":"Suspending Habeas Corpus makes it easier for terrorist organisations to demonise the US and its Allies, and thus to recruit more terrorists in its fight against the West.  By suspending Habeas Corpus, the US is playing into the hands of terrorists and creating more would-be terrorists for the future. Enemies of the West aim to demonstrate that the US is an oppressive state in order to make its model less attractive to others. In particular, they wish to show that America is at war with Muslims in order to radicalise young Muslims both at home and overseas. The US should take heed of the precedent in Northern Ireland, where widespread internment without trial radicalised many Catholic youths in the 1970s and drove them into the arms of the IRA."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-con01a","title":"","text":"Suspending Habeas Corpus undermines the moral high ground of the US and its Allies, and strengthens the cause of the terrorists which these nations are fighting against.  Restrictions on Habeas Corpus undermine the war against terror and put national security further at risk. Giving terrorist suspects the protection of Habeas Corpus legitimises the war against terror by ensuring that US actions against suspected terrorists have a legal basis, and are not in contravention of the rule of law. The moment that the US and its Allies show the rule of law the disrespect that typifies the regimes which the West seeks to overthrow, the fight for \u2018hearts and minds\u2019 will be lost. This effect can easily be seen in the results of the suspension of Habeas Corpus in the UK in order to arrest suspected IRA activists in 1971 \u2013 rather than suppressing the IRA as intended it increased support for the terrorist organisation. [1]  [1] Wilkinson, Paul, Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response, 2nd ed., Routledge, 2006, p.82,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilppthwr-con02b","title":"","text":"The necessity of the measures, and the size of the terrorist threat which faces the US, outweighs the possible problems posed in the opposition argument."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-pro02b","title":"","text":"Even the best Truth and Reconciliation process can only arrive at a partial version of the truth. This may take so many years that political development is halted while society relives the trauma through commission proceedings.  Truth and reconciliation commissions also impose a particular form of morality upon both their participants and the post conflict society they serve. This moral perspective draws upon specifically Christian traditions of confession, absolution and forgiveness that may be alien to victims and perpetrators alike. Even in an almost completely Christian South Africa, many victims' families rejected the process for this reason; it is even less well suited to other societies and cultures.  It is no coincidence that the truth and reconciliation process is so heavily promoted by European and American think tanks, government and NGOs. It fits into a decidedly Christian niche and presents western donors and aid givers with an image of progress that they can understand an easily approve of. However, without closer ties to the cultural contexts in which past political violence took place, reconciliation commissions run the risk of obstructing political and social reform in the very societies that they are intended to protect."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-pro02a","title":"","text":"Truth and reconciliation are more important than retribution following violent and long term conflicts  It is important to uncover the real truth of what happened during periods of violence and\/or repression. Uncertainty as to the fate of loved ones, the identity of informants or the motives for certain actions can maintain the grip of a conflict over the minds of its victims for many years [i] . The unreason and capriciousness of certain actions can undermine an individual\u2019s identity and capacity to trust. A victory is supposed to bring rapprochement, reason and stability to a conflict zone \u2013 but it is unable to have this effect on individuals without some method of rationalising a conflict [ii] .  This result can only ever be achieved with the cooperation of those responsible; the individuals who had access to relevant documents or even participated in violent acts [iii] . Without this collective revelation of grief and guilt, the families of the victims will never know the truth about their suffering, and so will not be able to mourn them with dignity. The nation must also confront its past so that those who did not commit violence themselves, but who supported violent groups or repressive regimes, even if only passively, can no longer claim, \"I did not know\" but must acknowledge their part too and commit themselves to building a better society.  [i] National Healing and Reconciliation in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Opportunities. P 9. 2010, Pamela Machakanja.   [ii] Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume one. pp 1, 54-58. 1998, The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa.   [iii] Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume one. pp 142-143. 1998, The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-pro01a","title":"","text":"The reconciliation process provides access to justice in post conflict states  Countries emerging from violent pasts, involving repression, civil war and political violence may attempt to come to terms with their histories in three ways.  Firstly, they can attempt to ignore the past, allowing those guilty of atrocities to go unpunished and perhaps even prosper under the new system. This approach leaves victims' families bitter and communities divided, entrenching resentments and potentially distorted accounts of individuals\u2019 involvement in violent activities. Such a situation makes renewed violence all the more likely.  Secondly, post conflict states can set up war crimes courts (as in the Balkans, Rwanda and Sierra Leone), but these may be seen as victor's justice, or as an imposition by a distant opaque international body. Those threatened by such courts may refuse to lay down their arms, jeopardising any chance of a lasting peace settlement - as with Joseph Kony's long-running rebellion in Northern Uganda.  Finally and often best, they can set up a form of Truth and Reconciliation Commission. This requires the whole country to face up to its past, to acknowledge that violence was done by all parties and that the victims were many, and to seek reconciliation through forgiveness at both personal and national levels."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-pro01b","title":"","text":"Terrible crimes deserve appropriate punishments. Ignoring the past may not be a good idea, but war criminals (especially the leaders of violent groups) should be brought to justice in public trials.  This approach is the only way to ensure that dangerous men are not allowed to continue to act in and influence vulnerable societies. Such individuals are often opportunistic, using periods of peace to re-arm and refresh political sympathies, before resuming campaigns of violence. Indeed, the notorious Ugandan warlord Joseph Kony took advantage of peace negotiations initiated in early 2008 to rearm his followers and to forcibly recruit child soldiers for communities in south Sudan and Congo [i] .  Adversarial justice also allows punishment to be proportionate, distinguishing between individuals who planned violence and repression, and those who followed their orders, rather than granting all the same amnesty.  Most importantly, treating communal and political violence as a crime sends a message to other would-be warlords and dictators, both at home and abroad, that justice will not be denied; the easy assumption of amnesties will only encourage future violence.  [i] \u201cLord\u2019s Resistance Army uses truce to rearm and spread fear in Uganda\u201d, The Times, 16 December 2008."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-con03b","title":"","text":"Financial compensation was only part of the South African Commission's work. Although it has been slow to arrive it is continuing to be distributed. More will be done over time, and the impact of reconciliation on polls is also a long-term process.  The economies of states recovering from war and dictatorship are typically unproductive and undeveloped, so it is unreasonable to expect immediate results in this area. Lengthy war crimes trials deal with only a fraction of the abuses committed, and typically cost tens of millions of dollars (mostly in legal costs, mostly obtained from foreign donors) more than a Truth and Reconciliation process, so they are even harder to justify."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-con01b","title":"","text":"A Truth and Reconciliation process provides a national forum for facing up to the past. It places responsibility for resolving the tensions latent in post conflict scenarios in the hands of the parties to that conflict [i] . The ICC, by contrast, represents an international intrusion into the moral discourses of post conflict societies.  War crimes tribunals for the Balkans and Rwanda have taken years to achieve a very small number of convictions. They can often appear to have been hijacked by international bodies such as NATO or the UN, in an attempt to impose a solution from outside (to salve consciences in the west) without providing a real understanding of the particular circumstances of the individual nation.  [i] \u201cThe voice of \u2018Prime Evil\u2019\u201d, BBC News Online, 28 October 1998."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-con02a","title":"","text":"Reconciliation can be used to conceal political corruption and patrimony  Truth and Reconciliation commissions are a mask, behind which political bargains can be made that allow the guilty to go free [i] . Power is traded in return for amnesty. People may be required to confess to their crimes (although in South Africa middle-ranking bureaucrats were the main scapegoats, while their political masters mostly escaped close scrutiny), but they will not be punished for them [ii] .  South Africa is a unique exception to the rule that reconciliation commissions do nothing more than legitimatise dealings between equally dubious and unaccountable elites where violence was often committed by agents of the state for purely political reasons, and where the end of repression was negotiated rather than brought about through victory for one side. Elsewhere political and criminal or economic violence are hard to separate (e.g. Sierra Leone, Cambodia), and violence was ended by victory for one party, often with external help (e.g. Sierra Leone, Cambodia, again, but also Rwanda).  [i] \u201c\u2019I cannot betray Kony\u2019 \u2013 Museveni\u201d, The Daily Monitor, 16 August 2006,   [ii] Apartheid did not die. 1998, John Pilger, johnpilger.com."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-con03a","title":"","text":"The South African reconciliation commission has proven itself to be ineffective  Frequently cited as the most successful post conflict restorative justice programme in recent history, South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation process has failed in a number of ways.  Polls show that different races are more polarised after its work, rather than less [i] , so reconciliation seems to be failing [ii] . As the journalist Peter Storey comments, \u201csome have decried the absence of repentance in many amnesty applications [made to the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission]. Apart from the fact that this is a further damning judgment on perpetrators, the legislation does not require repentance, only the truth.\u201d  Storey notes that \u201cThe issue of amnesty has been\u2026 controversial. Some victims\u2019 families challenged these provisions in South Africa\u2019s highest court[s].\u201d [iii]  The South African Reconciliation Commission also promised financial redress for victims and their families, but this has largely failed to appear.  [i] Ubu and the Truth Commission. Director\u2019s note. 2007, Jane Taylor, University of Cape Town press  [ii] \u201cAntonette\u2019s story\u201d, BBC News Online, 29 October 1998.   [iii] \u201cA Different Kind of Justice: Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa\u201d, The Christian Century, 10 September 1997."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-con01a","title":"","text":"International and inter-governmental bodies are better able to secure justice for the victims of war crimes  The United Nations, the ICC and other international bodies have great experience and expertise in dealing with post-conflict situations, including running war crimes trials. They can draw upon the lessons to be learnt from other countries and apply them in partnership with local politicians and lawyers.  The involvement of inter-governmental bodies is important because conflicts are rarely entirely domestic, often spilling over into neighbouring states, as in the Balkans, South-East Asia and West Africa. International courts can also avoid the suspicion of bias and corruption which an entirely national process can suffer.  Post conflict societies are often lack a stable professional class. Access and cooperation with lawyers, clergy and academics is often necessary to ensure that a reconciliation commission can run effectively and can verify the testimony that it hears. The international community can provide skilled individuals of this type."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilppghsuta-con02b","title":"","text":"Compromise is essential to achieving peace and stability after years of conflict. This often has to be negotiated, as in South Africa, and has to survive for long enough for trust to grow. A Truth and Reconciliation process allows for such compromises to be made, favouring no side over another and helping a move to peaceful democratic politics. It does not seek retributive justice but restorative justice, which gives value to the victims of conflict and requires their oppressors to address their sufferings.  The amnesties offered by truth and reconciliation commissions are not easily obtained, but have to be applied for individually, through a complete and truthful disclosure of past crimes. If information is withheld, or the crimes are found not to be politically motivated, then prosecution and punishment are still possible."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is a fundamental difference between someone\u2019s actions directly resulting in another person\u2019s death and the case of bullying. In the case of manslaughter, the victim never had a choice. The perpetrator is solely responsible for what happened. But some victims of bullying take a decision to kill themselves, while others do not. The bully cannot be held responsible for someone else\u2019s decision and action, only for her own."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro02a","title":"","text":"The bully's intentions are irrelevant  In criminal law, the establishment of culpability does not always depend on the intentions of the perpetrator. If, during a fight on a train platform, I shove someone and that person falls on the tracks and is killed by a train, I will be guilty of manslaughter, whether I intended to kill the person or not, because the harm caused by my actions is so great [1] . The same applies to bullying. Bullies try to hurt their victims through their actions, either physically or psychologically. Whether the bully intended for the victim to die or not, is irrelevant. The bully\u2019s actions were responsible for the victim taking her own life.  [1] Ashworth, Andrew. Principles of Criminal Law, Chapter 7.5. Oxford University Press. 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro03b","title":"","text":"We should always focus on stopping the behaviour before it escalates to the point of the victim\u2019s suicide. Bullies should be held to account early on. We shouldn\u2019t wait until someone dies before they are punished. If victims know there will be early intervention, they will be far less likely to even consider suicide. If they know the bullies won\u2019t be punished until after their death, it might even encourage some distraught victims to kill themselves in the hope of exact vengeance on their tormenters. Early intervention is a much better outcome for everyone."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro01a","title":"","text":"The law should always punish actions that inflict serious harm - whether physical or psychological  Bullying can inflict serious psychological harm on its victims, especially in the case of young people. It leads to low self-esteem, depression, and for some kids it leads to suicide [1] . Bullied children are almost 6 times more likely to think about or attempt suicide [2] . This phenomenon has been termed \u2018bullycide\u2019 and the law should recognize it. Many forms of behaviour that result in the death of another person are criminal, from murder to negligence. It is the duty of the law to brand such behaviour as unacceptable, deter future incidents, punish the perpetrators, and offer comfort to victims: in this case, the families of those who lost their life to bullying.  [1] O'Moore, Mona, \u201cUnderstanding School Bullying: A Guide for Parents & Teachers\u201d, Veritas, 1, Dublin, 2010  [2] Kim YS, Leventhal BL, Koh YJ, Boyce WT \u201cBullying Increased Suicide Risk: Prospective Study of Korean Adolescents\u201d. Arch Suicide Res. Vol. 13, No. 1, pp15-30. 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro01b","title":"","text":"The law should only punish people for their own actions, not those of others. It\u2019s fine to punish bullies for their bullying behaviour, if it is against the law. But \u2018bullycide\u2019 implies the bully bears individual responsibility for the death of the victim, just like in the case of murder or manslaughter. But the bully did not pull the trigger, the victim did. While the bully may have intended to harm or berate the victim, she made no attempt on the victim\u2019s life, and cannot be treated like a murderer, who intentionally took the life of another."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro04b","title":"","text":"The laws are inadequate because it is very hard to define bullying. Almost any act or gesture can constitute bullying depending the victim\u2019s subjective experience of it. Criminalizing bullying would lead to criminalizing behaviour that would be considered normal by most standards."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro03a","title":"","text":"The damage wrought by bullying is cumulative  Bullying is truly dangerous when it becomes persistent. Any one incident of it, while unpleasant, may be entirely tolerable for the victim. But being unrelentingly subjected to this treatment for months on end can make life truly unbearable and lead that person to suicide. In the case of Phoebe Prince, an Irish immigrant who was bullied at her US high school, she was called expletives, threatened, and even hit with a beverage container before she finally took her life [1] . She may have survived any one of those taunts, but it was their cumulative effect that was too much to bear. Conversely, punishing her bullies for any one act will fail to acknowledge the much greater extent of the overall harm. A different, special offence is needed to recognize the magnified level of harm caused by bullying.  [1] Eckholm, Eric; Zezima, Katie. \u201cDocuments Detail a Girl\u2019s Final Days of Bullying\u201d. The New York Times. April 8, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro04a","title":"","text":"The current legal regime is not able to prevent or adequately punish bullying  Even when bullies are sometimes prosecuted, they are charged with offences that constitute individual components of the bullying behaviour, like harassment, stalking, causing bodily harm [1] , or invasion of privacy [2] . But these offences were not designed with bullying in mind and fail to capture its overall impact and the harm it causes. While bullies may be charged with several of these offenses this will still not capture the kind of harm being done and would not be as effective as a specifically tailored offense. We need laws that recognize that harm and which punish those who inflict it adequately.  [1] Eckholm, Erick. \u201cTwo Students Plead Guilty in Bullying of Teenager.\u201d The New York Times. May 4, 2011.   [2] Foderaro, Lisa W. \u201cPrivate Moment Made Public. Then a fatal Jump.\u201d The New York Times. September 29. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con03b","title":"","text":"Of course there will always be ambiguous cases. That is why we have trials, and rights for the defendant. The weight of the evidence presented in court should establish what degree of culpability, if any, the bullies had. If the prosecution does not have a solid case to present, it may even choose not to prosecute. But the law should be in place for those cases where it is needed."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con01b","title":"","text":"Under this law, bullies would be held accountable for their own actions, not those of the victim. The law wouldn\u2019t have to equate them with murderers, punish them as harshly, or suggest they bear sole and full responsibility for the victim\u2019s death. But it would make it clear they bear some responsibility for the outcome, and that they should be punished for their role. If they are children, they can be prosecuted as juvenile offenders and given less harsh punishments, like community service."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con02a","title":"","text":"Conduct offence  Defining bullying would be nearly impossible. Spreading rumours, giving someone the silent treatment, inviting all your classmates but one to a party, expressing a religious belief about someone\u2019s sexuality, eye rolling, making faces, these can all be hurtful and perceived as bullying [1] . Yet this is perfectly legal behaviour. Criminalizing bullying would amount to criminalizing these acts. They may be offensive, they may even be hurtful, but these gestures should never, ever constitute criminal behaviour in any society that is concerned with human rights, freedom of speech, and of expression. Throwing someone in prison for spreading rumours or eye rolls might be worthy of a totalitarian state, but not a liberal democracy.  [1] Bolton, Jos\u00e9, and Stan Graeve. No Room for Bullies: from the Classroom to Cyberspace. Boys Town Press. 2005."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con05a","title":"","text":"Bullys are frequently as disturbed and victimised as those they target  According to studies, bullies are often children who are plagued by their own problems: a troubled family situation, feeling of inadequacy, depression, or pressure to fit in [1] . Their bullying behaviour might just be a coping mechanism and a cry for help. These children might need as much support and care as those they bully. Putting them through the harrowing experience of a criminal trial, and potentially throwing them in prison will further damage them. Destroying one young life as retribution for another is a model of justice that should find no place in a compassionate society.  [1] Carroll, Linda. \u201dKids with ADHD may be more likely to bully\u201d. MSNBC. 29 January 2008."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con04a","title":"","text":"Making bullying a legal issues does not incentivise robust enforcement of anti bullying rules by schools  Schools are educational establishments that parents trust to protect and educate their children. Teachers and school administrators are those who should be keeping a watchful eye on the students in their care and intervene before harm comes to them. If bullying occurs at school, then that school has failed in its duties. In fact, in cases where suicides occurred, it has often later come to light that a bullying culture was widely tolerated at the school, and that school staff that knew about it did nothing to prevent it, with tragic results [1] . To prosecute the bullies would shift responsibility from the woeful failure of the adults around them, who should have known better and done more than the children in their care.  [1] Bazelon, Emily. \u201cWhat Really Happened to Phoebe Prince? Entry 1\u201d. Slate. July 20. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con03a","title":"","text":"It is difficult to make a direct, legally sound link between a bully's behaviour and a victim's suicide  Many of the children and adolescents who take their own lives allegedly as a result of bullying have a far more complicated background. Some already struggle with depression, and have unstable family situations that make it hard to turn to their parents for help with their problems. Phoebe Prince, for example, was taking anti-depressants, was devastated by her parents\u2019 divorce, was self harming, and had already attempted suicide after a break up. And that was long before she was allegedly bullied to death [1] . She was a very troubled young woman, and anything could have pushed her over the edge. It would be hard to find the bullies criminally responsible for her death.  [1] Bazelon, Emily. \u201cWhat Really Happened to Phoebe Prince? Entry 2\u201d. Slate. July 20. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con05b","title":"","text":"Bullies are often children, most of them in their teens. However, they are at an age where they do know right from wrong and can, therefore, be held accountable for their actions. Neither their young age nor their own suffering can justify bearing responsibility for someone else\u2019s death. Most criminal justice systems recognize that children are liable for their behaviour, by allowing children as young as 10, in the UK for example, to be charged with criminal offences. Their age and personal situation can, nevertheless, be taken into account in deciding what punishment they should receive (prison, community service, a fine, etc.). And there is no reason why rehabilitation and education cannot be part, or even the focus, of that punishment."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con01a","title":"","text":"Individuals should only be held responsible for the consequences of their own actions  In any free and democratic society, criminal law should only hold people accountable for the things they do, not for the actions of others. We are all autonomous, moral agents who make decisions and have to live with their consequences and the consequences of our actions. While it might be justified to punish bullies for their bullying behavior, if it breaks the law, we cannot hold them accountable for another person\u2019s decision to commit suicide."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con04b","title":"","text":"Prosecutions of bullies responsible for suicides, and improved safety in schools are not mutually exclusive goals. Programmes need to be set up that stop bullying early on, give victims support, and people to turn to when they are in need. Schools and their administrators can and should also be held accountable to their boards, and the community. But in those cases where tragedies still happen in spite of such measures, the culprits should be held to account."}
+{"id":"training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con02b","title":"","text":"We criminalize behaviour when it is truly harmful. Especially when it is so harmful that it leads to someone losing her life. Eye rolling and gossip are not harmful enough to be criminal offences. Nor would they be under this law. What would become a criminal offence would be the sustained and prolonged torment of another person to the point of pushing her to committing suicide, whatever forms that torment takes, whether it\u2019s gay slurs, or physical threats and insults. It has also long been established that there are limits to the freedom of speech or expression we enjoy, if that can result in the direct harm of others. For example, we don\u2019t allow people to incite violence against others."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Market mechanisms are inappropriate for the exchange of some goods, such as children, medically needed bodily substances or organs, and sex. These are precious goods, and we should not allow citizens to alienate these goods for payment. Instead, the terms of alienation should protect the critical interests of all involved.  While sexual relationships serve legitimate needs, it does not follow that we should be able to purchase them. Having children serves legitimate needs, but we do not think that people should be able to buy children. Buying sex robs the provider of dignity and the right to sexual autonomy. Moreover, people are not entitled to some goods simply because they have money. If we allow money to determine who can have children, donated organs, or sexual intimacy, then this will lead to unfair distributions. Market mechanisms may eclipse other forms of exchange, and deprive those without significant wealth of the means to happiness."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Markets in sexual services can serve legitimate needs  While many societies have attempted to restrict sex to marriage, few (if any) have succeeded. In contemporary, secular liberal societies, adults are no longer punished for pursuing sex outside of marriage. Many adults find non-marital sex satisfying, healthy, and fulfilling, whether it occurs in the context of an ongoing romantic relationship, a casual friendship, or a market exchange. While many people will never seek the services of a sex worker, those who do are often seeking sensual comfort, companionship, entertainment, and fantasy fulfilment. While the latter goods are often obtainable in non-market relationships, some people prefer the convenience and efficiency of market mechanisms for securing these goods.  In a liberal society, individuals are free to pursue their own vision of happiness, as long as they respect the moral and civil rights of others. Markets that provide sexual services enable some individuals to secure goods essential to their happiness. Those who provide services to these individuals can do so in a manner that respects their rights and dignity, if the markets are legal and well regulated."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro03b","title":"","text":"No person would sell sex unless they were desperate. To have sex with someone for reasons other than sexual attraction, desire, and affection is repulsive to any sane and mentally competent adult.  People who sell sex are not exercising sexual autonomy, but are giving up their right to sexual autonomy in order to support themselves and their families. Instead of legalizing sex markets, societies should provide other means of employment and a basic standard of living to all members, so that no one has to resort to prostitution to survive."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro05a","title":"","text":"Legalization would free up resources that could be devoted to eliminating sex trafficking  Some markets in sex should be blocked. Markets that involve child labor, forced labor or sex, and forced migration and detention, should be stopped and those who organize and profit from such markets should be prosecuted. As with any service, it is critically important that no one is forced to work or to continue working, either through the threat of harm or through fraud and deception. It is also critically important that children are protected from sexual predators, and are excluded from all aspects of sex businesses. Forced labor and child sexual abuse involve violations of basic human rights that all societies are expected to protect.  Voluntary, adult sex work is significantly different from trafficking, and law enforcers need to distinguish market exchanges involving consensual sex among adults from market exchanges involving forced sex among adults or involving minors. By legalizing voluntary, adult sex work, law enforcers and rights protectors could focus their efforts on eliminating markets that involve the sexual abuse of adults or children. Additionally, clients of sex business would have the choice of patronizing legal business, and therefore would be less likely to patronize inadvertently a business that relies on forced or child labor."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Prohibition does more harm than good  Criminalizing the acts of selling and buying sexual services does not protect those who sell or buy such services, but rather pushes these activities underground. While market exchanges of sexual services involve some risk-taking, the risks are increased and compounded when such markets are prohibited. When selling and buying sex is illegal, those participating in these exchanges cannot, or simply do not, seek the protection of the law when their rights are violated. Because crimes against sex workers or their clients are often unreported, and when reported often not investigated, predators and rights violators can take advantage of others without fear of arrest and punishment. Moreover, because criminalization forces sex work into remote and invisible corners of society, sellers and buyers are less able to insure their safety and protection. For these reasons, laws criminalizing sex markets amplify the risks sellers and buyers face when they participate in sex market transactions.  The main purpose of criminalizing sex markets is to protect those who enter such markets from harm. Yet the harms of paying or accepting money for a good that can be legally exchanged for free are far less than the harms that result from the rights violations that often occur (robbery, battery, sexual assault, murder) when sex markets are pushed underground."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The fact that prohibition cannot prevent prostitution is not an argument against prohibition. We have laws prohibiting murder, and yet murders happen. Our laws deter some murders and they express our society\u2019s moral outrage regarding murder.  Similarly, laws prohibiting prostitution deter some prostitution and express our society\u2019s moral condemnation of sex for hire. These laws do not create harms, rather prostitution itself creates harms, by robbing those who participate of self-respect, and contributing to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. It is inevitable that laws prohibiting prostitution will make it riskier to engage in prostitution, as this is the purpose of such laws: to provide disincentives to those who might otherwise engage in this activity."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro05b","title":"","text":"While some sex market transactions are more consensual than others, all sex markets treat people like objects to be used and exploited by others. Sex should not be turned into work or a business from which some people profit, even when the labor is allegedly voluntary.  Moreover, it is not evident that the proliferation of legal sex businesses would involve the proliferation of sex businesses that acted ethically and responsibly. If sex businesses could operate in a more lax and permissive environment, many abuses would go undetected. Because of the already noxious aspects of this industry, abuses such as fraud, deception, and coercion are intolerable."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro04b","title":"","text":"Legalizing prostitution would unleash forces that exploit vulnerable women and men for profit. People with the means to buy sexual access to others would be able to exploit those who are poor, young, or inexperienced. By legalizing prostitution, society endorses impersonal and promiscuous sexual relations that damage individuals and families.  The resources we allocate to protect vulnerable citizens from sexual exploitation, and to uphold the values of sexual commitment, loyalty, and responsibility, are well spent, and the foundation of a healthy social order."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Markets in sexual services can respect sexual autonomy  Sexual autonomy means being able to control when, where, and with whom one has sexual relations. It also means that, at any moment, one may withdraw from a sexual relationship or encounter.  Spouses, lovers, and also strangers have the right to sexual autonomy. If an adult chooses to engage in sex with other adults who offer material benefits, her right to sexual autonomy is respected as long as she has control over when, where, and with which clients she has sexual relations, and as long as she is mentally competent and is allowed to terminate the agreement at any time.  If markets in sex were to become legal, the rights of providers (and clients) to sexual autonomy would need to be respected. This means that sex workers would maintain the right to refuse service to any customer, and to discontinue service or employment at any time and for any reason. Like other workers, sexual service providers would have the right to a safe and healthy work place. Workers who are drug dependent, or otherwise incompetent or highly vulnerable in the work place, would need to be provided treatment and time off work until they were capable of protecting themselves and others."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Legalization has benefits for society  Removing criminal penalties from the sale or purchase of sexual services, and regulating sex markets so that they protect participants and non-involved third parties, would be socially beneficial. In particular, sex enterprises and businesses could be made safer for workers, clients, and the communities in which they operated. By allowing sex businesses to operate openly, providers, clients, and business owners can become law-abiding, productive citizens, who contribute to their communities. Sex businesses and workers would pay taxes, and other licensing fees. Business owners would be expected to comply with standard business laws and regulations. Moreover, the government could enact special regulations appropriate to this industry, such as age restrictions on workers and clients, and mandatory condom use.  The resources that are currently allocated to arrest, prosecute, and incarcerate sex workers and clients could be reallocated for better uses. For example, these resources could be used to better address the sexual abuse of minors, sexual assault, substance abuse, mental health problems, and the many public and individual needs that go unmet."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con03b","title":"","text":"In market sexual transactions, each party pursues the satisfaction of her\/his desires. The service provider is typically pursuing her desire for income, while the client is typically pursuing his desire for sensual enjoyment and intimate companionship. As long as each party respects the terms of the exchange, they are treating each other as beings with ends of their own, and therefore morally."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con01b","title":"","text":"Sex exchanged for money may not have the same value and meaning as sex exchanged as a gift among lovers. Yet, it does not follow from this that paid sex is without value. The value of paid sex is clearly subjective, and may be derived from its ability to provide sensual pleasure, sex education, and relief from stress, boredom, or loneliness. It may be less meaningful and enjoyable than sex with a romantic companion, but when the latter is not an option, paid sex may be an acceptable substitute. Since people have different expectations from paid sex than non-market romantic sex, they are not likely to suffer emotional and psychological damage from the former.  Individuals who are not in monogamous relationships, and who have multiple sexual partners must take special precautions to protect their physical health, whether money is exchanged or not. Sex work does not pose additional health risks that are not otherwise faced by sexually active but non-monogamous individuals. There are precautions that all sexually active people can take to protect their health, such as rigorous condom use and regular health exams. Moreover, societies can promote education about STDs and how they are transmitted and detected, so that all sexually active individuals can learn how protect themselves.  Markets in sex do not in themselves precipitate harms or pose a public health threat, rather ignorance about sex and STDs, and barriers to health care and prophylactics such as condoms, are responsible for the harms of sex."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con02a","title":"","text":"Markets in sexual services undermine the values of commitment and loyalty  Sexual relationships involve crossing ordinary social boundaries that exist between people, and exposing aspects of ourselves that normally remain private. This aspect of sexual relationships renders the parties vulnerable emotionally and socially, and therefore sexual partners often extract commitments from each other of sexual fidelity and exclusivity. These commitments allow people to engage in sexual relationships while treating each other with decency and respect.  Markets are public and involve exchanges among strangers. In markets, goods are exchanged with the highest bidders and not with those to whom we are committed and loyal. For this reason, markets in sex undermine the ideals of sexual commitment, loyalty, or exclusivity, which makes decent and respectful sexual relationships possible. Markets are for exchanging shoes and cars, or services that we can separate from ourselves without leaving us emotionally and socially vulnerable or exposed. Sexual relationships require commitments of fidelity and exclusivity so we don\u2019t lose part of ourselves in the exchange."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con04a","title":"","text":"Markets in sex would corrupt non-market sexual relations, turning women and girls into commodities  Markets in sex are shaped by values that differ from non-market sexual relationships. Market sexual transactions are not structured by the ideals of fidelity and exclusivity between social intimates, but rather by the ends of profit maximization and mutual benefit among strangers. The goods exchanged in a market are interchangeable with other goods, in ways that maximize profit and mutual benefit. When these goods include sexual services, the sexual services of one provider will be interchangeable with those of another.  The position of seller or buyer in a particular market is often determined by one\u2019s gender, class, race, and nationality. In sex markets, sellers are typically female, and buyers are typically male. Race, class, and other social hierarchies also shape one\u2019s position in a sex market. Because the sellers in sex markets are often people who are disadvantaged by their gender, class, race, or nationality, the existence of markets in their sexual services will promote the idea that the sexual capacities of women (and other disadvantaged groups) are goods that are interchangeable and exploitable. The idea that the sexual capacities of women (and girls) can be accessed as market goods or commodities will shape attitudes toward women and girls who do not enter sex markets as providers. In this way, the values that structure markets in sex will spill over into non-market sexual relationships, and lead men to regard women as replaceable goods rather than unique human subjects."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con03a","title":"","text":"Moral sex requires more than informed consent, and society should uphold moral values  Moral sex requires treating others not merely as a means to our own ends, but as beings with ends of their own. This means that we are morally required to consider the needs of our sexual partners and not only our own selfish desires. In market sexual transactions, the client merely pursues the satisfaction of his own desires, and therefore treats the service provider as a means to his own ends.  Because prostitution inevitably involves the instrumental and immoral treatment of others, toleration of prostitution involves the toleration of immoral behaviour. Society should uphold moral values by banning prostitution."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con01a","title":"","text":"Prohibition prevents harm by substantially curtailing markets in sex  The good of sex when offered as a gift is not the same good when it is bartered. Taking or offering money cheapens and deforms the good of sexual intimacy, which when shared with many on the open market diminishes its value. Moreover, while the benefits of commoditized sex are questionable, the harms are significant. Those who engage in such exchanges diminish their capacity for genuine sexual intimacy, while damaging their physical, emotional, and mental health. Moreover, the harms of market sexual transactions often affect non-involved third parties, such as the spouses or lovers of sellers and buyers.  Because the harms of market sex are long lasting, though sometimes distant, it is appropriate for society to intervene to prevent these harms. Markets in sex pose a public health threat, just like markets in dangerous drugs. Prohibition will reduce the number of people who engage in market sexual transactions, and for those who do participate, there are ways to minimize violations of their rights."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con04b","title":"","text":"Consumers can access the healing capacities of health care providers without coming to regard the people who provide health care as replaceable market goods rather than unique human subjects. Consumers can access the cooking talents of chefs without coming to regard the people who provide good food as replaceable goods rather than unique human subjects. Sex markets may differ in that the position of consumer and provider is often shaped by gender and other social markers. But if this is what causes the degradation of the provider into a replaceable and exploitable good, then what needs to change is how positions in this market are shaped by one\u2019s social identity, rather than eliminating sex markets.  All markets are structured by social hierarchies. As illegitimate social hierarchies based on gender, race, class, and so on, are dismantled, then this will have beneficial effects on all markets and not just sex markets."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgsghwlp-con02b","title":"","text":"People who engage in market sexual relationships and other forms of casual sex can treat their partners with dignity and respect. This involves respecting the boundaries that sexual partners communicate to each other, regarding what parts of their lives and themselves they are willing to share. With different sexual partners we open up in different ways, and people who engage in casual, market sexual relationships might draw different emotional and sexual boundaries in these relationships than in others. While casual sexual relationships are unlikely to involve commitments of fidelity and exclusivity, they are compatible with the decent and respectful treatment of others if persons in these relationships respect their partners\u2019 rights to privacy, autonomy, and other basic interests."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro02b","title":"","text":"The overriding objective of the justice system is to ensure that the innocent go free, not that the guilty are punished, and the system should be orientated around that objective.  Ex post-facto confessions do not make someone \u2018clearly guilty\u2019 as false confessions can arise for a number of reasons, from boasting to an innocent misstatement.  It is also wrong to assume that new evidence is better evidence. The longer a trial takes place after a crime the less strong the evidence gets; memories get weaker, people go missing, evidence can be damaged etc. There is also the problem that in a re-trial any tactical advantage of \u2018ambushing\u2019 a witness in cross-examination is lost because they know that the ambush is coming. There are therefore a multitude of reasons why retrials are less likely to achieve convictions than a well prepared first trial."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Abolishment of double jeopardy would ensure the guilty do not escape punishment  The problem with the 'double jeopardy' rule is that people who are clearly guilty - because new evidence has emerged, because they've confessed - are not being punished for crimes they have committed. We believe that guilty people should be punished for their crime, and our justice system should be tailored to allow that. In 2009, a footballer in London confessed to murdering his ex-girlfriend at a re-trial after fresh evidence was found to overturn the original verdict1; under previous double jeopardy laws in Britain, the murderer would have remained free. We have as great a duty to ensure miscarriages of justice are not perpetrated on victims as on accused. An offence committed ten years ago does not cease to be an offence because time has passed, or because the perpetrator has managed to evade justice in the past. The criteria by which the decision to charge an individual is taken ought to be likelihood of guilt, not whether or not they have had a trial before. 1 BBC News a. (2009, May 21). Cleared man admits killing woman. Retrieved July 15, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro03b","title":"","text":"Such restrictions on double jeopardy would not be effective in practice, for they attempt to put a value on the relative importance of crimes without using either the prospect of re-offending or the impact on victims. As QC Geoffrey Robertson noted in response to the Law Commission's finding, it is irrational to confine the possibility of re-trials to 'serious crimes' alone and exclude \"repetitive, professional\" crime like armed robbery. If the intention of the repeal is to bring both offenders to justice and prevent further crime, it is exactly the 'repetitive, professional' criminals who should be targeted."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro01a","title":"","text":"The rules and laws that protect the accused will remain at retrial  All the rules and laws that protect the accused at the first trial will be in place at a second - it's not as if the rule of law suddenly disappears. The presumption of innocence, proof beyond reasonable doubt, the right to a fair hearing and competent counsel, the judge's duty to appropriately direct the jury, etc. will all continue to apply and prevent miscarriages of justice from occurring. Nor is the system likely to be overwhelmed with retrials. Much of the current push for the end of the double jeopardy rule comes from the widespread use of DNA testing, which has allowed many old cases to be revisited with compelling new evidence of guilt or innocence. Mark Weston, for example, was convicted at a re-trial after specks of the victim's blood were found on Weston's shoes, justifying the re-opening of the case1. After a few years, the impact of DNA testing on solving similar cold cases will be expended and there will be very few retrials. 1 Bate, S. (2010, December 13). 'Loner' convicted of murder in double jeopardy re-trial. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from The Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Juries will know this is a retrial \u2013 because evidence will have to be \u2018read\u2019 from the first trial where witnesses have died, because notes from \u2018last time\u2019 will be available to advocates and the accused, because the legal procedure of the last trial will be subject to discussion in this one. If a jury knows a case has been brought again, there will be a presumption that the accused is guilty because a higher court has already decided that the new evidence makes the acquitted defendant now look guilty after all, and so granted a retrial. The presumption of innocence will no longer exist. And unless the system is going to be overwhelmed with retrials like this, in which case it would be unworkable, then second trial capacity can only (and rightly) be directed towards \u2018exceptional\u2019 cases. Such cases are well known - like that of the murder of Stephen Lawrence 1. How could individuals face trial again on the same charges, when in the glare of media attention it has been declared they should have been convicted at the first trial? How could they possibly expect a fair trial?  1. Akwagyiram, A. (2008, April 22). The legacy of Stephen Lawrence. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro04b","title":"","text":"Faith in the justice system is derived from it being been to be fair and even-handed. It is not merely faith on the part of victims that offenders will be found guilty, but faith on the part of innocent defendant that they will be found innocent.  The double jeopardy rule reinforces faith in the justice system because it forces the prosecution service to make the best possible case that they can \u2013 because they only get one shot to make it. It also means that defendants can feel secure in submitting themselves to trial on the basis that an acquittal represents complete security from future accusations.  Abolishing the double jeopardy rule would actually undermine confidence in the system \u2013 overturning an acquittal is an explicit statement that the system produces false negatives. If it becomes widely accepted that a not-guilty verdict is meaningless then the principle of the presumption of innocence loses its force."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Double jeopardy could be abolished by state legislatures for all serious crimes whereby fresh, compelling evidence emerges  The scrapping of the double jeopardy would be practicable if it was permitted for serious crimes, like murder and rape, and only when fresh, compelling evidence of guilt emerges that calls into question the original acquittal. Such restrictions on any scrapping of the rule would not tie up courts in re-trials, for they could only be called for certain crimes in certain, restricted conditions. The British Law Commission in a 2011 review concluded that whilst the ancient rule of double jeopardy is of 'fundamental importance', it should be possible to \"quash acquittals in murder trials where there is 'reliable and compelling new evidence of guilt'\". In practise, this would preserve the traditional advantages of the law, whilst ensuring that those who are guilty, and can be proved so, do not remain free."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro04a","title":"","text":"Abolishment of the rule would restore faith in the justice system  When we see people still unpunished for offences in society they've clearly committed, it damages our faith in the justice system. Our bargain with the state entails the state's right to judge the individual because the state protects the individual: if our attackers roam the streets because an arbitrary legal rule exempts them from prosecution despite clear guilt, then that system has broken down. When Jennifer McDermott witnessed her daughter's murderer get convicted at a re-trial, she described it as a 'victory for everyone who feels let down by the justice system.'1 Victims deserve such justice and it is an insult to them, and all of us, to see their persecutors go free. As a Home Office spokesman stated when England overturned the double jeopardy ban, 'it is important the public should have full confidence in the ability of the criminal justice system to deliver justice.'1 Justice is only applicable when the perpetrators remain within the arm of the law; double jeopardy prevents this.  1 BBC News a. (2009, May 21). Cleared man admits killing woman. Retrieved July 15, 2011, from BBC News: 2 BBC News. (2005, April 3). Double jeopardy law ushered out. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-con03b","title":"","text":"Vast improvements in the technology of crime-solving have occurred in recent times to ensure that defendants brought to trial are done so appropriately. DNA testing, voice identification technology, facial mapping techniques that reveal faces beneath masks - all can now solve cases and show guilt in individuals whose escape from punishment occurred only because of a lack of satisfactory evidence. For example, In 1963 when Hanratty stood trial for the A6 murder (a gruesome offence where the abused victim was shot in her car and left to die on the motorway), semen stains on the victim's underwear could not be investigated using the technology of the day1. He was convicted anyway on the facts, but if he hadn't been, and thanks to advances in technology the sperm turns out later to be his (as it has), shouldn't we use that evidence to obtain justice for those concerned? Some evidence couldn't possibly have been used at the time of trial, because the technology doesn't exist. Looked at now, it could demonstrate conclusive guilt. If such evidence exists, isn't there a compulsion to use it?2 How can we ignore it?  1 Foot, P. (2000, July 25). Hanratty was innocent. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Guardian: 2 The Independent. (2002, July 18). The abolition of double jeopardy will undermine confidence in British justice. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Independent:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-con01b","title":"","text":"The rule of law, by its very nature, serves the cause of justice. In doing so, it is often overturned, but only in order to ensure that justice is delivered and offenders punished. Protection from the state therefore is a principle that is relinquished by those who commit crimes; it is the protection of the state from such people that thereafter becomes paramount. The double jeopardy rule enshrines in law that the key factor in any trial is the quality of police work up to that point, rather than the actual guilt of the defendant. If abolished, vindictive policemen will not affect the integrity of the justice system, the case will still be judged by the quality of the evidence whilst the defendant will have recourse to protest their innocence. The potential for innocent people to go through the stress of further trials is a price worth paying to ensure the guilty do not walk free."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-con02a","title":"","text":"Double jeopardy protects the acquitted from the threat of constant harassment by the state  We\u2019re not just protecting \u2018evil people\u2019. The double jeopardy rule protects everyone from the danger of constant harassment from the state. The opposition would rather see a guilty man occasionally go free than see the resources of the state trained on individuals again and again and again, \u2018until the state secured (the) popular result\u2019 1. The double jeopardy rule provides closure for both defendants and the prosecution; if the prosecution regret their case in the future, the fault lies not with the double jeopardy rule itself, but their decision to go to trial based on insufficient evidence. Citizens should not be forced to go through the stress of multiple trials due to the incompetence of the state. \u2018If a person accused of a serious crime is acquitted, they are entitled to have some certainty in their future\u20192. That certainty can only be guaranteed if the prosecution is granted one attempt at a conviction, and one only.  1. The Independent. (2002, July 18). The abolition of double jeopardy will undermine confidence in British justice. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Independent:  2. Bosscher, M. (2006, November 10). Danger in abolishing double jeopardy rule. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Online Opinion:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-con03a","title":"","text":"Double jeopardy ensures defendants are not brought to trial on weak grounds  The implications of this should be looked at carefully. This would grant police and the prosecution the right to prosecute an individual if the evidence against them can be \u2018reanalysed.\u2019 Surely almost all cases could see such \u2018improvement in investigatory techniques,\u2019 allowing the state to pursue individuals at will. Presumably this \u2018generation\u2019 of techniques isn\u2019t the last; why won\u2019t the same logic hold in asking for a third trial? A fourth? A fifth?\u2026Subsequently, if the \u2018double jeopardy\u2019 rule is scrapped, police work will be sloppier, because police detectives will know that the insurance of a second trial exists. The \u2018one-shot\u2019 rule forces investigations and prosecutions to be of as high a quality as possible. The abolishment of double jeopardy would be \u2018merely a shortcut to prosecutors seeking unlimited re-trials until they get the verdict they want\u2019 1. Courts cannot be permitted to be tied up in such cases, nor can prosecutors be allowed to destroy the lives of defendants by enforcing such constant emotional turmoil.  1. Bosscher, M. (2006, November 10). Danger in abolishing double jeopardy rule. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Online Opinion:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-con01a","title":"","text":"The rule of law means less if it is being constantly overturned  Respect for the law will diminish if criminal verdicts exist in a perpetual state of uncertainty. We need to be protected from the state in other ways, too - from the vindictive or obsessed policeman that will pursue a case because he 'knows' the accused, properly acquitted in a court of law, to be guilty nevertheless. The nature of our police force means that these instances are inevitable as it imparts a strong cognitive bias onto our policemen to look for guilt - so unless we mandate a rule determining when a line of investigation has to end, police will continue to focus on their chosen 'perpetrator' until they get the result that they have decided is correct. As Matthew Kelly QC notes, removing double jeopardy restrictions could 'lead to prosecutions routinely seeking a second bite of the cherry, if a case flopped first time for good reason.'1  Given that we are talking about a tiny proportion of cases, it is better to have the principle of finality - because the police will spend vast amounts of time and effort and money on case that are already resolved, to the detriment of crimes that will receive less attention. Therefore successful detective work, and subsequent conviction rates, will increase with the double jeopardy rule in place, not decrease, for police cannot allow themselves to remain rooted in closed cases. 1 BBC News. (2005, April 3). Double jeopardy law ushered out. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwsdjr-con02b","title":"","text":"The people who are protected by this rule are the guilty who are wrongly declared innocent; the murderer whose voice couldn\u2019t be identified on the tape; the rapist who couldn\u2019t be identified because DNA testing wasn\u2019t sufficiently developed at the time; the robber who couldn\u2019t be identified because facial mapping technology didn\u2019t exist to show their face beneath the mask. People may in unguarded moments confess to crimes for which they have been found not guilty. Why would the state be in their favour and against the victims that so deserve justice - why should victims suffer because evidence didn\u2019t emerge until later?  The test for guilt will still be 'reasonable doubt' - defendents who are genuinely innocent have no need to fear because they will still be found innocent."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro02b","title":"","text":"While they undermine the court, they are an inevitable quid pro quo of part of diplomatic relations with the US, the last remaining superpower. While impunity is not ideal, it is better than not signing and taking part in international criminal justice at all. Creating BIAs does not mean that the countries in question will absolve their own citizens of wrongdoing instead they are likely to be tried at home and in some cases may still be handed over to the ICC."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro02a","title":"","text":"The rationale for the BIAs is flawed  The Bilateral Immunity Agreements that these states have entered in to undermine the court that these states have signed up to. BIAs invalidate the intention for the ICC that any person who is subject to the jurisdiction of the court (which only triggers when an individual is a citizen of a state that has ratified the Rome Statute, or in the territory of a Rome Statute state) and commits the horrific acts covered by the Rome Statute should be brought to trial by providing a get out clause for the powerful. A proliferation in BIAs could potentially render the ICC a court that can only try nationals of small states that do not have the leverage to get others to agree to BIAs, already the ICC is accused of bias in putting Africans on trial and ignoring the rest of the world, such agreements make this worse. [1] BIAs by one state, the United States, creates a precedent for other states to use and as they do so the field that is available for international criminal justice will become smaller and smaller.  [1] Kersten, Mark, \u201cAfrican and the ICC: Some Unsolicited Advice\u201d, Africa at LSE, 28 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro03b","title":"","text":"The United States is not under any form of responsibility to other states to provide them with military and other aid. Aid has always been provided with strings attached to those whose receipt of aid is considered beneficial. It is within the purview of the US to decide who they give aid to, based on their own priorities. This is simply part of the diplomatic process. If the US wishes to provide aid to countries that sign up to treaties then this is its right, it is perfectly normal to provide a sweetener to encourage states to sign up while punishing those that don\u2019t.  This then is a good reason why these European states should not pull out of their BIAs. To do so would mean losing the financial benefits being provided. At the same time it would also show that these states are not to be trusted when they sign up to international agreements."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro01a","title":"","text":"The BIAs are at best bad faith compliance, and worst a blatant violation of the Rome Statute  The European states have signed and ratified the ICC Statute and should honour it, to do otherwise makes a mockery of the ICC which those states supported throughout its genesis and at least claim to continue to support.  Article 98(2) was only intended to be a factor where there are other agreements such as status of forces agreements (an agreement entered in to between two states, one having military forces in the other voluntarily, such as British troops in Germany). It was not meant as a broad-brush way for states being able to grant selective immunity to citizens of non-member states who have committed genocide or crimes against humanity inside the jurisdiction of an ICC member state.  Signing an Article 98 Agreement is at best accepting foreign instigation of the abuse of process of a treaty. At worst it is accepting an illegal attempt at circumventing the treaty."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro01b","title":"","text":"The text of the Rome Statute is clear. Article 98(2) is unspecific as to the variety of international agreements that it covers, unlike the narrower Article 98(1) covering diplomatic immunity.  Article 98 Agreements are a tool that is a legitimate method of the US ensuring that US citizens are not subject to trial and punishment by a court which the United States is not a part of. This would run against the principle that a treaty only affects states that have signed and ratified it, rather than any others."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro03a","title":"","text":"The BIAs were only granted following bully tactics from the United States  The United States has been accused of using bullying tactics in the pursuit of gaining Article 98 Agreements by, amongst others, Human Rights Watch [1] .  This has included significant reductions in non-military, development aid, including to countries such as South Africa, the Bahamas [2] and Peru [3] , as well as making threats to accession to NATO in the case of Croatia. [4]  By signing up to Article 98 Agreements, European nations help contribute to a climate where smaller nations can also be strong-armed in to harming the International Criminal Court by signing them, even if they were not subject to blackmailed in to it themselves.  [1] Roth, Kenneth, \u201cLetter to the US Secretary of State Colin Powell on Bully Tactics against the International Criminal Court\u201d, Human Rights Watch, 2003   [2] Roth, Letter to Colin Powell, 2003  [3] Keppler, Elise, \u201cThe United States and the International Criminal Court: The Bush Administration\u2019s Approach and a Way Forward Under the Obama Administration\u201d, Berkeley Journal of International Law, 2009, 2, p12,   [4] Roth, Letter to Colin Powell, 2003"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con03b","title":"","text":"Theoretical impunity is still impunity. The concept that any entity should be given special treatment by the law runs contrary to principles of the rule of law. If such immunity is not going to be needed then there is very little reason for the agreements in the first place and there should be little objection to getting rid of them."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con01b","title":"","text":"The Rome Statute itself does not bind any state to be put on trial \u2013 it binds individuals. Individuals violating the criminal law of a state (the Rome Statute also integrating the international criminal law in to the national criminal law) have always been subject to trial and punishment by that state, barring cases of diplomatic immunity or other separate cases. This is nothing new \u2013 the Rome Statute respects the sovereignty of a nation within its territory. If anything, it is the use of coercive tactics by a state to give its citizens immunity from the ordinary law that is the violation of national sovereignty.  Even without the BIAs it would only be possible to prosecute Americans if they commit an international crime in the jurisdiction of another state. When this occurs due to the principle of territoriality it has traditionally been the case that the state upon whose territory the act was committed is able to try those who committed the act. It is not a violation of sovereignty to allow the ICC rather than the other state the right to bring the defendant to trial."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con02a","title":"","text":"Withdrawal from Article 98 agreements would hamper relations with the US  Many of the states in Europe that have signed up to BIA\u2019s are applicant to NATO which leaves them in a difficult position when it comes to withdrawing from such a treaty. While NATO members are exempt from the punitive provisions aimed at states who do not have Article 98 agreements, in order to join NATO the state will need the support of the United States. Such support will be less forthcoming if that country has abandoned an agreement with the United States such as a BIA. Linking issues is not unusual in international relations whether it is linking multiple issues in a single larger negotiation or blocking progress in joining an organisation as a result of a single issue. Perhaps the best example of this occurring is Turkey and the EU where Turkey\u2019s membership has been held up by its dispute with Cyprus over the northern half of the island. [1]  Even if the United States were to allow an application to NATO to proceed despite the abandonment of their bilateral treaty relations will surely be damaged. No state is going to welcome another state unilaterally withdrawing from a treaty they have signed. The Eastern European states value their relationship with the United States due to that country\u2019s commitment to their independence and support during the early 1990s as the soviet bloc broke up. It would not make sense for these small independent countries to risk relations with the world\u2019s most powerful statements over an agreement which is unlikely to ever have a practical relevance.  [1] Rinke, Andreas, and Solaker, Gulsen, \u201cCyprus remains stumbling block in Turkey\u2019s EU ambition: Merkel\u201d, Reuters, 25 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con03a","title":"","text":"Article 98 Agreements are unlikely to be needed  The prospect of an Article 98 Agreement actually being relied on is slim. It would require the International Criminal Court to prosecute an American for a crime against humanity, or genocide, that takes place in ICC member state. There is next to no chance of the UN Security Council referring a case against America to the ICC as the US has a veto as a permanent member.  The ICC already makes only a highly limited number of prosecutions per year, in obvious cases, and so far all of these have been focused on the developing world. While Article 98 agreements may be unsavoury, the chance of them actually being used to grant someone impunity is low."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con01a","title":"","text":"Article 98 Agreements are a crucial tool in maintaining American national sovereignty  As a key part of its national sovereignty, the US should not be required to have its citizens subject to the ICC if it does not ratify the treaty itself of its own choice. It is an accepted principle, as enshrined in Article 34 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, [1] that a treaty only binds the states that have consented to it. Binding citizens of states who are not parties, who may be acting under the orders of a state arm, such as a military, when in the territory of state parties, violates that state\u2019s sovereignty. There have been attempts to put US soldiers on trial. Italy for example put Mario Lozano on trial for the killing of an Italian agent in Iraq, the US maintained he was doing his job at a checkpoint and provided warnings while the Italians considered it murder. In this case the United States was able to refuse to hand the soldier over but BIA\u2019s ensure that such actions will not be a concern whenever troops are deployed abroad. [2]  Bilateral Immunity Agreements are a legitimate tool to ensure that this key principle is protected in the case of the International Criminal Court \u2013 this has no bearing on the nations that desire to be part of the International Criminal Court.  [1] United Nations. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969,   [2] \u201cControversial Trial Opens in Rome: Italy Tries US Soldier For Iraq Murder\u201d, Spiegel Online, 17 April 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con02b","title":"","text":"The US is not focusing on encouraging existing NATO members to withdraw from the ICC. Existing NATO members are not subject to the aid-cutting provisions of US law (before and after the Presidential waiver was created), neither are major non-NATO allies \u2013 indeed, all EU member states in NATO are ICC members, with the exception of Romania none have signed an Article 98 agreement.  Much of the US antagonism to the ICC came during the Bush administration, when the ICC was an unproven organization in its infancy.  Since then, US Policy towards the ICC has softened, as can be evidenced by the US voting in favour of referring the situation in Libya to the ICC (compared to abstaining in the referral of Darfur), so it would be unlikely to do much harm to bilateral relations if other states were to expand their co-operation. No EU member state other than Romania has entered in to an Article 98 Agreement with the US. [1]  [1] Barbour, The International Criminal Court, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro02b","title":"","text":"The police should not be reacting in such a way that they exacerbate those problems. By routinely arming its police officers, the state effectively legitimizes the weapon as a symbol of authority. Whether or not this is pragmatic, it is an implied affirmation of the criminal sub-culture, which will accordingly be strengthened.  The argument about a rapid increase in gun crime in the UK depends upon a very limited and selective use of crime data. Recorded gun crime did indeed rise by close to 105% between 1998 (when handguns were banned in the UK after the Dunblane tragedy) and 2003, but a large proportion of that increase is attributable to air weapon misuse and non-firing replica weapons. [1] Since then the increase has largely stabilised and even fallen. A temporary trend, now brought under control, is not necessarily a strong argument for changing, for ever, the nature and character of British policing.  By this policy\u2014especially in the absence of a Constitutional right for citizens to bear arms\u2014the role of the police is essentially defined in opposition to at least part of the citizenry. This can be contrasted to the more common expectation that police and citizens operate under essentially common rules, for shared values and that policing is undertaken in a spirit of the minimum use of force and by \u2018public consent\u2019.  [1] Squires, P. 2008 Gun Crime: a Review of Evidence and Policy, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro02a","title":"","text":"The police should be equipped to react to contemporary social problems  The old-fashioned notions of friendly neighborhood unarmed policing reflect the aspirations of a different age. As armed violence has increased sharply in parts of the developed world, the police need to redefine their role so that it is a more appropriate response to contemporary problems. In the UK, for example, gun crime almost doubled in the decade to 2008, [1] while the rise in London gun crime has tripled, the police need to be able to respond to this. [2] There is also danger in being a state with unarmed police when others states have armed police forces. The unarmed nation may be seen as a \u201csoft touch\u201d compared to other regional nations. This can encourage an importation of criminality.  [1] Whitehead, Tom, 'Gun crime doubles in a decade', The Telegraph 27 October 2009,   [2] Bamber, David, \u2018Gun crime trebles as weapons and drugs flood British cities\u2019, The Telegraph, 24 February 2002,  , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro03b","title":"","text":"When a police officer carries a weapon, she faces the risk of having that weapon turned on her by a criminal. It is also more obvious to a criminal that they need to shoot first against an armed officer whereas against an unarmed one they may be more open to listening and less likely to try and pre-empt being shot. So arming the police can sometimes make the police more vulnerable, rather than more protected.  If, as the opposing argument suggests, legally owned guns are part of the risk profile facing the police, measures ought to be taken to reduce the risk and restrict levels of gun ownership. The police have had a National (legal) Firearms Database since 2006 allowing them to assess whether someone they will be dealing with is a gun owner or whether the premises they are attending contains licensed firearms. Criminal misuse of illegal firearms is a different matter although, as has been argued, protection and safety are not the same as \u2018armed\u2019 and more armed police will probably mean more shootings and, equally probably, more mistakes and armed confrontations. [1]  [1] P. Squires and P Kennison 2010 Shooting to Kill: Policing, Firearms and armed response. Oxford, Wiley\/Blackwell."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro05a","title":"","text":"Arming the police is a necessary step  Police officers are routinely armed already in a variety of situations. This is a small step, as police officers are routinely armed already in a variety of situations, e.g. at airports and when providing security for political leaders or institutions. As mentioned earlier armed police have even been used before on routine patrols in areas where there has been gun crime. [1] Already rapid-response units of armed officers are available to deal with armed criminals, but these need to be specially summoned and authorised. Often, they arrive too late to do any good. The next obvious step would be to have many more police armed so as to make this response much faster.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Armed police patrols withdrawn\u2019, 7 February 2003,  accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro01a","title":"","text":"An armed police force will deter criminal behaviour  Most countries in Europe and North America have armed police forces, in part to deter criminal acts, but also to protect officers working in an armed or dangerous environment\u2019 . Armed criminals operate in at least some areas of virtually every jurisdiction. Given this reality, a failure to routinely arm the police gives armed criminals a strong advantage in terms of their ability to threaten and commit violence, without any corresponding risk to themselves. [1] In Bristol in England where police are not routinely armed the deployment of armed police in inner-city areas in 2003 defused gang tensions and reduced crime enough to allow the armed police to be withdrawn again. [2] Only putting armed police in for brief periods will only have a short term impact, having permanently armed police is the only way to keep this deterrence in effect. A world-wide \u2018meta-study\u2019 of armed police patrols found some evidence that in high violence areas, targeted armed police patrols could chill down the tensions and reassure the community but the evidence was not very compelling and the authors acknowledged that such a \u2018sticking plaster\u2019 approach was no long term solution to urban violence [3] .  [1] Kopel, David B., ed., Guns: Who Should Have Them, Prometheus Books, 1995.  [2] BBC News, \u2018Armed police patrols withdrawn\u2019, 7 February 2003,  accessed 20 September 2011  [3] Koper, C.S. and Mayo-Williams E. (2006) Police crackdowns on illegal gun carrying: a systematic review of their impact on gun crime. Journal of Experimental Criminology Vol. 2 pp. 227-261."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro01b","title":"","text":"Arming the police can lead to a spiral of violence. In places where the police are not routinely armed, a portion of criminals will not arm themselves (since, for example, armed robbery often carries a higher sentence than robbery). Once the police are armed, criminals who do not match their capability operate under a strong disadvantage. Therefore, when the police become routinely armed, the criminal world fully arms itself in response. [1] The mere fact of increased weapons possession (by both police and criminals) will in itself result in higher use, since in circumstances where arms may not be currently used (e.g. a police chase), either side carrying weapons will mean that they consider shooting an option which they did not formerly possess. A study comparing police dispute resolution in Norway and Sweden (the former unarmed, the latter armed) [2] tended to confirm that where police have guns, they are much more likely to use them \u2013 the Swedish police shot significantly more suspects. Thus gun availability effectively reduces the options currently available to police along the \u2018continuum of force\u2019. For example, if the police are armed, they are less likely to use less harmful alternatives such as tasers, \u201cstun guns\u201d, CS spray, and negotiation, even though the lowered lethality of a technology generally seems to imply it will be used more frequently. [3]  [1] Talking Point, \u2018Should British police carry guns?\u2019, BBC News, 12 February 2001,  accessed 20 September 2011  [2] Knutson , J and Strype J. 2003 Police use of Firearms in Norway and Sweden Policing and Society Vol. 13(4) pp. 429-439.  [3] Porter Henry, \u2018Should the police ever shoot to kill?\u2019 Liberty Central, 13 May 2009,  , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro05b","title":"","text":"The large majority of policewomen and men go through their whole career without handling firearms. The numbers in the firearms authorised officers are low, only 6780 in 2007-8 out of more than 100,000 police, [1] and even these have been criticised by SAS officers who stated \u201cWhen the tension starts to rise and the adrenaline is flowing, the \u2018red mist\u2019 seems to descend on armed police officers who become very trigger-happy. This has been shown time and again in training exercises.\u201d [2] Any expansion of the numbers of police carrying firearms could result in many more unsuitable police carrying guns.  [1] Coaker, Vernon, \u2018Statistics on police use of firearms in England and Wales 2007-08\u2019, Home Office, 2 March 2009,  , accessed 20 September 2011  [2] Winnett, Robert, \u2018SAS trainers denounce \u2018gung ho\u2019 armed police\u2019, The Sunday Times\u2019, 18 September 2005,  , accessed 20 September 2011 (original article is no offline but the quote was not picked up by other newspapers)"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro04b","title":"","text":"Arming police would negatively impact the relationship between the police and the community \u2013 this is especially so in relation to some communities which feel that they bear the brunt of heavy, enforcement-led policing (for example young men in urban areas, ethnic minority groups). [1] Arming the police might delegitimise their role as community standard bearers. Many law-abiding citizens who have no connection to the criminal underworld are horrified by armed police, whom they regard as alien to their cultural frame of reference.  Guns potentially place a distance between the people and the police and impact the relationship in a negative way. It impacts not only those who would perform potentially criminal activity, but even day to day police interaction such as breathalysing and spot checks on vehicles. The police would no longer be viewed as \u2018upholding the peace\u2019 but rather enforcing through threat.  Even worse than the distancing effect, lethal weaponry is also a potent symbol of brutality. This can undermine the ability of the police to be seen as a key constituent part of civil society. This problem is exacerbated when this symbolic brutality is applied in ways that deviate from the expectations of civil society, for example through unfair racial profiling.  Finally \u2013 arming the police may well alter the profile of police recruits. Police managers sometimes remark that the very last person to trust with a firearm is the one who wants one the most.  [1] Jefferson, T. (1990) The Case against Paramilitary Policing, Milton Keynes, Open University Press; P. Scharf and A. Binder 1983 The Badge and the Bullet: Police Use of Deadly Force, New York, Praeger; Kraska, P. and Kappeler, V.E. 1997 Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units Social Problems, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Feb., 1997), pp. 1-18."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro03a","title":"","text":"Policing is a dangerous job. Police officers should be allowed to arm themselves  There is a global increase in gun ownership, even in countries which did not traditionally think of themselves as having a large criminal gun culture. Presently 1.8 million legally held guns are accounted for in the UK. [1] This increases the risks to frontline police officers of being the victims of gun crime. Police officers should have a right to protect themselves. Fewer officers may die on duty if they were better able to protect themselves. Arming the police is essentially a matter of self-defence rather than being actively involved in regular firearms incidents. This is shown by the fact that most routinely armed police never fire their weapon on active duty in their whole career. [2] If being a police officer is a safer job, then there will be a larger applicant pool to choose from, and thus better, more qualified police forces.  [1] Legal Community Against Violence, \u2018Large Capacity Ammunition Magazines\u2019, 2011,  , accessed 20 September 2011  [2] BBC News, \u2018Q&A: Armed police in the UK\u2019, 8 June 2010,  , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-pro04a","title":"","text":"Arming the police makes communities feel safer  Armed police reassure law-abiding citizens at a time when gun-related crime is increasing in most European countries and parts of North America. In the UK 28 gun crimes are committed every day. [1] Much public opinion holds that something must be done to tackle this. [2]  The sight of armed police officers patrolling the streets will not only deter gangs from harassing residents, but will instil in communities a confidence that they are being properly protected. Gangs are not interested in fighting the police; they are more concerned about attacks from other gangs in their area who are willing to break the law and attack them unprovoked.  People feel safer when they see armed police, especially if they perceive them as a response to a heightened risk. Thus, for example, police officers at British airports routinely carry sub-machine guns, although there is no evidential pattern to suggest that this high-visibility weaponry offers any situational strategic advantage over a more subtle arming.  [1] Hope, Christopher, \u201928 gun crimes committed in UK every day\u2019, The Telegraph, 24 January 2008,  , accessed 20 September 2011  [2] Shearing, Clifford et al., Lengthening the Arm of the Law: Enhancing Police Resources in the Twenty-First Century, (Cambridge Studies in Criminology, 2008)"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con03b","title":"","text":"Violence is already escalating and we need a robust response. Many communities are vulnerable to postcode gangs comprised of young people aged 14 and upwards who are armed and dangerous and making their areas unsafe to live in. Only a robust and proactive response from the police such as patrolling such territories with firearms so as to protect themselves and innocent civilians will address this problem."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con01b","title":"","text":"The police themselves are calling for more routine arming in the United Kingdom, through both the unions that represent rank and file policemen, and the bodies which speak for the senior officers. If we want them to uphold law and order, we should trust the police's judgement about the tools they need to carry out their task. To the contrary, recruitment will also suffer if police officers are seen as too vulnerable, as easy targets for criminals because they have no proper means to defend themselves."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con02a","title":"","text":"When the police are armed, mistakes will lead to innocent people getting shot  Even with the special selection measures and intensive training given to firearms officers, mistakes sometimes occur, and innocent people are shot. This can happen either by mistake because the armed officers are acting on inaccurate information, or because they are bystanders caught in the cross-fire of a shoot-out. Arming all police officers would mean ditching the current stringent selection methods for who is armed, and would inevitably result in less training being provided, so mistakes would become much more common and more people would be wounded or killed. Such as the Amadou Diallo shooting in New York in 1999, or the shooting of Jean Charles De Menezes at Stockwell underground station in 2005. [1] Squires and Kennison, in their 2010 book, detail a number of case studies of mistaken police shootings, further details can be found on the IPCC Inquiry reports website. [2]  [1] The New York Times, \u2018Amadou Diallo\u2019,  , accessed 20 September 2011  [2] P. Squires and P Kennison 2010 Shooting to Kill: Policing, Firearms and armed response. Oxford, Wiley\/Blackwell."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con04a","title":"","text":"Arming the police does not deal with the causes underlying violence  The real issues that cause crime usually lie in societal issues and a lack of a proper rehabilitation effort in the justice system. The root problems are therefore not being solved by arming the police. This policy only masks the problems societies face. Governments need to make more long-term, sustainable investments. They should be attempting to change the culture that creates violence, providing jobs for those who are in poverty making sure that everyone feels they have a stake in society, rather than rely on a \u201cquick fix\u201d plan that tackles none of the real issues."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con03a","title":"","text":"Arming the police will cause an escalation in criminal violence  The British Crime Survey maintains that gun crime is very rare throughout the UK. The reason communities are so afraid is that the over-zealous media continually hype up individual incidences of gun crime in order to attract more readers. The statistics show that knife and gun crime are overrepresented in the news, with 25% of newspapers stories on average being dedicated to crime. [1] Because of this exaggerated coverage, there is a moral panic in which people think that if they are attacked it will be by a knife-wielding maniac. This is simply not true. There is more chance that you will be in a car accident than be attacked on the street.  Introducing guns onto the streets, even in a legal and well-intentioned manner is a trigger for increasing the number of guns that gangs and organised crime groups bring onto the street.  [1] Media Awareness Network, \u2018TV Crime Facts \u2013 Teaching Backgrounder\u2019  , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con01a","title":"","text":"Recruitment will be adversely affected if the police are armed  The police are split on this issue at all levels, so it would be wrong to listen only to the loudest voices. The police should also be held firmly under civilian control. Policy areas such as the carrying of firearms or stop-and-search procedure should be subject to political decisions and accountability. Recruitment may well be adversely affected if the police are armed; many current officers opposed to this measure may leave, and others like them will not apply to join the force in the future. Do we want a police force largely composed of people who want to carry a gun every day? Japan\u2019s police force are trained in combat without weapons and they some of the lowest crime rates in the world. The country has a steadily decreasing crime rate, with this year alone, overall crime has decreased by 1.4%. [1]  [1] Eguchi, Arichika, and Kanayama, Taisuke, \u2018Japan\u2019s Challenge on the Increase in Crime in the New Century\u2019, Police Policy Research Center,  , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con04b","title":"","text":"Arming police is not mutually exclusive with other policies that could deal with the whole spectrum of crime-related issues. This debate is not suggesting that other issues related to crime will not be dealt with. Rather that in order to facilitate a reduction in crime the criminal justice system will be served by police who are armed. It is untrue to suggest that simply because the police are armed, other integral parts of crime reduction will be ignored."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwap-con02b","title":"","text":"Armed police already exist in a number of situations and a rise in mistaken shootings that the opposition fear is not evident in these areas."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Treatment programs can address the problems of those who are addicted, and many casinos offer \u201cSelf-Exclusion Programs\u201d, where individuals can effectively \u201cban\u201d themselves from casinos. This could be the initiative of either the gambler or their family or friends."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Gambling leads to the disintegration of families  Gambling can have a devastating effect on families. The most obvious effect is financial as one partner uses all their money on gambling the other needs to support the whole family or the gambler may even gamble away joint savings. Psychologically there is a relationship between gambling and various psychiatric and alcohol disorders. This is also an impact on friends, who do not want to be tied into supporting gambling financially or even just emotionally. Lesieur and Custer estimated that for each problem gambler there were 10-15 other people adversely impacted by the gambling of that person.1 As with drugs, it is harmful to the individual concerned and their family and friends, and it is better to ban gambling to stop people getting started in the first place.  1 Shaw, Martha C. et al., \u2018The Effect of Pathological Gambling on Families, Marriages , and Children\u2019, CNS Spectrums, Vol. 12, No. 8, 2007, pp.615-622."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro06a","title":"","text":"Gambling is associated with other forms of addiction and harmful behaviour  Gambling makes people concentrate of winning money. Religious leaders of all denominations see gambling as eroding family values1 because it implies that material goods should be valued above other things like friendships and families. It also sends out the message that success should not necessarily be the result of merit and effort. As a philosophy, \u2018gambling culture\u2019 is incredibly dangerous. Those in society who most need to self-improve, never do. Instead, they tie their hopes and dreams to the lottery. There may be the possibility of winning a big prize, but the overwhelming likelihood is that a gambler will lose money. Instead, governments should be promoting values like thrift, hard work and self-reliance rather than encouraging or even allowing gambling to promote its own negative values.  1 Holahan, Catherine, \u2018Online Gambling Still in the Cards\u2019, Bloomberg Businessweek, 3 October 2006."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Internet gambling is in fact less dangerous than normal gambling. It is free from the pressures to gamble that casinos can create through free food and entertainment, glitzy surroundings and peer pressure. And as children can\u2019t get credit cards, they should not be able to gamble online anyway. Stolen credit cards can be used to commit fraud in any number of ways - online gambling is not a specific problem here. It is also in the interest of internet gambling sites to run a trustworthy, responsible business. Whatever they are looking for online, internet users choose trusted brands that have been around for a while. If a gambling site acts badly, for example by changing its odds unfairly, word will soon get around and no one will want to use it."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro05a","title":"","text":"Gambling affects poor people disproportionately  Poor people are more likely to gamble, in the hope of getting rich. In 1999, the National Gambling Impact Commission in the United States found that 80 percent of gambling revenue came from lower-income households1. It is immoral for the state or charities to raise money by exploiting people\u2019s stupidity and greed. Taxing gambling is a regressive tax (this means that the poor pay a greater proportion of their income in tax than the rich), and regressive taxation is deeply unfair. Gambling attracts people with little money who are desperate for a windfall. These are the people who can least afford to lose money.  1 Mark Lange, The Gambling Scan on America\u2019s Poor, Allnet.com, May 3 2007."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro01a","title":"","text":"Gambling is addictive and psychologically harmful  Gambling can become a psychologically addictive behavior in some people. According to the Emotional Neuroscience Centre in Massachusetts, \u201cMonetary reward in a gambling-like experiment produces brain activation very similar to that observed in a cocaine addict receiving an infusion of cocaine.\u201d1 Because of this addictive nature, many people end up gambling to try to recover money they have already lost. This is known as \u2018chasing losses\u2019. It results in people staking more and more money, most of which they will lose, and sinking deeper and deeper into debt. People start to gamble without thinking that they will become addicted. Once that happens, it is often too late. A gambling addiction, in addition to the long term effects it has, can result in financial ruin in a few short hours.  1 Johannes Hedwig, Hypersensitivity to Reward in Problem Gamblers, Biological Psychiatry, April 15 2010. ."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro01b","title":"","text":"Unlike drugs, gambling is not physically or metabolically addictive. Most gamblers are not addicts, simply ordinary people who enjoy the excitement of a bet on a sporting event or card game. Only a small percentage of gamblers have an addiction. Many more get enjoyment from gambling without problems. The risks of gambling addiction are well known. People can make a conscious choice to start gambling, and are aware of the risks of addiction."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro05b","title":"","text":"Gambling effects every person in the same way, everyone have the free will to decide to gamble and each may win or lose despite of their wealth or position in society, thus gambling cannot affect poor people to a greater extent. Gambling is only regressive because more poor people choose to gamble.  Gambling does also have good effects on all member of society- Gambling is often used to raise money for the state or good causes. Many governments tax gambling. Some even run their own lotteries. Charities use prize draws to raise funds. Because people will gamble anyway, the best that governments can do is to pass rules to make it safe and try to get some social good out of it. If the government uses the revenue to help people on lower-incomes, it is not necessarily true that taxes on gambling are regressive and target the poor."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro06b","title":"","text":"There is no evidence that gambling makes people not care about others. People do not gamble because they expect to win lots of money. Most gamble as a form of entertainment. Also, there are many areas of life where success is not the result of merit or hard work. Someone born to well-off parents may get many advantages in life without merit or hard work. There are therefore no grounds for thinking that gambling promotes these undesirable values. The desire for wealth one that stems from society as a whole, not casinos."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro04b","title":"","text":"People committing crimes should be prosecuted. The existence of criminals does not make nearby businesses (including casinos) immoral. It is perverse to punish people who just want to gamble (and not take drugs or use prostitutes) by taking away their chance to do so."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Online gambling has increased the incidence of gambling addiction  Someone can become addicted very easily \u2013 they don\u2019t even need to leave their home, and online gambling sites are available at all hours. This also means that they are gambling in private. They may therefore be less reluctant to wager very large sums they cannot afford. In the United States in 1999 the National Gambling Impact Study stated \"the high-speed instant gratification of Internet games and the high level of privacy they offer may exacerbate problem and pathological gambling\",1 and it is estimated that 75% of internet gamblers are problem gamblers, compared with 20% of those who visit casinos.  It is very hard to know the identity of an online gambler \u2013 there have been several cases of people (including children) using stolen credit cards to gamble online.  Online gambling sites can also get around government regulations that limit the dangers of betting. Because they can be legally sited anywhere in the world, they can pick countries with no rules to protect customers.  1 Skolnik, Sam, High Stakes: the Rising Cost of America\u2019s Gambling Addiction, Beacon Press, 2011, Chapter 5"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro04a","title":"","text":"Casinos are often used to mask criminal activity  Casinos are often associated with crime, particularly organized crime. When it comes to local crimes a study has found that only larceny(theft) liquor violations increased significantly with a small increase in prostitution.1 But comparing statistics probably does not show the real harm; drug dealers and prostitutes operate near casinos \u2013 they know that there are a large number of potential clients in the area. Moreover when a gambler is in debt and wishes to continue gambling due to its addictive nature, he or she often turns to loan sharks as no bank would lend to them. Casinos can therefore be devastating to neighborhoods. It would of course be wrong to assume all gamblers are criminals, although there is an increased possibility that gamblers in debt could turn to criminality through illegal borrowing. These loan sharks themselves usually have links to organized crime, in some cases are actually run by organized crime,2 and use brutal methods to reclaim their money. By banning gambling the opportunities for loan sharks to offer their services is greatly reduced due to a lesser amount of gamblers in debt, as are the opportunities for prostitutes therefore reducing criminal activity in the areas surrounding casinos.  1 Stitt, Grant, et al., \u2018Does the Presence of Casinos Increase Crime? An Examination of Casino and Control Communities\u2019, Crime & Delinquency, Vol. 49, No. 2, April 2003, pp.253-284, P.279  2 Jordan, Mary, \u2018Mafia loan sharks making a killing\u2019, Washington Post, 15 March 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con03b","title":"","text":"The economic benefits of casinos are exaggerated.1 They generally only create low-paid jobs for local people \u2013 the casino companies usually bring in managers from elsewhere. The problems associated with casinos (e.g. crime, gambling addiction) outweigh the economic benefits. In any case, an immoral industry is not justified by the fact that it creates employment.  1 John Warren Kind, \"The Business-Economic Impacts of Licensed Casino Gambling in West Virginia: Short-Term Gain but Long-Term Pain\", PBS, 1994"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con01b","title":"","text":"Gambling is a harmful activity and could have harmful effects on not only to individuals but also on their friends and family. Gamblers may win money from time to time, but in the long run, the house always wins. Why should governments allow an activity that helps their citizens lose the money they have worked so hard to earn? Surely it is the responsibility of the government to protect its citizens from harming themselves, just as harmful substances are illegal, gambling should also be illegal."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con02a","title":"","text":"It is impossible to effectively ban gambling  When gambling has been banned, people have just found a way round the ban. They use internet sites based in other countries. A good example being the Ukraine, who in May 2009 made gambling illegal, this included internet gambling. By July 2009, over 500 illegal gambling operations were established, where 6,000 slot machines were confiscated and 216 criminal charges were made in connection to illegal gambling.1 This illustrates how banning gambling can creates a thriving underground market.  It is better to legalize and regulate online gambling than to drive gamblers to poorly-regulated foreign operators. Regulation can reduce the problems identified by the proposition. For example, online gamblers can be required to give personal details when registering (e.g. occupation, income). If this information suggests he or she is spending more than they can afford, the company can block their credit card.  1 Kyiv Post, \u2018Governmental checks expose over 500 facts of illegal operation of gambling establishments\u2019, 20 July 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con04a","title":"","text":"Many activities directly comparable to gambling are already legal and regulated  What is the difference between gambling and playing the stock market? In each case people are putting money at risk in the hope of a particular outcome. Gambling on horse-racing or games involves knowledge and expertise that can improve your chances of success. In the same way, trading in bonds, shares, currency or derivatives is a bet that your understanding of the economy is better than that of other investors. Why should one kind of online risk-taking be legal and the other not?"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con03a","title":"","text":"Casinos create positive economic effects in the communities that host them  Casinos can revive entire areas and regions. They create jobs and cause money to be spent on transport infrastructure. The jobs are not just in the casino itself. More jobs are created in hotels and other parts of the tourism industry. In an article for nwjob.com Sandra Miedema, \u2018Snoqualmies\u2019 employment coordinator is quoted saying that at any one time there are an average of 20 vacancies, from chefs to table dealers.1 In the United States commercial casinos employed more than 350,000 people in 2003.2  Casinos have helped to regenerate many places that previously had considerable poverty and social problems, e.g. Atlantic City, New Jersey5.  1 Libraryindex.com, \u2018Casinos: The Effects of Casinos \u2013 Employment\u2019  2 Associated Press, Atlantic City to be transformed by 2012, November 20 2007"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con01a","title":"","text":"Gambling is simply a leisure pursuit  People have free will and should be allowed to spend their money on which ever leisure pursuits they choose. Gamblers know that, overall, they are likely to lose money. They gamble because it is a leisure pursuit that they enjoy.  There is nothing irrational about this. Some people get an enjoyable thrill from the remote possibility that they might win a huge prize \u2013 even if he or she loses, they enjoy the experience. Some forms of gambling are highly sociable. For example, many people are involved in \u2018social gambling\u2019 and go to bingo halls (or equivalent) to spend time with friends, and some types of gambling are interlinked with other leisure pursuits such as horse racing.* Society accepts people spending money on other leisure pursuits with no material benefits (e.g. cinema tickets, watching sport) \u2013 gambling should not be any different. It is patronizing to suggest that people should not be able to choose how they spend their money or their leisure time.  1 The General Education Centre of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, \u2018Report on A Study of Hong Kong People\u2019s Participation in Gambling Activities\u2019, Home Affairs Bureau, March 2002, p.4"}
+{"id":"training-law-ucgllghwbg-con02b","title":"","text":"Gambling is not impossible to ban, although it will not be easy such examples of states that have banned it show that it is possible and although illegal activity may arise from the ban this can also be stopped by though rules. If government did not ban activities where some may find a way around it, nothing would be banned at all.  Making an activity more difficult to pursue will still reduce the number of those who take it up. It is not impossible to put effective deterrent steps in place, such as the recent US ban on American banks processing credit card payments to internet gambling sites."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro02b","title":"","text":"This would be an argument in favour of preventing countries from developing any deterrent at any time, because it would make them easier to invade. It presumes, firstly, that it would be a good thing for the United States to be able to invade countries that do things it does not like at will, and secondly that it assumes that deterrence will not deter the initial invasion in the first place.  The main reason why great powers involve themselves in wars, is because many smaller countries are not able to fight off larger ones using their own resources and so the great power expects an easy victory assuming it can avoid intervention by other great powers. Jammu and Kashmir could not stand up to the Indian army in 1947 and Kuwait could not stand up to Iraq; Georgian was unable to mount armed resistance against a Russian incursion and neither was Chechnya.  Nuclear Weapons are a great equalizer, and if one consequence of Iran developing Nuclear weapons is that all of her neighbours do so as well, then war will become far less likely, and US intervention will become unnecessary. As a consequence, in the long-run, Nuclear proliferation is a self-correcting problem."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The possession of nuclear weapons by some states drives others to militarize, creating arms races.  er, the government possesses nuclear weapons it can threaten to use them, and thereby deter a counter-invasion or prevent the International community from being able to intervene to depose it.  This can be seen in the relative coddling Pakistan has received both from its political and territorial opponent India, and from the United States since its development of Nuclear Weapons. [3] Actions that previously would have led to sanctions or worse, such as aid to the Taliban, assistance to the Nuclear Programs of Rogue States \u2013 most famously through the A.Q. Kahn network that supplied Libya, Iran and North Korea, [4] and complicity in terrorist attacks in India are brushed off with empty words [5] and meaningless semi-sanctions, India itself is deterred from making any response. [6] Indeed, US policy in recent years has been to try to buy off Pakistan rather than to coerce it.  [1] Morgenthau, Hans J., Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, Fifth ed., 1978, pp.4-15,   [2] Kaplan, Robert D., \u2018Why John J. Mearsheimer Is Right (About Some Things)\u2019, the Atlantic, January\/February 2012,   [3] Miglani, Sanjeev, \u2018Pakistan\u2019s nuclear weapons, a deterrent against India, but also United States?\u2019, Reuters, 9 April 2011,   [4] Kerr, Paul K., and Nikitin, Mary Beth, \u2018Pakistan\u2019s Nuclear Weapons: Proliferation and Security Issues\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 30 November 2011, pp.20-23,   [5] The Associated Press, \u2018India reluctant to blame Mumbai blasts on Pakistan\u2019, CBCnews, 15 July 2011,  [6] Narang, Vipin, \u2018Pakistan\u2019s Nuclear Posture: Implications for South Asian Stability\u2019, Harvard Kennedy Sc  Belfast Center for Science and International Affairs Policy Brief, January 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro06a","title":"","text":"[Iran specific] Others, particularly Israel, would act if the United States did not  A failure of the United States to act would motivate Israel to do so. [1] Israel is under much more pressure to act as it would be the most affected by Iran going nuclear. The result would be catastrophic, as Iran would be able to portray itself as a victim of Israeli aggression, leading to a massive outpouring of pro-Iranian and anti-American sentiment in the middle east and central asia. It could easily spark a regional war across the middle east as Iranian proxies strike back against Israel and U.S. forces around the region. [2]  The US would get all the harms of direct intervention with none of the benefits, and efforts to fight Hezbollah and Hamas, both within Palestine and elsewhere, would be undermined by their newfound sympathy in the region and the need of Arab governments to pander to it.  [1] Ravid, Barak, \u2018Report: U.S. preparing for an Israeli strike on Iran\u2019, Haaretz.com, 14 January 2012,   [2] Benhorin, Yitzhak, \u2018Attack on Iran would ignite regional conflict\u2019, ynetnews.com, 3 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Preventing nuclear weapons from falling into the hands of terrorists is a serious concern, but terrorists tend to be stronger in weak states than strong ones. That is one reason why Pakistan has figured so prominently in weapons sales in the past.  Invading a country like Iran would be more likely to destabilize things than stabilize them. This argument is underlined by analysis of the second Iraq war. Al Qaeda and Shi\u2019a insurgent groups became a far stronger presence in Iraq following the coalition invasion than before the arrival of American and British troops. [1] As a consequence, it is unclear if invading these countries is a better way of preventing transfers of nuclear technology than sanctions and other methods of coercing their governments.  [1] Mazzetti, Mark, \u2018Spy Agencies Say Iraq War Worsens Terroism Threat\u2019, The New York Times, 24 September 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro05a","title":"","text":"[Iran specific] Iran has threatened to destroy Israel  Iran has explicitly threatened to destroy Israel, President Ahmadinejad described Israel as a \"disgraceful blot\" that should be \"wiped off the face of the earth\". [1] Such a prospect would be disastrous, not just in its initial consequences, but for the entire region. Even an unsuccessful attack on Israel would provoke a counter strike. The US would take much of the blame for the casualties of such a strike even if it counselled Israel against it. The United States must prevent Iran from ever being able to put such threats into action which may mean having to engage in military action to prevent Iran gaining the capability.  [1] MacAskill, Ewen, and McGreal, Chris, \u2018Israel should be wiped off map, says Iran\u2019s president\u2019, The Guardian, 27 October 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro01a","title":"","text":"The United States has an obligation to protect international stability due to its unique military strength.  The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty is one of the lynchpins on which the current Western-led international political and diplomatic order is dependent.1,2 Just as any normal legal system requires laws that are predictable and enforceable, so too does the international system. The Non-Proliferation Treaty provides this level of consistency and control over states\u2019 nuclear assets.  In particular, one of those key principles is the assumption that once a country enters a treaty it will abide by its terms. If a country can leave a treaty at will, it means that no policy can be made with any degree of predictability. States are not able to formulate plans for future policies and development strategies if analysts and politicians are prevented from making reliable predictions about neighbouring state\u2019s behaviour, economic policies and territorial ambitions.  This is particularly important with treaties relating to armaments, and of vital importance when it comes to Nuclear Weapons, because other countries choose to participate in military alliances and actions based on such assumptions.  Historically, arms build-ups and wars have occurred when the Great Powers fail to uphold the international legal system \u2013 fail to regard it as binding and inherently valuable and consequential. For example Germany\u2019s willingness to disregard Czechoslovakian sovereignty prior to World War II. For that reason the United States has a vested interest in upholding the principles of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. This is because the US is the major beneficiary of the present international system, both economically and politically.  Economically, the major loser in any upheaval around the world is almost guaranteed to be the United States or its corporations. However, the political incentives for the USA to continue upholding the non-proliferation treaty- by force if necessary- are far greater. A failure on its part to act will not just lead to nuclear proliferation, but also undermine other treaties banning chemical weapons and guaranteeing human rights as nations\u2019 realize they are only pieces of paper.  1. \u2018The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons\u2019, 2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), 1 July 1968,   2. Kasprzyk, Nicholas, \u2018Nuclear Non-proliferation and Regional Changing Strategic Balances: How Much Will Regional Proliferation Impinge Upon the Future of the NPT?\u2019, in Krause, Joachim and Wenger, Andreas eds., Studies in Contemporary History and Security policy, 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The reality is that it makes far more sense for the United States to legitimatise actions it might take to prevent a state like Iran from developing nuclear by making reference to the uses that might find for a nuclear device, rather than the fact that they are have breached the terms of highly tenuous body of law.  While it may be true that the development of nuclear weapons is banned by international treaty, and that this treaty is recognised as a valid international legal instrument, it is far from clear whether it is in the United State\u2019s interests to embrace either this specific version of International Law, or whether it should be the enforcer even if it does. For one thing, the current international legal system bans Iran from developing Nuclear weapons, but also bans Brazil from developing them. Consistency would obligate the US to actively prevent Brazil from developing a nuclear deterrent, by using threats and sanctions similar to those that have deployed against Iran. However,\u2013 common sense would argue that this would be both futile and counter-productive, since it would not only be difficult but result in enormous costs, both militarily and in terms of the reputation of the US. The alternative- granting an exception to Brazil, comparable to those previously granted to India, Pakistan and Israel-, India in particular now wishes to not just be an exception by join the NPT as a weapons state, would undermine those very legal standards that the government argues in favour of.1  After all, Brazil is unlikely to use such weapons aggressively, and the acquisition of such weapons by a regional hegemon(like Brazil) is unlikely to change the balance of power. It should be noted that most of the rising \u201cresponsible\u201d regional hegemon like Brazil and South Africa opposed sanctions on Iran over its nuclear program, [2] out of risk of enshrining a legal precedent.  Furthermore, even if the US chooses to cleave to the premise that the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty should be enforced as a matter of law rather than of policy, it is unclear why the US alone should take on the burden of its enforcement. As Afghanistan and Iraq have demonstrated, even disarming and politically reforming countries that lack a nuclear deterrent is a financially and politically ruinous process \u2013 one that cannot be achieved without the support of allies and intergovernmental organisations. Furthermore, given the reaction against the US in international opinion, [3] it\u2019s worth asking whether or not the cure is worse than the cold when it comes to American influence around the world.  [1] Fidler, David P., and Ganguly, Sumit, \u2018India Wants to Join the Non-Proliferation Treaty as a Weapons State\u2019, YaleGlobal, 27 January 2010,   [2] Charbonneau, Louis, \u2018Q+A: How likely are new U.S. sanctions against Iran?\u2019, Reuters, 9 November 2011,   [3] Pew Global Attitudes Project, \u2018Opinion of the United States\u2019, Pew Research Center, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro05b","title":"","text":"Ahmadinejad\u2019s words were mistranslated, [1] and Iran\u2019s position has been clarified by Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, who has repeated Khomeini\u2019s exhortation that Islam prohibits the use of nuclear weapons. [2]  On the Presidential side, Esfandiar Mashaei, formerly Vice President in Ahmadinejad\u2019s first term and now Presidential Chief of staff, suggested in 2008 that Iran is a friend of all peoples including Israelis. [3]  Furthermore, Iran needs Israel to provide a bogeyman they can use to divide their anti-Iranian governments from their anti-Israeli people. Anti-Israel sentiment has allowed Iran to push anti-Persian sentiment in the Arab world to the backburner, something that would disappear along with Israel if Iran were to act on these ideas.  [1] Bronner, Ethan, \u2018Just How Far Did They Go, Those Words Against Israel?\u2019, The New York Times, 11 June 2006,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Iran leader Khamenei brands US \u2018nuclear criminal\u2019, 17 April 2010,   [3] Cohen, Dudi, \u2018Iranian VP: We are friends of the nation in Israel\u2019, ynetnews.com, 19 July 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro06b","title":"","text":"Forcing Israel to act would remove the United States from direct responsibility for the consequences, and allow the US to strategically \u201ccondemn\u201d Israel\u2019s actions.  Iran and Israel already have a terrible relationship, so a lot of the harms here are already sunk costs."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro04b","title":"","text":"This is in fact a good thing. Nuclear weapons are a great equalizer between large and small countries. [1] One of the great problems of history for tiny nations like Georgia or the Baltic states is that they have consistently been at the mercy of Russia. Nuclear weapons will allow them to fight the Russians on an equal level, and therefore deter the Russians from intervening as actively as they have in the past.  In the case of Iran and its neighbours, Iran\u2019s position would actually be weakened if everyone in the region acquired nuclear weapons as the United Arab Emirates or Bahrain cannot compete with Iran conventionally, but could compete in a nuclear arms race. Wider uptake of nuclear arms would reduce Iran\u2019s power and influence.  Moreover there is little evidence that this domino effect will happen. North Korea detonated its first nuclear weapon in 2006 but there has been no response from other countries in the region even though South Korea and Japan could have rapidly gone for nuclear breakout. [2]  [1] Buchanan, Patrick J., \u2018The Great Equalizer\u2019, The American Conservative,   [2] Berganas, John, \u2018The Nuclear Domino Myth\u2019, Foreign Affairs, 31 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Nuclear weapons can fall into the wrong hands.  Even if states do not use nuclear weapons themselves, or attempt to threaten their neighbours, they can sell their technology to other, less savoury states and individuals.  This was a particular problem with Pakistan. The former head of the Pakistani nuclear program, AQ Khan, sold technology on detonation mechanisms and Uranium enrichment to North Korea and Iran. [1] Iran is also likely to be willing to pass on its own nuclear information to other states, particularly Assad\u2019s Syria. [2]  Such weapons could also find their way into the hands of terrorists. Iran has close links to Hezbollah and Hamas which it funds substantially, and a strong desire to hurt Israel. [3] North Korea has close links to a number of nasty groups ranging from drug cartels to Islamist terrorists.  [1] Kerr, Paul K., and Nikitin, Mary Beth, \u2018Pakistan\u2019s Nuclear Weapons: Proliferation and Security Issues\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 30 November 2011, pp.20-23,   [2] Gekbart, Jonathan, \u2018The Iran-Syria Axis: A Critical Investigation\u2019, Stanford Journal of International Relations, Vol. XII, No. 1, Fall 2010,   [3] Bruno, Greg, \u2018State Sponsors: Iran\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 13 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro04a","title":"","text":"The development of nuclear weapons creates a self-perpetuating cycle of proliferation among other states.  The development of nuclear weapons encourages other countries to develop them as well. Rationally governed states without a nuclear deterrent are unlikely to allow themselves to be placed in a position where a nuclear armed neighbour can mount attacks against them with impunity. They therefore feel that they too need nuclear weapons in order to prevent the new nuclear power from taking advantage of their new capability.  For instance, the presence of an Iranian weapon would immediately threaten the Gulf States. Already unable to compete with Iran on a conventional level due to the vast disparity in size and population, states like the UAE would have every reason and motive to develop nuclear weapons as a deterrent. [1] A Saudi Prince actually floated the idea in 2011 that if Iran developed Nuclear Weapons, Saudi Arabia might follow. [2]  As more countries develop Nuclear weapons, the likelihood that someone will use them, either deliberately or by accident, goes up substantially.  [1] Lindsay, James M., \u2018After Iran Gets the Bomb\u2019, Foreign Affairs, March\/April 2010,   [2] Burke, Jason, \u2018Riyadh will build nuclear weapons if Iran gets them, Saudi prince warns\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 29 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con03b","title":"","text":"Not all states are inherently rational, either by our standards or generally. North Korea is a xenophobic state based on the belief that they are racially and ideologically superior to all other states. [1] A government that does not consider its enemies fully human in its official propaganda is unlikely to blanch at the prospect of nuking them, even at their own expense. Even seemingly rational states make tactical mistakes, like Saddam Hussein did when he invaded Kuwait.  Nuclear Weapons raise the stakes, and have the potential to make the consequences of those errors far more serious and deadly.  Furthermore, MAD does not operate solely due to the possession of Nuclear Weapons, but rather it requires that a state possess a \u201cSecond-Strike\u201d ability. A \u201csecond Strike\u201d ability means that a country has the capacity to nuke another country after it has already been attacked, whether through hardened silos or submarine launched warheads. Without such an ability, a state like Israel would risk losing its nuclear deterrent in an Iranian attack, and would therefore have every incentive to strike first if it thought such an attack might be about to occur. Iran, which is far less likely to be able to develop a \u201cSecond Strike\u201d capability due to financial and technological limitations, would in turn almost constantly face a \u201cuse it or lose it\u201d situation of its own.  [1] Myers, B.R., \u2018Excerpt: The Cleanest Race\u2019, The New York Times, 26 January 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con01b","title":"","text":"Regardless of its origins, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty is the cornerstone of an international system that has prevented the rapid proliferation of Nuclear weapons for nearly half a century.  The dangers of Nuclear weapons, especially in the wrong hands, mean that the ownership of nuclear weapons is an issue which transcends moral standards of \u201cfairness\u201d. It may be true that the treaty should be revisited in the case of say India or Brazil, but this debate is not about the nuclear ambitions of fundamentally stable, democratic states that would willingly comply with all of the terms of the non-proliferation treaty if they were permitted to become signatories. Rather, the question of America\u2019s right to act to enforce the treaty should focus on rogue states that present a significant danger to their neighbours, and whose acquisition of such weapons is likely to destabilize regional balances of power, and make the entire world less secure. Iran, Syria and Pakistan\u2019s use of the language of anti-colonialism is a sign of nothing more than political opportunism."}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con02a","title":"","text":"No country has an inherent right to invade or use aggression against another.  Given the moral bankruptcy of the NPT, and existing views of the United States in much of the developing world, [1] any move by the United States to prevent other nations from developing nuclear weapons by force will be seen for what it is: an act of neo-colonialism. This would be the case with any act to enforce a treaty that is considered unfair towards most of the world.  This is especially true in areas where there is a long history of US support for regional actors who are less than popular. In moving against Iran, the United States will be perceived as a stalking horse for Israel, whilst any efforts to invade North Korea Would cause great alarm in China as well as in neighbouring South Korea despite being a U.S. ally where some Koreans believe the US is more of a threat to the nation than the North. [2] In both cases, the image of the US in the region will be badly damaged, and the United States will face a hostile insurgency within the countries that they invade.  [1] Pew Global Attitudes Project, 2011,   [2] Larson, Eric V. et al., Ambivalent Allies? A Study of South Korean Attitudes Towards the U.S., RAND Corporation, March 2004, p.93  (n.b. before north detonated nuclear bomb)"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con04a","title":"","text":"[Iran specific] Iran has not invaded any other country in three and a half centuries; the same cannot be said for US allies including Israel, Pakistan, etc.  For all the censure Iran has faced as a rogue state, it has not, in fact, invaded another country for more than three centuries and despite internal aggression against western embassies the Iranian revolution seems to have made little difference. On the other hand, it has faced invasion on numerous occasions, whether from Russia, Britain or Iraq. Both Britain \u2013 whom the Iranians are still extremely suspicious off due to events such as the 1953 coup against Prime Minister Mosadeq [1] \u2013 and Russia \u2013 who together with Britain occupied Persia during world war II [2] - are nuclear weapons states.  Iran therefore has legitimate defensive reasons for developing Nuclear weapons. While Iran\u2019s current government has pursued destabilizing policies in Lebanon and Israel\/Palestine, the presence of Russia on its northern border and tensions with the United States justify their development. This is one reason why Iran\u2019s nuclear program predates the current government and in fact goes all the way back to the Shah\u2019s time. [3] Rather than being the product or continuation of Iran\u2019s policies in the region, the nuclear program is independent of them, and justified on those basis.  [1] Abrahamian, Ervand, \u2018The 1953 Coup in Iran\u2019, Science & Society Vol. 65, No. 2, Summer 2001, pp.182-215,   [2] Globalsecurity.org, \u2018Azerbaijan crisis (1945-1948)\u2019,   [3] Milani, Abbas, \u2018The Shah\u2019s Atomic Dreams\u2019, Foreignpolicy.com, 29 December 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con03a","title":"","text":"The principle of Mutually Assured Destruction makes war less likely.  States are fundamentally rational, and as such, nuclear proliferation has generally made war less likely, by promulgating the principle of mutually assured destruction (MAD).  States go to war with other states when they think they can win the conflict they will provoke. By making victory impossible, MAD makes wars unprofitable, and thereby prevents them from beginning in the first place. The Cold War never turned hot partially for this reason, and it is possible that the Israeli-Iranian relationship could be stabilized by both states possessing a nuclear deterrent. North Korea may well desire to Nuke the United States and Japan, and may well feel that there would be no moral issues with doing so, but they have refrained from doing so. As they have refrained from invading the South since 1950. There is substantial evidence that even the most irrational regimes can be deterred. No matter how dictatorial and authoritarian a state government, the prospect of complete nuclear annihilation will be effective in restraining its ambitions. [1]  In the case of Iran, the threat to Iranian cities by the Iraqi army moving on to the offensive and using chemical weapons motivated Khomeini to make peace in 1988. [2] It is worth noting that they have not explicitly attacked Israel themselves, preferring to work through proxies. It would seem unlikely that Iran, if it were to become the only nuclear power in the Islamic world, could avoid responsibility if Hamas or Hezbollah were to utilize a weapon.  [1] Kenneth Waltz, \u201cThe Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better,\u201d I, Number 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981),   [2] Globalsecurity.org, \u2018Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con01a","title":"","text":"Existing international treaties that grant nuclear weapons to the US and other countries no longer reflect the changing global balance of power.  The Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty is inherently unfair, in that it prevents countries that did not have nuclear weapons as of 1964 from developing them, but makes no effort to force those who already possess nuclear devices to disarm.  The result is that the list of countries with such weapons, the United States, Russia, Britain, France, and China, represents the balance of power as it existed at the time that the non-proliferation treaty was drafted. Countries that have entered the club subsequently, like India and Pakistan, did so in violation of the treaty and international law.  Any sort of treaty that seeks to limit access to nuclear arms has to provide opportunities for countries like Brazil to enter the \u201cclub\u201d as they gain political or economic power. In the absence of any such mechanism the current treaty system is nothing more than a tool of Western dominance in order to keep the status quo which is favorable to the current nuclear powers something which is bound to build up resentment.  This would in effect offer not only to the pursuit of nuclear weapons by the targeted regimes, but to the rest of their policies. States like South Africa and Brazil already find it difficult to support a strong international line against Iran [1] due to seeing the inequality of allowing some countries nuclear weapons programmes but seeking to punish others, especially when the nuclear weapons states that are signatories to the NPT have not moved towards disarmament as the treaty stipulates. [2] This would in effect alienate them completely.  Second, even if the harm was justifiable by the ends, it would seem that in the long run, invading- or even censuring- every country that attempts to develop Nuclear Weapons in violation of the NPT is impractical as the United States and the rest of the world have de facto admitted by ending sanctions on Pakistan and India in 2001, two years after their nuclear tests. [3] As such, there needs to be a political means that can separate states like Brazil from states like Iran, lest the policy collapse under its own weight.  The West, rather than using force, should attempt to repair the existing non-proliferation treaty framework, such that the standards for possession of nuclear weapons are based on behaviour rather than history.  [1] Charbonneau, Louis, \u2018Q+A: How likely are new U.S. sanctions against Iran?\u2019, Reuters, 9 November 2011,   [2] Spektor, Matias, \u2018How to Read Brazil\u2019s Stance on iran\u2019, YaleGlobal, 16 March 2010,   [3] BBC News, \u2018US lifts India and Pakistan sanctions\u2019, 23 September 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con04b","title":"","text":"What is not at issue is whether Iran will invade anyone. No one expects that, at least not immediately. Rather, the harm of Iranian possession of nuclear weapons is that they will provide Iran with immunity from retaliation which will encourage it to escalate its Cold War against Saudi Arabia in the Gulf, and increase its assistance to Hezbollah and Hamas.  As noted above, Pakistan has in fact behaved in exactly this manner. Safe behind its nuclear shield, it has provided increasingly blatant backing to anti-Indian terrorist groups and opp is right to note that there is little that can be done about that. The best bet is not to allow Iran to do the same thing"}
+{"id":"training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con02b","title":"","text":"The United States would ideally move with the backing of the world community, but even if that is not present, we think that the United States is more than capable of making clear that it is not anyone\u2019s puppet and that it is intervening solely to uphold international law.  Any military action whether justified or not will cause resentment, but this not a reason to let genocide run amok or dictators get away with invasions nor is it a reason to let the same dictators get their hands on nuclear weapons, security is a vital interest whereas being liked by the rest of the world is not."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Through their actions, career criminals and drug offenders often subject their families to misery far in excess of the temporary absence of a loved one, or transient financial hardship. The damaging processes of taking drugs and supporting a habit are normalised for children living with addicts; children exposed to drugs in this way are much more likely to develop an addiction themselves. Criminals who make a business out of thievery may use the family home to store acquisitions. Wives and members of an extended family may be coerced into trading stolen goods. Offenders who trade drugs or store stolen goods in leased or social housing risk eviction if their activities are discovered. This, in turn, would lead to their families being displaced or left homeless. Siblings and parents of gang members can often be the targets of violence resulting from feuds and \"territorial disputes\".  As noted above, rehabilitation does not offer an immediate \"cure\" for criminality. Neither can it protect families who, through ignorance or misfortune, are maintained by the proceeds of criminal activity. Although a significant number of prison inmates may be normally honest citizens who have made bad or impulsive choices, an equally large number are poorly socialised members of chaotic families. The environment of lawlessness that such individuals create in family homes creates a situation that may lead their spouses and children into deviance themselves.  Under these circumstances, isolating an offender from his family may give the family an opportunity to break free of a pattern of daily life that would otherwise be saturated with criminality."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Imprisonment punishes offenders' families  Even though liberal democratic systems of justice continue to place an emphasis on punishment rather than rehabilitation, sentences are still required to be proportionate to the crime that they punish. Further, a sentence must only punish those judged responsible for the crime. Collective punishment and guilt by association are not tolerated within rational, liberal systems of criminal law.  Imprisoning or fining an offender often places an intolerable burden on the offender's family. If the offender is a breadwinner, the family is denied the income that he would otherwise provide. They may be forced to use inadequate benefit systems. Other members of the family may be forced to take up a second job, adversely affecting childcare arrangements. Any fines that an offender is ordered to pay are often impact upon his family, damaging household budgets and forcing other family members into debt.  The negative effects of a custodial sentence extend beyond the offender himself. Financial and social deprivation may have a minimal impact on an offender while his is imprisoned, but may cause considerable suffering within his family. Sudden social isolation and poverty have themselves been shown to provoke criminality and increase childhood deviance.  Corporal sentences allow a punishment to be targeted only at the criminal, not at their families."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Rehabilitation programmes are not a panacea \u2013 nor are they instantly or reliably effective. The risk of an individual committing crime can only be reduced by long-term engagement with reform schemes. In 2009 violations of parole- the rules, conditions and schemes offenders are required to engage with on being released from prison- led to a third of all state prison admissions in the United States [i] .  This being the case, the best location in which to rehabilitate offender is prison. Prison serves, in some cases, to separate prisoners from poverty and desperation, and to help them access the structure and routine that was missing from their lives.  Moreover, contrary to the proposition\u2019s argument, offenders are less likely to originate from stable family environments, to have secure employment, or to have the skills that will let them seek employment in the future.  Additionally, it does not seem proportionate for a white collar fraudster, whose actions could affect the livelihoods of thousands of individuals, to receive a flogging while retaining his freedom and his assets.  Prison also quarantines offenders from the influence of gangs or damaged family structures. Offenders may have difficulty cutting themselves off from close knit social groups of this type; the activities of these groups (drug taking, organised violence) may compete with the positive behaviours fostered by rehabilitation.  It cannot be assumed that dramatic changes in an offender\u2019s behaviour can be brought about without a correspondingly dramatic change in their environment and lifestyle. Criminality is as dependent on context and environment as it is on the choices and values of the criminal.  If there are minimal restraints put on an offender\u2019s freedom while he rehabilitates, it will be easier for him to avoid complying with rehabilitation programmes. As noted above, the threat of further floggings will not motivate offenders who have become habituated to brutality and violence.  [i] \u201cTackling Recidivism: They All Come Home\u201d, The Economist, 20 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Flogging harms offenders less than imprisonment  The criminologist Peter Moskos [i] observes that most of us, if given the choice, would opt to receive ten lashes rather than spend five years in prison. Paradoxically, a significant number of us would condemn corporal punishment as barbaric and inhumane. If imprisonment is a more rational response to criminal behaviour, why would so many rational individuals opt to receive corporal punishment?  Contemporary prisons are the result of a failed utopian experiment. They serve no useful rehabilitative purpose, and exist only to fulfil a common desire to punish deviant behaviour and to segregate criminals from the public at large. Prisons harm inmates and obstruct attempts to reintegrate them into society. It may be necessary to incarcerate certain compulsive and habitually violent criminals, but for a majority of offenders, prison only serves exacerbate underlying social, economic and psychological problems that lead to criminality.  Using corporal punishment to reduce or replace custodial sentences would provide an effective way to fulfil the social need to punish criminals, while removing the harmful externalities of mass incarceration. Strictly supervised whipping or caning can adequately and proportionately express society\u2019s anger with the criminal, while avoiding the dangers of long-term incarceration and reinvigorating the use of rehabilitation.  In the United States, the UK and many European countries, prison populations have increased dramatically, but reductions in rates of offending have been minimal or non existent. In the absence of funding, or coherent, centrally administered rehabilitation strategies, prisons have become places devoid of productive activity. Prisoners are not encouraged to address the causes of their offending, or to acquire skills that will help them to live independently in society following their release. Boredom, overcrowding and under-staffing have led to the emergence of gang- and drug-cultures in many prisons. Inmates incarcerated for minor offences quickly become complicit in gang violence, or fall prey to alcoholism and drug addiction. Gang associations and chemical dependencies carry over into inmates\u2019 lives once they are released. The prison system serves only to breed criminality, not to cure it.  The cost of incarcerating the average offender in the United Kingdom is estimated to be \u00a345000 a year [ii] . Reduced spending on incarceration can be used to fuel an increase in spending on detoxification, rehabilitation and restorative justice schemes. Moreover damaging effects of prison will not cancel out the positive effects of rehabilitation.  The physical injuries resulting from whipping, although painful, are less severe than the subtler damage wrought on inmates by imprisonment.  [i] \u201cIn Defense of Flogging\u201d, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 24 April 2011,   [ii] \u201cTough on Crime, Tough on Criminals\u201d, The economist, 23 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro01b","title":"","text":"What pretends to be an argument in support of the resolution is in fact an argument in favour of reforming the prison system. It is true that in an alarming number of prisons the rehabilitative objective of incarceration has been forgotten. In many other prisons, however, innovative rehabilitation programmes are flourishing. The prison system is not a monolith \u2013 it is a network of different institutions, each serving a specific purpose, each subject to different standards of management. Schemes such as the HOPE (Honest Opportunity Probation) drug offence sentencing programme in Hawaii [i] should be used as an example of best practice, communicated to other prisons and replicated in other jurisdictions.  Doubtless, knowledge sharing, professional standards and levels of accountability could be improved in many prisons. However, this does not mean that a prison sentence will inevitably lead to an offender suffering harm.  Moreover, if an increase in the prison population has failed to reduce rates of offending, an explanation could well be found in a poorly administered corpus of criminal law, rather than poorly run prisons. As a study conducted by The Economist points out, American law makers are fond of attaching criminal sanctions to otherwise innocuous misdemeanours in order to appear tough on crime. An increase in the number of activities being described as criminal can mask the success of prisons in reducing the number of individuals likely to commit truly harmful, truly criminal acts.  If we cannot be certain that the prison system has failed, if we cannot be certain that the prison system is uniformly harmful to inmates, why should we hasten to replace it with an untested alternative such as \u201csupervised\u201d flogging?  Finally, incarceration, apart from being used to punish criminals, also helps to protect the public, by physically preventing offenders from engaging in criminal activities. Dramatically reducing sentences or attempting to rehabilitate criminals within the community will not prevent them from carrying out further offences. Rehabilitation is not immediately effective; moreover, its usefulness is often reduced when the positive messages that it tries to communicate have to compete with poverty borne of long-term unemployment, or loyalty to a local gang.  The proposition assumes that the pain associated with corporal punishment will be sufficient to discourage offenders from engaging in further criminal activities while they are being rehabilitated. Empirical proof of this deterrent effect is hard to come by. A large number of offenders live lives characterised by chronic brutality, often the result of parental abuse or long term involvement in gang violence, and they may come to regard state administered flogging as little more than an occupational inconvenience, one more aggressive act among many.  [i] \u201cA revival of flogging?\u201d, The Economist, 25 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro04b","title":"","text":"While the conservative press may advocate the reintroduction of corporal sentences, an equally vocal section of society would condemn any attempt to use flogging as a means of punishment. The inherently pragmatic political discourse that prevails in most liberal democracies would be as reluctant to replace prison with the lash as it currently is to reduce prison populations and confront under-investment in rehabilitation schemes.  It should be noted that corporal punishment was initially abandoned as a result of the activities of penal reform campaigners in the early eighteen hundreds. These thinkers, politicians and professionals were able to convince members of a much more conservative political class of the wisdom of sentences focussed on rehabilitation. Moreover, they sold the idea of penal reform to a public who lacked the robust defences against disorder and criminality (the police, electronic surveillance, cheap insurance) that we take for granted today. Victorian-era citizens had much more to fear from crime than we do. If such dramatic change could be brought about in the nineteenth century, why should it be out of the grasp of politicians in the twenty first?"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Custodial sentences make recidivism more likely  A custodial sentence is capable of destroying the relationships and livelihood of an offender. Imprisonment means that an offender will be unable to work and will lose his job, if he has one. Statistics sourced from the Pew Foundation indicate that a criminal record can reduce the likelihood of a black, male American securing a job by up to 57%1. The isolation inherent in imprisonment can lead to the breakup of marriages and to the decay of relationships between parents and children. The stigma associated with a custodial sentence may result in an offender being shunned by his friends, his family and his community. He will, in effect, be left with no sources of support once he is released. A former inmate will be left with no incentive to adjust his behaviour and disengage with criminality2. The Pew Foundation notes that 43% of offenders in the United States were returned to prison within three years of release1.  The long-term damage done to an offender's life is not an intended consequence of custodial sentencing. However, it cannot be claimed to be a proportionate response to crime, as it affects both serious offenders and those accused of non-violent offences such as burglary or fraud. The decay of an offender's relationships and social support structures is yet another harmful externality of custodial punishment.A corporal sentence caters to the social imperative to punish criminals, but it also allows offenders to remain with their families and to avoid financial hardship by remaining in employment. In Moskos' own words, corporal punishment allows society to express its disapproval quickly and efficiently, leaving the offenders to \"move on\" with the process of reform.  It is in the interests of any effective system of rehabilitation to ensure that a non-violent offender remains in contact with their family and remains in employment (excepting, of course, offenders who have attack or abused family members). Families, spouses and social networks can play an important role in supporting and encouraging an offender to engage with rehabilitation programmes. Wives and children can effectively monitor an offender's behaviour when trained staff are unavailable, integrating the reform process with the offender's day to day life.  1 \"Tackling Recidivism: They All Come Home\", The Economist, 20 April 2011, 2\"A Plague of Prisons: The Epidemiology of Mass Incarceration in America\". Drucker, E. The New Press"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Prison reform is politically unachievable  The failures of the prison system are tolerated within political culture and by the public, partly because the privations of the prison environment are seen as a suitable punishment for criminal behaviour. Deprivation of liberty and the emptiness of criminal life are seen as retribution for criminals' dishonest or violent activities.  Politicians dare not confront the damaging effects of imprisonment for fear of being labelled as \"soft\" on crime. There is greater political cache to be gained from introducing policies that prolong prison terms, and remove judges' discretion to order non custodial sentences. Novel approaches to the problem of criminality are seen as signs of political weakness.  The use of monitored corporal punishment will keep offenders who have not committed serious crimes out of the prison system. At a nominal rate of five lashes for every year of incarceration, flogging will serve as a clear demonstration of societal disapproval, satisfying popular conceptions of retributive \"justice\". Once the need to punish is satisfied, policy makers will be free to institute new rehabilitation schemes that address the root causes of criminal behaviour; these schemes can be set up without sacrificing political capital or appearing to prioritise the rights of criminals over victims or the public."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con03b","title":"","text":"The opposition is unable to conclusively prove that the growth in the prison population and the reduced effectiveness of rehabilitation is a direct result of over-criminalisation.  It may be true that the list of non-traditional crimes is expanding, but the harm that the resolution is seeking to address arises in the prison system, not in politician\u2019s manifestos.  The majority of offenders imprisoned in the USA and the UK have committed genuine crimes, albeit of a petty or non violent nature. Once exposed to the prison system the criminal tendencies of these individuals are entrenched, rather than eliminated. The prison system does not transform unwitting and harmless offenders into criminals \u2013 it makes criminals out of desperate, poorly socialised or ignorant offenders. The prison system harms those placed in its care because it is no longer able to carry out its rehabilitative objectives.  The failure to rehabilitate those convicted of \u201cordinary\u201d criminality impacts on the prison system itself, when recidivism and social exclusion lead to offenders being repeatedly convicted.  The root cause of the problems in the status quo is not the creation of too many crimes, but a failure to accept the contemporary reality of crime and criminal behaviour. Flogging would allow policy makers to engage with this reality, while satisfying the fundamental need to see wrongdoing punished.  The danger posed by over-inclusive corporal sentences is neatly eliminated by the balancing of judicial and legislative power in liberal democracies. Judges are given discretion in order to allow them to mitigate the effects of atavistic, unreasonable, disproportionate or populist manipulations of the law. If a judge believes that flogging would be excessive or unnecessary, given the nature of an offence, he will usually be free to hand down a different sentence."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con01b","title":"","text":"As distasteful as debaters, moral philosophers and constitutional lawyers may find it, society still has a need to punish criminals. Although it seems to lack logic or reason (inflicting suffering on a criminal cannot be recompense for what he has taken, and may even prevent him from properly compensating his victim), a criminal justice system which does not punish will not command the confidence of the public.  If a criminal justice system is unable to command the confidence of the public, alternative methods of addressing criminal behaviour will be sought. Eliminating the role of punishment in criminal justice would put our entire judicial system at risk.  The resolution calls for a minimal and carefully controlled use of force by the state. This use of force is necessary in order to provide protection for the state\u2019s citizens in the long term \u2013 by leaving the prison system free to treat and control offenders who are truly violent and dangerous, and by preventing the social exclusion of non-violent offenders.  While a state should endeavour to demonstrate the virtues of non violence and compromise, it can also fail in its duty to its citizens by being negligent of the needs of offenders, and wilfully ignorant of the most effective solutions to criminality."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con02a","title":"","text":"Flogging will be over-utilised, rehabilitation will be under-utilised  The \u201cpackaging\u201d of flogging with a revitalised approach to rehabilitation that proposition suggests may be a feasible response to some crimes, but politicians are much more likely to treat the lash as a panacea for any activity or trend that affects the public\u2019s confidence in the justice system.  The public and the mass media are not inclined the probe the depths of criminal sentencing. Criminals are hard to sympathise with, and public confidence rests largely on the visible aspects of a sentence \u2013 has a criminal been locked away? Will they be closely monitored on release? Has a criminal received a sufficient number of lashes? As a consequence, as with custodial sentences, cutbacks to reform programmes can be achieved with little objection, leaving only the empty and brutal gesture of flogging itself. Political reality will neutralise the aspirations of the proposition  Lawmakers are currently too keen to invoke imprisonment as a response to crime. They are likely to be just as hasty in ordering the use of whipping as a sanction for criminality. A 1995 US Department of State Report on the use on penal practices in Singapore noted that 3244 sentences had incorporated caning [i] . A subsequent Department of State briefing published in 2008 stated that the Singaporean judiciary had handed down 6404 sentences that included either mandatory or discretionary use of caning [ii] . The corporal sentences handed down to Malaysian women that were discussed above were widely held to have been influenced by a clamp-down on \u201cmoral\u201d offences mounted by the Malaysian judiciary [iii] .  Flogging will not prevent politicians from making grabs for political capital by criminalising the ill-judged actions of otherwise harmless, well-adjusted and compliant members of society. Moreover, law makers are likely to discount or overlook the close link between flogging and rehabilitation that the proposition case is dependent on.  [i] \u201cSingapore Human Rights Practices, 1994\u201d, US Department of State, February 1995,   [ii] \u201cSingapore\u201d, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, US Department of State, 11 March 2008,   [iii] \u201cMalaysia canes women for adultery\u201d, Al Jazeera English, 18 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con03a","title":"","text":"Poorly constructed laws are not an excuse to abandon the prison system  The proposition does nothing to address the root cause of overcrowding in prisons and \u201cover-inclusive\u201d penal codes. The problems inherent in the status quo are not solved by flogging. The strain placed on penal institutions and systems of sentencing originates in a political culture that cynically exploits public fear of crime and social breakdown to win votes and project power.  As noted above, many law makers frequently set out to \u201cdiscover\u201d or \u201cinvent\u201d new forms of criminal offence, in order to appear proactive in reducing criminality or protecting communities from state or corporate graft [i] . Dogmatic and over-zealous responses to existing problems can also transform civil or disciplinary issues into crimes. A case in point is Indian anti corruption campaigners\u2019 insistence on the use of a broad and open definition of \u201cbribery\u201d in a proposed open-government law. Under the \u201cthree strikes\u201d implemented in the US state of California, approximately 3700 non-violent repeat offenders are serving life sentences [ii] . A US medical specialist received a twenty five year prison term when a number of his patients, without his knowledge, were found to have been illegal selling the drugs he had prescribed to them. Additionally, the practice of electing judicial officials in states such as the US incentives candidates to hand out sentences or file charges that generate a positive public response, whether or not they are suitable response to the actions and circumstances of offenders [iii] .  The resolution purports to discipline and restrain criminals, but does nothing to discipline and restrain law makers. Simply replacing custodial sentences with flogging will do nothing to address the factors that have led to an unreasonable expansion of penal law. The process of excessive criminalisation may even be accelerated, as the reduced cost of flogging over imprisonment encourages policy makers to turn to corporal punishment as a populist, knee-jerk response to civil disorder or moral panics.  Evidence of the inappropriate use of corporal punishment has already emerged from states such as Singapore, where, in 1995 a 48-year-old French citizen was caned for breaking the conditions of his Visa. Corporal sentences have also been given to Singaporean citizens convicted of vandalism and criticising Singapore\u2019s judiciary. In Malaysia during 2010 and 2009 [iv] , state-sanctioned religious courts ordered the caning of four women who had admitted to extra marital affairs and drinking alcohol [v] \u2013 the first sentences of their kind in the history of the modern Malaysian state.  [i] \u201cRough Justice in America\u201d, The Economist, 22 July 2010,   [ii] \u201cRough Justice in America\u201d, The Economist, 22 July 2010,   [iii] \u201cRough Justice in America\u201d, The Economist, 22 July 2010,   [iv] \u201cMalaysia canes women for adultery\u201d, Al Jazeera English, 18 February 2010,   [v] \u201cMalaysia in heated debate over caning of woman\u201d, World Corporal Punishment Research, 25 July 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con01a","title":"","text":"States' duty to avoid the use of force when solving social problems  How will the severity and legality of flogging be monitored? How will it be reconciled with existing liberal democratic value sets? The majority of western liberal democracies are party to inter-governmental and supranational agreements that expressly forbid states from using torture or degrading or inhuman punishments in any capacity.  The mark of a modern, liberal state is that it uses authority and engagement rather than raw power to protect its citizens. The use of force or power by the state and its agents is harder to regulate and costlier to compensate when it is misapplied. Liberal democracies, apart from being agents of realpolitik, are also aspirational bodies that should strive to reflect and adhere to the values they were created to defend. Arbitrary, coercive force and violence is one of the core harms that a state must guard against. Violence is said to be the preserve of criminals and those acting against the values of society. Therefore, as an aspirational body, the state should hold itself to a higher standard of behaviour than such individuals.  Violence, as most liberal constitutions make clear, should only ever be employed by the state as a last resort. Where a state has the means to do so, even if those means are costly or politically contentious, it should endeavour to achieve peace and order within its own borders without wielding power.  At its broadest, the liberal democratic ideology holds that the rights and autonomy of individual citizens should be only be infringed in order to protect the rights and autonomy of other citizens. This principle would be violated if the state resorted to corporal sentencing as a way of satisfying a mob-like demand for visible and harsh criminal sentencing.  No citizen of a liberal democracy has a right to demand that another citizen, criminal or not, should be subjected to unnecessary pain and suffering by the state."}
+{"id":"training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con02b","title":"","text":"There is political capital to be gained from adopting a hard line stance on law and order issues, but there is also political capital to be gained from showing that a particular policy has had a positive effect on reoffending. The Pew Foundation report cited above has also determined that some 90% of US voters were in favour of reducing the length of prison sentences and \"strengthening\" probation and parole systems1.  The opposition assumes that politicians are interested only in cheap, hollow, short term solutions to problem. However, a large number of policy makers are genuinely public spirited, with a sincere interest in solving long-standing social problems. The adversarial nature of politics tends to prevent politicians from seeking elaborate or novel solutions to such issues. Spending money on intangible rehabilitation programmes will always provoke more criticism than spending money on training more police officers.  The resolution allows politicians to engage with the novel solution to criminality offered by rehabilitation while at the same time meeting a general demand for criminals to be visibly and strictly punished for their actions.  There will be a cynical minority of politicians who will see the dramatic nature of flogging as an opportunity to disguise cuts to reform programmes. Equally, there will be others who will use corporal sentences as an opportunity to address and resolve the politically intractable problem of criminal deviance.  1 \"Tackling Recidivism: They All Come Home\", The Economist, 20 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-pro02a","title":"","text":"Prison reform is politically unachievable  The failures of the prison system are tolerated within political culture and by the public, partly because the privations of the prison environment are seen as a suitable punishment for criminal behaviour. Deprivation of liberty and the emptiness of criminal life are seen as retribution for criminals\u2019 dishonest or violent activities.  Politicians dare not confront the damaging effects of imprisonment for fear of being labelled as \u201csoft\u201d on crime. There is greater political cache to be gained from introducing policies that prolong prison terms, and remove judges\u2019 discretion to order non custodial sentences. Novel approaches to the problem of criminality are seen as signs of political weakness.  The use of monitored corporal punishment will keep offenders who have not committed serious crimes out of the prison system. At a nominal rate of five lashes for every year of incarceration, flogging will serve as a clear demonstration of societal disapproval, satisfying popular conceptions of retributive \u201cjustice\u201d. Once the need to punish is satisfied, policy makers will be free to institute new rehabilitation schemes that address the root causes of criminal behaviour; these schemes can be set up without sacrificing political capital or appearing to prioritise the rights of criminals over victims or the public."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-pro01a","title":"","text":"Flogging harms offenders less than imprisonment  he criminologist Peter Moskos [i] observes that most of us, if given the choice, would opt to receive ten lashes rather than spend five years in prison. Paradoxically, a significant number of us would condemn corporal punishment as barbaric and inhumane. If imprisonment is a more rational response to criminal behaviour, why would so many rational individuals opt to receive corporal punishment?  Contemporary prisons are the result of a failed utopian experiment. They serve no useful rehabilitative purpose, and exist only to fulfil a common desire to punish deviant behaviour and to segregate criminals from the public at large. Prisons harm inmates and obstruct attempts to reintegrate them into society. It may be necessary to incarcerate certain compulsive and habitually violent criminals, but for a majority of offenders, prison only serves exacerbate underlying social, economic and psychological problems that lead to criminality.  Using corporal punishment to reduce or replace custodial sentences would provide an effective way to fulfil the social need to punish criminals, while removing the harmful externalities of mass incarceration. Strictly supervised whipping or caning can adequately and proportionately express society\u2019s anger with the criminal, while avoiding the dangers of long-term incarceration and reinvigorating the use of rehabilitation.  In the United States, the UK and many European countries, prison populations have increased dramatically, but reductions in rates of offending have been minimal or non existent. In the absence of funding, or coherent, centrally administered rehabilitation strategies, prisons have become places devoid of productive activity. Prisoners are not encouraged to address the causes of their offending, or to acquire skills that will help them to live independently in society following their release. Boredom, overcrowding and under-staffing have led to the emergence of gang- and drug-cultures in many prisons. Inmates incarcerated for minor offences quickly become complicit in gang violence, or fall prey to alcoholism and drug addiction. Gang associations and chemical dependencies carry over into inmates\u2019 lives once they are released. The prison system serves only to breed criminality, not to cure it.  The cost of incarcerating the average offender in the United Kingdom is estimated to be \u00a345000 a year [ii] . Reduced spending on incarceration can be used to fuel an increase in spending on detoxification, rehabilitation and restorative justice schemes. Moreover damaging effects of prison will not cancel out the positive effects of rehabilitation.  The physical injuries resulting from whipping, although painful, are less severe than the subtler damage wrought on inmates by imprisonment.  [i] \u201cIn Defense of Flogging\u201d, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 24 April 2011,   [ii] \u201cTough on Crime, Tough on Criminals\u201d, The economist, 23 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-pro04b","title":"","text":"Through their actions, career criminals and drug offenders often subject their families to misery far in excess of the temporary absence of a loved one, or transient financial hardship. The damaging processes of taking drugs and supporting a habit are normalised for children living with addicts; children exposed to drugs in this way are much more likely to develop an addiction themselves. Criminals who make a business out of thievery may use the family home to store acquisitions. Wives and members of an extended family may be coerced into trading stolen goods. Offenders who trade drugs or store stolen goods in leased or social housing risk eviction if their activities are discovered. This, in turn, would lead to their families being displaced or left homeless. Siblings and parents of gang members can often be the targets of violence resulting from feuds and \u201cterritorial disputes\u201d.  As noted above, rehabilitation does not offer an immediate \u201ccure\u201d for criminality. Neither can it protect families who, through ignorance or misfortune, are maintained by the proceeds of criminal activity. Although a significant number of prison inmates may be normally honest citizens who have made bad or impulsive choices, an equally large number are poorly socialised members of chaotic families. The environment of lawlessness that such individuals create in family homes creates a situation that may lead their spouses and children into deviance themselves.  Under these circumstances, isolating an offender from his family may give the family an opportunity to break free of a pattern of daily life that would otherwise be saturated with criminality."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-pro03a","title":"","text":"Custodial sentences make recidivism more likely  A custodial sentence is capable of destroying the relationships and livelihood of an offender. Imprisonment means that an offender will be unable to work and will lose his job, if he has one. Statistics sourced from the Pew Foundation indicate that a criminal record can reduce the likelihood of a black, male American securing a job by up to 57% [i] . The isolation inherent in imprisonment can lead to the breakup of marriages and to the decay of relationships between parents and children. The stigma associated with a custodial sentence may result in an offender being shunned by his friends, his family and his community. He will, in effect, be left with no sources of support once he is released. A former inmate will be left with no incentive to adjust his behaviour and disengage with criminality [ii] . The Pew Foundation notes that 43% of offenders in the United States were returned to prison within three years of release [iii] .  The long-term damage done to an offender\u2019s life is not an intended consequence of custodial sentencing. However, it cannot be claimed to be a proportionate response to crime, as it affects both serious offenders and those accused of non-violent offences such as burglary or fraud. The decay of an offender\u2019s relationships and social support structures is yet another harmful externality of custodial punishment.  A corporal sentence caters to the social imperative to punish criminals, but it also allows offenders to remain with their families and to avoid financial hardship by remaining in employment. In Moskos\u2019 own words, corporal punishment allows society to express its disapproval quickly and efficiently, leaving the offenders to \u201cmove on\u201d with the process of reform.  It is in the interests of any effective system of rehabilitation to ensure that a non-violent offender remains in contact with their family and remains in employment (excepting, of course, offenders who have attack or abused family members). Families, spouses and social networks can play an important role in supporting and encouraging an offender to engage with rehabilitation programmes. Wives and children can effectively monitor an offender\u2019s behaviour when trained staff are unavailable, integrating the reform process with the offender\u2019s day to day life.  [i] \u201cTackling Recidivism: They All Come Home\u201d, The Economist, 20 April 2011,   [ii] \u201cA Plague of Prisons: The Epidemiology of Mass Incarceration in America\u201d. Drucker, E. The New Press  [iii] \u201cTackling Recidivism: They All Come Home\u201d, The Economist, 20 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-pro04a","title":"","text":"Imprisonment punishes offenders\u2019 families  Even though liberal democratic systems of justice continue to place an emphasis on punishment rather than rehabilitation, sentences are still required to be proportionate to the crime that they punish. Further, a sentence must only punish those judged responsible for the crime. Collective punishment and guilt by association are not tolerated within rational, liberal systems of criminal law.  Imprisoning or fining an offender often places an intolerable burden on the offender\u2019s family. If the offender is a breadwinner, the family is denied the income that he would otherwise provide. They may be forced to use inadequate benefit systems. Other members of the family may be forced to take up a second job, adversely affecting childcare arrangements. Any fines that an offender is ordered to pay are often impact upon his family, damaging household budgets and forcing other family members into debt.  The negative effects of a custodial sentence extend beyond the offender himself. Financial and social deprivation may have a minimal impact on an offender while his is imprisoned, but may cause considerable suffering within his family. Sudden social isolation and poverty have themselves been shown to provoke criminality and increase childhood deviance.  Corporal sentences allow a punishment to be targeted only at the criminal, not at their families."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-con01b","title":"","text":"The opposition is unable to conclusively prove that the growth in the prison population and the reduced effectiveness of rehabilitation is a direct result of over-criminalisation.  It may be true that the list of non-traditional crimes is expanding, but the harm that the resolution is seeking to address arises in the prison system, not in politician\u2019s manifestos.  The majority of offenders imprisoned in the USA and the UK have committed genuine crimes, albeit of a petty or non violent nature. Once exposed to the prison system the criminal tendencies of these individuals are entrenched, rather than eliminated. The prison system does not transform unwitting and harmless offenders into criminals \u2013 it makes criminals out of desperate, poorly socialised or ignorant offenders. The prison system harms those placed in its care because it is no longer able to carry out its rehabilitative objectives.  The failure to rehabilitate those convicted of \u201cordinary\u201d criminality impacts on the prison system itself, when recidivism and social exclusion lead to offenders being repeatedly convicted.  The root cause of the problems in the status quo is not the creation of too many crimes, but a failure to accept the contemporary reality of crime and criminal behaviour. Flogging would allow policy makers to engage with this reality, while satisfying the fundamental need to see wrongdoing punished.  The danger posed by over-inclusive corporal sentences is neatly eliminated by the balancing of judicial and legislative power in liberal democracies. Judges are given discretion in order to allow them to mitigate the effects of atavistic, unreasonable, disproportionate or populist manipulations of the law. If a judge believes that flogging would be excessive or unnecessary, given the nature of an offence, he will usually be free to hand down a different sentence"}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-con03a","title":"","text":"States\u2019 duty to avoid the use of force when solving social problems  How will the severity and legality of flogging be monitored? How will it be reconciled with existing liberal democratic value sets? The majority of western liberal democracies are party to inter-governmental and supranational agreements that expressly forbid states from using torture or degrading or inhuman punishments in any capacity.  The mark of a modern, liberal state is that it uses authority and engagement rather than raw power to protect its citizens. The use of force or power by the state and its agents is harder to regulate and costlier to compensate when it is misapplied. Liberal democracies, apart from being agents of realpolitik, are also aspirational bodies that should strive to reflect and adhere to the values they were created to defend. Arbitrary, coercive force and violence is one of the core harms that a state must guard against. Violence is said to be the preserve of criminals and those acting against the values of society. Therefore, as an aspirational body, the state should hold itself to a higher standard of behaviour than such individuals.  Violence, as most liberal constitutions make clear, should only ever be employed by the state as a last resort. Where a state has the means to do so, even if those means are costly or politically contentious, it should endeavour to achieve peace and order within its own borders without wielding power.  At its broadest, the liberal democratic ideology holds that the rights and autonomy of individual citizens should be only be infringed in order to protect the rights and autonomy of other citizens. This principle would be violated if the state resorted to corporal sentencing as a way of satisfying a mob-like demand for visible and harsh criminal sentencing.  No citizen of a liberal democracy has a right to demand that another citizen, criminal or not, should be subjected to unnecessary pain and suffering by the state."}
+{"id":"training-law-lgpcpao-con02b","title":"","text":"There is political capital to be gained from adopting a hard line stance on law and order issues, but there is also political capital to be gained from showing that a particular policy has had a positive effect on reoffending. The Pew Foundation report cited above has also determined that some 90% of US voters were in favour of reducing the length of prison sentences and \u201cstrengthening\u201d probation and parole systems [i] .  The opposition assumes that politicians are interested only in cheap, hollow, short term solutions to problem. However, a large number of policy makers are genuinely public spirited, with a sincere interest in solving long-standing social problems. The adversarial nature of politics tends to prevent politicians from seeking elaborate or novel solutions to such issues. Spending money on intangible rehabilitation programmes will always provoke more criticism than spending money on training more police officers.  The resolution allows politicians to engage with the novel solution to criminality offered by rehabilitation while at the same time meeting a general demand for criminals to be visibly and strictly punished for their actions.  There will be a cynical minority of politicians who will see the dramatic nature of flogging as an opportunity to disguise cuts to reform programmes. Equally, there will be others who will use corporal sentences as an opportunity to address and resolve the politically intractable problem of criminal deviance.  [i] \u201cTackling Recidivism: They All Come Home\u201d, The Economist, 20 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro02b","title":"","text":"Migrations for economic reasons is part of the modern global economy. Tibet in 1950 was massively underdeveloped with very low literacy rates, and little modern economic infrastructure. Given the determination of the Chinese government to modernize Tibet, the importation of workers was vital. Educated Chinese were needed to run the administration in the absence of qualified local elites willing to work with them, while Chinese teachers were needed to run the schools. In turn, they brought their families, and a host of businesses followed.  By the same token, teaching Mandarin is not an issue. There are 6 million Tibetans surrounded by 1 billion Chinese who speak Mandarin, teaching the language of commerce is an effort to integrate the Tibetans.  And integration is what the Chinese are after, as while no exact figures are published, it is overwhelmingly clear that Tibet is a net loser financially for them, and has been consistently since the 1950s. The costs of subsidizing a largely unemployed populous along with educational and infrastructure improvements has cost far more than the revenue coming in. If Tibet is a colony, China is not in it for the money. [1]  [1] Coonan, Clifford, \u2018Behind the fa\u00e7ade of Chinese rule in Tibet\u2019, The Intependent, 3 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro02a","title":"","text":"Tibetans are rapidly becoming a minority in their own country  Due to systematic campaign of Sinocization, millions of Han Chinese have been encouraged to settle in Tibet, and with the support of the government they now dominate the economy and upper echelons of the administration. Demographically Tibetans are rapidly becoming a minority within their own country, and administratively this has already taken place.  While short of open genocide, the intent of the Chinese government is quite clearly the elimination of the Tibetan people as a distinct national, cultural and linguistic group. Not only are they attempting to drown them through settlement, but Tibetan students are forced to learn Mandarin in the schools and are being taught that they are Chinese.  While there may well have been past periods of Chinese sovereignty, the policies of the current Beijing government seem designed to produce an outcome far more permanent than those past efforts which respected Tibetan identity and culture."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro03b","title":"","text":"On the contrary, this situation almost ensures that the Tibetans will become a puppet of one or another foreign power. Weak states almost invariably need allies to maintain their independence. An independent Tibet, especially one that has inherited the history of the last sixty years would likely be dominated by politicians who are militantly anti-Chinese, but would be too weak to defend itself against China. It would almost certainly become an Indian proxy, as its only hope of survival would be to attempt to gain the support of the United States and India against China.  In effect the creation of an independent Tibet, rather than avoiding conflict, would make it more pressing by moving the effective frontline hundreds of miles northward. Right now China and India may not like each other, but the Tibetan-Indian border is sufficiently mountainous as to make military action difficult if not impossible. By contrast, its northern border is much more easily crossed as the Chinese themselves showed in 1950. An independent Tibet would be a security threat to China and the region."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro01a","title":"","text":"Tibet is a distinct nation with a distinct history that China illegally invaded  Tibet has a long history of independence going back more than 1500 years. Even in times of Chinese \u201cdomination\u201d, Tibetans largely governed themselves independently of the small number of Chinese officials in Lhasa. [1]  Tibet at most was a tributary of China, and was no more part of it than Thailand, Myanmar or Korea. And from 1911 until 1950 it was entirely independent and conducted its foreign relations as such, for example remaining neutral in World War II despite both its neighbours the Republic of China and the British Empire being on the side of the Allies.  Tibet\u2019s annexation by China occurred under the guns of 40,000 Chinese soldiers, and the precedent begun by the invasion stands as one of the few post-1945 cases in which the national principle was abandoned and the only one in which a fully independent state vanished from the map.  When one notes that Tibetans have their own language, and a history that includes far more wars with the Chinese than examples of kinship, Chinese arguments of sovereignty have little bearing on the reality. [2]  [1] van Walt, Michael C., \u2018The legal status of Tibet\u2019, Cultural Survival Quarterly (Vol. 12, 1988),   [2] Tsering, Lhasang, \u2018India\u2019s Tibet: A Case for Policy Review\u2019, 17 March 2000,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro01b","title":"","text":"In order for Tibet to have traditionally been viewed as part of the Chinese nation, there is no requirement that it have been under Chinese rule continuously. Like many other parts of \u201cChina\u201d, it was ruled by China during times of imperial strength, and when governments weakened, so too did central authority. In this sense Tibet has a lot in common with Manchuria, another region that tended to drift towards autonomy during times of dynastic weakness.  One thing however has been clear \u2013 the variation in sovereignty in Tibet has been between autonomy and Chinese sovereignty. Even in the 9th century when Tibetan armies were outside the gates of the Tang Dynasty Capital of Chang\u2019an, the Tibetans remained nominally the Emperor\u2019s subjects as proclaimed by a monument from 823 stating \u201ctheir territories be united as one\u201d. [1]  Tibet\u2019s independence between 1904\/11 and 1950 was consistent with this cycle. Tibet gained autonomy when China weakened, and this autonomy was as much a product of British influence as it was of any Tibetan desires themselves. In 1950, with China reunited under a strong government, Chinese sovereignty returned. It was undoubtedly the case that the local elites who were displaced resented this change, just as their predecessors did the previous times throughout history when Chinese sovereignty was restored, but this does not justify independence, especially when Tibetan independence in the past has always been a product of the dual factors of Chinese weakness and the strength of foreign powers in the region, neither of which is operative right now.  [1] China Daily, \u2018From dynasty to republic\u2019, 9 April 2008"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro04b","title":"","text":"Everything is comparative. The major reason why China does not face more serious domestic unrest is that its international and economic progress have allowed it to appeal to Chinese nationalism. Withdrawing from Tibet would be viewed as an act of weakness, one which would do far more to undermine the Communist party\u2019s legitimacy and support base than remaining there.  Secondly, attacks on China\u2019s Human Rights record matter less and less each year as trade with the PRC becomes more and more valuable to the West. It barely affected the Olympics and increasingly it is viewed as an effort by the West to divide China.  Thirdly, the cost of the province has to be compared against the potential security risks an independent Tibet, especially one under anti-Chinese leadership, would pose to Chinese security."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro03a","title":"","text":"An independent Tibet would serve as a buffer state between India and China, reducing the chances of a regional clash  An independent Tibet would serve a useful purpose as a neutral and demilitarized buffer state between India and China. Given the rising economic and military clout of both powers, a future conflict is becoming ever more likely, and they already fought one war against one another in 1962.  An independent Tibet would mean that the two nations would no longer have a common border, making their rivalry less practical and far less pressing. This would reduce military obligations for both, and prevent the Tibetans from being caught in the middle of a future conflict."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-pro04a","title":"","text":"Tibet presents an explosive domestic political issue for China which the latter would benefit from eliminating  Tibet, and the resistance Tibetans continue to show to Chinese rule presents a toxic domestic and international political problem that costs far more than it worth.  Domestically, violence in Tibet is the most serious domestic disturbance facing the Chinese government, and the fact that there is nearly constant violence between Han Settlers and Tibetans forces the Chinese to alienate everyone in order to contain it. Furthermore, the economic and political disenfranchisement of the Tibetan people is an enormous domestic problem, as it has led to large numbers becoming unemployed and moving to other parts of China where they form an underclass.  Internationally, the Tibetan issue keeps China\u2019s Human Rights record in the news and almost torpedoed the 2008 Olympic games. Given that China is already losing money on the province, it may well be worth it for China to jettison it in order to gain much greater international benefits."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con03b","title":"","text":"While of obvious interest, it is hard to see how Chinese opinion is of vital relevance to whether or not Tibet should enjoy independence. Serbian opinion was almost certainly overwhelmingly against Kosovar claims in 1998, and it can be assumed that Southern Sudanese Secession may have been less than popular on the streets of Khartoum than Juba.  Furthermore, a large part of the reason for the reaction of the Chinese Public is that the Communist Party has consistently encouraged nationalist sentiment in an effort to deflect its own population from their lack of human and political rights. An independent Tibet would serve as a beacon of freedom in the region and might well inspire Chinese citizens to begin to make demands of their own for political and social freedoms."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con01b","title":"","text":"Such progress has been self-serving, with many of the economic gains made by Han Settlers. Secondly it has come at the cost of Tibetan culture and the very national identity that Tibetans hold dear.  It is also absurd to suggest that these gains would disappear upon independence. Tibet would likely seek to continue to trade with China, and if that is not possible, there would be opportunities to gain investment from India or the West. The benefits of such trade could then be used to help the Tibetans themselves rather than Han settlers. As Ten Zin Samphel, a leader of the Tibetan community in Britain remarks \"At the moment, the economic development is for the benefit of the Chinese\u2026 If Tibet were free, we could develop it ourselves.\" [1]  [1] McGivering, Jill, \u2018China\u2019s quandary over Tibet\u2019s future\u2019, BBC News, 20 March 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con02a","title":"","text":"Tibet is almost 50% Han Chinese and they dominate the economy. Expelling them would be catastrophic  Whatever the reasons or the moral legitimacy behind the move, Tibet is a very different place today than it was in 1950. According to the 2000 census, 2.3 million of Tibet\u2019s 7.3 Million citizens are Han Chinese, and if temporary residents are added the numbers nearly double.  In the event Tibet achieves independence it is likely that these Han residents will face discrimination if not open pogroms. Already they are a constant target of riots launched by Tibetan Nationalists, events that often end in the destruction of Han businesses and property.  Such an outcome would not only be morally abhorrent \u2013 it would also be catastrophic for Tibet\u2019s economic and political position.  This minority plays a key role in the Tibetan economy, and their departure would create a vacuum that could lead to an economic collapse.  Furthermore, any mistreatment of the Han Minority would likely push Chinese opinion, already of the view that the Tibetans are coddled according to Faread Zakaria, into support for military intervention.  The Economist\u2019s James Miles remarked of the 2008 riots that \"What I saw was calculated targeted violence against an ethnic group, or I should say two ethnic groups, primarily ethnic Han Chinese living in Lhasa, but also members of the Muslim Hui minority in Lhasa.\" [1]  [1] \u2018Transcript: James Miles interview on Tibet\u2019, CNN, 20 March 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con04a","title":"","text":"Tibet could never be a viable independent state and would either become a Chinese puppet or a launching pad for American and Indian power against China.  Given the realities of geography, Tibet has little prospect of real independence. Landlocked, with few natural resources, and no clear way to get any resources it does have out, Tibet would be poor, and overshadowed by its much larger neighbours, China and India.  It would be faced with the choice of either becoming a prize to be fought over between those two powers or aligning itself with one or the other, most likely India given its difficult recent history over the last few decades.  The consequence would be that rather than giving the Tibetans greater freedom, independence would render them pawns, and rather than reducing tensions in the region, it would likely increase those between India, Pakistan and China. Tibet would be in the same position it was at the end of the 19th Century when it was a weak power at the mercy of the British and Chinese having to toe the line for whichever neighbour was stronger at the time.  Its hard to see how the United States could avoid being drawn into such a geopolitical quagmire, with likely negative consequences for the Sino-American relationship as well. The US having played a key role in gaining freedom for Tibet could hardly stand aside if that freedom was threatened, and the Chinese in turn would view any US influence in a free Tibet as further evidence of the existence of an American hand behind the Tibetan Freedom Movement."}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con03a","title":"","text":"China has viewed the last century and a half as non-stop efforts by Westerners to divide China. This looks like another.  The last century and a half of relations between China and the West have from the Chinese perspective been one long period of national dismemberment. In 1842 the British took control of Hong Kong after the first Opium war, and after its sequel, China lost control of Shanghai and its own customs service. Efforts were made to sever Manchuria, Taiwan from China in the 20th, and Korea and Vietnam were fully removed from Chinese authority.  As a consequence the Chinese are quite paranoid about outside efforts to divide Chinese territory, and support for the Tibetan Independence, due to the fact that the West has no clear interests in the region, is interpreted chiefly as an effort to divide and weaken China. [1]  As a consequence, western condemnation tends to be counterproductive, leading to public sentiment in China turning far nastier towards legitimate Tibetan demands.  These sorts of views on the part of the Chinese Public are far from unwarranted given the likely consequences of Tibetan independence, namely the creation of a Pro-Western, anti-Chinese state on their borders, and the Chinese are therefore likely to respond to future moves in favour of Tibetan independence the same way Americans would have reacted to Pro-Confederate moves on the part of Great Britain or France during the US Civil War.  [1] II. Origins of So-Called \u2018Tibetan Independence\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con01a","title":"","text":"Tibet has made enormous strides under Chinese rule  Contrary to the impressions forwarded by the proposition, Tibet has made enormous strides under Chinese rule. The urban population has increased seven-fold since 1950, [1] literacy has increased from the teens to being as high as 95%, [2] and the average life expectancy has increased from the low 30s to the 60s.  Furthermore, with few natural resources and the economy in Han hands, there is a need for investment capital, and that capital can only come from China. Even the Dalai Llama acknowledged this in 2006, suggesting that a relationship with China similar to that between EU countries would be ideal. [3]  [1] European Space Agency, \u2018The Himalayan region\u2019, esa.int, 18 February 2010,   [2] Literacy rate among young people climbs in Tibet, People\u2019s Daily Online, 31 July 2008,   [3] Liu, Melinda, \u2018Fears and Tears\u2019, Newsweek, 19 May 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con04b","title":"","text":"Simple geography makes a general conflict over Tibet unlikely. Located on some of the most mountainous terrain in the world, moving large armies would be next to impossible in the region, with the consequence that conflicts like the Sino-Indian war of 1962 were contained by the simple inability of the combatants to bring supplies and reinforcements to the front.  Making Tibet a neutral buffer state would simply exacerbate these challenges by denying the likely combatants a common border behind which to build up military infrastructure. It may well be that China and India would become rivals for influence in Lhasa, but this would be a diplomatic war of shadows rather than a physical one, just like the current competition for influence in Myanmar which is in a similar position, [1] and it would be a conflict which would provide Tibet with the opportunity to play the rivals off against each other in a way that would safeguard its independence as well as peace in the region.  [1] Kuppuswamy, C.S., \u2018MYANMAR: Sandwiched between China & India and gaining from both\u2019, South Asia Analysis Group, 31 January 2008, Paper no. 2574,"}
+{"id":"training-law-railhbtsbis-con02b","title":"","text":"First of all it is worth noting that the Chinese settlers are themselves the product of deliberate campaign of cultural genocide on the part of the Chinese government. While individually they may be innocent, by their participation they have become targets. In this sense there is little difference between them and Israeli settlers in the West Bank or the former French settlers in Algeria.  But even granting that, there is no reason to assume this violence would continue if Tibet became independent and the major cause of conflict, namely the Chinese occupation, was removed as a major issue of contention. It could be expected that a new Tibetan government would have an incentive to avoid all of the harms outlined by the opposition.  Symbolic of this is the Dalai Llama\u2019s remarks that Tibet\u2019s future is linked to China\u2019s and that an independent Tibet would benefit from a close relationship with China."}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro02b","title":"","text":"This simply shows a need to either expand the law enforcement agencies or else have locals who are deputised. There is no need to turn schools into an armed environment in order to ensure that someone who is responsible who is armed is close enough to respond to any crisis at a school."}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Not all schools have police available to protect them.  All schools and schoolchildren need to be protected yet not all schools are anywhere near a source of protection. Arming some teachers is most urgent in areas police provision is scarce due to diminished funds. Places like Harrold county in Texas have a sheriff\u2019s office situated 17 miles away, and unlike more urban areas they cannot afford to hire district police officers. With the law enforcement officers so far away a lot of children could be killed before there could be any possibility of response from any police of law enforcement agencies. Arming teachers in predominantly rural areas of the USA is therefore a logical and necessary step to protect schools that do not already have dedicated protection. [1]  [1] McKinley, James C., \u2018In Texas School, Teachers Carry Books and Guns\u2019, The New York Times, 28 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro03b","title":"","text":"Why shouldn\u2019t they carry guns if teachers can? Surely in such uncertain situations as Columbine they should also carry the right to protect their classmates? Even if children aren\u2019t legally meant to carry them anyway then what\u2019s to stop moral gray areas from occurring in situations of self-protection for an entire class\/school?  Taking this to its natural conclusion, what is to stop teachers\u2019 guns simply falling into the wrong hands? A child could steal a teacher\u2019s gun and use it against a classmate, causing unintentional or intentional fatalities, arming teachers simply makes such events possible rather than protecting against them. [1] The logic of trying to make schools less vulnerable to violent attacks by introducing more firearms is hugely flawed.  [1] McKinley, James C., \u2018In Texas School, Teachers Carry Books and Guns\u2019, The New York Times, 28 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Arming teachers would mean safer schools  If school teachers, as people in positions of authority over vulnerable groups, were permitted to carry arms then it would guarantee greater protection for children. Incidents in recent years such as the massacre at Columbine High School have proven that a significant risk exists of school children gaining access to guns and using them against their classmates. The carnage could have been prevented if the teachers present had been able to defend themselves and the children in their care as teachers would be able to act as a first line of defence. [1] Furthermore, having schools as arms-free environments specifically makes them a target, those looking for targets are more likely to choose schools because they are less likely to meet armed resistance. Incidents include a school in Lincoln, Nebraska where a 17-year-old shot his vice-principal before killing himself. Lawmaker Mark Christensen, who had previously been opposed to teachers carrying arms, introduced legislation in January this year after the incident. [2] It illustrates how the potential for harm could be reduced if adults in responsible positions could defend themselves and those in their care.  [1] Hernandez, Selena, \u2018Should Teachers Carry Guns On Campus\u2019, CBS 11 News, 21 January 2011,   [2] Huffington Post, \u2018Teachers Carrying Guns: Nebraska Senator Mark Christensen Introduces Bill To Keep Schools Safe\u2019, 18 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro01b","title":"","text":"The logical fallacy here is the assumption that teachers will always have pupils\u2019 best interests at heart. There\u2019s little to stop children from becoming extremely vulnerable if they are under the supervision of someone who could turn on them. Gun attacks like Columbine and Virginia Tech are often by people whose potential for violence was not spotted by anyone until it was too late. People in positions of authority are not always reliable or rational, and no amount of safety checks can guarantee that some teachers will not abuse the powers they have. This measure would simply increase the potential threat from those who have been authorised to carry guns in schools."}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro04b","title":"","text":"That teachers may also sometimes need protection does not alter the debate. They could equally be protected by having better police services and officers closer to schools. If teacher needs a gun for protection from someone threatening them then they are putting the children they are responsible for in danger. If Jane Doe\u2019s ex husband had come after her and both had been armed her students could very easily have been caught in the crossfire."}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro03a","title":"","text":"The Second Amendment  When it comes down to it, the right to bear arms is enshrined in the American constitution. This right applies just as much to teachers as it does to anyone else. Having a right to bear arms means there is always going to the threat that one person can draw and use a weapon against another. The best way to counter-act such a danger is to meet it with equal means, as the culture of arms-bearing in the USA is too entrenched to try methods that involving scaling back gun-usage or enforcing much stricter arms control. Any attempt to do so would likely be struck down by the United States Supreme Court just as it declared the restrictions on handguns that were in place in Washington DC. [1] Therefore the best way to protect the most vulnerable in US society is to deploy the means that are encouraged and protected by the constitution.  [1] Supreme Court of the United States, \u2018District of Columbia et al. v. Heller\u2019, 26 June 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Teachers need protection just as much as students  An incident in Medford, Oregon in 2007 illustrated how teachers need to be able to protect themselves as well as their students. Gun lobbyists claimed teacher Jane Doe\u2019s reasons for wanting to be armed while teaching were based on the restraining order against her ex-husband, who had made threats against her and her children. Although local laws dictated that only law enforcement officers could brings guns onto a school campus, she challenged it on the grounds of her own personal safety. [1] In a country like the USA where ordinary civilians can own guns, people often feel the need to carry arms for the sake of self-protection. If people are allowed to do this in their own homes, then if the threats persist while they are at work by extension they should still be allowed to exercise self-protection.  [1] Knickerbocker, Brad, \u2018Should teachers be allowed to pack a gun?\u2019, Christian Science Monitor, 18 September 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con03b","title":"","text":"Teachers in places where the scheme has already been piloted have received training from private security firms. In Harrold county, teachers have also been provided with special ammunition that avoids ricocheting and therefore minimises the threat of students being caught in crossfire. [1] Other schools in more urban parts of states like Texas, particularly those suffering a high level of gang violence, already have their own police forces. Many American schools are therefore used to having an environment where arms usage is the norm. It is therefore hard to argue that introducing armed protection in a different form, aka through teachers rather than police officers, would result in an increased level of risk.  [1] McKinley, James C., \u2018In Texas School, Teachers Carry Books and Guns\u2019, The New York Times, 28 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con01b","title":"","text":"Schools such as those in the county of Harrold, TX [1] have already introduced laws allowing teachers to carry pistols, but largely in a concealed fashion. This therefore leaves children unawares and thus not distracted by seeing teachers prominently carrying guns. Furthermore, with teachers carrying concealed arms, any would-be attackers would be thrown by not knowing who to shoot first, which would not be the case if police officers were the first on the scene.  [1] McKinley, James C., \u2018In Texas School, Teachers Carry Books and Guns\u2019, The New York Times, 28 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con02a","title":"","text":"Guns in schools might be used in circumstances other than defense.  Having guns in the classroom will more than likely increase the chances of gun related violence in schools. It would increase the chance of gun related accidents; although only a very small chance there would previously have been no chance. It may well also increase the number of shootings; people who carry guns are 4.5 times more likely to be shot, [1] although there is no way of knowing if the effect would be the same in the classroom as on the street. Finally it is ignoring the possibility that those who are to carry guns for the school children\u2019s protection may at some point turn the gun on their charges. Teaching can be a very frustrating job and the teacher may get very angry with individual students, allowing teachers to carry guns would greatly increase the risk of an unpremeditated shooting against on a schoolchild.  [1] Callaway, Ewen, \u2018Carrying a gun increases risk of getting shot and killed\u2019, NewScientist, 6 October 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con04a","title":"","text":"How could arming teachers be regulated?  If teachers can bear arms, then what\u2019s to stop other people in the school environment in contact with children, such as janitors, from demanding they should too, or even getting hold of them illicitly? Many of them won\u2019t have been certified or checked, and as such there is no guarantee that the system of only allowing teaching staff to carry them could be fully regulated. This is particularly the case if janitors, cafeteria workers or cleaning staff have private gun licences of their own. The result is that children could be in an environment where those not licensed to carry arms around them would have greater opportunities to do so, thereby increasing the threat to children. It would be difficult to monitor which staff are bringing guns into school without a lot of investment in searches and detectors \u2013 money that could have paid for professional security. It is thus arguable that the proposition\u2019s mechanism does not stand."}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con03a","title":"","text":"Children would be caught in the crossfire  We need to remember that we\u2019re most likely dealing with threats to young people by other young people here. If teachers were granted the right of \u2018shoot to kill,\u2019 as the mechanism would imply, of anyone they found threatening, the consequences to completely innocent people in a crossfire, or merely troubled youngsters that could be rehabilitated if simply subdued, could be tragic and fatal. Ultimately, teachers are not police officers and are thus not equipped to take out an armed criminal in the same way. As the legislative director of the Houston Association of Teachers out it, \u201cWe are trained to teach and educate \u2013 not to tame the Wild West.\u201d [1]  [1] McKinley, James C., \u2018In Texas School, Teachers Carry Books and Guns\u2019, The New York Times, 28 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con01a","title":"","text":"Children are impressionable  Allowing teachers to carry arms in school could mean that very young children could easily become acclimatised to the idea that carrying a gun and ultimately gun usage is ok. Surely the way to prevent incidents like Columbine from happening is to teach children about the potentially destructive and fatal consequences of gun usage? For elementary\/primary school-age children, it would be difficult to separate the idea that it\u2019s ok for teachers to always carry guns but not for anyone else."}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con04b","title":"","text":"The opposition\u2019s point is a rather speculative one, as you could apply this argument to teachers in general, or anyone in positions of power over more vulnerable groups, such as nurses or doctors. Just because a minority choose to abuse (such as with the paedophile scandals in reported in some public US high schools) [1] that does not mean everyone in the teaching profession should have the right to protect those in their care revoked.  [1] Irvine, Martha, and Tanner, Robert, \u2018AP: Sexual Misconduct Plagues US Schools\u2019, The Washington Post, 21 October 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con02b","title":"","text":"The chances of accidents would be miniscule as teacher would be trained to carry the gun and would keep it with them at all times when in the classroom so there would be no chance of the students playing with the gun. The deterrence effect of having guns in school is likely to mean that the number of shootings will go down rather than up. Finally if it was an armed teacher who perpetrated the shooting then they would have been able to commit that atrocity regardless of whether s\/he was allowed to carry a gun in school."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro02b","title":"","text":"Victims of any form of crime, regardless of their life choices, are free to come to the police for protection and will be provided with the same protections as anyone else. The fact that people who commit crimes may feel less comfortable going to the police to avoid self-incrimination is not a reason to remove those laws."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro02a","title":"","text":"Decriminalisation will protect practitioners of sadomasochism  The criminalisation of S&M removes legal protection from individuals who suffer an abuse of consent while submitting to sadistic practices. Where a dominant partner ignores safe words or pushes a session too far, the criminal status of S&M may lead to a victim being prosecuted alongside a perpetrator. Alternately, victims may be disincentivised from approaching the police altogether.  Although it is not possible to be prosecuted for being the victim of a crime, individuals who are harmed during sadomasochistic sex many not be able to engage in a rational assessment of their own criminal liability. Even though laws against sadomasochistic acts pin liability only on the sadistic partner, they also serve to criminalize the act itself. Victims of abuses of consent may therefore become wary of informing the police that they have participated in such activity, for fear that they will be publicly stigmatized or subjected to police investigation themselves.  The only time S&M can be problematic is when someone does not listen to their partner when they withdraw their consent and ask for the session to end. Individuals will not stop engaging in S&M simply because the state says so, but victims of over-aggressive partners will lose recourse or protection under the law if they try to approach the police about such an incident. Where an S&M session goes awry, victims of an abuse of consent will have to admit to engaging in a criminal act. In the same way prostitutes have no real protection from assault and rape due to the criminality of their acts, victims of assault and rape in S&M are no longer protected.  The opposition may attempt to claim that there will be a clear distinction between a sadistic \u201ccriminal\u201d and a submissive \u201cvictim\u201d whenever a complaint is raised. This is not true. Many sadomasochistic relationships are based around fluctuating and interchangeable roles. Both partners may engage in sadistic acts at different times."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro03b","title":"","text":"The notion of consent cannot apply to a practice in which participants lack the ability to withdraw at any given time. Rape cases are easier to prosecute as it is clear and evident that the victim did not consent to the activity. The legalization of sadomasochism would create situations in which consent has been given beforehand but cannot be withdrawn during the activity.  There may be genuine confusion between participants in a situation where one party wishes to withdraw their consent but is unable due to the activities already underway. In that case, it would appear unreasonable to prosecute despite the victim\u2019s anguish. To spare such horrible situations arising, the practice must remain illegal.  Finally, a number of criminal cases, including the English case of R v Dica, have held that intentionally or recklessly exposing a partner to a sexually transmitted infection by refusing to wear a condom can be a criminally action. Where an individual is aware that certain sexual interactions carry a risk of harm, and he does not obtain his partner\u2019s full and informed acknowledgment of that risk, in English law at least, he commits a crime [i] .  If a man forces sex on a woman who has rejected his advances on the basis that he will not wear a condom, a rape is committed. If a man deceives a woman into having unprotected sex by lying about his sexual health, the decision in R v Dica will hold him liable for any resulting harm.  [i] R v Dica [2004] QB 1257"}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro01a","title":"","text":"The criminalisation of sadomasochism infringes on individual liberty  Control of one\u2019s own body is the most fundamental of human rights. No government should be permitted to define how its citizens can express themselves. The distinction between the permissible and the impermissible should be drawn at the line of consent. This is not a novel distinction. Your property cannot be stolen from you if you agree to give it away. You have no legal remedy if your property is damaged by another with your consent, or if you damage it yourself. Why should there be a moral difference when this property is flesh and blood? Paternalism in this instance only protects those who do not want to be protected.  The prohibition of sadomasochism is simply inconsistent with the liberty that governments already permit their citizens to exercise to injure each other and themselves. When people are entitled to risk pain, serious injury, or even death in sporting activity, why should they not also be permitted to suffer some discomfort in consensual sexual activity? The same piercing of flesh which attracts criminal liability in a fetishistic context can be performed legally in a chemist\u2019s shop or tattooist\u2019s parlor. The distinction between the rugby scrum, the bungee tower and the bedroom is an arbitrary one.  Some of the pleasure that is inherent in contact sports is derived from the adrenal thrill of flirting with injury. It is widely known that a significant proportion of individuals find jeopardy and danger as enjoyable as decadence. A sport purged of all risk would be unwatched and unplayed. Comparably, a corpus of law that did not acknowledge or protect the diversity of human sexual experience would needlessly limit individual sexual freedom, and would probably be ignored."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro01b","title":"","text":"Every government has a duty to protect the moral and physical health of all its citizens. Firstly, the defining characteristic of sadomasochism is that it does harm to others. The activity has a victim. It is not a simple question of one individual being permitted to harm himself. Secondly, the fact of the victim\u2019s consent is immaterial. The use of seatbelts is mandatory because citizens should not be allowed to risk their bodies for such a nugatory freedom. Citizens are allowed to lose or jeopardize their material assets through foolishness, since the assets are replaceable, or at least not critical to survival. Paternalism exists to protect people from themselves.  As noted below, governments are able to exercise varying degrees of regulation over potentially harmful activities according to the contexts that they occur in. Under these circumstances, the beneficial aspects of contact sports, risky performance arts and non-essential medical procedures can be balanced against the harms they might cause. Dangerous sporting activities invariably occur in public, are supervised by coaches and referees, and are subject to rule-sets agreed on by players and overseen by professional bodies. Under such circumstances, it is possible for the state to be satisfied that risk to the individual has been minimized as far as possible, and that there can be no confusion over which risks an individual consents to.  Where altercations on the sports field result in criminal prosecutions, much discussion is focused on the risks that the victim foresaw he would be exposed to. Hockey players have previously been held to have implicitly accepted the possibility that they might be deliberately struck with a hockey stick in the course of a match [i] . A recent English case ruled that a rugby player does not impliedly consent to run the risk that another player might bite and tear at his ear during a match [ii] .  [i] R v Green (1971) 16 DLR 93d) 164  [ii] R v Johnson (1986) 8 Cr App R (Sentencing) 343"}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro04b","title":"","text":"When less painful but equally effective variations on existing beauty treatments enter the market, they quickly assume a position of dominance. Women and men who want to enhance their physical appearance do not automatically seek out the most painful way of doing so.  The proposition conflates a means of achieving sexual gratification with the gratifying act itself. A masochist finds erotic pleasure in being subjected to pain, irrespective of the ultimate purpose of that pain. Likewise, a sadist will inflict pain to achieve pleasure, without feeling that his actions require further justification or purpose.  A surgeon will design his procedures so that a patient will suffer an absolute minimum of pain and discomfort. A medical professional would likely be subjected to professional disciplinary measures if it were to become apparent that he derived gratification from the unavoidable pain sometimes endured by his patients. The consequences of a medical intervention sometimes mean that a patient will experience pain, but this is not evidence for the existence of underlying sadomasochistic motives.  Put simply, individuals with more typical sets of sexual desires regard cosmetic treatments as a means of achieving gratification, not the end in itself. Pain and infirmity take on great significance when an individual decides whether he wants to undergo cosmetic enhancement. The psychological screening that cosmetic surgeons employ is likely to detect individuals for whom pain and sexual pleasure have become interchangeable.  As side opposition\u2019s third point will demonstrate, states permit individuals to consent to dangerous cosmetic procedures precisely because the risks inherent in these practices can easily be subjected to third party scrutiny.  Cosmetic surgery and beauty products exist in public, and are open to regulation and oversight. The bedroom, the basement and the private members club are, by contrast, concealed and secretive."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro03a","title":"","text":"Sadomasochistic practices should be legal between informed, consenting adults.  It is sufficient for the decriminalization of sadomasochism that each participant is aware of the hazards inherent in the fetishes they will be exploring and consents to them. No law prohibits people from refusing to wear a condom during sexual intercourse, notwithstanding the peril of infection.  Furthermore, all cases where an individual withdraws their consent for the activity can be arbitrated and prosecuted like every other situation of consensual sex where an individual withdraws consent and their partner does not respect that wish. The police and courts will investigate it in the same way and will prosecute those who commit rape under the guise of S&M just as they prosecute those who commit rape under the guise of consensual intercourse."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-pro04a","title":"","text":"Western ideals of beauty already permit individual to endure intense physical pain in order to achieve sexual gratification  The idealization of physical beauty within American and European culture has created a demand for increasingly interventionist forms of cosmetic enhancement. Women and men are prepared to pay hundreds of thousands of pounds to have their faces, breasts and genitals maimed and modified by surgeons, to have their skin bleached or their facial muscles temporarily paralyzed by \u201cbeauticians\u201d and to be badgered, bullied and blackmailed into complying with restrictive diets and extensive regimes of physical exertion by domineering personal trainers. Except in the most extreme and obvious cases of emotional or psychological disturbance, adults are automatically assumed to be capable of consenting to these acts.  Further, the western ideal of physical beauty is closely associated with the cultural norms that influence and control sexual attraction, compatibility and enjoyment. The erotic is almost inextricably linked with the aesthetically idealized. The intense pain and extensive physical injuries that individuals endure in the pursuit of physical beauty are also endured in the pursuit of sexual gratification.  The risks inherent in invasive cosmetic treatments are poorly explained. The expense of these products and services and the pervasiveness of idealized physical forms combine to create parallel markets comprising cheaper, poorly regulated forms of \u201cbeauty enhancement\u201d, including intensive tanning and skin bleaching lotions.  The ultimate objective of these physically painful and dangerous activities is sexual pleasure. Even if the heightening of sexual pleasure that results from physical modification is less direct than in a sadomasochistic encounter, many cosmetic surgery patients find the aesthetic pleasure attendant on successful surgery to be satisfying too.  It seems hypocritical and perverse for a supposedly liberal system of law to allow individuals who are openly pursuing a sexual objective to consent to the harms and risks of cosmetic surgery, while limiting the legality of sadomasochistic acts. Both activities have the same underlying purpose, and both produce dangerous externalities. Rational, consenting adults should have as much freedom to engage in S&M play as they currently have to submit to cosmetic surgery."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con03b","title":"","text":"Where should the line between sadomasochistc and \u201cconventional\u201d sexual activity be drawn? The English appeal case of R v Slingsby [i] concerned the accidental death of an individual who had consented to an inherently risky sexual act (the insertion of her partner\u2019s fist into her anus) that was considered \u201cvigorous\u201d but not masochistic. As noted above, conventional sexual interaction is just as susceptible to subversion as S&M encounters, and can just as easily collapse into a non-consensual act.  In effect, \u201cnormal\u201d sexual expression is as difficult to regulate, and as likely to incorporate violence (or \u201cvigorous activity\u201d as the judge in Slingsby would have it) and to cause harm, as sadomasochism. Society at large does not demand that all private sexual activity is as tightly regulated as professional sport, nor does it attempt to outlaw sexual activity. Instead, it is acknowledged that personal freedom outweighs the occasional harms that private sexual relationships produce. Existing legal safeguards are seen as providing victims of abusive conventional relationships with adequate protection and recompense.  Indeed, the dangers that accompany conventional sex may be less obvious to the participants in a relationship than the dangers posed by a poorly tied knot or an inexpertly wielded crop. Sexually transmitted infections, concealed personality disorders, infidelity or jealous former partners all constitute significant and easily overlooked sources of harm.  [i] R v Slingsby [1995] Crim LR 570"}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con01b","title":"","text":"The state has no right to decide what is \u201cmoral\u201d or \u201cimmoral\u201d for society. Each and every individual through their freedom of conscience is allowed to determine for themselves what a moral act would be as the government has no way of determining that with any certainty.  Moreover, there is no evidence that suggests any link between S&M and propensity or escalation of criminality. Simply because someone enjoys the infliction or the feeling of pain does not mean that they will become a criminal who inflicts pain on other, un-consenting people in the future. Further, it could be argued that allowing people a consensual outlet for such urges reduces the probability that such escalation and criminality will occur."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con02a","title":"","text":"It is not possible to meaningfully consent to sadomasochistic sex  Meaningful consent requires both that the person is informed and of age when consenting, but also requires the ability to withdraw consent at any point in time. Sadomasochism does not afford this crucial requisite of consent to the individual, and therefore no individual can legitimately and fully consent to the act.  Safe words are ludicrously impractical. Their utility is dependent upon their actually being agreed and committed to memory in advance and their declaration being heeded by the individuals who are under the influence of intense sexual desire. The passive \u2018victim\u2019 might be subject to the physical constraints, characteristic of bondage, that make speech or even flight impossible. It might be difficult to distinguish between an injunction to cease and an exclamation of pain, which presumably is a relatively regular occurrence.  Even where a number of individuals are able to demonstrate that their sadomasochistic encounters are conducted on a safe, regulated and consensual basis, it is not possible to give a concurrent guarantee that S&M is generally safe and cannot be used to perpetrate rape or abuse. The existence of a group of individuals able to interact safely in a sadomasochistic context does not mean that S&M does not present a risk to the wider population, nor that ordinary individuals are not excessively vulnerable to harm when engaged in S&M activities."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con04a","title":"","text":"The right to privacy counterbalances the state's obligation to ban sadomasochistic sex  y the proposition, those who want to engage in violent sexual activities will do so, irrespective of laws to the contrary. Without undermining core liberal concepts of privacy and freedom of association, the state will be unable to regulate private sexual interaction. This being the case, when is violent activity most likely to be detected and prosecuted under the status quo? When such acts become too visible, too public or too risky. When the bonds of trust and consent that (as the proposition has agreed) are so vital to a sadomasochistic relationship break down.  Liberal principles of privacy and autonomy allow individuals to engage in consensual activities that may fall outside established boundaries of social acceptance. In this way individual liberty is satisfied, while the risk of others being exposed to harmful externalities is limited. In the words of the anthropologist and lawyer Sally Falk-Moore, \u201cthe law can only ever be a piecemeal intervention in the life of society\u201d [i] .  The prosecution of a large and organized community of sadomasochistic homosexual men in the English criminal case of R v Brown was in part motivated by the distribution of video footage of their activities [ii] . Doubts were also raised at trial as to whether or not some of the relationships within the group were entirely free of coercion. Their activities had become too public, and the bond of consent between the sadistic and masochistic partners too attenuated for the group to remain concealed.  Individuals break the law, in minor and significant ways, all the time. Due to the legal protection of private life, due to an absence of coercion, due to a consensual relationship between a \u201cperpetrator\u201d and a \u201cvictim\u201d, such breaches go entirely undetected. The general right to privacy balances out the obligation placed on the state to ensure that individuals who encounter abuse and exploitation within sadomasochistic relationships can be protected.  The protection afforded by privacy incentivizes individuals engaged in S&M activities to ensure that they follow the highest standards of safety and caution. Arguably, where \u201cvictims\u201d have consented to being injured, but have then been forced to seek medical treatment due to their partner\u2019s incompetence or lack of restraint, complaints to the police by doctors and nurses have helped to identify and halt reckless, negligent or dangerous sadomasochistic behavior.  Correctly and safely conducted, a sadomasochistic relationship need never enter the public domain, and need never be at risk of prosecution. However, without the existence of legal sanctions the state will have no power to intervene in high-risk or coercive S&M partnerships.  [i] \u201cComparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa\u201d, Werner Menski, Cambridge University Press, 2006  [ii] Annette Houlihan, \u2018When \u201cNo\u201d means \u201cYes\u201d and \u201cYes\u201d means Harm: Gender, Sexuality and Sadomasochism Criminality\u2019 (2011) 20 Tulane Journal of Law & Sexuality: A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Legal Issues 31"}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con03a","title":"","text":"The state permits individuals to risk harming themselves only where such risks can be independently scrutinised and regulated  A distinction should be made between socially legitimatized recreational violence- such as rugby or boxing- and stigmatized recreational violence- such as S&M [i] . Rugby, ice hockey or motor racing must, of necessity, occur in public. Each of these events incorporates large numbers of competitors and is regulated by a referee. It is not possible for a Rugby player to be forced to play a match against his will, nor will he be prevented from leaving the field if he is injured or feels threatened. Indeed, referees can force players to withdraw if they believe they are at risk.  Where violent sports events take place without any form of official sanction or oversight, their size makes them easy to detect, and legal principles such as negligence and ineffective consent make them easy to prosecute.  Society permits violent public events such as rugby, while condemning violent private entertainments such as S&M partly because consent, capacity and safety are much easier to determine in a public context.  In short, individuals are allowed to consent to the risks inherent in participating in a rugby match because the state- and society at large- is satisfied that sufficient safeguards exist to ensure that players\u2019 consent is informed \u2013 that the risks they will be exposed to are foreseeable. This level of control and accountability cannot be generally guaranteed within individuals\u2019 private sexual relationships.  Although S&M practices, when properly conducted, do not carry a risk of permanent harm and are not likely to result in non-consensual activity, oversight of participant\u2019s behavior is simply not possible. Sexuality is inherently private and individual sexual acts are closed off from public discussion.  [i] Farrugia, Paul, \u2018The Consent Defence in Sport and Sadomasochism\u2019 (1997) Auckland University Law Review, 8 (2), 472"}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con01a","title":"","text":"The pursuit of pain for the purpose of achieving pleasure is an immoral act  Not only does the state have the right and obligation to uphold the morals of society and stop deviant behavior, but it also has an obligation to prevent escalation of deviance. Acts such as sadomasochism are good indicators of the propensity for escalation to further deviant acts.  With the passing of the Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 [i] in the UK, a legal precedent has been established where the government has the right and obligation to tackle minor deviant behavior as it can be a precursor to larger and more harmful deviance in the future. Even if S&M was \u201cvictim-less\u201d, it demonstrates a propensity to inflict pain to gain pleasure and thus indicates high risk for developing a craving for infliction of pain of higher magnitude and scope in the future, which could be even more damaging to society.  [i] Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003.\" legislation.gov.uk. The National Archives, n.d. Web. 20 Jun 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con04b","title":"","text":"It should first be observed that accidents and inadvertent harm can befall S&M practitioners irrespective of the level of caution that they exercise. It is unacceptable to require responsible adults to run the risk of prosecution whenever they engage in a consensual act of sexual expression.  Further, relationships, even sadomasochistic relationships, can break down and become acrimonious. There is a risk that an embittered partner who formerly consented to prohibited S&M activity might try to use that fact to blackmail or persecute his or her ex-lover.  The opposition state that the freedom to dissent from laws regulating one\u2019s private conduct begins to break down when the number of people engaging in a \u201cprivate\u201d activity grows. Why should the freedom to engage in a particular sexual activity imply a trade off against the freedom to choose how many people we engage in that activity with? Interacting with multiple sexual partners is not, in itself, illegal in the majority of western liberal states, but it does not exclude other sexual fetishes, such as S&M. The opposition is disguising a further limitation on sexual freedom- the freedom to engage in group S&M- as a concession to liberalism.  Finally, the awareness that a particular activity is proscribed can affect an individual\u2019s ability to enjoy that activity. The pleasure inherent in free expression of sexual identity is compromised by the knowledge that discovery will lead to prosecution and stigmatization. As numerous accounts by those involved in the LGBT liberation movement have demonstrated, knowing that one\u2019s sexuality is seen as something immoral and socially destructive is inhibiting and upsetting, even in private contexts."}
+{"id":"training-law-tllgrhwds-con02b","title":"","text":"Sadomasochism need not be rendered completely free of risk. It is sufficient that each participant is aware of the hazards and consents to them. Moreover, no government can legislate for the most reckless of its citizens. If an individual is so disturbed as to place a plastic bag over his head for the purpose of sexual stimulation, the contrary opinion of the law will not be a great deterrent. [i]  Nevertheless, Sadomasochism can be rendered relatively free of physical risk for its participants. \u2018Safe words\u2019 can be agreed in advance, and then announced to end an S&M session immediately. Where participants are restrained or prevented from speaking, movement signals or the dropping of a marble held in the hand can be used to indicate withdrawal of consent. This simple device ensures that participants continue to agree to the terms on which their encounters take place.  It is patronizing to assume that participants in S&M scenarios have not considered the possibility that expressions of pain and reluctance will be a regular occurrence during such activity. Deliberately quixotic \u2018safe words\u2019 and stop signals are used in order to avoid inadvertent abuses of consent.  [i] Annette Houlihan, \u2018When \u201cNo\u201d means \u201cYes\u201d and \u201cYes\u201d means Harm: Gender, Sexuality and Sadomasochism Criminality\u2019 (2011) 20 Tulane Journal of Law & Sexuality: A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Legal Issues 31"}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Although it is true that Bashar al-Assad has very strong entrenched powers of control in Syria, there are less risky and damaging ways to undermine this to help support the domestic opposition movements if this is your aim. The crux of this case comes down to the capacity of the government to outspend the opposition movements, international sanctions and freezing of state and personal assets of high-ranking leaders in Syria combined with funding of the opposition movements in Syria would gain this same end without involving Western troops on the ground."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Success depends on military intervention.  There is no reasonable chance of success for the opposition movement absent substantial military re-enforcement by the West.  The Syrian government is uniquely placed for several reasons to be able to quell any opposition movement and to rule by fear and force for an indefinite amount of time. Bashar al-Assad\u2019s legitimacy is and never has been based on any type of democratic mandate or popular support. He rules based on control and, as such, has built up many institutions to entrench this capacity to control the Syrian public over the years. Oil revenues are high and Assad has very deep monetary reserves that allow him to buy loyalty from his military and equip himself beyond the capacity of any domestic opposition group could feasibly do.  Due to these two factors, the only way that Assad will fall is by force and by force that is far greater than can be attained without the support of the West. Therefore, for the humanitarian situation to be solved, the West must invade Syria."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro01a","title":"","text":"We have a duty to launch a humanitarian intervention in Syria.  Widespread indiscriminate killing of human beings is something that everyone in the world has an obligation to end. Mass killing of people is something that affronts the very basic meaning of what it is to be human. It denies the basic empathy and value we afford to each person on the basis of simple personhood and its occurrence is a black mark on all human beings who allow it to occur when they hold the power to end it.  In Syria today, the government forces are making their people live in fear of death and are routinely taking the lives of innocent people in order to control their population through fear. This week alone, 33 people were slaughtered by government forces include 6 children [1] .  The West has the moral obligation to intervene in Syria to protect the lives of the innocent people and end the reign of terror of Bashar al-Assad.  [1] \"Syria: UN Human Rights Committee Condemns Crackdown.\" BBC News 23 Nov 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Even if we do have an obligation to end mass suffering and indiscriminate killing, invasion is not the way to do so. Western intervention will inevitably increase the collateral damage by escalating the conflict into a full-scale war. Moreover, there is no guarantee that intervention will solve this conflict in the long-run instead of simply causing another endless war like the one in Afghanistan or Iraq. Therefore, even if we have an obligation to intervention, invasion is not the way to do it."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con01b","title":"","text":"There is no obligation to try every other option if the other options are unlikely to work. People are unjustly suffering now, and we have an obligation to end that suffering as quickly and as efficiently as possible. Sanctions and asset-freezing are notoriously ineffective on oil-producing countries like Syria. Going through the motions of attempting to pass authorization for these actions through the United Nations Security Council, attempting to get the entire world to comply with the sanctions and then watching these actions not help anything. All this will do is prolong the suffering of the Syrian people."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con02a","title":"","text":"The nature of the opposition movements makes this an unwinnable war.  The lack of coherent and unified opposition in Syria means that a Western invasion force will have very low chances of meaningful success.  Western intervention always carries the risk of fracturing a conflict by splintering opposition movements into those who do and those who do not support Western involvement in achieving their cause. This is problematic at best. With Syria specifically, this issue is augmented further still due to already existing lack of coherence and unity in the opposition movements. Absent a proper hierarchy and structure the opposition movement is going to be near impossible to cooperate with and will quickly splinter into an insurgent-style conflict.  There are multiple issues with this. First, there is very low chance of success in such a situation. Second, this set-up is the type that is most likely to lead to a long, protracted conflict that does not serve the interests of the West or the people of Syria."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con01a","title":"","text":"Invasion is not yet justified.  Invasion is an option of very last resort, especially when dealing with a country of such strategic importance such as Syria.  Invasion is an option of last resort because of the collateral damage it necessarily leads to, the impediment on sovereignty it entails and the escalation of conflict it entails. It\u2019s the nuclear option that is reserved for the very last resort due to the severity and unpredictability of its results.  With regards to Syria, we simply aren\u2019t at the point of last resort yet. The UN hasn\u2019t even levied sanctions against the Syrian government yet [1] , never mind frozen Assad\u2019s assets, tried negotiations or mediations, assisted domestic opposition groups or applied strong diplomatic pressure beyond a general condemnation.  The danger you expose the citizens of Syria to combined with the unknowable outcome of an invasion means that it simply isn\u2019t justified to even consider invasion until all other means have been exhausted, which they haven\u2019t been.  [1] \"Syria: UN Human Rights Committee Condemns Crackdown.\" BBC News 23 Nov 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con02b","title":"","text":"The disunity of the opposition movements is the exact reason why we need to invade Syria. The other measures that are usually used to avoid war to aid opposition movements in oppressive dictatorships such as Syria, as outlined in Opposition Argument One, will not work. The only way we can end the slaughter of the Syrian people is through an invasion for this very reason. Although it may be messy, we have a very real obligation to invade. This is one of the reasons that underpinned the decision of the international community to authorize intervention in Libya, an intervention that can be seen to be broadly successful in ending the brutal oppression in Libya [1] .  [1] Clark, David. \"Libyan Intervention was a success, despite the aftermath's atrocities.\" Guardian 28 Oct 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro02b","title":"","text":"ASBOs offer a wide flexibility to the sentencing authority as they are not only a punishment for past actions but also a form of restraint to prevent future misbehaviour. They permit the judge or magistrate to forbid the offender to go to a certain place, avoid a certain person, and ban them from participating in a particular activity. Without such powers, our courts will never be able to deal with the rising tide of yobbish behaviour that is, whilst not criminal, hugely damaging our communities."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro02a","title":"","text":"ASBOS encourage antisocial behavour  ASBOs are explicitly intended to deal with bad juvenile behaviour. But they encourage rather than deal with such problems. They are viewed as badges of honour that boosts street credibility amongst young gangs \u2013 the \u2018naming and shaming\u2019 just increases this. [1] They push people that could be helped by social work or proper attention into an unenviable category of \u2018offender\u2019 \u2013 they criminalise people for behaviour that isn\u2019t criminal.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Asbos viewed as \u2018badge of honour\u2019, 2 November 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro03b","title":"","text":"The problem of service and enforcement of ASBOs is identical that of all other court orders and can be solved the same way \u2013 in the proposition example the obvious solution would be to ensure that the youth in question had had the order fully explained to him on service.  An ASBO can only be made after a court hearing where both sides have the opportunity to have their say. The burden of proof remains on the person seeking the order to show why it is necessary. An impartial magistrate oversees the hearing. People subject to ASBOs are typically allowed to breach it several times before serious enforcement action is taken against them.  The fact is that the system of ASBOs is perfectly just and a much more liberal alternative to simply criminalising minor anti-social behaviour altogether"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro01a","title":"","text":"ASBOs do not address the real problem  ASBOs address the symptom, not the condition. Their powers are wide and undefined \u2013 too wide, meaning that Judges and magistrates can do pretty much whatever they like. Certainly there are problems in the way people conduct themselves \u2013 but if such behaviour isn\u2019t criminal, then it\u2019s up to families and communities to fix it. The ASBO is the latest example of excessive state interference in the lives of citizens. Either conduct is criminal, or it is not. The law of nuisance exists. Restraining orders exist. ASBOs aren\u2019t intended to deal with that kind of problem: they\u2019re the tool of the state controlling behaviour. Just because a problem exists, doesn\u2019t mean it\u2019s the job of the state to try and fix it. The powers granted to the state in its efforts are disproportionate to the problems concerned.  Indeed, the current trend is against such interference both as shown by the potential replacement of ASBOs and by court decisions such as one that people should not be punished for hurling obscenities. [1]  [1] Kelly, Jon, \u2018Should swearing be against the law?\u2019, BBC News Magazine, 21 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro01b","title":"","text":"Something meaningful has to exist to punish actions that don\u2019t merit criminal punishment, but damage the quality of life of others, especially through constant repetition. The ASBO is such a tool. It is intended to be the primary weapon in a \u2018zero tolerance\u2019 environment. ASBOs allow communities to take back their streets and estates from intimidating and out of control youths, and to establish proper norms of behaviour. In this way a slide into more serious lawlessness and criminality can be prevented, and the rights of the law-abiding majority to walk the streets and live peacefully with their neighbours can be secured."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro04b","title":"","text":"The wackier examples of ASBOs are actually demonstrations of what the order can do and other laws cannot. The woman who has an ASBO restraining her from jumping into rivers shows that the order can help with the thorny problem of actions that aren\u2019t illegal, but place huge burdens on the emergency services and place the police and other citizens at risk."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro03a","title":"","text":"ASBOS breach basic principles of justice  \u201cA youth recently appeared in Court in Manchester for breach of his ASBO. The Order had been made in the youth's absence without his being able to give his side of the story (one of the main concerns about ASBOs and one that can lead to misuse). The day after the Order was made someone came to his house to \"serve\" it on him. This consisted of his being handed a copy of what was a fairly bulky document running to several dozen pages with no attempt to explain it or even to ascertain if he was literate enough to read it. The Order included an restriction preventing him entering a particular estate nearby and another preventing him from associating with certain others. Unfortunately, he went out before reading the Order and beached it twice that day. The next day he went out again and breached it three times by mistake as he had not read the part covering the particular restriction. He now faces possibly custody although he has never been convicted of a criminal offence.\u201d [1]  The issuing of ASBOs is inconsistent and almost amounts to a geographical lottery. People can be jailed for breaching an ASBO where the original offence was itself non-imprisonable \u2013 i.e. A civil procedure is being used to create and expand criminal sanctions. ASBOs have also been imposed on people with mental health problems where treatment would have been more appropriate.  [1] Select Committee on Home Affairs, \u2018Anti-Social Behaviour Orders \u2013 Analysis of the First Six Years\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro04a","title":"","text":"There is no respect among the population for ASBOS  Newspapers are full of examples of absurd ASBOs. They make an ass of the law and show that the nanny state is overreaching. People trying to kill themselves really aren\u2019t going to be put off by the prospect of breaching their ASBO. [1]  Other examples include a prostitute who was prohibited from carrying condoms in an area that included her drug clinic, a prohibition on mobile soup vans that fed the homeless and a deaf girl who was banned from spitting in public. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Suicide woman banned from river\u2019, 25 February 2005,   [2] Select Committee on Home Affairs, \u2018Anti-Social Behaviour Orders \u2013 Analysis of the First Six Years\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con03b","title":"","text":"Criminal behaviour ought to be dealt with by the ordinary criminal law \u2013 not through various forms of civil order.  While much discussed, criminality is criminality, and non-criminal anti-social behaviour, while anti-social, should not be criminalized directly or indirectly."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con01b","title":"","text":"Sentencing shouldn\u2019t be affected by such considerations. If we need more prisons, we should build them. The point is that offenders should get the punishment they deserve. If they only need light punishment, fine \u2013 but don\u2019t argue that those who should otherwise go to prison must get ASBOs for economic reasons \u2013 this is an affront to victims and to society and dilutes the disincentive to offend."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con02a","title":"","text":"No system is perfect  Of course, some ASBOs fail. But no aspect of the justice system has a 100% success rate, and by their nature ASBOs are more likely to be abused because (unlike prison) the offender remains in his own environment. Should more in breach of ASBOs be punished? Sure. That\u2019s not an argument against ASBOs though, is it? Neither is the fact that not enough are handed down. Although the use of ASBOs around the country is still patchy, some authorities have made very effective use of them to improve life in many local communities."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con03a","title":"","text":"Useful tool to combat anti-social behaviour  ASBOs are a useful tool in the armoury in order to combat anti-social behaviour. Anti-social behaviour is a serious problem in the wider community (76% thinking it is a moderate or big problem in 2006 [1] ) \u2013 abolishing them would send out a message that such behaviour is acceptable.  [1] Weaver, Matt, \u2018UK \u2018has worst behaviour problem in Europe\u2019\u2019, theguardian.com, 9 May 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con01a","title":"","text":"We need to imprison fewer people  The prison population is soaring, to 87749 on 5th November 2011 in England and Wales, and we have to find ways to keep it down, or at least slow the speed of its rise. Talking about crushing sentences for all may arouse the passions of a certain type of voter but we have to have a pragmatic look at the pressures on the system. The UK has the second highest incarceration rate in western Europe and 63% of prisons overcrowded in September 2011 and several times over the few years the prison population has come close to going over the capacity of the prison service resulting in having to use cells in police stations. [1] ASBOs are one way to punish offenders while still ensuring they have continuing access to education, family support, job opportunities, etc., and they are much cheaper than the alternative of prison.  [1] Berman, Gavin, \u2018Prison population statistics\u2019, House of Commons Library, 7 November 2011, www.parliament.uk\/briefing-papers\/SN04334.pdf"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con02b","title":"","text":"58% of ASBOs have been breached, [1] with little resulting punishment. Only 2% of those who breach their ASBO are currently punished with a prison sentence. [2] This brings the justice system into disrepute. It doesn\u2019t seem to matter if they\u2019re breached \u2013 so people don\u2019t care about getting them. Furthermore, they\u2019re not granted in anything like the proportions needed to have an effect: 5,000 were supposed to be imposed every year, but instead only 3,800 were used in the first five years.  [1] \u2018Statistical Notice: Anti-Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) Statistics - England and Wales 2012\u2019, gov.uk, 2013,   [2] \u2018No prison for Asbo-breaching yobs\u2019, Metro,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-pro02b","title":"","text":"Many of these so-called \u201cstunts\u201d may actually be legitimate accusations that deserve to be heard in a court. If an accusation is unfounded, charges will not be brought (or not confirmed at the ICC, for example), or a verdict of not guilty returned.  Just because a person is high profile does not mean that they are innocent of wrongdoing. In the Livni case she as Foreign Minister may have been the wrong target. A more appropriate one would be the Defense minister or Prime Minister but it is understandable that there should be an effort to make ministers accountable for military actions they initiate."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-pro02a","title":"","text":"Helps avoid political stunt trials  Heads of state and senior politicians are targets for political stunts. This could be seeking to get a political opponent locked up so as to benefit from the removal of an opponent. Alternatively it may be as part of a publicity stunt to highlight their own issue of concern or organisation. In both cases the trial does not need to convict as the figure being in a trial will be enough to damage them and provide publicity.  In 2009, following a request by supporters of Palestine, an arrest warrant was sought at Westminster magistrates\u2019 court for the arrest of Tzipi Livni, who was Foreign Minister of Israel during Israel\u2019s 2008-2009 invasion of the Gaza Strip, also known as Operation Cast Lead. At the time of the attempted arrest Livni was no longer in office but the action was clearly a stunt.  Livni was not arrested in the end, because she cancelled her trip to the UK, and the warrant was dropped by the Director of Public Prosecutions, Kier Starmer [1] . However, a needless diplomatic incident was still caused.  [1] Hastings, Rob, \u2018DPP blocks bid to arrest Tzipi Livni for war crimes\u2019, The Independent, 7 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-pro03b","title":"","text":"That\u2019s equally an argument against international criminal law as head of state immunity. While there may be instances where the head of state or government has to take decisions that might be criminal for the greater good \u2013 for example ordering the abduction or assassination of a terrorist \u2013 these instances are rare and most of the time the courts will take into account the good as well as the bad. However there are equally times where it is good that someone fears prosecution, if they do it is a sign that what they are doing is wrong. Bombing of Germany could have ended when all military targets had been hit, it need not have involved incendiary bombing of civilian targets. In Japan there was a third option of accepting a conditional surrender \u2013 one that guaranteed the position of the Emperor, since the Allies ultimately agreed this anyway there would have been little loss."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-pro01a","title":"","text":"Necessity for diplomatic relations  International diplomacy involves visits by both diplomats and government figures to other states. This can even include states where relations are tense or even hostile. India and Pakistan, who have a very tense relationship and share one of the most fortified borders in the world, the line of control that divides Kashmir, have embassies in each other. Even throughout the Cold War, the USA and Soviet Union had a full and normal diplomatic relations.  Just as diplomatic immunity prevents politically motivated arrests of diplomats, head of state immunity is necessary to \u201cgrease the wheels\u201d of international diplomacy to allow international summits to take place without campaigns for the arrest and trial before domestic courts of foreign politicians.  If a head of state were to be arrested for trial before a foreign domestic court, it would cause immense damage to diplomatic relations between those two countries, Russia recently got into a row over the arrest of one of its diplomats in the Netherlands. The diplomat was quickly released but Russia still demanded the \u2018guilty parties\u2019 be punished. [1] The reaction to the arrest of a head of state or government would be much greater and would likely mean the breaking of diplomatic ties. Leaders would be much less willing to visit the country where the arrest occurred in the future for fear it would happen to them and would damage the world diplomatic system by challenging the idea of diplomatic immunity.  [1] \u2018Moscow not satisfied with 'sorry' after diplomat arrest\u2019, DutchNews.nl, 17 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-pro01b","title":"","text":"Whatever the justification, impunity is unacceptable. It is a key part of the rule of law that everyone is subject to the law. To grant individuals impunity for whatever reason is unacceptable.  Even if diplomatic immunity is accepted, diplomats are less likely in their role to commit international crimes that a head of state or government is because diplomats do not have access to the coercive machinery that enable these crimes. Diplomatic relations can carry on very well without senior government figures being able to travel wherever they want to. Summits are a luxury not a necessity and most of the deals they make have been hammered out by the diplomats beforehand."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-pro03a","title":"","text":"Greater good \u2013 fear of prosecution problematic  Sometimes people will do bad things in order to achieve good and necessary results. For example, the Allied bombing campaigns in the Second World War would be highly likely to amount to a war crime under the Rome Statute if they were done today. They were indiscriminate, they targeted civilians, and additionally even at the time were recognised as having little military value. Instead the idea was to terrorise the civilian population. [1] Yet they were considered to be necessary as showing the allies were doing something to aid the Soviet Union. The same might be the case with the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they clearly targeted civilians, yet if they helped end the war without a ground invasion of Japan then this war crime might have been for the greater good. [2]  Head of state immunity allows individuals to take unpopular and difficult decisions that are necessary for a greater good in government without fear of prosecution for their actions. We need our leaders to be able to take decisions based on the national interest, not based upon their concern for their life after office.  [1] Grayling, A.C., \u2018Bombing civilians is not only immoral, it\u2019s ineffective\u2019, The Guardian, 27 March 2006,   [2] See the debatabase debate \u2018 This House believes that the use of atomic bombs against Hiroshima and Nagasaki was justified \u2019"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-con03b","title":"","text":"There is no evidence as a whole to suggest international criminal law as a whole is a deterrent. Risk of prosecution or no risk of prosecution, there will always be leaders who commit horrible acts. Those who reach leadership positions where they can carry out acts that are considered to be heinous enough that they are prosecuted internationally clearly don\u2019t believe that they will ever be brought to trial so likely consider whether or not they have immunity to be irrelevant."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-con01b","title":"","text":"Even though it does effectively create impunity, this is not a unique phenomenon. Decisions on who to prosecute will always happen, and some form of bias against prosecuting powerful people is to some extent inevitable. So in practice not everyone is equal before the law.  The ICC specifically builds in a way of deferring prosecutions if needed in Article 16 of the Rome Statute. This shows that the ICC accepts the need to postpone cases, possibly indefinitely. The ICC therefore in practice accepts it cannot prosecute in every case where there may be a case to answer."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-con02a","title":"","text":"Legal precedent for prosecution of heads of government  The prosecution of high ranking government officials is part of the Nuremberg precedent that international criminal law largely dates back to. Hideki Tojo, the Prime Minister of Imperial Japan in the Second World War, was tried, convicted and executed as part of the Tokyo trials for Japan\u2019s acts of aggression in going to war. Karl Doenitz was prosecuted despite having briefly been Germany\u2019s head of state; that position did not nullify the crimes he carried out as commander of Germany\u2019s unrestricted submarine warfare campaign.  Following that, the ICTY tried Slobodan Milosevic, who died before the trial finished, and the Special Court for Sierra Leone convicted Charles Taylor.  It is nothing new that international criminals can be prosecuted. While leaders have, and often still are, able to prevent themselves from being tied in their own country while they are in charge this should not apply the world over."}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-con03a","title":"","text":"Head of State immunity reduces the deterrent effect of international criminal law  International criminal law, like any other form of criminal law, is supposed to be a deterrent. By giving a class of individuals impunity, these people cannot be deterred by International Criminal Law from committing some of the worst crimes known to humanity, including genocide. It is plain that many people who reach the heights of political power will use any method to remain in power \u2013 thus the resort to intimidation where it can be used to affect the vote, or in the case of Silvio Berlusconi the attempt to put in place an immunity law to prevent himself from being prosecuted for corruption. [1] Immunity will enable both large and small criminal acts, neither of which should be allowed.  [1] Kennedy, Duncan, \u2018Berlusconi immunity law overruled\u2019, BBC News, 8 October 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-con01a","title":"","text":"Impunity is repugnant to the rule of law  A key principle of the rule of law is that everyone is subject to the law \u2013 even the agents of states [1] . It must apply equally to the most as well as the least powerful.  This must apply to international criminal law as well as the domestic criminal law. It would be unjustifiable for one individual to be able to face prosecution as a private citizen for genocide, but not a head of state who has much greater capacity to engage in such acts. It effectively would allow genocide, which is prohibited by a convention the vast majority of states have signed and ratified, as an expression of national sovereignty.  [1] \u2018What is the rule of law?\u2019, United Nations Rule of Law,"}
+{"id":"training-law-hrilhshsi-con02b","title":"","text":"No head of state was successfully prosecuted by a partially international court until Charles Taylor was convicted by the hybrid Special Court for Sierra Leone, the first to go on trial was in 1994. None of the post WW2 Allied trials featured a significant head of state; Hitler was dead and the entire Japanese imperial family was not charged, including emperor Hirohito, who continued serving as Japanese head of state until his death in 1989.  The charges against Doenitz all pertained to his actions prior to him taking the leadership of Germany so they cannot be said to be actions taken in the role of head of state."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro02b","title":"","text":"The reason why the death penalty is so expensive \u2013 13 executions since 1978 in California costing around $4bn [1] - is the \u201csuper due process\u201d that is necessary in capital cases, especially with the large flaws in the US justice system.  Blacker makes no coherent proposal on how he would modify the appeals system. Removing or reducing it would make it very likely that more innocent people would be executed.  To accuse people who want to prevent criminals deaths of wasting money is more or less victim blaming.  [1] Alarcon, Arthur and Mitchell, Paula, \u201cExecuting the will of the voters? A roadmap to mend or end the California legislature\u2019s multi-billion dollar death penalty debacle\u201d, Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro02a","title":"","text":"Could be cheaper  While budget should not be the primary concern of the justice system, The death penalty, when applied properly, can be cheaper. A lethal injection, or a few bullets, costs far less than keeping a person incarcerated for a long time, especially if they need long term health or other care in old age. The longer someone is in jail the greater the cost to the state.  The costs of the implementation of the death penalty are driven up by anti-death penalty activists using the appeals system. Since the death penalty would only be applied to the worst of the worst when there is absolute moral certainty there would be less need for extensive appeals because there would be less marginal cases."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro03b","title":"","text":"While Blecker proposes a three step test in a draft statute, it does not feature much legal certainty \u2013 it features a large amount of jury discretion, which was deemed to be a violation of the US constitution [1] . Any such elastic definition would allow prosecutors to make an argument that pretty much any case is within such a category.  It also continues due use of \u201cdeath qualified juries\u201d, exclusively made up of death penalty supporters [2] , which are racially skewed toward being whiter. Would this then end up really being for the worst of the worst?  [1] See Furman v Georgia, 408 US 238 (1972)   [2] See Witherspoon v Illinois, 391 US 510 (1968)"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro01a","title":"","text":"Necessary for punitive justice  The concept of punishment is inherently based on retribution. \u201cWe don\u2019t punish to prevent crime or remake criminals. We inflict pain-suffering, discomfort-to the degree they deserve to feel it.\u201d [1] Retribution can be distinguished from revenge \u2013 retribution does not always seek to impose punishment that is the same as the original act, and never more.  The punishment must fit the crime so capital punishment is therefore an appropriate punishment for the worst of the worst \u2013 an eye for an eye.  [1] Blecker, p.28"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro01b","title":"","text":"By keeping a person locked up for life, which may well be appropriate for the \u201cworst of the worst\u201d, they are incapacitated for life. It similarly satisfied any retributive instinct, providing a total punishment, a form of internal banishment and total civil death \u2013 if one considers retributive justice desirable.  Moreover this is inconsistent. If we are inflicting an eye for an eye because they deserve it then why should the death penalty reserved for the worst of the worst? Should it not be exactly proportional \u2013 which would mean all murderers should face the death penalty."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro04b","title":"","text":"Those who are murdered are not some public resource \u2013 they are not our relatives. We may feel sorrow for the victims and their family but uninvolved members of society have no reason to demand punishment on account of them being members of \u2018our family\u2019. What of all those who do not feel such resentment, should society enact a death penalty simply to gratify a part of the population that feels this way. This is not a rational grounds for a death penalty even for the very worst. In order to claim that the society wants the criminals' blood, you have to make sure that a)everyone does; b)the person killed deserves to be avenged."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro03a","title":"","text":"Can be reserved for the worst of the worst  For those who are concerned about some of the practical objections to the American death penalty, it is possible to restrict the death penalty to those most deserving of it: \u201cthe worst of the worst\u201d, those like Anders Behring Breivik, Charles Manson and Harold Shipman. The death penalty should not be for people who are convicted as a result of three strikes - in 2004, someone was convicted of first degree murder with a whole life sentence for lending a friend a car [1] \u2013 it should not be a default sentence. [2]  [1] Liptak, Adam, \u201cServing Life for Providing Car to Killers\u201d, The New York Times, 4th December 2007,   [2] Blecker, p.210"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-pro04a","title":"","text":"Killers must die to satisfy society  Those who have damaged society by robbing it of one of its members must pay for their crime. Adam Smith argued \u201cWe feel that resentment which we imagine he ought to feel, and which he would feel, if in his cold and lifeless body there remained any consciousness of what passes upon earth. His blood, we think, calls aloud for vengeance.\u201d [1] It is not just the wronged individual who needs there to be retribution but society as a whole. Everyone in society is wronged by particularly heinous crimes as Blecker says of two horrific crimes \u201cThose were my children, my wife that Coker raped and murdered, my sister Speck killed\u201d. [2]  [1] Smith, Adam, \u2018The theory of Moral Sentiments\u201d, MetaLibri Sixth Edition, 1790,  p.62  [2] Blecker, p.30"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con03b","title":"","text":"This is not a higher discrepancy than imprisonment, meaning the problems may well be socio-economic rather than justice related.  A reason for this discrepancy may be the felony murder rule \u2013 that any death caused by a felony, even if it would normally amount to manslaughter, constitutes murder (in some cases, first degree murder) \u2013 if that is the case, the felony murder rule should be abolished. If capital punishment were reserved for the worst of the worst then this racial bias would be almost eliminated. [1]  [1] Blecker, p.237"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con01b","title":"","text":"The state using the legal process being trusted to do something is different between an individual doing so. The state executing people is the only way that justice can be achieved; there is a moral difference between execution in support of society and murder against society.  There is an immense difference between a murder and a lawful killing by the state. If the death penalty makes the state no better than a murderer then a soldier is one too. In a more absolutist view, if capital punishment devalues life, do fines for theft devalue property?"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con02a","title":"","text":"Too many innocents killed  Capital punishment in the US kills too many innocent people. Over 143 people who were innocent were exonerated from death row since 1973 [1] . One person executed is too many \u2013 it has already happened in the US, with Carlos DeLuna [2] . It is likely that many innocent people have been executed in the US \u2013 it is a price not worth paying.  [1] Death Penalty Information Centre, \u201cInnocence list\u201d, DPIC.org, 2013,   [2] Pilkington, Ed, \u201cThe wrong Carlos: how Texas sent an innocent man to his death\u201d, The Guardian, 15 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con04a","title":"","text":"Who are the worst of the worst?  Killing the worst of the worst is essentially arbitrary. Even with a list of aggravators balanced by mitigations the death penalty is hardly going to be left to just the very worst. In the case of Daryl Holton who killed his four children Blecker decides \u201cI remain convinced, but not morally certain, that he deserved to die.\u201d [1] This shows there will always be cases that are borderline. Moreover everyone\u2019s views of the worst of the worst are different. Is Holton the \u201cworst of the worst\u201d or should that category be reserved for Hitler and Pol Pot?  [1] Blecker, p.197"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con03a","title":"","text":"The death penalty is racist  Like the rest of the American criminal justice system, capital punishment in America is institutionally racist: black men make up 6% of the US population as a whole but 40% of those on Death Row [1] . In the US, African-Americans and White people are murdered in almost equal numbers, but 80% of those executed since 1977 were convicted of the murder of a white [2] .  [1] Blecker, p.237  [2] Amnesty International, \u201cUnited States of America: Death by Discrimination \u2013 the continuing role of race in capital cases\u201d, Amnesty International, 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con01a","title":"","text":"Hypocrisy  Suggesting the death penalty should be used as a deterrent is nothing other than arguing that people should be killed to show that people killing people is wrong. There is little evidence that it works; when Canada abolished the death penalty nationally in 1976, the homicide rate fell from 3.09 in 1975 to 2.31 in 1980. [1]  In that sense, imposing the death penalty makes the state no better than the murderer, and a murderer in itself by killing a person in such circumstances. If we are using the death penalty to punish the murderer then what should we use to punish the state for its actions?  [1] Amnesty International, \u2018Document \u2013 The Death Penalty, Questions and Answers\u2019, accessed 3rd January 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con04b","title":"","text":"Regardless of the categorisation there are some who are worst of the worst. It is up to individual states and societies to determine who qualifies as the worst of the worst for them."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsdpww-con02b","title":"","text":"As in any activity in life, a risk will exist in any justice system \u2013 many innocent people are in prisons. But there are also risks inherent in being too lenient and letting the worst of the worst out again in the future.  However, capital punishment can be used less, and a higher standard of proof can be used in capital cases. \u201cIn the end, we must risk a minuscule possibility of error for the near certainty of justice.\u201d [1]  [1] Blecker, p.275"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro02b","title":"","text":"The database is immaterial to the acquittal or exclusion of non-offenders. Where a primary suspect has been identified, a DNA profile ought to be created and compared to the crime scene data. Likewise, where suspicions persist concerning the guilt or innocence of a convicted individual, a sample of DNA can be taken. The database has predominant application in 'non-suspect' cases, and not the circumstances where the suspect or felon is already identified. It is also important to keep claims regarding the efficacy of DNA matching in context, Chief Constable Sims of the British Metropolitan Police stated that of '4.9 million crimes reported each year, of which 1.3 million are 'detected' (lead to charges)' only 33,000 involve DNA matching1. 1 Home Affairs Committee. (2010, March 4). The National DNA Database. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from UK Parliament:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro02a","title":"","text":"DNA evidence would reduce the risk of wrongful conviction  The increased use of DNA evidence will minimize the risk of future wrongful convictions. An FBI study indicates that since 1989 DNA evidence has excluded the primary candidate in 25% of sexual assault cases1. This not only saves valuable police time, but ensures suspects are not called in for unnecessary and stressful questioning. Moreover, forensically valuable DNA can be found on evidence that has existed for decades, and thus assist in reversing previous miscarriages of justice. There have been a number of recent, high-profile cases of death row inmates being released on the grounds of DNA evidence, unavailable when they were first convicted. A DNA database would not merely render wrong verdicts right, but prevent such verdicts ever being made. 1 U.S. Department of Justice. (1996, June). Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from U.S. Department of Justice:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no such guarantee that a DNA database would have such an effect. In fact, there is a serious risk that genetic evidence will be used to the exclusion of material that might prove the innocence of the suspect. It is further likely that more crimes will be prosecuted on account of largely circumstantial evidence. Moreover, there is the possibility that not only the police, but also the jury, will be blinded by science. It seems unlikely that juries will be able to comprehend, or more importantly, to question, the genetic information that is yielded by the database. The irony is that forensic evidence has been instrumental in establishing the miscarriages of British justice in the 1970s, but might now serve to create miscarriages of its own."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro01a","title":"","text":"A DNA database would lead to more convictions, particularly in cases of violent crime  Although overall levels of crime in England and Wales have decreased over the previous decade, the number of violent crimes against the person has markedly increased. These are the offences which raise most grave public concern and which are unlikely to leave conventional fingerprints. The National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence estimates that thirty per cent of crime scenes contain the blood, semen, or saliva of the perpetrator1. DNA detection will be best equipped to identify the guilty. A full database ought to allow the use of DNA as an investigative tool where no suspect has yet been identified. Studies support this assertion; 'the overall detection rate for crimes of 23.5% rises to 38% where DNA is successfully recovered'2. Furthermore, in the United States, the number of reported rapes dropped to its lowest level in two decades due in large part to the use of DNA evidence3 1 Weathersbee, F. (1999, March 1). National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from National Institute of Justice: 2 Phillipson, G. (2009, November 19). The case for a complete DNA database. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Guardian: 3 McGreal, C. (2009, October 8). Number of reported rapes in US drops to lowest level in two decades. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro01b","title":"","text":"The most serious violent crimes, notably the offences of rape and murder, are most commonly committed by individuals known to the victim. When the suspects for the commission of a crime are obvious, DNA detection is superfluous. Moreover, it is invidious to propagate the belief in the public that crimes can be solved, or criminals deterred, by computer wizardry; evidence collected by a UK Parliamentary Commission suggests DNA matching led to crime detection in as little as 0.3% of cases1. Ultimately, unless the DNA is used to identify a genetic cause for aggression, violent crimes will continue to be committed 1 Home Affairs Committee. (2010, March 4). The National DNA Database. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from UK Parliament:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro03a","title":"","text":"A DNA database would reduce the time spent tracking down suspects  A DNA database is not intended to replace conventional criminal investigation. The database ought to identify the potential suspects, each of whom can then be investigated by more conventional means. During 2008\/09 in the United Kingdom, 'almost 6 in 10 crime scene profiles loaded to the National DNA Database were matched to a subject profile'1. There is no possibility of escaping the provision of technical evidence before a court. Doctors, ballistics experts, forensic scientists are already a common feature of the large criminal trial. The jury system is actually a bastion against conviction on account of complicated scientific facts. The British jury is instructed to acquit a defendant where they find reasonable doubt. If the genetic data and associated evidence is insufficiently conclusive, or presented without sufficient clarity, the jury is obliged to find the defendant not guilty. 1 NDNAD. (2009). National DNA Database: Annual Report 2007-09. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-con03b","title":"","text":"The use of a DNA fingerprint can scarcely be regarded as an affront to civil liberties and therefore requiring consent. Firstly, as a British Home Office spokeswoman noted, 'before a person's profile can be added to (the database), the person must have been arrested for a recordable offence. That is a significant threshold'2. Furthermore, the procedure for taking a sample of DNA is less invasive than that required for the removal of blood. The police already possess a vast volume of information relating to the citizenry. The National Crime Information Center Computer in the United States contains files relating to fifteen million Americans and receives approximately seven million queries each day2. The availability of a DNA fingerprint to the police should be seen in the context of the personal information that is already held by outside agencies. Insurance brokers commonly require an extensive medical history of their clients. Employers subject their employees to random urine tests for drug and alcohol consumption. If we are prepared to place our personal information in the private sector, why can we not trust it to the public authority of the police? The DNA will only be utilised in the detection of crime. In short, the innocent citizen should have nothing to fear. 1 Doward, J. (2009, August 9). 'Racist bias' blamed for disparity in police DNA database. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from The Observer: 2 National Crime Information Center. (2009). About Us. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from Federal Bureau of Investigation:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-con01b","title":"","text":"Retaining the DNA of unconvicted suspects is not unlawful, only retaining it indefinitely. New British proposals to meet the requirements of the European Court of Human Rights' judgment are to ensure the DNA of the unconvicted remains on the database for just 6 years. The law has to be laid down in a set manner rather than imprecise terms. Loopholes are often found but in the long run, they are what create a fair and just legal system. We cannot have loose laws, everything must turn on the wording. The ruling stated that the DNA of the innocent could not be saved indefinitely, so the British government is proposing that this DNA only be kept on the system for 6 years. They have done what the Court has asked them to do, to take away the permanency; a DNA database remains."}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-con02a","title":"","text":"DNA testing is fallible, and therefore should not be used as the basis of convictions  Although DNA detection might have advantages over fingerprint dusting, the test is nevertheless fallible. Environmental factors at the crime scene such as heat, sunlight, or bacteria can corrupt any genetic data. Any DNA evidence must be stored in sterile and temperature controlled conditions. Criminals have been suspected of contaminating samples by swapping saliva. There is room for human error or fraud in comparing samples taken from suspects with those removed from a crime scene. The accuracy of any genetic profile is dependent upon the number of genes examined. Where less than four or five genes can be investigated, the PCR technique serves only to exaggerate any defects or omissions in the sample. In 1995 an 18 month investigation was launched into allegations that the FBI Crime Lab was 'dry-labbing' or faking results of DNA comparisons1. Furthermore, in the United Kingdom, the company used by police to analyse its DNA samples was shown to have secretly kept the genetic samples and personal details of 'hundreds of thousands' of arrested people, stoking fears that, if lost, they could be planted as evidence2. The mere creation of a database cannot be the panacea for crime detection. 1 Johnston, D. (1997, April 16). Report criticizes scientific testing at F.B.I Crime Lab. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from New York Times: 2 Barnett, A. (2006, July 16). Police DNA database 'is spiralling out of control'. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-con03a","title":"","text":"Having a DNA database should require individual consent  The invasiveness of the database resides in the information being maintained on file, rather than in the procedure for obtaining the genetic data. The decision to pass personal information to mortgage or insurance agencies is governed by individual consent. When the citizen releases information to outside agencies he receives a service in return. In being compelled to give a sample of DNA the innocent citizen would receive the scant benefit of being eliminated from a police investigation. Moreover, medical records are already subject to a significant degree of statutory protection from investigation. The use of genetic tests by insurance companies remains highly controversial. There is considerable potential for abuse of information that is so private, the person giving the sample will probably not know its contents and they will certainly not know the possible ways the information may be used1. Finally, there is a subtle yet significant difference in the attitude of government towards the citizen that is conveyed by the creation of a database. Every citizen, some from the moment of their birth, would be treated as a potential criminal. 1 BBC News. (2007, September 5). All UK 'must be on DNA database'. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-con01a","title":"","text":"Retaining the DNA of unconvicted suspects is unlawful  The European Court of Human Rights was quite clear when it stated that retaining indefinitely the DNA and fingerprint records of unconvicted suspects is unlawful1. The Strasbourg court made a unanimous decision that the UK keeping the DNA of the unconvicted on a database permanently was contrary to human rights and therefore illegal. They stated that due to the high level of disruption to human rights, on this issue the court would not have much \"margin of appreciation\" or leeway. Subsequent attempts to justify the database have been dismissed by the Commission as failing to provide 'clear, justifiable reasons for holding on to the DNA data from people who had not been convicted of a crime'2. The Commission also felt the retention of DNA profiles 'failed to recognise there were a disproportionate number of young black men, vulnerable people and children on the database'2 1 BBC News. (2007, September 5). All UK 'must be on DNA database'. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from BBC News: 2 Doward, J. (2009, August 9). 'Racist bias' blamed for disparity in police DNA database. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from The Observer:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cplghwhcdd-con02b","title":"","text":"DNA fingerprinting has considerable advantages over conventional means of forensic crime detection, advantages that render any slight fallibility irrelevant. Conventional fingerprints attach only to hard surfaces, can be smeared, or avoided by the use of gloves. Even a clear print requires a significant degree of interpretation by investigating officers. The standard technique of comparing fourteen points between the print taken at the crime scene and the print of the accused has been subject to severe criticism. The novel 'polymerase chain reaction' (PCR) amplification technique facilitates an accurate DNA profile from very small amounts of genetic data. The fingerprint can be constructed notwithstanding contamination from oil, water or acid in the crime scene environment. The innocent and the accused should appreciate a novel fingerprinting technique that is both objective and accurate. Lastly, fears of wrongful conviction are misguided, a 2002 study found only 'two cases worldwide'1. 1 Phillipson, G. (2009, November 19). The case for a complete DNA database. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Although protecting children domestic abuse is of vital importance curfews are not the most appropriate way of doing so. Problems at home may be the reason the young person spends so much time out on the streets in the first place. If that is the case, it could be dangerous to force them to stay where they may be at risk of abuse. Also, curfews infringe upon the rights of parents to bring up their children as they choose. Simply because we dislike the way some parents treat their children should not mean that we intervene to stop it; should we intervene in families where conservative religious beliefs are preached? 1  1 Hidden Hurt"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Curfews also have an important role in the protection of vulnerable children  The use of child curfews can help to protect vulnerable children. Although responsible parents do not let young children out in the streets after dark, not all parents are responsible and inevitably their children suffer, both from crime and in accidents, and are likely to fall into bad habits. Sir Ian Blair former chief commissioner of the Metropolitan police argued that curfews were aimed at safeguarding youngsters and stopping gangs causing trouble.1 Society should ensure that such neglected children are returned home safely and that their parents are made to face up to their responsibilities.2  1. Rosie Cowan, 2004,  2. Ward, 2000,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Curfews are not enforceable even if they are well known by residents and anyone can report those breaking curfew. It simply means that young people are trying to avoid the police so that they do not get fined. The police are only ever likely to catch a small number of those who are violating the curfew resulting in there being little deterrence."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro05a","title":"","text":"It is best for children to be at home in the evening.  There is no good reason for children to be out unaccompanied late at night, so a curfew is not really a restriction upon their liberty. Where the child does have good reasons to be out they can be covered by the exceptions. They would be better off at home doing schoolwork, schools often set more than an hour a night which the children should be doing. The time would also be better spent interacting with the rest of their family."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro01a","title":"","text":"The main objective of curfews is usually crime prevention.  Youth crime is a major and growing problem, often involving both drugs and violence. Particularly worrying is the rise of youth gangs who can terrorise urban areas and create a social climate in which criminality becomes a norm. Imposing youth curfews can help to solve these problems, as they keep young people off the street, and therefore out of trouble, and prevent them from congregating in the hours of darkness. Police in Philadelphia have found curfews effective in the prevention of gang violence: \u2018the measure has been successful in helping to curb violent attacks by teen mobs that had severely injured several people in recent months, city officials said.\u2019 1  1. Associated Press, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Curfews are largely ineffective in preventing crime. Curfews do not target the right times of day as most juvenile crime appears to take place between 3 p.m. and 8 p.m., after the end of school and before working parents return home, rather than in the hours covered by curfews. There are many reports providing evidence that juvenile curfews do not have a significant effect upon crime figures.  In addition, although society does have a problem with youth behaviour, although it is not as bad as the newspapers make out. What is often labelled anti-social behaviour today was considered normal for kids in the past \u2013 things like playing football in the street, going around in groups without an adult in charge, making a bit of noise sometimes, etc. We need to be careful to draw a line between things that some people don\u2019t like, and actual crime.1  1 Adams, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro05b","title":"","text":"Children in their mid-teens have many legitimate reasons to be out at night without adults. Many will have part-time jobs, for example in fast-food restaurants or delivering newspapers. Others will wish to participate in activities such as church groups, youth clubs or school trip. Whilst there are clauses for allowing such activity, the fear of not being believed would be a serious chilling effect on uptake. Requiring adults always to take them to and from such activities is unreasonable and will ensure that many never take place in the first place, either because adults are unwilling, or are unable to do so.1  1. NYRA,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro04b","title":"","text":"A number of alternative strategies exist which are likely to do more to reduce youth crime. For example, rather than a blanket curfew covering all young people, individual curfews could be imposed upon particular trouble-makers, perhaps involving electronic tagging, breaking up gangs without labelling an entire age-group as criminal. A Scottish scheme puts plenty of police officers on the streets at night with a brief to engage with young people, deterring crime while steering them towards a range of youth activities available at clubs set up by the local council."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro03a","title":"","text":"A curfew is practical.  Very few children are going to be out late at night without an adult or very good reason. This helps make curfews enforceable as the police will be patrolling anyway, and any responsible adult can report children who are out after curfew. The curfew could therefore be for all young people, defined as those under the age of 18, beginning at 10pm on both weeknights and weekends and ending at sunrise, with the exceptions like those noted in the introduction. Curfew violations are punishable by fines and penalty assessments. In Los Angeles these total $675, and violations may also result in community service and driver's license restrictions. The amount can vary with Philadelphia only having a $250 fine. 1  1. Findlaw"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Curfews are most effective when used a short-term aid to other policing measures.  Other schemes aimed at reducing youth crime are highly effective but work best in conjunction with curfews. As the National Crime Prevention Council states: \u2018A curfew alone won\u2019t stop crime. More preventive measures, including recreational activities and job opportunities, are needed to reach out to young people and keep them from committing crimes.\u2019 1 In areas with a whole culture of lawlessness a curfew takes the basically law-abiding majority off the streets, allowing the police to engage with the most difficult element. Curfews are a tool in the struggle to improve lives in run-down areas; they often used for relatively short periods of a few weeks or months in order to bring a situation under control so that other measures can be put in place and given a chance to work."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con03b","title":"","text":"Child curfews are an important form of zero tolerance policing, showing that a community will not allow an atmosphere of lawlessness to develop. Paul McKeever, Chairman of the Police Federation in England and Wales, argues that: \u2018\u201cIt would send out the message that we are serious that the criminal justice system has the power to impose immediate sanctions for bad behaviour and that \u201cno\u201d will mean \u201cno\u201d. At the moment no is negotiable.1\u201dThe idea of zero tolerance comes from the theory that if low-level crimes, like graffiti-spraying, window breaking and drug-dealing (all common juvenile offences) are not acted against swiftly and effectively by the police, then a permissive atmosphere is created where violence and other serious crimes flourish and law and order breaks down entirely.  1. McKeever, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con01b","title":"","text":"Curfews are easy to police compared to other forms of crime prevention, and are therefore effective. Child curfews can help to the police to establish a climate of zero tolerance and to create a safer community for everyone."}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con02a","title":"","text":"Curfews compromise children's rights.  Youth curfews infringe upon individual rights and liberties. Children have a right to freedom of movement and assembly which curfews directly undermine, by criminalising their simple presence in a public space. They are also subject to blanket discrimination on the grounds of age and the underlying assumption that all young people are potential law-breakers. It has been established in US law in the 1976 case of Missouri v Danforth that everyone has full constitutional rights regardless of age. Thus, curfews violate the fifth amendment which guarantees a right to free movement and due process. Comparable legal principles exist in most liberal states, and there is no reason to treat children as having less substantive rights to free movement. 1  Youth curfews have great potential for abuse, raising civil rights issues. Evidence from U.S. cities suggests that police arrest far more black children than white for curfew violations. Curfews will tend to be imposed upon poor areas in inner cities with few places for children to amuse themselves safely and within the law, compounding social exclusion with physical exclusion from public spaces. These problems will also be made worse by the inevitable deterioration in relations between the police and the young people subject to the curfew.  1. Vissing, Y. (2011). Curfews. In: Chambliss, W., eds. Juvenile Crime and Justice. London, SAGE publications, Ch. 5. P.62"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con04a","title":"","text":"Positive engagement would be more effective than curfews.  Other successful schemes aim to work individually with young troublemakers, in order to cut their reoffending rate, for example by requiring them to meet with victims of crime so that they understand the consequences of their actions, and by pairing them with trained mentors. Overall, governments need to ensure good educational opportunities and employment prospects in order to bring optimism to communities where youngsters feel that their futures are pretty hopeless.  Rather than trying to scare kids into good behaviour, why don\u2019t we offer them a better life? Most areas with anti-social behaviour problems are poor, with bad schools, few jobs and little for kids to do with themselves. With little hope for the future, no wonder some kids go off the rails. So instead of threatening punishment, we should invest in better schools, places for kids to play and socialise, and the chance of a job.1  1. The Observer, 2004"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con03a","title":"","text":"Curfews are counter-productive.  Imposing child curfews would actually be counter-productive, as it would increase juvenile offending by turning millions of generally law-abiding young people into criminals. The Executive director of D.C. Alliance of Youth Advocates argues that \u2018\"This tells young people they're the problem, not part of the solution\".\u2019 1Already in the USA, more children are charged with curfew offences than with any other crime. Yet once children acquire a criminal record they cross a psychological boundary, making it much more likely that they will perceive themselves as criminal and have much less respect for the law in general, leading to more serious forms of offending. At the same time a criminal record harms their opportunities in employment and so increases the social deprivation and desperation which breed crime.  1. Dvorak and Greenwell, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con01a","title":"","text":"Curfews are ineffective.  Curfews are not an effective solution to the problem of youth crime; research in the USA suggests that there is no link between areas that achieved a reduction in juvenile crime and areas with youth curfews. Paul McKeever, Chairman of the Police Federation in England and Wales points out that curfews are an unrealistic scheme: \u2018It is fantasy to believe the police could impose an immediate sanction for somebody to stay in their home for four weeks without any kind of due process.\u2019 1Although some places did see a reduction in youth crime, this often had more to do with other strategies, such as zero-tolerance policing.  1. McKeever, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con04b","title":"","text":"Child curfews can help to change a negative youth culture in which challenging the law is seen as desirable and gang membership an aspiration. Impressionable youngsters would be kept away from gang activity on the streets at night and a cycle of admiration and recruitment would be broken \u2018in the hope that we can stop them from getting so far into trouble that they end up in the criminal justice system.1\u2019 By spending more time with their families and in more positive activities, such as sports and youth clubs, which curfews make a more attractive option for bored youngsters, greater self-esteem and discipline can be developed.  1. BBC News, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con02b","title":"","text":"Curfews do not harmfully restrict childrens\u2019 rights to participation in activities and actually supports their right to a safe home and neighbourhood environment: \u2018The curfew law has several exceptions. Youths can be out after hours if they are with a parent or guardian or doing errands at a parent or guardian's direction. They also can be at work or attending an official school, religious or recreational activity.\u2019 1If family breakdown means parents lose control, and in cases where parents can\u2019t be bothered, then the police should step in. If the state has the right to take children away from cruel parents to protect them, then it also has the right to protect everyone else from dangerous youths. Most importantly, we can trust the police not to abuse this power. Our police are sworn to uphold the law and protect people, and trained to respect everyone\u2019s rights.  1. Dvorak and Greenwell, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro02b","title":"","text":"While it seems defendable that we learn moral values at a young age, the proposition argument does not look with the factual evidence about the individuals who are most likely to get involved in criminal activity. Criminologists came up with the \u2018age-crime curve\u2019. [1] This reveals that the profile of the average criminal is a male between the ages of 15 and 25. After the age of 25, the majority of criminals desist. Presuming that this pressure of social deprivation affects everyone in society in the same way, more steps need to be taken in order to explain why predominantly males between the ages of 15 and 25 seem to respond to it in this manner. This further goes to suggest that perhaps social deprivation is not a primary cause, but that factors such as age and gender play as much of a part in the likelihood of criminal activity.  [1] Bottoms, Professor Sir Antony E., \u2018Crime prevention for youth at risk: some theoretical concerns\u2019, Resource Material Series, No.68, 129th International Senior Seminar Visiting Experts\u2019 Papers, pp.21-34."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro02a","title":"","text":"We acquire our knowledge of what is right and wrong through education.  We are not born with an innate sense of right and wrong, a prior knowledge of what is legal and illegal. We acquire it through education, both at home and at school. The internalization of these social norms is a crucial part of becoming a law-abiding citizen and acquiring the respect toward the law our society demands. Children from poor backgrounds are more likely to be raised in environments where such distinctions are blurred, where they are exposed to negative role models within their family or community. They may also experience very erratic or low-quality schooling, This may be because the schools have inadequate levels of funding or supplies, the classes are more likely to have disruptive children or that better teachers are more sought after and thus go to other schools. As a result, they might become desensitized to crime, or violence as a result of being exposed to it on a regular basis. They might then start to view crime not as against social order but as a part of it and that will make them more likely to break the law themselves."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The opposition to this argument is that nothing can or should be gained through crime. There are many ways of making voices heard without resulting to criminal activity. None-violent measures such as bus boycotts, freedom rides , sit-ins and mass demonstrations were used during the African American Civil Rights Movement . This movement succeeded in bringing about legislative change, and making separate seats, drinking fountains, and schools for African Americans illegal. Another example is the 2003 Women of Libya mass Action for Peace, [1] or the more current (2011) uprisings in Syria, Egypt and Tunisia. To use an example of the Tunisian uprisings, the people spoke out against huge unemployment and government corruption. Thus though many of the protesters were from poor socioeconomic backgrounds, criminal acts were not taken and yet they still achieved the freedom that followed from the 24-year-ruling president Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali fleeing the country a month later. [2] Therefore that people feel crime is the only outlet they have cannot be a reason to support the idea that social deprivation is the primary cause of criminal activity.  [1] Ekiyor, Thelma Aremiebi, and Gbowee, Leymah Roberta, \u2018Woman\u2019s Peace Activism in West Africa The WIPNET Experience, People Building Peace.  [2] Alexander, Christopher, \u2018Tunisia\u2019s protest wave: where it comes from and what it means\u2019, The Middle East Channel ForeignPolicy.com, 3 January 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro01a","title":"","text":"People who are destitute are more likely to turn to crime in order to satisfy basic living necessities.  In some impoverished families there is simply no possibility of work and in many countries where there is no welfare benefits this means that the family cannot afford food, shelter or healthcare. Even in some places where there are benefits, this is often not enough to cover the family\u2019s way (for example healthcare is the number one cause of bankruptcy in the US) [1] and thus some members of the family may be driven to desperate measures in order to be able to afford provisions. If no other options are open to them this desperation can result in measures such as theft, drug dealing or blackmail (See appendix). Furthermore often extreme poverty is linked to substance abuse, often as a respite from these terrible conditions. This in turn breeds more crime as people have to fund their addictions. However in this case it seems clear that it is the desperation of poverty that causes these people to commit crimes. Many people believe racism, and therefore crimes such as incitement to racial hatred or \u2018hate crimes\u2019, are more likely to occur in areas of social deprivation. The theory suggests that a mix of poverty, unemployment and segregation causes\u2019 high tension can cause a \u2018scapegoat\u2019 culture on either, and indeed both, sides.  [1] Tamkins, Theresa, \u2018Medical bills prompt more than 60 percent of U.S. bankruptcies\u2019, CNN Health, 5 June 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Some people counter this argument by claiming it is not that people who are in extreme poverty that are more likely to take drugs, but those who take drugs are more likely to be in extreme poverty, as drugs are expensive and many drug users are unstable and therefore unable to keep a job. This could be taken to suggest that poverty is not a cause of crime in itself, but might merely be associated with other factors which cause it. Therefore to tackle the crime of drug use, we do not need to tackle social deprivation, but the drug use itself.  Furthermore the argument that poverty increases the likelihood of racism or racist crime can be refuted if we acknowledge one of the most famous cases of racist crime, apartheid in South Africa. This event is now considered a crime against humanity, \"committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime\". [1] However, it was also created and maintained by politicians and many of the upper class in a stable and well-off society, thus this hate crime cannot be attributed to social deprivation. Even racist actions that occurred in socially deprived areas at this time or later must be looked at in a wider context and it seems clear that social deprivation alone cannot be blamed.  [1] United Nations General Assembly, \u2018International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid\u2019, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 30 November 1973,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro03a","title":"","text":"People feel crime is the only way to get their frustrations heard.  Some people, particularly those from deprived social or economic backgrounds may feel that their government is not helping them or listing to\/care about their problems. When this happens to a large group of people, they may feel crime is the only way they can have their frustrations heard. One example of this would be the Brixton riots in 1981 (See Appendix). [1] In some states where government criticism is itself against the law, breaking the law is in fact the only way to have your feeling heard. However, this is of particular importance to those from socially deprived back grounds for three reasons, firstly they are often the ones most ignored by their government and secondly they are the ones who would benefit most if society were to change. Finally, for some people from poor social or economic backgrounds, crime is the only outlet they have to vent their anger or frustration as all other options have been blocked for them.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Brixton riots: Archive\u2019, 10 April 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-con03b","title":"","text":"This is ridiculous. Why is the drug dealer a drug dealer? Because he is poor and has few other prospects. He is not poor just because he is a criminal as something had to get him in to crime in the first place. In many cases that initial motivating factor was poverty or a lack of prospects. If it was true that the causation was reversed then there would be much more social mobility because those who started poor and deprived but wanted to work and were fundamentally honest would be socially mobile."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-con01b","title":"","text":"While the figures demonstrated in this argument clearly illustrate that these large scale crimes are more often committed by those who are not suffering from social deprivation, tax evasion constitutes a small percentage of the world wide crime rate, and thus should not be taken to prove that social deprivation is not the primary source of crime."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-con02a","title":"","text":"In an age of consumerism, the primary cause of crime is a greed or desperation to \u2018fit in\u2019, or \u2018have it all\u2019.  We live in a culture where success and personal achievement is measured on a material scale - what you own, how much you make, what car you drive, what clothes you wear. This means that it is the way society is structured to make us crave material objects which is the primary cause of crime. As society values wealth and material goods over everything else people might turn to crime in order to acquire these much-vaunted markers of personal achievement, to which they feel entitled. Seeing no other avenue for personal and financial success, they might easily choose to get involved in illegal but somewhat profitable activities \u2014 like drug dealing, theft or burglary, running prostitution rings, racketeering, etc. However if society was to value traits such as honesty, hard work or loyalty over personal holdings then perhaps the levels of crime would not be so high."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-con03a","title":"","text":"The statistics about poverty and crime show correlation, not causation.  While it is true that crime is correlated with people coming from poorer socio-economic backgrounds this does not in itself prove that poverty itself is the cause of crime. A lack of education or bad parenting might be equally, if not more convincing explanations for both phenomena. The causation may even be reversed, with those who indulge in violent behaviour and who seek illegal short-cuts to success rather than being prepared to hold down a steady job being more likely to end up poor. For example, recent studies have found that street-level drug dealers make less than the minimum wage. [1] So poverty is not a cause of crime in itself, but might merely be associated with other factors which cause it. In order to tackle crime, therefore, we don\u2019t need to eradicate poverty, but improve people\u2019s internalization of social norms through law enforcement and education.  [1] Levitt, Steven D. and Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, \u2018An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang's Finances\u2019, The National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 6592, (1998)."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-con01a","title":"","text":"Some of the biggest crimes that affect society the most are committed by huge multinational companies or wealthy individuals.  Tax evasion is costing the developing world around $160 billion a year [1] to those who most need it (incidentally this is more than the entire global aid budget). These are huge, global crimes that have effects of billions of people. It does not take a stretch of the imagination to illustrate how some of the tax evaders can cause poverty, illness and even death to others; as the money they do not pay in tax can therefore not be used for road safety, pensions, healthcare, world aid or many other institutions (that the tax evaders are still able to make use of). This illustrates how the crime of tax evasion can have serious consequences. In the US the most common tax evader is a male, under 50 and of the highest earning bracket. Globally the most common tax evaders are large multi-national companies. This illustrates that these large scale crimes are not being committed by those from deprived backgrounds, but rather from the greed of the wealthy to have more wealth.  [1] Christian Aid, \u2018Christian Aid urges G20 to crach down on tax dodging pinstripe \u2018pirates\u2019, 3 September 2009."}
+{"id":"training-law-cpshbsdcc-con02b","title":"","text":"This opposition argument two is not as clear cut as it seems. While it is true that society encourages us to value material goods, and that this encourages crime, it is also clear that this effects those from socially deprived areas much more than those from stable or wealthy backgrounds. In many socially deprived societies, the lack of education and resources invested in the younger generation mean that the poverty cycle continues to define how well these young people will do as adults. The family they are born into is still the biggest predictor of a person\u2019s life trajectory. If social mobility is not a truly viable option for young people from impoverished backgrounds to succeed, they may see crime as the only way to reach the material goods that so commonly are associated with personal achievement. One current example of this is the riots that occurred in major cities throughout the UK in 2011. Perhaps one of the most notable acts of the riots was the looting, particularly as the majority of looting was from high street stores not for necessities or for high end goods, but rather for average things the looters wanted. Zoe Williams explains the riots as such \u2018this is what happens when people don't have anything, when they have their noses constantly rubbed in stuff they can't afford, and they have no reason ever to believe that they will be able to afford it\u2019. [1] Therefore in this case criminality is caused by consumerism as the opposition argument two suggests, but this is compounded by the cyclical nature of social deprivation that looks unlikely to be solved.  [1] Williams, Zoe, \u2018The UK riots: the psychology of looting\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 9 August 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro02b","title":"","text":"Minimum sentences have only a theoretical impact on crime rates; in reality they make no difference. The pro makes two major assumptions; first, that criminals have reasonably accurate perceptions of the legal code. Second, the pro assumes that harsh penalties have a psychological impact on potential criminals. Interviews with convicted felons found that a mere 22% even thought they knew what the punishment would be. Another 18% did not know at all, and more than a third reported that they had not thought about punishment at all at the time of the crime. [1] Thus minimum sentences are not sufficiently well publicized to have a significant deterrent effect. Furthermore, substantial evidence demonstrates that additional severity has a relatively small deterrent effect. Criminals respond much more to the chance of getting caught rather than the consequences that occur if they get caught; if a criminal\u2019s chance of getting caught is 10%, the deterrent effect is virtually zero. [2] Thus mandatory sentences do not have a substantial deterrent effect.  [1] Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America, Russell Sage Foundation, NY, 2006, 178.  [2] Western, 179."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro02a","title":"","text":"Mandatory minimum sentences increase deterrence.  Deterrence works through several mechanisms; likelihood of getting caught, severity of punishment, and perceived public disapproval. Mandatory minimum sentences increase the effectiveness of severity as a deterrent. If potential criminals know a mild sentence is possible, they are more likely to commit crime in the hopes that they may charm a judge into sympathetically lowering their sentence. By establishing a set minimum punishment, a potential criminal with any knowledge of the penal code knows that, if caught, he\/she will face a substantial punishment for his\/her crime. The pro need not demonstrate that every, or even a strong majority, of would-be criminals will be deterred by mandatory minimum sentences; so long as the mandate has a reasonable deterrent effect, it will reduce crime and therefore improve the overall standard of living."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro03b","title":"","text":"Safety valves are simply a reflection of the problem with mandatory sentencing. Safety valves are proof that the inflexibility of minimum sentencing leads to injustice. Safety valves are a step in the right direction, but are themselves an inflexible form of relief. For example, safety valves often do not apply if the defendant has a history of more than one very minor offense, such as passing a bad check. [1] The better way to reduce the injustice of mandatory minimum sentences would be to eliminate the system and allow judicial discretion.  [1] \u201cFederal Mandatory Minimum Reforms: Improve and Expand the Federal \u2018Safety Valve,\u2019\u201d Smart on Crime: Recommendations for the Next Administration and Congress, 2008. ["}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro05a","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentencing increases consistency in the justice system.  Former Supreme Justice Sandra Day O\u2019Connor once said, \u201cliberty finds no refuge in a jurisprudence of doubt.\u201d [1] Without mandates, judges may have radically different ideas of just sentences. Michael Simons gives the example of Mutt and Jim- two criminals of identical background who commit the same crime. Judge Lenient sentences Mutt, while Judge Harsh sentences Jeff. Mutt might receive one day in prison while Jeff receives a sentence of twenty-five years. [2] While such an extreme is unlikely, it is noteworthy that the legal system emphasizes the importance of consistency. Consistent precedent is essential because citizens need to be able to make decisions knowing the legal consequences of their actions. Mandatory sentencing need not be overly harsh, but there should be some sort of rigidity to establish reliability in the legal system.  [1] Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 83, (1992).   [2] Michael A. Simons, \u201cDeparting Ways: Uniformity, Disparity, and Cooperation in Federal Drug Sentences,\u201d Villanova Law Review, Vol. 47, Issue 2, 2002, 926."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro01a","title":"","text":"Mandatory minimum sentences remove undue judicial discretion.  Discretion allows for both intentional and unintentional bias. The U.S. Supreme Court recently heard a case concerning alleged corruption when a West Virginia judge ruled in favor of a plaintiff that had donated over $3 million to the judge\u2019s election campaign. [1] Though this case is not directly linked to minimum sentences, it demonstrates that judicial corruption is an issue in the legal system today; mandatory sentencing reduces the discretion that allows unethical judicial action. Furthermore, judges may attempt to be impartial, but data shows that humans are inclined to be more sympathetic towards particular groups. For example, female defendants are less likely to receive a death sentence than male defendants, while defendants in general are seven times more likely to receive the death penalty if the victim is female; scholars suggest that these disparities are caused by societal perceptions that women need greater protection rather than any actual difference in the severity of the crime. [2] Thus even decisions that seem impartial are often not. Strict sentencing mandates are more likely to yield just decisions because they are less vulnerable to individual bias.  [1] Dahlia Lithwick, \u201cThe Great Caperton Caper: The Supreme Court Talks About Judicial Bias. Kinda,\u201d Slate, June 8, 2009.  [2] \u201cStudies: Gender Bias in Death Sentencing,\u201d Death Penalty Information Center, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro01b","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentences do not eliminate undue discretion; they merely shift the power from judges to prosecutors. Prosecutors may decide whether or not to charge defendants for violations other than the main charge. For example, a prosecutor may add weapons possession to a charge for drug sales- this additional count can drastically increase the defendant\u2019s sentence. In the United States, defendants often cooperate with prosecutors and provide information in order to avoid such hefty sentences. Michael Simmons explains, \u201c[\u2026] A cooperation departure is usually the only significant sentencing factor over which a defendant has any control and\u2013 because the average cooperation departure cuts a defendant\u2019s sentence in half- it is often a defendant\u2019s only hope for a reduced sentence. Thus, it is not surprising that cooperation departures have fundamentally changed federal prosecutions.\u201d [1] Prosecutors may wield this power to coerce defendants into accepting a plea bargain in cases where they might reasonably be acquitted at trial. Because prosecutors are part of the executive branch, they are more susceptible to political influence than federal judges, who are often appointed, not elected. Thus for a balance of power, it is better to allow judges to have discretion.  Debaters might instead argue that mandatory sentences are not an effective means of subduing corrupt judges, as a judge has many venues for disrupting a trial.  [1] Michael A. Simons, \u201cDeparting Ways: Uniformity, Disparity, and Cooperation in Federal Drug Sentences,\u201d Villanova Law Review, Vol. 47, Issue 2, 2002, 935."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro05b","title":"","text":"Judges are capable of delivering consistency. Judges are trained professionals and must demonstrate competence in order to be appointed- they are unlikely to administer completely random sentences. In order to further reduce inconsistency, the Con supports government-issued sentencing guidelines so that judges are aware of the precedent concerning sentencing for a particular crime, so long as these guidelines are not compulsory. In the unusual occurrence that a judge administers an unjustly harsh sentence, defendants may appeal their case to a higher court. Thus judicial discretion is unlikely to result in widespread inconsistent sentencing."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro04b","title":"","text":"Imprisonment only yields the benefits of incapacitation if the offenders are a likely threat to society. If the criminal that is given an extensive prison sentence was unlikely to commit another crime, then his\/her incapacitation did not actually protect society. Studies within prison populations demonstrate that most offenders commit relatively little crime, while a core group commits a large portion of the crime. For example, a Rand Corporation survey found that half of all burglars committed fewer than six crimes per year, while the top 10% committed over two hundred. [1] Thus society is not particularly well serve when the bottom half of burglars face long prison sentences; few burglaries are avoided, and these criminals will now have more difficulty rejoining society.  [1] Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America, Russell Sage Foundation, NY, 2006, 178."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro03a","title":"","text":"Mandatory minimum sentencing can be designed to avoid injustices.  The negative side effects of minimum sentencing guidelines can be avoided via \u201csafety valves.\u201d The U.S. federal government introduced safety valves in 1994; mandatory sentencing is suspended if the defendant meets certain criteria, such as being a low-level participant or having no prior criminal history. The safety valve allows flexibility so that low-risk offenders do not receive excessively harsh punishment. Thus mandatory sentencing guidelines have enough flexibility to recognize varying circumstances, while retaining enough rigidity to deliver consistent punishment."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-pro04a","title":"","text":"Minimum sentences increase the effectiveness of incapacitation.  Incapacitation is one of the 4 basic reasons for punishment. Mandatory minimum sentences keep criminals out of society for a longer period of time than they might otherwise be in jail, thereby reducing their window of opportunity to commit crime. The criminal justice system is obligated to refrain from cruel or unusual punishment, but its main purpose is to protect society from law-breakers through various means of preventing and punishing illegal activity. Mandatory minimum sentences should be proportionate to the severity of the crime, thus satisfying the requirement of humane punishment. Thus mandatory minimum sentencing is a just method of protecting the public."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con03b","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentences need not be excessively harsh. The Pro supports mandatory sentences that account for a criminal\u2019s prior history and the severity of the crime; mandatory sentences can be proportionate to the scope of the crime. A crime such as murder, which poses a serious threat to public safety, should have a greater minimum punishment than petty theft. But by arguing that we should not have minimum sentences for low-level criminals, the con is essentially arguing that we should not imprison offenders unless they singlehandedly pose a dire threat to society at large. All crimes are violations of the law; if the government ignores crime on the basis that the offense is \u201cnot that serious,\u201d it signals that laws against such offenses are not legitimate and may be ignored. Thus mandatory minimum sentences are relevant and beneficial to reducing low-level crime."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con01b","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentencing does not provide prosecutors any additional power to do anything unethical. \u201cStacking charges\u201d is another way of saying the prosecutor charges the defendant for each crime he\/she committed, meaning that the defendant is being held accountable for all of his\/her actions. The Con fails to demonstrate why this is problematic. Furthermore, having democratic checks ensures that the prosecution will not bring trumped-up charges. First, a jury will dismiss such charges, and possibly dismiss all charges if they feel the prosecutor is being abusive. Second, the public is unlikely to respond positively to a district attorney that wastes time and resources on putting low-level criminals in prison for long sentences rather than focusing on serious threats to public safety. Thus the ability to \u201cstack charges\u201d is unlikely to have an adverse impact on justice."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con02a","title":"","text":"Mandatory minimum sentences make juries reluctant to convict guilty defendants.  The most publicized form of jury nullification is in the case of the death penalty, wherein jurors are reluctant to sentence a person to death. However, Nancy King of the University of Chicago finds that juries are increasingly likely to acquit if a defendant might receive an unduly harsh sentence under mandatory sentencing laws or \u201cthree-strike\u201d laws. [1] This kind of jury nullification has two implications. First, it is harmful because defendants that are guilty and ought to go to prison (albeit not for the term demanded by sentencing laws) are not held accountable for their actions at all. Second, jury nullification (a contested practice in and of itself) is a signal in a democratic society that the public considers current legislation to be unjust. Thus the jury nullification demonstrates public opposition to the unintentionally unjust consequences of mandatory sentencing.  [1] Nancy King, \u201cSilencing Nullification Advocacy Inside the Jury Room and Outside the Courtroom,\u201d The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, 1998, 438."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con05a","title":"","text":"Minimum mandatory sentences are unjust.  In the United States, federal minimum sentences for narcotics-related offences have forced judges on countless occasions to deliver sentences of 20 year, 30 years, or even life imprisonment to offenders that were tangentially connected to the offense. Often, such offenders are low-income young adults that turn to drug sales for a month or two out of desperation. [1] Sometimes defendants find themselves entangled in drug busts because they are living with family members that are involved in the drug trade. [2] In a well-publicized case, Weldon Angelos was sentenced to 55 years in prison for selling marijuana because he was also in possession of a firearm. [3] All criminals are not the same; there are significant differences in the level of threat that individuals pose to society, as well as the likelihood of rehabilitation. Rigid mandatory sentences are unjust because they inevitably lead to numerous cases of disproportionate punishment. These harsh punishments consequently have disastrous impacts on the individuals, as well as their family and community.  [1] \u201cDeJarion Echols,\u201d Profiles of Injustice, Families Against Mandatory Minimums.  [2] \u201cHamedah Hasan,\u201d Profiles of Injustice, Families Against Mandatory Minimums.  [3] \u201cWeldon Angelos,\u201d Profiles of Injustice, Families Against Mandatory Minimums."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con04a","title":"","text":"Minimum mandatory sentences reduce the chance of rehabilitation.  Minimum sentences force minor criminals to spend more time in prison, thereby increasing their exposure to more hardened criminals. This exposure reduces their chance of rehabilitation- other inmates act as a \u201cbad influence.\u201d [1] Furthermore, studies of labor market participation demonstrate that the more time a person spends outside the labor force, the more their human capital (i.e. marketable skills) deteriorate; their chance of finding well-paid work decreases with more time outside the labor force. [2] Longer prison sentences keep people from working, thereby keeping them in a cycle of unemployment that leads them back into crime.  [1] Craig Haney, \u201cPrison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional Reactions,\u201d Vera Institute of Justice, 8.   [2] Francine Blau, Mariannne Ferber, and Anne Winkler, The Economics of Women, Men, and Work, 5th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2006."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con03a","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentencing fills the system with \u201csmall fish.\u201d  As noted above in response to the Pro, most convicts are not high-repeat criminals; a study similar to the one mentioned above found that in a sample of a cohort of teenage boys in Philadelphia, 33% had engaged in delinquent behavior at some point, but 60% of the crime was committed by a group of recidivists that made up only 7% of the population. [1] Harsh punishments for all offenders have led to an overcrowded prison system; overcrowding decreases safety within prisons and reduces the chance of rehabilitation because prisons have fewer resources per prisoner to provide educational and work training. [2] By filling the system with \u201csmall fish,\u201d the Pro reduce the prison system\u2019s ability to address serious threats to society.  [1] Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America, Russell Sage Foundation, NY, 2006, 176.  [2] Craig Haney, \u201cPrison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional Reactions,\u201d Vera Institute of Justice, 6. ["}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con05b","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentences are fairer than judicial discretion. The Con assumes that individual judges will deliver fair and proportionate punishment. However, as is discussed in the Pro arguments, judges are susceptible to many forms of implicit and explicit bias. For example, studies consistently show that minorities receive longer sentences than whites in the U.S. for comparable offenses. Mandatory sentencing eliminates the danger of individual partiality and replaces it with consistent standards. The Pro advocates a well-defined set of sentencing standards that account for factors such as prior history and cooperation so as to avoid the injustices discussed in the Con\u2019s argument. The Pro acknowledges that sentencing standards may be imperfect, however, the flaws of these imperfections are outweighed by the elimination of personal judicial bias."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con01a","title":"","text":"Mandatory sentencing gives prosecutors undue power.  Prosecutors can stack charges, which they can use to scare a defendant into accepting a plea bargain. Prosecutors are part of the executive branch; they are directly answerable to elected officials (and are often elected themselves), whereas judges are generally more removed from political influence. Politicians often promote themselves as being \u201ctough on crime.\u201d [1] In order to make good on this claim, they may pressure prosecutors to increase conviction rates, get longer sentences, etc. Thus political pressure may lead prosecutors to handle cases in a way that makes them more popular with the public, rather than one which gives the criminal their fair due. Because judges are less susceptible to public pressure, it is safer to entrust discretion to them.  [1] Michael A. Simons, \u201cDeparting Ways: Uniformity, Disparity, and Cooperation in Federal Drug Sentences,\u201d Villanova Law Review, Vol. 47, Issue 2, 2002, 923."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con04b","title":"","text":"Minimum mandatory sentences increase the chance of rehabilitation. If a person receives a light punishment for his\/her action, he\/she sees that the action has a low cost. Conversely, if a person has firsthand experience with strong punishment for an action, they will be more reluctant to take that action in the future. Furthermore, prisons have literacy and work training programs to benefit criminals; the majority of (American) prisoners are functionally illiterate. [1] If these criminals are in prison for a short period of time, they will not be able to reap the benefits of these rehabilitating programs. Thus longer sentences (within reason) can actually be beneficial to inmates.  [1] Craig Haney, \u201cPrison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional Reactions,\u201d Vera Institute of Justice, 85."}
+{"id":"training-law-phsms-con02b","title":"","text":"1) There are checks against jury nullification. The judicial system can reduce the impact of jury nullification by explaining to juries that their responsibility is to determine the guilt of the defendant. The judge can explain that nullification is not a legally acceptable form of dissenting from a law that one perceives as unjust. While King makes the observations noted by the Pro, she also notes that prosecutors may dismiss potential jurors that admit they will consider the severity of the punishment. [1]  (2) A careful jury is a good jury. When juries are reluctant to convict because of the death penalty, they are often asking themselves, \u201cam I so sure that this person committed this crime that I am willing to bet their life on it?\u201d Such hesitation is beneficial to the justice system- it reduces the number of wrongful convictions. Similarly, mandatory minimum sentences make juries realize the significance of their decisions. While this may allow some lucky criminals to evade justice, it also prevents innocent civilians from suffering punishments they do not deserve.  [1] Nancy King, \u201cSilencing Nullification Advocacy Inside the Jury Room and Outside the Courtroom,\u201d The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, 1998,435."}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro02b","title":"","text":"The Second Amendment was not designed for only self defense and hunting. The idea that the common man should be reasonably able to protect themselves from tyranny, foreign invasion, and insurrection is a reasonable and just cause. But even if we were to accept that self defense and hunting are the only legitimate reasons for owning a gun then why should the state get to decide what weapons someone should use when hunting or defending themselves? That a gun may not be the best choice for these activities does not mean that it should not be a possible choice."}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Assault weapons are not necessary for self defence or hunting.  As New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg argues \"We've got to really question whether military-style weapons with big magazines belong on the streets of America in this day and age.\u201d [1] Police chiefs such as Ralph Godbee of Detroit argue \"We're talking about weapons that are made for war\u2026 you can shoot 50 to 60 rounds within a minute.\u201d [2] In a self defense scenario the person defending themselves need to have enough ammunition to provide deterrence, however they would have to be unwise to take on several assailants so there should be little need to have more than 10 rounds in the magazine. Law enforcement expert Leonard J. Supenski has testified \u201cbecause of potential harm to others in the household, passersby, and bystanders, too much firepower is a hazard\u201d as in self defense, the defenders will often fire until they have expended all the bullets in their magazine. To use an assault weapon would to spray an assailant with bullets from an assault weapon would be using disproportionate force that will not only harm the assailant but will likely hit anyone else nearby.  Even those who are against an assault weapons ban such as David Kopel concede that for the most part these are not useful weapons for hunting. These weapons are \u201cintended to wound rather than to kill\u201d so would certainly not be useful in taking down a deer. Moreover he also concedes \u201ca hunter will carry only a few rounds\u201d so the large capacity magazine is also useless for sport. [3]  [1] Simpson, Connor, \u2018Dianne Feinstein Wants to Ban Assault Weapons\u2019, the Atlantic Wire, 16 December 2012,   [2] Jackson, Jesse, \u2018Police Chiefs Are Right: Ban Assault Weapons\u2019, Huffington Post, 3 August 2012,   [3] Kopel, David B., \u2018Rational Basis Analysis of \u201cAssault Weapon\u201d Prohibition\u2019, Journal of Contemporary Law, Vol.20, 1994 pp.381-417, p.393,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Banning assault weapons is an infringement on Americans freedom to protect themselves; what minor civil liberties advances may be gained pale by comparison to this.  It is also unlikely that the police and the FBI would recognise the linkage between fewer guns in the civilian population and reducing the firepower of the police. Similarly the FBI is unlikely to monitor civilians less simply because there is one less reason. The justification of \u201cpreventing homegrown attacks before they are hatched\u201d will still remain just as strong as before they will simply be looking for different things."}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro01a","title":"","text":"A ban would save lives  Put simply assault weapons are designed for assault, therefore their proliferation should be prohibited in law. To put things into the general context of gun crime within the United States every year 17,000 people are killed, 70 percent of them with guns and nearly 20,000 people commit suicide by shooting themselves [1] . Murder by gunfire particularly affects children, in total well over a million Americans have died in this manner and 80 people continue to be shot in the states every day. So some form of gun control is necessary and a ban on assault weapons is a good starting point.  Out of 62 mass murders since 1982 almost half the weapons used, 67 out of 142, were semi-automatic handguns and more than 30 were assault weapons. [2] The period of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban from 1994-2004 with the exception of 1999, the year of the Columbine massacre (which notably involved a semi-automatic produced before the ban), was also a peaceful period in terms of numbers of mass shootings. [3] While assault weapons are responsible for a relatively small amount of total gun deaths in the USA that is not a good reason for not banning them; any life saved is worthwhile. Taking the low estimate of 1% of deaths from assault weapons that still means 90-100 people a year while the high 7% [4] means 630-700 lives that could be saved.  Australia shows the advantages on implementing restrictions on guns (in Australia\u2019s case much stricter than anything being contemplated in this debate so the effect would not be as pronounced). In the wake of a mass shooting in Port Arthur in 1996 strict gun laws were implemented. An evaluation by the Australian National University found laws saved $500 million and halved the number of people killed by guns saving 200 lives every year. [5]  [1] Masters, Brian, \u2018America\u2019s deadly obsession with guns\u2019 The Telegraph 16 December 2012,   [2] Follman, Mark, et al., \u2018A Guide to Mass Shootings in America\u2019, Mother Jones, 15 December 2012,   [3] Wang, Sam, \u2018Did the federal ban on assault weapons matter?\u2019, Princeton Election Consortium, 14 December 2012,   [4] Matthews, Jake, \u2018For Lives and Liberty: Banning Assault Weapons in America\u2019, Harvard University Institute of Politics, 2012,   [5] Peters, Rebecca, \u2018Will Sandy Hook massacre be America\u2019s tipping point\u2019, The Sydney Morning Herald, 17 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is exactly correct that deaths as a result of assault weapons are a tiny portion of the total firearms deaths. There is also no way to know if those who were killed by these weapons would have been saved or whether their assailant would not simply have killed them with a handgun instead. Therefore to ban only certain types of guns does not address the issue satisfactorily because it does not take into consideration that any gun can kill."}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Black plastic on a gun does not make it any more lethal than other guns with wood stocks. Stopping the manufacture of such guns would hand over a lucrative market to the Russians and Chinese rather than reducing the number of assault weapons in the world. [1] Drugs cartels would simply find new routes to get the weapons they need, after all they are already dealing in illegal activities making the guns they want illegal on both sides of the border rather than just one is unlikely to stop them.  [1] Falconer, Bruce, \u2018Semiautomatic for the people\u2019, Mother Jones, July\/August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Banning assault weapons increases liberty and security  Many who are pro guns argue that it would be illegitimate for assault weapons to be banned while the police have them. Police forces, however, are going to be much more likely, and able to give them up when a ban is in place. The police don\u2019t want to be involved in an arms race with criminals to have the biggest guns; just look at the British police force where there is little gun crime and few shootings of police officers it is not felt that there is the need to have police armed with more than a taser or even truncheon. [1] Put simply a ban on assault weapons can help reverse the arms race between police and criminals.  Civil liberties would also be enhanced as law enforcement agencies would not need to devote so many resources into monitoring assault weapons purchases and those who have done the purchasing. Instead they would be able to simply target all assault weapons purchases as needing immediate attention. [2]  Finally we must remember that this ban enhances the highest liberty at all; life. Today as Justice Breyer says \u201cgun possession presents a greater risk of taking innocent lives\u201d than not having a gun. [3]  [1] Keating, Ruth, \u2018This House would arm the police\u2019, Peter Squires ed., Debatabase, 2011,   [2] Matthews, Jake, \u2018For Lives and Liberty: Banning Assault Weapons in America\u2019, Harvard University Institute of Politics, 2012,   [3] Masters, Brian, \u2018America\u2019s deadly obsession with guns\u2019, The Telegraph, 16 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-pro04a","title":"","text":"An assault weapons ban would stop the manufacture of many of the deadliest guns.  Yes a ban would not immediately take assault weapons off the streets but there would be significant long term benefits as highlighted by Connecticut Senator Joe Liberman \"We ought to restore the assault weapons ban -- not to take anybody's guns away that they have now, but to stop the manufacturing of these weapons.\" [1] The ban would stop manufacturers from making the weapons and with the legislation improved from the 1994 version it would be possible to prevent the cosmetic changes that were made to keep guns on the market. [2] This would mean that prices both in the USA and globally would increase as there would be less supply. One positive result might also be help to change the United States\u2019 position on the arms trade treaty which would further restrict global supply. [3] This would answer Mexican calls to cut off the supply of guns into the country that helps make the drugs violence in the country so deadly both by meaning less of the weapons are made and by helping to cut off the route through which weapons get into Mexico. [4] A ban on assault weapons would not fix Mexico but it would deprive arms smugglers of the closest, easiest and cheapest place to buy the arms used by the drugs cartels. [5]  [1] Jamieson, Dave, \u2018Connecticut Gov. Dannel Malloy Calls For Tougher Gun Controls\u2019, The Huffington Post, 16 December 2012,   [2] Epstein, Edward, \u2018NRA clout is outgunning Feinstein \/ Assault weapons ban renewal in doubt\u2019, SFGate, 28 June 2004,   [3] Urquhart, Conal, \u2018Arms trade treaty failure is disappointing, says William Hague\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 28 July 2012,   [4] \u2018Mexico urges U.S. to review gun laws after Colorado shooting\u2019, Reuters, 21 July 2012,   [5] Chertoff, Emily, \u2018Regulating U.S.-Made Assault Weapons: The International Case\u2019, The Atlantic, 19 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con03b","title":"","text":"There is a rational basis for banning assault weapons as they are a firearm of choice among criminals. In a study of young adult purchases of handguns in California buyers with minor criminal histories were twice as likely to purchase automatic pistols as those with no criminal history. This was even higher at five times as likely for those who had been charged with two or more serious violent offenses. [1] This means those purchasing assault weapons intend for them to be used for violent ends.  It is true that assault weapons are used in a small percentage of crimes, although 1% is disputable in Miami for example 15 out of 79 homicides in 2006 involved assault weapons, [2] but the opposition ignore that large capacity magazines are used in a much higher percentage of crimes; between 14 and 26% before the 1994 ban. [3]  [1] Koper, Christopher S., et al., \u2018An Updated Assessment of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban: Impacts on Gun Markets and Gun Violence, 1994-2003\u2019, Report to the National Institute of Justice, United States Department of Justice, June 2004, p.17   [2] Associated Press, \u2018Assault-weapon attacks on rise in Miami area\u2019, MSNBC, 14 September 2007,   [3] Koper, Christopher S., et al., \u2018An Updated Assessment of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban: Impacts on Gun Markets and Gun Violence, 1994-2003\u2019, Report to the National Institute of Justice, United States Department of Justice, June 2004, p.18"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con01b","title":"","text":"Supreme court rulings have been overturned before. This is an area where the bill of rights is clearly outdated and out of touch; today\u2019s militia is clearly the standing army and so this should just be interpreted as only granting members of the army the right to carry arms. The maintenance of \u201cthe security of a free state\u201d clearly is not something that today is done through the citizenry having access to guns, whether assault weapons or not. Moreover it is difficult to see why if there is a right to bear arms that is unconnected with the security of the state these arms should be these particular assault weapons rather than types of weapon that we are not looking to ban. Would a rifle not be as useful in the event of invasion as a semi-automatic? The Bill of Rights was written at the end of the eighteenth century when the weapons were muzzle loading muskets it was not conceived with powerful, accurate, modern weapons that are capable of mass murder without reloading."}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con02a","title":"","text":"It is incoherent to ban some guns  It is incoherent to attempt to ban assault weapons while allowing other weapons to remain on the streets. As professor Jacobs from New York University argues \u201cPistols are dangerous because they are easily carried and concealed; shotguns because they spray metal projectiles over a wide area; certain hunting rifles because they fire large calibre bullets, and certain \"sniper rifles\" because they are accurate over great distances. Assault rifles are not remarkable by any of these criteria.\u201d [1] Indeed the previous ban simply used a list of guns that were banned rather than a specific definition that could then be applied universally showing the difficulty of classifying these weapons. [2] It should also be remembered that this will not affect assault weapons that are already legal in the United States so this would not even be banning all assault weapons so would leave millions in private hands, while it might be argued there is some slight difference between an assault weapon and another gun there is certainly no difference betweena a new and an old assault weapon.  [1] Kopel, David B., \u2018Rational Basis Analysis of \u201cAssault Weapon\u201d Prohibition\u2019, Journal of Contemporary Law, Vol.20, 1994 pp.381-417, p.404,   [2] Kobayashi, Bruce H., and Olson, Joseph E., \u2018In Re 101 California Street: A legal and economic analysis of strict liability for the manufacture and sale of \u201cassault weapons\u201d\u2019, Stanford Law and Policy Review, vol.8 No.1, 1997,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con04a","title":"","text":"A ban on assault weapons would not work, it will simply encourage a black market  It has already been demonstrated that most crime already takes place using other guns or even without firearms at all so it is illogical to think that this ban would make any difference to crime. For a start as the ban would not be retroactive large numbers of assault weapons would remain legally in the United States. It would create a black market in the weapons which would enrich organised crime which would simply mean that those who are intending to use those guns for ill have access to them while those who want them for self defense don\u2019t. [1] As a response to Obama\u2019s reelection some gun owners are already purchasing more guns and bullets, in some cases with the intention of selling them on the black market should a ban come into force. [2] It is clear therefore that the ban would do little to reduce the number of assault weapons in the United States and would likely even do little to impact on their availability.  [1] Wohlferd, Clark A., \u2018Much ado about not very much: The expiration of the assault weapons ban as an act of legislative responsibility\u2019, Legislation and Public Policy, vol.8, 2005, pp.471-484, p.480   [2] Hagler, Frank, \u2018Gun Sales at Record High: Sales Soar Over Fear of the Black President\u2019, Policy Mic, November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con03a","title":"","text":"Assault weapons are not used in most crimes  There is little point in banning a type of weapon that is not used in most violence; assault rifles are used in fewer than 1 percent of all violent crimes in the united states at a time when gun violence is falling. [1] If assault weapons are not used in most crime then there is no rational basis for banning them. When the previous assault weapons ban expired in 2004 far from there being an increase in crime as predicted the number of murders declined by 3.6%. [2]  [1] La Jeunesse, William, \u2018Debate answer on assault weapons ban could cause problems for Obama\u2019, Fox News, 1 November 2012,   [2] Lott, John R., \u2018The Big Lie of the Assault Weapons Ban\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 28 June 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con01a","title":"","text":"An assault weapons ban would violate the second amendment  The Second amendment \u201cA well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed\u201d [1] would be violated by a ban on assault weapons. This right clearly does not limit what arms a citizen may bear. The ruling of District of Columbia v. Heller clearly reaffirmed that the government can\u2019t ban certain classes of arms and also that this right is not connected with service in a militia.  [1] \u2018Second Amendment \u2013 Bearing Arms\u2019, Findlaw,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con04b","title":"","text":"Of course a ban will not completely eliminate these weapons but it would reduce the supply and make it much easier for the police to seize the weapons so taking them off the streets. It would also be a step in the right direction in attempting to change public perceptions and amend the American attitude. It is understated just how relaxed American laws are in comparison to the rest of the world, even states such as Switzerland and Israel that are often highlighted by the NRA as being model states that allow gun ownership with few resulting shootings are much more restrictive than the USA. [1]  There is no reason to think that a black market is somehow going to result in more of these weapons being available so the fact that it will exist after a ban is not a reason not to go ahead with the ban. It is not ideal that a ban is not retroactive so leaving a large number of such guns in private hands but this number will slowly diminish over time rather than continuing to rise as it would under the status quo.  [1] Rosenbaum, Janet, \u2018A League of Our Own\u2019, Foreign Policy, 19 December 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-law-cphwusbaw-con02b","title":"","text":"The point of an assault weapons ban is not to completely ban guns but to ban guns that can fire large numbers of bullets rapidly and have no purpose other than to shoot people. The ban targets those weapons that are not useful for self defence or hunting. The opposition argument is essentially that because some guns are legal all guns should be legal; the line has to be drawn somewhere and there is little reason why the line at assault weapons is less logical than a line that allows some grenade launchers and shotguns while banning others? [1] Since this line is clearly arbitrary then we should move to the only non-arbitrary line, a full ban, a move towards which this ban is a step towards.  [1] Laurence, Charles, \u2018Semi-automatics and grenade launchers are legal again in US\u2019, The Telegraph, 19 September 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-pro02b","title":"","text":"While the world is globalizing, it is still in the interest of states to retain their relative competitive advantages. After all, the first duty of a state is to its own citizens. By translating these works and offering them to academics, students, and professionals, the developed world serves to erode one of its only advantages over the cheaper labour and industrial production markets of the developing world. The developed world relies on its advantage in technology particularly to maintain its position in the world and to have a competitive edge. Giving that edge up, which giving access to their information more readily does, is to increase the pace at which the developed world will be outmatched."}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-pro02a","title":"","text":"Translation gives access to students to learn valuable information and develop their human capital and to become academically and economically competitive  The ability to access the wealth of knowledge being generated in the developed world would greatly impact the ability of students and budding academics in the developing world to develop their human capital and keep abreast of the most recent developments in the various fields of academic research. Lag is a serious problem in an academic world where the knowledge base is constantly developing and expanding. In many of the sciences, particularly those focused on high technology, information rapidly becomes obsolete as new developments supplant the old. The lag that occurs because developing countries' academics and professionals cannot readily access this new information results in their always being behind the curve. [1] Coupled with the fact that they possess fewer resources than their developed world counterparts, developing world institutions are locked in a constant game of catch-up they have found difficult, if not impossible, to break free of. By subsidizing this translation effort, students in these countries are able to learn with the most up-to-date information, academics are able to work with and build upon the most relevant areas of research, and professionals can keep with the curve of knowledge to remain competitive in an ever more global marketplace. An example of what can happen to a country cut off from the global stream of knowledge can be found in the Soviet Union. For decades Soviet academics were cut off from the rest of the world, and the result was a significant stunting of their academic development. [2] This translation would be a major boon for all the academic and professional bodies in developing countries.  [1] Hide, W., \u2018I Can No Longer Work for a System that Puts Profit Over Access to Research\u2019, The Guardian. 2012.   [2] Shuster, S. \u201cPutin\u2019s PhD: Can a Plagiarism Probe Upend Russian Politics?\u201d. Time. 28 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-pro03b","title":"","text":"This translation effort does not pave the future with gold. Intellectual property law still persists and these countries would still be forced to deal with the technologies' originators in the developed world. By instead striving to engage on an even footing without special provisions and charity of translation, developing countries' academics can more effectively win the respect and cooperation of their developed world counterparts. In so doing they gain greater access to, and participation in, the developments of the more technologically advanced countries. They should strive to do so as equals, not supplicants."}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-pro01a","title":"","text":"Translation allows greater participation by academics in global academia and global marketplace of ideas  Communication in academia is necessary to effectively engage with the work of their colleagues elsewhere in the world, and in sciences in particular there has become a lingua franca in English. [1] Any academic without the language is at a severe disadvantage. Institutions and governments of the Global North have the resources and wherewithal to translate any research that might strike their fancy. The same is not true for states and universities in the Global South which have far more limited financial and human capital resources. By subsidizing the translation of academic literature into the languages of developing countries the developed world can expand the reach and impact of its institutions' research. Enabling access to all the best academic research in multiple languages will mean greater cross-pollination of ideas and knowledge. Newton is supposed to have said we \u201cstand upon the shoulders of giants\u201d as all ideas are ultimately built upon a foundation of past work. [2] Language is often a barrier to understanding so translation helps to broaden the shoulders upon which academics stand.  By subsidizing the publication of their work into other significant languages, institutions can have a powerful impact on improving their own reputation and academic impact. Academic rankings such as the rankings by Shanghai Jiao Tong University, [3] and the Times Higher Education magazine [4] include research and paper citations as part of the criteria. Just as importantly it opens the door to an improved free flowing dialogue between academics around the world. This is particularly important today as the developing world becomes a centre of economic and scientific development. [5] This translation project will serve to aid in the development of relations between research institutes, such as in the case of American institutions developing partnerships with Chinese and Indian universities.  [1] Meneghini, Rogerio, and Packer, Abel L., \u2018Is there science beyond English? Initiatives to increase the quality and visibility of non-English publications might help to break down language barriers in scientific communication\u2019, EMBO Report, February 2007, Vol.8 No.2, pp.112-116,   [2] Yong, Ed, \u2018Why humans stand on giant shoulders, but chimps and monkeys don\u2019t\u2019, Discover, 1 March 2012,   [3] \u2018Ranking Methodology\u2019, Academic Ranking of World Universities, 2012,   [4] Baty, Phil, \u2018World University Rankings subject tables: Robust, transparent and sophisticated\u2019, Times Higher Education, 16 September 2010,   [5] \u2018Science and Engineering Indicators, 2012\u2019. National Science Foundation. 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-pro01b","title":"","text":"Translating academic work for the developed world will not succeed in creating a dialogue between developed and developing world because the effort is inherently unidirectional. The developing world academics will be able to use the translated work, but will lack the ability to respond in a way that could be readily understood or accepted by their developed world counterparts. The only way to become a truly respected academic community is to engage with the global academic world on an even footing, even if that means devoting more resources to learning the dominant global academic languages, particularly English. This is what is currently happening and is what should be the trend for the future. [1] So long as they rely on subsidized work, the academics of the developing world remain subject and subordinate to those of the developed world.  [1] Meneghini, Rogerio, and Packer, Abel L., \u2018Is there science beyond English? Initiatives to increase the quality and visibility of non-English publications might help to break down language barriers in scientific communication\u2019, EMBO Report, February 2007, Vol.8 No.2, pp.112-116,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-pro03a","title":"","text":"Translation expands the knowledge base of citizens to help solve local problems  It is often the case that science and technology produced in the developed world finds its greatest application in the developing world. Sometimes new developments are meant for such use, as was the case with Norman Borlaug's engineering of dwarf wheat in order to end the Indian food crisis. Other times it is serendipitous, as academic work not meant of practical use, or tools that could not be best applied in developed world economies find ready application elsewhere, as citizens of the developing world turn the technologies to their needs. [1] By translating academic journals into the languages of developing countries, academics and governments can open a gold mine of ideas and innovation. The developing world still mostly lacks the infrastructure for large scale research and relies heavily on research produced in the developed world for its sustenance. Having access to the body of academic literature makes these countries less dependent on the academic mainstream, or to the few who can translate the work themselves. Having access to this research allows developing countries to study work done in the developed world and look at how the advances may be applicable to them. The more people are able to engage in this study the more likely it is that other uses for the research will be found.  [1] Global Health Innovation Blog. \u2018The East Meets West Foundation: Expanding Organizational Capacity\u201d. Stanford Graduate School of Business. 18 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-con03b","title":"","text":"In the status quo there is already some translation, due largely to current demands and academic relationships. Even if translation of all academic work the world over could not be translated into every conceivable language, expanding the number of articles and number of languages is certainly a good thing. While cost will limit the extent of the policy, it is still worth pursuing to further open the world of academic discourse."}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-con01b","title":"","text":"If it is true that people cannot easily get jobs in the developed world for lack of language skills then there will surely still be a pressure to learn the language or languages of international discourse. What this policy offers is access by a much wider audience to the various benefits that expanded academic knowledge can offer. It will expand the developing world's knowledge base and not in any way diminish the desire to learn English and other dominant languages. It should be remembered that it is not just academics that use academic papers; students do as well, as do professionals in everyday life. Clearly there cannot be an expectation that everyone learns English to be able to access research. While there may be fewer languages in academic use there is not such a narrowing of language for everyone else."}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-con02a","title":"","text":"The West has no particular obligation to undergo such a sweeping policy  Governments and academic institutions have no special duty to give full access to all information that they generate and publish in academic journals to anyone who might want it. If they want to make their research public that is their prerogative, but it does not follow that they should then be expected to translate that work into an endless stream of different languages. If there is a desire by governments and institutions to aid in the academic development of the developing world, there are other ways to go about it than indiscriminately publishing their results and research into developing world languages. Taking on promising students through scholarships, or developing strategic partnerships with institutions in the global south are more targeted, less piecemeal means of sharing the body of global knowledge for example the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences funds junior scientists from the developing world working in their labs. [1] States owe their first duty to their own citizens, and when the research they produce is not only made available to citizens of other countries but translated at some expense, they are not serving that duty well. It will prove to be a fairly ineffective education policy.  [1] \u2018Building Research Capacity in Developing Nations\u2019, Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol 114, No. 10, October 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-con03a","title":"","text":"It is prohibitively expensive to translate everything and difficult to prioritize what to translate  Ultimately any policy of translation of academic work must rely on a degree of prioritization on the part of the translators since there is no way that all academic work of any kind could be translated into other major languages, let alone into all the multitude of languages extant in the world today. In 2009, for example, the number of published research papers on science and technology exceeded 700,000. [1] That is a gigantic amount of research. Translating all of these articles seems to be an obvious waste of time and resources for any government or institution to pursue and increasingly so when one considers the more than 30,000 languages in current use today. Translations today currently exist for articles and research that is considered useful. Any blanket policy is infeasible. The end result will be only a small number of articles translated into a finite number of languages. This is the status quo. Expanding it only serves to further confuse the academic community and to divert useful energies away from positive research to the quixotic task of translation.  [1] \u2018Science and Engineering Indicators, 2012\u2019. National Science Foundation. 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-con01a","title":"","text":"It is better to have fewer languages in common use in global academic and economic interrelations  A proliferation of languages in academia will serve to fracture the interrelations of academics, not unify them. As more and more academics and innovators interested in new academic developments find it possible to obtain information wholly in their native languages, then the impetus toward unification in a primary language of academia and commerce will be slowed or entirely thwarted. Through history there have been movements toward this sort of linguistic unity, because it reduces the physical and temporal costs of information exchange; for example scholars throughout Early Modern Europe communicated in Latin. [1] This policy serves only to dampen this movement, which will, even if helpful to people in the short-run, serve to limit the capacity of developing world academics to engage with the developed world. Today English has become the definitive language of both international academic discourse and commerce. In France for example, a country known for its protective stance towards its language, journals have been changing to publishing in English rather than French; the journal Research in Virology changed in 1989 as almost 100% of their articles were submitted in English compared to only 15% in 1973. [2]  The trend towards one language is a positive one, because it has meant more movers and shakers in various countries have all been able to better and more quickly understand one another's desires and actions leading to more profitable and peaceful outcomes generally. [3] Also important is the fact that while academics and other interested parties in the developing world may be able to grapple with academic work more effectively once translated for them, they now have a greater disadvantage due to the enervating effects this translation produces. Without the positive impetus to learn the major language or languages of international discourse, developing world academics will never be able to get posts and lectureships at institutions in the developed world, or to take part in joint research in real time. The convergence of language ultimately serves to promote common understanding, which means people from the developing world can more effectively move between their home country and others. It also helps build a common lexicon of terms that will be more robust for international use, as opposed to translations, which are often imperfect due to divergences of linguistic concepts and thus susceptible to mistake.  [1] Koenigsberger, H. G., Mosse, George L., and Bowler, G. Q., Europe in the Sixteenth Century, London, 2nd Edn, 1989, p.377  [2] Garfield, Eugene, \u2018The English Language: The Lingua Franca Of International Science\u2019, The Ceisntist, 15 May 1989,   [3] Bakopoulos, D. \u2018English as Universal Academic Language: Good or Bad?\u2019. The University Record, 1997, Available:"}
+{"id":"training-education-udfakhwst-con02b","title":"","text":"Wealthy states do feel an obligation to less fortunate countries, as is demonstrated through their frequent use of aid and loans to poorer governments. This is a way to help countries stop being dependent on aid and hand-outs and instead develop their own human capital and livelihood by being able to engage with the cutting edge of technology and research."}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-pro02b","title":"","text":"The cost of extending the period of compulsory education is just too high. The increase in numbers would require a huge investment in teachers, books, new school buildings, computers, etc. As well as these direct costs there is also a huge amount of losses that a country would face. Young people who leave school and enter the workforce contribute to the economy through taxes and contributions to pensions which the country would no longer receive if people remained in school. It is impossible to spend more while also earning less. This means that raising the school leaving age is not something that countries can afford to do because they won\u2019t have the money to cover the short term cost even if there are some long term gains."}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-pro02a","title":"","text":"Raising the school-leaving age is a crucial investment in society\u2019s future  Increasing the school leaving age means that society will produce a workforce that is higher skilled, attracts more investment to the country, and earns more money. A study for the UK government estimated the economic benefit was \u00a32.4billion for each year group that has 18 as the leaving age rather than 16[4]. When there is more money in the economy more taxes are paid, this means the extra cost of keeping people in school will be covered by these taxes. In some countries the cost of keeping young people in school will, at first, be difficult to manage. However, in many countries a large majority of people voluntarily choose to remain in education longer than they have to. In the UK for example 84% of pupils in year 10 stated that they would remain in education after the age of 16 [5]."}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-pro03b","title":"","text":"Unfortunately equality in the job market is unlikely to emerge simply because everyone now stays in school for the same amount of time. As noted above not everyone will get the same out of school just because they are there for the same amount of time. Those who achieve the best exam results will still be the most employable, especially if they go to university before finding a job."}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-pro01a","title":"","text":"More Education Brings More Opportunities  More education allows young people to develop greater skills so provides more options when they do leave education. It has been shown many times that those people who have more education find jobs easier and are more likely to find work that is satisfying. Extra education for young people also has a positive effect for the economy of a country. The impact of longer education is higher levels of productivity and earnings in later years. This is because longer in education helps workers to become more specialized, in todays \u2018knowledge economy\u2019 analytical thinking is highly valued and this is something that is increasingly taught from 16 to 18. Raising the leaving age has in the past had a significant impact on grades. The previous increase in the school leaving age in England, by a year to 16 in 1972, resulted in an improvement worth one grade higher in two subjects. The result is many fewer people leaving with no qualifications. [3]"}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-pro01b","title":"","text":"If schools are failing to teach children basic skills by the time they are 16 it makes no sense to make them stay at school for an extra two years. If the children are forced to sit in the classroom for longer it does not necessarily mean that the results of education will change. Forcing young people to remain in school against their wishes is a reinforcement of the failure of the educational system. If climbing a mountain on your hands and knees is not working then simply doing it for longer makes no difference. The same is true of education: there is no point in keeping students who are failing in schools for longer periods when there is no evidence to show that they will succeed, instead something new needs to be tried."}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-pro03a","title":"","text":"Raising the school leaving age promotes equal opportunities  Making sure that everyone gets the same amount of time at school promotes equality. At the moment leaving school early is linked to economic and social disadvantage: those from poorer areas and families are more likely to leave school early than those from wealthier families. Parents who left school at a young age are also more likely to have children who leave school early (only 60% of those children stay in education past 16) [6]. Forcing all children to stay in school longer will help break this cycle of disadvantage.[7]"}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-con03b","title":"","text":"Leaving school early is not necessary. Instead, what is needed is government help to ensure that if young people remain in school then they can afford to do so. If children are unqualified at 16 then there is a real need to use the extra years to teach them the basics. There could also be certain people who have special circumstances which mean they do not need to stay in school. For example, in Britain, under 18\u2019s that are caring for parents, relatives are exempt from extra schooling. [13]"}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-con01b","title":"","text":"UK statistics show \u201cThere is no evidence that raising the minimum school leaving age made people who had not intended to leave school at the minimum age raise their educational standard. This is consistent with the view that education raises productivity and not with the view that productive people get more education.\" [9]"}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-con02a","title":"","text":"Not All Skills are Best Learnt in a Classroom Environment  Practical skills (for example, carpentry, cookery, gardening etc.), are often best learnt \u2018on the job\u2019 or through an apprenticeship. Both of these routes place young people into contact with professionals in these areas and give them access to a wider range of tools, materials, and experiences than they would have access to in school. For many young people who want to work in these areas there is no need for them to stay in school for extra time. Forcing those who would rather learn on the job to remain in school is simply wasting their time by depriving them of taking that route for a few more years. This means that it will take much longer to produce highly skilled workers in these practical areas. This is why the UK along with raising its school leaving age allowed the option of taking an apprenticeship as an alternative to continuing in school."}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-con03a","title":"","text":"There Are Cases Where Leaving School Early is Necessary  Working at an early age can be an advantage in certain circumstances. Many families, particularly in countries with little welfare, need their children to bring income into the household. Working at an earlier age can help these families to survive. Furthermore, anyone who is having difficulties getting educational qualifications can gain an advantage by leaving school and gaining work experience. If they are forced to stay in school then they will simply lose two years. The British government recognized this and introduced 21 000 extra apprenticeships in 2009. This was an attempt to make sure that those who are not suited to school learning do not fall behind when it comes to finding a job and a sustainable income. [12]"}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-con01a","title":"","text":"Forced Education Achieves Little  Being in school does not guarantee that a student is actually learning. If the student lacks interest or ability then the extra time spent in school is unlikely to benefit them, especially if they would not have chosen to be there. This applies even more to the problem of how to deal with those who are disruptive. If they are excluded from school then they are disadvantaged for a longer period of their life. However, if they are included then they continue to disrupt the learning of other students. As Henry Phibbs argues: \u201cIncreasing the school leaving age will not result in more being learned \u2013 just more broken windows in the locality of the school. Children fed up with school need an escape route, not an extension of their sentence.\" [8]"}
+{"id":"training-education-egsrsla1j-con02b","title":"","text":"Practical skills can be taught in school. Many school systems have practical skills schools. For example, in Germany, \u2018vocational schools\u2019 (schools which teach practical skills) have been around since the 19th century. In these schools students spend part of their time in practical training and part of their time \u2018on the job\u2019. These schools are attended until the age of 18[10], and have been lauded for training highly skilled workers for German manufacturing[11]. It is therefore possible to create a system which is flexible and gives students the option to train in different ways while still staying in school until 18."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro02b","title":"","text":"On the contrary, poetry is helpful to teaching English. Learning poetry involves chanting, exploration of syllables and vowel sounds. As the pupils chant the syllables, they read the letters that go into making that sound and so spelling will be improved. Reading poetry aloud improves reading ability because the student is vocalising the building blocks that form certain sounds to make words. Public speaking ability will also be improved from a vocal exploration of poetry."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro02a","title":"","text":"In schools where many pupils are failing the basics of English language, they cannot be expected to progress to a more complex level of English study like poetry before the basics have been mastered.  It is like asking a student who cannot count to solve a highly complex algebraic equation; completely impossible because the groundwork remains a nemesis. If the pupils cannot understand the basics of reading, writing and grammar, they will certainly struggle to with more complex concepts fundamental to the study of poetry such as similies, personifications, metaphors and extended metaphors. Let us take the UK as an example, for it is a country in which many students do not make progress in basic English. A report in 2011 voiced concern at the number of school children struggling with English and the published some horrifying statistics; \"Hundreds of thousands of pupils are falling behind in the basics after starting secondary school, official figures suggest \u2026 three in 10 are not making enough progress in English, according to Department for Education data.160,000 did not make enough progress in English.\u201d1  1Press Association, \u201cMany secondary school pupils failing to meet expectations, report reveals\u201d, guardian.co.uk, 9 June 2011,  , accessed 1 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Musicians have for some time been awarded poet status. The artist and their personal lifestyle choices can and must be regarded equally. Bob Dylan was originally described thus; \"He sounded like a lung cancer victim singing Woody Gutherie. Now he's a Rolling Stone singing Emmanuel Kant\" (page 36, Uncut Legends [magazine] #1: Dylan, September 2003). In 1992, he was described as \"as good as Keats\" (Ibid). If Bob Dylan can graduate from folk to electric to poet status, modern day musicians must also be allowed to follow suite; to gain the recognition they deserve and become similarly promoted. The poet and their personal lifestyle choices is separable from the poetry they produce. Dylan Thomas, Wales' national poet who is greatly and proudly upheld was an adulterer and an alcoholic. However, this does not make his impressive poetry any less credible. We must not sanitise all the great artists, but accept that the great art they offer as artists forgives them their wrongdoing as people. If we applied the policy of disregarding the art of every artist who has ever done wrong, we would soon lose many canonised ones and several of those who are held in very high esteem."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Poetry is a notoriously difficult concept. It is a highly challenging subject to teach, for its identity as an art form is constantly changing and being debated  If top academics and those highly informed about the subject take issue with poetry, school pupils cannot be expected to fathom it. On December 7th, 2007, The Guardian, a British newspaper affiliated to the Left, noted that this ambiguous identity of poetry renders it very difficult to teach;\"But until education theory asks itself what poetry itself is, and therefore what the teacher is trying to get across, poems will continue largely to figure as teaching aids, exercises and - for teenagers - increasingly tedious, somewhat arbitrary puzzles\".1 The canonised poets and their poetry are concerned with adult life experiences, e.g. love, life, work, history and politics, solitude, loneliness, etc. For this reason, widely acclaimed poetry is deep and requires an adult mind and mature emotional depth to understand, or at least draw something from, this famous poetry. 1 Sampson, Fiona, \"Poetry is not a tool for teaching other things\", guardian.co.uk Books Blog, 7 December 2007, 1 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro01b","title":"","text":"While great poetry may deal with adult experiences there is poetry that targets a younger audience and methods available to teach this type of poetry. Children\u2019s poetry, for instance, is not complex or dark in subject matter and uses very regular rhythm and rhyme schemes, which young students will enjoy. If age-appropriate poetry is taught in schools then it gives young people the chance to develop an appreciation for poetry and its various techniques. This means that in later years young people will have the skills necessary to properly understand great poetry. Poems that require more mature minds to understand can, and should, be used to stretch students to teach about these contexts as well as about the kind of imagry and analogy used in the poems. Using more difficult poems to stretch puplils will ensure they keep improving."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro04b","title":"","text":"It is unthinkable that a school pupil does not know who his\/her national poet is. English school pupils should be familiar with William Shakespeare, Scottish school pupils with Robert Burns and Welsh pupils with Dylan Thomas, Irish ones with James Joyce. Familiarity with one's own national poet is a basic."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro03a","title":"","text":"The future of poetry teaching looks dismal. It is falling into disrepute by citing rappers as modern day poets.  Given that the highly respected Royal Holloway University of London is one such institution that supports this, the future of poetry education and even poetry itself does not look hopeful. Sir Andrew Motion, Professor of Creative writing at Royal Holloway, University of London, specified that; \"Poetry is a house of many mansions. It does pupils a disservice only to tell them things they already know. Rap has its own challenges and opportunities - but so do many other kinds of poetry, many of which are neglected in schools\".1 Eminem has caused much offence and controversy over the years with his homophobic lyrics. This is just one example of why rap is not to be encouraged at all, let alone awarded a label of (so-called) \"poetry\". Rappers like him must not be promoted as great artists in the classroom. It is unthinkable that rappers who promote gun crime, drugs and degrade women should be given a platform and even promoted in classrooms. These are simply not the values education can possibly support. 1 Edwards, Paul, \"Why rap should be taught in schools\", Royal Holloway University of London, 28 January 2010, accessed 1 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-pro04a","title":"","text":"In countries where students are failing basic literacy, new measures to improve basic literacy skills in schools are required as a matter of urgency. In such cases, schools cannot justify wasting time by teaching poetry.  In the UK, The Labour Party introduced The Literacy Hour, a programme that meant schools were obliged to dedicate more time to basic literacy (and numeracy) upon their election in 1997. However, as the aforementioned statistics have shown, all that has increased is the number of pupils failing in this basic subject. There are 5 million illiterate people in Scotland alone. All we know is that more time does need to be spent learning the basic literacy and numeracy. Appreciating literature and poetry, the artistic side of the English language, cannot be addressed until learners have fully understood and grasped the tools of reading, writing and vowel sounds that allow for fiction and poetry to be produced. We need an educational programme that recognises reading and writing as a matter of urgency and literary and poetry appreciation as a luxury in order to reduce the number of illiterate pupils."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con03b","title":"","text":"In failing schools, it IS justifiable to separate art from education. When a high number of students are struggling with basic literacy and numeracy, this is what needs to be addressed. Artistic studies will simply have to take a backseat while teaching of the basics is improved. This is a temporary measure, once teaching and abilities in basic literacy and numeracy improve, schools which have previously been failing can expand back into artistic studies. If this is not the case, and art and poetry continue to have a high profile in failing schools, what will result is a mass of very cultured high school leavers (not necessarily graduates) unable to add up in their head and with poor vocabulary, able to quote Shakespeare effortlessly but no idea how to spell his name."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con01b","title":"","text":"Learning the basics of literature and language is not designed to be fun or enjoyable, it is an essential requirement. It is important that students can get to grips with the basics of their home language and a standard 'look, cover, write, check' method for learning spelling and expanding vocabulary is effective, for it requires the learner to write the words themselves. Simply reading them is not enough, especially not in the context of a poem- unconventional, even strange concepts typical of poetry may well be too demanding for the pupil, whose priority is to learn writing and reading. They can still learn reading through the cultural means of reading novels, in which the extended prose used by the author is far easier to follow."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con02a","title":"","text":"It is important to honour the memory of the men who fell in the wars in the defence of their nation. War poetry is a fundamental tool to this end.  War poetry, although foreign to our own experiences of peacetime, enables us as readers to gain insight into the minds of the terrified men who fought for our freedom. Wilfred Owen suffered from shellshock as a result of fighting in the war. In his poem Mental Cases, he describes his time and experiences at Craiglockhart psychiatric hospital in Scotland, where he and Siegfried Sassoon (another WW1 poet) were treated for the condition; \"Who are these? Why sit they here in twilight? Wherefore rock they, purgatorial shadows\" (lines 1-2)1In our time of peace, we will never be able to fully empathise with their terrifying experiences, or successfully decode every observation, but we must read some of their poetry in order to appreciate the true and full horrors of war. We must do this out of respect for those who died for our freedom, and as such war poetry must be taught in schools. 1 Owen Owen, Wilfred, \"Mental Cases\", Wilfred Owen,accessed 1 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con04a","title":"","text":"Not teaching poetry in schools opens the gate to eradicating all artistic and creative subjects from the curriculum, which means the entire population would be Spartan and philistines.  We want cultured people to graduate from high schools. It is undesirable that all high school graduates, who are an educated group of people, will have no knowledge of art and no desire to ever immerse themselves in anything cultural such as a museum, or art gallery. This is what will happen if poetry and other art subjects are not respected in schools. As it is, English literature is the only cultural subject that is compulsory at GCSE level. Because it is the only obligatory cultural GCSE subject, as much culture must be channelled into it as possible i.e. novels and much poetry."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con03a","title":"","text":"Poetry is art, art is inseparable from education; art is what makes us human, and that which makes us human is certainly to be taught in schools.  It is fundamental that education teaches students about the human condition in order to enable an understanding of humanity. High school students must therefore gain awareness of not only human ideas but also an awareness of how humans choose to express these ideas, which means they must learn about art. One of the ways in which humans choose to express their emotions is through literature, language and speech- poetry. For example, many Victorian poets such as William Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott, who spent much time in the Lake District, turned to writing nature poetry, such as Wordsworth's famous poem Daffodils, because they wanted to \"see into the life of things\",1 and the best way to both investigate and express this was through nature poetry. 1 Lefebure, Molly, The Illustrated Lake Poets, Windward, 1987, p. 144"}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con01a","title":"","text":"If any art is to be taught in schools, it has to be Poetry, for poetry is the only artistic form of a core subject.  It is an enjoyable way to teach the core subject of home language and literature written therein; interesting and obscure concepts hold the learner's interest when studying their home language and its landmark literature, while simultaneously expanding vocabulary and improving spelling. Poetry offers a fun method of teaching subjects that can otherwise easily be exhaustive and repetitive For examples; Shirley Hughes' poems for young readers such as Best friends introduce young readers to the vowel sounds of their home language. The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred, Lord Tennyson teaches the reader about a great historical landmark. The war poetry of Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon et al teaches students about the First World War and the horrors thereof. Zoe's Earrings by Kit Wright teaches pre-GCSE students about accents.1 1 Wright, Kit, \"Zoe's Earrings\", BBC Learning Zone, accessed 1 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con04b","title":"","text":"We must be realistic in education; we need to prepare our students for the difficulties of the real world. It is those subjects that are vocational in nature and\/or life skills, home language (not literature), maths and science and modern languages, business studies, law that must take priority in schools. We must equip and train the new generation to successfully gain employment. Therefore, art subjects like poetry are no priority."}
+{"id":"training-education-testlchbp-con02b","title":"","text":"An appreciation for the true horrors of war can be gained through factual reading. Factual books about the horrors of the First World War offer better understanding the true extent of the atrocities than poetry. Firstly, they are factual and not based upon opinion. Secondly, they are more modern and have been written in the aftermath of the First World War. Therefore, they tell its full story and provide a panoramic view of the Greta War. Thirdly, many of the men who wrote war poetry went mad with shellshock. Trying to find sense in the nonsensical lyrics of poetry by those poor men sent mad is an impossible task; knowledge of and research into shellshock is a relatively new development."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Compulsory vaccination is an example of the tyranny of the majority even if it is made by a democratic government. And in a community that praises itself as democratic and respectful to wishes of others it is in no way acceptable that the rights of some get abused by the wishes of others.  John Stuart Mill has set philosophical basics: \u201cthe majority\u2026 the people, consequently, may desire to oppress a part of their number; and precautions are as much needed against this, as against any other abuse of power\u2026 In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign. [1]  The state (or the majority) can only dictate to the individual is if that individual\u2019s actions adversely affect the collective. Therefore the question is \u2018what is the purpose of the vaccination?\u2019 if it is to provide individuals with their own protection then autonomy of decision-making and individual liberty should predominate as guiding principles.  Under these circumstances there can be little justification of any coercion on the part of public health officials, in particular the use of mandatory vaccination legislation. If it is more based upon public harm i.e. the more chance of the virus infecting from one human to another then the less this defense can be used. [2]  [1] Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty. London: Longman, Roberts & Green, 1869; Bartleby.com, 1999. www.bartleby.com\/130\/ . 2nd October, 2009, Chapter 1, paragraph 9  [2] University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics, Medical ethics experts identify, address key issues in H1N1 pandemic, FirstScience News 23rd September 2009  , accessed 05\/29\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Duty to protect the child  As article 24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child states, \u201cState parties shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to health services.\u201d [1]  Each year millions of children worldwide die of preventable diseases before the age of five.  The argument presented here is that the state needs to protect the child and immunize him or her from preventable diseases as obviously the child does not have the capabilities at this stage to make informed decisions of their own.  The United Nations Right to Liberty and Security of the Person treaty, article 6.2 supports this view - State Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development of the child. [2]  It is up to the State to decide if a child is to be immunized, as overall it will be the State who would benefit from having the vast majority of its citizens vaccinated, and it will be the State who will have to pay for any treatment needed to treat a preventable disease. Whilst a child\u2019s parents have to a certain degree the right to decide what is best for their child\u2019s future, poor decision making in this area could result in serious medical issues for the nation. In this extremely important area, the State must have authority over the rights of the parent.  [1] Convention on the Rights of the Child.   [2] Right to Liberty and Security of Person."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Vaccines themselves are expensive to develop in the lab and to mass produce for widespread compulsory vaccination programs. In addition to these upfront costs, organizing compulsory vaccination programs across an entire country can be very complicated and expensive. For instance, mechanisms must be set in place to ensure that the program is indeed compulsory, which means establishing a database of those that have and have not received the vaccine."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is the state\u2019s duty to protect its community  If an age group is protected, that results in a better health conditions for the whole society.  In an industrialized country such as the USA, those choosing exemption from statutorily compulsory vaccination were 35-times more likely to contract measles than vaccinated persons; in developing countries where these viruses are still endemic, the risk would be considerably higher [1] .  Those who wish to opt-out of vaccination (often on behalf of their children, who have no say in the matter) are classic free riders, hoping to benefit from the more responsible behavior of the rest of society. As it is assumed that most of society see it as a responsibility and a duty to protect others.  After a scare about possible side effects of the MMR jab, in 2008 there was a drop in voluntary vaccinations in a part of London (Lewisham). In that part of London only 64.3 % of children were vaccine and in that year the district accounted one third of all south-east London measles cases. Unless there is a 95 % vaccination, there is a great threat to public health of infection outbreaks. [2] It is therefore the role of the state to understand these issues and possible treats and provide a duty of protection and care, in this case, in the form of immunization.  Another example of the need to protect is also given by the example of voluntary vaccination against the flu, because of its impacts on the whole population is given by Pediatric studies: \u201dIn several studies, results indicated that a 100% vaccination rate among health care personnel in acute care settings triggered a 43% decline in risk of influenza among patients. This decrease appeared even higher \u2014 60% \u2014 among nursing home patients.\u201d [3]  So by giving up some of the individuals freedoms and the feeling of duty to protection, the community is much more protected and benefits from the vaccination of the community.  [1] Vaccination Critics & Opponents.   [2] BBC News, Experts warn of measles outbreaks, 03\/18\/2008  , a  [3] Talbot TR. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol., Two medical societies back mandatory flu vaccination for health care workers , published 2010,  , accessed 05\/27\/2011  ccessed 05\/25\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-pro01b","title":"","text":"A great deal of health care and prevention of diseases is information and an informed decision. The United Kingdom does not have a system of compulsory health care, but disease outbreaks are still prevented due to the voluntary uptake of immunizations. The pediatrician Miriam Fine-Goulden explains: \u201cThe risk of contracting these infections is only so low at present because the voluntary uptake of immunizations has been high enough (in most cases) to reduce the chance of contact with those organisms through the process of herd immunity.\u201d [1]  Also it can be argued that measles, mumps and rubella (one of the diseases vaccine against) are far from harmful. They are relatively minor illnesses [2] . Measles causes a rash and high fever. Mumps causes swollen glands, headache and fever. Rubella is usually mild and can go unnoticed.  Just because medical advance has been made in vaccinations it does not mean that we have to be immunized against every little disease known to man. Bearing in mind the cost of such jabs on the heavily burdened NHS, surely it would be better to not make the MMR jab compulsory. This way we keep parents happy and the NHS budget can be stretched further.  Researches also show that alternative approaches towards diseases such as better nutrition, homeopathy, etc. give very positive results. Healthier populations would not need vaccines to fight a disease. High profits that are now reserved only for the pharmaceutical industry would be spread to other areas of the economy, such as agriculture and the service sector, and more people would gain.  [1] Miriam Fine-Goulden: Should childhood vaccinations be compulsory in the UK ?, University College London,  , accessed 05\/29\/2011  [2] BBC News, Should the MMR vaccine be compulsory, 03\/02\/2002,  , accessed 05\/29\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Compulsory vaccines are a financial relief on the health system  Commonly-used vaccines are a cost-effective and preventive way of promoting health, compared to the treatment of acute or chronic disease. In the U.S. during the year 2001, routine childhood immunizations against seven diseases were estimated to save over $40 billion per birth-year cohort in overall social costs including $10 billion in direct health costs, and the societal benefit-cost ratio for these vaccinations was estimated to be 16.5 billion. [1]  Another aspect is also, that productivity rates remain high and less money is earmarked for social and health transfers because people are healthier. This is also supported by a WHO study, that claims: \u201cWe calculate that the average percentage increase in income for the children whose immunization coverage increases through will rise from 0.78 per cent in 2005 to 2.39 per cent by 2020. This equates to an increase in annual earnings per child of $14 by 2020. The total increase in income per year once the vaccinated cohort of children start earning will rise from $410 million in 2005 to $1.34 billion by 2020 (at a cost of $638 million in 2005 and $748 million in 2020).\u201d [2] This study based on economic and health indicators is part of the world immunization program GAVI.  [1] Wikipedia. Vaccine Controversy.   [2] David Bloom, David Canning and Mark Weston, The value of immunization, World Economics, July \u2013 September 2005  , accessed 05\/28\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-con03b","title":"","text":"The argument of \u201cbad vaccines\u201d is a very popular one. However, scientifically seen this arguments is flawed in many aspects.  First of all many of the examples used in arguments suggesting vaccination is dangerous and therefore should not be used, is very old. Many refer to examples from the 60s or 70s, which in medicine is highly flawed as science every few years significantly advances, improves the level of knowledge and reduces possible side effects. And even though many believe in the damages caused by vaccines retrospective studies disprove this point:  1. Autism  Scientists at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health's Center for Infection and Immunity and researchers at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Trinity College Dublin, evaluated bowel tissues from 25 children with autism and GI disturbances and 13 children with GI disturbances alone (controls) by real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR for the presence of measles virus RNA. Samples were analyzed in three laboratories blinded to diagnosis, including one wherein the original findings suggesting a link between measles virus and autism had been reported. [1]  \"Our results are inconsistent with a causal role for MMR vaccine as a trigger or exacerbate of either GI difficulties or autism,\" states Mady Hornig, associate professor of Epidemiology and director of translational research in the Center for Infection and Immunity in the Mailman School, and co-corresponding author of the study. \"The work reported here eliminates the remaining support for the hypothesis that autism with GI complaints is related to MMR vaccine exposure. We found no relationship between the timing of MMR vaccine and the onset of either GI complaints or autism. [2]  Many parents came to believe that vaccines caused their children's autism because the symptoms of autism appeared after the child received a vaccination. On a psychological level, that assumption and connection makes sense; but on a logical level, it is a clear and common fallacy with a fancy Latin name: post hoc ergo propter hoc (\"after this, therefore because of it\"). They just need someone to blame for the disease of their child. [3]  2. Allergies and vaccines  A recent (2011) study of a German Health Institute concludes that in comparing the occurrence of infections and allergies in vaccinated and unvaccinated children and adolescents. These include bronchitis, eczema, colds, and gastrointestinal infection. The only difference they found is that unvaccinated children and adolescents differ from their vaccinated peers merely in terms of the frequency of vaccine preventable diseases. These include pertussis, mumps, or measles. As expected, the risk of contracting these diseases is substantially lower in vaccinated children and adolescents. [4]  [1] Science Daily, No connection between Measels, Mumps, Rubella (MMR) Vaccine and Autism, Study suggests 09\/05\/2008 http :\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/09\/080904145218.htm  [2] Ibid.  [3] Benjamin Radford, Autism and sciences: Why bad Logic Trumps Science, 09\/05\/2008   [4] Deutsches Aerzteblatt International (2011, March 7). Vaccinated children not at higher risk of infections or allergic diseases, study suggests. ScienceDaily.  , accessed May 28, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-con01b","title":"","text":"The problem with this is that those refusing vaccines on account of this effectively violate the same right for other people if, and when, there is an outbreak of the disease against which the vaccine is protecting."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-con02a","title":"","text":"It is a parental right to decide about vaccinations for a child  Through birth, the child and the parent have a binding agreement that is supported within the society. This agreement involves a set of rights and duties aimed at, and justified by, the welfare of the child. Through that (according to texts from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy): parents owe their children an \u201copen future,\u201d understood as one where they become adults capable of choosing their own conception of the good. As custodian, the parent is under a limited obligation to work and organize his or her life around the welfare and development of the child, for the child's sake. Concomitantly, the parent is endowed with a special kind of authority over the child. [1]  It therefore is the courtesy of a parent to decide what the best possible outcome is for a child. If the parent believes the child will be safer and better off in society without being given vaccine it is the parent\u2019s right to decide not to give vaccination to the child.  Also the American Academy of Pediatrics reports, that refusing the immunization might not put children at risk, as long as they live in a well immunized community and can benefit from the \u201cherd immunity\u201d. They state: \u201cEven in a community with high immunization rates, the risk assumed by an unimmunized child is likely to be greater than the risks associated with immunization. However, the risk remains low, and in most cases the parent who refuses immunizations on behalf of his or her child living in a well-immunized community does not place the child at substantial risk of serious harm.\u201d [2]  [1] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,  , accessed 05\/28\/2011  [2] Diekema Douglas, Responding to Parental Refusals of Immunization of Children,  , accessed 05\/28\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-con03a","title":"","text":"Vaccines have severe side effects  Some of the used vaccines may have severe side effects, therefore we should let every individual asses the risk and make choices on his\/her own. Besides introducing foreign proteins and even live viruses into the bloodstream, each vaccine has its own preservative, neutralizer and carrying agent, none of which are indigenous to the body. For instance, the triple antigen, DPT, which includes Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus vaccine, contains the following poisons: Formaldehyde, Mercury, and aluminum phosphate, and that's from the Physician's Desk Reference, 1980. The packet insert accompanying the vaccine, lists the following poisons: aluminum potassium sulfate, a mercury derivative called Thimersol and sodium phosphate. The packet insert for the polio vaccine lists monkey kidney cell culture, lactalbumin hydrozylate, antibiotics and calf serum. The packet insert for the MMR vaccine produced by Merck Sharp and Dhome which is for measles, mumps and rubella lists chick embryo and neomycin, which is a mixture of antibiotics. [1]  Evidence also suggests that immunizations damage the immune system itself. By focusing exclusively on increased antibody production, which is only one aspect of the immune process, immunizations isolate dysfunction and allow it to substitute for the entire immune response, because vaccines trick the body so that it will no longer initiate a generalized response. They accomplished what the entire immune system seems to have been evolved to prevent. That is, they place the virus directly into the blood and give it access to the major immune organs and tissues without any obvious way of getting rid of it.  The long-term persistence of viruses and other foreign proteins within the cells of the immune system has been implicated in a number of chronic and degenerative diseases. In 1976 Dr. Robert Simpson of Rutgers university addressed science writers at a seminar of the American Cancer Society, and pointed out the following. \"Immunization programs against flu, measles, mumps, polio and so forth may actually be seeding humans with RNA to form latent pro viruses in cells throughout the body. These latent pro viruses could be molecules in search of diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, lupus, Parkinson's disease, and perhaps cancer.\" [2]  Vaccines may cause a child who is genetically predisposed to have autism. If the trend of increased Thimerosal in vaccinations correlates so well with the trend of increased autistic diagnoses, there is a link. Thimerosal in vaccinations (which means 'contains mercury') causes autism. Too many times has a child been completely healthy, and then a vaccine containing Thimerosal is injected into the child. The child becomes ill, stops responding visually and verbally, and is then diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder.  [1] Roger R. Gervais. Understanding the Vaccine Controversy. Natural MAgainse May\/June 1996.   [2] Alex Loglia, Global healing center,  , accessed 28\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-con01a","title":"","text":"Compulsory vaccination violates the individuals\u2019 right to bodily integrity  In most countries and declarations, one of the most basic human rights is the one to bodily integrity. It sets down that you have a right not to have your body or person interfered with. This means that the State may not do anything to harm your body without consent.  The NHS (National Health Service) explains: \u201cYou must give your consent (permission) before you receive any type of medical treatment, from a simple blood test to deciding to donate your organs after your death. If you refuse a treatment, your decision must be respected.\u201d  This comes from the principle, that if a person has the capacity to consent to treatment and is making an informed decision (based on pros and cons of the treatment), the decision must be respected. The NHS explains further on: \u201cIf you have enough capacity and make a voluntary and informed decision to refuse a treatment, your decision must be respected. This applies even if your decision would result in your death, or the death of your unborn child.\u201d [1]  In the case of vaccination this principle should be also applied. Even though we recognize that children are not able to fully comprehend the consequences a refusal would have, the parents should be there to decide on behalf of children over such decisions. The state has no right to stick a needle into a child just because they see fit doing so. It might be contested that in case of life endangering illnesses, the state should override the individuals\u2019 rights. But rejection of vaccinations is not life endangering. So it is the judgment of the individual that is important and should not under any case be violated, just because someone might get an illness that in today\u2019s modern world is easily curable.  [1] National Health Service (NHS), Do I have a right to refuse treatment ?,  , accessed 29\/05\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghhwmvc-con02b","title":"","text":"An adult vaccine refusal and a parental vaccine refusal are not the same. Parents do not have absolute right to put their child at a risk even if they themselves are willing to accept such a risk for him or herself.  Minors have a right to be protected against infectious diseases and society has the responsibility to ensure welfare of children who may be harmed by their parents\u2019 decisions.  Counseling should form an integral part of any such legislation, as often it is not conviction but laziness of the parents in taking their child to the clinic for immunization or the parents\u2019 inability to make an informed decision. [1]  Also the state has already protected children in cases, when their functioning later as an adult could be compromised due to parental actions. For instance: in order to promote culturally prescribed norms, parents may seek to remove their child from school, or have their daughter undergo clitoridectomy; yet the state may claim that such a decision violates the parents' trustee relationship on grounds that the state has a compelling interest in securing the full citizenship capacities and rights of each of its citizens. As trustee, the parent has a limited right to exclusivity in determining the child's life over the course of childhood, but this determination is to be aimed at shaping the child into (for instance) a productive citizen and community member. [2]  The LSU Law center also explains: \u201cThe more difficult problem is religious or cultural groups that oppose immunizations. These groups tend to cluster, reducing the effective immunization level in their neighborhoods, schools, and churches. In addition to endangering their own children, such groups pose a substantial risk to the larger community. By providing a reservoir of infection, a cluster of unimmunized persons can defeat the general herd immunity of a community. As these infected persons mix with members of the larger community, they will expose those who are susceptible to contagion.\u201d [3]  As seen not to vaccine children can represent a danger for their future, there should be no ultimate power of parents to prevent vaccine jabs.  [1] Lahariya C, Mandatory vaccination: is it the future reality ?, Singapore medical journal (editorial) 2008,  , accessed 05\/25\/2011  [2] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,  , accessed 05\/28\/2011  [3] Louisiana State University (LSU), Compulsory Immunization,  , accessed 05\/29\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Correlation is not causation. The fact that a number of individuals with JDs are working in fields unrelated to the law does not, in and of itself, imply that they gained those positions because of a JD. A JD may help, but it has to be factored against the opportunity cost of everything else you could be doing over three years with the tuition money.  A Harvard Law degree might impress the State Department \u2013 but spending a year and a half in South Sudan and writing a book on your experiences would impress them far more. A UCLA degree might impress a movie studio, but producing your own movie, or gaining work in the field as a production assistant would likely impress them even more.  The fact is that for every individual with a JD or GDL who occupies a senior position in a non-legal field, there are many more high achieving individuals in similar fields who do not have a JD, a BPTC or an MBAs."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro02a","title":"","text":"A legal qualification is a gateway to a number of different career paths.  A JD is not simply a gateway to the legal world. Lawyers work as corporate executives, run movie studios, hold political office, and teach academically. Holding the degree will increase your qualifications, and make it far easier to move up the ladder in whatever field you chose to enter even if it is not a legal one."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Side proposition assumes that the European and American economies will eventually improve to the point where the legal sector will begin to grow again. If it does not you may find just as hard to find a job as when you entered Law School.  Furthermore, there is a good chance that you will be in significant debt by the time you have completed your law degree, which will have a major impact on your ability to seek flexible employment within the legal field. It is quite possible that you may be forced to forgo politics or public interest law in favour of higher paying positions in less desirable fields. And if you decide to pursue options outside of the legal field, it is hard to see how there weren\u2019t cheaper ways to spend three years, since going to Law School actively requires you to pay people to keep you unemployed.  Even if you have received scholarships or training contracts, your options may be limited by the conditions of those offers (mandatory public service, work for a specific firm) which will also inhibit your freedom."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro05a","title":"","text":"Law school helps graduates to think more clearly making them more attractive to other employers.  Law Schools teaches you to \u201cthink\u201d more critically, and legal work offers the opportunity to engage in a largely intellectual pursuit with other highly intellectual individuals. Law students are likely to develop a wider range of intellectual skills throughout their careers, and will be better able to transition in to different jobs and different areas of the legal industry if needed. Moreover, the level of enjoyment that individuals derive from their jobs- and thus the nature of the hedonic calculus that they engage in when determining whether a particular job will fully account for their needs- is linked partly to the variety and difficulty of the tasks they must accomplish. Law represents a sustained and engaging intellectual challenge, and a challenge ideally suited to the skills of most humanities graduates."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro01a","title":"","text":"You need a legal qualification to be a lawyer  A law degree is first and foremost a requirement of being a lawyer. Anyone with any interest in working in the legal field, serving as a judge, or even working in a number of governmental and non-profit fields will quite simply need to attend law school at some point. If you are already a recipient of such a degree, it will increase the opportunities for advancement within your chosen career."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro01b","title":"","text":"This argument is simultaneously both a truism, and beside the point. While it is true that someone will need a JD in order to become a lawyer, individuals pursuing those degrees need to understand that they are investing a huge sum of money for an opportunity to take a difficult series of examinations, which if you pass, allows you to apply for a job in the legal field. These positions are becoming far harder to find, as each year the number of students graduating from law schools increases, while the number of available positions either shrink or remain static. One has to take account of the entire field and its condition before making a leap."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro05b","title":"","text":"You will rarely get the chance to interact with those intelligent individuals, either in Law School, where most of your time will be spent in the library, or at a Law Firm, where any discussions will detract from your ability to bill hours. The legal business model effectively incentivizes long-hours, with most of it going to research. You will rarely if ever see a courtroom, unless you work as a public defender and even there you will spend most of your time on research."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Pay in most fields is, to some degree or other, correlated with the cost of entry into that profession or occupation. Because becoming a Lawyer requires up to seven years of education, it does tend to pay more than many other fields. But there are many lawyers who, despite working long hours, do not make vast amounts of money, and there are, furthermore, a dozen part-time associates for every globe-trotting partner at most major firms.  Furthermore, it is unclear how correlated success within Law School is with pay. The highest paid lawyer in America for most of the 1990s and early 2000s went to the University of Mississippi, rather than an Ivy League institution, while software developers and investment bankers regularly make more than lawyers without having to pay exorbitant tuition costs."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Law School provides a safe haven from which to wait out a bad economy.  Law school is a good way to spend your time and wait out the bad economy. By the time a law degree has run its course, the economy will have improved, and you will have a lot more options available, whether you still want to be a lawyer or not. Indeed, the UK based law school BPP has previously advertised its courses as a \u201crecession proof investment\u201d, arguing that returns, in terms of wages, on an individual\u2019s course fees could potentially be greater than equities or risky financial instruments."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Admissions tests such as the LNAT exaggerate small differences in performance  Lawyers are often extremely high paid, and occupy a prestigious position in society. A law degree is key to entry to the top tier of society and high income earners."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con03b","title":"","text":"These arguments are less compelling if you have the opportunity to attend a top Law School, in which case the sky is the limit in terms of opportunities.  Furthermore, these harms are far from unique to the legal field \u2013 they apply to finance and consulting as well, where a good degree with open more doors than a less prestigious one. But individuals still regularly overcome it.  One way they do is by going to prominent local schools. In the United States, prestige matters most in New York and Boston. Outside of the East Coast, many firms prefer graduates who attended local schools since they are likely to be more familiar with the area and more likely to be able to move and find housing and a social network in the area. A UCLA degree will take you as far in Los Angeles as a Georgetown one."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con01b","title":"","text":"Applicants should of course carefully consider whether or not they actually wish to become lawyers, and afterwards should carefully consider where they wish to enrol. But it is absurd to claim that individuals cannot decide these things for themselves, and the fact is that many individuals do go to Law School with a clear idea of what they want to do, and subsequently enjoy a highly successful experience in the workplace.  In a lot of ways these criticisms are not unique to the legal field. In fact the same argument could be made for Universities, the number of which is driven by demand for a University education and not by the demand of employers for University graduates. Nonetheless, University graduates almost uniformly make more than non-graduates, and a large number of jobs require degrees. No one could conceivably argue that gaining a college education is either not worth it or a mistake.  In addition, many individuals who have graduated from less prestigious schools can benefit enormously from getting another degree from a more prominent institution. At the point at which the choice is between a Master\u2019s degree in an unrelated field or a law degree, a law degree opens up far more opportunities for its recipients."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con02a","title":"","text":"The debt incurred in the pursuit of a law degree limits options both within the legal industry, and outside of it, by compelling recipients to seek out the highest paying jobs.  Legal Work is a dog-eats dog world. Law students are forced into a competition with each other for valuable internships, and then in turn face a brutal competition for summer associate positions.  Of every ten junior associates hired, one will be lucky to make partner at a major firm, and the rest will often be faced with a career dead-end at 35 or need to switch careers. For those who do make partner, the opportunities to enjoy the benefits will be limited by pressure to work even harder."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con04a","title":"","text":"Failing a law degree can be extremely costly.  Law School as a choice has to be weighed against its opportunity cost: what else could someone do with three years and $120,000? How might the long term benefits of this activity weigh up against the consequent benefits of time spent at law school?  This is an especially important consideration for those interested in careers outside of the legal profession. Spending some of that tuition subsidizing an internship on Capitol Hill or with a Think Tank or Lobbying firm would be far more likely to lead to later employment in politics than earning a JD and likely offer a politically interested potential law student a far more entertaining and enjoyable experience. Joining the Peace Corp or working for an international non-Profit would both impress the State Department more and be far cheaper than a law degree."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con03a","title":"","text":"The actual opportunities outside of the top ten law schools are quite limited.  Because of the supply and demand problems, the actual opportunities outside of the top ten law schools are quite limited.  This is not in fact solely due to their actual quality. It is more a consequence of the fact that the legal job market is so bad, that Firms need to use a proxy for removing applicants from the pool without further consideration, and for many, schools work well.  US Supreme Court Justice Anthony Scalia had admitted to not hiring Clerks from outside of the top ten law schools, suggesting that he prefers to trust that the admissions offices at these schools did their job properly. He has maintained this policy despite admitting that it would have prevented the hiring of the best clerk he ever had, who had gone to Ohio State University Law School.  While the qualitative outcomes are massively different, the price differential between second and third tier law schools and their first year counterparts is next to non-existent. To the extent it exists at all, those schools on top tend to be able to offer more financial aid."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con01a","title":"","text":"A stint at law school is of little value to those who are not pursuing a legal degree, but nonetheless many applicants treat it as a second shot at an Undergraduate degree.  Individuals increasingly treat Law School as a second shot at their Undergraduate degree. Applicants who failed to get into Russell group or Ivy League institutions the first time around compete obsessively to achieve their dreams on \u201csecond chance\u201d while many other applicants are suckered into the image of rich, successful, attractive lawyers presented by the media. Many universities in England, including Oxford, have begun to offer accelerated undergraduate law degrees, which are highly appealing to those seeking to improve on grades received in science or humanities oriented degrees.  The result is that a large number of students are not actually thinking about the role that law plays in their communities, or what they want to do with their life, when they apply.  The result is that supply and demand in the Law School sector is not driven by the actual demand for Lawyers but instead by the demand for law school places by applicants who may or may not be interested in actually being lawyers, and may or may not have any idea of what the job entails.  The explosion in the number of Law Schools in the last ten years, and the consequent growth in the number of law school graduates has not been accompanied by significant growth in the legal sector. A large portion of Law School graduates are therefore not only unable to find gainful employment within their chosen field, but prohibited by debt from finding opportunities elsewhere.  Graduate employment has now become a buyer\u2019s market. Law firms are now able to dictate the conditions and pay for first year associates and NQs unchallenged. The demands placed upon young lawyers now range from back-breaking to soul crushing."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con04b","title":"","text":"It is true that there are opportunities that could stand you in better stead down the road, but those listed by the opposition are both involve a gamble on the same odds as that entailed by a legal career. For every 10 interns in a congressional office or for a lobbying firm, perhaps one gets a job offer. By contrast you will receive a Law Degree if you spend those three years on Law School.  Furthermore, financial aid can be provided for Law School whereas the jobs listed by the opposition would require a large initial investment."}
+{"id":"training-education-ulghblqwc-con02b","title":"","text":"Law School, especially at the elite level is an opportunity to enter an environment where intellect is valued above all else. Whereas in school or university athletic ability or other talents sometimes trumped academics, in the legal world, academic and mental skills are all that matters.  It is therefore an opportunity to succeed or fail on one\u2019s own merits, and to meet others who are equally interested in intellectual or academic pursuits."}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro02b","title":"","text":"Yes history has to be edited as it could not all be taught but that does not mean that these are the bits that should be edited out. Rather as other nations consider these parts of Japanese history important it is all the more important for Japanese students to study them so as to learn why South Korea and China react in this way"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro02a","title":"","text":"All history is edited  To state the obvious there is an immense amount of history. There is much more history than could ever be taught in school. This means there needs to be some way to cut down everything in history into a sensible sized syllabus. There are some obvious ways to cut down history to a manageable length; such as concentrating on the history of the nation, focusing on certain key events, focusing on things of particular importance to today, or sometimes just on things that are considered fun and interesting. In the UK there have been accusations, including by the current education secretary Michael Gove, that British history is neglected in favour of Nazi Germany and the American west \u2013 something that then avoids Britain\u2019s less than comfortable imperial past. [1]  It should therefore come as no surprise that Japan does not highlight World War II and in particular the bad parts of that conflict. Does China teach about its invasion of Tibet?  [1] Vasagar, Jeevan, \u2018Michael Gove accuses exam system of neglecting British history\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 24 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro03b","title":"","text":"Critical thinking must not be at the expense of objective history that imparts knowledge of what actually happened. We should not assume that teachers will supplement what is in the textbooks with other books or subject them to critical analysis."}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro01a","title":"","text":"Freedom of Speech  The Japanese government is not forcing schools to teach Japanese history in a way that whitewashes the Japanese record in World War II. In Japan the Ministry of Education screens textbooks and when they are approved makes them available. Schools are then allowed to select their textbook from a list of seven or eight textbooks that have been approved both by the ministry. [1] By making this choice schools are exercising their freedom of speech in deciding what should be taught in their classrooms. In the case of the New History Textbook (Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho) not a single state run junior high school adopted the textbook resulting in a mere 0.03% of junior high school students using the textbook. [2] By contrast China\u2019s textbooks and their misrepresentations are mandatory. [3] This shows that when the Japanese people are given freedom of information on the issue they exercise this right responsibly.  [1] Masalski, Kathleen Woods, \u2018Examining the Japanese history textbook controversies\u2019, Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education, November 2001,   [2] ibid  [3] Sneider, Daniel, \u2018Divided Memories: History Textbooks and the Wars in Asia\u2019, Nippon.com, 29 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is not and never can be a freedom of speech issue. In this case it is a teacher or school board deciding what others are to be taught so by its very nature even if that individual has freedom of speech the students do not. In a school freedom of speech is limited; students cannot say what they want when they want, and the same is true with freedom of information; they cannot learn what they want when they want. This is because school is to give them a basic grounding in everything they need to know rather than it being a place where the student can pick and choose."}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro04b","title":"","text":"While an official story or creation myth for a nation may be a useful way of binding a nation together and when this is ancient history it is unlikely to cause much harm. However this should not be brought forward into the modern era where much more objective history is necessary."}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro03a","title":"","text":"The goal is to encourage students to think  History is not about learning all history, it is not about learning particular bits of history, it is not even necessarily about learning a nations\u2019 story, rather it is about encouraging students to think critically. It has been regularly shown that stuffing children with facts turns them off a subject instead there should be interaction, discussion, analysing texts from the time and analysing bias. [1]  The space in the textbook devoted to the issues is very limited and therefore what they mention does not matter particularly much. What matters therefore is how the teachers teach the issues as they will have to supplement the textbooks with other works and there is a wide range to choose from. [2] What matters then is how the teachers expand on the issues within the textbook rather than the textbook itself \u2013 the textbook could even be useful at studying the subject by providing a source to study bias on WWII.  [1] Savich, Carl, \u2018Improving Critical Thinking in History\u2019, Networks, Vol.11, Issue 2, Fall 2009, p.2,   [2] Inkerd, Wes, \u2018The Japanese History Textbook issue\u2019, Education in Japan community blog,  accessed 20 August 2012"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro04a","title":"","text":"Nations should be allowed an \u2018official story\u2019  To some the idea of a national story may be an anachronism but history is one of the things that bind a country together. As Benedict Anderson argues nations are \u2018imagined communities\u2019 as members of that nation will never know most of the members of that community or even hear about them but despite this there is conceived to be a comradeship between its members. [1] The creation of a national story from the history of the nation that helps create that common unit. French historian Ernest Renan went so far as to argue that \u2018Getting its history wrong is part of being a nation\u2019. [2]  South Korean President Lee Myung-bak himself has argued \u201cA textbook of modern history should be written in a way that does not hurt our national pride,\u201d when criticising a South Korean textbook\u2019s interpretation of the dividing of Korea. [3] If this is the case it is difficult to see how there can be any objection to Japan using the same principle.  [1] Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities, Verso, 17 November 2006, pp.6-7   [2] Renan, Ernest, quoted in \u2018Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780\u2019, The Nationalism Project,   [3] Sang-Hun, Choe, \u2018Textbooks on Past Offend South Korea\u2019s Conservatives\u2019, The New York Times, 17 November 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con03b","title":"","text":"No one worries that Britain is going to attempt to recreate its empire because most school children are not taught about it; why should this be any different with Japan? Moreover in the case of the Japanese constitution while a majority of the Japanese public is for changing the constitution they are not for changing Article 9, only 30% of Japanese are in favour of changing it while 59% are against. [1] Such a change is therefore unlikely in the near future.  [1] Wallace, Corey, \u2018The Japanese Constitution in 2011\u2019, Japan Security Watch New Pacific Institute, 3 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con01b","title":"","text":"This dispute is obviously not just about teaching \u2018facts\u2019. China which complains about the misrepresentation of the Nanjing massacre does not teach about the Tiananmen Square massacre in 1989. [1]  Of course the facts should be taught but what facts? The New History Textbook at the center of the dispute only has 12 pages on the whole of WWII, if the pictures are taken out there are only 7 pages left, of which three are devoted to the European theatre. [2] It should therefore not come as a surprise that some things are missed out.  It should be noted that a study by Stanford professors Daniel Sneider and Gi-Wook Shin found that the main Japanese history textbooks are the least biased on the Second World War out of textbooks used in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and the United States. [3]  [1] Bruhn, Judith, \u2018The vital presence of the past\u2019, Free Speech Debate, 7 May 2012,   [2] Inkerd, Wes, \u2018The Japanese History Textbook issue\u2019, Education in Japan community blog,  accessed 20 August 2012  [3] Sneider, Daniel, \u2018Divided Memories: History Textbooks and the Wars in Asia\u2019, Nippon.com, 29 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con02a","title":"","text":"Excluding these incidents is offensive  It is offensive to the comfort women and the victims of the Nanjing massacre to deny or omit that such horrific events ever happened. For these people it makes a full apology and closure a much more distant prospect. Duk-Sook Choi, a Korean woman conscripted by the Japanese said \"My blood pressure shot up, and I couldn't sleep the night I heard the news about the textbooks\u201d and argued \"Not mentioning comfort women is tantamount to insulting the women the world over\". [1] Similarly in response to what the New Textbook says on the Nanjing massacre survivors argued \"Japanese rightists groups distort history and attempt to cover the truth of Nanjing Massacre. This makes me extremely angry\". [2]  [1] Kang, K. Connie, \u2018Protesters Decry Japan\u2019s New History Textbooks\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 18 April 2001,   [2] \u2018Nanjing Massacre Survivors Protest Japan\u2019s Approval of Distorted History Textbook\u2019, People\u2019s Daily, 6 April 2001,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con04a","title":"","text":"The bad bits need to be taught so we can understand what others think of us  For millions of people around the world Britain is known for its Empire. In Britain itself this is sometimes given a positive spin, as indeed it was by the Victorian empire builders themselves, as opening up the world, bringing education, technology, and eventually democracy. Of course this did happen but those outside Britain are more likely to remember the British empire for its atrocities, for example the invention of concentration camps in the Boer wars; its destroying native cultures such as Australia\u2019s aborigines; or its ruthless forcing of trade on others like in the aftermath of the Opium Wars. Denying one side of this history denies us the possibility of understanding what others think of us. [1] It is often touted that there should be a partnership between India and Britain on the basis of history. [2] But Britain remembers the \u2018good\u2019 Empire did while India remembers the \u2018bad\u2019.  So is the case with Japan. South Korea and Japan are natural allies; both confronted by a growing China, and aggressive, totalitarian North Korea, both are allies of the United states, and yet they won\u2019t even share intelligence on the North with each other. [3]  [1] Monbiot, George, \u2018How Britain Denies its Holocausts\u2019, 27 December 2005,   [2] Buncombe, Andrew, and Grice, Andrew, \u2018Cameron hoping to forge new special relationship with visit to India\u2019, The Independent, 26 July 2010,   [3] Cossa, Ralph A., \u2018S. Korea-Japan: Time for Outside Mediation?\u2019, The Diplomat, 30 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con03a","title":"","text":"Schools should teach the controversy in history  History lessons in school are not just about providing children with some sanitised version of national history. Instead they are about teaching points that are controversial or relevant to the modern world. Both of which is the case with the issue of comfort women and Japanese imperialist aggression. They must teach why these actions were wrong and why they are now controversial.  If a non-controversial history is taught which glosses over bad actions this may lead to real political results. In Japan there have regularly been suggestions that the constitution should be changed, and in particular that Article 9, the provision that renounces war should be amended or abolished. [1] If the Japanese are not taught about the actions that lead to this provision or are given a distorted view of it then the resulting change in perception would make altering the constitution much more likely. [2] Ultimately this may well be a case of those who ignore [or misrepresent] history are bound to repeat it.  [1] Martin, Craig, \u2018Why Japan should amend its war-renouncing Article 9\u2019, The Japan Times, 4 August 2012,   [2] Cooley, Aaron., \u2018The Textbook Controversies in Japan: What History is Taught?\u2019, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con01a","title":"","text":"Schools should teach facts  Quite simply if a school in Japan is going to teach about World War II then it should include the darker side of the Japanese involvement in the conflict. Japans acts such as the Nanjing bombing and the occupation of Asian countries were horrific and must not be glossed over. Not covering such actions is quite simply misrepresenting the facts through omission.  No one would consider teaching about Nazi Germany without mentioning the horrors it committed. Learning about, for example the road to war may be interesting, and potentially be useful in drawing lessons on how to prevent a war. Appeasement is still regularly used as an analogy in international relations discussion as meeting almost any aggression with negotiations is seen as appeasing the enemy with Munich as the analogy [1] for example in negotiations with North Korea. [2] It is however a pointless exercise if the person learning knows nothing of what happened in the resulting war. Why should they want to draw on the lessons of the failure of appeasement if they do not know about the millions killed and the suffering inflicted?  [1] Dallek, Robert, \u2018The Tyranny of Metaphor\u2019, Foreign Policy, November 2010,   [2] Rogin, Josh, \u2018Senate Republicans accuse Obama of North Korea \u2018appeasement\u2019, The Cable Foreign Policy, 16 March 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con04b","title":"","text":"It should be enough that students are taught that their countries did bad things as well as good. There is no need to go into every case where a country has done wrong throughout its history. While the use of comfort women was wrong and tragic there is no reason why this should be used as an example of the suffering caused by Japanese imperialism. Students could equally be taught that Japans actions were wrong through highlighting the treatment of Prisoners of War or by showing that it was Japanese aggression that lead to war after war."}
+{"id":"training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con02b","title":"","text":"The Japanese have no intention of offending South Korea or China with their textbooks and these countries should not be taking offense over such minor issues. While it is regrettable that a tiny minority of students may get a biased view of history from the New History Textbook the actual harm is miniscule. No individuals are directly insulted by a sin of omission, and no one comes to physical harm. Even those who were victims of the Japanese would probably be better off attempting to get formal apologies for the actual crime rather than attacking misrepresentations that will be seen by so few.  For the most part this is an issue whipped up by the two governments who wish to use Japan\u2019s WWII past to try and force concessions today and to direct nationalist ire away from the government. In China according the Edward Friedman, an expert on Chinese nationalism, \u201canti-Japan nationalism became a great legitimating glue to hold the society together\u201d. [1]  [1] Bajoria, Jayshree, \u2018Nationalism in China\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 23 April 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Languages are not the only economically beneficial skills; sciences, law, humanities, creative studies are favourable. However, skills alone are not enough; people with hands-on experience in their field are needed to work a stable economy. It is immoral that a government makes its people take posts using languages that aid the country\u2019s economy and not the individual\u2019s job satisfaction. At the same time in terms of benefits to the economy of their home country those who have studied languages are more likely to work abroad constituting a brain drain."}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Workers with advanced language skills increase the competitiveness of the economies they participate in  Languages are extremely beneficial to the economy in two senses. Firstly, language skills improve a job candidate\u2019s chances of selection, which keeps unemployment down. The National Centre for Languages (CILT) reports on its website that \u201c36% of employers recruit people with languages\u201d, \u201c49% of employers are dissatisfied with school leavers\u2019 language skills\u201d and that \u201c95% of London employers think that language skills are important for the London economy\u201d. [1] Secondly, a high number of employees with language skills enhance companies\u2019 abilities to engage in trade and to expand their business abroad, in turn enhancing exports.  [1] CILT The National Centre for Languages, \u2018Employers value language skills\u2019, accessed 17 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro06a","title":"","text":"Students should be free to choose to play to their strengths.  Students should have a fundamental freedom of choice when it comes to all but the most necessary subjects. If students want to specialise in for example Science and drop foreign languages in order to be able to do this then they should have this option, a choice which is likely to be beneficial for their chosen career. Students\u2019 progress in their most successful subjects should not be hindered by the burden of language learning. It is not the case that students do not desire to engage in languages because they are lazy, narrow-minded or blinkered. Rather, because they demonstrate real strength in other subjects they do not wish to be constrained in those subjects by ones where they do not excel.  A standard complaint is quoted by Ehrman; \u201c(learning languages) affects (all study) a lot! I\u2019m finding it just depressing to have to study, when my only reason for being here is to meet a requirement\u2026it really annoys me to have to waste my time on this, when I could be learning something I\u2019ll use after graduation\u2026The pressure\u2019s just too much for me!\u201d [1]  Students should be allowed and encouraged to channel all their energy and enthusiasm into the subjects they are best at and most enthusiastic towards.  [1] Ehrman, \u2018Understanding Second Language Difficulties\u2019, 1996, p.136"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Again, language is not the only skill that government officials are required to possess in order to ensure that a state is able to adequately protect its citizens and its borders from foreign threats. Those with knowledge and experience working in different states of different cultures can use this to enhance knowledge available to the government or officials. People of different backgrounds are also employed in order to gain insight and for this reason a varied skill set of experiences and knowledge can work together in securing a state."}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro05a","title":"","text":"Learning languages promotes understanding of other cultures  To refuse to learn foreign languages is narrow-minded, ignorant and blinkered. Language is a means not only of asserting identity but, more importantly of \u201cheritage culture maintenance\u201d. To refuse to learn a foreign language is to disallow anyone\u2019s culture apart from one\u2019s own to be upheld. When this happens, \u201cthe dominant groups force ethnic groups into particular\u2026 niches\u201d. [1] This is particularly likely to be a problem in multicultural societies or indeed any society that is not homogeneous. By refusing to learn foreign languages, one refuses to recognise that other cultures even exist.  For this reason learning a foreign language helps to tackle xenophobia. Negative stereotyping is sadly still prevalent in the modern world. \u201cAmerican students in Maine view persons speaking standard French as shorter, less leaderlike (sic), less thoughtful, less intelligent, less honest, less self-confident, less dependable, less generous, less kind, less ambitious, less stable and with less character than English Speakers\u201d. [2] Such stereotypes lead to prejudices, xenophobia and, in extreme cases, hate crime. Learning foreign languages is a good way to combat such prejudices, because the students learn about the foreign culture for themselves, meet and converse with its people, and have a first-hand introduction to a foreign people. This will leave them more open minded towards other cultures so less likely to be xenophobic towards other cultures whose language they have not learnt. As Reynolds explains, \u201cdiscounting stereotypes involves denying cultural differences\u201d [3] such as the ability to communicate through the same language.  [1] Reynolds, Allan G., Bilingualism, Multiculturalism and Second Language Learning, Lawrence Newbury Publishers, New Jersey, 1990, p.10  [2] Gardner, R.C., Lambert, W.E, Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning, Newbury House Publishers, Massachusetts, 1972, p.99  [3] Reynolds, Allan G., Bilingualism, Multiculturalism and Second Language Learning, Lawrence Newbury Publishers, New Jersey, 1990, p.5"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Language acquisition is no less vital than competence in mathematics and english  A high number of students failing to succeed in languages is not a valid reason to make the subject optional. This mentality opens the gate to making English and math options, simply to eradicate the effort of improving pass rates. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports that in the UK \u201cA quarter of secondary pupils (aged 11 and over) fail to reach their potential in math(s) and a quarter are making insufficient progress in English\u201d. [1] Still, optional English and math is unthinkable; these are core subjects- languages should also be considered as such. Those who want to transfer students energies from foreign languages to English are ignoring the possibility that learning a foreign language may actually be useful for learning the first language. [2] Students failing in core subjects must be helped to improve, not have the subject eradicated.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Third of England pupils fail to reach maths potential\u2019, 9 June 2011,   [2] Leons, Eve, Herbert, Christie and Gobbo, Ken. 2009. \u201cStudents with Learning Disabilities and AD\/HD in the Foreign Language Classroom\u201d Foreign Language Annals 42(1): 42-54."}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The overwhelming number of students who struggle with reading and writing in their own language cannot be expected to acquire a second, foreign one. The vast number of students failing to master basic arithmetic and competency in their mother language is to be addressed as a matter of urgency. This is a primary concern for schools, not second language learning."}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro05b","title":"","text":"Learning its target language is not fundamental to embracing any foreign culture. Many people can be very open to foreign cultures without learning their language(s). Indeed it may be necessary for most to keep the two separate. [1] No one can learn every foreign language and many would not have the time to learn more than a few but that should not prevent learning about and enjoying that culture, its music, its art and even in many cases through translation its literature.  If a student is forced to learn a language against his\/her will, then the negative stereotype of the target culture will only be strengthened, fuelled by ill feeling and negative experiences. In the words of Albert Einstein, \u201cIt is easier to split an atom than break a prejudice\u201d and realistically language learning will not help combat this sad truth.  [1] Erlbaum, \u2018Understanding Second Language Difficulties, 1996, p.140"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro06b","title":"","text":"Allowing students to study what they want or what they consider themselves to be good at would be a mistake. The point of education before university is to provide a good broad grounding that provides all the necessary life skills. This has to include harder subjects that would not be the first choice of the students. In the UK it has been suggested that the high pass rate for soft subjects like Media Studies of 98% has helped cause a decline in foreign language learning at A-level (16-18 years old). [1] Scientific research has shown how a second language can aid us past school years, for example the American Association for the advancement of science\u2019s latest research shows the symptoms of alzheimer\u2019s to occur later on in life in those who are bilingual in comparison to those who speak one language. The ability to speak more than one language enables people to communicate better and for longer. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018Media Studies. Discuss\u2019, 18 August 2005,   [2] Wheeler, David L., \u2018Being Bilingual: Beneficial Workout for the Brain\u2019, Chronicle of Higher Education, 20 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro04b","title":"","text":"It is still a mystery why, as Robert C. Gardner puts it \u201cthat some people can learn a second or foreign language so easily and so well and while others, given what seem to be the same opportunities to learn find it almost impossible?\u201d [1] No audio-visual suite, no matter how high tech and expensive, will be able to raise the grades of students who find it impossible to hold the complexity of grammar rules in their heads.  [1] Gardner, R.C., Lambert, W.E, Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning, Newbury House Publishers, Massachusetts, 1972, p. 131"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Learning a language is a sign of good diplomacy.  The call for students to learn a foreign language not only stems from economic needs but also from the need of improved security and diplomacy, in particular a better understanding of cultures and languages in order to better understand threats to the state and improved foreign services are needed. [1] In many Anglophone countries even in the role of a diplomat there are worrying numbers who do not have the language skills they need, for example in Canada \u201conly 16% of the 180 foreign service officers who were required to have advanced foreign languages skills for their positions, could speak the needed language.\u201d [2] As a 2007 National Academy of sciences report warns us \u201cthe pervasive lack of knowledge of foreign languages and cultures threatens the security of the united states as well as its ability to compete in the global marketplace and produce an unformed citizenry\u201d. [3] Since the increased security post 9\/11 the government accountability office (GAO) have reported that there are a shortage of foreign language expertise within the government and for this reason may undermine national security.  Much of the population of mainland Europe go to great lengths to learn foreign languages, especially the dominant English. English speakers should reciprocate the efforts made by their foreign counterparts; Nicolas Sarkozy for example is aiming to make France into a bilingual nation. [4] Across Europe at least 20% of third-level students claim to be proficient in at least two foreign languages. However, in countries where English is a major language, this is not the case; in Ireland, for example the figure is only 5%. [5] In the United States the situation is similar only 31% of US elementary schools and 24% of public schools teach foreign languages. [6] Expecting foreign countries to communicate through dominant English is a lazy and arrogant attitude to language and should not be permitted. Therefore learning languages up to the age of sixteen should be compulsory.  [1] Kollipara, Puneet, \u2018Government still trying to catch up on foreign language capabilities\u2019, The Hill, 12 June 2010,   [2] Raj, Althia, \u2018Canadian diplomats don\u2019t have necessary foreign language skills\u2019, Toronto Sun, 3 September 2010,   [3] Mary Ellen O\u2019Connell and Janet L. Norwood ed. \u2018International Education and Foreign Languages: Keys to Securing America's Future\u2019 National Academy of Sciences, 2007,   [4] Agence Bretagne Presse, \u2018Nicolas Sarkozy veut faire de la France une nation bilingue\u2019, 12 September 2007,   [5] Irish Independent, \u2018Only 5 percent at third-level able to speak two foreign languages\u2019, CareersPortal.ie, 16 June 2011,   [6] Washington Times, \u2018Analysis: U.S. must strengthen foreign language education\u2019, 26 December 2008"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro04a","title":"","text":"The solution is more teaching of languages not less.  The problems students face when learning languages are the fault of teaching methods, not language ability. Madeline Ehrman observes that the root of this problem is that the \u201cstudent is \u201cout of sync\u201d with the methodology, the teacher.\u201d Therefore, the antidote is more modern learning styles; \u201cthere are some quick fixes that can be made when adaptations are needed\u201d. [1] Languages should not be abandoned when students find them boring rather the curriculum and methods of teaching need to be changed to make the learning more interesting and more relevant. For example students struggle even with their own grammar so an emphasis on making themselves understood rather than correct grammar may be more useful.  [1] Ehrman, Madeline E., Understanding Second Language Difficulties, SAGE Publications, California, 1996. ISBN: 0-7619-0191-4. P.126"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con03b","title":"","text":"This is once again down to the way languages are taught. The quality of teaching needs to be high so that those who struggle more are motivated to overcome this divide. This is also the case with grammar, both learner and teacher need to have patience and be willing to engage. [1] The critical age for learning a language must also be taken into consideration, it is believed by many experts in the field that it is easier for people to learn languages at a very early age, as it greatly improves ones accent and their ability to learn quickly. Thus the gap between those who progress and those who don\u2019t will be greatly reduced if all students had to learn another language starting from an early primary school age.  [1] Gardner, Attitudes and motivation in Second-Language learning, 1972, p.135"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con01b","title":"","text":"A lack of people who could quickly become qualified foreign language teachers is not a problem. There are a high number of unemployed language graduates, many of whom are already engaged in teaching, particularly as private tutors teaching languages. [1]  [1] McElvoy, Anne, \u2018The tutor trap: the rise and rise of private lessons\u2019, London Evening Standard, 22 January 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con02a","title":"","text":"Not everyone will succeed in learning languages even if compulsory.  There are many people who will never excel in languages whether they are forced to learn it or not, and if they are not going to succeed then why waste all the time trying to make them succeed. With learning foreign languages there is a problem of anxiety in the classroom. This is particularly disabling as students must be able to speak up and be heard, usually by the whole class, in order to make progress. This anxiety is likely to be closer to panic than it would be in other subjects. [1] This not only affects those who are anxious but holds back those who are more able.  This will be even more pronounced with dyslexic children. They struggle with the written word and so will necessarily do even worse when studying foreign languages. Yet they can excel in other subjects such as mathematics. [2] It is therefore not sensible to make languages mandatory.  [1] Ehrman, \u2018Understanding Second Language Difficulties, 1996, p.149  [2] \u2018Dyslexia and Numeracy\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con04a","title":"","text":"There is much less need to learn foreign languages for countries where English is the first language.  For those from countries where English is not the first language English is an obvious language to study, it is a language which is useful all over the world, not just in countries where English is the native language because so many people speak it as a second language. There is not the same obvious second language for native English speakers. It is undeniable that English is increasingly a global language; it is the language of technology and global communication. English is likely to be used in a conversation between for example a German Scientist and an Italian Politician. [1] It is therefore being realistic for English speakers to believe that any other language they learn will have less utility than their own.  [1] English Online Learners, \u2018English the Global Language\u2019, British Council,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con03a","title":"","text":"There is a large gap between those who make progress in languages and those who do not.  There is a gulf between people who do make progress in languages and those who do not. Those able in languages struggle to deconstruct the difficult concepts and explain them to learners who cannot understand. Teachers cannot empathise with students who struggle. Expecting students who have great difficulty in learning languages to be able to do so from those who cannot even explain linguistic concepts successfully is far too much to ask. This one reason why in the UK Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education) considers language teaching in secondary schools to be weak. [1]  There are similar problems with grammar between those who are bilingual and those who are not. People who are bilingual due to their background do not think in grammar. If they do not know why certain grammatical constructions are used when and why, how is an absolute beginner struggling with languages supposed to understand such grammar rules? [2]  [1] Webb, Lauren, \u2018Ofsted reports poor language teaching in UK\u2019, Veritas,   [2] Reynolds, \u2018Bilingualism, Multiculturalism and Second Language Learning\u2019, 1990, p.164"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con01a","title":"","text":"In many countries it would not be practical to have foreign languages as mandatory.  It would not always be practical to increase foreign language teaching to being mandatory for all students. In the United Kingdom for example there is a shortage of foreign language teachers already with 73% of Local Education Authorities struggling to find teachers, particularly for Maths and Languages. [1] At the same time in many countries there are worries about their competitiveness in the world due to the success of East Asian countries in education. The PISA tests shows that East Asian countries, particularly China (Shanghai and Hong Kong), South Korea and Singapore far exceed countries where English is the first language in Maths and Science leading to a need to improve those subjects first. [2]  [1] MailOnline, \u2018Teacher shortage reaching crisis levels\u2019,   [2] PISA, \u2018What Students now and can do: Student Performance In Reading, Mathematics and Science\u2019, OECD, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con04b","title":"","text":"While it is undeniable that at the moment English is the most used international language this is not a reason to be complacent. Just because English is currently dominant does not mean it will remain so. In the 18th, 19th and into the 20th Centuries French was the international language and before that Latin was in Europe. It is as likely that the dominance of the English language will decline as that it will continue to increase. Students should be taught other languages to take advantage of changes that may occur within their lifetimes."}
+{"id":"training-education-shwmlflcsp-con02b","title":"","text":"Students not exceling in a subject is not a reason for not teaching that subject. Even a basic understanding of another language is useful. Anxiety is something the students will have to work through and may well be affected in other subjects as well, students who are anxious about learning foreign languages will never be willing to attempt to learn them if they are not compulsory at school."}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro02b","title":"","text":"Teachers accept that marking student work is an important part of their job. Well planned homework should not take so long to mark that the rest of their job suffers, and it can inform their understanding of their students, helping them design new activities to engage and stretch them. As for recruitment, although teachers do often work in the evenings, they are not alone in this and they get long holidays to compensate."}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro02a","title":"","text":"Marking homework reduces the amount of time teachers have to prepare good lessons  Irrespective of homework's educational value, marking it takes up much of teachers' time. Australian teachers have complained that 'homework marking can result in four extra hours of work a day and they are rarely rewarded for their effort'.1 This leaves teachers tired and with little time to prepare effective, inspiring lessons. If the lessons aren't to the standard they should be, the point of homework is lost as the students have little to practise in the first place. The heavy workload also puts young graduates off becoming teachers, and so reduces the talent pool from which schools can recruit.  1 Speranza, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro06a","title":"","text":"The ban on homework could be easily enforced through school inspections  In many countries public schools require regular school inspections to ensure students are receiving a relatively equal level of education. In Britain for example, Ofsted is a public body that exists specifically to inspect public schools.1 A ban on homework would thus not require a level of trust between the state and individual school principals, for state inspectors could very quickly work out whether homework was being given out by asking the children themselves. Children, who don't like homework at the best of times, would not lie.  1 Ofsted, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro03b","title":"","text":"Homework has not prevented students doing other activities; it takes very little time to complete. Recent American surveys found that most students in the USA spent no more than an hour a night on homework. That suggests there does not seem to be a terrible problem with the amount being set. Furthermore, British studies have shown that 'more children are engaging in sport or cultural activities' than ever before.1 As such, there is no clear evidence to suggest that students are stuck at home doing their homework instead of doing other activities. In addition, concerns over how busy children are suggest that parents need to help their children set priorities so that homework does not take a back seat to school work.  1 BBC News, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro05a","title":"","text":"Homework is about 'winning' on tests, not learning  Many governments make their schools give students a national test (a test taken by all students of the same age). After the tests, they compare schools and punish the schools and teachers whose students do badly. Because schools and teachers are therefore scared about their students doing poorly, they give them more homework, not in the hope they learn more but simply to do better on the tests.1 As such, homework is not designed to help the student, just their teachers and schools who want them to 'win' the test and make them look good, not learn for the students' own benefit.  1 Sorrentino"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro01a","title":"","text":"Homework has little educational worth, and therefore is a waste of students' time  Homework has little educational worth and adds nothing to the time spent in school. Some schools and some countries don't bother with homework at all, and their results do not seem to suffer from it. Studies show that homework adds nothing to standardised test scores for primary\/ elementary pupils. As Alfie Kohn notes, no study has ever found a link between homework and better tests results in elementary school, and there is no reason to believe it is necessary in high school.1 International comparisons of older students have found no positive relationship between the amount of homework set and average test scores - students in Japan and Denmark get little homework but score very well on tests.2 If anything, countries with more homework get worse results!  1 Sorrentino , 2011  2 Britt , 2005"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro01b","title":"","text":"Homework has a lot of educational value, the reason it has not shown this is because teachers do not set the right kind of homework or they set the wrong amount of it. Some teachers believe homework is for reviewing material, others think it is better for learning new concepts. The result is 'confusion for students'.1 If the homework was consistent however, and related specifically to what is learnt in the classroom, it would have a great deal of educational value by helping them remember their lessons and increase students' confidence in how much they are learning.  Furthermore, Professor Cooper of Duke University has shown that by the high schools years, there is a strong and positive relationship between homework and how well students do at school. There are two main reasons why this relationship does not appear in elementary school: 1) Elementary school teachers assign homework not so much to enhance learning, but in order to encourage the development of good study skills and time management;2 2) young children have less developed cognitive skills to focus and concentrate on their work.3 Thus, they are more easily distracted from their homework assignments.  1 Strauss, 2006 2 Muhlenbruck, Cooper, Nye, & Lindsey, 2000 3Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro05b","title":"","text":"Setting homework with the intention of encouraging students to do well at tests is beneficial to students as much as it is to teachers and schools. National tests are a way of assessing whether students are at the level they should be, if they do well on the tests, that is a good thing. Therefore, a 'win' for the teachers and schools is also a great deal of learning for the student, the two need not be separated."}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro06b","title":"","text":"Many states do not in fact have a structured school inspection system that could enforce such a ban. The United States, for example, has one of the largest student bodies in the world but the state does not have a formal inspection system that could enforce a ban on homework. Therefore any ban would only prove a recommendation at best, and could not possibly hope to be enforced.  Furthermore, even in those states that do have inspection bodies, the regularity of inspections allows school principals to prepare for their arrival. Students might be forced by their teachers to lie to inspectors, otherwise they would receive even more homework. Furthermore, the school inspections are partly so that they can test the ability of students \u2013 therefore teachers are encouraged to give their students homework so that they do better on these inspections."}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro04b","title":"","text":"If homework puts students off learning, then it has been badly planned by the teacher. As Linda Darling-Hammond, a professor of Education notes, 'many teachers lack the skills to design homework assignments that help kids learn and don't turn them off to learning' .1 The best homework tasks engage and stretch students, encouraging them to think for themselves and follow through ideas which interest them. Over time, well planned homework can help students develop good habits, such as reading for pleasure or creative writing. The research however suggests that homework is not in fact putting students off learning. Rather studies in Britain indicate that 'most children are happy (and) most are achieving a higher level than before'.2 Homework cannot be blamed for a problem that does not exist. Poor children may indeed lack support to do their homework, but this just means that schools need to do more to provide the help they need.  1 Strauss, 2006 2 BBC News, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro03a","title":"","text":"Homework reduces the amount of time for students to do other activities  Homework takes a lot of time up. In America, they encourage the '10 minute rule', 10 minutes homework for every grade, meaning that high-school students are all doing more than an hour's worth of homework each night.1 Being young is not just about doing school work every night. It should also about being physically active, exploring the environment through play, doing creative things like music and art, and playing a part in the community. It is also important for young people to build bonds with others, especially family and friends, but homework often squeezes the time available for all these things.  1 Associated Press, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-pro04a","title":"","text":"Homework puts students off learning  Homework puts students off learning. Studies have shown that many children find doing homework very stressful, boring and tiring. Often teachers underestimate how long a task will take, or set an unrealistic deadline. Sometimes because a teacher has not explained something new well in class, the homework task is impossible. So children end up paying with their free time for the failings of their teachers. They also suffer punishments if work is done badly or late. After years of bad homework experiences, it is no wonder that many children come to dislike education and switch off, or drop out too early. Teachers in Britain fear that poor children, because they lack the support to do their homework, will be turned off school 1.  1 BBC News, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con03b","title":"","text":"Homework is a class issue. In school everyone is equal, but at home some people have advantages because of their family background. Middle-class families with books and computers will be able to help their children much more than poorer ones can. This can mean poorer children end up with worse grades and more punishments for undone or badly done homework. David Baker, a researcher, believes too much homework causes parents and children to get angry with each other and argue, destroying the child\u2019s confidence 1. On the other hand pushy parents may even end up doing their kids\u2019 homework for them \u2013 cheating and not helping the student learn at all.  1 Britt , 2005"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con01b","title":"","text":"Setting homework does little to develop good study skills. It is hard to check whether the homework students produce is really their own. Some students have always copied off others or got their parents to help them. But today there is so much material available on the internet that teachers can never be sure. It would be better to have a mixture of activities in the classroom which help students to develop a whole range of skills, including independent learning. Furthermore, if teachers want to develop independence in their students, students should be given a choice in the matter of homework. Otherwise, they\u2019re not using their judgement and therefore they aren\u2019t being independent at all 1.  1 Sorrentino , 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con02a","title":"","text":"Homework ensures that students practise what they are taught at school  Having homework also allows students to really fix in their heads work they have done in school. Doing tasks linked to recent lessons helps students strengthen their understanding and become more confident in using new knowledge and skills. For younger children this could be practising reading or multiplication tables. For older ones it might be writing up an experiment, revising for a test and reading in preparation for the next topic. Professor Cooper of Duke University, has found that there is evidence that in elementary school students do better on tests when they do short homework assignments related to the test 1. Students gain confidence from such practise, and that shows when they sit the tests.  1 Strauss, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con04a","title":"","text":"Homework is an essential part of education, allowing students to learn information beyond that which they are taught at school.  Homework is a vital and valuable part of education. There are only a few hours in each school day \u2013 not enough time to cover properly all the subjects children need to study. Setting homework extends study beyond school hours, allowing a wider and deeper education. It also makes the best use of teachers, who can spend lesson time teaching rather than just supervising individual work that could be done at home. Education is about pushing boundaries, and the learning should not stop at the entrance to the classroom \u2013 students should take skills learnt in the classroom and apply them at home. Homework allows this to happen, encouraging students to go above and beyond what they do in school. Reading is the best example, students learn how to read at school, but in order to get better, they need to practise and that is best done at home, with the support of parents and at the right pace for the student."}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con03a","title":"","text":"Homework provides a link between child, school and the home  Education is a partnership between the child, the school and the home 1. Homework is one of the main ways in which the student\u2019s family can be involved with their learning. Many parents value the chance to see what their child is studying and to support them in it. It has been described as the \u2018window into the school\u2019 for parents, the area in which schools, parents and students interact daily 2. And schools need parents\u2019 support in encouraging students to read at home, to help with the practising of tables, and to give them opportunities to research new topics.  1 Walker, et. al, 2004 2 Gill & Schlossman, 2003"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con01a","title":"","text":"Homework encourages students to work more independently (by themselves)  Homework encourages students to work more independently, as they will have to at college and in their jobs. Everyone needs to develop responsibility and skills in personal organization, working to deadlines, being able to research, etc. If students are always \u201cspoon-fed\u201d topics at school they will never develop study skills and self-discipline for the future. A gradual increase in homework responsibilities over the years allows these skills to develop 1. For instance, to read a novel or complete a research project, there is simply no time at school to do it properly. Students have to act independently and be willing to read or write, knowing that if they struggle, they will have to work through the problem or the difficult words themselves. Diane Ravitch points out that a novel like Jane Eyre cannot be completed if it is not read at home \u2013 students have to work through it themselves 2. When given the choice of homework or no homework most students would chose not to do it. But by doing homework they are effectively taught independence in finding their own ways to explain and understand the topic.  1 Bempechat, 2004  2 Ravitch , 2007"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con04b","title":"","text":"Homework is not an essential part of information. If what was to be learnt from homework was that essential, it would not be left to the child to learn on their own and away from school. In fact, many teachers admit to simply setting homework because they are expected to set it, not because they think it will be helpful 1. The best environment for learning is in a classroom, where the student is able to ask for assistance if stuck and the teacher is available to help. .  1 BBC News, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-education-psthwbh-con02b","title":"","text":"Homework does not ensure that students practise what they are taught at school. Teachers often give pupils the end of the exercise they were doing in class to complete at home, it tends to be the harder questions towards the end of the exercise and if a teacher or a tutor is not present to explain or help then it causes the pupil to doubt their ability. To practise what a student has been taught requires the presence of a teacher or tutor who can guide the student if they get something wrong. Homework, done by the student on their own, offers little support and is only a source of stress. If confused, the student may only come to dislike the topic or subject, which will only further reduce their ability to remember what they were taught."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro02b","title":"","text":"The facts are against the premise again.  Research does not support the idea that young people who play violent video games have decreased social ability. This is refuted most notably in studies by Anderson and Ford (1986), Winkel et al. (1987), Scott (1995), Ballard and Lineberger (1999), and Jonathan Freedman (2002). More recently, Block and Crain (2007) claim that in a critical paper by Anderson (and his co-author, Bushman), data was improperly calculated and produced fallacious results. Additional meta-analyses (reviews of research that attempt to statistically combine data from multiple studies for more powerful results) by other researchers, such as by Ferguson and Kilburn (2009) and Sherry (2007) have failed to find any causal link between video game violence and aggression, as have recent reviews by the Australian Government (2010) and the US Supreme Court (June, 2011).  The question of whether violent games that only allow violence as a solution to problems could negatively affect young people in subtle ways deserves further study. However, there are many aspects of video games, such as puzzle solving, that are intrinsic parts of even the basest first person shooters. Many first-person shooters themselves require tactical deployment and thinking\u2014all of which are able to stimulate thought in people, albeit in a different manner than negotiation might do. [1] Further, newer military games are more sophisticated, often requiring the player to take one side of a conflict and then the other in different levels of the game, or forcing the player to face moral dilemmas that affect the game\u2019s storyline or outcome.  [1] Freedman, Jonathan L. Media violence and its effect on aggression: assessing the scientific evidence. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. ISBN 0802084257"}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro02a","title":"","text":"Violent Video Games Cause Social Interaction Problems  Video games of a violent nature tend to fail to offer many solutions to a problem. Most military shooters have no form of negotiation with enemies; players are asked to simply kill as many nameless terrorists as possible. Given this, social interaction problems can be caused because people are presented with problems and then told that they must be solved with violence instead of other methods. In other words, physical violence is portrayed as the first-choice (and often only-choice) solution to a conflict.  This lack of portrayal of alternate solutions can stifle growth of other skills, especially amongst children and adolescents, specifically skills important to making friends and engaging in negotiation in times of conflict or pressure. Further, it encourages children to see people who oppose them as \u201cothers,\u201d and thus presents them psychologically as enemies instead of as people who are simply different to the player and thus might have other grievances. This can lead to increases in aggression among players.  This is especially true given the relatively simplistic portrayal of conflicts within areas such as the Middle East and Afghanistan. [1]  [1] \"Violent Video Games May Increase Aggression in Some But Not Others, Says New Research\". apa.org. American Psychological Association. 27 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro03b","title":"","text":"The facts are strongly against the Proposition\u2019s analysis  The proposition\u2019s arguments fail to stand up in the real world. Several major studies published in The Journal of Adolescent Health, The British Medical Journal and The Lancet (among others) have shown no conclusive link between video game usage and real-life violent behaviour. The Federal Bureau of Investigation found no evidence linking video game use to the massacre at Columbine (or other highly publicized school shootings). [1] There is no evidence to support the idea that people exposed to violent video game (or other violent media content) will then go on to commit crimes. [2]  Further, if violent video games were causing violent behaviour, we would expect to see rates of violent crime increase as games with realistic portrayals of violence became more widely available on popular game consoles. Instead, violent crime has decreased in recent years. Some economists have argued (based on time series modelling) that increased sales of violent video games are associated with decreases in violent crime. [3]  In Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do, researchers\/authors Lawrence Kutner, PhD, and Cheryl K. Olson, ScD of Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital\u2019s Center for Mental Health and Media refute claims of violent behaviour increase caused by violent video games. The researchers' quantitative and qualitative studies (surveys and focus groups) found that young adolescents view game behaviour as unrelated to real-life actions, and this is why they can enjoy criminal or violent acts in a game that would horrify them in reality. They also found evidence that those relatively few adolescents who did not play video games at all were more at-risk for violent behaviours such as bullying or fighting (although the sample size was too small for statistical significance). The authors speculated that because video game play has gained a central and normative role in the social lives of adolescent boys, a boy who does not play any video games might be socially isolated or rejected.  Finally, although more study is needed, there is some evidence to suggest that violent video games might allow players to get aggressive feelings out of their system (i.e., video game play might have a cathartic effect), in a scenario that does not harm anyone else. [4] , [5] , [6]  [1] O\u2019Toole, Mary Ellen, \u2018The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment perspective\u2019, Critical Incident Response Group, www.fbi.gov\/stats-services\/publications\/school-shooter  [2] Editorial. Is exposure to media violence a public-health risk? The Lancet, 2008, 371:1137.  [3] Cunningham, Scott, et al., \u2018Understanding the Effects of Violent Video Games on Violent Crime\u2019, 7 April 2011,   [4] Kutner, Lawrence & Cheryl K. Olson. Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do. Simon and Schuster, 2008  [5] Bensley, Lillian and Juliet Van Eenwyk. Video games and real-life aggression: A review of the literature, Journal of Adolescent Health, 2001, 29:244-257.  [6] Griffiths, Mark. Video games and health. British Medical Journal, 2005, 331:122-123."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro01a","title":"","text":"Children See Violent Video Games  Whilst it might be agreed that violent video games in the hands of a person who is old enough to see them and be able to understand the context in which the violence is being wrought is acceptable, this may not be true of younger people who acquire games.  Games with violent content are often easily acquired by players too young to purchase them. They may also gain access to them at home from older siblings. Because children do not have fully developed mental faculties yet, and may not clearly separate fantasy from reality, exposure to violent games can have a large impact upon children. This has a greater impact than children seeing films that feature realistic violence because whilst a child might get bored with films owing to the lack of interaction with the medium, this is much less likely to be the case with, for example, a military shooting game, which a child might play over and over  As such, all violent video games should be banned to prevent their acquisition by young children either by accident, or owing to parental ignorance. [1]  [1] Anderson, Craig et al. The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2003, 4:81-110"}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is empirically false  Again, the crux of opposition counter-argument is that the evidence in this regard is strongly behind opposition.  In April 2011, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission undercover shopper survey found that video game retailers continue to enforce the ratings by allowing only 13% of underage teenage shoppers to buy M-rated video games, a statistically significant improvement from the 20% purchase rate in 2009. By contrast, underage shoppers purchased R-rated movies 38% of the time, and unrated movies 47% of the time.  Given that children are able to easily access violent content in other visual media, and there is no evidence that video games are more harmful than other media, this argument falls. Further, there is a long tradition of exposing children to extremely violent content in the form of fairy tales.  Further, with greater education regarding the harms of videogames to parents (and with more parents having played video games themselves) many are becoming savvier about appropriate restrictions on their children\u2019s video game play. Given the lack of evidence that video games are clearly or uniquely harmful, but acknowledging society\u2019s interest in protecting vulnerable children, investing in additional parent education is a more logical response than attempting to ban all violent games. [1]  [1] Federal Trade Commission. FTC undercover shopper survey on enforcement of game ratings finds compliance worst for retailers of music CDs and the highest among video game sellers. News release, 20 April 2011."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro03a","title":"","text":"Violent Video Games cause Violent Behaviour  Video games exist as an interactive medium. The player has control over their character and many of their character\u2019s actions whereas in a book or movie, the audience does not. This means that the player can become invested emotionally in characters to a greater extent because of the autonomy afforded to each character.  Given that this is true it becomes more difficult to ensure dissociation between the real world and the game world with which the player interacts. With the growing drive towards realism of videogame graphics, game environments are able to look incredibly similar to real life, further blurring the distinction.  If this is the case, then a person who visits violence upon another person within a game universe feels the same emotions as someone who does so within real life, and therefore may be desensitised to real-life violence. Whilst game producers would claim that is not their aim and that their games do not cause this desensitisation, many have been actively pursuing technologies that allow for greater immersion within their game-worlds.  If this is the case then acts of violence may fail to register the same level of shock or revulsion in a person than they usually do. Given that this is true, people who play video games become more able to harm others or less likely to intervene to prevent harm.  In terms of actual evidence, there is very little to back up this analysis. Most studies supporting the concept have been debunked by others. [1]  [1] Anderson, Craig & Bushman, Brad. Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 2001, 12: 353-359"}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con03b","title":"","text":"Video games teach people to deal with frustrations in the wrong way.  In dealing with frustrations and aggression by using video games as an outlet, players of these games often assume that the problem is gone or dealt with.  This is often not the case, with many sources of frustration being ones which repeat day in and day out.  Given that this is the case, video games prevent people from dealing with the root causes of their problems and thus leave people more susceptible to frustration in the future.  Further, playing back into the first point on proposition, they teach players only one method of dealing with their problems, which is resorting to violence, so should they seek to deal with their frustrations in the real world, often the solutions they do engage with are ones which are suboptimal."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con01b","title":"","text":"There is a generation gap  Children in this age have grown up with computers and digital media devices where their parents have not. Whilst some parents are able to readily adapt to new technology, there are a large proportion that are unable to do so.  Even if parents have adapted to the digital age, there are still lots of things their children know about that parents simply cannot keep up with. It is entirely feasible for a child to be able to keep the presence of a violent video game hidden from his or her parents through use of the various \u201cHome\u201d menus that all the major games consoles now possess. Further, on the computer, a user can simply Alt+Tab out of any application they are in to avoid detection.  Given there are many ways for children to avoid their parents and given the generation gap, it seems unfair to expect parents to be able to monitor their children in this way."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con02a","title":"","text":"Video games Improve Skills  First, the claims of harm caused by video games have not been proven.  The most criticised violent video games are generally military shooters. However, these games generally focus much more strongly on multiplayer components of the game.  These multiplayer components often require significant levels of teamwork in order for one side to be successful over the other. As such, many of these video games end up teaching players core teamwork skills as well as often teaching leadership skills when players become part of organised gaming groups.  Further, numerous researchers have proposed potential positive effects of video games on aspects of social and cognitive development and psychological well-being. It has been shown that action video game players have better hand-eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than non-players. Video games also promote the development of intellectual skills such as planning and problem-solving, and social games may improve the social capabilities of the individual. [1]  Given then that video games provide these benefits, banning violent games would harm the industry overall, causing many of the developers of other games which encourage these kinds of skills to lose their funding from game publishers. Put simply, the banning of violent video games would lead to fewer games overall being published and if these games have the effects listed above then a great net benefit is lost in the process. [2]  [1] Green, C. Shawn & Daphne Bavelier. Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 2003, 423:534-537.   [2] Olson, Cheryl K. Children\u2019s motivations for video game play in the context of normal development. Review of General Psychology, 2010, 14: 180-187."}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con03a","title":"","text":"Violent Video Games Prevent Violent Behaviour  In most people\u2019s lives there are instances where they might like to react to a situation with a level of aggression. However, owing to a number of reasons such a solution is often impossible and undesirable.  It has been theorised by psychologists that pent up frustrations with the world are the root of many psychological problems. Given that this is true then, an outlet for frustrations is required in society such that aggressive behaviour in individuals can be avoided.  Video games in this situation provide such an outlet for aggression and frustrations. Firstly aggression is dealt with through the simple act of defeating enemies within games and frustration is dealt with through the completion of goals within the video games, allowing players a sense of satisfaction upon their completion.  Hence, one could argue that this may result in comparatively lower levels of aggressive behaviour among video game players. This is supported by research conducted by Dr. Cheryl Olson and her team at Harvard. Studying a sample of 1,254 students aged 12 to 14 years, she found that over 49% of boys and 25% of girls reported using violent games such as Grand Theft Auto IV as an outlet for their anger.  She suggests that instead of a blanket ban on M-rated game use by young adolescents, parents should monitor how much time children spend playing games and how they react to specific game content. [1]  [1] Olson, Cheryl K., et al., \u2018Factors Correlated with Violent Video Game Use by Adolescent Boys and Girls\u2019, Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol.41 no.1, pp77-83, July 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con01a","title":"","text":"The Responsibility Lies With Parents  In the digital age, young people are almost certain to be exposed to violent media content, including violent video games, even if parents attempt to restrict children\u2019s exposure to such content in the home. Parents therefore have an obligation to educate themselves about video games (many government, industry and private websites provide such information) and to help their children become \u201cmedia literate\u201d regarding the content and context of games.  The state places responsibility on parents for the welfare of a child and in doing so the state can allow things that would potentially be dangerous for children, anything from skateboards to R-rated films, as long as parents can supervise their children. Parents need not know how to skateboard to supervise such activity, but should know about potential risks and safety equipment. This same logic applies to video games.  To not confer this responsibility on parents is to further undermine their status as role models for their children, as it assumes that parents are incapable of ensuring the safety of their children.  Practically speaking, this could affect the respect they get from their children, with \u201cThe government says I can\u2019t,\u201d being a much weaker response when questioned about violent video games than an actual explanation of the harms behind them. [1]  [1] American Psychological Association. \"Violent Video Games \u2014 Psychologists Help Protect Children from Harmful Effects\", 8 June 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con02b","title":"","text":"The skills learnt within video games are skills that could be learnt elsewhere without the negative problems that have been associated with video games.  All of the benefits listed are thusly moot in this context because things such as team sports are able to develop many of the skills team shooters do, whilst also improving fitness and other areas of well-being. More tactical sports can have a great impact on somebody\u2019s intellectual well-being as well as their physical well-being.  Additionally, videogames in general might be able to improve some skills, but we are discussing violent videogames in particular. There are other, much less violent, videogames that allow people to further increase their skills."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro02b","title":"","text":"To only ask state-funded schools to accept military recruiters ensures that those entering the military out of school are disproportionally from state-schools rather than privately-funded schools, and therefore more likely to be middle and lower-class. Furthermore, there should be no quid pro quo regarding the funding of schools, conditions for further funding should be related to the success of students and the quality of teaching, not whether the school has furthered the state's desire to see its military substantiated. Schools should in fact protect students, not expose them annually to military recruiters who can incrementally pressurize them into a military career."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro02a","title":"","text":"All high schools accepting state funding should accept military recruiters once a year  The relationship between the state and the schools that it establishes and funds goes both ways; if schools accept state funding, the state is entitled to use schools as a platform for the military to appeal to future recruits. All state-funded schools, irrespective of location and student demographics but only high schools, would be expected to accept military recruiters once a year to speak to the entire student body. The event would be a condition of further funding for the school, however there would be no limits placed on a minimum number of students that needed to enlist as a result."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro03b","title":"","text":"However it is dressed up, all the military is interested in schools for is the chance to recruit students. The various educational materials (not always clearly marked as coming from the military) and courses on offer are all intended to interest students in a military career. Such methods are dishonest and should not be allowed in schools; Paul McGarr, a teacher in East London, stated that 'only when recruiting materials gave a true picture of war would he welcome them into his school'1. If students are genuinely interested in joining the military, they can go along to a recruitment centre outside school, potentially with their parents, and ask the necessary questions there. 1 Goff, H. (2008, March 25). Teachers reject 'Army propaganda'. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro05a","title":"","text":"The military is an all-volunteer force and needs a percentage of school-age recruits each year  Our military is an all-volunteer force and must recruit openly to keep up its numbers. The army, navy and air force need well-educated and motivated recruits; as the pool of potential recruits shrinks, efforts to attract young people must be permitted to 'intensify and diversify' 1 The alternative is a return to the conscription and national service that offers those recruits little choice. Military recruitment in schools permits the recruitment of only those with an interest in the armed forces, allowing those who wish to pursue other endeavours that opportunity. As such, visits to schools are not about forcing militaristic propaganda on children, but about making sure that 16-18 year olds know about the military as a potential career choice. After all, college representatives and local employers are allowed to make presentations to students, so it would be unfair to keep just the military out. If you accept that we need armed forces, then you must allow them to recruit openly. 1 Gee, D. (2008, January). Informed Choice? Armed forces recruitment practice in the United Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Young people should hear of the opportunities available in the armed services whilst in school  School children are entitled, as part of their education, to a wide range of careers information, including potential roles in the military. It is a school's duty to offer not only paths to employment, but opportunities to engage with future employers like the military. With university places now increasingly competitive, schools must remain more vigilant than ever that they do not encourage purely academic paths to future careers. Furthermore, nationalism is a powerful factor in school curriculums worldwide, and permitting militaries into schools to talk to students is not an extension of already-permitted activities like the recital of the Lord's Prayer in British state schools or the Pledge of Allegiance in American schools. As such, it comes as little surprise that the predominant reason given for enlistment is service to country1. If schools are asked to ensure that such activities are carried out to foster national sentiment, it follows that military service should be, if not actively encouraged, respected sufficiently to grant the armed services an opportunity to engage with students. 1 Accardi, M. (2011, June 15) Army recruiters become a 'partner' In education Retrieved June 16, 2011, from The Huntsville Times:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro01b","title":"","text":"The armed services have no right to preach to the youth, particularly when they are in a trusting environment like a school. To permit any organization to advertise to schoolchildren about job prospects is misguided at a time when their critical faculties are nascent and they are endowed with the belief that what is taught at school is to be imbibed with little rebuttal. Mandated school activities like the Lord's Prayer and Pledge of Allegiance do serve to promote nationalism, but do not do so in such a way as to threaten the lives or disrupt the career paths of school children. School children must be protected from organizations that have the potential to put pressure on them and guilt trip them into signing away the rest of their young adult life. If their choices are to be respected, they must be left to develop their critical faculties and then permitted to use information available to the general public to make a decision."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro05b","title":"","text":"The need for recruits, however genuine, does not necessitate recruitment within schools. There will of course be certain students who would be attracted voluntarily to a role in the armed services, however these students can be reached through means other than their schools. Furthermore, if the motivation of recruits is paramount, then recruits can do no more to prove their motivation than actively and independently seek out a role in the armed services, rather than having it forced upon them through visits to their schools."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro04b","title":"","text":"Young people are not aware and are, in many cases, deliberately misled as to the risks of military service. School children, conditioned by modern television, film and video games as to the heroism of military service, do not often ponder the dangers inherent in conflict. Modern video games, in which war deaths are the norm and immediate 're-spawning' dulls all sensitivity to death, do not serve to educate the youth about the risks but downplay them to the point of banality. Studies indicate that military recruiters, whilst not actively seeking to downplay risks or obscure the truth, are reluctant to volunteer information that would dissuade potential recruits 1. 1 Gee, D. (2008, January). Informed Choice? Armed forces recruitment practice in the United Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro03a","title":"","text":"The purpose of the military entering schools is not solely recruitment but awareness  Militaries provide a public service that too often goes unnoticed and underappreciated; school visits raise the level of understanding for the important job they do. In the UK the army publicly states that it does not directly recruit in schools but does visit many each year \"with the aim of raising the general awareness of the armed forces in society\"1They always visit by invitation of the Head teacher. Compared to the USA fewer young people have local or family connections with the military, so it is important for them to learn about the role the armed forces play in our country. And in both the UK and the USA the military offers other services to schools, from educational materials to leadership courses and team-building exercises. Sgt. Maj. Jerome DeJean, of the U.S. Army's 2nd Recruiting Brigade, describes their role as 'a partner in education"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Young people are aware of the risks of military service and therefore would not be easily misled by military personnel  Young people are not stupid \u2013 they know that there are risks involved in joining the military. In fact the media usually focuses on the bad news coming out of Afghanistan and Iraq, ignoring the good work of our military there. A career in the military also offers young people a lot of benefits, and it is only right that they should get to hear about those as well. As Donald Rumsfeld noted, \u2018for some of our (US) students, this may be the best opportunity they have to get a college education\u20191. In addition, no one is signed up on the spot in the classroom; they always get the chance to think about it over a few months or more, and to discuss the decision carefully with parents and peers. As such, military recruitment in schools should be seen as no less unethical than the visits to schools of policemen, for whom there is similar risk but little public conjecture.  1Vlahos, K. B. (2005, June 23). Heavy military recruitment at high schools irks some parents. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Fox News:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con03b","title":"","text":"Military presentations in schools are not designed to be propaganda for their institutions, or the state as a whole, but educate the school children as to the undeniably important role that they play. State survival invariably is dependent upon the existence of a strong, well-trained armed force filled with motivated volunteers. Furthermore, demonstrations of modern technology and smart uniforms do not paint an unfair or inaccurate image of contemporary warfare. Such examples in fact illustrate the honesty of militaries in their portrayal to school children of modern combat. They act as not merely an educational tool, but a life lesson, demonstrating that the world of their video games is, in conflict zones at least, very much real."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con01b","title":"","text":"School children are not targeted for military service; the intention is to raise awareness about the work that the military do. A Ministry of Defence spokesman in the UK stated that they 'visit about 1,000 schools a year only at the invitation of the school \u2013 with the aim of raising the general awareness of their armed forces in society, not to recruit\u2019. Furthermore, children interested in a military career are not instantly signed up, they are granted the time until they turn 18 to decide. In addition, before official enlistment, all potential recruits are sent away on a six-week camp to find out what a career in the army will be like1  1 Goff, H. (2008, March 25). Teachers reject 'Army propaganda'. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con02a","title":"","text":"Military recruiters downplay the risks of a military career, tempting schoolchildren into a career they would not have chosen with honest information.  Recruitment officers often make highly misleading pitches about life in the military. They play up the excitement and chances to travel, as well as the pay and benefits such as college fees and training in special skills. They don't talk about the dangers of military life, the casualty rates in Iraq and Afghanistan, or the thousands of young soldiers who have lost limbs or been emasculated in recent years. And they don't mention the impact of war on soldiers' mental health, or the lack of support when they leave the military. If we must have the military in our schools, then they should be made to give a much more realistic view of military life. Evidence suggests that 'whilst staff are generally willing to answer questions honestly, information that might dissuade potential recruits from enlisting is not routinely volunteered'1. If we are to accept the military in schools, they must similarly accept the moral necessity of presenting the risks of the career in a fair and truthful manner. 1 Gee, D. (2008, January). Informed Choice? Armed forces recruitment practice in the United Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con04a","title":"","text":"Military recruitment in schools is illegal  Recruitment in schools is against parts of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. A set of rules that the USA signed up to in 2002 forbids the recruitment of children under the age of 181. Despite this, the American Civil Liberties Union has found that US military recruiters target children as young as 11, visiting their classrooms and making unfair promises to them2. Though the military would argue that its school visits do not constitute recruitment, if recruitment of those under 18 is wrong, then advertising to those under 18 should similarly be considered wrong. In order to live up to its pledge in 2002, the USA should stop trying to recruit in schools. 1 United Nations General Assembly . (2000, May 25). Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: 2 American Civil Liberties Union. (2008, May 13). Military recruitment practices violate international standards, says ACLU. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from American Civil Liberties Union:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con03a","title":"","text":"Military recruitment in schools is less education than propaganda  Allowing members of the military into schools is a form of propaganda. They promote the military and make war seem glamorous. Soldiers in smart uniforms come into classes with specially-made videos and powerful weapons, making violence and state-organised murder seem cool. A recent report into the practice stated 'key messages are routinely tailored to children's interests: military roles are promoted as glamorous\u2026(and) warfare is portrayed as game-like and enjoyable.\u20191 This encourages young people to support aggressive action abroad. It also promotes an unthinking loyalty to the state, whether its actions are right or wrong. By allowing the military in, schools are signalling to their students that these things are OK.  1 Gee, D. (2008, January). Informed Choice? Armed forces recruitment practice in the United Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con01a","title":"","text":"School children are too young to target for military service  School children should be protected from targeted appeals for jobs they are unprepared for, both physically and emotionally. The army is short of manpower due to high casualty rates and the unwillingness of current soldiers to reenlist. This means that they are very keen to get into schools to sign up young people. But it is not right to let them get at students who are too young to vote, or even drive. 16 and 17 year olds are not grown-up enough to make life and death decisions, like joining the army. They may not be able to see through exciting presentations or resist a persuasive and experienced recruitment officer. Under the No Child Left Behind Act, military recruiters collect data on 30 million students. The act 'grants the Pentagon access to directories of all public high schools to facilitate contact for military service recruitment'1. A huge database contains their personal details, including social security numbers, email addresses and academic records. The purpose of this is to allow recruiters to pester young people with messages, phone calls and home visits. Schools should be safe places to grow and learn, not somewhere to sign your life away before it has even properly begun. Upon enlisting, recruits enter a contract that legally binds them to the Armed Forces for up to six years2; school children should not be exposed to pressure to sign their young adolescence away. 1 Berg, M. (2005, February 23). Military recruiters have unrivaled access to schools. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Common Dreams: 2 Gee, D. (2008, January). Informed Choice? Armed forces recruitment practice in the United Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:"}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con04b","title":"","text":"Military recruitment in schools is not illegal in the United States for they have not signed the relevant documents. The USA has not signed the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child referred to opposite, although it has signed the UN's Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (United Nations General Assembly , 2000). However, the US military does not recruit under-18s anyway, so it is keeping to it's agreement. In any case, neither of these agreements stops recruiters visiting schools in order to make students aware of military career options once they turn 18."}
+{"id":"training-education-egpeupdw-con02b","title":"","text":"Recruiters do not minimise the risks of a military career, rather the armed forces have a good story to tell and they don't prevent themselves from saying so. Furthermore, it is policy for recruitment staff to 'explain the recruits' rights and responsibilities and the nature of the commitment to the Armed Forces'1. There really are great opportunities for keen, talented young people in the military, and almost all soldiers, etc. find it a very satisfying life. And compared with the past, soldiers today are much better looked after in terms of physical, medical and psychological wellbeing. 1 Gee, D. (2008, January). Informed Choice? Armed forces recruitment practice in the United Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro02b","title":"","text":"Dress codes are a half-way house that does not work. It does not make students look at all uniform and it does not show what school they are from. In the United States there has been a move away from allowing either no uniform or dress codes towards having school uniforms.[6]"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Dress Codes instead of school uniform  Rather than having school uniform, why not have a dress code instead? This has all the benefits of uniform without the many disadvantages. While uniforms force all children to wear the same clothes, dress codes give students a lot of choice what to wear. Only a few unsuitable things are banned - for example, gang colors, very short skirts, crop tops, bare shoulders, etc"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro03b","title":"","text":"A lot of schools have a choice of uniform so that children can wear what they feel most comfortable in. For example, in Australia, which is a very hot country, schools often have a summer uniform of clothes that are more comfortable in the hot weather [9]. This means that in summer, children might be allowed to wear shorts instead of trousers and short-sleeved instead of long-sleeved shirts.  If children were allowed to choose their own clothes to wear to school, instead of a uniform, they might choose impractical clothes themselves, like baggy tee shirts or long skirts, or jeans with chains hanging from them. To make sure that children are all wearing sensible clothes in which they will be able to take part in all their school activities, there needs to be one uniform that all children at the school wear."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro05a","title":"","text":"Individuality and creativity should be encouraged  Article 19 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that \"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression\"[18]. Children's freedom of expression is restricted by school uniforms, because children who have to wear the same clothing as every other child in their school are not able to express their individuality and creativity. We should get rid of school uniform so that all children can express themselves freely."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro01a","title":"","text":"Students should be allowed to wear religious dress  If children are religious, they should be allowed to wear the clothes that express their religion, but school a uniform can often restrict this. Religious beliefs can be extremely valuable and important to many children, giving their lives a great deal of meaning and structure and inspiring them to work hard and behave compassionately in a school environment. Some religions place a great deal of value upon worn symbols of faith, such as turbans, headdresses and bracelets. When a school demands that a child remove these symbols, it inadvertently attacks something central to that child\u2019s life. This may cause the child to see her school and her faith as mutually exclusive institutions[1]. Vulnerable young people should not be forced into an adversarial relationship with their school, as close, collaborative involvement with teaching and learning techniques will greatly effect a child\u2019s ability to adapt, learn and acquire new skills in the future.  For example, school skirts are often not long enough for Muslim girls, who believe that they should cover most of their bodies. To allow children to express their religions, we should get rid of school uniforms."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro01b","title":"","text":"Some schools do have different rules for religious students, so that those students can express their beliefs. For example, a school might let Muslim girls wear some of their religious items of clothing mixed with the school uniform (e.g., Reading Girls' School)[2]."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro05b","title":"","text":"Schools can foster creativity and individuality without getting rid of school uniform. There are many schools with a uniform which still support creativity and individuality with \"Child Initiated Independent Learning\", and other schemes which encourage children to think for themselves [19, 20]. Also, if children are participating in creative activities like art, it is surely better for them to wear sensible clothes, and it's easier to make sure all children are wearing sensible clothes if they all have to wear the same uniform."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro04b","title":"","text":"In many countries, parents can apply for help with the cost of school uniform. For example, in the U.K., parents who don't earn a lot of money can get money from the government to help pay for their child's school uniform[13] . In Australia, the Australian Scholarships Group, which specialises in helping parents save money when it comes to their children's education, has tips for parents to get their child's uniform cheaper.[14]  Also, parents would probably have to spend a lot more money if their children didn't wear a uniform to school, because they would have to buy them more casual clothes. Since children don't like to wear the same thing too often (in case they get bullied), parents would have to spend a lot of money making sure their children have lots of different outfits."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro03a","title":"","text":"School uniforms are often impractical or uncomfortable  School uniforms are often not very comfortable or practical. In state schools (schools for which parents don't have to pay fees) in the U.K., for example, girls often have to wear dresses or skirts, when they might feel more comfortable in trousers, and boys often have to wear button-up shirts and ties, which can also be uncomfortable for active children[7]. In independent schools, uniforms are often even more impractical and uncomfortable, with blazers or even tailcoats for the children to wear[8]."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-pro04a","title":"","text":"School uniforms are often expensive  If a school has a uniform, parents are expected to buy it, and then buy a new one every time their child outgrows the last. This can be expensive. It has been reported that parents in South Africa[10], Australia[11], and the U.K[12]. have to pay a lot of money for their children's school uniforms, and it is probably the same in other countries too."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-con03b","title":"","text":"Researchers have actually found that having to wear a school uniform does not make children better behaved. For example, Brunsma and Rockquemore[22] looked at data for more than 4,500 students and found that those who wore a school uniform did not have fewer behavioural problems or better attendance. School uniform does not encourage discipline, so there is no need to make children wear one."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-con01b","title":"","text":"There will always be teasing between children. If it's not based on what clothes the kids are wearing, it'll be because of their hair colour[4], or the fact that they wear glasses [5]. Children need to learn from an early age that everyone is different, or how can they learn to accept that? The differences between people should be embraced; in making students wear a uniform, schools are wrongly teaching children that everyone should look the same.  When it comes to the opposition's evidence it should be remembered that opinion polls themselves are slippery, depending on the question asked, as is something like a belief in the benefits of school uniforms. There is also no evidence to link parent's belief that it promotes equality to whether it really does."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-con02a","title":"","text":"School uniforms contribute to the sense of school unity  Schools that have a uniform often say that they do so because wearing a uniform helps their students feel a sense of unity and pride in their school (e.g., Sacred Heart Catholic School, 2010)[15]. The headmistress of Fulham Cross School in London, England, has been quoted as saying that introducing a uniform at her school gave students \"an incredible sense of pride\"; after the introduction of a school uniform, GCSE passes at her school rose from 42 to 53 per cent[16].  This sense of unity is especially important on school trips, where teachers need to be able to tell which children belong to their school, so that no one gets lost."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-con03a","title":"","text":"School uniforms encourage discipline  Having to wear smart clothes encourages children to respect their school and their teachers and behave themselves. This is because of the association between smart clothes and work. Casual wear at school can also make students feel over-relaxed and 'at home,' meaning they don't focus as much on work. A lot of schools are bringing back school uniform because they want to improve discipline[21].  Moreover, school uniform can actively encourage students to enter into an adversarial relationship with the curriculum and their teachers. Exercising arbitrary control over children in the interests of \u201cdiscipline\u201d is likely to convince them that the very sensible, rational principles of learning and critical thought that they acquire during the school day are equally arbitrary and meaningless. By refusing to allow children to participate in enjoyable, beguiling processes of discovery and understanding unless they comply with unjustified and meaningless rules about dress, schools risk being seen as oppressive and capricious by their students.  1 The Telegraph, 2009. School uniforms return in drive to improve school discipline [online] 1 October."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-con01a","title":"","text":"School uniforms create a sense of equality  School catchment areas are diverse and in private schools, some children are there on a scholarship. So, without uniforms there are clear indicators of wealth between what children wear. This makes poorer children stand out, (or even possibly the reverse). Children can then be bullied for being different, which diminishes a child's enjoyment of school. A study in New York has shown that 84% of parents think uniforms promote equality, and 89% of guidance counselors think uniforms help teach children to be more accepting of others who are less fortunate[3]. This perception among parents will help create the same perception among their children. This is also likely to translate to the teachers who will therefore treat their pupils more equally."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghwbsuj-con02b","title":"","text":"School uniforms might help improve the feeling of unity within schools, but pride in one's school is dependent on being distinct and different from another school. This can lead increase rivalry between schools (already present from school sports matches). There are many examples of school rivalry (often made worse by the fact that children from different schools are made to wear different uniforms) leading to children being beaten up or worse. For example, in New Zealand, a boy was beaten up by boys from a rival school; he said that the boys told him he should be shot because he went to a different school, which they could see from his uniform[17]. Because of this rivalry, it might be better for students not to wear school uniforms on outings, where they might encounter children from other schools. Schools can use other things to make sure children don't get lost on school trips, like buddy schemes where each child has a buddy, and having plenty of teachers or assistant teachers. 1 TVNZ, 2007. Boy beaten as school rivalry heats up [online] 21 October."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro02b","title":"","text":"Vocational training would not actually improve training in the skills which employers are concerned about. When people complain about a skills gap, there are two kinds of skills they are worried about: technical ones, in subjects like engineering, and general ones, such as the ability to present or to write clearly. This is something which is already done in university; the best way to learn how to present and write is to practice presenting and writing. Picking a subject, such as history, simply acts as a useful focus for this work.  As long as employers can be sufficiently clear about what it is they want graduates to be capable of, we will be able to incorporate this into existing courses \u2013 so in fact, even supposedly non-vocational courses will teach the right skills.  Technical careers like engineering and computer science might indeed benefit from the change, but it makes no sense to shape the whole education system around a limited set of jobs."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro02a","title":"","text":"Vocational courses produce better employees  The courses which are generally offered at the moment are not serving students well when it comes to providing the skills for employment. 65% of businesses complain of being unable to hire people with the right skills. [1] Increasingly, universities are offering as a selling point the fact that they have extra-curricular courses to teach people business skills, but this is a tacit admission that they are selling people degrees which are not fit for purpose.  Solving this requires us to teach more vocationally. There are schemes underway in many areas to do just that \u2013 to give one example, in Maine, USA, a bill has been passed to improve local colleges. [2] Our policy moves these efforts from the fringes to the core of the system: isolate as far as possible the specific things which make good employees and teach those to people. This will help them get jobs more easily, and also ensure that companies are able to operate effectively. The consequences of such a policy would be good all round.  [1] Personnel Today, \u2018Skills gap \u2018hindering UK business growth\u2019, say CEOs\u2019, agr, 29 April 2013  [2] State House Bureau, \u2018House Oks bill to plug \u2018skills gap\u2019, Portland Press Herald, 21 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro03b","title":"","text":"The statement \u201cuniversities can\u2019t take everyone\u201d is clearly true. But there is a big jump from that to saying \u201cwe should stop people from applying,\u201d for two reasons. Firstly, the more obvious conclusion would be to find a way to increase the number of places available, on the grounds that more students means a larger pool of knowledge to draw from and therefore academia will be better. Secondly, for this to have the desired effect we would need the good people to continue to apply, and this is by no means guaranteed \u2013 they may simply waltz off into jobs and be lost to academia, in which case we will actually end up worse off.  The limited number of places is a problem, but the proposed solution may make things worse."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Students are forcing themselves through university even when it is not right for them  Not everyone should be spending their time in academic study. As well as requiring certain skills, it also requires that the personality of the student be suited to it. They must be capable of manufacturing a sustained interest in a subject, or they will not be able to drag themselves through three or more years of thinking about little else. Some people are, by nature, not that kind of person \u2013 they may think in a short-term way or simply not be curious about the world. It also requires a level of intelligence which some people simply don\u2019t have. These people will gain very little from spending time at university. In fact, at some (typically less prestigious) universities, dropout rates can be as high as 20%, meaning students will literally gain nothing. [1]  Many people are putting themselves through university despite it not being right for them. Partial blame for this lies with employers \u2013 the large number of graduates means a culture has developed among recruiters of using the presence or absence of a degree as a default filter for applicants; 78% of leading employers filter out anyone with less than a 2:1. [2] We should discourage this. By implementing this policy, we create a different and better way to measure someone\u2019s employability. This will make employers more likely to hire these people, and allow them to follow a path through life better suited to their personality.  [1] Paton, Graeme, \u2018University drop-out rate soars by 13pc in a year\u2019, The Telegraph, 29 March 2012  [2] Tims, Anna, \u2018Get a third-class degree? Time to turn on the charm\u2019, The Guardian, 11 September 2010"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro01b","title":"","text":"Everyone gains something from university, whether quantifiable or not. Simply getting out in to the world and meeting more people \u2013 not just minorities and other social groups, but even a wider variety of people within your own social group \u2013 is an effective way to learn to think more broadly. Many university students live away from home for the first time, forcing them to do things for themselves and learn how things like personal finance work. It also allows them space to explore themselves and shape their own principles. Non-academic activities within university can also broaden horizons and teach new things such as joining student clubs or societies, such as the debating society. Although university may not be the only way of doing this, it has proven effective over the years, so it\u2019s not true to say non-academic people get absolutely nothing from it.  Despite the problems associated with a degree culture, there are other problems with a non-academic culture. Academia creates things: products and inventions in the case of sciences, and thoughts or ideas in the case of humanities (and even though some people argue against government funding for humanities, almost no-one argues they should not be studied at all). Sustaining this creativity requires at least some new people entering the field, bringing their own insights and approaches. For this to happen, it has to be both respectable and accessible. A government policy against academic courses will cripple this and damage all of us."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro04b","title":"","text":"This is a mischaracterisation of how academics work. No serious researcher cuts themselves off from the world to work: collaboration, exchange of ideas and chatting by the water cooler are invaluable. Often, a crucial insight into a problem comes from a casual reference by a colleague. Every report into improving research environments stresses the importance of collaboration, both within a discipline and between disciplines.  Anyone who loves their subject will be happy to have more people studying and sharing ideas with them, even if those people are not quite as committed as they are. If those people then leave to do vocational stuff, they will have at least been a positive presence."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro03a","title":"","text":"Universities don\u2019t have unlimited places available  Universities cannot take every student who applies. They have to balance the number of applications they get with both the number of teaching staff they have and the time they need for research. In the UK, almost a third of applicants do not get places as it is, [1] and those that do often find they have less contact time with staff than they had expected. [2] Simply put, if you want to have academics doing useful research, you can\u2019t expect them to teach all the time.  If universities have a finite number of places, it makes sense that they should be allocated to the people best suited for them. Currently, universities are so overwhelmed by demand that it isn\u2019t possible for them to test this properly \u2013 in most cases, they will take a cursory look at predicted grades, and perhaps an interview with the candidate. Discouraging applicants would lower the stress on admissions departments, making the process more accurate. It will also allow them more leisure to reach out to and target students with the right personality, improving the quality of applications.  Forget all of the discussion as to whether or not academic courses are useful \u2013 it\u2019s simply not practical to have everyone do them.  [1] \u2018UCAS End of Cycle report 2012\u2019, UCAS, 13 December 2012  [2] Paton, Graeme, \u2018University teaching time \u2018fails to rise\u2019 despite fees hike\u2019, The Telegraph, 15 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro04a","title":"","text":"Academia must be free of distractions  The best academic departments are ones run with purely academic aims. Intensive study of a field requires that you are given the resources, support, time and space that you need. Moreover, the best atmosphere is one in which everyone around you shares your love of study. It follows that departments should be allowed to use this as their top priority. This affects undergraduate study in two ways: students must be free to spend time getting to grips with their subject properly, and lecturers must be allowed to teach the things they feel to be most important for their subject.  Neither of these things are possible when you are worrying about jobs. Every subject has certain parts which are more or less relevant to their related careers, but this may not be the same as the parts which are important to academic study of the subject. For example, maths students will invariably be taught Linear Algebra and Group Theory, normally in the first year, but 20% of Mathematics graduates work in Business & Finance, where this is not relevant. If everyone is expected to have one eye on vocational training the academic study will necessarily suffer.  Solving this problem requires that we split vocational and academic study, so that people doing one don\u2019t need to worry about the other. This will improve each of them."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con03b","title":"","text":"Clearly, more tolerance is a good thing, but putting people through an expensive, three-year course with no career benefit is a sensible way to achieve this. As an example of an alternative, give more support to gap-year programmes and run them in such a way as to get an equivalent mixing. People will learn just as much tolerance in one year as in three, will save time and can even do useful volunteering while they\u2019re on it. This is not mutually exclusive with our policy, which means that you get both benefits."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con01b","title":"","text":"The importance of university to minority groups derives directly from its importance to the rest of the country. It is seen as the key to things like higher-paying jobs for low-income families because it is seen as the key to higher-paying jobs in general. Moreover, this is based on an attitude problem: there are plenty of jobs which do not require degree-level education and which can pay very well at the top end. [1] Under our vocational system, this will all change, and academic study will no longer be the benchmark for success.  Alternatively, even under the current system, what matters to people generally is not the fact of university education alone, it is the careers which it opens up \u2013 in particular, stereotypically middle-class careers such as lawyers and bankers. Vocational training would give children just as many opportunities, if not more, as they are not being forced through an academic process of questionable utility first.  [1] Smith, Jacquelyn, \u2018America\u2019s Best-Paying Blue-Collar Jobs\u2019, Forbes, 6th April 2012"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con02a","title":"","text":"Life experience is an essential part of personal development  People gain much more than a subject from their time at university. Life requires interpersonal skills, self-discipline and general knowledge which must be absorbed over time. There are distinct advantages to picking up these skills before you start work. Firstly, it will make you a more effective worker, whether you are working alone (self-discipline) or with other people (interpersonal skills). Secondly, while working you are likely to have much less time for that sort of thing. Thirdly, you will be to go through on-the-job training more easily if you already know how to study.  All of this can be done very effectively at university. You are allowed time and space to learn planning, budgeting, finding and managing accommodation and a myriad other things which will help you in life. So to say that people don\u2019t gain anything from non-vocational courses is misleading \u2013 even if the study doesn\u2019t help them, the life experience does."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con04a","title":"","text":"We must retain a respect for academia  Academia is important to society. Technical subjects have the obvious outcomes of new inventions, gadgets, medicines etc. \u2013 and although these applications are vocational, they are inspired by academic study. Creative arts are also a huge industry in their own right. Humanities are a source of ideas about society, happiness, social policy and cultural understanding, besides simply being interesting. [1] This is all activity which we should encourage.  Emphasising vocational training would damage the image of academia. Quite apart from the fact that reduced government support for the sector is likely to damage it in real terms, it is very likely that if people are being told by the whole government education system that vocational training is more useful for themselves and for society, they will come to regard non-vocational courses with suspicion. Pressure to conform is a real factor, especially for schoolchildren at ages when they are unlikely to see any reason for a principled, pro-academia stance. This means fewer children will go into it and fewer people will tolerate support for it.  Preserving the prestige of non-vocational courses is important, and it requires government policy to take them seriously.  [1] \u2018Section 3: What Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences Offers\u2019, British Academy, accessed 12 June 2013"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con03a","title":"","text":"Universities cut across class and social divides in a unique way  University is a great equaliser. One positive side-effect of people going through university is that they are virtually guaranteed to interact with people who are different from them in all sorts of ways \u2013 including ethnicity, where minority groups are sometimes better represented than they are in the general population, [1] and international students account for 17% of the university population. [2] The more this mixing happens, the easier it is for people to be tolerant and sensitive to other people. While this isn\u2019t necessarily a problem everywhere, there are still places where these divides cause tension and violence, so the fact that our policy helps to tackle this makes it good.  Vocational courses are rather less likely to be mixed. Certain careers are associated with certain groups, and people studying for that specific career will be drawn largely from that group. For example, the clients of an accountancy course and a construction course are not likely to overlap very much, if at all. Despite whatever merits vocational education may have, government policy is not just about education: it should take into account the wider social good, and so we should be on the side which produces a more tolerant society.  [1] Sellgren, Katherine\u2019, \u2018Rise in ethnic minority students at UK universities\u2019, BBC News, 3 February 2010  [2] \u2018International students in UK higher education: key statistics\u2019, UK Council for International Student Affairs, 2011-12"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con01a","title":"","text":"University education gives people something to aim for  University education is something which a lot of traditionally disadvantaged groups aspire to, for themselves or, more commonly, for their children. Those who are accepted are seen as having \u201cmade good,\u201d partly because of the prestige attached to intelligence and partly because of the correlation with higher salaries.  However, this can be hard for them: they may be from lower-income families, where there is no family history of higher education, or they may be from immigrant communities, who have struggled to learn the local language. These children are therefore likely to encounter significant barriers to getting to university. But a permanent lottery-of-birth, where only children of successful people can ever be successful, would not be fair. All children should be helped to build their own futures regardless of their background and broad access to university is necessary for this. It is notable that most of the countries with the most social mobility (Denmark, Norway, Finland, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden) are also those with the highest rates of graduation from tertiary education, Canada is the only outlier. [1] This is the reason the government generally gives them extra support so as to make university realistic.  If the government switches focus to vocational courses, it will necessarily lower the amount of support available for these children to get to university. This makes it harder for them to break out of poverty, harder to improve their station in life and harder for them to gain status in their community. This is too valuable to give up.  [1] This is clearly very inexact, there are countries with very high graduation rates (Iceland being top) that are not on the intergenerational earnings elasticity graph so can\u2019t be compared.  Corak, Miles, \u2018Here is the source for the \u201cGreat Gatsby Curve\u201d in the Alan Krueger speech at the Center for American Progress on January 12\u2019, Economics for public policy, 12 January 2012  \u2018Tertiary education graduation rates Percentage of graduates to the population at the typical age of graduation\u2019, OECD ilibrary, 14 June 2010"}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con04b","title":"","text":"It is entirely consistent to respect academia while insisting it isn\u2019t appropriate for everyone. By way of analogy, consider that few people do serious sport, but almost no-one looks down on those who do (thinking particularly of casual sport rather than professional sport). We are perfectly capable of seeing the value in things which we don\u2019t do ourselves.  It is even plausible that under the new system academics would become an elite cadre of intellectuals whom schoolchildren would aspire to join and the status of academia would be considerably enhanced. There is a well-known saying, \u201cfamiliarity breeds contempt.\u201d If fewer people were tempted to think of themselves as amateur scientists, amateur historians etc., we might have more respect for the real ones."}
+{"id":"training-education-eguhwefpgu-con02b","title":"","text":"None of the above is unique to university. It is possible to find something useful to do practically wherever you are, including university. That doesn\u2019t make it the most important, efficient or effective thing to do \u2013 or, indeed, the best place to do it. Anyone on a vocational course will pick up the same general skills and study techniques at least as well.  We agree that there is an advantage to knowing how to study before you start job training, but we don\u2019t think the right answer is to do other, random study first \u2013 the skills should ideally be taught at school, or as an introduction to the job training."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro02b","title":"","text":"For whatever reason the treasures were first collected, we should not rewrite history. There is no reason to politicise this argument; museums have no 'political' agenda but merely wish to preserve historical objects for their intrinsic value. Their reasons for keeping these items may be financial, or in the interests of keeping the artefacts safe and accessible to the public; whatever they may be, they are not political. Don\u2019t the nations who have expended resources protecting and preserving these artefacts deserve in return the right to display them?  Additionally, not all artefacts held outside their country of origin are the result of imperial or exploitative relationships. The original Medieval Crown of England is held in Munich [1] . Artistic exchange has nothing to do with politics anymore.  [1] Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen Schl\u00f6sser, G\u00e4rten und Seen, \u2018Treasury (Schatzkammer)'"}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Retaining artefacts is a relic of imperialist attitudes to non-occidental cultures  Display of cultural treasures in Western museums may be seen as a last hangover from the imperial belief that \u201ccivilised\u201d states such as Britain were the true cultural successors to Ancient Greece and Rome, and that the \u2018barbarian\u2019 inhabitants of those ancient regions were unable to appreciate or look after their great artistic heritage. Whether that was true in the 19th century is open to doubt; it certainly is not valid today and the display of imperial trophies in institutions such as the British Museum or the Louvre is a reminder to many developing nations of their past oppression. For instance, the British Museum is refusing to return 700 of the Benin Bronzes to Nigeria despite repeated requests by the Nigerian government [1] . The Rosetta stone has been the subject of demands by the Egyptian government but remains in London. These artefacts become almost souvenirs of Imperialism, a way of retaining cultural ownership long after the political power of Britain has faded. Returning them would be a gesture of goodwill and cooperation.  [1] \u201cThe British Museum which refuses to state clearly how many of the bronzes it has is alleged to be detaining has 700 bronzes whilst the Ethnology Museum, Berlin, has 580 pieces and the Ethnology Museum, Vienna, has 167 pieces. These museums refuse to return any pieces despite several demands for restitution.\u201d From Opoku, Kwame, \u2018France returns looted artefacts to Nigeria: Beginning of a long process or an isolated act?\u2019 29th January 2010"}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Although some treasures may have been acquired illegally, the evidence for this is often ambiguous. Experts agree that Greece could mount no court case because Elgin was granted permission by what was then Greece's ruling government. Lord Elgin\u2019s bribes were the common way of facilitating any business in the Ottoman Empire, and do not undermine Britain\u2019s solid legal claim to the Parthenon marbles, based upon a written contract made by the internationally-recognised authorities in Athens at the time. The veracity of the document can never be fully dismissed as it is a translation. And while some Benin bronzes were undoubtedly looted, other \u201ccolonial trophies\u201d were freely sold to the imperial powers, indeed some were made specifically for the European market."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cultural artefacts are enriched when displayed in the context from which they originated  Cultural treasures should be displayed in the context in which they originated; only then can they be truly valued and understood. In the case of the Parthenon marbles this is an architectural context which only proximity to the Parthenon itself can provide. In the British Museum they appear as mere disconnected fragments, stripped of any emotional meaning. It may also be useful for academics to have a cultural property in its original context in order to be able to understand it, for example a carved door may be a beautiful artefact but it cannot be truly understood unless we know what the door was used for, where it leads too something for which it is necessary to see the context.  Cultural and historical tourism is an important source of income for many countries, and is especially important for developing countries. If their artefacts have been appropriated by foreign museums in wealthy nations then they are being deprived of the economic opportunity to build a successful tourist trade. Both the treasures themselves are being devalued as is the experience of seeing the treasures."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The artefacts' place of origin has more often than not changed dramatically since they were in situ there. It is therefore unconvincing to argue that the context of modern Orthodox Greece aids visitors\u2019 appreciation of an ancient pagan relic. Too much has changed physically and culturally over the centuries for artefacts to speak more clearly in their country of origin than they do in museums, where they can be compared to large assemblies of objects from a wide variety of cultures. Similarly, a great many cultural treasures relate to religions and cultures which no longer survive and there can be no such claim for their return. Technology has also evolved to the point that Ancient Greece can be just as accurately evoked virtually as it could be in modern Greece [1] .  Countries with cultural heritage retain the attraction of being the original locations of historical events or places of interest even without all the artefacts in place. The sanctuaries of Olympia and Delphi in Greece are a good example of this; they are not filled with artefacts, but continue to attract visitors because the sites are interesting in themselves. In 2009 2,813,548 people visited Athens, with 5,970,483 visiting archaeological sites across Greece [2] , even without the Parthenon marbles. Also, people who have seen an artefact in a foreign museum may then be drawn to visit the area it originated from. It is the tourist trade of the nations where these artefacts are held (mostly northern European nations, like Britain and France) which would suffer if they were repatriated. Lacking the climate and natural amenities of other tourist destinations they rely on their cultural offerings in order to attract visitors  [1] Young Explorers, \u2018A brief history of\u2026\u2019 The British Museum.  [2] AFP, \u2018New Acropolis Museum leads rise in Greek Museum visitor numbers for 2009\u2019, Elginism, June 8th 2010. (Breakdown of visitor figures according to major destinations. )"}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro04b","title":"","text":"In the case of the Parthenon marbles, Lord Elgin\u2019s action in removing them was an act of rescue as the Parthenon was being used as a quarry by the local population. [1] The Parthenon had already been destroyed by an explosion in 1687. [2] Having been removed the result was that the British protected them between 1821 and 1833 during the Greek War of Independence was occurring and the Acropolis was besieged twice. [3] Furthermore, if they had been returned upon Greek independence in 1830, the heavily polluted air of Athens would have caused extensive damage to such artefacts that would be open to the elements and Greek attempts at restoration in 1898 were as damaging as the British. [4] Today economic austerity lends new uncertainty to Greece\u2019s commitment to financing culture.  Similar problems face the return of artefacts to African museums; wooden figures would decay in the humid atmosphere. Artefacts in Northern Africa are at risk because of the recent revolts and civil wars [5] . Wealthier countries sometimes simply have better resources to protect, preserve and restore historical artefacts than their country of origin. Our moral obligation is to preserve the artefact for future generations, and if this is best achieved by remaining in a foreign country then that must be the course of action.  [1] Beard, Mary, \u2018Lord Elgin - Saviour or Vandal?\u2019, BBC History, 17 February 2011.  [2] Mommsen, Theodor E., \u2018The Venetian in Athens and the Destruction of the Parthenon in 1687\u2019, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol 45, No. 4, Oct-Dec 1941, pp. 544-556.  [3] Christopher Hitchens, The Elgin Marbles: Should They Be Returned to Greece?, 1998,p.viii, ISBN 1-85984-220-8  [4] Hadingham, Evan, \u2018Unlocking Mysteries of the Parthenon\u2019 Smithsonian Magazine, February 2008.  [5] Parker, Nick \u2018Raiders of the Lost Mubarak\u2019, , The Sun, 1st Feburary 2011."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Many artefacts resting in western museums were acquired illegally. Western states have a duty to retain them.  Artefacts were often acquired illegally. Elgin, for instance, appropriated the Parthenon Marbles from the Ottoman authorities who had invaded Greece and were arguably not the rightful owners of the site; he took advantage of political turmoil to pillage these ancient statues. Doubt has even been cast on the legality of the 1801 document which purportedly gave Elgin permission to remove the marbles [1] . The Axum obelisk was seized from Ethiopia by Mussolini as a trophy of war; fortunately the injustice of this action has since been recognised and the obelisk was restored to its rightful place in 2005 [2] .  UNESCO regulations initially required the return of artefacts removed from their country of origin after 1970,when the treaty came into force, but did not deal with any appropriations before this date due to deadlock in the negotiations for the framing of the convention that prevented inclusion of earlier removals. . However, the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects essentially removes the ambiguity about time limitations of UNESCO\u2019s 1970 convention. Here, nations are required, in all cases, to return cultural artefacts to their countries of origin if those items were once stolen or removed illegally [3] . International law is thus on the side of returning artefacts.  [1] Rudenstine, David, 'Did Elgin cheat at marbles?' Nation, Vol. 270, Issue 21, 25 May 2000.  [2] BBC News, \u2018Who should own historic artefacts?\u2019, 26th April 2005,  [3] Odor, \u2018The Return of Cultural Artefacts to Countries of Origin\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Developing countries are able to guard and preserve their own cultural treasures  It may have been true that countries such as Greece were not capable of looking after their heritage in the past, but that has now changed. Since 197  5 Greece has been carefully restoring the Acropolis and Athens now has a secure environment to maintain the marbles. The state-of-the-art New Acropolis Museum, which cost $200m, has now been completed to house the surviving marbles [1] , and even contains a replica of the temple, thus the marbles would appear as being exactly the same as on the real temple. Pollution control measures (such as installing pollution monitoring stations throughout metropolitan Athens and ensuring that motor vehicles must comply with emission standards [2] ) have reduced sulphur-dioxide levels in the city to a fifth of their previous levels.  At the same time the curatorship of institutions such as the British Museum is being called into question, as it becomes apparent that controversial cleaning and restoration practices may have harmed the sculptures they claim to protect. In the 1930s the British museum\u2019s attempt to clean them using chisels caused irreparable damage. [3] They have also been irresponsible when it comes to protecting the fate of many of its artefacts: \u201cThe British Museum has sold off more than 30 controversial Benin bronzes for as little as \u00a375 each since 1950, it has emerged\u201d; \u201cThe museum now regrets the sales\u201d [4] .  [1] Acropolis museum, Home page.  [2] Alexandros.com, \u2018Greece\u2019.  [3] Smith, Helena, \u2018British damage to Elgin marbles \u2018irreparable\u2019\u2019, The Guardian, 12 November 1999.  [4] BBC News, \u2018Benin bronzes sold to Nigeria\u2019, 27th March 2002."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con03b","title":"","text":"Many people from an artefact's country of origin never get to see them because they cannot afford to travel to a foreign museum; as such the cost of access to that museum is a very small part of the total cost. These artefacts are part of their cultural history and national identity, and it is important that local people are given the opportunity to see them. It is not all about quantity of visitors; those closest to the artefacts have the greatest right to see them. For others, it should be a privilege not a right."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con01b","title":"","text":"If the artefacts are of sufficient historical and cultural interest, scholars will travel to any location in order to study them. Indeed, the proximity of artefacts in developing countries may even stimulate intellectual curiosity and increase the quality of universities in there, which would be beneficial for world culture."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con02a","title":"","text":"The historical significance of artefacts extends beyond their culture of origin  Artefacts have a historical and symbolic meaning that transcends their origins; over the years they acquire a connection with the place that they are housed. For example, the Egyptian obelisk that stands in the Piazza di San Pietro in Rome was brought to Italy in the reign of Caligula. [1] It is no longer merely an \u2018Egyptian\u2019 artefact - it has become a symbol of Roman dominance in the ancient world and the European Christian culture that succeeded it. During the Middle Ages it was believed that the ashes of Julius Caesar were contained in the gilt ball at the top [2] .  Further, all artefacts are part of a world-wide collective history. Olduvai handaxes (from countries in Eastern Africa such as Tanzania) are held in the British Museum [3] - but the people who made them are our ancestors just as much as they are the ancestors of local people. Holding these in London encourages us to see the common ground we hold with people everywhere in the world, whereas keeping them only in their local country only highlights our differences and tribal identities. \u201cCulture knows no political borders. It never has. It\u2019s always been mongrel; it\u2019s always been hybrid; and it\u2019s always moved across borders or bears the imprint of earlier contact\u201d [4] .  [1] Saintpetersbasilica.org, \u2018The Obelisk\u2019.  [2] Wikipedia, \u2018List of obelisks in Rome\u2019, And Wikipedia, \u2018Saint Peter\u2019s Sqaure\u2019, (Both have useful links and pictures.)  [3] The British Museum, \u2018Highlights Olduvai Handaxe\u2019.  [4] Cuno, James, author of \u2018Who Owns Antiquity? Museums and the Battle over our Ancient Heritage\u2019, quoted in Tiffany Jenkins, \u2018Culture knows no political borders\u2019, The Spectator July 2008."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con04a","title":"","text":"In many cases, returning an artefact may prove to be unreasonably expensive  Even with modern transport links and technology, transporting every artefact in a foreign museum back to its original location would be an impractically mammoth task. The risk of damage to artefacts would be unavoidable, not to mention the possibility of theft or sabotage en route. Important artefacts in transit would be an ideal public target for acts of terrorism. Moreover, the infrastructure of developing countries is probably not sufficient to cope with that volume. Greece may have spent $200m developing a new museum but relatively it is one of the more wealthy countries of origin for artefacts in the British Museum; places such as Nigeria are unlikely to put such emphasis on cultural investment.  Museums all over the world do loan out their collections [1] . Just because they are held in another country\u2019s museum does not mean that the place of origin would not be able to access artefacts. Creating a generous and dynamic network of sharing relics between museums would be a much more realistic way of sharing and ensuring that all could benefit from seeing them.  [1] The British Museum, \u2018Tours and loans\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con03a","title":"","text":"Artefacts should be made accessible to the largest possible number of visitors  Art treasures should be accessible to the greatest number of people and to scholars, because only then can the educational potential of these artefacts be realised. In response to a question about whether museums have any social responsibility, Richard Armstrong, director at the Guggenheim, said \u201cAbsolutely, it began with the French Revolution. It is the more than a 200-year-old quest to have the most powerful cultural artefacts available to the greatest number of people. One could say it is the project of democratizing beauty\u201d [1] . In practice this means retaining them in the great museums of the world. Further some of the world great museums, such as those in Britain and the Smithsonian in Washington D.C. are free of charge.  [1] Boudin, Claudia, \u2018Richard Armstrong on the Future of the Solomon R Guggenheim Foundation\u2019, 4th November 2008."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con01a","title":"","text":"Scholars will have better access to artefacts, and more opportunities for study and collaboration, if they are stored in the west  If the Rosetta Stone had not been taken by the British in 1801, the deciphering of the ancient hieroglyphic language of the ancient Egyptian civilizations would have been near impossible. The British Museum is within just hours, and in some cases minutes, of such world-renowned institutions as Cambridge, Oxford, UCL, and Edinburgh. The scientific research that occurs in stable developed countries and scientifically excelling countries is of the highest degree, and parallels to this high level of study are simply non-existent in many underdeveloped countries."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con04b","title":"","text":"Returning artefacts to their original locations would in the past have been an unfeasible project simply because of the risk of transporting everything. Now, however, transport is much quicker and easier and we have improved technology to make the transit less damaging to the artefact; for instance, temperature-controlled containers."}
+{"id":"training-education-aetuhwrcp-con02b","title":"","text":"Artefacts often have unique religious and cultural connections with the place from where they were taken, but none for those who view them in museum cases. To the descendants of their creators it is offensive to see aspects of their spirituality displayed for the entertainment of foreigners. Meanings may have accumulated around artefacts, but their true significance is rooted in its origins."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro02b","title":"","text":"The temporal linking argument itself cannot be disputed, but the idea that this is what gets parents invested can again be questioned, as noted above."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro02a","title":"","text":"Collaborative Approach  In order for a child\u2019s misbehaviour to be successfully remedied, the child must receive a consistent message on what is appropriate both at home and at school. In many instances parents may condone behaviour that schools and teacher find unacceptable. In other instances, professionals at schools can aid parents in targeting specific behaviours to work on in a specific order in a program that integrates the child\u2019s behaviour at both school and home. Moreover, uniform and consistent rewards and negative reinforcements from school and home are tremendously useful for helping rehabilitate a child\u2019s behaviour. [1]  When initiating such programs, the major problem is often that the parents give in and do not adhere to the agreed upon program, which serves to teach the child that unacceptable behaviour is sometimes condonable. It\u2019s understandable that parents, who must be with the children a majority of the time, sometimes may find it easier to simply give in and pacify the child and inadvertently award destructive behaviour. Therefore, a system of parental investment, as proposed here, will ensure that the parents have something riding on sticking to a disciplinary program as well, which ultimately aids the child.  In the case of parents being penalized for criminal offenses by children, one can modify this argument to fit by noting that often juvenile facilities will use schools as part of a behavioural modification program, therefore the consistency noted above is still critical.  [1] Robinson, Virginia, \u2018Bridging the gap between school and home\u2019, Raising Achievement Update, July 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro03b","title":"","text":"Authority aversion is a good counterargument here. (see op argument 4)"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro05a","title":"","text":"Individual Responsibility  The philosophy underling the proposition is one in which the child is not solely responsible for his or her own behaviour. Even if the threats of parental punishment and involvement are successful in the short term in modifying a child\u2019s behaviour, the long term sequlae is that the child\u2019s good behaviour is predicated not on an understanding of the consequence of their behaviour and a consideration of their own long term interests, but merely out of fear and external consequences.  In the long run, instilling this message is likely to lead to future misbehaviour as the external punishments, in this case imposed on the parents, fall away. Once the child reaches an age at which the parents cannot be punished or the child does not care about parental punishment, building an ethic around such external consequences will fail to deter the child from misbehaviour. (See argument 4)"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Parental Incentives  Addressing the behavioural problems of children requires active parental participation. However, in many cases, parents are either not fully aware of their children\u2019s problems, or more importantly, delay the active disciplining of their children.  This is critical, as for the cycle of negative and positive reinforcement to be effective in behaviour modification, there must be a temporal link between misbehaviour and any potential punishment. In a desire to avoid future fines, or whatever the penalty the parents face, there is an active incentive to not only intervene in the child\u2019s misbehaviour, but also to do so in a timely way, which is the most proven way to change children\u2019s behaviour.  Moreover, if there is any tendency for parents to overlook or avoid the problems of chronically unruly children, this serves as an impetus for keeping up with discipline notices and paying attention to the child\u2019s infractions.  A lack of parental involvement has for example regularly been cited as being partially to blame for the riots in the UK during August 2011. [1]  [1] Gentleman, Amelia, \u2018UK riots: \u2018Being liberal is fine, but we need to be given the right to parent\u2019\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 10 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro01b","title":"","text":"The danger for abuse argument from the opposition side is a good counterargument. Moreover, one might analyse the probabilities that this particular incentive will be a tipping point in the case of marginal parents (the ones that are not already fully involved in their children\u2019s discipline for whom this might be the tipping point). Most caring parents will already be quite invested and do the best they can because they care for their child. Those who do lapse likely have some sort of structural familial problems, whether they hold many jobs and work very hard to keep the family going, or are simply bad parents. In these cases, is this likely to be the factor that changes these parents\u2019 behaviours? Unlikely."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro05b","title":"","text":"Children are too young to internalize and understand broad philosophies of responsibility. A small child refrains from stealing a cookie out of fear of being caught, not out of some grand regard for a morally just universe in which his actions must be scrutinized. Later on, as the child gets older, his\/her understanding can mature."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro04b","title":"","text":"The \u201cunjust\u201d argument is a good counter. One could cite some neurobiology evidence that lack of discipline is due to complex cognitive deficits that manifest through delayed brain development even in otherwise normal seeming children, which belies the \u201cparental responsibility\/failure\u201d view. To start with, cognitive deficits can be caused by genetic factors or other things which started before birth, and can stop children being able to function normally. [1]  [1] Tynan, W. Douglas, \u2018Cognitive Deficits\u2019, Medscape Reference, 3 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Children Held Accountable  Often, children who have been trapped in a cycle of lack of discipline and disciplinary problems tend not to care about their punishment. [1] Detention may be seen as a welcome respite from classes, and other punishments over time may cease to make an impression on the child. After all, there is only so much that an institution can do to discipline a child.  Using this mechanism opens up a far more effective repertoire of discipline. More importantly, while the child may cease to regard any punishments handed down on him or her, often there will still be a desire to avoid actively harming the parents, which occurs under this system. [2]  The argument also extends in the case of criminal punishments. In the psychology of a child, he or she may not fully internalize the effects on their future a shoplifting arrest may have. However, the thought of their parents being punished in such an offense may lead to the deterrence necessary to prevent such actions.  In effect, the argument is that when punishments to the child him or herself fail to act as a deterrent, the child seeing punishments imposed on the parents as a result of his or her actions may reinvigorate the deterrent effect.  In addition, this allows an extra tool in the teacher\u2019s arsenal, and the mere thought of perhaps \u201ctriggering\u201d a parental punishment may help bring some children into line.  [1] Pawel, Jody Johnston, \u2018Child Abuse of Discipline: What is the Difference?\u2019, Parent\u2019s Toolshop,   [2] \u2018Mother jailed for girls\u2019 truancy\u2019, 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro04a","title":"","text":"Parental Responsibility  In most cases, in which the child is not subject to some sort of constitutional problem (genetic condition or otherwise), the disruptive behaviour of a child is a reflection of in adequate parental intervention over time. A normal child under normal circumstances should be expected to conform to behavioural expectations, and the failure to do so represents a partial inadequate job by the parents.  The result is a cost that is transmitted to society. Children that are disruptive in school or in society via the criminal justice system cost the system extra money either in school resources and time or judicial-police resources as well as in the more obvious costs such as fixing vandalism and graffiti. [1] Even worse; if a student drops out as a result of his discipline problems the cost to society has been estimated as $232,000-388,000. [2] Given that the parent is in part to blame for failing to control the child\u2019s behaviour, in the time during which the parent is the primary custodian of the child, it is fair to pass on a measure of this cost to the parent.  [1] Batten, George, \u2018The Main Cause of School Budget Problems is School Discipline\u2019, School Discipline Made Easy,   [2] Hymel, Shelley, and Henderson, Natalie Rocke, \u2018Helping Students who are Experiencing Persistent and\/or Serious Discipline Problems to Succeed in School: The State of the Evidence\u2019, Ontario Ministry of Education Research Symposium, 18-20 January 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con03b","title":"","text":"One way to deal with this argument is by noting that this would be one tool in a school\u2019s arsenal. If it proves to be obviously counterproductive, then it will not be employed, in the same way that other disciplinary tactics schools\/society can impose will not be used if they are seen to be adverse or ineffective."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con01b","title":"","text":"The \u201cparental responsibility\u201d argument is a good counter here. An appeal to the fact that some lax parents clearly raise spoiled children can also be effective in building intuition about the notion that parents are imposing a cost through their actions."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con02a","title":"","text":"Danger for Abuse  Many children that have consistent behavioural problems at school come from dysfunctional families in which either physical or emotional abuse and neglect is common. This has then resulted in behavior disorders such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder. [1] While it would be nice to believe that parents would respond to the stated incentives in a healthy way, it must be considered that it is just as likely that in some of these households parents would crack down violently (again, either emotionally or physically ) on their children. Such actions by parental role models often lead to a vicious cycle in which the behaviour is then continued at school and in future generations.  It is difficult to say what proportion of households may respond in this fashion, but if even a small proportion of children are actively harmed by this policy, it is a strong argument against its uniform adoption.  [1] \u2018Behaviour Problems in Children and Adolescents\u2019, Children\u2019s Mental Health Ontario,"}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con03a","title":"","text":"Authority Aversion  A short argument, but a potentially powerful one. The assumption that children will not act out even more under such a regime in a bid to lash out at parents is untenable. Misbehaviour at school is often a rebellion against authority anyway, and the ultimate authority in most children\u2019s lives is the parents. Therefore, as acting out against both of these institutions is consistent with the misbehaving mind set, it follows that tying school misbehaviour to parental detriments is unlikely to affect the child and may even serve to encourage their bad deeds."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con01a","title":"","text":"Unjust  There is an argument to be made that this form of punishment of parents is simply unjust. The legal basis of punishment is based on the principle that a sane individual is fully responsible for his or her actions. One can always point to dysfunctional families or other influences that may have had an effect on an individual\u2019s actions, but the level of influence is impossible to quantify. Therefore, any level of punishment that is meted out to external sources cannot be matched proportionally to actions taken by these outside parties, thereby abrogating the principle of proportional punishment. As a result, any just system of punishment is bound by this constraint, and shifting responsibility to external sources is not consistent with our principles.  This argument functions best in the criminal justice context, but applies in the school context as well. Schools that adopt this policy must examine the ethical underpinnings of the policy, and if the policy itself is immoral, then regardless of its efficacy (which is disputed in the first argument and later on) the policy should not be adopted."}
+{"id":"training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con02b","title":"","text":"One could say that in cases in which abuse is suspected the program would be suspended for that child, and that teacher\u2019s always have an obligation to report abuse (in the U.S., anyhow)."}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-pro02b","title":"","text":"The cost of extending the period of compulsory education is just too high. In many countries the number of students in the last two years of formal schooling would at least double, requiring a huge investment in teachers, books, new school buildings, computers, etc. And this is just the direct cost - there are also potentially enormous indirect losses to the state in terms of the taxes and pension contributions which it currently receives from young workers but would forego if the school-leaving age was raised."}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-pro02a","title":"","text":"Raising the school-leaving age is a crucial investment in society's future  Doing so increases the economic potential of the future workforce, and so will bring increased tax revenues in the long term to more than cover any initial costs. Although some countries would experience a more dramatic change than others, it is worth noting that in many states a very large majority of young people voluntarily stay in education beyond the end of compulsory schooling (e.g. France, Germany and Japan). In the UK 84 per cent of pupils in year 10 stated that they had intentions to stay on in further education. [1] If these countries can already bear the extra cost without economic collapse, it should be possible for others to cope as well.  [1] Office for National Statistics. Social Trends. 2009,  , ch 3"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-pro03b","title":"","text":"Unfortunately equality in the job market is unlikely to emerge simply because everyone now stays in school for the same amount of time. As noted above, not everyone will get the same out of school for being there the same time. Those who achieve the best exam results will still be the most employable, especially if they go into tertiary education before finding a job."}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-pro01a","title":"","text":"More education brings more opportunities  More education provides the opportunity to acquire more skills and therefore more options. It has been shown many times that those with more education find it easier to find work and that they are more likely to find that work satisfying. Similarly, the level of education among the population can have a positive effect on the economy as a whole as they can be more efficient workers. The impact of extra years of education on earnings and economic productivity is also disproportionately heavy at the lower end - that is, two more years at school for a 16 year old will make a much greater percentage difference to their later economic worth than two years of graduate work for a 22 year old. The UK has recently raised the school leaving age to 18 for the same reasons. [1]  [1] Browne, Anthony and Webster, Philip, \u2018School leaving age goes up to 18\u2019, 2007"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-pro01b","title":"","text":"This argument suggests that children whom Britain's state schools have failed to teach even to read and write should be compelled to stay at those schools for an extra two years. It will not suddenly bring new opportunities just because children are forced to sit in a classroom for longer.  This is absurd. It is re-enforcing failure. It is an idea according to which, if climbing a mountain on your hands and knees does not work, then you should be made to go on doing it. [1]  [1] Bartholomew, James, \u2018Raising the school-leaving age would be crazy\u2019, 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-pro03a","title":"","text":"Raising the school learning age promotes equal opportunities  Ensuring everyone gets educated for the same amount of time at school should promote equality. Currently early-school leaving is linked with other indicators of socio-economic disadvantage, such as low-income jobs or high unemployment. More importantly parents who left school young and as a consequence have lower-grade occupations are more likely to have children who leave school early (only 60% of those children stay in education past 16) [1] . Forcing all children to stay in school longer could break this cycle of disadvantage. [2]  [1] Ibid, ch 3  [2] RTE News, \u2018Early school leavers earn lower wages\u2019, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-con03b","title":"","text":"Leaving school early is not necessary. Simply in a few cases there is a need for more government intervention in order to make sure that everyone is able to afford to remain in school up to the age of 18. If children are unqualified at 16 then there is all the more reason to teach them the basics that they have failed to grasp for two more years. There could also be some exceptions as in the British system where there are exemptions for under-18s who are caring for parents or relatives, and for teenage mothers. [1]  [1] Browne, Anthony and Webster, Philip, \u2018School leaving age goes up to 18\u2019, 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-con01b","title":"","text":"UK statistics plainly show \u201cThere is no evidence that raising the minimum school leaving age made people who had not intended to leave at the minimum age raise their educational standard. This is consistent with the view that education raises productivity and not with the view that productive people get more education.\u201d [1]  [1] Zhu, Y., & Walker, I. Education, earnings and productivity: recent UK evidence, 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-con02a","title":"","text":"Not all skills are best learnt in a classroom environment.  Practical skills (for example carpentry, cookery, gardening etc.), are often best learnt \u2018on-the-job\u2019 or through an apprenticeship. Both routes place young people into contact with professionals in the field as well as giving them access to a wider range of tools and materials than could possibly be available in schools. For many young people who would like to work in these areas extra years at school will merely be time \u2018treading water\u2019 before they can get on with learning the skills of their trade. This is even more alarming in the case of the UK with the new tuition fees for universities, which are likely to decrease the chances of certain socio-economic categories of going to university at all."}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-con03a","title":"","text":"There are cases where leaving school early is necessary  Working early can be an advantage in some circumstances. Many families need their children to make an economic contribution to the family income, often for example on a farm or in a family business. Working early can help these families to survive. Similarly unqualified individuals can gain equality or even an advantage over their qualified peers by having a few years\u2019 work-experience \u2018on-the-shop-floor\u2019. If they are forced to stay in school as long as their peers they lose this advantage. Recognizing this, the British government introduced 21,000 extra apprenticeships in 2009 in an attempt to ensure those who aren\u2019t suited to school do not fall behind when it comes to finding a job and a sustainable income. (Lipsett, 2009)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-con01a","title":"","text":"Forced education achieves little  Unfortunately just being in school does not guarantee that a student is learning. If they lack aptitude, ability or interest the extra time in the classroom is likely to benefit them very little, especially when they have not chosen to be there. It also poses a sharp divide on the question of disruptive children. If they are excluded from school their disadvantage is extended over more years while if they are included, they damage the education of others in their class for even longer. As Henry Phibbs argues \u201cIncreasing the school-leaving age will not result in more being learned \u2013 just more broken windows in the locality of the school. Children fed up with school need an escape route, not an extension of their sentence.\u201d [1]  [1] Phibbs, H., \u2018Let them leave school at 14\u2019, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-egshwrsla1-con02b","title":"","text":"Practical Skills can be taught in school. Many school systems have vocational schools. For example the German system vocational schools, Berufsschulen, have been around since the 19th Century where students spent part of their time in vocational training in the school and part of their time as apprentices, these are attended until at least the age of 18. [1] It is possible for Schooling to be flexible while still continuing to 18.  [1] Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany London, \u2018Education\u2019, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro02b","title":"","text":"Poetry should not be seen as something that one studies after learning English but should, instead, be seen as a way to help students grasp the English language. Many aspects of English are improved through the study of poetry. Learning poetry involves repetitive reading and an exploration of vowels and syllables. Students also explore a variety of sentence structures and are given the opportunity to explore the creativity and flexibility available in language. Furthermore, by reading poetry students can improve their reading ability and public speaking skills."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Students need to study the basics of language not a complex form such as poetry  According to a report published in 2011 [3] a great number of pupils in England are struggling after starting secondary school and 3 out of 10 pupils are not making enough progress in English. If pupils are not making the required progress in basic English then it is difficult to understand the motivation behind teaching complex poetry. If a student is unable to do basic multiplication it makes no sense to ask them to do complicated mathematic equations. The same is true in English: pupils who struggle with things like grammar and vocabulary should not be expected to tackle complicated poetic structures."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro03b","title":"","text":"Musicians have, for some time, been awarded poet status. Early in his career Bob Dylan was described as being \u201cas good as Keats [an early 19th Century British poet].\" [7] Musicians must be allowed the chance to develop their poetic style and be recognized for their lyrical writing skills.  Rap gives the listener an insight into the plight of the artist. It shows the harsh conditions in which people live and gives a voice to those that we otherwise might not hear. William Blake\u2019s famous poem \u2018London\u2019 is often described a social protest, a voice of discontent with the conditions of life in 1790\u2019s London. Rap does the same thing; social protest, put to music, and designed to describe the racial and economic inequalities that exist within society. Rap, even with its sometimes offensive lyrics reflects the society the artist sees and it should be accepted as it is.  We must not judge the poetry on the basis of the poet\u2019s life Dylan Thomas, Wales\u2019 national poet, was an adulterer and an alcoholic. However, this does not make his poetry any less worthy."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro01a","title":"","text":"Poetry is too difficult for school students  There are people who dedicate their lives to studying poetry and still have trouble understanding its meaning. If these people constantly debate the nature of poetry how can school children be expected to properly understand it? It is difficult to teach because poetry can have multiple meanings; \u201c[U]ntil education theory asks itself what poetry itself is, and therefore what the teacher is trying to get across, poems will continue largely to figure as teaching aids, exercises and \u2013 for teenagers \u2013 increasingly tedious, somewhat arbitrary puzzles\" [2] and therefore poetry will remain of little worth in the classroom.  The greatest poets write about adult experiences, e.g, love, work, history, politics, solitude etc. As a result great poetry requires an adult mind to grasp its full meaning and teaching it in schools means that students develop a disliking for poetry before they are even fully capable of appreciating it."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro01b","title":"","text":"While great poetry may deal with adult experiences there is poetry that targets a younger audience and methods available to teach this type of poetry. Children\u2019s poetry, for instance, is not complex or dark in subject matter and uses very regular rhythm and rhyme schemes, which young students will enjoy. If age-appropriate poetry is taught in schools then it gives young people the chance to develop an appreciation for poetry and its various techniques. This means that in later years young people will have the skills necessary to properly understand great poetry."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro03a","title":"","text":"Rappers; modern day poets  Many people believe that rap is a form of modern day poetry and as such it should be taught in schools [4]. Sir Andrew Motion, Professor of Creative Writing at Royal Holloway, University of London, said that: \u201cPoetry is a house of many mansions. It does pupils a disservice only to tell them things they already know. Rap has its own challenges and opportunities \u2013 but so do many other kinds of poetry, many of which are neglected in schools.\" [5] However, many rappers use lyrics that are homophobic, violent, sexist, and promote violence and crime. To teach rap in schools is to give a voice to these values and expose children to views that education must not support. [6]"}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con03b","title":"","text":"We must be realistic in education; we need to prepare our students for the difficulties of the real world. It is those subjects that are vocational in nature and\/ or life skills, home language (not literature), mathematics, science, modern languages, business studies and law that must take priority in schools. We must equip and train the new generation to successfully gain employment. Therefore, artistic subjects like poetry do not take priority."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con01b","title":"","text":"History books can tell us more about the horrors of the First World War than any poetry can. War poetry is based on the opinions of one person\u2019s experiences whereas a history book can give an account of all the events and horrors that occurred. Because history books have been written after the war they can gather accounts from many different people and can tell the full story of the war. Shellshock in the First World War helped make many mad; Sassoon himself was nicknamed \u201cMad Jack\u201d for near suicidal exploits. [10] War poetry may thus be an unreliable source, and it is only one among many that should teach history."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con02a","title":"","text":"Poetry allows people to express and understand themselves  Education should not just be about learning basic skills but should, instead, be about exploring what it means to be human. Poetry teaches pupils to think deeply about themselves and others and encourages them to explore the ways in which their ideas can be expressed. Ideas help to change, and improve, the world we live in. Encouraging students to express themselves and their ideas is important because the heart of democracy involves the ability to express ideas. If individuals cannot express themselves they do not have a voice.  Therefore, by teaching poetry we allow pupils the opportunity to express their own ideas on a huge variety of subjects. Many poets, such as William Wordsworth, have written poetry about nature in order to \u201csee into the life of things.\" [11] Giving children the tools to express ideas about the world in a variety of ways is crucial to the development of both the individual and society as a whole."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con04a","title":"","text":"As an artistic form of a core subject poetry offers a creative method of teaching English  Pupils in schools must learn English and poetry offers a creative outlet for a subject that would otherwise be repetitive and boring. Poetry also introduces the reader to new concepts which hold the learner\u2019s interest and improve vocabulary and spelling.  Poetry offers a fun method of teaching subjects that can otherwise be exhaustive and repetitive. For example, Shirley Hughes\u2019 poems for young readers such as \u2018Best Friends\u2019 introduce young readers to the vowel sounds of English and Zoe\u2019s Earrings by Kit Wright teaches pre-GCSE students about accents. [8]"}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con03a","title":"","text":"Education is about teaching culture, the arts, and creativity  We want cultured people to graduate from schools. It would be terrible if high school graduates had no understanding of the arts and had no desire to explore cultural places like museums and art galleries. The arts inspire learning and encourage human curiosity; removing this cultural aspect from schools means that we produce people without the creativity necessary for society to grow. At present the only cultural GCSE subject that is compulsory is English Literature; as such, it is important to include as much culture in it as possible i.e. novels and poetry."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con01a","title":"","text":"Poetry is cross-curricular  Poetry has benefits beyond the English curriculum by teaching about other subjects. In History for example war poetry offers the modern reader the chance to understand the horrors of war. Poet Wilfred Owen suffered from shellshock as a result of fighting in the First World War. In his poem \u2018Mental Cases\u2019 he describes his time and experiences at Craiglockhart psychiatric hospital in Scotland where he and Siegfried Sassoon (another World War 1 poet) were treated: \u201c[W]ho are these? Why sit they here in twilight? Wherefore rock they, purgatorial shadows[9]\u201d While we might never be able to properly understand the terrifying experiences that people go through during war we must read their poetry helps bring us closer to how they related to and coped with the experience in a way that simply learning the history does not."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con04b","title":"","text":"Learning the basics of literature and language is not designed to be fun or enjoyable, it is an essential requirement. It is important that students can get to grips with the basics of their home language. A standard \u2018look, cover, write, check\u2019 method is an effective way to learn spelling and vocabulary as it requires the learner to write the words themselves. Simply reading them is not enough, especially not in the context of a poem which can be complex and difficult for a pupil whose priority is to learn writing and reading. It is much more effective to develop the pupils reading skills through standard literature where the structure is easier to follow."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con02b","title":"","text":"Poetry is hardly the only way to teach people how to express themselves; if we are interested in self-expression for democratic purposes then children should be taught politics. If they are to express their ideas about nature then other art forms are just as important. Unfortunately poetry as a form of self-expression can only be crippled as a result of students\u2019 lack of knowledge of the basics of language. The priority of government should be to achieve a basic level of literacy for all students; only then can the luxury of teaching art be introduced. There is no use in children being able to effortlessly quote Shakespeare if they have no idea how to spell his name."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro02b","title":"","text":"Universities can't be guided by an \"invisible hand\": the conditions in the higher education market are not such that optimum results will obtain from this sort of \"free market\" idea. There are several reasons why. First, demand for university courses fluctuates, and a low intake for a course one year, and therefore decreased funding, could unfairly penalise other people studying in that department, who are not free to leave (and take their money elsewhere) but simply have to suffer the decrease in quality until the end of their degree course. Second, universities don't operate in a true free-market system: the high start up costs (buildings, libraries) mean that it is very difficult for new universities to enter the market, even if standards in existing ones fall.Thirdly, there will always be those students who are poorer and have to go to the worse universities (if they cannot afford or do not want the burden of a student loan). A poorer student will either get a second rate education and waste valuable time and money or will opt out of higher education all together and accrue none of the benefits, since graduates typically earn more than non-graduates1.  1 Lexington, \"Higher education: Is it really the next bubble?\" The Economist, 21 April 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro02a","title":"","text":"The introduction of more private universities would increase the quality of education by allowing open competition  In the rest of the economy, when consumers are allowed to choose between goods or services, the higher quality products are successful and the bad ones fail. Similarly, when consumers can makes choices between universities, and are putting money on the line (thus taking a risk) they will choose the good universities, and consider the bad universities as not worth wasting their money on. As a consequence, the best universities will expand, and the worst universities will either improve or fail. The New College of the Humanities for example is aiming to rival Oxford and Cambridge1 so helping to provide these two elite institutions with the necessary competition to force up standards. This will result in a higher quality of education being available to more people.  1 BBC News, \"Academics launch \u00a318,000 college in London.\u201d 5 June 2011"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro03b","title":"","text":"If more diversity is necessary, then governments can change the way in which they fund universities, perhaps by giving a proportion of funding based on student numbers.  However, for the large part so-called \"increased diversity\" would not constitute improvements on the quality of academic education, but rather gimmicks to make a university look more attractive to the young people who apply \u2013 there are incentives to make the university popular to sixth-form applicants, not to existing undergraduates."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Private universities are needed to increase the number of places for students.  British universities are facing cuts in government funding and as a result there will be no new places created to cater for rising demand. Professor Steve Smith, president of Universities UK noted the fact that the budget cuts that could soar to as much as \u00a3950,000,000 over three years would decrease the quality of education whilst keeping the numbers of University places stagnant. In 2009, 160,000 students who applied did not go to University. In 2010, 75,000 more people applied.1 Governments in rich countries all over the world are facing squeezed budged over the next few years and will be unable to increase funding for universities. This leaves private universities as the only way to meet increasing demand for higher education.  1Shepherd, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro01b","title":"","text":"Encouraging private universities will not increase the number of university places available. Instead they will skim off the students who can afford to pay, but who would be going to university anyway. This will leave remaining publicly funded universities having to pick up the strain, often with less money and just as many potential students without places."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro04b","title":"","text":"It is unfortunate that the current system constitutes taking from the poor and giving to the rich, but this is justified as long as two things are true: first, overall, the government does redistribute wealth in such a way as to take from the rich and give to the poor, and second, the funding of universities from the public purse is of benefit to the poorer people in society. In this case publicly funding universities gives the poor the option of going to university that they would otherwise not have, even if they fail to take that option up. (The opposition arguments explain why this latter condition is the case.)"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro03a","title":"","text":"The privatisation of universities encourages course-diversity and provides for students are individuals, not cattle  Privatisation of universities allows for a greater range of educational provision: universities are no longer restrained by government targets and bureaucracy, and are incentivised by possible profits to set themselves apart and provide \"unique selling points\" that will gain them more students: the current system does not provide this motivation because universities receive their funding regardless of student numbers."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-pro04a","title":"","text":"The current system constitutes taking from the poor and giving to the rich  The majority of people in the UK have not benefited from a university education, and graduates earn more, on average, than the rest of the population. Further, universities accept a larger number of richer people than they do poorer people. A National Audit Office report claims \"Socioeconomic background remains a strong determinant of higher education participation. People from lower socioeconomic backgrounds make up around half of the population of England, but represent just 29 per cent of young, full-time, first-time entrants to higher education.\"1 It is therefore wrong on principle to use tax-payers' money to subsidise universities, because when universities are subsidised from a general \"pot\" of taxation, a redistribution of wealth occurs whereby the rich benefit at a cost to the poorer people in society. This is wrong, because we should be using taxation to attempt to mitigate economic inequality, not to exacerbate it.  1 Woolcock, Nicola, \"White working class boys least likely to go to university.\" Times Online, 25 June 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con03b","title":"","text":"The reason why people from poorer backgrounds are underrepresented at university is not because they perceive it as something only rich people can do. Instead, it is because their schools did not adequately prepare them: on average, they have fewer\/worse qualifications, and are less likely to have performed the myriad extra-curricular activities that give people an advantage when applying to universities1. Making university education private, then, does not disadvantage the poor: if the opposition really wants to help people from poorer backgrounds it would address the deficiencies of school-level education instead.  1 Cassidy, Sarah, \"Quality of education still determined by wealth, says report.\" The Independent, 8 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con01b","title":"","text":"Allowing market forces to control educational opportunity is as legitimate at university level as it is at school level. Parents wanting the best for their children should be allowed to spend the resources that they have accumulated in any way that they like, rather than have those resources taken from them by the state to create an education system that isn't as good as that which those parents could have funded themselves."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con02a","title":"","text":"Private Universities would risk reducing the quality of university degrees.  New private universities will not have a long standing reputation to keep up. They may not be as well regulated and they will have no social interest beyond simply getting money from their students. This means that they may well offer cheap and poor quality education in order to find a gap in the market. This could damage the reputation of other universities as Dr Paul Greatrix registrar of Nottingham University worries \"If there are entrants who are on the extreme end of cheap and cheerful, this will damage our international reputation.\"1 In systems that are both private and state funded universities there is an immense divide between a few very good elite institutions that charge immense amounts and a much larger number of poorer quality universities. Take the US system, it is well known for its world class Ivy League universities. Its publicly funded universities however do much less well with only the University of Michigan near the top of the world rankings in 20th place. Of the state universities only those that do not face so much Ivy league competition over in California due to distance do well1. Having Private universities clearly creams off the best students and the funding leaving the public universities in a worse position lowering the overall quality of education.  1 Shepherd, Jessica, \"What universities think of competing for their admissions.\" Guardian.co.uk, 28 June 2011. 2 Hotson, Howard, \"Don't Look to the Ivy League.\" London Review of Books, Vol.33, No.10, 19 May 2011 ."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con04a","title":"","text":"Private universities would increase the divide between the rich and poor  Funding universities through taxation rather than privately allows poorer people in society to access university education because the government can increase access in three key ways. First, it can subsidise universities to decrease the price, second, it can exert pressure on universities to increase diversity within their student populations (by increasing numbers of people from disadvantaged backgrounds) and third, it can easily control peripheral support structures such as student loan schemes that become difficult to manage under a privatised system."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con03a","title":"","text":"This will increase the perception that universities are just for the rich  Treating university education like any other commodity will increase the perception that, like any other very expensive commodity, it is a luxury, and that therefore those who can't afford it should just see that as an economic reality, and not as an assault against their life chances. This will mean that fewer people from less well-off backgrounds will go to university, even if they are very clever, and thus will decrease social mobility."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con01a","title":"","text":"Allowing universities to be guided by an invisible hand does more harm than good  University degree programmes, unlike other products like televisions or designer shoes, are tools of social mobility: unlike a TV, a good degree will help you to get other good things later in life (like a higher salary). This means that it is important that people have a fairly equal opportunity to access the best degrees. Market forces will make the best universities more expensive than the others, and mean that the best degree places are awarded not to the cleverest, but to those able to afford it. Universities are already elitist despite being open to all and being publicly funded. In the UK class is a major determinant of where you go to university. Oxford University only has 11.5%, and Cambridge 12.6% of its students coming from a working class background compared to an average of 32.3%1. This is a situation that will only get worse as students have to pay for the best private universities.  1 Davis, Rowenna, \"Does your social class decide if you go to university? Get the full list of colleges.\" Guardian.co.uk, 28 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con04b","title":"","text":"With regard to subsiding universities and the student loan schemes, both of these could nevertheless be operated even if universities were privatised. For example, assisted place-schemes,(which-School.co.uk) where the government funded bright students to attend private schools are successfully run in the UK.With regard to pressure to increase diversity in the student population, this merely treats the symptom and not the cause, which is the inadequate educational support given to some groups in society at a lower level: this should be directly addressed instead."}
+{"id":"training-education-uhwecpuu-con02b","title":"","text":"Far from reducing the quality of university private universities would increase it. Private Universities would go where most money is, and this is most likely to be at the top where a lot of money can be charged for the degrees. This is what Grayling's proposed New College of the Humanities is doing. The New College of the Humanities will charge fees of \u00a318,0001. With the extra money they will be able to hire the best professors and have a very good student teacher ratio, better than 1:10, with the result that there will be a lot of one to one tuition and student-staff interaction to increase the quality of teaching2.  1 BBC News, \u201cAcademics launch \u00a318,000 college in London.\u201d 5 June 2011.  2 New College of the Humanities"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Schools have significantly better facilities and a much more appropriate and segregated learning atmosphere than the home. The state system pools facilities to allow access for all children to sports and science facilities1. Parents are very unlikely to be wealthy enough to provide the plethora of things necessary to a well-rounded education. Teaching within the home asks children to switch between 'learning' and 'play' mode in the same environment which is confusing especially for young children. Schools provide a specific environment that is dedicated to learning. Homes are more complex environments, ill-suited to teaching and the concentration required to learn. 1 'The Cons and Arguments against Home Schooling' in Educate Expert (2011)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro02a","title":"","text":"The home is an ideal learning environment.  Home schooling allows children to learn in an environment that has the needs of one or a very few number of students as the focus of the educative process. Parents are willing to invest in their children and can provide targeted provision that prioritises the learning needs of those individuals1. Therefore, specific textbooks that are tailored to the child's mode of learning can be purchased. State schools, in contrast, are often very ill-equipped and under-funded, leading to standardized text books and teaching methods. The home also lacks the many distractions and disadvantages of schools: peer pressure, social stigma attached to achievement, bullying, show-offs and general rowdiness. 1'Virtues in to Vices' in The Journal Of Home Education"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro06a","title":"","text":"Homeschooling allows for the accommodation of faith practices.  The state constantly fails those with greatest faith needs in schools. There are numerous examples of failure of accommodation: ignorant provision for prayer times, banning of religious dress, unwitting subjection of students to religious festivals that are manifestly unsuitable1. If parents want to avoid such perils altogether, and teach their child within an environment that caters for their religious need then that is and should be their right. 1'Rise in racism in the playground' BBC News (2007)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Home-schooling is not the best option for exceptional students. The state does not ignore or abandon individuals that have special needs and those with special needs are those that most need the state's enormous resources to focus on their requirements. Once a student has needs of such a magnitude that demands it, they are educated in special schools specifically intended to help them, with staff trained to possess skills beyond that of a parent's instinct. Even if it were the case that home-schooling is better for the specific needs of exceptional students, the benefits of education in a wider context override the objection to class-based education. The experience of growing up alongside less and more able students produces individuals with greater understanding of their society1. 1'Teacher perceptions of mainstreaming\/inclusion, 1958-1995: a research synthesis' Scruggs, Thomas E. Mastropieri, Margo A. Exceptional Children (1996)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro05a","title":"","text":"Parents should be permitted to home-school their children provided they register the fact and submit to inspections  Parents who take their children out of school, or choose to home-school due to apprehensions over the quality of state education, should be entitled to do so provided the child is better off as a result. To ensure they are not neglected, parents hoping to home-school must both register the fact they are home-schooling their child and submit to regular, state inspections of the child's progress. If the child is deemed to be falling behind his age group, the parent may be forced to return the child to a school. The parent should be given standards of teaching that they must adhere to before the inspections occur, and the standards should be sufficiently flexible to reflect children learn at different speeds and that not all children's development reflects fairly on their teacher."}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Home schooling involves good community involvement and social interaction.  Homeschooling families do not operate in isolation. There are extensive support networks (particularly in the USA the nation with the largest proportion of the population homeschooling) that exist to provide companionship, promote sports events and social functions. In addition, standard social provisions for children in civic society \u2013 scout movements, sports club \u2013 are open to homeschoolers. Homeschooling is not a removal from society but just from state schools.1 Homeschooled children often engage with their local community to a greater extent than their schooled peers.  1 \u2018Home Schooling: From the Extreme to the Mainstream\u2019 Patrick Basham, Public Policy Sources"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro01b","title":"","text":"Interaction with other pupils is a crucial element of a child's development and involvement in clubs is not a substitute for the social skills learnt in school. Teaming building, working towards goals, being forced to confront problems with and live alongside individuals one might not like, or come from different backgrounds, is clearly done best in a school environment1. Those that seek to cocoon their offspring from the outside world merely delay the time when their children have to deal with it. Education is about more than academic teaching, it's about educating the whole person, and that is best achieved by educating them within a school with their peers. 1 'School as a context of early adolescent's academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings' RW Roeser, JS Eccles, The Elementary School Journal (2000)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro05b","title":"","text":"Merely ensuring the registration of a child as being home-schooled does not fulfill the state's right to ensure that all children are given a satisfactory education. Inspections will help, but parents will nevertheless be unable to provide to their children the opportunities present in a school environment. The inspections should require that parents offer their children at least an equivalent level of teaching to that he or she would receive at a school, yet how is a parent going to teach practical science? How are they going to dissect animals? The inevitable result of such a policy therefore would be the acceptance of inadequate education. The only policy that respects and protects a child's right to education is to ban home-schooling altogether."}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro06b","title":"","text":"Those that wish to be educated in a religious environment have the chance to send them to a religious school the quality of which can be monitored by the state1. There are great dangers involved in exclusivity of faith. The adherents of all religions shouldn't shut themselves away, but rather engage in society as a whole, and understand other people's beliefs and points of view. 1'Gove defends faith schools', Riazat Butt, Guardian.co.uk (2011)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro04b","title":"","text":"A school education is not mutually exclusive with family bonding. Just because a child attends school does not mean that their parent loses all influence upon their moral development. It is important for children to have a variety of different role models around them1. There is also no guarantee that the moral structure that parents might be instilling in their children away from any effective monitoring is beneficial. 1 'Why a Positive Role Model Is Important for Children', Caitlin Erwin, LiveStrong.com (2010)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Home schooling is often the best option for catering for the needs of exceptional or disabled students.  Classroom-based education must, by necessity, cater for the needs of the group as a whole which leaves those the very bright unchallenged and those with special needs falling behind and unsupported1. The state often takes years to recognise the needs of students and they lose years of education in the process2. In addition, even if those needs are identified 'special schools' are underfunded and stigmatised. For many students with identifiable problems that affects their capacity to learn within mainstream schooling but is not severe enough to merit a place within the special needs sector, homeschooling can benefit such students by shaping the learning environment to cater for their needs by being flexible to adapt. 1 'Every Child is Special"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-pro04a","title":"","text":"COUNTERPOINT Home-schooling is not the best option for exceptional students. The state does not ignore or abandon individuals that have special needs and those with special needs are those that most need the state's enormous resources to focus on their  Family bonding is a massively important element of a child's development and is prioritised by home schooling1. The value of the family is constantly undermined in modern society; positive parental role models are found less and less frequently. If a parent is judged by a state vetting process to be good enough it is enormously beneficial for society as a whole to approve is an environment that cements both a positive role model and family bonding. 1'The Role of Interpretation Processes and Parental Discussion in the Media's Effects on Adolescents' Use of Alcohol' Erica Weintraub Austen, Bruce E. Pinkelton, Yuki Fujioka, Paediatrics, (2000)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con03b","title":"","text":"Homeschooling is not mutually exclusive from social interaction1. Interaction happens outside the classroom, where it belongs instead of acting as distractions to learning. In addition, homeschooling events involve children of all different ages as well as adults and in this way children learn to interact with a greater range of individuals than they would come across in a class just containing children of their own age and often makes them more confident in interacting with adults in a relationship that is not just a simple teacher and pupil relationship2. Parents still select schools for their children on the basis of common values, cultures and achievements - and even go as far as to move closer to the school they want to fall into its catchment area.  1Mike Fortune-Wood, \u2018The \u201cS\u201d Word Socialisation\u2019 from Home Education UK  2\u2018Civic Involvement\u2019 HSLDA"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con01b","title":"","text":"Schools are often of poor quality and are failing the children. Parents have the right to withdraw their children from bed state schools. If the quality of education is sufficiently low in their eyes, they are entitled to be allowed to make the considerable sacrifice involved in becoming a 'home schooler'. It is reasonable that a parent should want to reject such educational theories and if they pass the inspection process then should not be denied that chance. \"Homeschool freedom works. Homeschoolers have earned the right to be left alone.\"1 1 'Academic Statistics on Homeschooling', Home Schooling Legal Defense Association, (October 22, 2004)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con02a","title":"","text":"Most parents do not have any teaching qualifications.  If parents are not trained or qualified teachers how can they provide a better or equivalent quality of education than a professional teacher at a school. Even if a parent or tutor excels in one area, will they cover all the things a school does? Even if they tried to, they would not do so adequately due to sheer lack of experience and training. The point of a curriculum is that these are things we have decided as a society that children need to learn, and in order to learn they require the support of qualified teachers1. Support groups and educational text books can help, but they alone cannot turn a parent into a good teacher. 1 National Curriculum Website"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con04a","title":"","text":"Danger of parents indoctrinating their children.  Homeschooling allows the possibility of parents removing their child from wider society and indoctrinating them with their own beliefs. State schools teach history and social interaction within a framework agreed on by w wide variety of bodies within the social spectrum. If a parent's world view if so far detached from that perspective that he wishes to remove his child from school it is likely that those alternative view are questionable at best. These beliefs can involve can include gross intolerance for particular minority groups supported by false information. These ideas can still reach the child out of school, but the government has a duty to protect children from a regressive upbringing by at least offering a more constructive perspective. 'Andy Winton, the chair of the National Association of Social Workers in Education, said: \"School is a good safety net to protect children.\"' 1 1'Get tough on home tuition to weed out abuse, says review' from Guardian website"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con03a","title":"","text":"Diversity of school is necessary for social development.  Being forced to confront problems and individuals from different backgrounds is vital as a preparation for the future as a microcosm of the society they will later enter. Parents and children spending day after day at home re sometimes subject to a phenomenon sociologists call the 'hothouse' relationship the closeness between them becomes exclusive, with reaction to outsiders almost aggressive by instinct. This relationship makes it even more difficult for the child to adapt to life in the wider world.1 While there maybe attempts by parents to socialize their children through other means these organizations and club are centred around similarity. School is a mixture that does not filter out students, and there is an inherent social value to such a mix.  1\u2018The Cons and Arguments against Home Schooling\u2019 in Educate Expert (2011) www.educate expert.com"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con01a","title":"","text":"The state operates a system of quality control run by experts.  Hundreds of experts and researchers ensure the quality of public schools. It is presumptuous for a parent to think they know how to teach a child better than that accumulated wisdom. Just because the child is a product of that individual does not mean that the education knowledge of the parent surpasses that of professionals in that field who have spent years training1. Furthermore, even the best teachers can be improved by the insight of a third-party; such evaluations are not accessible to home-schooling parents. The danger is that 'From the government's perspective, the world of home education is full of unknowns'; there are not sufficient measures of quality control in place to protect the child and their right to a comprehensive education. 1'Home truths: do we need yet another inquiry into home education?' from Guardian website"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con04b","title":"","text":"The state education curriculum offers only a very limited view of history and as such is itself a form of indoctrination. For example, in the UK, a proud history of achievement and creation goes untaught whilst the sins of colonialism and the faults of class structure are emphasised to pupils year after year. Parents do not necessarily have to have extreme or radical political views to want to home school their child and indoctrinate them. They often actually want to allow them to have broader historical and political education than offered by the narrow curriculum1. If parents are determined to prejudice their children it is unlikely that being in school will prevent that. And these parents who wish to teach tolerance shouldn't be penalised by a minority. 1'Prescriptive national curriculum restricts teachers', Jessica Shepherd, Guardian.co.uk (2009)"}
+{"id":"training-education-egtyhshs-con02b","title":"","text":"It is wrong to assume that home schooling will necessarily be of poor quality. Many parents will be fantastic teachers with or without a formal qualification. One parent says that it is often teacher themselves that recognise that teaching qualification are not necessarily the most important factor: 'the more people\u2013 mainly teachers \u2013 we spoke to, the more it began to seem like school could actually be a damaging place to be.\u20191 In addition, there are extensive support networks that are capable of providing a range of skills and knowledge that a parent might be lacking. The internet makes these connections increasingly viable as well as providing better research facilities than any school library had ten years ago.  1 \u2018Honey, I think we're home-schooling the kids\u2019 from the Guardian website"}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro02b","title":"","text":"What is taught in history will never be 100% accurate, but it is possible for historians to achieve a considerable degree of objectivity, especially if they seek to be aware of the influences upon their own thinking. Part of most secondary school history curricula is the consideration of how historians are affected by the context in which they write: this equips pupils to consider critically what they are being taught and why they are being taught it. Moreover, it can be argued that worthwhile ends (e.g. the good relations between different ethnic communities sought by the British government) justify some selection of the history that is taught to schoolchildren. After all, it isn't possible to teach children everything about all historical periods, so there must be some criteria for making choices about what would be most valuable to study. A 'British' history curriculum will aid integration and encourage multi-culturalism within the country, without sacrificing truth, merely breadth."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro02a","title":"","text":"History teaching will reflect the erroneous preconceptions and aims of those who set the curriculum  History is not objective and, in schools, historical fact is at the mercy of those in control of the curriculum. Even when there is no attempt to deceive or manipulate, postmodernist critiques of history suggest all history teaching will reflect the preconceptions and aims of those who set and teach the curriculum. The British government announced in early 2006 that history taught in schools should seek to engender a sense of \"Britishness\" by stressing a shared political and cultural heritage1. The Education Secretary at the time asked schools to 'play a leading role in creating community cohesion' by doing so1. Even if no historical events are invented as such, this will nevertheless lead to an unbalanced account, in which events that support modern political\/social ends are highlighted and others receive less attention. The principle that such tainted information, whether implicit or explicit, can be taught to children is dangerous. 1 BBC News. \"Schools 'must teach Britishness'.\" BBC News. January 25, 2007. (accessed July 14, 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Isolated instances in which history has been used for propaganda purposes do not reflect a dangerous subject, merely dangerous regimes. The vast majority of History teaching does not seek to promote such agendas. It is common sense to tailor the national history curriculum to the nation in which it is being taught, and very easily achieved without constituting propaganda. Recent studies have shown it is common for states to focus heavily on their national history, 'setting out key events that shaped the national story as compulsory knowledge'1. Furthermore, all subjects can be distorted if the State and its teachers are prepared to try hard enough - for example, under the Nazis German children were taught Mathematics with a heavy emphasis upon military applications (e.g. calculating angles and ranges for artillery). Instead of banning the subject, what is needed is proper inspection of schools and monitoring of the curriculum, under the control of a democratic government. 1 Baker, Mike. \"History study needs fact first, analysis later.\" The Guardian. February 18, 2011. (accessed July 14, 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro01a","title":"","text":"History should be left for those intellectual capable of understanding its limitations, and therefore not taught at school  Even if no agenda is being consciously or subconsciously pursued, school pupils are presented with oversimplified information in History. This is a result of the limited time available, the limited intellectual capacity of pupils, the limited knowledge of many teachers (who may not be history specialists, especially in primary schools) and the desire for answers that can be labelled as \"correct\" or \"incorrect\" in examinations. Much school history teaching is therefore concerned simply with memorising \"facts\". However, such learning needs to be accompanied by a deeper understanding of events, lacking definitive answers but providing a narrative to give the 'facts' (often figures) meaning. As schools recognize this is beyond most students, they struggle to make time spent in history lessons conducive; a study in America found that only 20 percent of fourth graders were proficient in history, while that dropped to 12 per cent for high school seniors1. 1 Resmovits, Joy. \"U.S. History Test Scores Stagnate As Education Secretary Arne Duncan Seeks 'Plan B'.\" Huffington Post. June 14, 2011. (accessed July 14, 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Where there is uncertainty, this can and should be highlighted if pupils have the intellectual capacity to understand the debate. Much of the benefit of studying History is that it is not (or should not be) solely based upon the learning of facts. Rather, History develops the ability to evaluate and challenge different interpretations. If historical study were postponed to adulthood, this would mean that most people would learn no History, unless they chose to study for a History degree. And it is impossible to escape any discussion of History in adult life - there are many television programmes and press articles devoted to historical subjects every day, and politicians constantly refer to past events to justify their actions. Only if citizens are equipped at school to question such historical interpretations can the public avoid being misled."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro03a","title":"","text":"History lessons can be used as state-sponsored propaganda, distorting the events of the past  History taught in schools sometimes involves flagrant distortion of historical evidence either by the State or by individual teachers. Attempts may be made to avoid nasty aspects of a nation's past (e.g. the massacre of Chinese civilians by Japanese soldiers at Nanking in 1937) and\/or to put down other peoples (e.g. the presentation of Australian Aboriginals as uncivilized until the 1960s). Japan's attempt to erase the memory of Nanking in its schoolchildren began in 1950s when it banned a third of all textbooks and 'Nanking Massacre simply disappeared' from their history1. As well as these extreme examples, low-level anti-Americanism is arguably pervasive in modern French school textbooks, reflecting tensions between France and the USA arising from the latter's Gaullist heritage and the recent \"War on Terror\". It is highly undesirable for school pupils to be exposed to misinformation peddled in History classes, which can lead to violence, hatred or discrimination. 1 Chapel, Joseph. \"Denying Genocide: The Evolution of the Denial of the Holocaust and the Nanking Massacre.\" University of California: Santa Barbara. May 2004. (accessed July 14, 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con03b","title":"","text":"History does offer a source for understanding oneself and one's nation, but that no reason to teach it at school. In fact, the centrality of history to identity is an argument in favour of leaving history lessons until students are old enough to weigh sources and evaluate arguments themselves. Australian school children don't need to be taught specifics about the history of their nation at school in order to develop into well rounded, reasoned adults. In fact, they are more likely to better understand the plight of the native aboriginals if they are only introduced to the historical specifics of the case at a later, more mature age."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con01b","title":"","text":"The teaching of history does not either to the maintenance of memory or the learning of lessons. Examples have shown that states can use history lessons to in fact erase certain memories, denying any lessons to future generations. Furthermore, teaching history encourages people to become obsessed with past conflicts and alleged wrongs inflicted upon them; it is more productive to forget the past and to seek friendship in the present. For example, modern tensions would be reduced if pupils in Ireland were no longer taught about the Battle of the Boyne (1690) and pupils in South Asia stopped learning about conflicts following the Partition between India and Pakistan (1947)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con02a","title":"","text":"Historical facts can be established to a sufficient degree to be taught to schoolchildren  For most post-medieval periods, it is possible to establish such \"facts\" with a very high degree of probability. To take the Holocaust as an example, fears of the events being erased out of history books drove Dwight Eisenhower to travel to Germany to witness the aftermath first-hand. The future American President was driven by a desire to be able to 'testify at first hand about these things in case there ever grew up at home the belief that the stories of Nazi brutality were just propaganda'1. Furthermore, even if the historical facts are not as clearly evident as the Holocaust, and have to be simplified, this need not be \"intellectually dangerous\": it is impossible to prove that a real harm results from only knowing the academically dominant interpretation of a historical episode, even if it might be theoretically desirable to consider minority viewpoints too. Indeed, all school teaching involves simplification and generalization: much school science teaching entails discussion of how general rules (learned earlier during a pupil's school career) are not always applicable. 1 Chapel, Joseph. \"Denying Genocide: The Evolution of the Denial of the Holocaust and the Nanking Massacre.\" University of California: Santa Barbara. May 2004. (accessed July 14, 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con04a","title":"","text":"History teaches useful skills applicable in other areas of education and life  History teaches many useful skills, which are of great value to both individuals and the economy. These include the ability to think critically and construct reasoned arguments, an awareness of differing points of view and understanding of cultures (both one's own and those of others). Essays on historical events or figures require an original, structured argument and an evaluation of sources, skills that have relevance in other areas of education. Furthermore, the humility necessary to accept the limitations of historical research are instrumental in encouraging multi-culturalism in society and respect for views one might not initially understand."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con03a","title":"","text":"History should be taught to school-children, they form an integral part of understanding oneself and one's nation  Historical events, no matter how tragic, gruesome or embarrassing, should be taught in schools in order to provide a basis for the youth to explore their own identity and that of their nation. Children should therefore not be shielded from reality, but be taught, in an appropriate manner, about all manner of relevant historical events. In so doing, they will not leave school with a false image of reality, or of whom they are and where they live. Only then will they be prepared for the very worst life will throw at them. For example, Australian school children are unlikely to fully appreciate the plight of their Aboriginal compatriots without a thorough understanding of the British discovery of the island and subsequent governmental policy that oppressed the native population. As the future leaders of tomorrow, it is essential that the youth are given the broadest, most accurate platform on which to build their own perceptions of life."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con01a","title":"","text":"Teaching history ensures that events of the past are not forgotten, and lessons are learned  \"Organized forgetting\" of the past does not lead to harmony: those who allege historic wrongs are unlikely to forget them and will be aggrieved at attempts to deny the significance of the events concerned. This is seen in the Chinese outcry at Japanese attempts to forget the Rape of Nanking; the international attention drawn to the issue led to attempts within Japan itself to re-introduce the event into history textbooks1. By 1997, all Japanese textbooks included the event, signalling a shift towards a closer relationship with China, their long-term rivals1. Friendship often results from shared recognition of past wrongs, and a resolve not to repeat past injustices and mistakes; studying the past is essential for this. History teaching in schools is especially important when tensions are present: those who set and teach the curriculum can and should strive to be impartial, to counter one-sided historical narratives to which pupils may be exposed by their families and the media.  1 Chapel, Joseph. \"Denying Genocide: The Evolution of the Denial of the Holocaust and the Nanking Massacre.\" University of California: Santa Barbara. May 2004. (accessed July 14, 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con04b","title":"","text":"History teaching is a waste of time, particularly at school, where it often revolves around the learning of names and dates. Antiquarian knowledge is of no practical use; pupils should spend more time learning sciences and vocational subjects. It is dangerous to both pupils' employment prospects and the economy as a whole for time to be spent studying History at school."}
+{"id":"training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con02b","title":"","text":"Historical facts cannot be established to a sufficient degree to justify history being taught as a subject in school. Though there are certain facts that are beyond question, history is about more than the accumulation of facts but the creation of a narrative. Narratives in history are constantly subject to changes as further evidence comes to hand. Young students should not be forced to learn a narrative that may become redundant in the week between history lessons. Furthermore, though Eisenhower meant well, he could only ever control events in the United States, if Germany had decided to censor their textbooks, as the Japanese did, in the wake of World War II, his protests would have fallen on deaf ears and done little to ensure the German youth knew of the horrors of the Holocaust. As such, it is necessary to restrict history lessons to the youth; once mature and reasoned, they will be much better placed to evaluate and study history in depth."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-pro02b","title":"","text":"While it is true that parents who are having their children educated privately still pay their taxes that get spent on state education, it is also worth noting that private schools currently hold charitable status in the UK, and as such benefit from tax subsidies that some people estimate as \u00a388 million annually (BBC, 2011). This money is able to fund facilities that state schools could not afford. Therefore while private schools financially benefit state schools in some ways, they also are financially damaging to state schools in many other ways."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-pro02a","title":"","text":"Private schools are financially beneficial for state schools  The state funds the education system through taxation. Parents who do not send their children to state schools still pay those same taxes. Therefore, these taxes are spent on a smaller number of schools and there is more money per child in the state sector than there would be if we banned private education. In 2008 there were 569,080 students in independent schools in England,(BBC 2009) - this would be a very large extra burden for state schools to bear. These students\u2019 parents are therefore not only paying for their own children but also for students to study at state schools as well."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-pro03b","title":"","text":"The US magazine Time found research in 2007 that suggested that private schools do not provide a better education than state schools, they do however have a higher percentage of students who would do well in any situation. This means that these children would not lose out by going to state schools. \u2018The study says that it is \"the kinds of economic and resource advantages their parents can give [students]\" \u2014 as well as the level of parental involvement in their kids' education \u2014that determines success or failure in high school. The problem isn't in the schools; it's with social inequality\u2019 (Time.com).  The second criticism is that statistics provided by the argument are true only because private education exists, and takes all the best teachers, head teachers and resources away from state schools. If public schools were banned then state schools would gain more teachers and resources and thus would raise to the standards currently occupied by private schools. In a study by Hill and Guin for the University of Washington found that in the US more experienced teachers taught in private schools, thus in theory improving levels of teaching due to experience. (University of Washington2003)."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-pro01a","title":"","text":"People should have free choice about how they spend their money  People should be allowed to spend their money as they wish. If parents choose to spend money on their children\u2019s advancement over something else they could buy then it is there decision to make. The core of this is the idea of ownership over our income, and that the state should not be able to restrict our spending this income by banning products such as private education. Education in Germany can be used as an example of allowing parents the free will to decide where their child goes to school, article 7 paragraphs 4 of the Grundgesetz enshrines the right to create private schools. (The Grundgesetz).  There are many other similar cases where the state provides a service but there are also private options, healthcare being the most obvious. While most people in Britain use a National Health Service (NHS) hospital there are other options provided privately by companies such as BUPA, no one proposes that people should not be able to buy better healthcare, quite the opposite - the NHS may be moving towards privatization.(McCabe and Kirkpatrick, 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-pro01b","title":"","text":"The state already does restrict our spending by criminalizing the purchase of certain goods. For example we cannot choose to spend our money buying slaves even if we desire to. Just as we shouldn\u2019t be able to buy another human life, we also should not be able to buy an advantage in life. It seems clear throughout this debate that private education does give an advantage over state schools in many areas. This argument of an unfair advantage has also been identified by Ontario\u2019s (Canada) Provincial Ministry of Education where they are going to identify where a credit was earned if outside the student\u2019s high school (Tamsyn 2010). It further seems unfair to say that people should have a right to choose private education, while this choice is not available to everyone. Those who cannot afford the huge expense of private education are often not choosing to put their children into state schools, they just have no other options. The average annual cost of sending a child to private school in the UK is \u00a39,627, which works out at 36% of the average earning; In the USA the cost of a year\u2019s secondary education is $10,549, out of reach of most families. (The Guardian, 2007; capenet.org). Therefore in defending the freedom to choose to send a child to private school, we are merely defending the right of the wealthy to have this choice and restricting the choice of everyone else."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-pro03a","title":"","text":"Private schools provide a better education than state schools  In 2007, Time the US magazine discovered that private schools in the US received much higher SAT scores that the state counterparts. Research suggests that private education puts a greater emphasis on critical thinking, while state schools emphasise memory and learning by rote (time.com). These types of critical skills mean that students from private schools have a better start at university education as they are more used to what will be required of them. Furthermore, students from private schools are more likely to get into a university in the first place (Time, 2007\/ BBC, 2010). In the US students are twice as likely to get the grades allowing them to go to university if they have had a private education, and for minority groups in America it is more than double (Capenet.org, 2001). This is likely to be replicated across the world. Private schools in Brazil also provide better education, as there is one teacher per 10 students in comparison to the 45-50 students per class in a government funded school. (Cabra; and Throssell 2010). Therefore by denying private education the effect may be disastrous for these minority groups."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-con03b","title":"","text":"This is what is already happening. It is the government that sets a curriculum for state schools (such as in Great Britain, Singapore, Japan, China, New Zealand and France) and the government want us to vote for them. So in many ways the education system may already be indoctrinating children in state school in the way this argument fears private schools do. Yet there are also private interests in many state schools already. For example in Britain academies are partially funded privately and in return are outside of local authority control so they do not have to follow the national curriculum.(BBC News, 2010)"}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-con01b","title":"","text":"Abolishing private schools will not bring to an end to inequality between pupils as this is illustrated every day in state schools. For example, bullying is extremely common in all schools whether they be state or private. Bullying represents inequality between pupils as often it is the result of one pupil being different to another. Additionally, teachers may treat their students differently depending on their intellectual ability or their behaviour. In the US racism between students and teachers is still a big issue, as minority groups are consistently placed on slower academic tack and in 38 states \u201cblack students are twice as likely as whites to be labelled as mentally retarded\u201d (University of Washington2003).  Thus Private schools are not the only means of inequality between students and so the abolition of these would not completely diminish student inequality.  On the disparity between private and state schools, the correct way to improve the education for children in state schools is to spend more money on state schools, devote more time, energy and enthusiasm to them rather than punishing those schools that do just that. Preventing a minority from having a certain type of education is not the way to help improve the majority\u2019s education. By and large, the complaint is that private schools are doing well and providing a good education, whilst state schools lag behind. It is in all our interests to set the standard of education as high as we can \u2013 you do this by raising state schools to the standard of private schools, not by depriving children of a private education."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-con02a","title":"","text":"Private schools lack diversity  A private school is an institutionalised, artificial environment where the child will be exposed almost completely to children of their own socioeconomic background. This has two very interlinked problems.  1) One of the most important factors of a child\u2019s education is to be exposed to a variety of races, religions, economies and abilities. This allows children to grow up to be more aware of these differences between people and more accepting of diversity as they get older. Yet private schools admission costs alone mean that students are from wealthy backgrounds, and this means they are largely exposed to other people from wealthy backgrounds. As we know, the majority of the people in the world are not wealthy and therefore these students have an extremely blinkered view of their country. Pakistan can be used as a prime example, where half of its children cannot read a full sentence at primary level and government spending on education has been cut from 2.5% to 1.5%. For those in private education and who usually go to university aboard they will never see or understand the situation of the majority in Pakistan and thus has a dysfunctional view of their country. (Landzettel 2011)  2) It is an inevitable feature of democracies that the rich have particular access to politicians and policy-makers. Furthermore, students from private education are much more likely to go into government or political roles. As mentioned above 66% of British politicians went to private school, and 44% of American politicians (against an 11% national average). While the rich don't have a need for state education because they can pursue education for their children from other sources, they have no motivation to lobby politicians on behalf of the education system and a perverse incentive to remove education from political agendas in favour of their preferred issues and legislation. Only by forcing the rich into the same situation as the poor can we expect to gain meaningful ground in terms of education reform, especially in terms of increased funding relative to national and municipal budgets. We cannot expect education will be a national priority until the entire nation has a vested interest in the good order of the system."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-con03a","title":"","text":"Schools should be free from bias  Private education needs funding, be it from a business, individual funders or organisations and private schools rely on this money to run. It seems unlikely then, in this context, that these funders that the school is so reliant on may have an influence (even if unintentional) on various factors of the school life such as curriculum, food or teaching style. In many countries, such as the US, the curriculum in private schools does not need to be standardised (as State education does) and therefore teachers are free to teach what they desire and this might not give an open and full account of certain topics. The bias could be political, charitable or even commercial. We could have a political group like GreenPeace wanting to run a school and heavily emphasising environmental issues, or a company like Shell emphasising our desperate need for oil. Neither of these would present a balanced education which is what our children need. An example of this is that about 50 independent Christian schools in the UK teach creationism as part of biology.(Walker, 2006) In countries such as the Netherlands, South Africa and the republic of Ireland, private schools are set up and run by religious groups, and therefore will have a degree of influence over the curriculum. Education is a powerful tool, especially to impressionable children. And ultimately it appears that private education is at a much higher risk of being biased in its teaching than state education."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-con01a","title":"","text":"Private schools encourage elitism  Private education suggests that a higher level of schooling is a privilege of those who can afford it, rather than a right. This encourages a cycle, whereby those who get a good, private education are more likely to get higher paid jobs as private education increases access to higher education (in the UK twice the percentage of students from private school went to university than those from state school), certain sectors of employment, (in the UK only 7% of students go to private schools, yet these people hold 86% top media jobs and 70% of barrister positions, 33% of MPs) (Gibson, 2006) and employer networking. Thus their children are more likely to go to private school and get a better job. This means that by allowing private education we create a society where the rich remain rich, and the poor remain poor, with the gulf between the two areas ever increasing. If we were to remove private education the field would be open for people from all walks of life to achieve a range of different things."}
+{"id":"training-education-shbpshrpe-con02b","title":"","text":"Similarly the counterargument to this has two distinct principles.  1) That some state schools lack social diversity as much as private schools, particularly in small, rural areas. Therefore we cannot simply criticize private schools, and must recognise that all schools have different levels of diversity. MacKinnon recognises that segregation in the United States schooling system is often defended on the grounds that it \u2018represents the community\u2019. Yet this is only the case because housing itself is segregated (Scrapbook). Therefore if we are banning private schools on the grounds of diversity, we should enforce a policy whereby neighbourhoods are forced to be diverse in order to ensure the same thing happens in state schools.  2) That rather than shut down private schools we should encourage the creation of funded places or bursaries. This way people who can afford private school do not have their choices limited, but that there is a greater diversity as people from poorer backgrounds would still be able to attend the schools."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro02b","title":"","text":"Gaddafi was not deliberately killing civilians but rather targeting armed rebels fighters who were targeting his government. In his words he said he would show no mercy to rebels and did not speak about civilians.  When pro Gaddafi forces regained control of Brega and Zawiyah, there was no bloodshed reported or any conflict harming civilians [1]. We don\u2019t know what would have happened had Gaddafi regained control of Benghazi, but it is likely there would have been no bloodbath.  [1] RT news, \u2018Gaddafi gaining ground in battle, losing on information front\u2019, rt.com, 11 March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro02a","title":"","text":"Intervention prevented an impending bloodbath in Benghazi.  From the day of the uprising in Benghazi, the government was committed to fight back till the end. Gaddafi asserted that he will chase down the protesters and cleanse house by house while his son said that rivers of blood would flow with thousands of deaths, if the uprising didn\u2019t stop [1].  Military jets and helicopter gunships were indiscriminately unleashed upon people who had no means to defend themselves against assault from the air.  The resolution of a no fly zone passed by the security council weakened and prevented government forces from killing people and destroying cities using air strikes[2]. Air strikes went on to destroy artillery, armor and other weapons that could be used for indiscriminate attacks. The intervention therefore stopped large scale civilian bloodshed.  [1] The middle east in revolt, \u2018Gaddafi\u2019s son; last gasp of Libya\u2019s dying regime?\u2019, time.com  [2] Los Angeles Times, \u2018Obama on Libya; Intervention prevented more bloodshed\u2019, latimes.com, 28 March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro03b","title":"","text":"Far from creating a liberated and free democracy western intervention has set Libya on the path to becoming a failed state. The country is today ranked among the most insecure countries in the world [1]. Two years after the war, The country has not managed to form a unified police force or a professional army, and it has even formally recognised several of the militias, entrusting them with security tasks [2]. It may be better but freedom of information in Libya is still under threat [3]? The threat is simply different; less from the state, and more from a chaotic situation. Freedoms are also not gaining ground in all areas; notably there are concerns that religious freedom is declining with the country moving towards Sharia law, and with minorities being attacked and forced to convert to Islam [4].  [1] The New York times, \u2018Clashes and car bombings highlight insecurity across Libya\u2019, nytimes.com, 4 November 2012  [2] Euronews, \u2018Libya\u2019s internal insecurity appears long-term militia problem\u2019, euronews.com, 10 October 2013  [3] World press freedom index, \u2018Middle east and North Africa\u2019, rsf.org  [4] Nzwili, Fredrick, \u2018Christians in Libya cast anxious eye at religious freedom\u2019, The Washington Post, 10 January 2014"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro01a","title":"","text":"A long ruling and ruthless dictator was toppled.  Gaddafi was an oppressive ruler who led Libya for 42 years. The country had no Parliament, political parties, or NGO\u2019s and no civil society [1].  He ruled Libya with an iron fist, eliminating any political opposition, restricting people\u2019s rights and worst of all supporting different terrorist groups around the world. The same man was responsible for the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am jet over Lockerbie, Scotland, which killed 270 people [2] and he supported the leadership of Iddi Amin a dictator who killed masses in Uganda.  His leadership posed a threat not only to Libya but to countries around the world. Western intervention in the Libyan civil war paved a clear path for the downfall of Gaddafi\u2019s rule. We should consider the downfall of such a dictator to be a success and benefit to Libya and all who Gaddafi threatened.  [1] Neil, MacFarquhar, \u2018An erratic leader, brutal and defiant to the end\u2019 nytimes.com, 20 October 2011  [2] BBC News South Scotland, \u2018Colonel Gaddafi ordered Lockerbie Shooting\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 23 February 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro01b","title":"","text":"Intervention was approved under the doctrine responsibility to protect and it aimed at protecting civilians in Libya [1]. While toppling Gaddafi was successful, it did not help in stabilising Libya. Many would prefer stability under a dictatorship than chaos. The situation today is even worse than during Gaddafi\u2019s regime, with insecurity and chaos across the country, increased reports of human rights violation and terrorism [2].  Intervention however did not restore peace and did nothing to help or protect civilians in the longer term.  [1] The economist, \u2018The lessons of Libya\u2019, economist.com, 19 May 2011  [2] The fault lines, \u2018Libya; state of insecurity background reading\u2019, Aljazeera.com, 14 February 2014"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro03a","title":"","text":"Ushered in the liberation of Libya.  The uprising sparked off as a concern for freedom in the country, people were tired of the oppressive regime and wanted to be liberated. This could not happen by people power alone; Gaddafi was willing to crack down to prevent it like Assad in Syria did.  Western intervention in the civil war helped the citizens gain power and force to fight for their rights, by providing them with training, intelligence and logistics among others hence ejecting the oppressive leadership a symbol for liberation.  After the civil war, people were able to participate in an election of the national assembly considered free and fair for the first time in Libya[1]. The part of the Mo Ibrahim index that rates participation and human rights rose from 20% in 2010 to 30.5% in 2012 [2]. More democratic and accountable government institutions have been set up, NGO\u2019s welcomed and civil society empowered. Libya is becoming much freer with freedom house upgrading the country from \u2018not free\u2019 to \u2018partially free\u2019 [3].  [1] BBC news Africa, \u2018Libya election success for secularist Jibril\u2019s bloc\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 18 July 2012  [2] Mo Ibrahim foundation, \u2018Ibrahim index; Libya\u2019, moibrahimfoundation.org  [3] \u2018Freedom in the World 2013\u2019, Freedom House, 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con03b","title":"","text":"Russia\u2019s long standing antagonism with the west is not new [1] and Libya is not the cause. Its reaction towards the Syrian conflict is driven by a complex mixture of political and economic interests including having a naval base in the country [2].  The UN security council has also continued to ensure that its operations are successful and have acted on the Syrian crisis too.  It approved a mission to destroy chemical weapon stockpiles in Syria and evacuate people from Homs. This shows how the UNSC usually works; where the major powers can agree they do and act, where they can\u2019t the council does nothing. This would have happened in Syria regardless of what occurred in Libya; Syria is simply worth more strategically to Russia than Libya was.  [1] Con, Coughlin, \u2018While Putin still believes the west is still an enemy, Russia will not change\u2019, telegraph.co.uk, 3 December 2010  [2] Nicholas, Kosturos, \u2018What Drives Russia\u2019s Unrelenting Position on Syria?\u2019, americanprogress.org, 13 August 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con01b","title":"","text":"The no-fly zone on its own was not sufficient to protect civilians on the ground. It was the responsibility of NATO to take further action aimed at protecting people whose lives were at risk from gaddafi\u2019s soldiers. This NATO did by attacking military targets such as artillery. This was also part of the UNSC agreement \u201cpermit all necessary measures to protect civilians\u201d[1].  Specifically, NATO targeted military weapon stores and facilities not homes and camps as Gaddafi\u2019s military did. 72 civilians were killed during this bombing campaign [2] a small number compared to the thousands of sorties. No one can know how long the conflict would have lasted without NATO intervention, it is therefore impossible to state that the conflict lasted six times longer than it would have without NATO involvement.  [1] Richard, Roth, \u2018UN Security council approves no fly zone in Libya\u2019, cnn.com, 18 March 2011  [2] BBC news Africa, \u2018Nato hits back at Libya's civilian deaths report\u2019, bbc.co.uk, 14 May 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con02a","title":"","text":"It increased conflict and instability in Libya and its neighbours.  The toppling of Muammar Gaddafi has had unpleasant side effects. Gaddafi\u2019s army involved a large number of mercenaries, many of them Tuaregs from northern Mali. When Gaddafi was overthrown they returned to their homeland without having given up their arms. These returnees helped spark a rebellion that deposed a democratically elected president under a coup and prompted yet another western intervention[1].  In Libya the situation never fully calmed down with the country left dealing with militia groups and terrorist attacks. The US ambassador to Libya Chris Stevens was killed, Prime minister Ali Zaidan was kidnapped and there are reports of ongoing insurgencies [2]. Previously Libyans may have lived under an eccentric dictator but at least they had order and stability.  [1] Owen, Jones, \u2018The war in Libya was seen as a success now here we are engaging in the blowback in Mali\u2019, independent.co.uk, 13 Jan 2013  [2] Chris, Stephen, \u2018Assassination pushes Libya towards civil war, two years after Gaddafi\u2019s death\u2019, thegurdian.com, 19 October 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con03a","title":"","text":"Created a large divide in the UN security council.  The UN security council approved humanitarian intervention in Libya that ensured a no fly zone to protect civilians from government attacks. However, the west went beyond the resolution\u2019s intent and turned it into a de facto campaign for regime change [1].  This made Russia and China who initially had opposed any intervention feel cheated. The divide has affected the response of the security council to other crises notably in Syria where over a hundred thousand people have been killed and an even larger number displaced. Russia and China have vetoed resolutions on Syria three times [2] fearing that it may end like the Libyan case a fact that Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov stressed; \u201cRussia will not allow a repetition of the Libyan scenario in Syria\u201d [3].  Such divisionism has destroyed the credibility of the security council [4] and created an unintended casualty of the Libyan intervention.  [1] David, Blair, \u2018Putin thinks Cameron conned him over Syria, he won\u2019t allow that to happen again with Syria\u2019, telegraph.co.uk, 2 August 2012  [2] Rick, Gladstone, \u2018Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions\u2019, nytimes.com, 19 July 2012  [3] Global research, \u2018Russia Will not Allow Repetition of \u201cLibya Scenario\u201d in Syria\u2019 globalresearch.ca  [4] Mick, B. Krever, \u2018Why won\u2019t the UN Security council intervene in Syria?\u2019, cnn.com 14,January 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con01a","title":"","text":"The intervention backfired.  NATO\u2019S action increased the conflict\u2019s duration about a six fold and the death toll at least sevenfold, but also increasing human rights abuses, humanitarian suffering, and weapon proliferation in Libya and neighbouring countries [1]. The UN security council approved the resolution for protecting civilians in Libya [2] but NATO just did the opposite. Their operation came at the expense of increasing harm to Libyans. NATO attacked Libyan forces indiscriminately including those in Sirte who posed no threat to civilians as Sirte remained in government hands right to near the end of the conflict and continued to support the rebels offering them weapons, military training, intelligence and troops on ground [1], even when they rejected cease fire offers from the government that would have helped end the crisis and spare civilians.  [1] Alan, Kuperman, \u2018Lessons from Libya; How not to intervene\u2019, harvard.edu September 2013  [2] Robert, winnet and Richard Spencer, \u2018UN approves no fly zone as British troops prepare for action\u2019, telegraph.co.uk, 17 March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con02b","title":"","text":"The Malian conflict is not new and has been on for a long period notably the 1960, 1996 and the 2006 rebellions[1]. It did not break up from the Libyan conflict and additionally the Tuareg were not the only rebels involved in this crisis. The insecurity reports across Libya is typical for every emerging democracy in transition and cannot be a reason to claim that it is not stable. Even the Libyan people accept it with 71% of the population being optimistic about the current situation [2].  [1] Mats,Utas, \u2018The Malian crisis; Causes, consequences, responses\u2019, wordpress.com 7 May 2013  [2] JMW Consulting, \u2018Believing in Democracy: Public Opinion Survey in Libya\u2019, National Democratic Institute, August 2013, p.6"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro02b","title":"","text":"A minor addition to what the UK has is hardly securing a special place for the UK. Moreover there is no reason to keep such a position if it is not working for Britain. The renegotiation deal did not succeed in making the EU work how Britain would like \u2013 a move back to greater national sovereignty \u2013 so Britain is better off out. Indeed some, such as former Conservative leader Michael Howard argue \u201cThere is only one thing that just might shake Europe\u2019s leaders out of their complacency: the shock of a vote by the British people to leave\u2026 If the UK voted to leave, there would be a significant chance that they would ask us to think again [with greater concessions].\u201d [1]  [1] Howard, Michael, \u2018David Cameron\u2019s reform bid has failed \u2013 it\u2019s time to go\u2019, The Telegraph, 25 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro02a","title":"","text":"Secures a special place for the UK  The renegotiation deal ensures that the UK has a special place in Europe. One where it is both a leading part of the club with a major say in the council, commission and parliament, and is also outside of those areas such as the Eurozone and anything relating to the Euro which the UK does not wish to join.  Donald Tusk, current president of the European Council, says that the deal \"strengthens Britain's special status\"; [1] the renegotiation document \u201crecalls\u201d the special position already holds listing previous opt outs on joining the Euro and Schengen among others. This deal adds to that an opt out from ever closer union.  With such a privileged position within the EU secured Britain should not rush to the exit so giving away such a status. As European politicians have made clear the UK will not receive such favourable treatment when outside the EU. [2]  [1] BBC News, \u2018EU deal gives UK special status, says Cameron\u2019, 20\/2\/16   [2] Verhofstadt, Guy, \u2018Message to Michael Gove: this deal is binding, and it\u2019s the best Britain will get\u2019, The Guardian, 24 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro03b","title":"","text":"The only way to ensure that the UK does not become part of a political union is to leave entirely. The European Scrutiny Committee of the UK Parliament has concluded that the \u201cever closer union\u201d is largely symbolic so guarantees against it amount to little. [1] Meanwhile the pledges about competitiveness are vague. It leaves as an open question what are the administrative burdens that are going to be lowered or what legislation might be repealed. Without specifics is it likely that any such repeal will take place?  [1] European Scrutiny Committee, \u2018Voters must know EU changes will require Treaty amendment\u2019, parliament.uk, 15 December 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro01a","title":"","text":"A fundamental change to Britain\u2019s relationship with Europe  It was too much to hope that the deal might involve a complete change for the EU as a whole. However it has the potential to fundamentally change the UK\u2019s relationship with the EU by putting it on a much more secure footing.  The most fundamental change is the acceptance of two Europes. By accepting the UK opting out of ever closer union in perpetuity there is now an acceptance that the whole of Europe is not necessarily even moving to the same goal. As the deal states there can be \u201ca deeper degree of integration among the Member states that share such a vision of their common future, without this applying to other Member States.\u201d [1] The second change is increasing democratic accountability through increasing the power of national Parliaments. Now if 55% of national parliaments reject a European Council proposal the Council will need to think again. [2]  [1] Annex 1, P.17  [2] Annex 1, P.17"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro01b","title":"","text":"While it is quite correct that the UK should not have to be signed up to taking part in a European super-state the renegotiation does not represent a big leap forward. With its\u2019 opt outs that are not time limited the UK was already not further integrating with the EU. The change to accepting the de facto truth is not a big one. Allowing national parliaments a say may have a long term impact, but under the current mechanism it means almost nothing. It seems unlikely that 55% of member states national governments (which of course signed the deal) are ever going to lose in their parliaments. The bar is raised even higher by their being a time limit of 12 weeks."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro03a","title":"","text":"Ensures Europe stays of the track Britain wants it to be on  Britain\u2019s ideal for the European Union is a union that is founded upon free trade; an economic not a political block. The agreement ensures that the European Union remains on this path in two ways. First through agreement on competitiveness where members pledged the \u201clowering administrative burdens and compliance costs on economic operators, especially small and medium enterprises, and repealing unnecessary legislation\u201d. [1] Second it is explicitly stated \u201creferences [in EU treaties] to ever closer union do not apply to the United Kingdom\u201d [2] which ensures that the UK will never have to become part of a political union but can instead remain in an economic partnership with the EU even if the EU itself moves towards political union.  [1] Annex 1, p.15  [2] Annex 1, p.16"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con03b","title":"","text":"Neither are at all likely. Gove\u2019s opinion has been rejected by the Attorney General saying \u201cIt has legal effect from the point the UK says it intends to remain in the EU, and the European court must take it into account. The job of the European court is to interpret the agreements\u201d. [1]  Similarly the European Parliament is very unlikely to reject the deal which has been agreed by the leaders of all member states. MEPs have generally shown support for the UK remaining in Europe and the leader of the EPP, the biggest group, has stated \u201cWe support the core of the agreement.\u201d [2]  [1] Mason, Rowena, \u2018Attorney general rejects Gove claim that EU deal is not legally binding\u2019, The Guardian, 24 February 2016,   [2] European parliament web team, \u2018EU Referendum: MEPs Debate the UK's European Future\u2019, Huffington Post, 25 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con01b","title":"","text":"This is the case in all negotiations. Both sides start out with their maximalist demands that they would like to have and both sides compromise and reduce their own demands until they meet in the middle. During this compromise many ideas and proposals are dropped or watered down until both sides get the core of what they want. Cameron was never going to get all of his demands and it is disingenuous to suggest this could have happened."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con02a","title":"","text":"The deal makes no difference to migration  David Cameron failed to even negotiate on the area that the people of the UK most want changed; cutting migration. The only way to do this is to end freedom of movement through the Schengen agreement; something that was never on the table. As a result the changes are minor ones to benefits which the Office for Budgetary Responsibility has said \u201cchanges to benefit rules are unlikely to have a huge impact on migration flows\u201d indeed \u201cIn my opinion: not much\u201d. [1]  Polling by ComRes within days of the agreement showed that 53% of the British public believe there will be no change in migration as a result of the deal while roughly equal numbers think it will increase as decrease; 21% to 22%. [2]  [1] May, John, and Whale, Sebastian, \u2018OBR: Four-year ban on benefits 'unlikely' to cut EU immigration significantly\u2019, Politics Home, 8 December 2015,   [2] Slack, James, \u2018A complete failure: Voters offer damning verdict on PM's Europe deal with three-quarters claiming migration will not change as a result of his reforms - and could even increase\u2019, 24 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con03a","title":"","text":"The renegotiation agreement could yet fall through  At the moment is simply an agreement between the leaders of the states within the EU. Until it is written into treaties the agreement is vulnerable. There are two ways in which it could fall through or be changed. The first is for the European Court to declare part of it incompatible with the EU treaties. The Secretary of State for Justice Michael Gove has argued \"The facts are that the European Court of Justice is not bound by this agreement until treaties are changed and we don't know when that will be\". [1]  The second is that the European Parliament still needs to approve as would any legislature when given a proposal by the executive branch. [2] Members of the European Parliament have refused to rule out that it could be rejected. [3] Even then nothing is secure until there is treaty change as the only way the agreement can be legally binding \u201cwould be through Treaty amendment, or the equivalent agreement of a Protocol.\u201d [4]  [1] \u2018EU reforms \u2018not legally binding\u2019 \u2013 Michael Gove\u2019, BBC News, 24 February 2016,   [2] Peers, Steve, \u2018The draft UK\/EU renegotiation deal: is it \u2018legally binding and irreversible\u2019?\u2019, EU Law Analysis, 10 February 2016,   [3] Stone, Jon, \u2018David Cameron\u2019s EU deal can\u2019t be legally binding, EU Parliament president Martin Schulz says\u2019, Independent, 16 February 2016,   [4] European Scrutiny Committee, \u2018Voters must know EU changes will require Treaty amendment\u2019, parliament.uk, 15 December 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con01a","title":"","text":"The renegotiation makes little difference  Conservative MP Jacob Rees-Mogg described the deal as \u201cpretty thin gruel\u201d which hits the mark. The British Prime Minister has not been able to go nearly as far as he would like for example with his pledge on migrant benefits where Cameroon failed to ensure that all who claim must contribute to the UK for at least four years. Instead there is a break that the UK can use if migrants are putting excessive pressure on public services. Meanwhile Cameron failed to get anything at all on the Working Time Directive that restricts working hours in the EU. [1]  More important is what Cameron did not even demand; greater democracy in the EU, bringing power back to national parliaments, or opting out or significant changes to common agricultural and fisheries policies.  [1] Foster, Peter, \u2018EU deal: What David Cameron asked for\u2026 and what he actually got\u2019, The Telegraph, 20 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con02b","title":"","text":"Migration is a benefit to the UK financially. Most migrants don\u2019t claim benefits which is why such benefit rules changes will not make much difference. Cutting migration would be easier outside the European Union however even then there is unlikely to be scope to cut migration as far as skeptics want. Net migration from outside the EU in year ending September 2015 was 191,000 [1] far above the Conservative target to get migration below 100,000.  [1] White, Nicola, \u2018Migration Statistics Quarterly Report: February 2016\u2019, ons.gov.uk, 25 February 2016,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro02b","title":"","text":"As an American state, Puerto Ricans would pay federal income taxes, which most currently do not. Some businesses would also lose tax breaks they currently enjoy. [1] This would harm not only the wealth of individual Puerto Ricans but also harm the country's economic standing, as it would become less appealing as an investment destination without these tax breaks and with the presence of federal income taxes. There is no guarantee that the extremely high rates of economic growth the pro-statehood optimists forecast will actually come about to balance out these increased costs for all Puerto Ricans. Historically statehood could have been disastrous for Puerto Rico's economy: the post-World War Two economic growth in Puerto Rico was the result of special treatment via exemption from Federal corporate taxes resulting from Puerto Rico' special non-state status. [2]  [1] Constitutional Rights Foundation. \u201cBRIA 17 4 c Puerto Rico: Commonwealth, Statehood, or Independence?\u201d. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Fall 2001 (17:4).  [2] Leibowitz, Arnold H. \u201cDefining Status: A Comprehensive Analysis of United States Territorial Relations\u201d. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1989."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro02a","title":"","text":"Puerto Rico would benefit economically from statehood  American statehood would lead to significant economic growth for Puerto Rico. Statehood would mean that the island would shed its ineffective and costly reliance on preferential tax credits and more fully integrate into the national economy. In a study by Hexner, Jenkins, Lad and Lame, \"Puerto Rican Statehood: A Precondition to Sound Economic Growth,\" the case is persuasively made that statehood is necessary for the island's economic growth. [1] [2] As an American state, the standard of living in Puerto Rico would profoundly improve for the average person. With average income going up, families would be able to pay their fair share of taxes while still improving their net income and standard of living. For those with low incomes, the U.S. citizens of Puerto Rico would have the same access to tax relief and federal support programs as any other citizen of the country, unlike under the present status where significant disparities exist. This is particularly significant as approximately 50% of Puerto Ricans live under the federal poverty line. [3]  Many areas of US Federal funding to Puerto Rico would actually improve. For example, the current 50 states can receive up to 90% reimbursement through Medicaid for critical health information technologies; Puerto Rico is not eligible for these supplements. According to 2005 Congressional testimony by Governor Anibal Acevedo-Vila, had Puerto Rico been treated like the other states, it would have received $1.7 billion dollars in federal Medicaid support instead of the $219 million received. Translated to monthly amounts, federal Medicaid support in the states approximated $330 per month per participant; the amount in Puerto Rico was about $20 per month. [4] The US is one of the richest countries on earth, and being a full part of it would give Puerto Ricans a lot of practical advantages that the independent countries of the Spanish-speaking Caribbean lack. The right to move to the US-proper and work there legally, for example, is extremely valuable. [5] Overall, therefore, there is a compelling economic case for Puerto Rico to seek American statehood.  [1] Puerto Rico Statehood Students Association. \u201cStatehood\u201d.  [2] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [3] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [4] Frisse, Dr. Mark. \u201cPuerto Rico\u201d. Wellshpere. 7 September 2008.  [5] Yglesias, Matthew. \u201cWhat is the Case for Puerto Rican Independence?\u201d. Think Progress. 1 May 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro03b","title":"","text":"The foreignness of English in Puerto Rico is greater in magnitude than it was in any state at any time in our national experience, including the examples listed. Census data show that just 20 percent of the island\u2019s residents speak English fluently. By comparison, California has the lowest proficiency rate among the 50 states, but its 80 percent proficiency rate dwarfs Puerto Rico\u2019s. The deeply rooted preference for Spanish makes Puerto Rico\u2019s 1993 elevation of English to \u201cco-official\u201d status practically irrelevant. Authentic \u201cofficial English\u201d policies increase English learning, but they will not work when English is merely an add-on to a pre-existing official language that is spoken in 95 percent of homes. [1]  [1] Schultz, Tim. \u201cA Spanish 51st State?\u201d National Review Online. 8 March 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro01a","title":"","text":"Puerto Ricans deserve full political rights and citizenship  Currently, Puerto Ricans do not receive full political rights and equal representation, despite their American citizenship. Although it has its own Governor and legislature which handles some domestic matters, inhabitants of Puerto Rico receive no say in US federal matters or foreign policy, despite being heavily affected by them (more so than most current American states, as Puerto Rico sits in the Caribbean surrounded by other island nation-states). [1] If Puerto Rico became a US state, Puerto Ricans would then share as everyone else in full benefits from the US government, while paying taxes like everyone else.  The status quo perpetuates a semi-colonial situation in Puerto Rico, where American citizenship, which they have held since 1917, carries fewer rights than in the US proper. This has been the situation since the US captured Puerto Rico in 1898, and no other US territory has been held in limbo like this for so long. During this time Puerto Ricans have supported the US by serving in large numbers, both voluntarily and through conscription, in the US military in every major war since the Spanish-American War. [2]  However the island's current status still prompts United Nations to still debate whether Puerto Rico is a colony. [3] US congressional inquest into Puerto Rico's political situation has found that, despite the divergent views that Puerto Ricans have with respect to their preferred political status, \u201call factions agree on the need to end the present undemocratic arrangement whereby Puerto Rico is subject to the laws of Congress but cannot vote in it.\u201d [4]  The former chief justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, Jose Trias Monge, has written a book on the political status of Puerto Rico entitled \u201cPuerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World.\u201d Therein he argued that just prior to the U.S. invasion, the Island enjoyed greater freedom and rights in certain areas than it does now, including an insular parliament that could legislate in matters of monetary policy, banking, import\/export duties, and public credit; the ability of Puerto Rico to negotiate its own commercial treaties; Puerto Ricans were Spanish citizens, equal in all respects to mainland Spanish citizens; the Spanish Constitution applied in Puerto Rico in the same manner as it applied in Spain proper; the Autonomic Charter of 1897, which governed Puerto Rico's relation with Spain, could not be changed except with Puerto Rico's consent. [5] The political rights currently enjoyed by Puerto Ricans, such as their right to elect their own Governor, are not even guaranteed to them in the status quo. In 1993, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. [6] To perpetuate this current second-class status is morally unacceptable in a nation which pledges itself to \u201cliberty and justice for all\u201d.  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [2] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [3] Constitutional Rights Foundation. \u201cBRIA 17 4 c Puerto Rico: Commonwealth, Statehood, or Independence?\u201d. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Fall 2001 (17:4).  [4] U.S House of Representatives. \u2018Puerto Rico Democracy Act\u2019, 110th Congress. Second Session. Report #597. 2007, Washington, D.C.  [5] Monge, Jose Trias. \u201cPuerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World\u201d. Yale University Press. 1997.  [6] Hill, Fay and Edmondson, \"United States v. Sanchez, 992 F.2D 1143 (1993) United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (Paragraphs 44 \u2013 46)\""}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro01b","title":"","text":"Regardless of what Puerto Ricans may or may not \u201cdeserve\u201d, the fact is that Puerto Ricans have rejected statehood many times now, making their voices heard on this issue many times since the late 1960's. The island has repeatedly voted to remain a commonwealth when votes were taken in 1967, 1993, and 1998. [1] If Puerto Ricans actually like their current status enough to vote for it when presented with the alternatives of statehood or independence, where is the injustice in that status continuing?  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro03a","title":"","text":"English is not a problem for Puerto Rican statehood  Some have made the argument that Puerto Rico should not be a state because Puerto Ricans do not speak English, and that the US should not have a non-English speaking state. This argument does not hold up for the following reasons: English is already an official language on the island with the same status as Spanish. Puerto Ricans are already citizens of the U.S., and have been since1917. [1] There was no language requirement with the granting of citizenship then, so it makes no sense to ask this question now. In fact, there has never been a language requirement of territories entering the union in American history. English is a required subject in public schools through high school. English is the only language of the Federal Court system and all U.S. government agencies in Puerto Rico and is the common language in banking, commerce, real estate and the tourism industry. Learning English as well as Spanish just makes good sense. English is the international language of business, science, and increasingly, diplomacy. Puerto Rico should do all it can to increase English language capability. But, making it a requirement of statehood would ignore the precedents of Enabling Acts of Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Arizona, all of which similarly had issues of large non-English speaking populations and gave or give these other languages some official status in law. [2]  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [2] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-con03b","title":"","text":"Firstly, Puerto Ricans have repeatedly rejected independence in referendums in 1967, 1993, and 1998, with the votes for independence always being fewer than those for statehood. But secondly, the reasons against Puerto Rican independence are myriad. If Puerto Rico were to vote for independence, it would be hugely costly. It is inconceivable that the U.S. would set Puerto Rico adrift without a large \"transition package\" and continued foreign aid of a large magnitude. This would be necessitated by the fact that Puerto Ricans are currently U.S. citizens, who would demand favourable treatment and help. Puerto Rico, as an island with 3.8 million people and no other significant natural resources, is not economically viable as a separate nation without significant external aid and free access to large markets like the US enjoys. With statehood, Puerto Rico can be economically viable and a contributor to the United States' wealth, but with independence it would be impoverished and isolated. [1] Moreover, the American 'melting pot' has always been about the fusion of different cultures together, not their disappearance, and this will be the same for Puerto Rican identity.  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-con01b","title":"","text":"The arguments regarding the loss of Puerto Rican culture under statehood do not stand up because Puerto Rican identity is strong and will continue to be so. Puerto Rico has been exposed to U.S. mainland cultures for over 100 years, and Puerto Rican culture and heritage has thrived and grown. Puerto Ricans and mainland citizens have moved freely between the island and the mainland with no resulting cultural dilution or weakening of Puerto Rican's strong identity, even with the large migrations of the 1930's, the 1950's and since then. There is no reason to believe this would change under statehood. Puerto Rico has adopted and adapted aspects of U.S. culture, just as we have incorporated much of Puerto Rican culture when exposed to it. Puerto Ricans, while citizens, in much the same way as Texans and others view themselves, are still Puerto Ricans despite the more than 100 years of the deep and strong relationship with the mainland United States. [1]  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-con02a","title":"","text":"Puerto Rican statehood is not economical for the US  If Puerto Rico were to enter the US in such a way as to harm the US economy or if it were to become a burden to the US, this could lead to resentment of Puerto Rico by the rest of the US and hamper integration. The unemployed in Puerto Rico will at least have higher welfare benefits to fall back on if statehood is granted, meaning more money lost to the U.S. treasury. [1] Puerto Rico's per capita income of $8,509 is less than one third of the US average, and about one half that of Mississippi, the poorest state. The government sector in Puerto Rico generates approximately 380,000 jobs, or 33% of total employment can be unfavourably compared to the percentage of the economy of Puerto Rico from tourism: About 6%. The average monthly per capita income in Puerto Rico $709 per month. Social Security Disability payments are at least $790 per month. Rank of a state of Puerto Rico as a state among states based on population: 25th. Rank of Puerto Rico currently if included among states based on persons receiving disability income: 16th. [2] Even with the gain to the U.S. Treasury of taxes now not being paid by Section 936 companies, the CBO put the cost of Puerto Rican statehood as $9.4 billion in the first four years. These costs do not include matters like government and court translation expenses should Puerto Rico declare itself to be a solely Spanish-speaking land. [3] [4] [5] Nor does it include the costs to the U.S. Treasury of as many as seven representatives and two Senators whose continuance in office will depend on their pleasing an impoverished constituency. Legislation to increase federal spending on social programs of all sorts need not fail narrowly in either house of the U.S. Congress, as it does at the moment, if Puerto Rico's delegation (twice the size of West Virginia's) enters the equation. [6] Clearly neither the United States nor Puerto Rico can afford Puerto Rican statehood, and it makes no sense for Puerto Rico to enter into such an unstable relationship where resentment against Puerto Rico (and Puerto Ricans living in the US) will breed fast.  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [2] NoPuertoRicoStatehood. \u201cPuerto Rico Statehood\u201d. 29 May 2011.  [3] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.  [4] Puerto Rico Statehood Students Association. \u201cStatehood\u201d.  [5] Schultz, Tim. \u201cA Spanish 51st State?\u201d National Review Online. 8 March 2010.  [6] Fund, John. \u201cPuerto Rico, the 51st State?\u201d. The Wall Street Journal. 13 May 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-con03a","title":"","text":"Statehood would prevent Puerto Rican independence  The US has treated Puerto Rico as little more than a colony for 100 years, and this has seeped into the Puerto Rican mentality in harmful ways. According to educational scientists Francesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni, in their 1973 work The Puerto Rican Experience: a Sociological Sourcebook, the belief that Puerto Rico cannot survive on its own results from teachings since grade school. \u201cPuerto Ricans here and in Puerto Rico are taught three things: Puerto Rico is small and the US is big, Puerto Rico is poor and the US is rich, Puerto Rico is weak and the US is strong.\u201d [1] Popular author and Puerto Rican culture enthusiast Jes\u00fas Omar Rivera similarly argues that \u201cin Puerto Rico, ever since you are a child, you are told that you live on a tiny island that has no natural resources, nothing. This is what they teach you in school, on TV, the media, and it\u2019s always negative.\u201d He argues says this perception is a by-product of the island\u2019s political dependence on the U.S.. \u201cThere is this colonized mentality that everything from abroad is better.\u201d [2]  None of this would change under statehood, and arguably would get even worse as Puerto Rican culture, still perceived as 'inferior' to all things American, would decline even further. Puerto Rican nationalist Juan Mari Br\u00e1s has argued \u201cOnly through a great unified movement looking beyond political and ideological differences, can the prevalent fears of hunger and persecution be overcome for the eventual liberation of Puerto Rico, breaking through domination by the greatest imperialist power of our age\u201d. [3] Attaining Puerto Rican independence us the only great cause which can unite all Puerto Rican people and allow them to break out of this colonized mentality and reclaim their dignity as a people and as a nation. To enter into US statehood would simply be to accept this colonized mentality and the denigration of all things Puerto Rican, to the advantage of the all-consuming American culture.  [1] Cordasco, Francesco and Bucchioni, Eugene. \u201cThe Puerto Rican Experience: a Sociological Sourcebook\u201d. 1973. Littlefield, Adams, & Co..  [2] Martorell, Carlos Rodr\u00edguez. \u201cHave a Puerto Rican question? Ask El Boricuazo\u201d. NYDailyNews. 3 June 2008.  [3] Peacehost.net. \u201cJuan Mari Br\u00e1s\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-con01a","title":"","text":"The language barrier and Puerto Rican identity  Puerto Rico should not become an American state because linguistic and cultural differences continue to divide the other 50 states and Puerto Rico. This would mean that Puerto Rico would either fit incongruously into the union, or it would lose its distinct cultural identity. Historically the US administrations of Puerto Rico have pursued 'Americanization' campaigns there, focusing especially around imposing the use of the English language and casting aside 'old values'. This policy was deeply resented and strongly resisted by most Puerto Ricans, and it failed. Thus, after 91 years of intimate association, Puerto Rico remains a separate cultural nationality. [1] [2]  Furthermore in terms of national identity, Puerto Rico joining the US would result in it losing the semi-independent (or at least distinct) identity which it currently has in the eyes of much of the world. To name but two examples, Puerto would no longer have its own representative in the Miss Universe Pageant (which Puerto Rico has actually won on three occasions) and they would not be recognized as an individual nation in the Olympic games, as it currently is. These international representations would be curbed under statehood, as Puerto Rico would be required to participate in the same manner as the other 50 states, and to compete to represent the United States collectively, and not Puerto Rico individually, in these international events. [3]  Changing language policies would also undermine Puerto Rican culture: the territories that became Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma (who all had large and historically rooted non-English-speaking populations) were all admitted to the union by congressional enabling acts that required that \u201cschools shall always be conducted in English\u201d in order to ensure assimilation. [4] This would likely also be the case with Puerto Rico, and could undermine the access of future generations of Puerto Ricans to their Hispanic heritage and culture, subsuming it within the overpowering tide of English-speaking American culture. Thus the Puerto Rican people are highly independent and have immense pride in their district and rich Latin culture and Spanish language, and they should not be deprived of that culture, which statehood would arguably contribute towards.  [1] NoPuertoRicoStatehood. \u201cPuerto Rico Statehood\u201d. 29 May 2011.  [2] Schultz, Tim. \u201cA Spanish 51st State?\u201d National Review Online. 8 March 2010.  [3] Essortment. \u201cPuerto Rican Statehood, the An overview of the pros and cons\u201d. Essortment.com.  [4] Schultz, Tim. \u201cA Spanish 51st State?\u201d National Review Online. 8 March 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-glgvhbprss-con02b","title":"","text":"Much of this argumentation assumes that the Puerto Rican economy will not expand with statehood, which there are many good reasons to believe would occur. Look at what happened to the last two states admitted to the Union, Hawaii and Alaska. Both economies grew substantially after being admitted to the Union and became net contributors to the U.S. Treasury. Puerto Rico would receive equal treatment in both taxes and benefits, the same as the other states. Benefits to the island under the current system are limited by Congress. Those limitations would be removed. At the same time, payments of federal taxes would be phased in, as provided by the enabling legislation. It has been estimated Puerto Rico as a state will contribute nearly $2 billion to the U.S. Treasury each year. [1] How is that possible? Through economic growth. With economic growth there are more jobs, fewer unemployed, and less of a public assistance burden.  [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. \u201cStatehood Issues\u201d. United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro02b","title":"","text":"It does not matter if think tanks are used in this way, so long as the conclusions that are reached by the think tanks are true. If there is objective value in an idea it should be communicated as well as possible. If this cannot be done with conventional marketing, it is good for it to be possible through a think tank. If the think tank\u2019s idea and conclusion is wrong, the fact that it is presented objectively makes it no less falsifiable. Think tanks do not exist in a vacuum, and for every false idea presented as positive there will be another think tank to scrutinise it. In either case, the consumer is given useful information in an accessible way that can still be questioned."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Think tanks\u2019 power of objectivity is the best form of marketing for biased views  Think tanks are considered more credible than corporate marketing. [1] In the case of corporate marketing the recipient is aware that he is being sold a product. In the case of think tanks, the recipient believes he is being given unbiased information. Therefore, it is tempting for corporations to finance think tanks and encourage them to reach the conclusions that they otherwise would promote through marketing. This way, think tanks can be powerful tools for promoting a biased agenda: if done successfully the same message is communicated but in the form of credible information rather than manipulative marketing. In fact, it is common practice for journalists to quote think tanks without labelling their political bias. [2] And they most certainly don\u2019t say if there is funding from a particular interest for example with the supposedly free market Institute of Public Affairs in Australia that somehow ends up arguing for government investment and intervention in Northern Australia \u2013 a position suspiciously close to several big mining companies. [3] This violates people\u2019s freedom to make an informed decision, and can give biased views disproportionate and undue influence. By forcing them to disclose, any corruption or bias will become obvious to all.  [1] Mayer, Jane. \u201cCovert Operations\u201d, A Reporter at Large, The New Yorker. 30 August 2010   [2] Dolny, Michael. \u201cWhat\u2019s in a Label?\u201d, Extra!, FAIR. 1 May 1998   [3] MediaWatch, \u201cDisclosing the funding of think tanks\u201d, ABC News, 27 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is already in the interest of think tanks to be transparent. Think tanks exist in societies that depend on open communication and the free flow of ideas. Numerous organisations exist to criticise and unmask non-transparent think tanks: [1] this is sufficient incentive for them to reveal their funding. There may be exceptions in which the benefits of non-disclosure overrule the disadvantages in terms of trust, but these are rare, and it does not follow that it will be abused.  [1] Who Funds You, Political Innovation,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro05a","title":"","text":"Think tanks may become smoke screens for criminal groups  In the status quo, the ability of think tanks to be non-transparent potentially provides a framework for criminal groups, or in extreme cases organisations, to handle large amounts of money without revealing where their money comes from or goes. We are allowing extremist groups to be exempt from answering to the government or shareholders in their management of money or information. In the US and Canada, think tanks are also exempt from tax. [1] By this mechanism, false think tanks can be used, for example, to channel money from openly extremist groups that could otherwise not access those parts of the world.  [1] 26 USC \u00a7 501 - Exemption from tax on corporations, certain trusts, etc., Legal Information Institute"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro01a","title":"","text":"People have a right to know where their information comes from  Democracies rely on transparency. Our commitment to transparency means surrendering part of our autonomy for the collective. This does not mean that our autonomy does not still belong to us; the institutions that affect our lives are under a constant obligation to justify their decisions and existence in relation to us. I do not have a right to know everything about the local football club (if I don\u2019t play football and they are not a public company their decisions don\u2019t affect me). Think tanks, however, are highly influential, and directly affect the society in which we live: some have, for example, lobbied successfully against action to prevent global warming. [1] Therefore they are to be considered a power in society, and the principle of transparency must be extended to them.  [1] Monbiot, George. \u201cThe educational charities that do PR for the rightwing ultra-rich\u201d, Comment is Free, The Guardian. 18 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Think tanks don\u2019t have any legislative power. At the end of the day, what they do is merely make suggestions. If they were active lobbyists they would lose their privileged legal position as an academic organisation. [1] Even if there may be other benefits of them being transparent, the legal concept of transparency cannot be extended to them. That would open the door to forcing other independent private institutions to reveal details of their organisation. Furthermore, think tanks rarely claim to be completely impartial. They usually have an agenda and are aligned with a political party. This concession in terms of impartiality merits equal concessions in terms of demanded transparency. At the end of the day it is their work that influences the agenda and that same work shows where their sympathies lie.  [1] \u201cThe Political Activity of Think Tanks: The Case for Mandatory Contributor Disclosure\u201d, Harvard Law Review, Vol. 115, No. 5, March 2002, pp. 1502-1524."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro05b","title":"","text":"There is no necessity to disclose think tank funding publically in order to circumvent this issue. As long as there are public institutions that scrutinise think tanks and are also bound to secrecy unless there are anomalies, the risk of terrorism can be successfully regulated. Being a think tank does not prevent an organisation from having to be transparent to government about their finances. It is unnecessary to expose think tanks that do not act illicitly to the general public."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro04b","title":"","text":"Think tanks can choose transparency in the status quo anyway (as shown by nef): this benefit is relatively small. On the other hand, it harms the many other think tanks that need to protect the information of who funds them if, for instance, the funders do not wish to disclose it. It is a loss of freedom for the majority, not a gain."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro03a","title":"","text":"The status quo promotes non-transparency  Non-disclosure can be perceived as objectivity. It is easier for the public to criticise a think tank that is openly associated with a particular funder. That kind of prejudice is stronger than the more general the prejudice against non-disclosure. A person might distrust a non-transparent think tank, but dislike a think tank that is funded by an organisation they are already prejudiced towards. [1] In any comparison between two such organisations the distrusted organisation will have greater impact than the disliked organisation. [2] This gives non-transparent think tanks an advantage over transparent and honest ones. Billionaires are then able to buy influence by secretly funding organisations such as the Global Warming Policy Foundation or the Institute of Economic Affairs that is then listened to, by the media and therefore the public, when their own views would simply be dismissed due to the personal motivations of the backers. [3] By forcing all think tanks to reveal their funding, we level the playing field.  [1] Bentley, Guy. \u201cThe state funding swindle: how left wing think-tanks are pulling taxpayer-funded wool over our eyes\u201d, Commentary, The Commentator. 20 September 2012,   [2] \u201cThe Political Activity of Think Tanks: The Case for Mandatory Contributor Disclosure\u201d, Harvard Law Review, Vol. 115, No. 5, March 2002, pp. 1502-1524.   [3] Monbiot, George. \u201cThe educational charities that do PR for the rightwing ultra-rich\u201d, Comment is Free, The Guardian. 18 February 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Legally requiring disclosure from all benefits think tanks  Even think tanks benefit from the introduction of this policy. The status quo leaves disclosure as a strategic device: think tanks are unwilling to disclose more than their competition for fear of being unfavourably portrayed. Such negative competition, i.e. competition in factors that do not improve the products of the market, makes them unable to make rational decisions about their funding if, for instance, potential funders want to contribute only on the condition that this funding be made public. As a consequence, the advent of organisations who call for transparency has been praised by prominent think tanks like the New Economics Foundation. [1] By depriving everybody of the strategic tool of revealing none or only a part of their funding, think tanks cannot be pressured into hiding or providing certain information about their funders, and they can thus act more independently.  [1] Read, Sam. \u201cThink tank funding matters: it\u2019s central to democracy\u201d, the nef blog, 22 June 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con03b","title":"","text":"On the other hand, by disclosing funders more corporations and individuals will have an incentive to fund think tanks. They will be assured that they will be publically recognised for it, and thus be rewarded when the think tanks they support produce good ideas."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con01b","title":"","text":"Such a system, in which one allows think tanks to accept substantial anonymous donations, has immense downsides. It is simply too easy for a think tank to claim all, or most, of its funding is anonymous to them when it is questioned, while in fact they have been having informal strategic talks with potential funders days prior to, during, or after the donation. We cannot adopt a policy that is so easy too abuse, and since all think tanks must know who their funders are, we are not restricting their independence any further by asking them to make it public."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con02a","title":"","text":"Overregulating think tanks sets a dangerous precedent  The public scrutiny on think tank funders may backlash on perfectly innocent investors. Investors may be accused of corruption if think tanks that share their values independently reach favourable conclusions. Alternatively, minor investors may become guilty by association, for instance, if notorious companies or political parties have been seen supporting the same think tanks \u2013 even if this is done for completely different reasons. The motivations of think tanks cannot be made synonymous with their funders, but these funders should also not be made synonymous with each other. Thus for example Policy exchange is both seen as a think tank for UK conservative modernisers \u2013 the progressive wing of the party while also having been labelled as a \u201cneo-con attack dog\u201d. [1]  [1] Helm, Toby, and Hope, Christopher, \u201cThe top twelve think tanks in Britain\u201d, The Telegraph, 24 January 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con05a","title":"","text":"Private investors have a right to privacy  The public scrutiny on think tank funders may backlash on perfectly innocent investors. Investors may be accused of corruption if think tanks that share their values independently reach favourable conclusions. Alternatively, minor investors may become guilty by association, for instance, if notorious companies or political parties have been seen supporting the same think tanks \u2013 even if this is done for completely different reasons. The motivations of think tanks cannot be made synonymous with their funders, but these funders should also not be made synonymous with each other. Thus for example Policy exchange is both seen as a think tank for UK conservative modernisers \u2013 the progressive wing of the party while also having been labelled as a \u201cneo-con attack dog\u201d. [1]  [1] Helm, Toby, and Hope, Christopher, \u201cThe top twelve think tanks in Britain\u201d, The Telegraph, 24 January 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con04a","title":"","text":"Think tanks should be assessed by the value of their ideas, not by who funds them  One can conceive of an infinite amount of cases in which results of a think tank\u2019s research are completely independent of their funders. Their opposition, however, will be likely to signal corruption, when in fact there may be no relation between a funder and certain results. Even if they are associated by sharing a perspective or an aim, this is not a sign of corruption or bias, and it should not enter into the value of a think tank. There has been one study of charity donations (as think tanks are) that concludes that anonymous donations are \u201ca costly signal of a charity\u2019s quality by an informed donor\u201d. [1]  [1] Peacey, Mike W., \u201cMasked Heroes: endogenous anonymity in charitable giving\u201d, Centre for Market and Public Organisation Bristol Institute of Public Affairs, May 2013, p.27"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con03a","title":"","text":"Being subject to scrutiny discourages investors from supporting good projects  Think tanks depend largely on voluntary funding for their projects, [1] so they must be careful when risking potential investments. Investors are likely to be put off from funding think tanks with good aims if this funding will be scrutinised and their interests questioned. [2] They are likely not to wish to risk being associated with seemingly biased results: a system by which funders can support ideas in themselves, perhaps even anonymously for the think tanks themselves, is the one in which think tanks best flourish and best produce results. Those that produce the best and most interesting ideas will be those who succeed in obtaining funding.  [1] Think Tank Funding, On Think Tanks,  accessed 11 June 2013  [2] Butcher, Jonathan, \u201cDoes it Matter Who Funds You?\u201d One World Trust, 12 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con05b","title":"","text":"This is not an inherent flaw in the system. In the status quo, large investors can still publically advertise the fact that they are funding a project, and this too can have repercussions and bring negative associations for other investors. It is a risk anyone makes when investing in a given idea. The right to privacy of investors in political campaigns was discarded once evidence of potential abuses and political arrangements surfaced. Similarly, this right cannot apply to think tank funders. [1]  [1] \u201cThe Political Activity of Think Tanks: The Case for Mandatory Contributor Disclosure\u201d, Harvard Law Review, Vol. 115, No. 5, March 2002, pp. 1502-1524."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con01a","title":"","text":"Think tanks should be able to choose not to know who funds them  The information think tanks provide can be extremely useful to society. Therefore we should be hesitant to restrict their key strength, which is their independence. There may be scenarios in which think tanks, in need of funding for a purely positive project, ask for donations from anyone who believes in their values. Wanting to avoid any negative associations or any accusations of bias, they choose not to find out who their funders are, and thus they cannot disclose that information. For think tanks who claim independence by only asking for anonymous donors, this is no longer an option when they are forced to disclose. The attempt to create more objectivity actually removes one of the ways of being perfectly impartial."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con04b","title":"","text":"People are capable of assessing a biased idea after discovering its bias, while it is dangerous to present potentially biased ideas as genuine, for this limits discussion. This is especially so in the status quo, where the suspicions of who may be funding think tanks remain when they choose not to disclose their funders. A blanket obligation of all think tanks to reveal their funding allows for open discourse and thus more space to discuss the ideas themselves."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Suggesting that feminising African politics will stop poverty and provide empowerment returns to the ideas we attach to women. Women are often associated with domesticity, care, and reproductivity. Who\u2019s to say that this is what women are or what they stand for? Basing quota systems on what women are believed to do is dangerous \u2013 in reality behaviour cannot be predicted, as women remain diverse and heterogeneous. A study has shown that there is no relationship between the number of women cabinet members and the sex of the executive implying that women don\u2019t really help other women in politics (Jalalzai, p.196).  Additionally who is to say that by having women in political roles they will instantly be able to implement and act on their desired policies? How resources and power are distributed within the political system is key. Resources may remain controlled by men."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Feminising the state: women helping women  Including women in politics helps enable poverty to be tackled. Poverty is a women\u2019s issue; women are more likely to live in poverty than men, and women are needed in politics to change this. Women understand each other, and what they need.  Furthermore, although data varies, evidence shows gender inequalities remain intertwined to poverty and impoverishment [1] [2] . Women in positions of power and leadership can put the issues women face on the agenda and apply action. There is clearly a need to get women into politics to counter the current \u2018boys club\u2019 that exists in most countries where men help each other into positions of power squeezing out women and other methods of doing things.  [1] See further readings: Gender Inequality Index, 2014.  [2] See further readings: Chant, 2003."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Women become integrated into a man\u2019s world. But the territory may not be changed. First, women may become like men in response to the jobs they take up and how one is expected to act in the given role. When we consider what conditions women are introduced, potentially with limited training in public speaking, confidence or acceptance, how will they fare? Their best way forward is to get help from the men already in parliament.  Secondly, how do women experience work and are they treated at work? Quotas introduce more women, however, they may experience gender-based harassment and unfair treatment at work. In the case of Kenya, a female politician was publicly slapped [1] . Who will ensure their rights are protected and they are treated equally in a political world?  Finally, is power redistributed? Frequent protests in Senegal show that despite quota systems being implemented women do not end up with power despite being in parliament. [2] Women are legally enrolled into local and national parties but do their seats ensure they can lead political parties? Does being a local candidate ensure the potential for national progression?  [1] African Spotlight, 2013.  [2] Kabwila, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Democracy must be representative  Quotas are building representative democracies. Through the quota system women are given a voice in society. Quotas mean women are represented in politics. Women are half of the electorate so should be around half of the legislature. Although not there yet the rising numbers symbolise positive change. In 2012, on average, 1\/5 of MPs in sub-Saharan Africa were women (The Economist, 2013). In South Africa and Rwanda the number is far above this. Women make up 42% of parliament seats in South Africa, and 64% in Rwanda (ibid.). At present, in Africa we have 2 female presidents (Liberia; Malawi); and 1 prime minister (Aminata Toure, Senegal). Notably Malawi, Rwanda, Senegal, and South Africa all have some form of quota system (quotaProject, 2014)."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Having more women does not mean a representative democracy is built as it is not just gender balance that needs to be considered but ethnicity, language groups etc. as well.  Additionally, the bias quota system will cause future problems. In the future men will need to be targeted and receive help. For example in Rwanda the focus on including women has pushed men out of politics. Implementing quotas favours the creation of a certain \u2018representative democracy\u2019. The democracy becomes \u2018represented\u2019 by what we think democracy should look like."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro04b","title":"","text":"When we don\u2019t just consider battle deaths the extent to which violence is declining is questionable [1] . Furthermore, we cannot suggest women in politics will limit war, conflict, or violence, as anomalies are found \u2013 such as Margret Thatcher\u2019s use of violence in closing down industries across the UK and willingness to engage in the Falklands conflict. Furthermore the idea returns to a preconceived image and ideal women. The women are represented as the caregiver, submerged within traditional constructions of women as nurturing and empathetic.  [1] See further readings: WDR, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Changing the male territory  African politics remains masculinised and strongly male dominated. Implementing quotas shows a commitment to change gender inequalities by increasing women\u2019s political participation (Bachelet, 2013). More women mean gender imbalances can be changed, women empowered, and the territorial boundaries defining what men and women do will become blurred.  Additionally women in African politics can change the \u2018boys club\u2019 of bad governance in Africa. Bad governance can be tackled as the prominence of males controlling decisions will be changed, and internal political relations altered. The least corrupt countries on the continent; Rwanda and Botswana both have some form of quota system(quotaproject, 2014, Transparency International, 2013)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro04a","title":"","text":"A safer world  International relations debates, and conflict theories, suggest more women in politics makes for a safer world. In Pinker\u2019s (2011) book the feminisation of politics is identified as a key factor to explain the decline in conflict and violence \u2013 battle deaths have declined from 20 per 100,000 people to only 1 or 2 today. Women are more inclined to call for peace resolution and being \u2018maternal beings\u2019 reflect nurturing behaviours."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-con03b","title":"","text":"It remains difficult to compare the experiences of women in Scandinavia and Africa. The contexts \u2013 history, ideas, and social geographies \u2013 are completely different. While Scandinavia may well not need quotas to change perceptions in Africa it may be the best way to do so. Women in Africa need a voice, and therefore politics provides a platform for their empowerment both vocally and in their use of public space. Quotas are a fast-track. It\u2019s not forcing change but guiding and enabling it."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-con01b","title":"","text":"The women\u2019s quota is a vital start to tackle underlying inequalities. Quotas of multiple identities such as race, class, age, sexuality, class and ethnicity will need to be included following the implementation of a women\u2019s quota."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-con02a","title":"","text":"The woman\u2019s \u2018political job\u2019  Quotas mean more women are able to enter the political world; however, how is it decided what political jobs and positions they can utilise? The inclusion of women into politics in Africa has mainly been in certain departments i.e. gender and health. More powerful women are needed in positions that remain masculinised \u2013 such as defence and security. Therefore the quota may introduce more women in politics, however, how active are they in deciding what area of politics? The quota may well be seen merely a means to introduce women passively into new distinct gender roles.  If women are believed to be granted positions as a result of the quotas, rather than it being a position they have earned, they may be more at risk of marginalisation at work. Having a quota provides a reason to argue that an exceptional woman has received her place no based upon merit but due to the quota. This may be used as an excuse to prevent women reaching the most important positions."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-con03a","title":"","text":"Assuming causality: Africa Vs Scandinavia  Scandinavian countries \u2013 Norway, Sweden and Denmark \u2013 have high female participation rates in parliament. However, Rwanda is one African nation that has even greater female parliamentary representation. In Scandinavia the quota has been introduced but is only implemented by some parties. Nevertheless there is little difference between parties in Denmark, for example, that utilise the quota and those that do not. This shows that voluntary quotas can work but also that they are not really necessary. This is because the position of women and capability to engage in politics was tackled first. The key thing is the perception of women; if they are perceived equally and voted for on their own merits women will win as often as men. This shows, crucially, political participation by women should not be dependent on quotas. We should not rely on quotas for gender equality.  Women face multiple barriers to political participation; deeper action is required to adjust imbalances rather than simple quotas. Having quotas simply encourages a perception that gender matters in politics when the desired outcome is the opposite; a belief by the electorate that politics is genderless with both as able to perform the role. In Senegal for example, the quota is being criticised as challenging traditional culture and patriarchal society norms it is however those norms that need to be changed not just the number of women in politics [1] .  [1] See further readings: Hirsch, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-con01a","title":"","text":"Are the women representative of all women?  How can it be assured the women entering African politics are representative of the women in that African nation? Further, will the leader implement politically popular ideas or required policies?  If we are introducing quotas for women in politics we need to think about what women are entering. The concern with race, ethnicity, age, sexuality, and class is fundamental as if we accept the principle that an unrepresented group should get a quota of parliamentarians this should not just apply to women. We need to think about who the women are, what they represent, and who. Even for women simple quotas do not ensure effective representation of what all women want, or ensure the means for change. Women are heterogeneous, as are their challenges in life."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oapglvsghw-con02b","title":"","text":"Working within gender departments does not mean a woman will be limited in integrating with departments of security. Politics is integrated, and interconnected, therefore learning how to run one political department shows how to run another. Having a woman represent a department shows them in a position of power regardless of the department. We should not believe that the department of health is somehow less important than Defense."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro02b","title":"","text":"The opinions of foreign governments and the international community have frequently failed to have any real impact upon the situation 'on the ground' in Tibet. For example, The US joined most other UN members in condemning the Chinese 'aggression' and 'invasion' of Tibet in 1950, however the Chinese exerted their authority there anyway. [1] The international community will therefore acquiesce with whatever is decided between Tibet and China \u2013 they will applaud any deal or condemn any repression but this will not affect the positions of either side. Rather, what matters is what the Tibetan population support, and there is good reason to believe that the 'Middle Way' does not satisfy them. Many younger Tibetans would prefer that the Dalai Lama push for total independence, an regret that he did not pursue a more confrontational path with China over the 2008 Olympics. [2]  [1] The Office of Tibet, New York. \u201cHistorical Overview\u201d. The Office of Tibet, New York.   [2] Bell, Thomas. \u201cTibetans criticise Dalai Lama's 'middle way'\u201d. The Telegraph. 18 March 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro02a","title":"","text":"The 'Middle Way' has international support  The USA, the most powerful nation in the world, has been vocal in its support for the 'Middle Way' strategy. Concurrently, the US has not given any indication that it would support complete Tibetan independence \u2013 nor is it likely to. America is unlikely to jeopardise trade relations with China over the Tibetan issue by giving political legitimacy to those advocating complete independence. [1]  The European Parliament and the Scottish Parliament have also both passed motions advocating for the 'Middle Way' as a solution in Tibet. [2] [3] Such international support for the 'Middle Way' should be compared to the fact that no country in the world has ever recognised Tibetan independence. [4]  Only the involvement of international actors and inter-governmental organisations can guarantee that Tibet and China will be able to attain a peaceful and equitable equilibrium with each other. International support means that the international community would accept any change when it occurs and gives China a further incentive to negotiate for some form of the \u2018Middle Way\u2019 as it would positively benefit its international relations.  [1] Valdes, Manuel. \u201cDalai Lama to begin 6-day U.S. visit in Seattle to discuss compassion amid turmoil in Tibet\u201d. Associated Press. 10 April 2008.   [2] TibetCustom. \u201cEuropean Parliament Discusses Current Situation of Tibet\u201d. TibetCustom. 26 March 2010.   [3] Australia Tibet Council. \u201cSino-Tibetan Dialogue Presented to Scottish Parliament\u201d. Australia Tibet Council. 2011.   [4] The Economist. \u201cBritain's suzerain remedy\u201d. The Economist. 6 November 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro03b","title":"","text":"China's supposed strategic interests in Tibet are also why the promised autonomy under the 'Middle Way' will never truly emerge. If China's need to hold onto Tibet is really so important as made out, China will always need to keep tight control over all happenings in Tibet so as to further guarantee its security. This of course assumes China really does have vital strategic interests in controlling Tibet (as the Chinese Government claims, and as is argued opposite), however it is not entirely clear exactly what these strategic interests are. The 'Middle Way' is just a smokescreen for perpetuating the predominance of China's security interests as the most important issue in Tibet. Thus, if China does have vital strategic interests in Tibet, it will never allow it true autonomy (and so the Middle Way is hopeless), and if it has no vital strategic interests in controlling Tibet then Chinese rule there is unjustified -and independence, not the \u2018Middle Way\u2019 should be adopted."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro01a","title":"","text":"The 'Middle Way' is the most realistic path for Tibet and China  The Dalai Lama believes complete independence is not a viable solution for the Tibet crisis. Rather, his advocacy is aimed at creating common understanding between the Chinese and the Tibetans. He points to the model of the European Union as an example of a modern supranational political system in which different ethnicities and nationalities can cooperate to achieve an agreed ideal of prosperity.  \u201cLook at the European Union \u2026 What is the use of small, small nations fighting each other? Today it's much better for Tibetans to join [China].\u201d [1]  The 'Middle Way' is the most practical and realistic path for Tibet and China, as it bridges the needs of the Tibetan people with and interests of China.  Specifically, the \"Middle Way\" offers a mutually beneficial course of action, as it avoids the concerns that China has regarding national unity and separation and at the same time it enables the Tibetan people to achieve de-facto equivalent of a right to self-determination.  Acceptance of the 'Middle Way' would work as a signal demonstrating the increasing openness and accountability of Chinese political culture. As it is beneficial for both parties, it can be considered as a practical political course with a great potential to alleviate an ever growing strained situation. [2]  China is more likely to negotiate with Tibetan activists and leaders if their demands are limited to greater political autonomy. Conversely, China is unlikely to give up control of Tibet, as doing so would constitute a grievous blow to the territorial integrity of China itself.  The 'Middle Way' provides the current generation of Chinese leaders with an opportunity to accord greater autonomy to Tibet, without risking their domestic political capital or jeopardising China\u2019s international standing.  A key aspect of the 'Middle Way' is an undertaking by Tibetan leaders not to push for further independence if greater autonomy is granted.  The 'Middle Way' also has the advantage of being in keeping with Tibetan Buddhist beliefs, mirroring the religion\u2019s own \u2018middle way\u2019 tradition. The Buddhist 'Middle Way' is the descriptive term that Siddhartha Gautama (the Supreme Buddha) used to describe the character of the path he discovered that led to liberation. It was coined in the very first teaching that he delivered after his enlightenment. In this sutta- known in English as The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma- the Buddha describes the middle way as a path of moderation between the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification. [3]  The Dalai Lama's \u201cMiddle Way\u201d in Tibet is designed, per its name, around these Buddhist principles, and so it has the advantage of being in keeping with the religious beliefs of most of Tibet's population. This adds to its practicality as it would offer a political strategy consistent with the cultural norms of most Tibetans. Therefore, the Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way's is the most practical and realistic path toward rapprochement between Tibet and China.  [1] Liu, Melinda. \u201cFears and Tears\u201d. The Daily Beast. 19 March 2008.  .  [2] Gyaltsen, Kelsang. \u201cThe Middle-Way approach\u201d. Tibetan Bulletin, July-August 1997.   [3] Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, Samyutta Nikaya, 56:11  ."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro01b","title":"","text":"The 'Middle Way' is no different from the current situation. Although, theoretically, the 'Middle Way' proposition offers the Chinese authorities and ordinary Tibetans a way to harmonise their conflicting interests, it is practically no different from the political accommodation that Tibet currently subscribes to. Under the \u2018Middle Way\u2019, the Dalai Lama has expressed willingness to accept socialist rule in Tibet. He has also dropped former Tibetan demands that their homeland be offered a political relationship as expansive as China\u2019s offer in the early-1980s to Taiwan in favour of an insistence on a Hong Kong-style \u2018association\u2019 relationship with Beijing. Since the early 2000s, in keeping with the \u2018Middle Way\u2019, his hints about a residual international personality have been kept to a minimum. Further, the autonomy arrangement sought is an amalgam of the Hong Kong \u2018one country, two systems\u2019 formula and the existing autonomy provisions of the PRC Constitution. [1] This gradual dropping of Tibetan demands under the name of the \u2018Middle Way\u2019 means that it offers little improvement from the status quo.  The background in terms of political events that led to a proposition of a \"Middle Way\" sheds more light into the fact that his strategy is just a new name on the board for the same as the provisions currently existing within the PRC constitution. [2] If the PRC sees that the \u2018middle way\u2019 is slowly reducing the demands for more freedom for Tibet then they are unlikely to embrace it as they can equally wait for more concessions. Despite all these concessions to the PRC position there are still things that China will never accept such as any idea that Tibet will be transformed into a \u2018zone of peace and non-violence\u2019 or that there should be a popularly elected legislature \u2013 it would inevitably mean others in China would believe they should have more democracy. By giving away so many concessions before negotiations but still making it impossible for the PRC to accept the Dalai Lama makes it unlikely that his middle way will get anywhere in negotiations so it is not really \u2018realistic\u2019.  [1] Gupta, Sourabh. \u201cThe Dalai Lama\u2019s Middle-Way approach needs re-adjustment\u201d. EastAsiaForum. 8 March 2010. http :\/\/ www . eastasiaforum . org \/2010\/03\/08\/ the - dalai - lamas - middle - way - approach - and - the - need - for - re - adjustment \/  [2] ChinaDaily. \u201cWhat is Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way'\u201d. ChinaDaily.com.cn 26 July 2007."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro03a","title":"","text":"The 'Middle Way' respects China's right to territorial integrity  The Chinese government has a right to protect the unity of China against Tibetan separatism. US President Abraham Lincoln, in justifying efforts to maintain the union in the face of an imminent civil war, said in 1858, \u201cA house divided cannot stand\u201d. [1] Unity was argued to be essential to the integrity and future of the union if the United States as a much more decentralized federal union cannot sanction such a division then a much more centralized China cannot. China can put forth the same rationale as Lincoln for forcing Tibet to remain part of China, for example when it notes argues that the concept of an independent Tibet has historically been used by what it calls \u2018foreign imperialists\u2019 to interfere in China internally and split it up so that it can more easily be controlled from abroad. As an example of this, the CIA\u2019s support for Tibetan separatists during the Cold War is cited. [2] [3]  Mongolia provides a striking precedent for for Chinese worries about Tibetan independence, as it gained independence through Soviet backing and subsequently came under effective control of the USSR. [4] If Tibet were to achieve independence, both China and Tibet would be weaker, with less geopolitical strength and with greater tensions and opportunities for conflict. This is especially true in light of the history of foreign attempts to interfere with China internally, as noted above. The Dalai Lama made a similar argument himself when he stated: \u201cLook at the European Union \u2026 What is the use of small, small nations fighting each other? Today it's much better for Tibetans to join [China].\u201d [5] In 2008 the Foreign Minister of Cyprus similarly argued that the \u2018One China\u2019 policy, including Tibet, was necessary to safeguard China\u2019s territorial integrity. [6] The government of Fiji has offered similar support. [7] The 'Middle Way' accounts for this need of China's whilst also offering greater autonomy to the Tibetan people, thus respecting the rights of both parties.  [1] Abraham Lincoln Online. \u201cHouse Divided Speech\u201d. Abraham Lincoln Online.   [2] Xinhua News report Xinhua News Report. Xinhua News. http :\/\/ news . xinhuanet . com \/ zhengfu \/2002-11\/15\/ content _630888. htm  [3] Wonacott, Peter. \" Revolt of the Monks : How a Secret CIA Campaign Against China 50 Years Ago Continues to Fester ; A Role for Dalai Lama ' s Brother \" . Wall Street Journal . 30 August 2008. http :\/\/ online . wsj . com \/ article \/ SB 122005956740185361. html ? mod = googlenews _ wsj  [4] Xinhua News report Xinhua News Report. Xinhua News. http :\/\/ news . xinhuanet . com \/ zhengfu \/2002-11\/15\/ content _630888. htm  [5] Liu, Melinda. \u201cFears and Tears\u201d. The Daily Beast. 19 March 2008.   [6] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Cyprus. \u201cCyprus supports the principle of a \u2018single\u2019 China\u201d. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Cyprus. 20 March 2008\/ . http :\/\/ www . mfa . gov . cy \/ mfa \/ mfa 2006. nsf \/ All \/5 B 640 E 57 BE 973 A 1 FC 22574120050 A 086? OpenDocument  [7] Fijilive. \u201cFiji backs China\u2019s action in Tibet\u201d. Fijilive. 24 March 2008. http :\/\/ www . fijilive . com \/ news _ new \/ index . php \/ news \/ show _ news \/3075"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-con03b","title":"","text":"China will simply never accept independence for Tibet, and so it is not a reasonable alternative to hold up against the 'Middle Way'. Rather, whatever gains can be made by adopting the 'Middle Way' should be embraced, as the alternative is not independence but rather unchanged Chinese dominance and control."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-con01b","title":"","text":"The average Tibetan does not actually want independence from China. For example, Dr. Lobsang Sangay, who was born in a refugee camp in India in 1968 and was named Prime Minister of the Cental Tibetan Administration (Tibetan exiles) on April 27, 2011, was once a militant of the Tibetan Youth Congress, a group that unequivocally supports Tibetan independence, but who now says he has matured and now supports the Middle Way Approach. [1] Certainly, many Tibetans want independence- of a type different to that proposed by the Dalai Lama- and some protest in favour of it. The Tibetan exile population is particularly vocal in this regard, but this should not be taken to mean that a majority of Tibetans want complete independence from China. Most Tibetans like everybody else would be happy with more freedoms within China rather than full independence. This is reflected in the views of the Dalai Lama, who seeks only greater freedoms and autonomy, but not independence, under the 'Middle Way'. [2]  [1] Editorial Board of The Tibetan Political Review. \u201cInvestigating the Candidates on the Middle Way\u201d. The Tibetan Political Review. 15 March 2011. http :\/\/ sites . google . com \/ site \/ tibetanpoliticalreview \/ project - updates \/ investigatingthecandidatesonthemiddleway  [2] Barnett, Robert. \u201cSeven Questions: What Tibetans Want\u201d. Foreign Policy. 26 March 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-con02a","title":"","text":"The Dalai Lama is no longer relevant to Tibet's future  The Dalai Lama's influence and significance in the debate over Tibet\u2019s future has been fading; he has resigned from all \u2018formal authority\u2019 and handed over his political role [1] , and his support for the 'Middle Way' strategy- over attempts to secure full independence- may well have reduced his influence. During the 2008 riots and protests in Lhasa in favour of Tibetan independence, a feeling of incongruity between the Dalai Lama and the desires of the Tibetan people was vocalized. A Tibetan teacher at the protests stated \u201cWe are demanding a peace dialogue between His Holiness and the Chinese. But at the moment, Dalai Lama is out of the picture. It's a Tibetan people's movement.\u201d [2] Tibet appears to have moved beyond the 'Middle Way', but the Dalai Lama has not. For a new generation of Tibetans the Middle Way is considered to be an ineffective negotiation strategy, one that will not allow them to obtain the rights and political equality that they seek.  Many activists operating within Tibet itself believe that violent confrontations comparable to the Palestinian intifada will be more effective in extracting concessions from the Chinese than the non-violent protests advocated by the Dalai Lama. [3]  The Dalai Lama himself has recognized that the 'Middle Way' may become a redundant aspect of the Tibet debate. In 2003, he told a French reporter: \u201cIf no results can be achieved in two or three years of negotiations, I would find it hard to explain to the young that the 'middle way' is more effective than seeking independence... If I fail, these young people would raise torches and cry for independence\u201d. [4]  Events on the ground are simply the Dalai Lama's own prediction coming true, as he become less relevant and less in touch. The Chinese government has also tried to discredit Dalai Lama. The Beijing authorities have released a documentary portraying the Dalai Lama as exploiting the Tibetan people to further his own political agenda. The documentary also emphasized the increased pace of economic development in the region. [5]  Quite simply, Tibet has moved beyond the Dalai Lama and his 'Middle Way', and both are increasingly irrelevant to Tibet's youth and future. The 'Middle Way' continues to be followed mostly out of a nostalgic fascination with the Dalai Lama, or out of the international community's desire for a single, moderate Tibetan voice, even if he does not represent the Tibetan people.  [1] Banyan, \u2018The Dalai Lama resigns So long, farewell\u2019, The Economist, 14 March 2011,   [2] Bell, Thomas. \u201cTibetans criticise Dalai Lama's 'middle way'\u201d. The Telegraph. 18 March 2008.   [3] Sonam, Tenzing. \u201cUntil the Last Tibetan\u201d. Tibet Writes. 26 December 2007.   [4] ChinaDaily. \u201cWhat is Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way'\u201d. ChinaDaily.com.cn 26 July 2007.   [5] Little, Matthew. \u201cCCTV-4 Steps up Propaganda Against Dalai Lama\u201d. Epoch Times. 10 April 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-con03a","title":"","text":"The Chinese government is exploiting the 'Middle Way' against Tibet's interests  The Chinese government manipulates people every day, and it is clear how Beijing is manipulating the good intentions of the Dalai Lama and his 'Middle Way'. The Middle Path is therefore not only hopeless, but also dangerous.  Henry Kissinger once said that in politics, one never pays for goods that have already been delivered. True to form, China is using the moderate stance of Tibet\u2019s leadership-in-exile to extort concessions while giving nothing of substance in return. For example, Beijing spread false rumours that the Dalai Lama would be invited to China to prevent demonstrations when Hu Jintao visited the U.S. The 'Middle Way' policy is sapping momentum from the Tibet movement, depriving it of focus, and obscuring its goals. People are drifting away from a movement that appears to be drifting itself; political fervour can be difficult to sustain \u2013 especially when the Tibetan government-in-exile actually asks its supporters to behave in a passive a non-confrontational fashion. [1]  By asking Beijing for an official agreement to grant autonomous status to Tibet, the Tibetan government-in-exile will be surrendering many of the rights they are now entitled to and locking the entire Tibetan people into a constricted and precarious situation from which they cannot withdraw. Chinese restrictions will remain on the practice of Tibetan religion, culture and traditions within \"autonomous\" Tibet, the promotion of Tibetan culture, religion and traditions abroad will either be prohibited or restricted as it concerns foreign affairs, and all foreign travel will be controlled and restricted by the Chinese. [2] Accepting the Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way' will forever close the door on independence but leave Tibet still victim to China's cultural repression and control, and so it should not be supported.  [1] Dondup, Ketsun Lobsang. \u201cIndependence as Tibet\u2019s Only Option: Why the \u2018Middle Path\u2019 is a Dead End\u201d. Phayul.com. 25 January 2007.   [2] Shakabpa, Tsoltim N. \u201cThe Case Against Autonomy for Tibet\u201d. Tibet Writes. 2 January 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-con01a","title":"","text":"Tibetans want independence, not the 'Middle Way'  The Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way' is far from popular amongst the Tibetan population. Many ordinary Tibetans have criticised the Dalai Lama's conciliatory approach to China. His refusal to call for a boycott of the Beijing Olympic Games is symbolic of this conciliatory approach where the majority of the Tibetan population, particularly the young disagreed with him. \"China does not deserve to host the Olympics. It's evident that they do not deserve the Olympics,\" said Tsewang Rigzin, the leader of the Tibetan Youth Congress, at Dharamshala in 2008. [1]  Tsewang Rigzin also stated \u201cThere is a growing frustration within the Tibetan community, especially in the [younger] generation... I certainly hope the Middle Way approach will be reviewed. As we can see from the protests here and all over the world, the Tibetan people remain committed to achieving independence.\u201d [2]  The (sometimes violent) 2008 protests made it clear that many Tibetans don't support the Dalai Lama's peaceful, non-revolutionary, non-independence 'Middle Way'. The Dalai Lama even had to threaten to resign if violent protests continued. Clearly, these protests showed that the Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way' lacks support amongst the young of Tibet \u2013 the individuals who will comprise successive generations of political, religious and business leaders. [3]  Within Tibet, pro-independence protesters have recently had more leverage than 'Middle Way' voices. The 'Middle Way' is a nuanced approach to the Tibetan issue and, therefore, is a less potent rallying for Tibetans who have been marginalised or excluded by Chinese policies in the region. Calls for Tibetan Independence mobilise more support among grass-roots activists in other areas of the world. [4] This is valuable, and is an argument in favour of, at least, continuing to call for Tibetan Independence, not merely the 'Middle Way'; it has a greater impact.  In this situation, it makes no sense for the Dalai Lama to alienate so many of his young people, so many of the most dedicated to the Tibetan cause, by preaching his 'Middle Way' when he should be calling for what his people truly want and need -Tibetan independence.  [1] Bell, Thomas. \u201cTibetans criticise Dalai Lama's 'middle way'\u201d. The Telegraph. 18 March 2008.   [2] Bell, Thomas. \u201cTibetans criticise Dalai Lama's 'middle way'\u201d. The Telegraph. 18 March 2008.   [3] The Economist. \u201cTrashing the Beijing Road\u201d. The Economist. 19 March 2008.   [4] The Economist. \u201cA flaming row\u201d. 9 Arpil 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghsdltwt-con02b","title":"","text":"The Dalai Lama is the only solution for Tibet. His political advocacy as a leader and religious figure is imperative for the problem of Tibet. His commitment for non-violence and cohabitation and cooperation serves the peaceful interests of Tibet while accommodating for moderate changes. His 'Middle Way' platform is the bridge between China Tibet and world-wide international consensus on the Tibetans' right to self-determination. If resistance to China becomes more violent, as it did in 2008, then the Dalai Lama\u2019s third way will become much more relevant as a solution that both sides can potentially sign up to. It may become the only way forward towards a compromise.  Irrespective of some discontent, the Dalai Lama still enjoys the loyalty and respect of most Tibetans. [1] During the 2008 protests in Tibet, the protesters regularly chanted the Dalai Lama's name, displayed his picture and recited a \"long life\" prayer for him. [2] He remains the undisputed moral leader of Tibetan people, and as such his 'Middle Way' path still has weight.  [1] The Economist. \u201cA colonial uprising\u201d. The Economist. 19 March 2008.   [2] Bell, Thomas. \u201cTibetans criticise Dalai Lama's 'middle way'\u201d. The Telegraph. 18 March 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-pro02b","title":"","text":"Status in the world is not based upon having one extremely powerful weapon; there are much more important factors such as a country\u2019s economy and use of diplomacy. Britain would still be a major financial centre, a major economy, a member of the UNSC (which is not based on nuclear weapons) as well as being one of the biggest contributors to peace and security in the world through peacekeeping and aid.  \u2018Status\u2019 is one of the popular justifications for acquiring nuclear weapons. However while countries like North Korea that develop nuclear weapons may acquire deterrence they don\u2019t gain any more diplomatic clout. Britain giving up its deterrent or combining it into a European deterrent would help to undermine this perception by showing that nuclear weapons are not needed to maintain a powerful role in the world."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-pro02a","title":"","text":"Trident allows the UK to maintain its global status  Currently the UK is recognised as a nuclear power by the Nuclear non-proliferation treaty along with the USA, China, France and Russia. All of whom are either modernising or maintaining their current nuclear arsenals. This means to not replace Trident would mean that we'd suffer a severe loss of status in relation to the other permanent members of the UN Security Council. This would also raise questions of whether the UK even deserves its place as a member there as it would show the UK\u2019s declining global role and military power. Other countries that can be considered \"more representative\" such as India (the world's largest democracy) now would be an obvious replacement at the top table. [1]  Churchill said that the H bomb that it was \"our badge to the Royal Enclosure [at Ascot]\" [2] and today Trident remains one of our master keys to the Britain\u2019s status at organisations such as the United Nations Security Council. There are already plenty of reasons why other countries might be more deserving of a security council place than the UK; we don\u2019t need to add another.  [1] James Wirtz in \"Contemporary Security Studies\" Oxford University Press, First Edition 2007, Chapter 15, p273  [2] Adamson, Samuel H., \u2018Supreme Effort: A lesson in British decline\u2019, BC Journal, Vol. 16, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-pro03b","title":"","text":"We already rely on the USA for our Trident missile systems so our \u2018independent nuclear deterrent\u2019 is already a fiction. The USA can at the moment easily pull the rug out from underneath us. While the UK maintains command and control over its weapons the United States is needed to keep the weapons operational. This means we are reliant on the United States one way or the other anyway."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Deterrence is still necessary.  The Trident Weapons System while it may be a \"horrific part of our system\" is still necessary even in today\u2019s post-Cold War world. Firstly through deterrence it protects us from being blackmailed by any other states, and in particular so called \"rogue states\" like North Korea and potentially in the future Iran who could threaten our vital interests \u2013 such as closing the straits of Hormuz. [1]  Moreover having a second strike capability, the ability for nuclear weapons to survive a nuclear assault by an opponent so allowing retaliation, is also still necessary. [2] It may currently seem unlikely that any of the major nuclear armed states will threaten the United Kingdom however we do not know what may happen in the future and by the time a threat appears it would be too late to build a new nuclear second strike capability.  [1] The Secretary of State for Defence and The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, \u2018The Future of the United Kingdom\u2019s Nuclear Deterrent\u2019, Ministry of Defence, December 2006.  [2] James Wirtz in \"Contemporary Security Studies\" Oxford University Press, First Edition 2007, Chapter 15, p276"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-pro01b","title":"","text":"A deterrent is useless if no one thinks it will ever be used. The only conceivable use of Britain\u2019s nuclear deterrent would be in the event of a nuclear attack on the UK, and if that has happened then there is little point in firing the missiles as there will be nothing left to save. Any blackmail today is likely to be much smaller, no state is going to threaten the use of nuclear weapons in order to get their way on trade. The only real possibility of nuclear blackmail is by terrorists who could not be deterred by a nuclear armament."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Can we rely on US nuclear umbrella?  The UK nuclear weapons programme was first created in late 1945 a time when people were concerned about the US commitment to Europe which was uncertain as the rise of the Iron Curtain had not been yet apparent. Currently if we didn't replace trident and disarmed more likely than not we would fall under the American strategic nuclear umbrella which would be fair enough in the short term and medium term as the relationship is currently strong despite certain cobblestones. A similar thing also applies with the French  But can we really rely on the Americans to keep that umbrella extended over the long term when their interests and emphasis may shift, regardless of cultural or ideological links? Relying on someone else\u2019s deterrent will always be risky as the US or France would not want to put themselves at risk of being attacked in order to deter an attack on us. [1] An independent deterrence arsenal is necessary to maintain deterrence.  [1] The Secretary of State for Defence and The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, \u2018The Future of the United Kingdom\u2019s Nuclear Deterrent\u2019, Ministry of Defence, December 2006, p.18."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con03b","title":"","text":"That Britain is not currently threatened with nuclear Armageddon as it was during the cold war does not mean that such a threat could never again occur. Britain must remain prepared for any eventuality which has to include the unthinkable such as the United States no longer being an ally.  The world is not yet a safe place there are many unstable states, such as North Korea, developing nuclear weapons capabalities. Beyond these dangers it is easily conceivable that the world will once again face tensions similar to those of the cold war. Given the length of time it would take to rearm should such tensions occur Britain would be safer to keep its nuclear armament."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con01b","title":"","text":"A state of the art nuclear weapons system is always going to be costly and no one wants to cut corners for the risks that could create. Yet it is money well spent when compared to the damage which would be caused if Britain was attacked due to not having a nuclear deterrent."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con02a","title":"","text":"The UK should encourage others to reduce their own stocks of nuclear weapons.  Britain as a signatory of the Non Proliferation Treaty the United Kingdom is obliged to pursue \u201cnuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.\u201d [1] While complete disarmament by all states with nuclear weapons is a long way off the United Kingdom could make a good start by getting rid of its own weapons. A Nuclear Weapons state giving up its weapons after sixty years would show that nations can manage without nuclear weapons and so act as an encouragement to others to do the same.  [1] \u2018Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons\u2019, International Atomic Energy Agency, INFCIRC\/140, 22 April 1970, Article VI."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con04a","title":"","text":"Trident is not an independent weapons system  Britain tries to maintain that it has an \u2018independent nuclear deterrent\u2019 but this is just a fiction. Britain has not had an independent nuclear deterrent for fifty years. The United Kingdom has used American missiles since the Polaris Sales Agreement of 6 April 1963 first with the United States supplying Polaris missiles and then Trident missiles. [1] The UK does not own its missiles, they are leased, and the UK is completely dependent on the US for the maintenance of the missiles and even for targeting data. [2] The United States certainly appears to consider Britain\u2019s deterrent to be dependent on them; wikileaks revealed that the US handed over the serial numbers of the missiles it transfers to the UK over to Russia to help the Russians verify the number of UK missiles. [3]  [1] Jimmy Carter: \"Sale of Trident I Missiles to the United Kingdom Exchange of Letters Between the President and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of the United Kingdom. ,\" July 14, 1980. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project.  [2] \u2018UK\u2019s Trident system not truly independent\u2019, Select Committee on Defence Written Evidence, 7 March 2006.  [3] \u2018Geneva: Agreed statements meeting, 10Geneva135 26 February 2010\u2019, The Telegraph, 4 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con03a","title":"","text":"Nuclear weapons are no longer needed  When the United Kingdom first tested Nuclear Weapons in 1952 she was still a great power with a large empire to defend. In the early 1980s when trident was being conceived [1] the UK fought a war with Argentina and the Cold War was perhaps at its deepest following the Russian invasion of Afghanistan. The Country was therefore in an international situation in which nuclear weapons were potentially required to deter the Soviet Union.  A study of the vulnerability of Nuclear Weapons states shows that the UK is the least vulnerable nuclear weapons state because the country is surrounded by allies and is nowhere near any states that may potentially become failed states. [2] The only conclusion from this can be that the UK no longer has any need for nuclear weapons.  [1] Fairhall, David, \u2018\u00a35 billion Trident deal is agreed\u2019, The Guardian, 16 July 1980.  [2] Asal, Victor, and Early, Bryan, \u2018Are We Focusing on the Wrong Nuclear Threat?\u2019, Foreign Policy, 24 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con01a","title":"","text":"The cost of replacing trident is prohibitive  Britain is in the longest recession it has ever been in \u2013 longer even than the great depression of the 1930s \u2013 with the economy not having recovered to pre-recession levels four years after the start of the downturn. [1] This is obviously completely the wrong time to be wasting money on ruinously expensive new weapons systems. The cost of replacing trident is disputed with the Government saying it would be between \u00a315 and \u00a320 billion [2] but campaign group Greenpeace puts the total cost at \u00a397billion once running costs over the missiles thirty year lifetime are included. [3] Both figures are incredibly costly for a system which we hope we won\u2019t ever have to use and for which we have allies with similar systems. The money should instead be spent on helping to get the economy moving or services that benefit society such as health and education.  [1] Oxlade, Andrew, \u2018Economy watch: What caused the return to recession and how long will it last?\u2019, This is Money.co.uk, 4 May 2012.  [2] BBC News, \u2018Q&A: Trident replacement\u2019, 22 September 2010.  [3] Greenpeace, \u2018\u00a397billion for Trident: five times government estimates\u2019, 18 September 2009."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con04b","title":"","text":"Sharing procurement of nuclear weapons delivery systems makes simple sense through sharing the cost. The UK only contributed 5% of the original cost of trident but the UK systems are just as potent. This however does not mean that the UK weapons systems are not independent. Operationally the UK has complete control over its weapons. The USA cannot in any way prevent, veto or forbid the UK from using its own nuclear weapons. [1] It is independent in the way that matters.  [1] Directorate of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Policy, \u2018Your freedom of information request about the UK Nuclear deterrent\u2019, 19 July 2005."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dhwrt-con02b","title":"","text":"One country disarming is not going to persuade others, particularly those like China and Russia that still consider themselves great powers, to do so. At the same time the United Kingdom\u2019s situation can never be compared to other countries; Israel would argue it is surrounded by enemies, China that it needs them if the US has them etc. These countries would only consider whether to disarm based upon their own national interests not what other states have done. We should do the same and renew trident as being necessary for the defence of the realm."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro02b","title":"","text":"States seek nuclear weapons not primarily in order to use them, but in order to take advantage of the security they offer. If states existed in a world post-disarmament, the incentives to develop nuclear weapons for reasons of security would not have disappeared, in fact they would have increased as no other state would be able to use their more powerful conventional forces against that state. As Paul Robinson notes, \u2018conventional armaments\u2026will remain the backbone of U.S. defence forces, but the inherent threat to escalate to nuclear use can help to prevent conflicts from starting, prevent their escalation, as well as bring (them) to a swift and certain end (Robinson, 2001)\u2019. Such potential advantages will not be lost on states in a nuclear-free world."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The purported efficacy of nuclear deterrence drives nuclear proliferation and therefore increases the risk of nuclear weapons being utilized  By claiming the efficacy of nuclear weapons as a strategic deterrent, the current nuclear powers encourage the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (Krieger, 2003). To be a part of the so-called 'nuclear club' is seen as a matter of great prestige; when India and Pakistan recently declared their nuclear capability and held mutual tests in the 1990s, it was seen in both countries as increasing their international status. Nevertheless, tensions in the region have only increased since the mutual announcements, not least the Kargil War of 1999 that almost precipitated a nuclear war. Nations opposed to a nuclear power therefore feel that they need to develop their own capability in order to protect themselves. The declared nuclear powers must therefore take the lead in disarmament, as an example for the rest of the world."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The abolishment of nuclear weapons does not reduce the risk of them falling into the wrong hands. While nuclear weapons can be dismantled, the weapons-grade plutonium which forms their warheads cannot simply be destroyed. Instead, they must be stored in special facilities; in Russia, there are some three hundred sites were military nuclear material is stored (National Intelligence Council, 2002). It is producing this plutonium which is in fact the most difficult stage in building a weapon - by dismantling missiles, you are therefore not destroying their most dangerous part, and hence the risk of theft does not decrease. In fact, it may increase: missile silos in Russia are still the most heavily funded part of the military, whereas in recent years it has become clear that security at storage facilities is often inadequate. Moreover, it is far easier to steal a relatively small quantity of plutonium than an entire Intercontinental Ballistic Missile; there were three such incidents in Russia in the 1990s of weapons-grade uranium theft (National Intelligence Council, 2002). Ironically, the safest place for plutonium in present-day Russia may be on top of such a missile."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro05a","title":"","text":"Nuclear weapons can be abolished through the co-operation of nuclear powers and the establishment of an independent verification system  The co-operation of the United States and Russia, demonstrated in their regularly-renewed START treaties, confer the ability of nuclear powers to work towards a reduction in nuclear stockpiles. A new campaigning body, Global Zero, has laid out the path to nuclear abolishment, concerning first bilateral accords to reduce stockpiles in the manner already occurring. From there, they advocate the \u2018universal acceptance of a comprehensive verification and enforcement system accompanied by tighter controls on fissile materials produced by civil-nuclear programmes\u2019 (The Economist, 2011). The process will not be swift, but it is plausible and not a stretch considering the success of previous START treaties and the example of the International Atomic Energy Agency as an independent body charged with verifying nuclear installations."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro01a","title":"","text":"States should not possess such destructive, cataclysmic weapons  Nuclear weapons are, by their very nature, indiscriminate and disproportional; any weapon which could not possibly be used in a responsible manner should not be permitted. Over the past fifty years, we have seen a general tendency towards limited warfare and precision weapons, allowing military objectives to be achieved with minimal loss of civilian life. The entire point of nuclear weapons, however, is their massive, indiscriminate destructive power. Their use could kill tens of thousands of civilians directly, and their catastrophic environmental after-effects would harm many more all around the world. These effects could never be morally acceptable, particularly as the basis of one\u2019s national security strategy. They place \u2018humanity and most forms of life in jeopardy of annihilation\u2019 (Krieger, 2003). No state or leader can be entrusted, morally, with a power and responsibility that could come close to annihilating humanity."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro01b","title":"","text":"States have the right to possess any weapon that will materially support their ambitions of survival, regardless of their destructive power. There is no greater principle than that of self-defence, and a state is entitled to develop any means by which it improves its position vis-\u00e0-vis an enemy and subsequently promotes peace in the region and internationally. Furthermore, the damage done by a nuclear weapon is no more indiscriminate or disproportional than the damage potentially caused by a prolonged aerial bombardment. In World War II for instance, far more damage was wrought by fire-bombing Tokyo than either of the nuclear attacks. The issue is therefore not whether nuclear weapons should be held, but under which circumstances they are used, or threatened. Either way, they should not be abolished."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro05b","title":"","text":"The process is implausible, primarily because whilst the actual weapons can be dismantled, the technology remains and the only effective means to deter the development of a nuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon. Even if this were not the case, such a gradual and incremental process of disarmament does not account for the weapons held by states who have not officially declared their presence, like Israel. Furthermore, though a verification agency may have universal access to nuclear stockpiles, it has little power to enforce states to adhere to treaties, precipitating the scenario whereby one state refuses to give up its final weapon and stalling the process indefinitely. Finally, this process assumes that states wish to see nuclear weapons abolished, rather than the more common assumption that states view nuclear weapons as necessary, not merely to deter other nuclear powers but for traditional deterrence and nuclear blackmail. Would all states willingly give that up?"}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro04b","title":"","text":"The Count was only asked to provide an advisory opinion; their adjudication had no subsequent basis in law. Anyhow, the very same jury voted unanimously that \u2018there is in neither customary nor conventional international law any comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons as such\u2019 (International Court of Justice, 1996). Unlike biological and chemical weapons, for which specific treaties have been developed to regulate and prevent their use, the absence of regulation for nuclear weapons implicitly recognizes wide-held appreciation for their deterrent effects"}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Risk of nuclear weapons falling into the wrong hands  While nuclear weapons exist, they can fall into the wrong hands. This is particularly prevalent in an environment whereby there are extremist groups actively seeking to cause instant, egregious harm to their ideological and political enemies. Such groups do not lack for funding; therefore the fear of weapons falling into the wrong hands has never been higher. This is particularly true in Russia, which now has control of all of the nuclear weapons which were distributed around the former Soviet Union. In particular during the 1990s the military was disastrously underfunded; technicians and officers who were used to a high standard of living found themselves without pay, sometimes for years. At the same time, other states and extremist groups are willing to pay substantial sums for their services, and to gain access to nuclear weapons. This same danger is now as much, if not more, of a problem in Pakistan (Ambinder, 2011). The danger of a weapon being stolen, or a nuclear base being taken over by disgruntled members of the military or other extremists, can only be ended by destroying the weapons (Allison, 1997)."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Both the use and threat of nuclear weapons are illegal  The disproportionate and indiscriminate nature of nuclear weapons use renders their possession illegal under international humanitarian law. The International Court of Justice in 1996, asked to provide an advisory opinion, declared unanimously that any use or threat of nuclear weapons had to be compatible with existing international law relating to armed conflict (International Court of Justice, 1996). The principles of discrimination and proportionality inherent in the laws of wars are codified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949, and are quite clearly violated by nuclear weapons. As such, a majority of the judges present felt that any such use or threat would \u2018generally be contrary\u2019 to those rules of international law and therefore, unanimously, \u2018there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\u2019 (International Court of Justice, 1996)."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-con03b","title":"","text":"Nuclear weapons provide the source of the greatest possible barbarity in warfare; therefore it is disingenuous to suggest that their abolishment would only exacerbate conflicts. States do not start wars with major powers contemporaneously merely because those major powers happen to have nuclear weapons; traditional deterrence will still be as effective as it is currently. Furthermore, the abolishment of nuclear weapons would allow thereafter mutual co-operation on the issue of non-proliferation without the current fear that others are only concerned with preventing proliferation in countries likely to be opposed to their interests."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-con01b","title":"","text":"The idea of a so-called 'nuclear deterrent' no longer applies \u2013 the United States would not be deterred from attacking a newly nuclear Iran because the U.S. would have a first strike capability so would be able to wipe our Iranian nuclear weapons before they could be used. While it is true that political leaders on both sides during the Cold War were terrified of a nuclear conflict it was as much the balance of power that maintained the peace. Neither superpower had an advantage large enough to be confident of victory. However, there is no longer nuclear deterrence. With the proliferation of nuclear weapons, some rogue states may develop the ability to strike at enemies who have no nuclear weapons of their own. Unless the country under attack is allied to another nuclear power It is not clear that any of the major nuclear powers would then strike back at the aggressor. This is further complicated by the fact that most of the emerging nuclear threats would not be from legitimate governments but from dictators and terrorist groups. Would it ever be acceptable to kill thousands of civilians for the actions of extremists?"}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-con02a","title":"","text":"Abolishment is an unrealistic goal  The nuclear genie is out of the bottle, and there is no way to go back. Nuclear technology exists, and there is no way to un-invent it (Robinson, 2001). Much as the ideal of global disarmament is fine, the reality is that it is impossible: it takes only one rogue state to maintain a secret nuclear capability to make the abolition of the major powers' deterrents unworkable. Without the threat of a retaliatory strike, this state could attack others at will.  Similarly, the process by which nuclear weapons are produced cannot easily be differentiated from the nuclear power process; without constant oversight it would be possible for any state with nuclear power to regain nuclear capability if they felt threatened. This is the same as the nuclear \u2018breakout\u2019 capability that many states such as Japan have whereby they can create a nuclear bomb in a matter of weeks or days \u2013 if a country has nuclear power and the technology they have this capability even when they have disarmed their nuclear weapons."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-con03a","title":"","text":"Abolishment would be counter-productive and only lead to greater barbarity in warfare  Nuclear weapons have a restraining effect on warfare, preventing escalation through fear of their destruction. To abolish them is therefore to act counter-productively: \u2018it will not advance substantive progress on non-proliferation; and it risks compromising the value that nuclear weapons continue to contribute, through deterrence, to U.S. security and international stability\u2019 (Robinson, 2001) Nuclear weapons are a necessary evil; the doctrine of mutually assured destruction prevented the outbreak of nuclear war during the Cold War because in the neither side was willing to risk the response and neither side could risk even a small scale war due to the threat of escalation. Nuclear weapons therefore act as a check upon the very institution of war between those states that have nuclear weapons, restraining aggressors through fear of escalation and certain destruction."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-con01a","title":"","text":"Nuclear weapons are required for deterrence  The use of nuclear weapons would indeed be a great tragedy; but so, to a greater or lesser extent, is any war. The reason for maintaining an effective nuclear arsenal is in fact to prevent war. By making the results of conflict catastrophic, a strategic deterrent discourages conflict. The Cold War was in fact one of the most peaceful times in history, particularly in Europe, largely because of the two superpowers' nuclear deterrents: \u2018the principal function of nuclear weapons was to deter nuclear attack\u2019 (Record, 2004). During the Gulf War, for example, one of the factors which prevented Iraq from launching missiles tipped with chemical weapon warheads against Israel was the threat the USA would retaliate with a nuclear strike. Although there is no longer as formal a threat of retaliation as there was during the Cold War, the very possibility that the use of nuclear weapons by a rogue state could be met a retaliatory strike is too great a threat to ignore. Moreover, although the citizens of the current nuclear powers may be against the use of force against civilians, their opinions would rapidly change if they found weapons of mass destruction being used against them."}
+{"id":"training-politics-whwanw-con02b","title":"","text":"In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The treaty, which calls for an end to all nuclear testing, includes provisions for extensive and independent mechanisms for the monitoring of nuclear activities. Such mechanisms could easily be co-opted for use in implementing, monitoring and verifying any future nuclear disarmament process.  \"The de facto global nuclear test moratorium and CTBT\u2019s entry into force are crucial barriers to help prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to additional states and are essential to the future viability of the nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT). They are the first two of the 13 practical steps for systematic and progressive nuclear disarmament that were unanimously adopted in the Final Document of the 2000 NPT Review Conference (Kimball, 2005).\u201d Even if countries could rapidly produce a bomb without any testing they would not be able to see if it works and any state engaged in breakout would take time to make their bomb deployable on delivery vehicles."}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is clearly too early to condemn Erdo\u011fan\u2019s desire to change Turkey to a presidential system. We do not yet have much idea what this actually means and there is no clear reason why this could not be a step forward. Erdo\u011fan clearly wants a powerful presidency but there is no saying that this is what he will get once the horse trading is done and even if he does there are systems with powerful presidents that are clearly democratic such as the US and French systems. The change to a presidential system could also solve problems; it would replace a constitution that was drafted under military rule, and it would increase regional autonomy, [1] but much more importantly if done correctly it could create strong durable institutions that will ensure democratic rule far into the future. [2]  [1] \u2018Presidential Dreaming\u2019, The Economist, 16 March 2013,   [2] Tremblay, Pinar, \u2018Will Presidential System Move Turkey Forward?\u2019, Al Monitor, 14 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Attempts to change into an executive presidential system  Turkey has been heading towards being a one party, even a one person, state. Erdo\u011fan is intending to change the constitution is an attempt to institutionalise this. His new presidency would have the power to issue decrees with force of law, dissolve parliament and call elections, and to command the military. [1] The attempt to change to a presidential system is clearly a move to enable Erdo\u011fan to avoid the limit of three terms in much the same way as Vladimir Putin did by switching jobs. A presidential system is not bad in principle but it should not be simply used as a vehicle for a particular politician. Moreover any change of such a magnitude in a democratic country should be done only with popular consent \u2013 something that this change does not have. In a February 2013 poll 65.8% of Turks favoured keeping the parliamentary system and only 21.2% were in favour of a change to a presidential system. [2]  [1] The Editors, \u2018Erdogan Shows Why Turkey Shouldn\u2019t Give Him More Power\u2019, Bloomberg, 3 June 2013,   [2] \u2018Majority of Turks against switch to presidential system, survey reveals\u2019, Today\u2019s Zaman, 19 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro03b","title":"","text":"Having one dominant party does not make the country an autocracy or prevent Turkey being a liberal democracy. There have been many countries that are considered democratic that have had single parties ruling for long periods. In the UK the Conservatives in the 1980\u2019s and Labour in the 2000\u2019s won three elections just as the AKP has. In Japan the LDP has only lost two elections since the start of Japan\u2019s post World War II democratic system yet it is accepted as being a legitimate democracy. Rather than worrying about a single party dominance we should be applauding parties that are successful in putting together such a broad coalition that they can win election after election, they clearly represent most of the population which is the point of democracy."}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro05a","title":"","text":"Decline of secularism  The AKP is not just making Turkey authoritarian it is making it an Islamic authoritarian state. Since a 1928 amendment to the constitution Turkey has been a secular state. Recently Turkey rushed through restrictions on the sale of alcohol prohibiting sale overnight. [1] More worryingly than minor restrictions is a decline in gender equality and respect for religious minorities; in 2002, the year the AKP came to power Turkey was ranked 63rd in the UN\u2019s Gender Empowerment Measure, by 2009 it had dropped to 101st out of 109 countries. [2] Without respect for these groups it is difficult to see how Turkey can be considered a liberal democracy that provides for equal and personal rights.  [1] Letsch, Constanze, \u2018Turkey alcohol laws could pull the plug on Istanbul nightlife\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 31 May 2013,   [2] Onan\u00e7, G\u00fclseren, \u2018Women\u2019s place in Turkey is alarming\u2019, United Nations Development Programme, New Horizons Issue 47 November 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Turkey does not have the freedoms associated with democracy  The rule of law, limits on the power of the state, and the provision of personal rights are key to any country being considered to be a liberal democracy but these are being undermined in Turkey. This is most noticeable when it comes to freedom of the press. Turkey\u2019s press freedoms have been in decline. It is a dismal 154th on the press freedom index [1] and most notable is that it is the country with the most imprisoned journalists with at least 76 imprisoned, mostly without having been convicted and as a result of their work. [2] The lack of freedom of the press and how cowed the press is has been shown in the recent rioting; CNN covered the protests live, at the same time its Turkish language subsidiary CNN Turk was broadcasting a cooking show. [3]  [1] \u201821013 World Press Freedom Index: Dashed Hopes After Spring\u2019, Reporters Without Borders, 2013,   [2] Greenslade, Roy, \u2018Turkish press freedom crisis\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 23 October 2012,   [3] Cook, Steven A., and Koplow, Michael, \u2018How Democratic Is Turkey?\u2019, Foreign Policy, 3 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Each country should be free to decide which freedoms are important to it and fit with its own culture rather than having to fit into a western straitjacket in order to be considered \u2018democratic\u2019. It is true that press freedoms are a difficult issue but it is not the full story to simply point to the numbers of journalists in prison as the media can still be effective even when some journalists are imprisoned. The OSCE when looking at the 2011 elections said \u201cThe media landscape in Turkey is diverse and lively\u201d for example all parties are able to purchase airtime under equal conditions. [1]  [1] Election Assessment Mission, \u2018Republic of Turkey Parliamentary Elections 12 June 2011\u2019, OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, 31 October 2011,  , pp.2, 19"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro05b","title":"","text":"Liberal democracy is flexible; it can incorporate secular and non-secular, different religions, cultures, or views of the role of the state. Many liberal democracies have restrictions on the sale of alcohol; some parts of the United States are entirely dry. Gender equality is more of an issue but women are allowed to vote in Turkey \u2013 which is essential to democracy. [1] Other rights however are up to individual culture to decide. Even if we don\u2019t like a lack of gender equality in Turkey we should not consider the country not to be democratic because of it.  [1] \u2018February 6, 1935 Turkey Holds First Election That Allows Women to Vote\u2019, OUPblog, 6 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro04b","title":"","text":"This is one of the flaws of a parliamentary system; when a single party has a large majority, as the AKP does, they can essentially get whatever they want through parliament. This is why systems such as Britain\u2019s have been called elective dictatorship, something which a change in the constitution could potentially solve but clearly does not preclude the country in question being considered to be a liberal democracy."}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro03a","title":"","text":"One party state  Under the AKP Turkey has effectively become a one party state; this means that there is not the competition necessary to make Turkey a genuine liberal democracy. Yes alternative parties exist but this does not mean they are going to get any power any time soon if the government can help it. The AKP has been able to get twice as many votes as its nearest rival making it by far the dominant party. The party consolidates power and there are signs that competition in the party is more important than with other parties. [1] The rioting across the country has shown this in several ways. First the resort to violent and street protest shows the opposition don\u2019t think they can oust the AKP at the ballot box. Secondly the response from the leaders of the AKP have been mixed. While Erdo\u011fan has vehemently condemned the protests while President Abdullah G\u00fcl has taken a more nuanced line saying \u201cDemocracy is not just about elections\u201d and that \u201cIf there are objections, there is nothing more natural than voicing them\u201d effectively endorsing some protest. [2]  [1] Yinan\u00e7, Bar\u00e7in, \u2018AKP ushering in 'dominant-party system,' says expert\u2019, H\u00fcrriyet Daily News, 17 June 2011,   [2] \u2018Democracy is no just about elections, says Turkish President\u2019, H\u00fcrriyet Daily News, 3 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro04a","title":"","text":"Railroading without consultation  The trigger for the rioting; construction projects building over a park and a square are a good analogy for the government as a whole. The AKP government does not care for public opinion and is happy to push through projects without reference to it. In the case of Taksim square the government did not consult about plans to bulldoze the park despite it being the site of a massacre in 1977 making it a place of historical significance. A court ruling to stop construction was also ignored. [1] It is the same with legislation, the controversial changes to alcohol laws were only proposed a month before they were passed and debate was limited to two days, [2] while some important business particularly involving day to day running of foreign and defence has very little oversight. [3]  [1] Yackley, Ayla Jean, \u2018Insight: Simmering anger at Erdogan's authoritarianism boils over in Turkey\u2019, Reuters, 2 June 2013,   [2] Resneck, Jacob, \u2018Anti-alcohol bill leaves many Turks dispirited\u2019, USA Today, 29 May 2013,   [3] \u2018Turkey T\u00fcrkiye B\u00fcy\u00fck Millet Meclisi (T.B.M.M) (Grand National Assembly of Turkey)\u2019, Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con03b","title":"","text":"We do not yet know if this is a false dawn when it comes to peace with the Kurds. Erdo\u011fan could simply be using the process for his own ends; either to secure the Olympics for Istanbul or to secure a powerful presidency for himself. Alternatively he may simply be seeking to divide the Kurds so making them easier to defeat. [1] As yet with no political deal or real knowledge of what the settlement might be considering this a democratic advance seems a bit farfetched.  [1] Hannah, John, \u2018Erdogan's Great Gamble\u2019, Foreign Policy, 14 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con01b","title":"","text":"High electoral turnout is in large part a result of turkey having compulsory voting so it is difficult to see how this statistic is an indicator of the democratic health of the country. There is also a big difference between having a liberal democracy and a \u2018tyranny of the majority\u2019 Turkey under AKP has been much more the latter. Erdo\u011fan has threatened the opposition \u201cif you gather 100,000 people, I can gather a million\u201d showing that the majority and numbers are simply being used to browbeat anyone who opposes his plans. [1] A democracy means more than holding regular elections; even regimes everyone recognizes as authoritarian, such as Kazakhstan or Iran, hold them.  [1] Cook, Steven A., and Koplow, Michael, \u2018How Democratic Is Turkey?\u2019, Foreign Policy, 3 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con02a","title":"","text":"Less army influence \u2013 no coups  There has now been more than thirty years without an army coup but it has only been during the AKP government that the army has finally been cowed with the army being forced to defend its actions in court. [1] The AKP has brought about a fundamental transformation in the relationship between the military and civilian governments reducing the military\u2019s influence; consistent with military subservience to civilian authority in other democracies. The National Security Council was turned from a executive body into an advisory board that was dominated by civilians and Parliamentary control over the military\u2019s budget was strengthened. The Government\u2019s control over the military was shown by the Ergenekon trials where senior army generals were accused of plotting a coup, with the result that the government showed the power of the judiciary over the military and took control over promotion. [2]  [1] Demir, Firat, \u2018Here's What You Need to Know about the Clashes in Turkey\u2019, Foreign Policy, 1 June 2013,   [2] Balta-Parker, Evren, and Ak\u00e7a, Ismet, \u2018Beyond Military Tutelage? Turkish Military Politics and the AKP Government\u2019, in Ebru Canan-Sokullu ed., Debating Security in Turkey, 15 December 2012,  , pp.80, 87"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con04a","title":"","text":"Turkey has an effective and legitimate government  It is clear that the government is legitimate; it received 49% of the vote in the 2011 elections, an increase. By comparison Tony Blair\u2019s \u2018landslide\u2019 win in 1997 was achieved with 43.2% of the vote. [1] And it is a legitimate government in large part because it is an effective government. This has particularly been the case on the economic front. There are of course a few problems, as there always are even in booming economies, but Turkey has an enviable record over the ten years of AKP rule. Public debt fell from 74% in 2002 to 40% in 2011, productivity growth has averaged 3-3.5%, economic growth has hovered around 8% and inflation took a tumble from almost 70% when the AKP was elected to high single figures. [2] It is no surprise that the electorate has rewarded the government that has pulled this off.  [1] Johnson, Ron, et al., \u2018Anatoimy of a Labour Landslide: The Constituency System and the 1997 General Election\u2019, Parliamentary Affairs, 1998,  , p.1  [2] \u2018Istanbuls and bears\u2019, The Economist, 7 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con03a","title":"","text":"Ending the conflict with the Kurds \u2013 inclusive government  Democracies are only truly democratic when they accept that their minorities have rights and deserve a place in the political system even if those minorities themselves want a separate state. Only then does the country truly represent and work for everyone within the state. It has only been during Erdo\u011fan\u2019s time as Prime Minister that this has happened in Turkey.  Turkey has spent its history since its founding ninety years ago discriminating against the Kurds by denying they are a separate ethnicity. Now however there is a cease fire in place and serious consideration for major constitutional changes that would recognize the Kurds. [1] Already there have been significant changes like allowing the use of Kurdish in public life and the launch of a Kurdish language TV station and courses in universities. [2]  [1] Hannah, John, \u2018Erdogan's Great Gamble\u2019, Foreign Policy, 14 May 2013,   [2] Zalewski, Pitr, \u2018The Kurds\u2019 Last Battle in Turkey: Teaching Kids Kurdish\u2019, The Atlantic, 9 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con01a","title":"","text":"Turkey has elections, it is a democracy  The most fundamental part of democracy is the ability of the people to influence their government. In almost all democracies this is done through elections to parliament. This is the case in Turkey. There was general acceptance that the elections that the AKP won were free elections. The US state department said the elections were carried out \u201cin a free and fair manner\u201d [1] while the OSCE election observers said \u201cThe parliamentary elections demonstrated a broad commitment to hold democratic elections\u201d although there was the odd complaint. [2] Turnout in elections is very high compared to many democracies and is actually rising; it was 79% in 2002, the election that brought AKP to power, increasing to 88% in 2011. [3] If turnout is any indicator (and clearly it is or else mature democracies such as the UK would not be worried about their own falling turnout) the AKP would appear to be strengthening democracy in the eyes of voters.  [1] Toner, Mark, \u2018US Congratulates Turkey on Elections\u2019, Embassy of the United States Turkey, 13 June 2011,   [2] Election Assessment Mission, \u2018Republic of Turkey Parliamentary Elections 12 June 2011\u2019, OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, 31 October 2011,  , p.1  [3] \u2018Voter turnout data for Turkey\u2019, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 5 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con04b","title":"","text":"Democratic legitimacy cannot simply be equated with economic growth even if most people see the economy as the main issue when it comes to voting. The economy is important but there are plenty of countries which have used economic growth to buttress undemocratic regimes; China being the obvious example where the state\u2019s legitimacy is intimately bound up with economic growth. [1]  [1] Li, Eric X, \u201cThe Life of the Party\u201d, Foreign Affairs, January\/February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-gvhbtnd-con02b","title":"","text":"While coups were frequent during the twentieth century each time power was quickly returned to civilian hands meaning that even including the coups Turkey had a vibrant democracy. [1]  [1] Baran, Zeyno, \u2018Is Kemalism Dead in Turkey?\u2019, Defining Ideas, 13 December 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro02b","title":"","text":"This happens in theory but in practise does not work this way. Precedent in the United States has shown that political discourse is still fractious despite the presence of Open Primaries as it is still the ideologically focussed base that that vote and decide such elections on a low turnout.  Even if Propositions contentions were true, it can be argued that it is the lack of clear dividing lines between parties that can cause major disillusionment in politics, with many parties now subscribing to a broadly neoliberal world view as has happened in the UK where parties regularly cross-dress, appeal to the same groups and steal each other\u2019s policies. [1] The lack of clear ideology engendered by Open Primaries would make such disillusionment worse. Two parties that agree on everything would seriously damage turnout as no clear choice is presented to the electorate.  [1] Ash, Timothy Garton, \u2018If our political parties did not exist would we ever need to invent them?\u2019, The Guardian, 25 October 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro02a","title":"","text":"Open primaries promote moderate, non-partisan politics  By creating a situation whereby all voters have a potential say in selecting candidates, it can prevent overweening control by party grass roots who may vote for overtly ideological candidates who turn off the moderate voters needed to win elections.  An Open Primary is more likely to choose more centrist candidates for the general election, providing a degree of moderation to the process of election and politics in general. This in turn can help foster a consensual atmosphere in political discourse with general agreed points, focusing the debate on more core issues between the main parties. [1]  This then means that much more is likely to get done. At the moment American politics is plagued by gridlock both in the states and in Congress. Individuals elected under open primaries are much more likely to be willing to compromise across the aisle. [2] As a result government will begin moving again.  [1] \u2018Editorial: California should switch to open primary elections\u2019, The Stanford Daily, 12 May 2010,   [2] Michael Alvarez, R., and Sinclair, Betsy, \u2018Electoral Institutions and Legislative Behavior: The Effects of Primary Processes\u2019, P.2"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro03b","title":"","text":"The whole point of Democracy is that there are losers as well as winners. It is not up to political parties to accommodate those who disagree with them by accommodating their policies. Parties and the candidates who stand on their behalf must be able to justify their own views and polices to the electorate, without them being diluted by the outside influence of those who may actually fundamentally disagree with what the party believes in. Those on the fringe are better off advocating their policies better instead of voting for candidates of the party they do not support.  Very occasionally an open primary may allow an independent to seriously run, but this will be so rare that it will not compensate for having their independent platforms at elections."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro05a","title":"","text":"Open primaries allow the electorate to express nuanced polling choices  Open Primaries allows for the electorate to make a considered choice between candidate and party, with other considerations beyond the partisan being up for consideration.  In safe districts, voters are given a choice between members of the same party, allowing for voters to effectively choose the next member based upon past record and views on big issues, allowing for the ideological cleavages within parties to brought under closer examination, with voters in the safe seat choosing the type of Conservatism\/Liberalism\/Socialism they prefer. [1]  This can help to provide choice even when one party is already assured of winning the seat, thus providing a degree of competition in the district, engaging voters in the electoral process.  [1] Skelton, George, \u2018California open primaries? Give them a chance\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 11 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro01a","title":"","text":"Increasing voter engagement  A major problem with politics in Western Liberal Democracies is that electorates feel disengaged from the political process as they are generally presented with a choice between parties at irregular intervals without much oversight over the calibre of candidate presented to them by each party.  This issue would be countered by introducing Open Primaries for candidates to elections. By making candidates from the same party compete for a party candidacy by appealing to the same group that will choose between all parties in General Elections, voters will have a chance to greater examine each prospective candidate at greater detail, allowing for a more considered choice of candidate than the binary choice made at elections. [1]  By giving more time to voters, this will increase interest in what candidates have to say, and allow those of all political persuasions to contribute to the debate, turning contests away from ideology and towards representation.  [1] Hannan, Daniel, \u2018Conservative Democrats prove the case for open primaries\u2019, The Telegraph, 18th July 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro01b","title":"","text":"People feel disengaged with politics in general not because they don\u2019t have a say over candidacies, but because of the constant merry-go-round that is electoral politics. The voter fatigue that comes from the constant chase for votes from parties will not decrease. If anything, it will increase as candidates and media coverage is dominated by speculation over who will be a candidate for office rather than who will gain the office actually up for election, causing further disillusionment with the political process."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro05b","title":"","text":"Contests between those of the same party are in their nature divisive and distract from the aim of winning the general election. Debates about Ideological nuance are not major reasons for non-political voters to go to the polls. Debates about those issues have largely been the preserve of those who are party members and as a result should stay within that sphere.  Greater competition can be engendered through other means, such as Proportional Representation that leads to real competition between all parties in all areas of a country as opposed to a contest between candidates who have no real differences of opinion."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro04b","title":"","text":"Party power is exercised heavily in countries where Open Primaries exist. In the United States, it is common for a political party to openly back a candidate in Primary Elections for Congressional seats. This can give said candidate a major head start, with the massive financial backing and exposure in the public eye that follows resulting in predictable results. [1] Only special circumstances see incumbents defeated (See the rise of the Tea Party and its effect on the US Republican Party), with Primaries being largely predictable affairs. These results in a lack of interest in many Primary contests, making them little more than sideshows that distract from the process of government.  [1] \u2018\u201cOpen\u201d Primaries and the Illusion of Choice\u2019, open salon, 9 June 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro03a","title":"","text":"Open primaries promote engagement with political minorities  A major problem with general elections, specifically in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom and Canada which use Majoritarian Simple Plurality electoral systems, is that only two major parties (e.g. Democrats and Republicans) are in contention for power or in some cases representation, leaving those that have loyalties elsewhere feeling disenfranchised from a political system that does not take into account of their point of view.  Open Primaries counters this by allowing these voters a chance to vote for candidates of a major party that are closer to their own political persuasion, thus giving as many people as possible the opportunity to register their opinion on who will be their representative for the next term, ending disillusionment with predictable election results. This means that third party candidates may become serious candidates in elections when they pass the primary test. [1]  [1] Nielson, Susan, \u2018Open Oregon\u2019s primaries\u2019, The Oregonian, 13 October 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro04a","title":"","text":"Open primaries prevent the centralisation of party power  Political Parties are able to wield considerable power, controlling their party members and representatives, particularly in Parliamentary political systems. Through use of patronage and the threat of sanctions such as deselection, party leaders are able to manipulate representatives to fulfil their own aims rather than those of constituents. [1]  By instituting Open Primaries, the focus of representatives shifts from the party leadership to the constituents whom prospective candidates hope to represent. Scrutiny over the representative\u2019s conduct would be in the hands of the voters, with reselection in an Open Primary being contingent upon the member looking after the interests of their constituents, rather than the interest of the party as is the case in many countries that do not have Open Primary systems. [2] By using Open Primaries, elections once again becomes about representing the people as opposed to being a means to power as is the case under the status quo in countries that do not use it.  [1] Stone, Daniel, \u2018Prop 14\u2019s Winners and Losers\u2019, Newsweek, 8 June 2010,   [2] Triggs, Matthew, \u2018Open primaries\u2019, Adam Smith Institute, 16 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con03b","title":"","text":"This Argument does not stack up. The large numbers of people voting in Primary elections will mean many \u2018apoliticals\u2019 will counter the worst partisan tactics (if any) being used in the election. If there has been any impact of opposition party involvement upon the internal politics of a party, it has been to elect more centrist candidates that the greatest number of voters can find palatable. That in itself is no bad thing, as politics can become extremely partisan at times, it does help to have candidates who can be moderate and be more prepared to compromise in order to the best possible outcome for all they represent."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con01b","title":"","text":"Open Primaries have proven themselves to be a means of engagement in the political process, providing scrutiny of individual candidates before approving the program that they stand for. Open Primaries maintain scrutiny over individual action as opposed to merely scrutinising the actions of the party as a whole, giving voters a chance to provide a nuanced results in elections. Politicians can still focus on their job of representing the people under an Open Primary system, as it is their actions in conducting that particular role that will decide their success in reselection by the electorate they represent."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con02a","title":"","text":"Open primaries obscure the distinctions between political parties  Primaries tend to favour candidates that are more centrist in nature, as non-committed voters are more likely to vote for such a candidate than grass roots members of the party hosting the primary, who are much more likely to prefer a candidate who is more ideological.  The dominance of centrist candidates in primaries may lead to convergence between the major parties to the extent that there is little difference between them for voters to choose from in the general election. [1] This creates the harm of not presenting a clear democratic choice to voters, which can help feed the discontent with politics that discontent hopes will be countered by Open Primaries.  [1] White, Stuart, \u2018Why open primaries are a really bad idea\u2019, NextLeft, 26 May 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con05a","title":"","text":"Open primaries will lead to an increase in disputes internal to political parties  Primary elections can be extremely damaging to parties as it engenders cleaves and splits which damage chances of election. Election campaigns between candidates from the same party can become feverish, particularly if the contest is close (See the Democratic Presidential Primary in 2008).  This can be damaging as parties are made to spend their time focussing their energies on themselves instead of the opposition only to create an image of a divided party that alienates voters who prefer parties who can convey a coherent message about what they can provide for the future.  Primaries obscure what a party is about, changing the focus from being about policy and the message of the party to the candidate with personal attributes such as image being of importance. This makes politics much more superficial than it already is."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con04a","title":"","text":"Open primaries will lead to an intensification of lobbying activities  Elections, particularly in the United States, can be prone to excessive lobbying by various interest groups who fund candidates who are more likely to support their point of view whilst also pouring efforts into ensuring the defeat of those who are opposed to their interests (See the fate of Rep. Richard Pombo, who was defeated after a campaign by the Sierra Club [1] ).  Primary elections exacerbates this, with 527 groups affiliated to certain interest groups being able to lobby and fund numerous candidates in the primary to ensure that regardless of the result, their interests are best preserved. This can be harmful as it further allows for corporate capture of the election cycle, with candidates positioning themselves in relation to the aims of those who helped them gain the candidacy rather than the voters who put them there. This undermines the ability of legislators to arbitrate between competing claims when making law, creating less effective government.  [1] Carlton, Jim, \u2018Pombo Embarks on Fresh Path\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 22 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con03a","title":"","text":"Open primaries are open to manipulation  Because political persuasion is no bar to voting in a Primary election, it can make the internal elections within parties be open to manipulation from those hostile to the aims of the party and the candidates running for election.  We have seen instances where \u2018unelectable\u2019 candidates have been elected by Open Primary as means of discrediting a party and helping their opponents win the general election. A famous instance of this was in the Democratic Primary for the US Senate seat in South Carolina, where the winner, Alvin Greene became the candidate with little advertising or successful fundraising, leading to accusations of a Republican campaign to make re-election of their incumbent, Jim DeMint, much easier. [1]  In other instances, it is also possible that the opposition party can use the election as a means of electing a candidate that most reflects their views, neutering the effect of losing the general election. Either way, Open Primaries can be manipulated to create unrealistic outcomes that neither the party nor the electorate truly want, damaging the political process.  [1] \u2018Alvin Greene\u2019s implausible S.C. victory: 6 theories\u2019, the week, 10 June 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con05b","title":"","text":"Only in exceptional circumstances are major splits caused by Primary election. What tends to happen is that Primaries act as a stimulus to healthy debate over what the party stands for, with candidates from all parts of the political spectrum engaging in a contest to define the party in line with the wishes of the electorate.  Candidates focus on themselves, while the party leaderships can still play the role of holistically overseeing proceedings to make sure that the focus still remains the general election and what happens after the ballots in the primary election have been counted. It is possible to have rigorous primary campaigns without there being major splits that harm the party\u2019s performance in the general election (The performance of The Democratic Party in 1992 bears this out).  While there maybe an emphasis on candidacy and personality, it helps to form a clear of what the party stands for in the general elections, marking out a clear choice between the parties at election time."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con01a","title":"","text":"Open primaries will distract and confuse the majority of the electorate  Primary Elections do little more than provide a distraction to the political process. Instead of focusing on the political process for the maximum time possible between elections, politicians are constantly distracted by electioneering, not just to be re-elected but also to seek selection as their party\u2019s candidate.  This may create a dangerous precedent of politics being little more than one constant election cycle, with decision being made to please constituents in order to win two elections. We see this the most in the US House of Representatives, where decisions influencing \u2018pork-barrel\u2019 spending are made with the main aim of keeping constituents happy in order to avoid primary defeat, to the detriment of government being more disposed to dysfunction. [1]  The constant election cycle can cause disillusionment with voters who fail to see tangible effects of what the politicians the elect do yet face constant electioneering. By only hosting general elections, a clear focus is provided for candidates and electorate alike, allowing for scrutiny to be based upon the actions of politicians and the party they represent against the opposition who seek to replace them.  [1] Rauch, Jonathan, \u2018Earmarks Are A Model, Not A Menace\u2019, NationalJournal, 14 March 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con04b","title":"","text":"There is a large problem with lobbying in the United States but the influence they exert would be worse if there was no system. The efforts of interest groups would be exerted upon one candidate from each party, whereas Primaries make it harder for interest groups and 527\u2019s to gain access to power as there are multiple hurdles for their candidate to overcome to win power and gain influence over policy. Primaries can also prevent capture of entire parties by interest groups as can happen in countries where funding of candidates comes directly from the central party such as the United Kingdom (where the role Trade Unions for example have 50% of the vote in the labour party conference [1] ). Candidate discretion is more likely in Primary systems, giving more choice over what the general election candidate will support as opposed to just following the lead of the party leadership, which causes more disillusionment to politics in the long run.  [1] \u2018Ed Miliband \u2018plans to water down trade unions\u2019 influence over labour\u2019\u2019, The Telegraph, 3 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbopam-con02b","title":"","text":"While centrist candidates maybe preferred in Primary elections, but it is a choice that has been made by the people when presented with a full ideological spectrum by the range of candidates standing for elections.  Appeal to Swing voters is what matters in elections anyway so what Open Primaries do is make that abundantly clear, with the candidate most likely to carry swing voters in the general election most likely to win the candidacy. This makes party leaderships think hard about what voters want and how to incorporate that into policy."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro02b","title":"","text":"The referendum is not an example of progress. It is not hard to see why many of those who demonstrated in Tahrir square were in the no camp for this referendum. \u201cThe president remains extraordinarily powerful. The amendments do nothing about due process and neglect other authoritarian aspects of the state\u201d [1] The referendum was attacked for not dealing with large scale structural issues. Leading opposition figures such as Mohamed El Baradei argue \u201cThe referendum deals only with minutiae. It doesn't talk about the imperial power of the president, it doesn't talk about the distortion of the parliament, it doesn't talk about the need to have an independent constituent assembly that represents everybody. So we are going to say no.\u201d [2] This means that the institutional problems that helped create an over-mighty presidency and autocracy have remained in place.  These countries have also not become much more stable. There have been clashes between Christian Copts and Muslims following the burning of two churches on the 7th of May, which have left 180 injured and raises the specter of sectarian violence. [3] Meanwhile in Tunisia the government has re-imposed night time curfews after four days of demonstrations were ended by police firing tear gas. [4] It is difficult to consider such unrest progress.  [1] Steven A. Cook, \u2018Interview, Egypt\u2019s Referendum: Nervous Steps Forward\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 21st March 2011,  accessed 19\/05\/11  [2] \u2018Large turnout for Egypt's constitutional referendum\u2019 BBC News, Mar. 19, 2011,   [3] Egypt Christians protest in Cairo after church attack, BBC News, May 9., 2011,   [4] Post-revolution Egypt and Tunisia gripped by unrest May 8, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro02a","title":"","text":"Progress has been made.  Egypt as the biggest Arab state and one of only two so far that have had largely peaceful revolutions is perhaps the best example of the progress that has been made. There was a referendum in Egypt in March on amending the constitution that passed with a yes vote of 77.2%. That there was a referendum at all surely counts as progress. It limits the number of presidential terms to two, promises to strengthen the judiciary and abolish some of the emergency laws. A turnout of 41% is not as good as it could have been but it was a great advance compared to other polls in recent Egyptian history. Mohamed Ahmed Attia, the chairman of the supreme judicial committee that supervised the elections, explained its significance as being \u201cthe first real referendum in Egypt's history, we had an unprecedented turnout because after Jan. 25 people started to feel that their vote would matter.\u201d [1] Because Egypt has historically been at the center of the Arab world success in Egypt will be vital to show that a stable Arab democracy can be created.  [1] Egyptian Voters Approve Constitutional Changes, New York Times, Mar. 20, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro03b","title":"","text":"While these examples prove that in some iterations Islam can work with democracy, it is likely that other factors made democracy viable in Inodnesia and Turkey. Indonesia is free of the hostile relationship with the West that often undermines the stability of the Middle East, and has benefitted from a strong trade relationship. While the AKP in Turkey is Islamist, it operates within the Turkish constitution which requires the military to dissolve any government that threatens the secular nature of the state. Without a constitutionally defined commitment to strict secularism, like in Turkey, the Islamist parties in Egypt and Tunisia will resort to undemocratic practices.  While Indonesia\u2019s revolution superficially looks similar it should be remembered that no two revolutions are really the same. They are different in almost every respect, culturally, geographically, economically. Indonesian Minister Natalegawa argues \u201cI think the lesson form us is that it is possible for the democratization process to return to the military to it must be its original function.\u201d [2] However this really shows a difference. In Indonesia the military never stepped in to take over the government as they have done in Egypt. If the key is reducing the role of the military Egypt has barely begun.  [1] Wolfango Piccoli, Full steam ahead on Turkish Constitutional reform, ForeignPolicy.com, 29th May 2011,  accessed 20\/05\/11  [2] Julia Simon, Reformasis and Revolutions, Asia Calling, 17th April 2011,  accessed 20\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro01a","title":"","text":"There are preexisting institutions in Arab countries.  Many middle eastern states already have institutions that are similar to the representative institutions that a stable democracy needs so can easily become the real thing. Arab dictators have grown adept at holding elections, setting up parliaments; constitutional courts etc. as window dressing to show either to their people or to the outside world that they are reforming and are \u2018democratic\u2019. No matter how undemocratic these regimes have been the simple existence of these institutions is useful when there is a revolution as they allow some continuity and the possibility of a transition to democracy.  To take Egypt where protests toppled the Mubarak regime as an example. It has a parliament with the Majilis Al-Sha\u2019ab (People\u2019s Assembly) as its lower house and Majilis Al-Shura (Shura Council) as its upper house. In both houses a majority of the members are directly elected. [1] Egypt held elections for its parliament as recently as November 2010, these elections had very poor turnout and blatant ballot rigging while the main opposition the Muslim Brotherhood have to stand as independents. [2] Egypt also has previously had local elections for 52,000 municipal council seats in some 4,500 towns and cities. These elections are just as fraudulent as those for the national parliament. According to Muslim Brotherhood MP Jamdi Hassan \u201cThe ruling party used to allow opposition candidates to run and then simply rig the elections. Now, it has adopted a new strategy to ensure its continued domination: preventing the opposition from fielding any candidates at all.\u201d [3] This may not be the best democratic tradition but at least it is a start. Similarly Egypt has a Supreme Constitutional Court that is supposed to be independent. [4]  While these institutions may have ceased working in a democratic way they could quite easily be changed in to being fully democratic. This would create the necessary checks and balances to sustain democracy over the long term. The people are used to elections and will know what to do when they have the option to vote freely, they would vote in a broad range of candidates. Many of them may be islamist but it would be democratic.  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Parliament of Egypt\u2019,  accessed 19\/05\/2011  [2] Egypt hold parliamentary poll, 28\/11\/2010, BBC News,   [3] Adam Morrow and Khaled Moussa al-Omrani Opposition Squeezed in Local Elections, IPS News, 17\/3\/08,   [4] The Supreme Constitutional Court, \u2018Historical Overview\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the presence of pre-existing institutions is an advantage in transitioning to a democracy, that advantage may be compromised when these institutions are largely seen as illegitimate and have not fostered a democratic political culture. Key to the development of a democratic political culture is confidence in institutions and a willingness to accept the popular will as carried out by those institutions.  The predominance of the Executive over the Legislature is rather reminiscent of the Imperial Russian State Duma (1905-1917) as with Tunisia and Bahrain the lower house was directly elected, although the system was heavily weighted to produce pliant Dumas from 1907 on, and the upper house appointed. There was quite a plurality of parties and the Duma had control over a wide area of legislation but not over areas such as military policy and the Tsar had veto powers. [1] It certainly cannot be said that the Duma\u2019s existence proved to be conducive to the creation of a stable democracy after the fall of the Tsar, or even a stable state of any sort.  The existence of the necessary institutions therefore does not mean anything if those very institutions are not seen as legitimate.  [1] E. A. Goldenweiser, \u2018The Russian Duma\u2019,Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Sep., 1914), pp. 408-422"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro03a","title":"","text":"Islamic parties have led governments before  The economic, social, and political history of the region show there are many obstacles to establishing stable democracies in the Middle East. Many in the West fear that Islam is among these barriers, with claims that Islamist parties like the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Ennahda in Tunisia will turn their countries into theocracies like Iran. However, there are majority-Muslim states with Islamist parties that have succeeded in creating stable democracies, including Turkey and Indonesia. Both countries are good case studies that disprove the widespread notion that Islam is incompatible with democracy.  Turkey is most often cited as a good example for the Arab spring to follow. The election of the AKP has shown that an Islamic party can also uphold democracy, so providing a good example for the powerful Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab world. Elections are free and fair and the press is relatively free. The Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan has faced down coup threats from the military, again something that may well be necessary given the large role the military has had in the previous regimes. Turkey\u2019s economy is growing briskly and Turkey is following a foreign policy of reaching out to everybody and is touting itself as a model for Arab countries to follow. [1]  In Indonesia in 1998 there was a revolution that ousted President Suharto who had like Mubarak been in power for thirty years. This revolution progressed in a very similar way to the ongoing revolution in Egypt \u2013 in both countries the protesters were middle class and young, the president went relatively peacefully and the military helped during the transition. [2] Indonesia is now the largest Muslim democracy in the world and while there are islamist parties in parliament their support is now below 30%. [3] Indonesia can therefore provide a road map for moving from an interim government with the military in control to a fully functioning and successful democracy.  [1] A Muslim Democracy in Action, The Economist, 17th February 2011,  accessed 20\/05\/11  [2] Banyan, Remember 1998 The Indonesian Example, The Economist, 7th February 2011,  accessed 20\/05\/11  [3] Thomas Carothers, Egypt and Indonesia, The New Republic, 2nd February 2011,  accessed 20\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con03b","title":"","text":"In the Libyan case the dictator remains (as of 20th April 2011) but cannot sell oil even if he retakes the refineries. The rebels cannot sell oil either (legally) even though they control most of the infrastructure. The sanctions imposed against Gaddafi apply to the whole of the country. [1] Therefore the desire for oil pushes for further support of the rebels in this case as the sanction regime is only likely to be deconstructed following a rebel victory. Should Gaddafi remain in power the west may have to cut itself off from Libyan oil for years to come.  Obviously the above case represents a regime in flux. Once a regime is toppled then anything can happen. There is then no reason why outside actors should want to encourage another dictatorship rather than a democracy. A dictatorship may bring stability faster but a democracy is much more stable in the long run. Countries ideas of their strategic interests can be very divergent. An example is the Suez crisis. Prime Minister Eden considered it \u201can obvious truth that safety of transit through the canal\u2026[is] a matter of survival [however] world opinion seemed to be that Nasser was within his rights in nationalising the Canal Company.\u201d [2] As Nasser promised \u201cfreedom of navigation would not be affected by nationalisation\u201d reducing the matter in the view of the US Secretary of Defence to \u201ca ripple\u201d. [3] So while Britain was still willing to fight for control over the Suez canal the US condemned that very action forcing a withdrawal.  [1] Libya oil stuck in legal limbo as UN panel shunned, Reuters Africa, 20th April 2011,  accessed 19\/5\/11  [2] Sir Anthony Eden, Full Circle: The Memoirs (Cambridge, 1960), p.533.  [3] Dwight D. Eisenhower, Waging Peace 1956-1961 (New York, N.Y., 1965), pp.39, 41-3."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con01b","title":"","text":"The question is as much whether once a democracy has been established it can sustain itself as a system through multiple changes in government without reverting to dictatorship by coup. Notionally at least Lebanon has been a democracy continually since 1932, if the interruption of the brutal civil war is ignored. While that event shows that it can hardly be called stable in the general sense, it has been in the way that democracy survived even that cataclysm. Such ethnic tensions are hardly conducive to stable government even in Western Europe. [2] When Belgium\u2019s current political quagmire is looked at next to Lebanon the differences between Flemish and Walloon seem insignificant compared those which a Lebanese government must bridge, so even if its effectiveness may be questioned Lebanon\u2019s democracy surely holds out hope for all, particularly for countries that are much less divided.  There are excessively high hopes for Arab democracy this early, given that democracy has only been the prominent governing system in the West for the past century or so, and only without widespread violence since the end of World War II. It may take more than a few months for the Middle East to establish durable democratic systems, but the first steps are certainly established.  [2] Belgium: Still No Government, Mar., 1. 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con02a","title":"","text":"The west only supports democracies that fit with its world view.  Fincial and diplomatic engagement with the international community is essential for democracy to take hold. Tensions turn to conflict when governments are unable to provide basic services to the people, as was the case in Gaza when Hamas was elected in 2006 and the US and EU immediatey froze nearly all the funds and resources that were reaching the occupied territory. Furthermore, support from the West is necessary to provide the financial resources to rebuild after the revolutions damaged business and scared tourists away.  However the West\u2019s does not support democracy unless the ruling party is guaranteed to act in the interests of the West. Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the United States has either directly aided or executed the overthrow of over thirty foreign governments, many of which were popularly elected.a The US has in the past warned that aid to Lebanon could be jeopardized if Hezbollah was dominant in the government. [1] The US has a history of confrontation with the party that is the main political representation for the Shia element of Lebanese society which has eroded rather than supported Lebanese stability. [2] The victory of Hamas in the 2006 Palestinian elections, winning 76 of 132 seats, did not result in any rapprochement with the Bush administration despite their professed desire to see democracy in the Middle East. [3] The result was that aid from Europe and the US was reduced to humanitarian aid only, rather than as before being a major element of Palestinian government income and expenditure. [4] The result being that in 2007 the \u2018country\u2019 was rent in two as Hamas seized control of Gaza. Of course another Middle Eastern state that holds democratic elections, Iran, is the very model of a pariah state from the western point of view. It seems that the west is less concerned about democracy in the middle east and more about stability.  a. Wikipedia, 'Covert United States foreign regime change actions;,   [1] \u2018U.S. warns on ties with Hezbollah-backed Lebanon gov\u2019t\u2019, Reuters, 25 January 2011,   [2] Nicholas Noe, Lebanese government collapse: a history of missed opportunities, guardian.co.uk, 14th January 2011,  accessed 19\/05\/11  [3] Scott Wilson, Hamas Sweeps Palestinian Elections, Complicating Peace Efforts in Mideast, Washington Post Foreign Service, 27th January 2006,  accessed 19\/5\/11  [4] Palestinian Parliamentary Elections 2006, GlobalSecurity.org,  accessed 19\/5\/11"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con04a","title":"","text":"Rentier economies lead to dictatorships.  Most economies in the middle east are oligarchic with the wealth in the hands of a few. Oil has created rentier economies. These economies rely upon systems of patronage relying upon kinship groups, merchant communities and patron-client relationships, economic considerations become subservient to political considerations. [1] This occurred because of the small size of Middle Eastern private sectors forced the creation of state centred development programs. [2] While it remains the case there is a very small group of people in each Arab country that need to keep political power in order to perpetuate their economic power. As they already have the economic power and are often the best educated they are the most capable of forming any new government. In such an oligarchic society it would be very risky for these people to allow the creation of a democracy that may well wish to redistribute resources more equally.  [1] Michel Chatelus and Yves Scehmeil, \u2018Towards a New Political Economy of State Industrialisation in the Arab Middle East\u2019, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2 (May, 1984), pp.251-265, pp.261-262  [2] Timur Kuran, \u2018Why the Middle East is Economically Underdeveloped: Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation\u2019, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.18, No.3 (Summer, 2004), pp.71-90, p.87."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con03a","title":"","text":"Outside powers want oil so support dictatorial regimes who can deliver it.  Oil creates interdependence between the producing states in the Middle East and the consumers in Asia and the West. Although rising prices are good for producers they can also threaten the world economy and create inflation that in turn will damage the producers by reducing demand. [1] The consumers have to listen to Saudi Arabia and the other Arab regimes who provide their oil whereas they often don\u2019t for poor countries in Africa who would otherwise be no different. Oil is the main reason for external interest in Arab regimes some of the strongest alliances in the Middle East are built with oil as their foundations. [2] Saudi Arabia is a US ally due to it being a major supplier while Egypt is an ally due to its vital position controlling a major trade route \u2013 the Suez canal. In neither case would any external powers such as the EU nor the U.S. really want a long an unstable transition to a democracy making a strong man a much easier option. This is shown by how the Obama administration has always been behind events, being unwilling to call for democracy in Egypt and President Mubarak to go. Instead the administration made statements such as that by Secretary of State Hilary Clinton \u201cOur assessment is that the Egyptian government is stable and is looking for ways to respond to the legitimate needs and interests of the Egyptian people\u201d. [3] Many previous administrations would probably have been even more supportive of Mubarak.  [1] Daniel Yergin, The Prize The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (New York, N.Y., 1993), p.703.  [2] Eric Watkins, \u2018The Unfolding US Policy in the Middle East\u2019, International Affairs, Vol.73, No.1 (Jan., 1997), pp.1-14, p.1  [3] John Barry, Inside the White House\u2019s Egypt scramble, Newsweek, 30\/1\/2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con01a","title":"","text":"Factionalism is too strong  Since the 1970s, Arab state governments have become especially corrupt and oppressive, and have failed to provide essential social services on a consistent basis. Over the past forty years, people in the region have had to become increasingly reliant on informal networks and institutions in order to ensure personal and familial security and livlihood. This has degraded hopes of a relationship of trust between the state and people, causing people to committ themselves to differing factions, gangs, tribes, and parties in order to sustain themselves. It is apparent that the resulting factionalism may stand as a barrier to democracy, as parties hold fast to ideological committments and interest groups instead of political compromise and power-sharing.  This is especially rampant in post-conflict states, as is the case in Iraq. The current Iraqi government took 249 days to form. [1] The conditions for creating a stable government in Iraq seem to be based more on appeasing all the relevant groups than creating a working government. Lebanon, perhaps the most democratic Arab country also has its problems, the national unity government collapsed this month after 11 ministers from Hezbollah and its allies resigned. [2] , [3] The third example of an emerging democracy is of course Palestine. President Mahmoud Abbas, elected in 2005, continues in office despite his term having expired in January 2009. He extended his term, which opponents say breached the Palestinian Basic Law. [4] In 2007 clashes broke out between Fatah and Hamas, the two most prominent political parties, as a result of over a year of attempted political sabotage after Hamas won the election and Fatah refused to form a coalition in order to govern. These examples show that in environments where there are high levels of violence and conflict, factionalism takes hold over democratic governance. When law and order become difficult to establish under normal means, these regimes tend to seek security through autocracy and de-facto martial law, as has been happening under Maliki in Iraq or under Hamas and Fatah in the Occupied Territories.  Libya may face this same challenge after its July 2012 election, as tensions remain high after the country was divided between Qaddafi loyalists and the patchwork rebel network. Egypt also faces the risk of the military seizing power from the civilian government, as SCAF has already given itself additional powers and intends to create a shadow council that would allow it to veto parliamentary decisions.  [1] Ranj Alaaldin, The Iraqi government\u2019s patchwork alliance may struggle to survive, guardian.co.uk, 24th December 2010,  accessed 19\/05\/11  [2] Hezbollah and allies topple Lebanese unity government, BBC News 12th January 2011,  accessed 19\/05\/11  [3] Lebanon is the most democratic Arab country, ranks 86th Globally, iloubnan.info, 25th December 2010,  accessed 19\/05\/11  [4] Khaled Abu Toameh, Hamas challenges Abbas term extension, The Jerusalem Post, 29th September 2008,  Accessed 19\/05\/11"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con04b","title":"","text":"For these states perpetuating the resources that give their regime its legitimacy, as a provider, is absolutely vital, the regime needs to be able to fulfill its side of the bargain with the people. [1] This is exactly what Egypt and other Middle Eastern states have been failing to do for the last couple of decades. Increasing food prices sparking riots shows that this is the case. Instead they have to rely more and more on force.  Once a rentier system has begun to break down there may well be an opportunity for a more democratic system to take hold and better redistribute the economic resources of the state that have previously been so concentrated in a few hands.  [1] Gerd Nonneman, \u2018Rentiers and Autocrats, Monarchs and Democrats, State and Society: The Middle East between Globalisation, Human \u201cAgency\u201d, and Europe\u2019, International Affairs, Vol.77, No.1 (Jan., 2001), pp.141-162, pp.146-147."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con02b","title":"","text":"The western reaction to victories by Hamas or Hizbollah while on one level hypocritical do not show that the west would be unsupportive of Arab democracy. Both parties are opposed because they are perceived to be both anti-democratic in nature and, through their opposition to Israel, agents of instability. Opposition to Hamas was always qualified, according to Tony Blair former British PM \u201cOf course, we recognize the mandate for Hamas because the people have spoken in a particular way in the Palestinian Authority. But I think it is also important for Hamas to understand that there comes a point, and that point is now following that strong showing, where they have to decide between a path of democracy or a path of violence.\u201d [1] Certainly when it comes to more moderate parties like Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan\u2019s Justice and Development Party (AKP)\u2019s victory in 2002 was cautiously welcomed by the United States despite the party\u2019s islamist roots. With State Department spokesman Richard Boucher saying immediately after its electoral victory \u201cLet's not speculate on the future of the Turkish government, but let us at this point congratulate the Justice and Development Party on its electoral success. [2] Although the press tended to present the party\u2019s islamist leanings as a problem this was balanced by some in the western media welcoming the opportunity to marry Islam with liberal democracy, and the example that Turkey could show. [3] It has to be remembered that there is a great deal of religion in US politics, to dismiss any parties that had Islamic roots would be seriously hypocritical. It has to be assumed that democrats in Muslim nations would express piety in order to connect with the general population, if politicians did not reflect the views of their constituents they would not be very good democrats.  [1] Bush: no change in US policy on Hamas, The Independent, Jan., 26, 2006,   [2] Michael Rubin \u2018Green Money, Islamist Politics in Turkey\u2019, Middle East Quarterly Winter 2005,   [3] Christian Christensen, \u2018Pocketbooks or Prayer Beads? : U.S.\/U.K. Newspaper Coverage of the 2002 Turkish Elections\u2019, The Harvard International Journal of Press\/Politics, 2005 10: 109, pp.120-1"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro02b","title":"","text":"NATO cooperates with Russia to decrease tensions. Since 2002, NATO and Russia have an on-going dialogue to discuss strategic issues in the NATO-Russia Council. This Council aims to \u2018enhance political consultation and practical cooperation with Russia in areas of shared interests\u2019 with Russia as a \u2018true strategic partner\u2019. [1] Obviously, political differences over specific issues remain: NATO stresses Georgia\u2019s and Ukraine\u2019s sovereignty and maintains an open door policy for their membership if they themselves want this. What matters is that through this on-going, institutionalized dialogue, NATO makes clear it sees Russia as a strategic partner, and possibly even as a future member, not as a potential enemy.  [1] NATO. NATO\u2019s relations with Russia."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro02a","title":"","text":"NATO destabilizes peaceful relations with Russia  There are two issues keeping Russia cautious of NATO as a military alliance. The first is a proposal by the U.S. to put up a missile defence system in Poland, the Czech Republic and on warships in the Black Sea under the flag of NATO to protect against missiles from Iran or North Korea, which, according to Russia, would never fly over these countries in any attack. Russia concludes that the missile defence system therefore must be directed at them. The second issue is NATO\u2019s plans to expand with Ukraine and Georgia, which Russia has traditionally regarded as part of their \u2018sphere of influence\u2019. As Russian president Medvedev stated in 2008: \u201cNo state can be pleased about having representatives of a military bloc to which it does not belong coming close to its borders.\u201d [1]  [1] BBC News. Medvedev warns on Nato expansion. 2008"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro03b","title":"","text":"NATO has sufficient safeguards to prevent accidental escalation. Article V indeed specifies that members commit themselves to assisting a fellow member when attacked, but this clause leaves enough room to remain on the safe side. First of all, the clause is only defensive, to ensure that NATO doesn\u2019t become involved in a war of choice of any of its members, like the Gulf War. Secondly, article V allows members to choose their assistance in proportion to the actual security threat and according to their own means and goals, instead of the automatic triggers that led to World War I."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro01a","title":"","text":"Continued existence of NATO makes the world less safe  Originally, NATO had a clearly defined purpose and a common enemy: the Soviet bloc. With the demise of that shared enemy, NATO\u2019s original purpose has disappeared but its well-functioning military structure remained, leaving it open to be seized by opportunistic politicians in a classic case of \u2018scope creep\u2019. This has happened with U.S. President George Bush jr.\u2019s push to let Ukraine and Georgia in as new members in his global campaign to spread democracy. This has only served to increase tensions with Russia (see next argument). Who is to say that something similar isn\u2019t going to happen vis-\u00e0-vis China? [1]  [1] Hamilton, Time to disband Nato now the Cold War is over? 2008"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro01b","title":"","text":"Continued existence of NATO doesn\u2019t make the world less safe. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, it is only natural for the members of NATO to have been trying to define a new purpose. But discussing to define a new threat, whether that be an enemy state or a broader global security threat, isn\u2019t the same as creating that threat. It\u2019s not NATO\u2019s so-called \u2018scope creep\u2019 that makes the world more unsafe, it is actual threats that make the world unsafe, and NATO\u2019s formidable military structure can be useful in combating these. [1]  [1] NATO. NATO adopts new Strategic Concept. 2010"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro04b","title":"","text":"NATO does not cont too much it saves money. Through joint exercises and sharing intelligence, member states learn to cooperate and communicate more effectively with each other, saving efforts when, if ever, they are forced to cooperate. These benefits alone are worthwhile. Moreover, defence contractors could expect a larger, more unified market, thus driving down average cost per unit, because of NATO\u2019s efforts in standardizing requirements."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro03a","title":"","text":"NATO runs the unacceptable risk of accidental escalation  The clause that \u2018an attack against one means an attack against all\u2019 (Article V) runs the risk of entangling the entire alliance in an unwanted conflict. This has happened before: World War I started out as a local conflict between the Austro-Hungarian empire and Serbia, but through their security alliances inadvertently drew in all the major powers of the world. Given that many members of NATO have unstable countries near their borders (i.e. Turkey bordering Iraq) there is a risk they could become involved in a small regional war, which then inadvertently draws in the entire world."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro04a","title":"","text":"NATO costs too much  Maintaining an administration for NATO, with personnel and buildings, costs money. Moreover, whenever NATO-members engage in a mission, they\u2019re supposed to fund their activities under these missions themselves. [1] Given that the original threat has passed and given that the organisation still struggles to redefine itself, why spend money on it?  [1] Rapoza, Russia and China Team Up Against NATO Libya Campaign, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con03b","title":"","text":"The EU would do better to develop its own military capability. Slowly but surely, the European Union is attempting to build its own defence capability through the Common Security and Defence Policy, with a strategy, defence agency and coordinating official separate from NATO. The process of creating this is slow, because it involves EU-member states sharing the sovereign control of the monopoly of violence on their territories. The EU wants this because in its own region, the EU has its own interests which it wants to protect by itself. Moreover, why would NATO-members outside of the EU consider it fair that their collective assets are used for Europe\u2019s particular interests, especially when it involves their own related interest, as for example Turkey\u2019s strenuous relation to the Berlin Plus Agreement shows? [1]  [1] \u00dclgen, The Evolving EU, NATO, and Turkey Relationship."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con01b","title":"","text":"Strategic alliances should reflect the specific interests they serve. The threats mentioned are global threats affecting all developed countries, but they affect different countries differently. For example, Australia and New-Zealand are closer to North-Korea than Europe is. Shouldn\u2019t they be in a strategic alliance with U.S.? Indonesia and India are growing economies and burgeoning democracies, both regularly suffering terrorist attacks. Shouldn\u2019t they be in a strategic alliance with the U.S. and Europe? Turkey continues to have a different strategic view of the threat Iran poses and has a radically divergent strategic interest in Cyprus than the EU-members in NATO. Why is the EU allied with them through NATO whilst it has opposing strategic interests?  Without a clearly defined shared purpose and shared enemy, NATO will remain a talking shop where members with divergent interests will continue to frustrate any possible \u2018coalition of the willing\u2019, rendering NATO practically useless."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con02a","title":"","text":"NATO provides the UN with an effective joint military capability  When in early 2011 the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1973, calling upon countries and regional organizations to take \u201call necessary measures\u201d to protect the citizens of Libya against its dictator Ghaddafi, NATO provided effective support through their \u2018Operation Unified Protector\u2019, through which it enforced the arms embargo against Ghaddafi and the no-fly zone over Libya. Moreover, the smooth cooperation between France, the UK and the US in their active campaign to provide air support for the rebels in Libya has probably been made easier by the previous cooperation these countries have had through NATO."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con04a","title":"","text":"NATO allows burden-sharing and specialization amongst its members  For many members, maintaining a fully operational military that has all the required capabilities (air, sea and land plus required logistics) is impossible: they don\u2019t have enough budget, manpower or political will to maintain a full military. NATO allows members to share their burdens and to specialise. Examples of this are NATO\u2019s AWACS-aircraft (Airborne Warning & Control System) and NATO\u2019s Strategic Airlift Capability. Both are instances of NATO-allies pooling resources and sharing burdens. [1]  [1] NATO. AWACS: NATO\u2019s \u2018eye in the sky\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con03a","title":"","text":"NATO provides the EU with an effective joint military capability  As of yet, the European Union has little independent military capability to intervene in regional conflicts in neighbouring countries. The relevance of this became glaringly apparent during the 1990\u2019s Bosnian war and later, the Kosovo War: the EU called for the ending of hostilities but only when NATO and\/or the UN became involved militarily, was peace effectively enforced. Consequently, in 2002 NATO and the EU agreed on the Berlin Plus Agreement, allowing the EU to use NATO assets, provided no NATO members vetoed it. Under this agreement, the EU has been able to hold their own peacekeeping missions in the Republic of Macedonia (EUFOR Concordia) and Bosnia Herzegovina to oversee the Dayton Agreement (EUFOR Althea). [1]  [1] NATO. NATO-EU: A Strategic Partnership."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con01a","title":"","text":"NATO is a vital instrument to make the world safer  In spite of all the bickering, the members of the NATO-alliance still face shared threats: a nuclear armed North-Korea for example, but also international terrorism, threats to international security stemming from weak or failed states and a possibility of a nuclear Iran. As in the past, NATO provides an institutionalized dialogue between partners with shared interest: America has an easily accessible diplomatic forum through which it can garner an international coalition for its policies, and European member states can benefit from access to US military technology and know-how. That\u2019s why throughout 2010 and 2011 NATO has successfully formulated a new \u2018Strategic Concept\u2019, a joint strategic vision shared by all members, as well as a policy to improve NATO\u2019s involvement in stabilisation and reconstruction. [1]  [1] NATO. Key NATO policy on stabilisation and reconstruction released to the public. 2011. NATO. NATO adopts new Strategic Concept. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con04b","title":"","text":"NATO has allowed many members a free ride on U.S. military capability. The little \u2018burden sharing\u2019 that is going on can\u2019t hide the fact that the main contributor is the U.S. and that especially the EU-members have not been investing enough in their own military capability. This has led to NATO becoming, in the words of U.S. Defence Secretary, a \u201ctwo-tiered alliance\u201d between \u201cthose willing and able to pay the price and bear the burdens of alliance commitments, and those who enjoy the benefits of NATO membership\u201d. As long as Europe continues to take a free ride on the U.S., it will never be able to either shoulder its fair share of the burden, or operate independently outside of NATO. [1]  [1] Gates, Transcript of Defense Secretary Gates\u2019s Speech on NATO\u2019s Future. 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con02b","title":"","text":"NATO actually undermines the authority of the UN. The attack against the Libyan regime, as well as NATO\u2019s participation in it, has drawn severe criticism, especially from Russia and China, who see the military campaign NATO and the UK, US and France undertook as overstepping the boundaries set by resolution 1973, against their explicit wishes. If NATO ever were to operate as the de facto military arm of the UN Security Council, then China and Russia would feel alienated from the UN Security Council, simply because they\u2019re not (veto-wielding) members of NATO. [1]  [1] Rapoza, Russia and China Team Up Against NATO Libya Campaign, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-pro02b","title":"","text":"The suggestion that superdelegates vote for one of their own are simply disproved by the selection of Obama over one half of the most influential couple in the entire party. [i] Obama drew his support from the grassroots and his funding and that was quite sufficient.  There is simply no evidence that the superdelegates act as a drag on the party, indeed they have consistently followed the popular decision of party activists and respected that decision. Indeed the Republican system, without superdelegates, have most recently selected George Bush followed by John McCain; it would be difficult to think of two candidates who would more accurately fit either of the descriptions \u201cold, powerful, white men\u201d or \u201cparty establishment\u201d.  [i] 2008 Democratic Delegates, Real Clear Politics, 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-pro02a","title":"","text":"The disproportionate influence of former politicians inevitably benefits old, powerful, white men  The influence of superdelegates acts as a vehicle for an elite that needs little help. The situation in which the superdelegates would be most likely to act were as the result of the membership of the party selecting someone from outside the political class or their friends in business. It was worried that this might happen in 1998 in the close primary contest between Clinton and Obama. [i]  There is no reason that this decision should not be left to the members, it is after their party and they should be represented by whosoever they see fit. The decision in a democracy over the governance of the country \u2013 or the leadership of the party \u2013 should be determined by the populous or the members.  Allowing a disproportionate influence to past leaders and those they have selected inevitably discourages new ideas and new voices.  [i] Younge, Gary, \u2018It\u2019s up to the superdelegates to prove Democrats believe in democracy\u2019, The Guardian, 18 February 2008"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-pro03b","title":"","text":"Overwhelmingly senior party figures have publically declared for a candidate and the suggestion that this does not involve a degree of horse trading is simply na\u00efve. Equally the suggestion that leaving such negotiations until after the election is over would be reckless in the extreme.  For anyone seeking reelection their most likely request is the candidates involvement in their campaign. In terms of cash donations the amounts concerned are tiny - Obama donated under a million to election campaigns and Clinton less than half of that, it doesn\u2019t seem unreasonable that someone wanting to lead the party into an election campaign should deploy some of their own funds to help get a congress they can work with."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-pro01a","title":"","text":"One person, one vote is a basic principal of democracy when the vote of one person is worth 10,000 time as much as that of another is simply undemocratic  It\u2019s simply a violation of basic democratic principles for one vote to be worth more than another. There have been plenty of other attempts to restrict the rights of party members and activists to select candidates by party insiders keen to sew up the selection without members being consulted, super-delegates were created as a watered down response to one of these but the effects are the same [i] .  Regardless of how votes are actually cast it gives a very poor appearance a sends a bad message for a major party \u2013 especially one called the Democratic Party - to be justifying such a situation.  [i] Paul Rockwell. \u201cScrew the voters. Let the superdelegates decide!\u201d Common Dreams. 18 February 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-pro01b","title":"","text":"Primaries are a process of selection, not one of election. There are plenty of other situations in which political parties recognise the need to introduce particular expertise into their processes such as in drafting policy or developing campaign materials.  Superdelegates act as a balancing mechanism in the event of an emergency or a tie. Other than that the system simply ensures that the winning candidate has a clear majority and to provide the leadership with the party a legitimate reason to attend and show their support to those watching at home.  Rather than providing an unwatchable parade of faces and names that the electorate has never heard of the superdelegate system means that senior party officials have the opportunity to say that they have actively and publically voted for the successful candidate."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-pro03a","title":"","text":"Candidates solicitation of superdelegates damages the political system and requires candidates to go through contortions to secure their support  Superdelegates, as many are senators, representatives or officials in the states, often have their own reelection campaigns to secure and as a result their votes can be up for negotiation or go to which candidate will be best for their own reelection chances rather than in the best interests of the party. Presidential candidates are often prepared to make concessions to superdelegates to secure their support. There is public acknowledgement of the fact that this process takes place and the fact that they are not obliged to support the candidate designated by their state parties gives them enormous bargaining power. For example in 2008 several Democratic Representatives of Ohio formed a \u2018Protect American Jobs\u2019 pact to hold back from endorsements until a candidate addresses issues of importance to the Ohio economy. [i]  The system of superdelegates simply extends the pork-barrel buffet into the convention. With votes to be bought through offer of jobs or political support, the political process is distorted and corrupted [ii] .  [i] Czawadzki, \u2018Ohio\u2019s Superdelegates Hold Endorsements Hostage\u2019, Ohio Daily, 6 March 2008,   [ii] Robert Schlesinger. \u201cSuperdelegates: Show me the money!\u201d Huffington Post. 17 February 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-con03b","title":"","text":"The very fact that the only time since its creation when the superdelegates played a significant role, they managed to select the most unelectable candidate in modern American history \u2013 and by their involvement made him, more unelectable still suggests that the system may not be working.  Their intervention in 1984 to nudge Mondale over the winning line produced a candidate who lost in 49 states. If ever there were a situation when the party elders subtle understanding of the electorate might have been useful then it was at that election.  Instead they supported the party insider with a mechanism he had helped design and for exactly the purpose he had wanted it in place."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-con01b","title":"","text":"In such a scenario \u2013 which is a little concerned \u2013 it can be assumed that exactly the same party elders could be relied on to pressure the candidate to resign.  Equally the only \u2018crisis\u2019 it is conceivable to imagine after months of primaries being raked over by the press and political opponents would seem to be that party grandees considered that the voters had made \u2018the wrong choice\u2019.  The reason that the Mondale case was contentious was that he wanted \u2013 and had wanted for some time \u2013 the party apparatus to have an even greater say but this was the best he could get. It also gives the lie to the party \u2018experts\u2019 capacity to ensure winning candidates are selected."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-con02a","title":"","text":"It\u2019s in the interests of ordinary party members that they don\u2019t have to compete with congressmen to be a delegate  Most delegates are either party activists or, in some states, those selected by the candidate or state party leaderships for a particular role in the campaign.  It would be unfair to all concerned if they had to compete for their place at the convention with senators and congressmen, as is the case with the Republicans where the elected representatives often get to be delegates due to being a recognisable name. [i] Likewise ensuring that former party leaders and other elders are in attendance shows both continuity and unity.  It seems unlikely that the average activist from Arkansas would be likely to be sent if the alternative was W.J. Clinton  [i] Klonsky, Joanna, \u2018Backgrounder The Role of Delegates in the U.S. Presidential Nominating Process\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 10 June 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-con03a","title":"","text":"The party leadership has the experience and expertise of actually winning elections, they provide a useful buffer against activists \u2013 usually from the party\u2019s extremes  It is a standing joke in both parties that to win the nomination candidates need to run to the extreme and then, to win the election, run back to the middle. The very fact that this disparity exists suggests that having a stop button of people who have actually won some elections because, by definition, they have an understanding of the electorate might not be a bad idea.  In essence the superdelegates act as what in parliamentary terms as a reviewing chamber, rarely used but useful in a crisis. [i]  [i] Thurow, Glen E., \"The 1984 Democratic Primary Election: Issues and Image,\" in Peter W. Schramm and Dennis J. Mahoney, eds. The 1984 Election and the Future of American Politics (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press), 1987"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-con01a","title":"","text":"It\u2019s useful to have an informed and experienced group involved in the event of a tie and also to deal with any other issues such as a last minute scandal  The superdelegates are really a valve to deal with the unexpected. Even in the most contentious case of Walter Mondale \u2013 in reality only contentious because it was the first time the system had been used \u2013 the party had already decided and the superdelegates were just ensuring a clear majority.  Imagine a scenario in which a candidate had won the popular vote only to face a major scandal on the eve of the convention. The role of those electors with a free hand would suddenly look very useful to party members."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhwass-con02b","title":"","text":"There is absolutely no reason for the party leadership not to be invited \u2013 and to speak \u2013 without being given a vote. Every other party manages to do so.  Working on the basis that Bill Clinton managed to get an invite to \u2013 and address \u2013 the British Labour party (with Kevin Spacey as his sidekick) in 2002, [i] it seems unlikely that Democrat party managers would forget to give him an invite.  Indeed the fact that the parties great and good have already had an influence over the outcome of the nomination in terms of giving their support and appearing on the campaign trail with candidates to give them an extra say at this late stage seems doubly unfair.  [i] \u2018Speech by Bill Clinton, former US President, at the Labour Party Conference, 2002\u2019, Winter Gardens, Blackpool, Wednesday 2 October 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro02b","title":"","text":"If the terrorist organisation was elected as Hamas was it is likely that as in 2006\/7 when much of the power in the PA remained with the Fatah President, Mahmood Abbas, one or other of the presidency or the parliament would remain in non-terrorist hands so funding should be continued in order to strengthen that party. In any case, any party that is willing to stand and contest relatively free and fair elections, is in the long term likely to want to bring peace. Working with such a government would encourage the moderates within that organisation, and allow them to understand that helping the Palestinian people to a better future requires compromise and negotiation. This move from terrorism to a political process will take time in order for attitudes to change and trust to build. It can only be achieved by western commitment to work with the new government rather than to cut it off entirely."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro02a","title":"","text":"Withholding funds will prevent PNA terrorism and anti-Semitism.  It is clear what Hamas, or any other terrorist organisation, has to do in order to convince western governments to continue funding the Palestinian National Authority with it in charge. It must formally give up terror, accept the existence of the state of Israel and drop any anti-Semitic ideology. Yasser Arafat\u2019s PLO and Fatah Party made these commitments in the early 1990s, and this allowed them to become negotiating partners in the Oslo Peace process. [1] Hamas has to take the same steps if it wants to enjoy the same level of support from western donors which the previous Fatah government had. Until it makes these public changes, there would not be any funding.  [1] Schlaim, Avi. \u201cThe Rise and Fall of the Oslo Peace Process.\u201d International Relations of the Middle East. 2005."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro03b","title":"","text":"It would be anti-democratic to punish the Palestinian people for exercising their right to vote. Their vote may not be a vote for terrorism or against the peace process, but rather a response to the corruption and anarchy of the ruling party, currently Fatah, and its mismanagement of the Palestinian National Authority. Withdrawing funding is not just a signal of disapproval for the party which is elected, but a clear attempt to bring down the PNA government and overturn the election result. After all the years of western criticism of corrupt dictatorial regimes, what message does it send to Arab governments and people if the west refuses to respect the result of an election and imposes a collective punishment?"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro01a","title":"","text":"The law prevents US and EU governments from funding terrorist groups.  Hamas is a terrorist organisation, responsible for killing hundreds of civilians, often by sending suicide bombers into Israel. Both the European Union and the US State Department have recognised this by listing Hamas as a terrorist organisation. Their governments are barred by law from providing any funding to such groups. [1] It is extremely worrying that such a violent organisation managed to win power in the most recent Palestinian election, and that committed terrorists are in government in Gaza and in control of the Palestinian budget and security forces. In 2007 both Western law, and the moral disgust at the thought that aid funding could be used to fund terror attacks, required the EU and US to stop funding the Palestinian Authority while under a Hamas government, the same would almost certainly be the case again if Hamas were to regain power.  [1] Schulenburg, John. \u201cFatah Reconciles With Hamas.\u201d Gateway Pundit. 27\/04\/2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is these western governments themselves who define what groups are terrorist groups. They both make the definitions of terrorism and decide what groups fall into these definitions. For example the United Kingdom regarded the IRA (Irish Republican Army) as being a terrorist group while the United States did not consider them a terrorist organisation. [1] Therefore if these countries wished to deal with and provide financial aid to a new Palestinian government, even if it was the political arm of a terrorist organisation they could simply redefine it, as would almost certainly be the case if the terrorist organisation was perceived as doing something that is in the interests of these western nations.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro03a","title":"","text":"The outcome of the Palestinian elections should not be rewarded with aid.  A terrorist organisation such as Hamas may be democratically elected, but that does not mean we have to fund its government. Respecting the decision of the Palestinian people is not the same thing as liking their choice or rewarding it with aid. The Palestinian people should realise that a vote for Hamas or any other terrorist organisation is a vote for international isolation. Showing our clear disapproval of terrorists in government sends a clear message for future elections both in Palestine and in other countries."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con03b","title":"","text":"The history of the IRA does not provide a useful precedent for dealing with Hamas. Leaving aside questions of how genuine the IRA\u2019s conversion to peace and democracy really is, parallels with Hamas and the Palestinian conflict are misleading. Compared to the religious fundamentalism of Hamas, Irish republicans were pretty secular and focused on gaining and using power in this world. They wanted to force Britain out of Northern Ireland, but not to wipe Britain itself off the map. There has never been an IRA suicide bomber and, faced with a failing armed struggle, the movement\u2019s leaders chose to compromise. Hamas is entirely different in its beliefs and attitudes, and there is no reason to suppose that funding it in power will encourage it to change its strategy or aims."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con01b","title":"","text":"Arab and Muslim states won\u2019t necessarily make up any budget shortfall if the EU and USA stop funding the PNA. Many Arab governments would be deeply unhappy at seeing Islamists in government and even though they do not like Israel, they have no wish to inflame the situation further. More moderate countries in the region recognise Israel and want the peace process to move forward so would be just as likely to demand that a terrorist group gives up terror and disarms as the west. Iran may be more sympathetic, but almost all Palestinians are Sunni rather than Shia Muslims, and Iran has its own international problems such as sanctions that are making an economic impact so it may not be in a position to subsidize other governments.  There is also no evidence that the Palestinians would turn to such states. In December 2007, 87 countries and international organisations, including Serbia and Nicaragua, pledged to donate $7.4 billion to the PNA over three years. [1] This amount is far more than previous US and EU funding and there is no evidence that its acceptance has led to Palestine depending on anti-Israel regimes.  [1] Stotsky, Steven. \u201cDoes Foreign Aid Fuel Palestinian Violence?\u201d Middle East Quarterly. Summer 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con02a","title":"","text":"The loss of funding would destabilise and radicalise Palestine.  Palestine is very dependent on foreign aid, the PNA is dependent on aid for 50% of its budget and per head the Palestinians are the biggest recipients of aid in the world. [1] The loss of funding would therefore destabilise both the Palestinian National Authority and Palestinian society as a whole. 140,000 PNA jobs are dependent upon the income from western funding, and these workers in turn help support more than a third of the Palestinian population. [2] Cutting funding could lead to the collapse of any government system and cause great suffering among the people who would lose their chief source of income has gone. Both these things are likely to radicalise the Palestinian people further and make peace less likely.  [1] Levy, Judith, \u2018Palestinian economy dangerously dependent on foreign aid\u2019, The Washington Times Communities, 27 May 2011,   [2] \u201cPalestinians \u2018face financial crisis\u2019.\u201d BBC News. 21\/02\/2006."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con04a","title":"","text":"Western donors should support fair government  The west should support democratically elected, just, uncorrupted government no matter who provides it. Hamas could make a much better government than Fatah, it is a religious movement dedicated to political and social action. For many years it has run the most effective welfare programmes in the Palestinian territories, especially Gaza, including orphanages, schools, clinics and help for the needy. [1] The honesty and discipline of its leaders and followers provide a stark contrast with the corruption and chaos of the Fatah-run administration of Yasser Arafat and Mahmood Abbas. They paid lip service to the peace process but either could not, or would not control their followers so as to make a clear commitment to peace. At least with Hamas in power, the Palestinians would be better and more honestly governed, and billions of dollars in aid money will no longer be stolen by a corrupt elite. Hamas in Gaza by comparison has established an efficient public administration and has an ambitious infrastructure program. [2] In addition, militias and security forces are likely to be under much more effective control, making genuine negotiations about a long-term ceasefire between Israel and the Palestinians much more plausible. After all, a deal which excludes Hamas has no chance at all of holding.  [1] Putz, Ulrike. \u201cUncle Hamas Cares for Palestinians.\u201d Spiegel. 12\/20\/2006.   [2] Shaikh, Salman, \u2018Don\u2019t Forget Gaza\u2019, ForeignPolicy.com, 24 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con03a","title":"","text":"Engaging with Hamas is the best way to secure a peace deal between Israel and Palestine.  There is a clear precedent for engaging with terrorist groups moving towards a political track. Like Hamas in recent years, at the end of the 1970s, the IRA was a terrorist organisation which rejected the political process. In the early 1980s, Sinn Fein, the political wing of the IRA, decided to stand for elections. As elected representatives grappled with local issues and had to work with others on councils and committees, the movement changed and, in 1994, the IRA declared a ceasefire. [1] More recently, Sinn Fein leaders have held ministerial positions in Northern Ireland and the IRA has ended the armed struggle. This was a long process but it shows clearly how, if we respect any elected terrorist group\u2019s popular mandate and are prepared to engage with them, they may be encouraged to give up terrorism and make concessions for peace. Indeed some hard liners in Hamas controlled Gaza worry that exactly such a scenario may happen. [2]  [1] Schmidt, William E. \u201cCease-Fire in Northern Ireland.\u201d New York Times. 01\/09\/1994.   [2] Shaikh, Salman, \u2018Don\u2019t Forget Gaza\u2019, ForeignPolicy.com, 24 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con01a","title":"","text":"Withholding funds will cause Palestine to rely on anti-Israeli regimes.  Cutting off aid to the Palestinian National Authority would be counter-productive no matter who is elected in. The PNA would have to replace funding from somewhere, this would inevitably mean turning for aid to Muslim and Arab states, such as Saudi Arabia and Iran as Hamas did. [1] The west may therefore simply force the Palestinians in to the arms of countries that are much more hostile to Israel resulting in the Palestinians simply being more hard-line to please their new paymasters. Allowing the Palestinians to become dependent upon such anti-Israel regimes will end any influence the west has had with the PNA and push it in a more extremist direction. Potentially, such alliances could make a regional conflict more likely.  [1] Watt, Nicholas. \u201cUS urges Arab states to fund Palestinians after Hamas victory.\u201d The Guardian. 31\/01\/2006."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con04b","title":"","text":"This assumes that it is Hamas that is elected or another group that has been involved in running welfare programmes. It should however be noted that while Hamas has effectively provided welfare programmes it has at the same time used those same civilians as human shields. During its time in power in Gaza Hamas has had little impact except for starting a conflict with Israel, as a result Gaza is in a worse position than the West Bank with 80% of the population dependent on international aid, 61% are food insecure and 90% of water supplied is not suitable for drinking. [1]  [1] Hasan, Mehdi, \u2018No end to the strangulation of Gaza\u2019, New Statesman, 6 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con02b","title":"","text":"Cutting off aid to the PNA need not result in mass suffering among the Palestinian people. Humanitarian aid would certainly continue, although this could no longer be channelled through the PNA but rather to individual schemes run by non-governmental organisations. In any case, the greatest suffering is caused by a lack of a peace process with Israel. A commitment to peace talks shown by a terrorist group pledging to end terrorism would help allow the economic development needed to create jobs and relieve poverty in the Palestinian territories."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro02b","title":"","text":"Buying time only helps the terrorists. It gives them time to arm themselves and gain allies abroad so enabling a more deadly series of attacks later on. Terrorist groups usually only have a very finite number of resources so the state should seek to press the terrorist group until it has nothing left to fall back on. It is notable that each time Israel has failed to destroy groups such as Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza they have quickly been resupplied b allies in Syria and Iran making them more difficult to fight next time. [1]  [1] Spiegel, Peter, and King, Laura, \u2018Israel Says Syria, Not Just Iran, Supplied Missiles to Hezbollah\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 31 August 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro02a","title":"","text":"No negotiation encourages the hunt for a bigger lever  When fighting terrorists the state either needs to answer some of the terrorists demands or fight back. When the state fights back the by the terrorists response is almost always more bloodshed using more and more extreme methods for example the first intifada was fought using sticks and stones, but when this, and the peace process that followed it failed, or rather did not show the results that was hoped for, the second was a major step up to suicide bombing. This is because when the terrorists fail they are unlikely to pack up; instead they will try to find a bigger lever to course the state into making the move they want. In this case Arafat hoped a round of violence would bring about concessions. [1] The best way to prevent this cycle of violence is to negotiate, even if this is mostly to buy time. Even when there is no cease fire there will be no reason for the terrorists to escalate if their demands are being taken seriously.  [1] Pressman, Jeremy, \u2018The Second Intifada: Background and Causes of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\u2019, The Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol. CCIII, No.2, Fall 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro03b","title":"","text":"Whether this happens really depends on the negotiations. Unfortunately negotiations without result are likely to strengthen the radicals who can show that the peaceful route is not going anywhere. The only way to strengthen the moderates is to give them what they want, and if this has to be done the concessions could have been given before there was a turn to terrorism."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro05a","title":"","text":"Negotiation isolates those who are only interested in violence  Just as negotiations strengthen the moderates they isolate those who are most radical and interested in a violent solution. This isolation is key to actually winning a fight against groups using terrorist methods because terrorists are almost always hiding within the community. The only way to prevent these acts is therefore to encourage their community to persuade the terrorists to reject violence, or if they are not willing to change to aid the state. The need for help from the community is recognised in almost all conflicts against terrorist groups and insurgencies. The state succeeds when it gets the moderates on board, this is shown by the conflict in Iraq where the United States turned the tide against al Qaeda in the Al-Anbar Awakening. This victory was only made possible through the engagement and cooperation with local leaders who wanted an end to violence so were willing to talk to, and join with the US military if the result was likely to be security. [1]  [1] Smith, Niel, and MacFarland, Sean, \u2018Anbar Awakens: The Tipping Point\u2019, Military Review, March-April 2008, pp.41-52,  p.48"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Negotiation saves lives  Almost all terrorist groups kill people, whether innocents or members of the military. Even those who limit casualties by giving warnings of their atrocities are unperturbed when they do end up taking lives. Negotiation can then be the best way to save lives both in the short and long term. In the short term negotiating can mean a cease fire, and if there are hostages their release. Over the long term negotiation is necessary if there is to be any peaceful conclusion to the conflict. As the right to life is the most fundamental right, and the duty of the states to protect its citizens is primary role of the state it is clear that the protection of these lives should be the main consideration for the state."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro01b","title":"","text":"In the long term negotiation and compromise of some form is needed to bring about a final peace but it is not correct that negotiations in the short term saves lives. First of all not all terrorist groups will initiate a cease fire if they are negotiating with the government, about half continue their violence while negotiating, [1] and even if they do there is no saying all their supporters will take part. Negotiating also shows that the government is weak; the determination to 'save lives' can end up costing more lives as the terrorists see that they violence is paying dividends. They may come to the conclusion that if they kill more they will gain more concessions.  [1] Cronin, Audrey Kurth, \u2018Negotiating with groups that use terrorism: Lessons for policy-makers\u2019, Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue Background papers, 2008,  p.6"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro05b","title":"","text":"Negotiations are not needed to isolate terrorists. The vast majority of citizens will abhor violence as they simply desire a quiet life in which they can make a peaceful living. The best way for the government to isolate the terrorists is to ensure the security of the community and meet some of their grievances. When the community sees that they government is in a better position to provide what they want they will support the government. The situation in Iraq was unusual in that there were important people in the community who at one point or another actively supported Al Qaeda so there needed to be negotiations with these people. In most circumstances the important members of the community are on the sidelines so negotiating with them would not be analogous to negotiating with terrorists."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is nothing wrong with attempts to solve the individual grievance without reference to the terrorist group. The aim of resolving the grievance is to prevent more people joining the extremists and to isolate them from the people. When this is done it will be much easier to catch the people who are responsible for the terrorist atrocities and bring them to justice. Being willing to negotiate with the terrorist group on the other hand will likely lead to some of the concessions being that terrorists or former terrorist manage to escape justice for their acts as they will want such an amnesty to be a part of the concessions they receive in return for giving up violence."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Negotiation encourages moderation  In every terrorist movement there are different factions and disagreements about how best to achieve their collective aims, and often terrorist groups have either direct or indirect ties with political parties with whom they share the same goals. It is clearly then in the interest of the state to strengthen the more acceptable parts of the movement whether can seriously talk to. The only way to strengthen the moderates is to negotiate. This then makes their path to a solution the more credible course for the movement as a whole to take. To demonstrate a negative example the United States and Israel were unwilling to negotiate with moderates within the PLO for fifteen years during which time not only was there a lot more bloodshed but much more radical groups formed on the Palestinian side making negotiations much more complicated in the long run as there would be multiple groups who would need to sign up to a final peace treaty. [1]  [1] Chamberlin, Paul Thomas, \u2018When It Pays to Talk to Terrorists\u2019, The New York Times, 3 September 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-pro04a","title":"","text":"Negotiation is the only way to solve the underlying problem  UN Secretary General Kofi Annan stated in 2003 \u201cterrorism will only be defeated if we act to solve the political disputes and long-standing conflicts which generate support for it. If we do not, we shall find ourselves acting as a recruiting sergeant for the very terrorists we seek to suppress.\u201d [1] Terrorist campaigns don't just come out of nowhere (with the exception of some single individual acts), there is a grievance behind the acts. The terrorist is trying to have this grievance dealt with and believes the best way to this end is through violence. It is clear that the easiest way to end the conflict is simply to resolve the grievance. Even when there are no negotiations the state will usually attempt to resolve some of these grievances, however doing so unilaterally will simply show that the terrorist's violence is working without getting any guarantees of an end to the violence in return. Negotiation therefore benefits both sides. It is notable that 43% of terrorist groups that have ended since 1968 have done so as a result of negotiations compared to only 7% being defeated militarily. [2]  [1] Annan, Kofi, \u2018Ability to reason vital in fighting terrorism, Secretary-General tells conference\u2019, un.org, SG\/SM\/8885, 22 September 2003,   [2] Jones, Seth G., and Libicki, Martin C., How Terrorist Groups End, RAND, 2008,  p.xiii, xiv"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con03b","title":"","text":"It is very rare for such negotiations to provide a benefit to terrorist groups. Many states, such as the UK and USA, are unwilling to provide ransom payments so where they are provided they are often privately raised thus cannot be considered to be a result of negotiation. In such circumstances the state will have secured the release of hostages and the life of a state's citizens should be placed above comparatively small amounts of money. Where prisoners are being released as a confidence building measure the terrorists will usually be making some concession as well such as giving up some arms so the state does not end up worse off but there is more trust to enable negotiations to prevent more violence."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con01b","title":"","text":"A precondition that terrorists must give up their arms and renounce violence before negotiations will ensure that negotiations never come and the violence will continue indefinitely. Terrorists realise that their influence is only as a result of their threat of violence; once this has been renounced the government will never have any reason to give them what they want. The only response to such a precondition is to force the government to drop that condition through violence."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con02a","title":"","text":"Negotiation encourages more terrorism  There are two ways in which negotiation encourages more terrorism. First it shows that violence can achieve its aims, a group that has committed violent acts and received negotiations in return will believe that they will gain even more from greater levels of violence. Secondly as argued in the previous point negotiations with terrorist groups gives legitimacy to political violence. This in turn will encourage other groups to resort to violence to achieve their political goals as they have seen it work for another group. Thus for example when the Fatah movement and the Palestine Liberation Organisation were legitimised by a peace process and the recognition of a form of Palestinian government other groups such as Islamic Jihad and Hamas came to believe that they could take terrorist actions further in order to liberate Palestine through an armed struggle. [1]  [1] Schweitzer, Yoram, \u2018The Rise and Fall of Suicide Bombings in the Second Intifada\u2019, Strategis Assessment, Vol.13, No.3, October 2010,  p.40"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con05a","title":"","text":"Even if negotiation with one group is successful others will take their place  Terrorist groups are rarely static, they change, evolve, and break up. Negotiating with one group may create peace with that group while at the same time causing a split that creates another group that is more willing to use violence. This is what happened in Northern Ireland where the peace process tamed the IRA and spawned the Real IRA, [1] a group that was more even more willing to kill innocents than its predecessor through attacks such as the Omagh bombing which killed 29 people in 1998. [2]  [1] Moran, Michael, \u2018Terrorist Groups and Political Legitimacy\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 16 March 2006,   [2] Elliott, Francis, \u2018Real IRA admits to Omagh bomb and disbands\u2019, The Telegraph, 20 October 2002,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con04a","title":"","text":"Terrorists can\u2019t be trusted \u2013 better to crush them  Any group that is willing to resort to violence cannot be trusted not to simply take up arms again as soon as they perceive some new grievance. Groups that believe they can achieve what they want through force of arms will turn to violence again and again. This can be seen all over the world; thus ETA regularly declares ceasefires and breaks them just as often (1989, 1996, 1998, 2006), [1] or civil wars that have seemed to be coming to a close reignite because one or more groups believe they can gain more from another round of fighting. Thus the Tamil Tigers fought what might be considered to be four separate wars with the Sri Lankan state with a lot of ceasefires along the way. [2] It was however not negotiations but the pursuit of a ruthless military campaign that finally brought the reunification of the country. [3]  [1] Dingle, Sarah, \u2018ETA militants declare end to armed struggle\u2019, ABC The World Today, 21 October 2011,   [2] \u2018Sri Lanka profile Timeline\u2019, BBC News, 16 May 2013,   [3] Smith, Niel A., \u2018Understanding Sri Lanka\u2019s Defeat of the Tamil Tigers\u2019, NDU Press, 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con03a","title":"","text":"Negotiation provides more resources to terrorists  Negotiation can help the terrorists who are negotiating in several ways. First it buys time; if the terrorist group has previously been hard pressed by the state's military then this time can be used to rest, recover and resupply, in effect for preparing for the next campaign. This is what happens whenever there is a ceasefire, or a unilateral break, in the campaign in Lebanon or Palestine as those states which are aligned to the terrorist groups such as Syria and Iran seek to resupply their allies. [1]  Second in some cases negotiation can involve the state handing over resources to the terrorist group. This is most often the case with hostage negotiations where the terrorists demand the release of other terrorists who have been captured so boosting the groups manpower or else demand a ransom in return for the release of hostages. Somalia has over the last decade regularly seen payouts of ransoms to groups of pirates who have links to islamists [2] and are accused of having links to terrorists. While pirates are the highest profile ransoms the same occurs with terrorist groups, it is estimated that $70million has been paid to secure the release of western captives since 2010. [3] Releasing terrorists can also sometimes be used as a confidence building measure leading up to negotiations, which can mean helping the terrorist groups even before there are negotiations. This has most recently occurred with Israel releasing 26 Palestinian prisoners, including Yusef Irshaid who murdered an Israeli, three suspected \u2018collaborators\u2019 and planned car bombings, in order to restart peace talks. [4]  [1] Spiegel, Peter, and King, Laura, \u2018Israel Says Syria, Not Just Iran, Supplied Missiles to Hezbollah\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 31 August 2006,   [2] Spiegel Staff, \u2018Terror on the High Seas: Somali Pirates Form Unholy Alliance with Islamists\u2019, Spiegel Online, 20 April 2009,   [3] Press Association \u2018David Cameron To Tell G8 \u2018Stop Paying Ransoms To Terrorists\u2019\u2019, Huffington Post, 18 June 2013,   [4] Harris, Ben, \u2018Who Israel released\u2019, Jewish Telegraphic Association, 14 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con05b","title":"","text":"The real IRA also shows how negotiation is successful. The new group did not have the tacit support from abroad in the form of the Republic of Ireland or the USA or resources of its predecessor. The violent campaign destroyed any public support and the group disbanded, its leaders were eventually found liable for the bombing. [1] The political process through the Stormont Parliament is now the accepted way to peace and reconciliation in Northern Ireland.  [1] McDonald, Henry, \u2018Four Real IRA leaders found liable for Omagh bombing\u2019, theguardian.com, 8 June 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con01a","title":"","text":"Negotiations cannot take place while innocents are being threatened  Governments cannot negotiate while innocent civilians are being threatened by illegitimate violence. The state is the only wielder of legitimate violence in the form of the police and military that are needed to keep order and defend the state's citizens. To negotiate with terrorists is to provide them with legitimacy making violence an accepted way of achieving political aims. Before legitimacy is granted upon the terrorist group they must first give up their weapons and renounce violence. By taking such a position the state ensures that no lives will be taken during the political process."}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con04b","title":"","text":"Simply because a terrorist group has broken ceasefires numerous times does not mean that the next attempt will get nowhere \u2013 in ETA\u2019s case the current ceasefire is holding. [1] We should also remember that not every time the terrorist group breaks a ceasefire it has been result of actions by the terrorist group \u2013 the state can also be the one that is walking away from talks. Ultimately there needs to be trust on both sides, to the terrorists the state seems as untrustworthy as the terrorists do to the state.  [1] \u2018Spain and ETA Always around\u2019, The Economist, 17 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-thwnt-con02b","title":"","text":"There is no question that violence can sometimes achieve its aims but each individual campaign is different and is responded to in different ways thus for example a terrorist group that achieves minimal aims through violence cannot be used as a model by a group whose aims present an existential threat to the state. Thus for example the IRA achieved devolution after years of bombings but this does not them mean that the Real IRA was ever going to be successful in obtain a complete break with the UK."}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro02b","title":"","text":"There will always be some wasted spending but earmarks often appropriate money for projects that are considered very worthwhile by the local community. [1] After all, representatives know that useless vanity projects will not attract positive headlines back home, so they have every incentive to ensure that the money goes into stimulating local economies, investing in neglected communities, and making a positive impact on the lives of millions of Americans. [2] For example Senator McCain singled out $6.6million for research on Formosan termites as unjustified but for local people they represent a threat to buildings as they consume wood. [3] Furthermore, who is more likely to appreciate the needs on the ground, a faceless, unaccountable Washington-based bureaucrat, or an elected local representative closely in touch with the needs of their constituents? As Rahm Emanuel argues \u201cI know more about the needs of the people I represent than some bureaucrat in Washington, an ideologue in the White House, or worse, a bureaucrat with orders from a White House ideologue.\u201d [4] Finally, if there are some worthless examples of earmarks, then by all means eliminate those through scrutiny and votes in Congress on a case-by-case basis. There is no need to abandon the whole system.  [1] Elander, Eugene, \u2018So, what\u2019s wrong with earmarks?\u2019, 2009  [2] Rauch, Jonathan, \u2018Earmarks Are A Model, Not A Menace\u2019, 2009  [3] Grace, Stephanie, \u2018In defense of earmarks\u2019, 2009  [4] Emanuel, Rahm, \u2018Don\u2019t Get Rid of Earmarks\u2019, 2007"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro02a","title":"","text":"Earmarks do not represent an efficient use of taxpayers' money  Earmarks usually represent expensive programs of little worth to the American people. As the main means of pork barrel politics, earmarks are typically vanity projects with little economic benefit. Examples include the Alaskan \u201cBridge to Nowhere\u201d (a $400 million project to connect an island community of just 50 people to the mainland), [1] $1 million for shuttle buses at Western Kentucky University, [2] and a grant of $300 000 for the Polynesian Voyaging Society of Hawaii. [3] Worse, a recent Harvard Business School study found that states which received the most federal spending via earmarks from well-connected Congressmen actually suffered economically as a result, because the federal money crowded out private investment and distorted the local jobs market. [4]  [1] Volpe, Paul, \u2018Politifact: \u2018Bridge\u2019 Going Nowhere Before Palin Killed It\u2019, 2008  [2] WKU News, \u2018Funding secured for 2 more projects\u2019, 2009  [3] Mendoza, Jim, \u2018McCain criticizes Voyaging Society earmark\u2019, 2010  [4] Coval, Joshua et al., \u2018Do Powerful Politicians Cause Corporate Downsizing?\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro03b","title":"","text":"What erodes trust in Congress is the endless squabbling between parties who put their own partisan advantage over the national interest, not the lobbying of individual representatives and senators on behalf of their constituents. Politicians erode trust by loudly arguing that government is the problem. [1] Earmarks are in fact important in linking Congress to citizens, as they produce concrete benefits at a local level that can be associated with the activities of elected officials. This increases trust and helps to legitimise the wider activities of the federal government, including its taxes. This helps to explain why opinion polls find that most people trust their own Congressman to do the right thing, even as confidence in Congress as a whole sinks to record lows. [2]  [1] Sell, T.M., \u2018A few kind words for earmarks\u2019, 2009  [2] Reich, Robert, \u2018House of Ill-Repute: It\u2019s Time to Ban Earmarks\u201d, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro05a","title":"","text":"Earmarks do not accord with democratic principles of equity, fairness and justice  Earmarks are fundamentally unfair, benefiting some states and congressional districts much more than others regardless of the merits of their case for federal spending. Where spending priorities are decided by the executive they can set objective criteria and organise competitive bidding processes for specific projects. Earmarks avoid this merit-based approach and instead channel money to specific projects according to how well-connected their Congressional representatives are. [1] Congressmen on the key spending committees, especially the Appropriations Committees, are best placed to channel pork back to their districts. It has been found that earmark spending rises between 40-50% in a state if one of its Senators becomes Chair of a top-three committee. [2]  [1] Minge, David, \u2018The Case Against Academic Earmarking\u2019  [2] Coval, Joshua et al., \u2018Do Powerful Politicians Cause Corporate Downsizing?\u2019, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro01a","title":"","text":"Abolishing earmarks will save money  Scrapping earmarks will save billions of dollars and contribute to reducing the appalling US budget deficit. Earmarks totalled about $16 billion of the 2009-10 budget, [1] unnecessary spending which should be cut in the interests of both present and future US taxpayers. Earmarks can be a large amount of a department\u2019s budget, in 2005 the Office of Naval Research derived a quarter of its budget through earmarks. [2] Granted, removing earmarks alone will not be sufficient to eliminate the budget deficit and get rid of wasteful government spending, but earmarks are the obvious place to start. Until these most egregious examples of waste are tackled, it will not be possible to move on to cut bigger spending programs.  [1] Kane, Paul, \u2018Congressional earmarks worth nearly $16 billion\u2019, 2010  [2] Charging RINO, \u2018The Problem with Earmarks\u2019, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro01b","title":"","text":"Scrapping earmarks won\u2019t save money, it\u2019s just a distraction from the real challenge the government faces. As Earmarks are just a way of describing a government funded program [1] they do not represent additional government spending, they simply appropriate small amounts of it (less than 0.5% of the whole US budget, and only 1.5% of discretionary spending) for specific projects. [2] If the earmarks were not there, the money would still be spent; its use would simply be decided by the executive branch rather than directed to a particular end by Congress. For this reason, ending the use of earmarks will do nothing to cut the deficit. If you were serious about doing that you would have to think about cutting entitlement programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, raising the pension age further, reducing military expenditure, and increasing taxes. [3]  [1] Harris-Lacewell, Melissa, \u2018In Defense of Earmarks\u2019 2009  [2] Sell, T.M., \u2018A few kind words for earmarks\u2019, 2009  [3] Hoyer, Steny H., \u2018\u2019Pork\u2019 doesn\u2019t fatten budget\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro05b","title":"","text":"All spending benefits some states over others, all that depends is the actors who are deciding on where the money goes. If spending is equal per person then it can be accused of not being progressive or benefiting states that need it more. If it is made by some other method then it will always favor some over others. It is right that those who are determining where money is going should be elected representatives rather than a bureaucrat or a simple formula."}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro04b","title":"","text":"Some observers would argue that Congress suffers from a lack of party unity, rather than too much of it, and that anything that helps the leaderships to deliver on their party\u2019s campaign promises is of value. So the promise of earmarks is part of the normal give-and-take of legislative politics, often allowing a representative to ameliorate the adverse impact of a policy at a local level and allow necessary bills to be passed. [1] However, even if you think this is bad, eliminating earmarks will not get rid of undue influence on voting in Congress. Instead it will hand that power to the executive, with the White House being able to offer incentives to wavering Congressmen to get them to vote for its programs in the form of promises about increased spending on projects in their state or district.  [1] Plumber, Bradford, \u2018The liberal case for pork\u2019, 2006"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro03a","title":"","text":"Earmarks erode trust in the government  The use of earmarks erodes trust in politicians and the federal government for two reasons. First, it reinforces a belief that politicians ignore the wider national interest but are simply out for themselves, scrabbling to channel as much federal pork as possible back home in order to aggrandise themselves and ensure re-election. Second, it assumes that the answer to every local problem or issue is for the federal government to raise yet more tax revenue and bestow it from on high because Washington-knows-best. It is a symbol that makes it hard to resist spending both for politicians and their constituents. [1]  [1] Minge, David, \u2018The Case Against Academic Earmarking\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-pro04a","title":"","text":"Earmarks transfer too much power to political parties' central leadership  The ability to support or withhold approval from earmarks strengthens the party leaderships in Congress too much. Effectively the leadership can bribe elected representatives with pork for their state or district in order to get them to vote for flawed legislation or budgets. This was clearly seen in the 2010 Healthcare bill where in the Senate votes were secured from conservative Democrats by offering federal spending or subsidies that only affected the states of Louisiana and Nebraska. [1] One consequence of the temptation provided by earmarks is poor policy-making, but more broadly it discourages Congressmen from thinking and voting independently, according to their consciences and their belief in what is best for the nation.  [1] Murray, Shailagh and Montgomery, Lori, \u2018Deal on health bill is reached\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con03b","title":"","text":"Earmarks may represent relatively small sums in themselves, but they act as a \u201cgateway drug\u201d to more profligate spending. By giving individual Congressmen the gratification of directing small amounts of taxpayers\u2019 money to their own advantage, it makes it more likely they won\u2019t say no later when major new spending proposals like Obamacare are put up for a vote. An addiction to earmarks also reinforces the Washington assumption that more government spending and intervention is always the answer."}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con01b","title":"","text":"The power of the purse was given to congress in order to keep taxation down, and therefore spending as well. Unnecessary spending on earmarks is therefore opposed to the founding fathers intentions. [1]  [1] ThisNation.com, \u2018Congressional Power\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con02a","title":"","text":"Earmarking should become a transparent and publicly monitored process  The use of earmarks has become progressively more transparent and accountable in recent years. [1] [2] There is now a Congressional database of earmark requests, a requirement on representatives and senators for disclosure on their websites, as well as a certification obligation that they declare that neither they nor their family will benefit from the requested appropriation. Earmarks are thus a \u201cnonbureaucratic, transparent system of rapid-response grants for pressing local concerns\u201d, something which is genuinely useful. [3] There however could be further reforms such as having committees authorize all spending and banning last minute vote buying. [4]  The attention given to earmarks by the media and campaigning groups means that requests now receive far more scrutiny than they did in the past so we can be sure that campaigners and the press will make sure what they do is benefiting their constituency. [5]  [1] Emanuel, Rahm, \u2018Don\u2019t Get Rid of Earmarks\u2019, 2007  [2] Marlowe, Howard, \u2018In defense of earmarks\u2019, 2008  [3] Rauch, Jonathan, \u2018Earmarks Are A Model, Not A Menace\u2019, 2009  [4] Feehery, John, \u2018Reform, don\u2019t ban, earmarks\u2019, 2009  [5] Sell, T.M., \u2018A few kind words for earmarks\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con05a","title":"","text":"Imposing a ban on earmarking will destabilise congrerss  There is very little chance of Congress ever being willing to give up on having earmarks for their constituency\u2019s. If the ban is voluntary many will not comply and if the ban is mandatory it will need congress to agree to it in the first place. Even those who voice opposition to earmarks make use of the system so it would never pass. [1]  [1] Elander, Eugene, \u2018So, what\u2019s wrong with earmarks?\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con04a","title":"","text":"Earmarks help to create congressional stability  In a system with a two-yearly election cycle, a certain element of incumbent advantage provides stability and continuity in the legislature (and re-election rates have been sharply down in both 2008 and 2010). Many other factors promote incumbency, including the media attention a Congressmen rightly receives back home, perks of office such as large staffs and generous travel expenses, redistricting, and the ability of an incumbent to call upon an existing network of volunteers and donors to support their re-election bid. In any case, earmarks are only a tiny share of overall spending, and donations from local interest groups are usually heavily outweighed by both individual contributions and those from national organisations. Their money goes to candidates who share their ideological position and who they feel will vote to support the major legislative and budget initiatives they favour."}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con03a","title":"","text":"Congressional earmarks are a check on an excessively powerful executive branch  The ability of Congress to earmark funds is an important check on the Presidency. Remember, removing earmarks does not save any money, it just means the executive rather than the legislature determines how it will be spent. [1] There are plenty of examples of US administrations spending money wastefully, [2] and others of Congress forcing them to commit money to worthwhile programs \u2013 both the improved body armour for troops and the Predator drone program originated as earmarks. As it is difficult to determine what is waste and what is not the books should be opened to scrutiny letting the public decide rather than there being an outright ban. [3]  [1] Rockwell, Lew, \u2018In Defense of Earmarks\u2019 2008  [2] Elander, Eugene, \u2018So, what\u2019s wrong with earmarks?\u2019, 2009  [3] Los Angeles Times, \u2018Earmark games in Washington\u2019, 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con05b","title":"","text":"A ban is perfectly possible and Congress has come close already, for example with the house banning earmarks to for profit companies. [1]  [1] Kane, Paul, \u2018House bans earmarks to for-profit companies\u2019, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con01a","title":"","text":"Earmarks are part of the power of the purse  Earmarks are an important aspect of Congress\u2019s proper powers and role within the constitution, they have been used since the early 19th Century. [1] The US Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse \u2013 exclusive authority over the raising of money and its appropriation to particular spending areas. Directing federal funds to individual projects at a local level is an important part of this; [2] indeed many Congressmen such as Rahm Emanuel consider it their duty for which they can be held accountable by voters. [3] It is part of having several layers of accountability and representation at the federal level, congressmen for local interests, Senators for states and the President for the whole country. [4] The unconstitutional alternative is for Congress to cede this power entirely to the executive branch.  [1] Plumber, Bradford, \u2018The liberal case for pork\u2019, 2006  [2] Feehery, John, \u2018Reform, don\u2019t ban, earmarks\u2019, 2009  [3] Emanuel, Rahm, \u2018Don\u2019t Get Rid of Earmarks\u2019, 2007  [4] Harris-Lacewell, Melissa, \u2018In Defense of Earmarks\u2019 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con04b","title":"","text":"Earmarks serve to strengthen the advantages of incumbency when Congressmen seek re-election. They are used to generate pork barrel spending in the constituency, for example a former senator of Nevada claims the University of Nebraska lost $30 million per year when he retired, [1] which the Congressman can point to as an argument for their re-election, especially if they have seniority and a place on a major spending committee. [2] They may also make it easier for incumbents to raise large campaign contributions from grateful companies and industry associations, in 2007 people at companies that received defense earmarks gave lawmakers more than $47 million. [3] These reasons help to explain why incumbent re-election rates in Congress are regularly above 90%, a worrying trend as it suggests there is limited democratic accountability.  [1] Minge, David, \u2018The Case Against Academic Earmarking\u2019  [2] Henke, John, \u2018Why Earmarks are a Problem\u2019, 2008  [3] Heath, David and Bernton, Hal, \u2018$4.5 million for a boat that nobody wanted\u2019, 2007"}
+{"id":"training-politics-appghwace-con02b","title":"","text":"Transparency is difficult in such immense spending bills as there is no way the appropriations committee can vet all the thousands of earmarks. [1] [2] Earmarks move below the radar so earmarks encourage corruption. [3] Although collusion cannot easily be proved, the ability of a Congressman to solicit campaign contributions in exchange for using earmarks to provide federal investment, subsidies, tariff protection and tax breaks for individual firms and industries is worrying. [4]  [1] Rauch, Jonathan, \u2018Earmarks Are A Model, Not A Menace\u2019, 2009  [2] Minge, David, \u2018The Case Against Academic Earmarking\u2019  [3] Minge, David, \u2018The Case Against Academic Earmarking\u2019  [4] Lessig, Lawrence, \u2018the wong in earmarks\u2019, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro02b","title":"","text":"Cooperation and compromise often does not happen and acknowledging a wide range of public opinion is the main reason why they cant compromise. Firstly, they frequently won\u2019t agree, which will lead to tortuously slow progress or even to having no government for the country. This happened after the general election in Belgium in 2010, when the record was broken for the time taken to form a new democratic government after an election (The Telegraph, \u2018Belgium wins Guinness World Record for political impasse\u2019). This occurred because none of the parties are willing to compromise over election promises and yet do not want to have to fight another election. However if a government is to be formed the parties involved will have to make compromises and resulting in tearing up some of their promises, betraying those who voted for them. The alternative is the expense of going to the country again, with no guarantee of a different result.(DW-world.de, 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Coalition government is a good thing.  Adversarial democratic systems such as the United States, Britain and Australia have been becoming increasingly dysfunctional with politics simply being a shouting match. Coalition governments lead to cooperation and compromise between parties.(Woldring, 2011) Governments which are forced to acknowledge a wide range of public opinion are less likely to introduce policies which victimise minorities or ride roughshod over public opinion for ideological reasons; for example, the poll tax in the UK, 1988-92. Empirically, countries with PR systems, such as Germany, show that great prosperity can result from the policies of such governments."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no reason to assume that there will be an increase in political engagement. Votes will simply not count in different ways. If there are more coalitions, people could feel their vote doesn\u2019t count even more strongly, as they will see that the parties they vote for change their policies once in government. What is the point in voting for a platform if the party that is pledging to fulfil these promises is simply going to drop them as soon as the election is over and the negotiations begin?"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro01a","title":"","text":"PR produces fairer results  First past the post (FPTP) often results in a party without majority support being able to dominate parliament. Minority parties, such as the Green party and UKIP (in the UK), which can win 5-10% or so of the vote all over the country, can fail to win a single seat. In the UK 2010 general election, UKIP received 919,546 votes across the country, but not a single seat (BBC News, UK 2010 general election results). Parties with a uniform vote across the country are punished unfairly. Thus in Singapore\u2019s general election of 2011 the National Solidarity Party contested 24 seats and won 39.25% of the valid votes across the wards it contested yet still failed to win any seats.(Wikipedia, Singaporean general election, 2011) Theoretically parties could win huge numbers of votes, potentially up to 49% in every constituency, without ever getting any representation in parliament. As such FPTP favours parties that appeal to local issues or to particular segments of the population these parties that are losing out are likely to be those parties that either appeal to a broad segment of the population or whose support is based upon an issue that affects everyone. Furthermore, in the UK 2010 general election, two thirds of MPs were elected without receiving a majority of the votes in their constituency (Lodge, 2011). This suggests that most people are being represented by people they didn\u2019t vote for."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro01b","title":"","text":"As there are many different forms of proportional representation some of them will be fairer than others. Implementing AV for example may help sort out the problem of MPs not receiving a majority in their constituency as they will now need to receive 50% of the vote in order to be elected. Yet it will do nothing for the other two problems identified. Minority parties are still unlikely to get any seats and parties with their vote uniformly spread across the country will still be punished. AV in both cases still favours geographically centered parties and still favors the top two parties over any smaller one as the small parties will drop out as the ballots are counted."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro04b","title":"","text":"If seats are safe, that is because people are continuing to vote for a party that they are satisfied with. Furthermore, it is perfectly possible for politicians to lose safe seats if the electorate is no longer happy with them; for example, in 2008, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won Glasgow East, one of Labour\u2019s safest seats (BBC News, \u2018SNP stuns Labour in Glasgow East\u2019).  In almost every constituency the number of people who do not vote outnumbers the vote of the winning party. This means if those who don\u2019t vote all got out and voted the election could go any way, they could elect in a fringe party if voting together. So look at Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, one of the safest seats in the country, former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown\u2019s seat. In 2010 Labour won with 65.2% of the vote,(Electoral Calculus, 2010) with 29559 labour votes compared to 6550 SNP a majority of 23009.(Wells, 2010) However in this seat turnout was only 62.2% that means that 27863 people did not vote, considerably more than voted for Labour. If they voted together for someone else those who do not vote could always throw out the party in power. No seat is therefore really a safe seat, they are safe because who believe their vote is not worthwhile do not bother to vote when in reality if they did they could make a difference. Indeed in the Scottish elections of 2011 the SNP managed to take a large part of this same seat.(Vote 2011, 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro03a","title":"","text":"PR increases political engagement which benefits society.  PR results in more engagement in politics as every vote counts (CPA\/Wilton Park conference, \u2018How can Parliamentarians best re-engage the public?\u2019). Political participation is good and we should care about the low voter turnout in elections that has been caused by first past the post. Surveys show that that those who vote are more engaged in the community in other ways and have better personal wellbeing. Research in Switzerland has shown that voting does make people happier as well as being better informed citizens. The higher the stake the person has, and the more likely their vote is to count the more effort they will make to find out the facts so as to make informed choices.(Marks et al., 2005, p5-6)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Safe seats will be reduced.  All political parties have seats that they consider safe and unlikely to lose. If a person in an inner city constituency that has a strong Labour history, wishes to vote for someone other than Labour, then their vote is effectively null and void. Labour will win a majority however they vote. The fact that the seat is so safe means that there is effectively very little effect people can have, resulting in thousands of people's vote being wasted and having no effect when it comes to forming a government. In the 2010 UK general election the result was decided by less than 460,000 voters in only 111 constituencies. This gives an unfair amount of political influence to a tiny minority of the electorate while making the majority\u2019s votes close to worthless.(Miliband, 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con03b","title":"","text":"On the contrary having several manifestos used by a coalition actually means that there are many more people who get some of the policies they voted for passed. Under FPTP only a minority has ever voted for the manifesto that wins and gets implemented. If there is a coalition created by PR then more than 50% of the electorate will be getting a large amount of the policies they voted for implemented.  The whole issue of manifesto promises also makes the assumption that parties always stick to them when they get into power. This is not the case even under single party government. Election promises are often not implemented as politicians are simply using them to win an election, they may realise that the policy will not form the basis of a sensible government policy, or be too politically difficult to implement. Creation of a democratically elected House of Lords was in every New Labour manifesto, yet after three terms in power was at best half complete.(Summers, Labour\u2019s attempts to reform the House of Lords)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con01b","title":"","text":"A lot of successful countries use PR, so clearly it doesn\u2019t lead to instability. In particular coalitions don\u2019t always mean weak government. For example, Germany uses PR and has coalitions, yet is one of the strongest economies in the world and a significant power within Europe. Furthermore, Canada, India and the UK use FPTP and all have had coalitions. The UK coalition has so far proven to be both strong and radical. Michael Portillo, a former Conservative Minister of Defence has argued \"They have been more radical on deficit reduction than say Margaret Thatcher was, but on top of doing that very difficult fiscal adjustment, they are also reformed schools, health, welfare, and pensions - areas where Margaret Thatcher didn't care to tackle.\"(Today, 2011)  The assumption that Proportional Representation leads to coalition also needs to be examined. Australia has for decades had strong single party government under the Alternative Vote."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con02a","title":"","text":"PR creates an unfair balance of power.  Coalition government is actually unfair, as small parties with only a few percent of support nationally can hold the balance of power. This can result in them being able to force through unpopular or sectarian policies with no national mandate as a price for their support in parliament; for example, the Dutch coalition lost its majority in 2011, meaning it may have to rely on the support of the SGP, a very small conservative Christian party that does not even allow women to be members (Financial Times, \u2018Dutch Coalition loses Senate majority).  Particularly when there is only one potential small party that could be a coalition partner for the biggest party(s) that small party potentially holds a lot more power than their number of seats in parliament would imply. When either of the main parties could form a government the small party can negotiate with both to get the best deal possible. And once in government they can threaten to walk out if they do not get their way on the issues that matter to them."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con05a","title":"","text":"Extremist parties will rise under PR.  A democracy means that everybody\u2019s view should be valued equally. However much some people might dislike one party, other people still have the right to vote for them. If extremist parties do gain seats, then it shows the government needs to do more to address concerns. Moreover there are plenty of ways to avoid this problem in a proportional system, for example the German model of setting a lower bar that needs to be crossed before a party can have any representation in parliament. This would show that it is a party that can attract sufficient support to be worthy of representing those views in parliament."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con04a","title":"","text":"The link between constituencies and Members of Parliament is important.  Most PR systems would result in a break between the constituency and parliament. It is important that there is a single MP that represents a particular area. Having constituencies means that every citizen feels that they have a personal representative in parliament. Much of the work of an MP is constituency business, resolving problems encountered by constituents and raising the particular concerns of their geographical area with the government. The importance of this link can be shown in the difference in feeling towards individual\u2019s own representative and the parliament as a whole. In 2010 there was a dissatisfaction in parliament as a whole of 38% whereas only 16% were dissatisfied with the job of their own MP.(Hansard Society, Audit of Political Engagement 7, p.29, p.88)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con03a","title":"","text":"PR decreases political engagement.  PR results in less engagement in politics as voters do not get what they voted for \u2013 instead post-election deals between the parties create coalitions which do not feel bound by manifesto promises. In order to create coalitions there is a need for parties to be flexible on their manifestos especially where they contradict each other. As elections seldom result in all the parties in a governing coalition leaving power, in practice accountability is blurred and voters feel alienated from the political process. In addition, many PR systems are very complex and off-putting for voters."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con01a","title":"","text":"PR leads to weaker government.  Typically under PR, no one party gains a majority of the popular vote, so coalition governments have to be formed often between four or more parties. This tends to produce unstable governments, changing as parties leave or join the governing coalition, and frequent elections. Governments are unable to put a clear, positive legislative agenda in place over several years or act decisively in time of crisis. Compare this to the strong governing majorities produced by FPTP, such as the Conservatives in the 1980s in the UK, which allowed them to push through unpopular but necessary policies, such as tackling trade unions and reducing inflation."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con04b","title":"","text":"A proportional electoral system is more likely to return seats for smaller parties. Amongst these smaller parties, it is likely that we will find parties on either extreme of the left-right spectrum. The British National Party campaigned for PR for this reason (Channel 4 Fact Check, \u2018Would AV help or hinder the BNP?\u2019). Potentially even more extreme parties, such as the English Defence League, could get members of parliament under some proportional systems. It is not beneficial to the country to have extremist groups like this in parliament."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con02b","title":"","text":"Junior partners are by definition junior. It is the biggist party in the coalition that gets the top job; President or Prime Minister while the minor party has to make do with much more junior roles \u2013 the Foreign Ministry has been popular in Germany. In the UK Conservative-Liberal democrat coalition the senior partner the conservatives hold all the big offices: Prime Minister, Chancellor, Foreign Office and Home Office. Even if they have to compromise on some issues it is the senior partner that is setting the government agenda."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro02b","title":"","text":"In a corrupt system the military is likely to be corrupt too. It will have its own sectional interest; getting as much funds for itself, or hyping possible threats. The military interest can often lead to far worse things than corruption \u2013 such as wars. 1 In countries where the military is powerful it is likely to have large private interests too; in Egypt the military's holdings in the economy is estimated at anywhere from 5 to 60% of GDP though the military itself says its revenue from its private businesses is only 1% this is still a large interest. 2  1 Snyder, Jack, Myths of Empire, Cornell University Press, 1991  2 Hauslohner, Abigail, 'Egypt's 'Military Inc' expands its control of the economy', Guardian Weekly, 18 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro02a","title":"","text":"A technocratic government is needed to prevent corruption  Democracy does not mean that a country is not corrupt, or that the political leadership is not corrupt. There are many countries where democratic elections stand side by side with a large amount of corruption; Afghanistan, Libya and Iraq countries that have recently had elections following western intervention are ranked 175, 172, and 171 out of 177 on the corruption perceptions index. Even countries with long established democracies can be perceived as being corrupt, India is 94th. 1 If the political class is incapable of reforming itself it may be necessary for another actor to do it for them.  There have been several coups in which the military has taken power in order to reform the political system before handing over to a civilian government at elections; Turkey in 1960, Portugal in 1974, and the relatively recent coup in Bangladesh in 2007. 2  1 Transparency International, 'Corruptions Perceptions Index 2013',   2 Marinov, Nikolay, and Goemans, Hein, 'Coups and Democracy', British Journal of Political Science, 2013,  , p.5"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro03b","title":"","text":"A military government may well be as riven by factionalism and division as the system which it replaces. The main interests of the military is often simply to maintain or increase the position of the military, this makes it likely there will be disagreement on other issues including over how quickly to return to democratic government. The military will often opt to return to barracks rather than have such splits become too deep \u201cMilitary regimes thus contain the seeds of their own destruction\u201d as there is almost bound to be a split into factions at some point when governing a country. 1  1 Geddes, Barbara, 'What do we know about democratization after twenty years?', Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.2, 1999, pp.115-144,  , p.131"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Necessary to restore peace to the country  The clearest, and most common, reason for the military stepping in is to restore peace to the country. When the stakes are so high, power through control of government, the ability to distribute resources, it is something well worth fighting for. The result can be that democracies become unstable and violent with election campaigns particular flashpoints. The runup to the Thai elections in 2014 shortly before the coup left 10 dead and 600 injured 1 with no sign of stability returning after the flawed elections General Prayuth Chan-ocha the head of the army said the coup was necessary \u201cin order for the country to return to normality quickly, and for society to love and be at peace again.\u201d 2 When there violence creating violence it is the military's role to step in the prevent such instability.  1 Wilkinson, Laura, 'Thailand elections: Violent clashes in Bangkok over disputed poll', The Independent, 2 February 2014,   2 Hodal, Kate, 'Coup needed for Thailand 'to love and be at peace again' \u2013 army chief', The Guardian, 23 May 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro01b","title":"","text":"In a country that is so polarised that there is violence at elections the chances are the military is not neutral. In Thailand the royalists had been calling for military intervention because they know it is unlikely they will win an election. A coup cannot therefore be considered to be likely to end violence; Egypt is a case in point as there have been more than 3,200 deaths in the 7 months after the coup against President Morsi. 1  1 'More than 3,200 Egyptians killed since coup', Middle East Monitor, 9 April 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro04b","title":"","text":"The argument that the military is restoring democracy from a democracy makes no sense. Only once a democracy has been turned into an autocracy can it be said to be restoring democracy. So long as the system is still democratic then there should be constitutional ways to replace an increasingly authoritarian government; elections, vote of no confidence, or the judiciary."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro03a","title":"","text":"A neutral party  Democracies can turn into an intractable conflict between two political parties with neither side ruling in their national interest but simply using power in an attempt to defeat the other side. Bangladesh is a good example of this as there are two main parties; the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. Neither are willing to talk to the other, the competition has at times been violent and attempts to create neutral caretaker governments are scotched by one side or the other as occurred at the start of 2014. 1 The 2007 coup resulted in the arrests of the leaders of both parties along with a major anti corruption drive. 2 Unfortunately this did not prevent Bangladesh quickly falling into the same two party system with the same parties and leaders once civilian rule was restored.  1 Budhwar, Kailash 'Bangladesh elections: The 'battling begums'', Al Jazeera, 4 January 2014,   2 Voice of America, 'Former Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Arrested', voanews.com, 27 October 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Restoring democracy  A coup that is against an elected government that is however becoming increasingly anti democratic is justified. When an elected government is increasingly concentrating power in its own hands, and particularly if elections are postponed then it is necessary for the military to step in to ensure democracy continues to function. From 1991-2006 31 of 43 coups resulted in an election within five years so far from damaging democracy were often restoring it. 1  1 Marinov, Nikolay, and Goemans, Hein, 'Coups and Democracy', British Journal of Political Science, 2013,  , p.2"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-con03b","title":"","text":"Whether or not the head of the army is the right man to run the country is immaterial as he will be passing on to another administration quickly. This will either be a temporary civilian administration in which top technocrats are brought in or it will be as a result of new elections. If a military man is still in power after an election, as with Sisi in Egypt, then they have come through the same test as a politician would have done."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-con01b","title":"","text":"Elections do not always return a government that has true popular support; the system may be gerrymandered so it is much easier for one party to win seats. Additionally in many democracies there is a large number of people who don't vote so even a party that is elected may not have a true mandate. If the abstaining majority want a different government should the military not respect their democratic wish?"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-con02a","title":"","text":"A coup makes it more difficult to trust in democracy  Military intervention damages trust in democracy even if the intent of the coup is to return to democratic rule as quickly as possible. There are two ways in which democracy is damaged. The first is that it undermines the point of majority rule if the military may just step in and take over if they don't like the result. Secondly if a democratic government is making a mess of ruling and the military steps in to clean things up then this may create an impression that they will do so again, so absolving politicians to clean up their own act.  This may well be what happens in Thailand. Since the end of military rule in 1973 Thailand has now had seven coups; 1976, 77, 81, 86, 91, 2007 and 2014. 1 In the 2007 and 2014 coups the government being overthrown was very popular; in 2005 Shinawatra's Thai Rak Thai party won 60.7% of the vote while in 2011 his sister won 48.41% if the military simply steps in after a few years of rule by a clearly elected majority then what is the point in voting? Already the middle class supporters of a coup argue that elections do not mean democracy to justify military intervention thus undermining the concept of democracy. 2  1 Winichakul, Thongchai, 'Toppling Democracy', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol.38, No.1, February 2008, pp.11-37,  , p.15  2 Ibid, p.27"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-con03a","title":"","text":"The army is not the best institution to run a country  If the country is in trouble is the army the best placed to take over and manage the country better than it has been in the past? This may plausibly be true if the reason democracy is failing is a large scale insurgency or near civil war but in almost every other case it is not the best institution. The army is trained to fight not to govern. The generals who take over top positions are used to running a bureaucracy that has to respond to politicians, not one that has to respond to the people.  Politicians may be corrupt, venal, or unpopular but at the least they are open about what they stand for. They have a manifesto and a clear ideology which if the people don't agree with they wont be voted for. This is not the case with generals; the chances are they have a bureaucratic desire to maintain the power and funding for the military but otherwise there is likely to be little known about their politics.  Finally for those who are being overthrown the electorate has had a chance to investigate their policies, their past, to question their views and catch the candidate out when they are not consistent. The candidate came through an electoral test and media grilling. When there is a coup there is no such chance to determine if the coup leader is the right man for the job."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-con01a","title":"","text":"The response must be democratic  It is never appropriate to overthrow a democratically elected government which the people have chosen. The government is legitimised by being the choice of the people, a coup is by definition not legitimate in such a way. The response to a government that has lost the trust of the electorate, unable to prevent violence, or is corrupt, is to hold an election. In the worst case and an elected government is using its power as a government to manipulate any election then the responsibility is with the judiciary to convict a government which is responsible for such a"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dglvhblmc-con02b","title":"","text":"Military intervention is most likely to happen only when trust in democracy has already been damaged. In Thailand democracy was already distrusted due to corruption and vote buying, the military acted because of that distrust. When intervention is to clean up corruption and create greater separation of powers the coup may actually improve trust in democracy."}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro02b","title":"","text":"I am only one of thousands of voters who elect my MP so my vote is not going to help hold \u2018my\u2019 representative to account. In the UK the average number of voters in each constituency is 68,175 [1] and some have majorities of tens of thousands. In the US House of Representatives the figure is more than ten times this number at 710,767 [2] with so many other voters how will my attempt to hold them to account actually matter?  [1] \u2018Parliamentary constituencies\u2019, parliament.uk  [2] Burnett, Kristin D., \u2018Congressional Apportionment\u2019, 2010 Census Briefs, November 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro02a","title":"","text":"Hold politicians to account  For the most part in countries with FPTP we don\u2019t like our politicians. In the United States Congress has a job approval rate of 21% and it is often lower [1] while in the UK in 2009 only 1% were \u2018very satisfied\u2019 with MPs (total of 29% satisfied 44% dissatisfied). [2] Well elections are your chance to hold them to account by voting for someone else. Elected politicians are there to represent you but if you don\u2019t vote your voice wont be heard and you wont be able to hold your representative to account for what they have done during their time in office. There are increasingly websites which will show you how your MP voted making it simple to find out if they are representing you as you would wish and so making it possible to decide how you will vote on the basis of your representative\u2019s record rather than just their stated intentions at the time of the election.  [1] Jones, Jeffrey M., \u2018U.S. Congress\u2019 Approval Rating at 21% Ahead of Elections\u2019, Gallup Politics, 24 October 2012  [2] \u2018Satisfaction with Members of Parliament 1991-2009\u2019, Ipsos MORI, 4 March 2010 , (NB satisfaction with own MP is always higher)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro03b","title":"","text":"The idea that someone who has voted might be more entitled to complain about things is absurd. Yes they have shown how they want the government to run but the idea that their voice is heard on all these particular issues is patently silly."}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro05a","title":"","text":"Have your say  Democracy allows you to have your say and it is important you take advantage of that. It is unusual that your particular vote will make an immense difference but just occasionally it might make all the difference. Barak Obama\u2019s 2012 campaign is running an ad called 537 the ad says this is \"the difference between what was and what could have been.\u201d As it is the number of votes that won the Presidency for George W. Bush over Al Gore in Florida in 2000. \u201cSo this year if you're thinking that your vote doesn't count, that it won't matter, well, back then there were probably 537 people who felt the same way. Make your voice heard.\" [1] There will always be places where there are victories by such a small margin. Most of the time it will be known where these marginal contests are but if enough people who have not voted in the past vote previous votes or the pollsters may count for nothing. You never know it might be you who makes the difference, so go vote!  [1] Rama, Padmananda, \u2018Obama Campaign Invokes \u2018537\u2019 To Get Out The Vote\u2019, NPR, 24 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro01a","title":"","text":"Civic duty  Voting is a civic duty, just as paying taxes and jury service. As a citizen of your nation it is your duty to take thirty minutes out of your day every few years to go and vote in an election. This duty is not a very onerous one but it is an important one because the foundation of our government is that it is democratic, and how can it be democratic if the people won\u2019t vote? If the government is to represent the people the people must vote for it. Some civic duties such as taxes are compulsory and while it is not the case that voting is compulsory in the UK and USA it is elsewhere for example Australia and Belgium. [1] That it is not compulsory is consistent with our freedoms so there is the possibility of making the active choice not to vote. With the right to vote comes the responsibility to use it.  [1] \u2018 Compulsory Voting\u2019, Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, updated 21 March 2012 also see our debate on compulsory voting"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro01b","title":"","text":"Many voters are making an active choice when they decide not to vote, they are either showing that they recognise how little impact their vote will have, or else that they do not believe that it is worth their while spending the time to vote. [1] Finally even if they are not making an active choice not to vote and don\u2019t vote due to ignorance is that really a dereliction of their civic duty? Does it not show that politics, politicians, and parties have not done enough to engage with these voters and tell them why, when and where they can vote? It should be up to politicians to persuade us that they are worthy of our votes.  [1] Caryl, Christian, \u2018In Praise of Apathy\u2019, Foreign Policy, 24 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro05b","title":"","text":"The chances of you being the one who matters in a marginal contest are infinitesimally small. First most elections are not won on narrow margins and second you are unlikely to be in the right place at the right time. The FPTP system means that very few votes actually matter like this unlike in a proportional system where almost every vote would have a very similar worth."}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro04b","title":"","text":"The question here then essentially lies in do we appreciate our democracy? Does voting every 5 years actually count as a democracy? Does the fact that we have a first past the post system represent our views as a democracy should? The history of voting and the ability of other around the world to vote really has very little bearing on whether we should vote. Voting for the one party, or an other, or none at all is not going to result in me not being able to vote in the future. If losing the vote becomes a real possibility in the future then we can be sure that many currently apathetic voters will turn out because such a vote really would matter."}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro03a","title":"","text":"No right to complain  We all complain, whether it is about the lack of places for schools, higher university fees, trains not running on time, or about how we are being ripped off by the shops. In almost every case the things we may complain about can be influenced by the government either directly as with education policy or indirectly through taxation or regulation. Voting is your one chance to show what agenda you want to government to take; do you want more regulation or less, do you want tuition fees paid by the government or individuals? Of course not everything will be contested in every election but some will be. But next time you complain about something if it actually matters find a party that wants to do something about it and vote for them."}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-pro04a","title":"","text":"We don\u2019t just vote for ourselves  You are very lucky that you have the chance to vote to choose and influence your government. Most people throughout history have not had this chance; in the UK women only received the vote in 1918 and most men only received the right in the nineteenth century. [1] In the United States the timings were similar with freed slaves not voting until 1970 (even in 1940 only 3% of African Americans in the south were registered) and women not until 1919. [2] We should remember the sacrifices of all those who have fought for the right to vote. Moreover huge numbers of people live in countries where these rights have not yet been won \u2013 just think of the 1.3 billion people in China who have no input into the change in the leadership, the Politburo Standing Committee, every ten years. [3] As voting has not been an automatic right throughout history you need to vote not just for yourself but for your children and their children in order to ensure that they have the benefit of growing up in a democracy such as the one you live in.  [1] \u2018Chartists Key dates\u2019, parliament.uk  [2] \u2018 Timeline: Voting Rights Act\u2019, American Civil Liberties Union  [3] Li, Cheng, \u2018The Battle for China\u2019s Top Nine Leadership Posts\u2019, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.35, No.1, pp.131-145, Winter 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con03b","title":"","text":"Yes politicians will sometimes break their promises or for some reason not be able to fulfil them. When the Liberal Democrats made their manifesto they did not expect to be in coalition with the Conservatives, with two incompatible manifestos some things were going to have to be dropped. Equally sometimes the party in power will find they can\u2019t get through the changes they want. The point of voting when events might overtake a manifesto is that the party\u2019s ideology will tell you how they are likely to react \u2013 a libertarian in 10 Downing Street would have let the banks go bust or a communist would have nationalised them. Many could have anticipated that a Labour government would engage in some kind of bail out to save savers and the system. By having voted for the Labour party voters were saying they wanted a slightly left of centre response to events."}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con01b","title":"","text":"This is nearly always not actually a reason not to vote as because in almost every constituency the number of people who do not vote outnumbers the vote of the winning party this means if everyone who does not vote did as you will do and all get out and vote the vote could go any way, even a fringe party could be elected if the non-voters vote together. To illustrate lets take a look at Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, one of the safest seats in the UK, former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown\u2019s seat. In 2010 Labour won with 65.2% of the vote, [1] with 29559 labour votes compared to 6550 SNP a majority of 23009. [2] However in this seat turnout was only 62.2% that means that 27863 people did not vote, considerably more than voted for Labour. If they voted together for someone else those who do not vote could always throw out the party in power. No seat is therefore really a safe seat, they are safe because who believe their vote is not worthwhile do not bother to vote when in reality if they did they could make a difference. Indeed in the Scottish elections of 2011 the SNP managed to take a large part of this same seat. [3]  [1] Electoral Calculus, Majority Sorted Seats  [2] Wells, Anthony, Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, UKPollingReport, 2010  [3] \u2018Vote 2011 Scotland elections, Kirkcaldy\u2019, BBC News, 11 May 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con02a","title":"","text":"Politicians don\u2019t engage with issues that are important to me  Political parties are not about issues, they are either about ideologies or are purely about trying to triangulate on enough issues so that they can get into power. With relatively few parties able to get representation in the Parliament how can I be sure that my views on issues will be represented. If I want isolationism then who should I vote for in the US election? Both candidates say they want similar policies which are not at all isolationist. [1] Often there is little choice; in the US there are only two real options, the democrats and the republicans, [2] while in the UK all three main parties occupy very similar ground in the centre. [3] The problem is similar if I am interested in multiple issues but no party has a similar portfolio of views.  [1] Helling, Alex, \u2018The debate for the rest of the world\u2019, idebate.org, 23 October 2012  [2] Caryl, Christian, \u2018In Praise of Apathy\u2019, Foreign Policy, 24 October 2012  [3] Parker, George, and Pickard, Jim, \u2018Centre prize: why UK political parties look more and more the same\u2019, Financial Times, 4 March 2008"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con04a","title":"","text":"Not voting is voicing an opinion that is as important as any vote  In both the UK and the US non voters are the biggest block in the country. Governments are routinely voted in with only 30% of the eligible voters \u2013 and once it is counted compared against the total population it becomes lower still. We should therefore not assume that these people are all not trying to tell us anything rather they are pointing out that they know how little their vote counts so see no point in casting it. In the United States only 32% of voters agree that only having two parties is good. The non-voters could well therefore be telling us that there needs to be a radical change in the system before it is worth their while voting \u2013 \u2018you make our vote count and we will begin voting again\u2019. [1]  [1] Caryl, Christian, \u2018In Praise of Apathy\u2019, Foreign Policy, 24 October 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con03a","title":"","text":"Politicians will simply ignore how we vote  Even if I do vote who is to say that politicians will actually listen to what I say. A lot of government policy is responding to events, no one who voted for Tony Blair in 2005 voted for bail outs of banks in 2008 by what was then a new Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, who had not even faced the electorate. Moreover political parties do not seem to feel that they are tied to their own manifestos. In the United States Obama promised to close Guantanamo yet it is still open. [1] In the UK the Liberal Democrats said in their manifesto they would not raise tuition fees for UK Universities yet this is exactly what they did when they got into government. [2]  [1] Negrin, Matt, \u2018Guantanamo Bay: Still Open, Despite Promises\u2019, ABC News, 3 July 2012, also follow our Securing Liberty blog for updates on Guantanamo Bay and other civil liberties issues:  [2] Robinson, Nick, \u2018Senior Lib Dems apologise over tuition fees pledge\u2019, BBC News, 20 September 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con01a","title":"","text":"My vote does not count  In safe seats, indeed right across the country there will be millions of votes that will not count when everything is added up because of our first past the post system. [1] Essentially the system means that all the votes that are cast for those who are not the winning candidate do not count at all. In a safe seat there is no way a single vote is going to help overturn some of the immense majorities the party in power has, they could put a monkey for election in these seats and it would still get in.  [1] In the UK take a look at the voter power index to see how worthwhile or otherwise your vote is"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con04b","title":"","text":"We can never be sure what these apathetic voters are saying because they have not said it \u2013 some might want a change in the electoral system, or might rouse themselves to vote if one of the options becomes extreme but this may not be the case. In the UK voters rejected the option of changing the electoral system to the alternative vote [1] which would have been more representative so making their voice matter more in future elections. [2]  [1] Hawkins, Ross, \u2018Vote 2011: UK rejects alternative vote\u2019, BBC News, 7 May 2011  [2] Jones, Charlotte R., \u2018This House would adopt the alternative vote\u2019, Debatabase, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-viwvfpps-con02b","title":"","text":"Parties go to the centre because that is where the votes are. You are perfectly at liberty to vote for more minor parties. If you want nationalisation vote communist, clean energy vote green etc. Your vote may not elect a representative but the person who becomes your representative is likely to see which single issue parties received votes in his constituency and act accordingly. Ultimately only one party can govern at a time so it will never be the case that everyone can get their way on the issues they are interested in, but if you don\u2019t vote no one will pay any attention at all."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro02b","title":"","text":"Sanctions cannot be very finely targeted and will always hit other groups as well as the cyber attackers. The chances of knowing specific individuals who were responsible are next to zero so those individuals cannot be targeted directly. This is the whole problem with cyber-attacks; they are very difficult to pin down. In the best case then sanctions are applied against the right target and happen to hit others as well; for example hackers are not the only new who want advanced computer equipment. At worst the sanctions will completely miss their target; it would be a major embarrassment for a country to impose sanctions for a cyber-attack only for it to later be discovered that the sanctions are against an innocent party through whom the attack had been routed."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro02a","title":"","text":"Sanctions can be targeted  The big advantage of sanctions is that they can be as finely targeted as needed. If the sanctioning country only knows which country the cyber attack originated from then they can be broad brush sanctions, but if there is knowledge of which group initiated the attack then the sanctions can be more specific. For example in the case of unit 61398 Of the Chinese People\u2019s Liberation Army that Mandiant showed has been attacking US companies [1] the United States could target sanctions at the People's Liberation Army by tightening weapons bans. Alternatively if the hackers are private then banning the import of certain computer equipment into that country would be appropriate. If individuals are known then the sanctions can be even more targeted, for example by freezing any bank accounts held outside their own country as the US did against North Korea when it sanctioned Banco Delta Asia through which North Korea laundered money from criminal activities. [2]  [1] Mandiant, \u2018Exposing One of China\u2019s Cyber Espionage Units\u2019, mandiant.com, February 2013,   [2] Noland, Marcus, \u2018Why Sanctions Can Hurt North Korea\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 4 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro03b","title":"","text":"How can there ever be deterrence when the attacker believes they will not be caught, or that if they are the sanctions swill harm others not themselves? When the problem with preventing cyber-attacks is the difficulty of tracing the source [1] then deterrence becomes more and more difficult to apply. This is not like the Cold War where both superpowers could be certain that if they launched an attack there would be a devastating response. In this instance there is no certainly; the attacker believes they a, won't be caught, b, there will be no response and c, that the response won't affect them, and finally even if they are affected unless they are caught most times they will believe they will get away with it next time round.  [1] Greenemeier, Larry, \u2018Seeking Address: Why Cyber Attacks Are So Difficult to Trace Back to Hackers\u2019, Scientific American, 11 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are a proportionate response  Cyber-attacks pose a distinct problem for international diplomacy in that they are difficult to prevent and difficult to respond to. Any kind of military response as the United States has threatened would be completely disproportionate against all but the very biggest of cyber-attacks (those that actually result in deaths), [1] diplomacy on the other hand is as good as no response, if the response is simply a tongue lashing then the benefits of cyber espionage will be far higher than the cost.  The only proportionate, and therefore just, response to a cyber-attack is sanctions. The sanctions can be used to impose a similar economic cost on the offending state as that caused by the cyber-attack. This would be just like the World Trade Organisation's dispute settlement rules. They allow for the imposition of trade sanctions to a similar value to the losses being experienced as a result of protectionist action, with the sanctions sometimes on differing sectors to those where there are unfair trade practices. [2] Alternatively sanctions could mean a proportionate Internet response; users from the offending nation could be prohibited from using Internet services, for example an attack by hackers on the US could result in people from that country being blocked from Google and other US internet services.  [1] Friedman, Benjamin H., Preble, Christopher A., \u2018A Military Response to Cyberattacks Is Preposterous\u2019, CATO Institute, 2 June 2011,   [2] World Trade Organisation, \u2018Understanding the WTO: Settling Disputes\u2019, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro01b","title":"","text":"How do we determine what is proportionate? If some valuable intellectual property, such as part of the designs for the US's latest fighter jet the F35, which were hacked in 2009. [1] Then what can be the response to this? Can it simply be the cost of developing this design? If so then what about the strategic loss the state has suffered, how can that be calculated in? So long as it is excluded state sanctioned cyber-attacks will not be deterred.  [1] Gorman, Siobhan, Cole, August, and Dreazen, Yochi, \u2018Computer Spies Breach Fighter-Jen Project\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 21 April 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro04b","title":"","text":"An asymmetric response to cyber-attacks in the form of sanctions may prevent escalation, but they could also simply encourage a cyber-attacker to do more knowing that sanctions cannot stop cyber-attacks. Sanctions in the past have rarely changed policy; Sanctions against Cuba did not result in overthrowing Castro, sanctions have not changed North Korea or Iran\u2019s policy towards nuclear weapons, so there is little reason that sanctions would stop cyber-attacks. [1] Instead the country being sanctioned will find a way around and quite possibly escalate themselves much as North Korea has upped the stakes whenever new sanctions are imposed, most recently by cancelling a hotline to the South. [2]  [1] Friedman, Lara, \u2018Getting over the sanctions delusion\u2019, Foreign Policy The Middle East Channel, 14 March 2010,   [2] Branigan, Tania, \u2018Expanded UN sanctions on North Korea prompt rage from Pyongyang\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 8 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro03a","title":"","text":"There needs to be action to deter more cyber attacks  At the moment the response to cyber-attacks has essentially been nothing. It is however clear that some response is needed as without a reaction there is no deterrence; the attacks will keep coming until something is done. The number of cyber-attacks and the sensitivity of the information stolen have been increasing over recent years and as more and more work is done online and more and more systems are connected to the Internet so cyber-attacks become more attractive. There needs to be a deterrent and the best deterrent is to make sure that such attacks are costly.  As these attacks are usually cross border (and in this debate we are only concerned with cross border attacks) then the only way to create a cost is through sanctions. These sanctions can either hit the assailant directly or else hit his government so encouraging them to crack down on hacking emanating from their country. It should be remembered that China argues that it does not launch cyber-attacks [1] meaning that any such attacks from China must duly be private. If this is the case then sanctions are the best way of prompting internal law enforcement. Sanctions therefore encourage all nations where there are cyber criminals to make sure they take such cyber-crime seriously. If they do not get their own cyber criminals under control then they may be affected by sanctions.  [1] China Daily, \u2018China denies launching cyberattacks on US\u2019, China.org.cn, 20 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro04a","title":"","text":"Sanctions will prevent escalation in cyber conflict  Cyber conflict favours the offence; when the defender is successful they gain nothing and impose no harm on the attacker who is free to try again elsewhere. The attackers are free to attack until they get past the defences somewhere. [1] That the attacks don\u2019t risk lives helps to encourage an offensive mindset as makes it seem like there is no downside to attempting to dominate your opponent. [2] This means the only cyber response is to attack the attacker so that the same advantages apply.  The result is that cyber-attacks have a very real danger of long term tension or escalation. If one side is losing a conflict where both sides are attempting to steal the other's intellectual property (or the other has little to steal) the response may be something like the stuxnet attack that involves physical damage, this then would probably be considered an illegal use of force creating a thin line between a cyber-war and a real war. [3] When the cyber war involves physical damage as the US has warned there then may be a military response. Sanctions are a way to apply pressure without this risk of escalation into a military conflict.  [1] Lin, Herbert, \u2018Escalation Dynamics and Conflict Termination in Cyberspace\u2019, Strategic Studies Quarterly, Fall 2012,  p.51  [2] Rothkopf, David, \u2018The Cool War\u2019, Foreign Policy, 20 February 2013,   [3] Zetter, Kim, \u2018Legal Experts: Stuxnet Attack on Iran Was Illegal \u2018Act of Force\u2019, Wired, 25 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con03b","title":"","text":"Cooperation is not a helpful alternative as it really means status quo when we can see that the status quo is not going to reduce cyber-attacks or bring recompense. Rather this is precisely what sanctions are needed for; to encourage states that harbour cyber criminals and hackers to use their law enforcement capabilities to crack down on such attacks."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con01b","title":"","text":"This will clearly depend on the country engaging sanctions; sanctions from the US or EU will be much more significant than sanctions from the Philippines. Most countries however are a part of larger trade blocks; sanctions from the Philippines may not be much of a threat but sanctions from ASEAN would be much more compelling. Using such regional organisations can help nations get around the problems of agreement associated with broader UN sanctions. There have already been calls for groups such as ASEAN to work together against cyber attacks [1] and these groupings could be expanded to include other nations that agree with the policy on an ad hoc basis in much the same way as Japan is looking to join with ASEAN on such defence. [2]  [1] Minnick, Wendell, \u2018Malaysia Calls for ASEAN \u2018Master Plan\u2019 to Fight Cyber Attacks\u2019, Defense News, 3 June 2012,   [2] Westlake, Adam, \u2018Japan pushes to form cyber-defense network with other ASEAN countries\u2019, Japan Daily Press, 8 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con02a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are indiscriminate  The problem with sanctions is that they are almost always indiscriminate; Iran\u2019s sanctions today are an example where the international community\u2019s concerns are entirely with the government, over nuclear weapons, not the people yet the result has been a doubling in the price of staple foodstuffs and rapidly rising unemployment. [1]  This will equally be the case here. While sanctioners will try to target the sanctions the fact is there is nothing to target with sanctions that would not affect everyday lives. Hackers are ordinary people so clearly sanctions will affect others like themselves. The most obvious reactions involve the internet but blocking access to internet services, or penalising ISP\u2019s, or cutting off technology transfers, harm everyone else as much as hackers. Often this harm is in the form of simply making the internet less safe for people in that country because they will have to turn to pirated versions of software. IDC and Microsoft estimate the chances of being infected with malware when using pirated software at one in three [2] so it is no surprise that the Chinese government in October 2012 launched a campaign to have government and companies purchase legal software. [3]  [1] The Economist, \u2018A red line and a reeling rial\u2019, 6 October 2012,   [2] IDC, \u2018White Paper: The Dangerous World of Counterfeit and Pirated Software\u2019, Microsoft, March 2013,  p.3  [3] Xinhua, \u2018Chinese gov\u2019t says no to pirated software\u2019, People\u2019s Daily Online, 26 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con04a","title":"","text":"Sanctions won't harm the hackers  Sanctions are typically used as a response to the actions of another state, not the actions of a private actor. Much cyber espionage is not carried out by government entities such as the army or intelligence services. It is also not encouraged by government regulation. Rather it is carried out by private actors whether this is criminal organisations or businesses seeking to undermine their rivals and learn their secrets this is usually with a financial motive (75% of data breaches) [1] , or else by individuals motivated by nationalism and patriotism to attack those they see as their nation\u2019s enemies. It is difficult to see how sanctions against the nation as a whole affect these groups and individuals. This is certainly the case in China where many such as the \u2018China Eagle Union\u2019 admit to hacking for nationalist reasons rather than being told by the government. [2]  A response such as sanctions are simply likely to breed more resentment that the other power is attempting to bully their nation. The hackers only possible response is then more hacking. For those sponsored by companies if their company is hit by sanctions it simply becomes all the more necessary to find methods of getting ahead to offset any harm by sanctions.  [1] Verizon RISK Team, \u20182013 Data Breach Investigations Report\u2019, Verizon, 23 April 2013,  p.6  [2] Beech, Hannah, \u2018China\u2019s Red Hackers: The Tale of One Patriotic Cyberwarrior\u2019, Time, 21 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con03a","title":"","text":"Sanctions won't work  The problem with sanctions is that they almost never work so all they do is provide punishment and damage relations without ever resolving the issue. Numerous studies have shown that sanctions don\u2019t actually change the policy of the country that is being sanctioned. [1] Robert Pape suggests that sanctions are only effective in achieving policy change about 5% of the time because states can take substantial economic punishment before they give up on anything that might be considered to be a national interest, and because states are good at shifting the burden of the sanctions onto opposition groups, [2] or else use the sanctions to rally domestic support against the outside actor. [3]  Instead there need to be renewed cooperation on cyber security. Fundamentally as with things like drug smuggling, and people trafficking this is an international problem that needs to be tackled by law enforcement authorities. To that end there needs to be more cooperation not more recriminations. [4]  [1] Lindsay, James M., \u2018Trade Sanctions As Policy Instruments: A Re-Examination\u2019, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, Issue 2, June 1986, pp.153-170,  , p.1 provides a list of some of them  [2] Pape, Robert A., \u2018Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work\u2019, International Security, Vol. 22, Issue 2, Autumn 1997, pp.90-137,  p.106  [3] Snyder, Jack, Myths of Empire, Cornell University Press, 1991  [4] Dingli, Shen, \u2018What Kerry Should Tell China\u2019, Foreign Policy, 11 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con01a","title":"","text":"Sanctions require international agreement to be effective  When is it legitimate to use sanctions in response to an action? Any individual state (or group of states) can use sanctions against any other state. However for these sanctions to be effective they need to have broad based support. Sanctions by an individual country are unlikely to change the behaviour of an aggressor as they will be able to get around the sanctions. Moreover for any country that is a member of the WTO imposing sanctions may be considered illegal allowing the other country to counter them with similar measures.  The problem then is that there is no international response to hacking and it is unlikely there will be agreement on such a response. When countries like China deny that hacking comes from them are they likely to support the use of sanctions against such actions? Sanctions for much worse actions are often bogged down when they are attempted at the international level such as China and Russia vetoing sanctions against Syria in response to the violence there. [1]  [1] United Nations Security Council, \u2018Security Council fails to adopt draft resolution on Syria that would have threatened sanctions, due to negative votes of China, Russian Federation\u2019, un.org, SC\/10714, 19 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con04b","title":"","text":"Even taking it at face value that most of these hackers are independent actors not a part of a state policy there would still be solid reasoning behind sanctions. That most cyber-attacks have a financial motive implies that sanctions are the best response; as it is hitting them in an area that the attackers are clearly interested in. As for those who are attacking for \u2018patriotic\u2019 reasons if they are truly patriots they will stop when they see their efforts are really harming their country not helping it."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con02b","title":"","text":"The aim of sanctions does not have to be to directly affect the individuals doing the hacking, though in some cases this may be possible. Rather the aim is to change the attitude towards regulation and enforcement by the central government and possibly by the people as a whole. If the people of a country believe they are suffering as a result of the hackers in their midst they will be much more likely to demand their government make cracking down on such activities a priority."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro02b","title":"","text":"The current leadership of the party have strong conservative credentials and stand in stark contrast to the increasingly unpopular Obama who has been deserted by his own party and certainly the enthusiastic youthful idealists who elected him.  It\u2019;s perhaps a sign of the lack of both political and intellectual leadership within the Democratic Party that the Iowa Caucus saw many of those same young enthusiasts who supported Obama switch dramatically to Ron Paul in pursuit of a consistent ideology.  The consistency of the Republican Party in making the argument for lower taxes and smaller government stands in stark contrast to the ever shifting sands of the Democrats."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Just as with other parties around the world, once the dominant argument of a political party proves to be a busted flush it takes about a decade to recover  Both the Labour and Conservative parties in the UK, the Conservatives in Canada, the Socialists in France and many others all over the world have gone through periods of regrouping following extended periods in office.  Political movements simply run out of fresh ideas after prolonged periods of government and the Republican Party is going through such a period. The Bush Mantra of a presumption in favour of financial deregulation and in favour of tax cuts to create a trickle-down effect have both been proven to be wrong \u2013 or at least were taken to too great an extreme. The country needs to rebalance just as the Republicans need to find new ideas and new standard bearers. Future leaders of the party like Marco Rubio and Tim Pawlenty may have interesting ideas by 2016 but the current leadership is a busted flush [i] .  [i] 2016 Election.com"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The Tea Party represents not only a community that has been largely ignored in recent elections but one that is also the mainstay of both the Republican Party and of the American Heartland. Namely, white, working class Americans, whose views and interests have been swept away by a party and national establishment that thought their votes could be taken for granted.  While both parties sort out the votes and support of big companies, organised labour, and minority voting blocs the average American was taken for granted. The current approach of the Republican leadership has corrected that directly as a result of the Tea Partiers, returning the party to its traditional values and core voters."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The leadership of the Republican Party simply has nothing to do with its membership as a result no candidate has, or can, capture the imagination.  It\u2019s difficult for a predominantly working class party to get all that excited about the choice between a range of millionaires. The Bush presidency made it all too clear that the interests of the rich are the primary interest of the party and that it fails to deliver on areas such as a commitment to smaller government.  As party activists becomes ever more obsessed with issues such as gay marriage or the flag-burning amendment, it simply fails to address the concerns of most Americans to whom it has little to say. Until it has a clearer and reasonable economic message, there is little it has to say and less worth listening to"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Like all parties in a democracy the leadership of the party responds to the concerns of members. Millions of ordinary Americans have genuine concerns about the state of modern America particularly in relation to the encroachment of every day government into their lives and values and imposing the opinions of a small coastal elite onto communities that want nothing to do with them.  The Republican Party increasingly reflects the historical background of the country as well as a position that reflects the belief of most Americans; historically and culturally Christian and mistrustful of an over-mighty state. Although there are nuances between presidential candidates, those statements would be supported by all of them and they appear divided because they are in the middle of a primary campaign."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro03a","title":"","text":"The Republican Party has been hijacked by the Tea Partiers who simply don\u2019t have a coherent message or ideology  The Tea Party movement has hijacked the Republican Party, bullying elected representatives to pursue a very narrow political agenda that has more to do with their moral outlook than the traditional role of politics. The Tea Party has little in the way of a political programme and nothing in the way of understanding the nuances of local politics or the realities of electoral politics.  While the party remains in thrall to this vociferous but unrepresentative minority, it has little to offer the wider party and les to offer the wider American public.  Although they are strident in terms of what they are against, they have little to offer by way of a substantive contribution to the national debate."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-con03b","title":"","text":"The Republicans are simply left with nothing to say and nowhere to go. As is traditionally the case for politicval parties following a long period of dominance they tend to degenerate into internecine squabbling while they thrash out a new platform for government; one thing that is clear is that they haven\u2019t found it yet.  The approach they are taking both in terms of fighting their battles in public and demanding a certain orthodoxy of their candidates that is, frankly, unelectable suggests that they need at least another four years to work through their ideas.  The media are not bringing some liberal bias to this they are even masking many of the divisions. However, the reality is the party is divided and, more astonishingly, those division take place within an incredibly narrow ideological spectrum."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-con01b","title":"","text":"It is simply untrue to present the Republicans as the party of small government. The two presidents under whom the size of government grew the fastest - both in terms of personnel and expenditure \u2013 were Reagan and Bush Jr. When Republicans says they are interested in small government they simply mean that they want it to be small enough to get under the bedroom door; making it more interventionist not less.  They have been reduced to a fringe organisation obsessed with a handful of issues, endlessly mouthed as soundbites to prove their orthodoxy to the most extreme wing of their party which does nothing to endear them to a largely uninterested electorate. In an age of economic austerity, the party simply has nothing meaningful to say on this, the most crucial, matter of the day."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-con02a","title":"","text":"All parties represent a range of opinions and coalesce around and promote their core values and the Republican debate is simply an example of that  Although there are nuances of belief and differences of approach within the Republican Party, as there are in all political parties, they continue to promote the core values that define the party and the wider movement.  As the primary process demonstrated the is diversity of belief within the party and a healthy sense of debate and that is to be welcomed.  However, the values that the party represents \u2013 God, family and patriotism \u2013 remain their values of the party\u2019s leadership and the American people"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-con03a","title":"","text":"The Republican Party is, yet again, suffering from the inability of the mainstream and liberal media to accurately cover political debate they constantly wish to portray healthy discourse as split and schism  It would be deeply unhealthy if there were not a lively discourse in any political movement but the media fails to reflect that fact. Disillusionment with Obama has been growing almost since day one of his presidency and looks set to continue through the rest of 2012, the Republicans, by contrast have a clear message with growing support at all levels. The very fact that they have been so successful in thwarting the more dangerous of Obama\u2019s policies demonstrate that they have both the arguments and the acumen to defeat him in Congress, just as they do for the presidency."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-con01a","title":"","text":"Having won the economic argument during the Reagan years \u2013 both with Russia and the Democratic Party \u2013 the Republicans now address social concerns and do so with a consistent message.  Having won the argument over the primacy of the Free Market under Reagan, modern Republicans have turned their attention to other concerns, primarily surrounding the size and role of the federal governments and the social attitudes that are acceptable for the nation to adopt as a whole.  Although the liberal media may grow weary of the message that the majority of Americans hold certain values and expect those to be respected by the government, it remains the case.  The Republican Party has, and continues to be, the strongest and most consistent voice on these matters; defending traditional families and their values."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbrphliw-con02b","title":"","text":"The Republicans have been highjacked by the extreme right of their party, making them virtually unelectable. In any other circumstance Obama should be looking like a sitting duck, with the disarray in the Republican party, it seems unlikely that they will be able to coalesce in any meaningful way around any candidate. The constant acts of regicide against the only credible candidate they have, Mitt Romney, suggests that he simply won\u2019t have the support he needs come the general election. The very fact that he is unpopular with the party because he doesn\u2019t confirm to an extreme of ideological purity is the very thing that makes him electable. Until Republicans recognise that electoral reality, they are doomed."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro02b","title":"","text":"Most developed nations are representative democracies, in which we elect people to represent us and make decisions on our behalf. We retain the ultimate control over these representatives at the ballot box, and if we disagree with the decisions they have made we can vote for different candidates at the next election. Just because we can consult the public more easily nowadays, that is no reason to destroy a system that has generally served us well for decades and, in some cases, centuries.  Furthermore, electronic voting is still in its infancy, and liable to fraud and technical problems. [1]  [1] \u201dE-Voting Rights\u201d, Electronic Frontier Foundation."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro02a","title":"","text":"Modern technology makes consultation easier than ever.  In the past, it was impractical to organise frequent referendums due to the difficulty and expense of holding them. But with the advent of the internet and mass media, it is now easier than ever to consult the public on issues of concern to them. For example, Switzerland regularly holds referendums on all sorts of issues in an efficient manner which commands widespread public support. [1]  [1] Gerlach, Jan; Gasser, Urs. \u201cThree Case Studies from Switzerland: E-Voting\u201d, Internet and Democracy Case Study Series, March 2009."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro06a","title":"","text":"Referendums can lend greater validity to political outcomes  Particularly on contentious or controversial issues. Laws passed by public approval in this way will be less open to challenge, with all sides having to accept the will of the electorate. This is especially true of minority or coalition governments who may face accusations that they do not have a mandate for certain policies, [1] or situations where minority groups are exercising their right to self-determination. [2]  [1] May, Colin. \u201cCanada\u2019s Questionable \u2018Coalition\u2019\u201d. C2C Canada Journal of Ideas. 22nd June 2009.   [2] Tierney, Stephen. \u201cReferendums today: Self-determination as constituent power?\u201d. European Journal of International Law blog, February 9th 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro03b","title":"","text":"Most people are apathetic about politics because they find it dull or do not believe that it affects them. This may be regrettable but it is hard to see how increasing the number of votes they are asked to participate in will have a positive effect on this trend. On the contrary, many of those who do not like politics will quickly become even more bored and irritated if they are constantly bombarded with campaign literature, television adverts and activists ringing on their doorbells."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro05a","title":"","text":"Improves standards in political governance.  The trend in developed countries tends to be towards greater centralisation, and concentration of power in the hands of a small number of representatives. This, in turn, leads to the creation of a separate political class who will in some cases be more concerned with their own influence and enrichment than that of the voters, and makes it possible for wealthy individuals or companies to lobby politicians for laws favourable to their interests.  Increased use of referendums would potentially reduce the influence of lobby groups and corporate donors on the political system. [1]  [1] Knutsen, John. \u201cBlueprint for a new European Confederation\u201d, Basiclaw.net, January 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Redresses imbalance between state and individual.  Governments exist to serve the will of the people, not the other way round; politicians take their instructions from their constituents, or should do. But in the modern state this relationship is often inverted. By obliging our democratic institutions to take genuine account of public opinion, and returning real political power back to those to whom it rightly belongs \u2013 the people \u2013 we can put the relationship between the individual and the state back on a healthier footing. In principle, people should have the right to decide for themselves on matters of importance to their lives. [1]  [1] . Beedham, Brian: \u201cPower to the people: The case for Direct Democracy\u201d, Civitas Review. Vol.3 Issue 2, June 2006."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro01b","title":"","text":"The public already has an effective veto on legislation, and retains the ultimate power over a politician\u2019s career through its vote at general elections. When governments break their promises, or govern contrary to the preferences of their voters, they are punished by being ejected from office at the subsequent election. This is already an effective way to ensure that public opinion is never ignored for long."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro05b","title":"","text":"Increased use of referendums is unlikely to make much difference to the quality of governance. Governments and state commissions will retain most of their power, as only a small proportion of laws will be put before the public vote even if use of referendums is increased. It will certainly make no difference to the level of corruption.  As for corporate lobbyists, it can be argued that increased use of referendums will actually increase the influence of such groups. (See Opposition argument five, below.)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro06b","title":"","text":"Major constitutional changes such as the secession of South Sudan may well be appropriate for referendums, but using them to improve the democratic legitimacy of a government is misguided. Many policies touch on issues of human rights and the simple fact that a majority votes in favour of a particular policy will not be enough to convince opponents that the resulting law is fair or just."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro04b","title":"","text":"If none of the parties support a policy it is probably because it has no significant support among the people! Much of modern politics is reactive; policies are tested by focus groups and carefully crafted to appeal to as many potential voters as possible. People may tell pollsters that they favour a particular policy (such as the reinstatement of the death penalty in the example from the Proposition side), but that does not necessarily mean that there is a grounds well of support for changing the law."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro03a","title":"","text":"Reduces public apathy about, and disengagement from, politics.  People are apathetic about politics because they only get to vote once every few years. Even then it is not directly for policies but for competing political parties who promise to implement them (but often reverse position when in office). They feel that politicians do not listen to them between elections, and disengagement with the political process grows and grows. More frequent referendums would stimulate interest in politics because people would actually get a say in decisions. For example, evidence from the US shows that states with frequent use of ballot initiatives tend to have higher voter participation in elections. [1]  [1] Tolbert, Caroline; Grummel, John; Smith, Daniel. \u201cThe Effect of Ballot Initiatives on Voter Turnout in the American States\u201d. American Politics Research Vol. 29 No. 6, November 2001."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro04a","title":"","text":"Ensures that all views are represented in political debate.  Many countries have two or three party systems in which there is no spread of opinion between these parties. The parties reflect sterile mainstream consensus and do not offer voters what they really want.  Consequently, large sectors of the public find their views unrepresented. Referendums will remedy this and increase engagement with the political system, because people will know that their views simply cannot be ignored.  For example, a majority in the UK favour the return of the death penalty, but no party among the main three offers this. [1] Whatever your views on this issues, it seems unfair that there is simply no way for voters\u2019 views to be represented.  [1] Cafe, Rebecca. \u201cDoes the public want the death penalty brought back?\u201d. BBC News, 4th August 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con03b","title":"","text":"People are bored with politics because they think that it is irrelevant to them and that politicians are not interested in their opinions. Increasing the use of referendums is an excellent way of increasing engagement with the general public; it forces the political establishment to listen to popular opinion, and gives ordinary people a much greater say in how their country is run. See Proposition argument 3, above."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con01b","title":"","text":"It is true that a responsible government should draft legislation with a view to its long term benefits. However, many governments do not do this; programmes are often set up, laws changed or taxes cut with a view to short term electoral benefit and narrow party political gain, not the good of the country. Arguably, the electorate are more likely to vote on issues for the \u201cright\u201d reasons than are their elected representatives.  Saying that government should lead public opinion, rather than follow it, is simply another way of saying that the state should ignore the will of the public. It is hard to see how it can be justified for governments to pass laws which they know do not command public support. Clearly there may be exceptions in extreme situations - such as the abolition of slavery in the 19th century \u2013 but, broadly speaking, the citizens of a country should have the right to order their society in the way they think is best."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con02a","title":"","text":"Public opinion is changeable  Unless there is a minimum threshold for valid votes, freak results will occur. If the threshold is too high, on the other hand, then public aspirations may be thwarted, as for example with the Scottish Home Rule referendum of 1979, where a majority of those who voted supported devolution but not enough to get the proposal passed into law. [1]  Furthermore, public opinion changes over time. Once you have introduced the principle that issues of national concern are to be settled by referendums, there will be nothing to stop the same question being put to the public vote time after time.  [1] \u201cThe path to devolution\u201d, Scottish Parliament history pages."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con04a","title":"","text":"Referendums are very artificial.  The results are often strongly influenced by factors unrelated to the proposal on the ballot, such as; the timing of the referendum (controlled by the government); the point in the electoral cycle; media coverage of the issues, which may be biased or irresponsible; and the amount of money spent on advertising by each side. For example, in the 2005 referendum held by France on the European Union Constitution, the Yes lobby was supported by the majority of the political establishment and almost all the media, and outspent the No campaign by a significant margin. Opponents argued that the referendum was not conducted on a level playing field. [1]  [1] Wyatt, Caroline. \u201cFrench media in referendum \u2018bias\u2019 row\u201d. BBC News, 21st May 2005."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con03a","title":"","text":"People are currently bored with politics.  The last thing they want is more votes. This will only lead to greater overall apathy and even lower turnout in general elections. California is a classic example of frequent referendums failing to ignite any noticeable interest among its people. The 2011 referendum on electoral reform in the UK was similarly ignored by the public. [1]  [1] Davies, Caroline. \u201cApathy and anger dominate as AV decision looms\u201d. The Guardian, 15th April 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con01a","title":"","text":"The job of a government is necessarily long term.  It is right that once the people have given it a mandate it should be able to carry out legislation with long term aims. Often good legislation is unpopular at first, but effective and popular in the long run. Such legislation would never survive a referendum. It is only fair that the government is given a chance to see if its legislation does indeed work. The people can then vote the government out of office if it fails.  Similarly, it is government\u2019s job to lead and not to follow, especially on social legislation. For example, the US civil rights movement in the 1960s, and the equal marriage movement currently, might not command majority support from the public as a whole; [1] in order to advance equal rights, responsible government has to get out in front of public opinion, and make the argument for policies which are not yet popular enough to be passed in a referendum.  This approach is justified because parliamentarians are representatives not delegates (as famously pointed out by Burke to the electors of Bristol in 1776) [2] and can do what they think is best for the people even if that does not meet the people\u2019s wishes.  [1] Bobo, Lawrence. \u201cAttitudes toward the Black Political Movement\u201d. Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 51 No.4, 1988.   [2] Burke, Edmund. \u201cSpeech to the electors of Bristol\u201d. 3rd November 1774."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con04b","title":"","text":"It is perfectly possible to construct a model for increased use of referendums which reduces to a minimum the distorting factors cited by the Opposition. For example, the timing, wording and conduct of the polls could be overseen by an independent commission. Rules could also be implemented to restrict spending by both sides to fair levels. Media, too, are bound by law in many countries to provide equal coverage to both sides. [1]  [1] \u201cA comparative look at referendum laws\u201d, Institute for International Law and Human Rights, February 2009."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con02b","title":"","text":"It is possible to avoid freakish results by only allowing a referendum to be valid if a certain percentage of the population votes, say 30%. Or indeed by implementing a threshold for setting up a referendum in the first place. There is no reason to think it would be hard to find a formula that avoids these sorts of problems.  It may be formally true that the same referendum question could be put to the public again and again, but the same can be said of any political question in the status quo. Once a referendum has been held on an issue, politicians are unlikely to risk the wrath of the electorate by making them vote on the same question repeatedly."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro02b","title":"","text":"A directly elected upper house obfuscates the political process. An upper house has a different role in the political process than the lower house: the lower house has to channel public opinion whereas the upper house has to provide critical scrutiny and sober second thought. Its legitimacy therefore doesn't stem from backing in public opinion but from careful reflection and well thought-out arguments."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro02a","title":"","text":"A directly elected upper house is more effective  When an upper house is directly elected, it will be perceived to be more legitimate by the public, because the public sees their political views directly translated into a legislative branch, albeit in a different way than the lower house. This enhanced legitimacy will help the upper house in performing their constitutional duties: whenever the upper house disagrees with either the lower house or the executive, the upper house can now strengthen their position by pointing to the public support it has."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro03b","title":"","text":"Appointers and electors have to think about their reputation more. Unethically and unprofessionally behaved members of the upper house can still be sent away, either by the politicians who appointed or elected them or by independent inquiry. An example of this is of a Senator in the Netherlands, Sam Pormes. After an opinion magazine revealed he once aided freedom fighters in an assault on the Dutch government, he was sent away after careful inquiry. [1]  [1] Expatica, \u2018Senator told to resign over 'guerrilla training''. 22 November 2005.  last consulted August 15, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro01a","title":"","text":"A directly elected upper house is more democratic  Democracy means self-governance by the people, wherein citizens have the fundamental right to decide how they are to be governed and by whom. An appointed or indirectly elected upper house violates this principle, because allows a group of individuals to exercise power without having to explain or justify themselves to the public"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro01b","title":"","text":"Democracy isn't just 'direct elections'. Democracy is a means to ensure good governance. Stating that an appointed or indirectly elected upper house is 'undemocratic' is not enough. Instead, the proposition should show why an appointed or indirectly elected upper house hinders good governance. Moreover, given the fact that the upper house is either appointed by the directly elected executive, as in Canada, or elected by directly elected provincial legislatures, as in the Netherlands, the people still have the right to decide how they are governed, only indirectly."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro03a","title":"","text":"A directly elected upper house discourages patronage  Politicians who elect or appoint the members of the upper house have an incentive to put their friends an allies there, because this will make their decision making easier. This is patronage pure and simple: the public will have a hard time sending them away when, if ever, a scandal breaks because the members of the upper house don't depend on public opinion to remain in their seats. An example is the case of a senator in the Netherlands, Sam Pormes. After an opinion magazine revealed he once had partaken in terrorist activities, it took almost a year and several mediation attempts to get him removed from parliament. [1]  [1] Expatica, \u2018Senator told to resign over 'guerrilla training''. 22 November 2005.  last consulted August 15, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con03b","title":"","text":"Feedback in the legislative process reeks of cronyism. Ensuring policy is feasible by checking it with target groups and implementing partners is important. Governments often do this by calling for position papers and organizing focus groups. Using an upper house for this only reeks of cronyism: for example, why would the government award a seat to one big oil company but not to the other?"}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con01b","title":"","text":"Sober second thought is undemocratic. A directly elected upper house can also provide an extra cycle in the legislative process if this is deemed desirable. When it comes to 'halting hypes', we need to realize that what constitutes a political hype is also a political choice. Democracy is defined as 'rule by the people'. If public pressure for a certain law is mounting, this means that apparently a large part of the public is urgently in favor of it. If democracy truly means 'rule by the people', then the legislative should respond to this kind of public pressure and not effectively hinder the rule of the people out of some misguided notion of 'political hype'."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con02a","title":"","text":"An appointed or indirectly elected upper house provides more room to involve experts  Appointment or indirect election provides space to involve eminent or expert people into politics. Often, expert and eminent people don't have the time or resources to work on building a career in politics. An example is veteran professional hockey coach Jacques Demers, who was appointed by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper to become a Senator. Demers has been nearly illiterate for all his life but has been a very successful coach. As a Senator, Demers helped raise awareness and generate policy to enhance literacy across Canada. [1]  [1] TSN, \u2018FORMER NHL COACH DEMERS TO BE NAMED TO SENATE\u2019. 27 August 2009.  last consulted August 15, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con03a","title":"","text":"An appointed or indirectly elected upper house helps policy implementation  Appointment or indirect election provides space to involve leaders of business and civil society in politics. Just like above-mentioned experts, they often don't have time to build a career in politics. But they do have first-hand knowledge of the effects of policy on their businesses and associations. By co-opting them in the legislative process, policy makers don't have to wait until policy is fully implemented to receive feedback on the feasibility of their ideas."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con01a","title":"","text":"An appointed or indirectly elected upper house provides 'sober second thought'  An extra cycle in the legislative process creates more time to reflect on the pros and cons of each piece of legislation. Moreover, the lower house is pressured by public opinion to react fast to any kind of political hype that comes up. The upper house is more free from public pressure and can thus afford to halt pieces of 'hype-legislation'."}
+{"id":"training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con02b","title":"","text":"Expert opinion shouldn't play a role at the legislative stage of political decision making. Expertise is relevant for policy making, but doesn't have a place in the legislative. The legislative is a place for deliberation and negotiation amongst public interests. Expert opinion should inform policy making either via expert policy makers who work for ministries and departments and help draft legislation before it is launched, or via the public, whom they inform and persuade via articles, talk shows and publicizing research."}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro02b","title":"","text":"Labour can be bold without turning to the left. It could endorse bolder action on climate change, much greater local democracy, and increasing the use of new technologies. The concern should not be about a policy being left or right wing but about its beneficial (or otherwise) consequences. When labour has won in the past it has been by taking centerist trends and making them their own \u2013 for example Wilson\u2019s \u2018white fires of industry\u2019. [1]  [1] Skelton, David, \u2018What does the Labour party do now?\u2019, Demos Quarterly, 31 July 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro02a","title":"","text":"Presents a bold new path  Since the start of the 1990s Labour has moved to the right to contest the \u2018centre ground\u2019 of politics. This worked in 1997 when the Conservatives were a spent force after 17 Years in power. Tony Blair successfully stole the conservatives moderate policies. However this has resulted in the centre ground moving to the right with policies such as austerity and welfare cuts becoming a consensus. Labour needs to move left to fight on their own ground forcing other parties to match their more populist policies such as renationalising the railways."}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is false that there is a lack of choice now. There are plenty of other parties that voters could vote for if they believe the main two parties do not provide them with the choice they want. On the right there is UKIP and on the left the Greens and also other much smaller more extreme parties standing pain a few constituencies. If there were sufficient numbers who want to vote for a more left wing agenda then the Greens would be doing much better than they are \u2013 they currently only have one seat."}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro01a","title":"","text":"Brings labour back to its core values  The original values of the Labour party were \u201cthe common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange\u201d and even today the Labour party aims to \u201cserve the public interest\u201d as well as to create \u201ca just society, which judges its strength by the condition of the weak as much as the strong\u201d, \u201can open democracy, in which government is held to account by the people\u201d, and \u201ca healthy environment\u201d. [1] In the last parliament Labour supported there being a cap on welfare spending. [2] More recently Labour abstained on a Conservative welfare bill that many felt was too harsh in its cuts. [3] Corbyn, and a move to the left, will bring Labour back to its core values rather than supporting Conservative policies and austerity that harms individuals.  [1] Clause IV, Labourcounts,  , accessed 15 September 2015  [2] Wintour, Patrick, \u2018Miliband: Labour not abandoning its values with cap on welfare spending\u2019, The Guardian, 6 June 2013,   [3] Eaton, George, \u2018Welfare bill passed as 48 Labour MPs defy leadership and vote against\u2019, The Spectator, 20 July 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro01b","title":"","text":"Old values are just out of date values. There is little point in Labour appealing to the working class as the party they are supposed to represent when those same people have been abandoning it for decades; in 1966 69% of manual workers voted labour, this was only 45% by 1987 [1] \u2013 long before Labour dropped its left wing ideology. Going back to core values if those core values are the values that the electorate wants.  [1] O\u2019Neill, Brendan, \u2018Labour lost the working-class vote a long time ago\u2019, The Spectator, 12 May 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro04b","title":"","text":"\u201cI'm fed up with the Punch and Judy politics of Westminster, the name calling, backbiting, point scoring, finger pointing.\u201d Not Jeremy Corbyn, David Cameron in 2005 when he became opposition leader. [1] Every new opposition party leader starts out saying they want to change Westminster\u2019s style of politics; Miliband was the same. Yet they get sucked in all the same. The robust Punch and Judy style is part and parcel of British politics having happened during periods where the parties were ideologically far apart in the past; there were comnplaints about jeering and interuptions in the 1970s. [2]  [1] Cameron, David, \u2018Leadership acceptance speech, BritishPoliticalSpeech.org, 2005,   [2] Parkinson, Justin, \u2018Is Prime Minister\u2019s Questions really getting worse?\u2019, BBC News, 18 February 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro03a","title":"","text":"Provides greater choice  Corbyn in his last campaign rally argued \u201cfundamentally many people are turned off by a political process when the major parties are not saying anything different enough about how we run the economy\u201d. [1] This lack of choice has been a complaint by voters for years \u2013 ever since Tony Blair made New Labour electable by moving to the centre. Jeremy Corbyn now gives the electorate a real choice compared to the Conservative party; tackling the deficit through tax rises (rather than cutting spending, nationalising the railways, peoples Quantitaive Easing, don\u2019t replace trident, and rent controls. [2]  [1] Wintor, Patrick, \u2018Corbyn: it\u2019s time for a new kind of politics\u2019, The Guardian, 12 September 2015  [2] Magazine, \u201924 things that Jeremy Corbyn believes\u2019, BBC News, 13 September 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro04a","title":"","text":"Lack of difference encourages Punch and Judy politics  The public \u201care totally turned off by a style of politics which seems to rely on the levels of club house theatrical abuse that you can throw across at each other in parliament and across the airwaves.\u201d [1] This style is necessary to extentuate the small areas where there are differences between the parties. Introduce real differences on the big issues of government, particularly the economy and society, then such minor point scoring fades into insignificance.  [1] Wintor, Patrick, \u2018Corbyn: it\u2019s time for a new kind of politics\u2019, The Guardian, 12 September 2015"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con03b","title":"","text":"Corbyn is not tied to the past and his agenda is not going to simply be a rehash of Michael Foot\u2019s manifesto in 1983. The policies Corbyn is advocating now would not have been considered particularly left wing in 1983 and most are not particularly radical even now. Policies like rent controls, peoples\u2019 QE, and renationalising the railways may be statist but are potentially popular solutions to issues that concern voters; the cost of housing, that QE benefited the banks and no one else, and that commuting is cramped and costly."}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con01b","title":"","text":"The biggest news of the last few years in politics has been the fragmentation of the electorate; the increase in voting for the Scottish National Party, Greens, and UK Independence Party. It can no longer be certain that Labour will pick up most votes by staying close to the centre ground. In all but the very safest seats there are more non-voters than there are people who vote for the winning party. It was notable that many of the safest seats in the country, held by Labour in 2010, were toppled by the SNP in 2015 including Glasgow North East that had an almost 16,000 majority in 2010 fell to the SNP with a majority of over 7,000. [1]  [1] Glasgow North East (UK Parliament constituency), Wikipedia, last checked 16 September 2015"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con02a","title":"","text":"The Labour party is deprived of talent on the front bench  Numerous former front benchers and government ministers under the last Labour government will not serve in a Corbyn shadow cabinet. Most obviously two of the four leadership contenders; Liz Kendall and Yvette Cooper. [1] This deprives the party of experienced parliamentarians who know government and what it takes to win elections.  [1] Wintour, Patrick, and Watt, Nicholas, \u2018Labour frontbenchers rule out serving in Corbyn\u2019s shadow cabinet\u2019, The Guardian, 12 September 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con03a","title":"","text":"Going left is step back not a step forward  Labour has tried left wing politics in the past \u2013 in the 1980s \u2013 in what was described by Gerald Kaufman, himself in the shadow cabinet at the time, as \u201cthe longest suicide note in history\u201d. [1] Going leftwards means moving back to these policies rather than carving out new progressive policies that can energise and excite. Why should Labour be backing coal rather than renewables? Should Labour not be looking to give more power to the people rather than brining it back to the state through nationalisation?  [1] Clarck, Neil, \u2018Not so suicidal after all\u2019, The Guardian, 10 June 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con01a","title":"","text":"A shift to the left means labour is no longer a party of government  A shift to the left means that Labour is no longer a real contender for government. This is not only bad for Labour but bad for the country as a whole. Voters need to have a choice between parties that stand a realistic chance of getting into power to have a real choice. By moving away from the centre where most of the votes are labour is no longer a serious contender. In the UK it is already the case that the average voter for a party holds more centrist, or moderate, policy positions than the party they vote for. [1]  [1] Voters\u2019 Policy Preferences Much More Centrist than those of Political Parties, Compass, June 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con02b","title":"","text":"Far from depriving the Labour Party of talent he has been drawing new talent into the party. Labour gained 15,000 members in the three days since Jeremy Corbyn\u2019s victory on top of those who signed up during the leadership campaign. [1] Ultimately it is the membership and its size and diversity that provides the talent of the future, not an elite clique of individuals at the top.  [1] Withnall, Adam, \u2018More than 15,000 join Labour party as full members in wake of Jeremy Corbyn victory\u2019, The Independent, 13 September 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is difficult to envision how this ban could be effectively implemented without compromising the principles of free speech and unfettered political discussion that lie at the core of western democratic liberalism. If side proposition pursue a broadly construed ban on negative tactics by candidates, campaign groups and the media, free and open debate is likely to be endangered.  Democratic political parties are diverse and plural entities. Even the most authoritarian or charismatic candidate cannot hope to have complete control and oversight over every member of his campaign team. Under the widest interpretation of the resolution, a careless comment by an over-enthusiastic party activist could breach a negative campaigning ban as surely as an ad hominem attack advert. Indeed, such comments are much more likely to be made on the door step than they are in the press.  This being the case, how would the activities of a candidate\u2019s staff be policed? Would they be subject to constant surveillance? If so, by whom? How would the impartiality of regulators be guaranteed? Moreover, if a supervising body were given the wide ranging powers necessary to implement the resolution, how would the proposition prevent the leaking- accidental or otherwise- of confidential government and opposition information? The functions of the state are closely bound up with the activities of party politics, especially in federal nations such as America, which operate partisan civil administrations.  Similarly, who should decide when an independent campaigning group is \u201ctoo closely aligned\u201d to the ideals and objectives of a particular political party? Within the American republican party there are a wide range of views on issues considered controversial by political conservatives. Former Republican VP Dick Cheney voiced support for same-sex marriage while in office. By contrast, 2012 republican presidential nomination candidates Herman Cain and Michelle Bachman have stated their opposition to reforms that would make same-sex marriage more accessible in the US. Does criticism levelled against Cheney by Christian \u201cfamily\u201d interest groups allow them to be defined as independent of the Republican party? Comparably, is praise for Cheney\u2019s position by LGBTQ interest groups a reliable indicator that they support other republican policies? Clearly it does not.  It should also be noted that a ban would be almost impossible to enforce on the internet. The multi-jurisdictional nature of much web content (videos or articles authored in one country may be hosted by services operating under the law of another) renders any attempt to control on-line political commentary meaningless. Short of adopting wide-scale, Chinese-style internet censorship systems, the growth of online attack campaigning [i] renders the proposition meaningless.  Side proposition assume that the news media operate without directing any critical attention to the subject matter of their stories. They portray the press as vulnerable to subversion by campaign managers able to leak or cleverly position attack stories. Even if side proposition can provide examples of this type of misdirection, it would be damaging to tackle flawed editorial policies by using the law to limit journalists\u2019 right to comment and speak freely on political events.  Where there has been a failure of safeguards that ensure that objective coverage of significant events remains objective, regulatory bodies should review the standards of journalists work \u2013 as they currently do under the status quo. This would provide the press with the flexibility to continue reporting on important issues, while refining the way in which they do so.  Even if the legal mandate is enforced by an impartial, neutral observer, appointments to this body are likely to become politically fraught, precisely because it would be the ultimate arbiter of the limits and rules that would be applied to an election.  [i] \u201cDose of Venom for Candidates Turns Ads Viral\u201d. New York Times, 20 March 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro02a","title":"","text":"Existing methods of disciplining and controlling candidates are ineffective.  Many political parties- even those in operating in the US- claim that regulation of the content of political campaigns is unnecessary. Parties assert that they supervise and monitor the content of their candidates\u2019 statements. Self-regulation is claimed to be in parties\u2019 own interests. However, ensuring that individual candidates maintain good standards of conduct and are disciplined for infractions goes only half way to ensuring that campaigning remains honest and equitable. Articles written and speeches made by candidates can easily be surveiled and monitored for misleading or litigious content. However, the most damning and intractable forms of negative campaigning often occur indirectly, without being explicitly associated with a particular political figure.  Due to the frequency with which candidates\u2019 activists and survey staff make contact with voters, there is the danger that they could be used to propagate negative messages via word of mouth campaigns. Tactics of this type were successfully employed by the radical socialist George Galloway to oust a Labour incumbent in the UK constituency of Bethnal Green and Bough. Allegations later emerged that Galloway\u2019s door-step campaigners had made ad hominem and racist comments against his opponent. It is unacceptable that a candidate should be able to maintain a \u201cclean\u201d image by using his electoral staff to make negative attacks by proxy.  Independent lobbying and campaigning groups that claim no party affiliation make important contributions to debate and policy making throughout the liberal world. However, despite their \u201cindependent\u201d status, many of these organisations are guided by issues and ideological and philosophical principles that are closely linked to party politics. Particular think-tanks or single issue groups may be ideologically aligned to certain parties, even if they are not part of that party\u2019s internal structure. The pro-life lobby in the US, for example, is politically aligned with the republican party, due to a shared support base among American Christians. Similarly, although the British think-tank ResPublica describes itself as non-party-political, it propagates social research based on identifiably right wing ideas, and is guided by an advisory board containing four Conservative party MPs.  Under these circumstances, it is unrealistic to assume that pronouncements made by these organisations are free from the influence of those directly involved in political campaigns. In America, where independent \u201c527\u201d [i] groups are banned from contacting and coordinating with political parties, it is not unusual for such organisations to fund ad hominem attacks against a candidate perceived as being unsympathetic to a particular cause. Indeed, this is exactly why a broad interpretation of this motion is necessary. Organisations such as Swift Boat Veterans for truth are able to mount attack campaigns that directly benefit a particular participant in an election, while not being bound by the restrictions on conduct, spending or donor relationships that candidates themselves must abide by.  Finally, limiting negative campaigning in the press will address the incentives on politicians to pursue campaign strategies oriented solely around garnering publicity. One of the first examples of negative campaigning, a 1964 television advert produced by Harry Truman, which implied that presidential candidate Barry Goldwater would initiate a nuclear war, proved so controversial that it was replayed in news broadcasts, effectively granting additional, free campaign coverage. The press is already confronted with too many engineered leaks and scandals. As noted above, these obscure more cogent analysis by neutral experts and commentators.  [i] Section 527, United Stated Internal Revenue Code."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro03b","title":"","text":"Politics is a tough game, and those that decide to play it should expect to come away bruised. Politicians, almost by definition, seek publicity and the attention of the media. They should, therefore, be prepared to accept that positive press coverage will inevitably turn negative.  Much as debaters are trained to continue delivering clear and structured speeches in the face of badgering POIs, indifferent judges and poorly behaved opponents, we should expect our politicians to be tough enough to give a robust defence of their policies and actions, no matter how pernicious the attacks launched against them. This is the only way in which we can be certain of their skills as a political operator and their commitment to the ideological cause they claim to support.  Politicians with families are consistently perceived as more trustworthy and competent than those who lack familial ties. A family is a useful general indicator of a politician\u2019s willingness to set aside personal ambition and self-interest, and invest himself wholly in ensuring the well-being of others. Likewise, a politician who welcomes attacks on his character and policies and fights vigorously to defend them is also more likely to have a clean past.  Moreover, due to the organic and emergent nature of interactions that occur between states on the international stage, politicians will not have access to the types of legal protection proposed by the resolution when doing business with the representatives of other nations. Coddled politicians will lack the pragmatism and guile necessary to effectively represent western nations\u2019 interests in the international community."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro01a","title":"","text":"Negative campaigning creates voter apathy and prevents accurate reporting of candidates\u2019 policies and ideologies.  The contemporary political environment throughout much of the democratic world- and especially the USA- is mired in negative and aggressive campaigning. Tactics of this type breed apathy and anomie among groups within society who have previously been politically engaged. Politicians are increasingly portrayed as uniformly corrupt, incompetent or both.  Research published by Stamford University in the late nineties has linked an overall decline in voter turnout (approximately 10% between 1960 and 1992) [i] and a further decline in voter roll-off (the likelihood that an individual will vote for a high office, but neglect to vote for state or federal legislative positions) to increased reliance on attack ads and negative campaigning among American politicians. The authors of the Stamford report identify several causative factors underlying this connection.  Firstly, the study acknowledges that adverts attacking an individual\u2019s credentials, policies or background are likely to reduce the number of voters who back a particular candidate. However, campaigns of this type do nothing to increase support for alternative candidates. The supporters of a politician undermined by negative campaigning are unlikely to switch to his or her opponent, preferring instead to abstain from the vote. Although party- or candidate- loyalty can be quickly disrupted, it takes a considerable amount of time for a party or politician to gain a voter\u2019s trust [ii] .  As proposition will show, negative campaigning tends to engender further negative campaigning, leading to the main contenders in an election forgoing the use of positive campaign media. In short, aggressive campaigning is effective in reducing the popularity of opponents of a particular candidate, but this advantage comes at the expense of preventing that candidate from broadening his support-base or contributing meaningfully to democratic discourse.  Secondly, building on the previous point, voters have become increasingly aware negative campaigns\u2019 ability to sterilise political debate. Voter apathy rises in response to aggressive campaigning that highlights flaws in the policies of political opponents, but does nothing to explain the contributions that another candidate may make.  Declining turnout figures are also a response to the knock-on effect that negative campaigning has on independent media [iii] . The press tends to use more airtime and page-space covering attack campaigns, due to their sensationalist and lurid nature. Especially in the US, newspapers and television stations function as commercial entities, and controversy and fear mongering will always draw in more readers or viewers than cool, balanced argumentation [iv] . This tendency, in turn, closes off an important forum for public debate on the merits of candidate\u2019s policies and on issues that voters may want to see addressed.  Reporting on the shock tactics and partisan comments of politicians sells newspapers, but reporting on the statistics, proposals, claims and counter-claims of formal political debate does more to convince voters that their political system is representative and responsive to their needs.  Banning overtly negative campaigning will remove the perverse incentives that distort press coverage of the meaningful, practical details of election campaigns. Consequently, voters will be able to draw on a wider range of information when making their choice at the ballot box. A ban will prevent politicians from engaging in attrition based campaigns designed purely to breed apathy among their opponent\u2019s supporters. Participants in the political process should be encouraged to test and investigate each other\u2019s policies, premises and ideals. The evolutionary, dialectical pressures that debate of this type exerts will ultimately lead to more refined policy making. In attempting to do more and offer more to voters, politicians will be forced to survey and interact with a wider range of potential supporters than they normally would.  [i] Winning, but losing. How negative campaigns shrink electorate, manipulate news media. Ansolabhere, S. Iyengar, S. Stamford University.   [ii] Winning, but losing. How negative campaigns shrink electorate, manipulate news media. Ansolabhere, S. Iyengar, S. Stamford University.   [iii] Winning, but losing. How negative campaigns shrink electorate, manipulate news media. Ansolabhere, S. Iyengar, S. Stamford University.   [iv] Political attack ads can be effective but risky. Rotman Business School, 10 May 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is fashionable to exaggerate the pervasiveness of the \u201cnegative campaign environment\u201d, but democracy still functions perfectly well in almost all liberal states. People still vote when their vote will matter the most. Voter turnout in the 2008 [i] American presidential election and in the 2010 UK general election [ii] was significantly higher than in previous years. Both of these elections took place against the backdrop of a rapidly evolving financial crisis. Both elections focussed on candidates promoting a wide range of new and radical ideas. Both elections produced a preponderance of attack adverts that focussed on the content of policies, ideologies and the reliability of evidence showing the candidates\u2019 previous policy success. With one or two over-reported exceptions, the politics of the personal was largely absent in both the US and the UK.  Moreover, liberal-democratic ideals promote openness and transparency within both the government and the political class. Voters are entitled to information on a candidate\u2019s \u201cdown-side\u201d; the opponents of a candidate are obviously well placed to voice such concerns. Journalists risk accusations of bias if they attempt to publish details of an individual politician\u2019s failings in office. However, when these issues are raised by an opponent of that politician, the press is placed in a position that allows it to act as a disinterested assessor of that claim. Far from simply reproducing negative messages, as side proposition claim that they do, the mass media frequently conduct detailed investigations into the content of attack adverts. \u201cAd watch\u201d reports of this type are now a common feature of US election coverage [iii] . The interrelationship of politicians and the press enhances the transparency of the campaigning process.  Proposition have unrealistic expectations when it comes to assessing the efficacy of campaign adverts. It is true that an attack advert will not be able to convert a supporter of its target into a supporter of the attacking politician. However, this is equally true of positive campaign adverts. The transfer of political loyalties will always be a long, drawn out process that on-spec campaigning cannot hope to influence [iv] .  The resolution would compromise the efficiency of political campaigning by obliging candidates to over emphasise the role of ideology and policy in campaign literature, rather than their qualities as a decision maker.  Moreover, the resolution would encourage politicians to \u201cover-promise\u201d in manifestos and campaign literature. If the only means by which contenders in an election can distinguish themselves is by pledging to initiate more new policies, taxes, tax cuts, projects or consultations than their opponents, the workloads of successful candidates will become artificially inflated and unmanageable.  In short, politicians running for office will be incentivised to create ever more outlandish manifesto pledges and policy initiatives. Due to term-limits, organisational inefficiencies and unpredictable, emergent problems, very few of these promises will be realised. The consequence of this situation is obvious. When politicians fail to keep their promises, citizens will lose confidence in the effectiveness of the state.  There is greater utility in encouraging politicians to be cautious and conservative when campaigning. If an election is dominated by fantastical and elaborate schemes that are left unfulfilled, the likely result will be chronic apathy and disengagement among the electorate \u2013 precisely the outcome that proposition wish to avoid.  [i] Voter turnout in presidential elections: 1828-2008, The American Presidency Project,   [ii] The Electoral Commission,   [iii] Winning, but losing. How negative campaigns shrink electorate, manipulate news media. Ansolabhere, S. Iyengar, S. Stamford University.   [iv] Effectiveness of negative political advertising. Won Ho Chang and others. 1998. Ohio University, Scripps School of Journalism."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro04b","title":"","text":"It is not possible for a politician to win on a no-policy platform. As proposition points out, negative campaigning does little to convince its target\u2019s supporters of the wisdom of the attacker\u2019s policies. A politician who decides to use attack adverts in his campaign will not be able to transfer support from his opponents\u2019 tickets to his. Thus, a politician who wants to employ negative campaigning tactics must already be confident that he has an existing support base and policies that other voters will be attracted to.  Policy making and analysis remains the meat and drink of politics. The politics of the personal is reserved for campaigning season. Moreover, negative campaigning tactics are reserved for closely fought constituencies, states or districts. Side proposition does not give politicians credit for recognising that voters are rational individuals motivated by reasoned arguments.  Where negative campaigning is used in public polls, it is usually deployed at the end of a protracted a very closely fought campaign. The number of negative adverts broadcast by a politician is usually tied to the closeness of a campaign itself.  Moreover, negative campaigning can assist candidates who may be seeking to implement new policies, but lack the necessary name recognition and financial backing to succeed against a more experienced competitor. Negative campaigning, even if it is unable to instantly generate loyalty, may at least help to compel voters to seek out alternative perspectives on the issues over which an election is fought. Indeed, recommendations by the political consultancy business Complete Campaigns indicate that similar strategies have been successfully employed by their previous clients [i] .  [i] Negative Campaigning. Complete Campaigns."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro03a","title":"","text":"Negative campaigning reduces the diversity and representativeness of government.  Many able, idealistic and talented individuals are discouraged or excluded from participating in the political process by aggressive negative campaigning [i] . Bright potential candidates may be concerned about intrusion by political opponents into their private lives or backgrounds [ii] . They may be opposed in principle to participating in a political culture that obliges aspirant office holders to engage in smear- and fear-lead campaigning.  Under the status quo, only those able to stomach the confrontational and bullying tactics that have grown up around contemporary electioneering will dare enter the political arena. Moreover, such trends in political culture favour candidates with close links to the media. Individuals able to command the ear of newspaper owners, or who possess a professional background in journalism or publicity will be better able to manipulate or evade attacks launched via television and mass communications.  A democratic system is best served when it encourages the participation of candidates from a range of backgrounds and professional fields. The ability of a government to arrive at novel solutions to problems confronting a state, to understand that state\u2019s economy and to effectively represent different sectors of the population will be compromised without a diverse skillset within the state\u2019s legislative and executive branches.  By transforming politics into a game based on the production of political \u201cbrands\u201d and unassailable, manufactured \u201cpersonalities,\u201d the jousting and muckraking of negative campaigning gives a disproportionate advantage to former editors and PR men [iii] . This dilutes the pool of professionals from which future leaders are drawn, leading to poor policy making (due to a lack of professional skills) and a conservative, sclerotic, defensive approach to political problem solving. Western liberal politics is increasingly discussed only in terms of communication, image, rhetoric and appearance [iv] , rather than the technical language of law, economics and diplomacy. Negative campaigning artificially limits the types of people and professions who can engage in political discourse, infantilising and disabling politics itself.  [i] \u201cMeg\u2019s mistake\u201d, The Economist, 28 September 2009,   [ii] \u201cTory woman attacks \u2018misogyny\u2019 of grassroots members\u201d, The Guardian, 01 November 2009.   [iii] \u201cAnalysis: PR people fall prey to the lure of parliament.\u201d, PR Week, 04 April 1996.   [iv] \u201cI\u2019m fake, vote for me\u201d, The Guardian, 22 September 2006."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro04a","title":"","text":"Negative campaigning leads to negative governance.  Information on demographics, on taxation rates, on the state\u2019s finances are made publically available precisely so that voters can arrive at reasoned, rational and nuanced decisions as to whom they should vote for. Governments are judged by evidence of the efficacy of their policies.  Analysis conducted by political scientists William Riker, Michael Davis and Michael Ferrantino [i] show that where negative campaigning is permitted, even politicians with no history of running attack campaigns will adopt aggressive electoral tactics. If a politician wins on a positive platform- by promising to implement new policies and reform existing ones- then his chances of re-election will be affected by his success or failure in bringing about those changes. The electorate are able to test and assess a politician\u2019s positive claims. However, if a politician campaigns on a negative platform, portraying his opponent as incompetent or his policies as damaging, an electoral victory will make such claims unassailable. The attacking politician will be free to state that his election has prevented the dire consequences he warned from coming about. Non one will be able to prove otherwise, notwithstanding the spluttering of his defeated opponent.  By portraying opponents as reckless or dangerously radical, an attacking politician immediately sets himself up as the lesser of two evils. This may do little to convert undecided voters, but it still allows the successful candidate to take credit for \u201cprotecting\u201d the electorate. Although this strategy may be the easiest to implement, it does not fit with the ideal of critical and ideological transparency that characterises contemporary liberal states.  The increasing amount of information produced by governments, think tanks, universities and political parties is intended to make the state- and the electorate- more responsive to the success and failure of particular policies. By closing the gap between the proposal of a policy, its implementation and the indicators of its success, information-led democracy supposedly makes governance and democratic choice more efficient. Negative campaigning circumvents this feedback system. It distorts ideas, by misrepresenting them and rendering them unacceptable, before any objective assessment of their merits has taken place.  Moreover, negative portrayals of candidates and policies, as noted above, are more likely to dominate media coverage, than the sober, balanced information produced by academics and analysts. This line of argument also leads to equally damaging distortion of the attacking candidate\u2019s platform and proposals. By diverting resources to negative campaigning and attack adverts, candidates have less time and money to expend on the creation of positive policies. Indeed, the fewer testable claims that a candidate makes about his own policies, the less likely he is to be subject to effective criticism by opponents or the electorate if he takes up office.  Negative campaigning incentivises a distant, evasive, conservative approach to government. It creates an adversarial relationship between politicians and those wishing to gather and disseminate information about the effects of policies \u2013 academics, political analysts and engaged citizens.  [i] The Rational Attacker in Russia? Negative Campaigning in Russian Presidential Elections. Sigelman, L and Shiraev, E. New York University, April 2001."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-con03b","title":"","text":"It is almost impossible to guarantee that groups are truly independent, in the sense in which side opposition uses the word. In America, so called \u201c527\u201d organisations [i] , which profess no direct affiliation with a candidate, are permitted to launch campaigns to attack or support particular politicians, without being subjected to the same funding limitations and fair conduct rules as political parties. [ii]  Right-to-life groups and religiously motivated organisations may operate as 527s, along with groups controlled by business organisations. Coordination between 527 groups, candidates and political parties is banned in the US. In practice, however, the close alignment of the groups\u2019 ideological objectives and the characteristic policies of Republican and Democrat candidates leads to 527s taking their cues (and their targets) from the pronouncements of politicians and their campaigns.  Groups such as Citizen\u2019s Solidarity and the Indian anti-corruption movement mobilised around Anna Hazare [iii] are comparatively rare. Where flaws in a nation\u2019s democratic institutions are pervasive, affecting coalitions, government and opposition parties, the role of the press as a neutral observer is usually more effective than political attacks in bringing problems to light \u2013 consider the role of the Daily Telegraph in disclosing British MP\u2019s misuse of their publicly funded expense allowances [iv] .  [i] \u201cFEC collects $630000 in civil penalties from three 527 organisations\u201d. Federal Election Commission, 13 December 2006.   [ii] Section 527, United Stated Internal Revenue Code.  [iii] \u201cNo modern-day Mahatma\u201d. The Economist, 27 April 2011.   [iv] MPs\u2019 Expenses. The Daily Telegraph."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-con01b","title":"","text":"Use of negative campaigning in primaries may help to build support among voters who already identify with a particular party, but it can also lower a politician in the view of undecided or swing voters.  Primaries, now more than ever, are public contests, given as much attention by the media as elections themselves.  Mudslinging tactics deployed by candidates during a primary are likely to give ammunition to opponents in any ensuing election. The fact that all participants in an election are likely to have engaged in negative campaigning at one time or another is beside the point \u2013 the activity is harmful in and of itself, because of its ability to engender apathy.  Negative campaigning in political primaries fuels further negative campaigning during general elections. Even if, as opposition suggest, an aggressive primary campaign is useful for winnowing out weak and compromised candidates, negative campaigning in the election that follows will prevent those \u201cstrong\u201d candidates from disseminating useful, political positive information.  As noted in proposition\u2019s second substantive argument, the strongest candidate many not always be the individual best able to respond to slanderous and fear-mongering attack adverts. Intelligence, compassion, charisma and technical expertise do not always go hand in hand with a thick skin and the ability to dig dirt."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-con02a","title":"","text":"The difficulty of identifying attack adverts and negative messages.  The content and meaning of a particular broadcast or print advert will not always be clear. A piece of campaign media may not be uniformly and objectively positive or negative in tone. Words are ambiguous, their definition based partly on the experiences and opinions of observers.  Context can also play an important role in determining how a political communication may be perceived. When a scandal breaks involving an opponent, is it legitimate for one of the others candidates in an election to run positive adverts about their own background on a particular topic. If an incumbent is found to be a cuckold, for example, could a challenger run an advert asserting that he was a \u201cgood family man\u201d?  Side proposition may choose to respond by creating some variety of independent campaign commission, or by expanding the role of the judiciary. However, this does nothing to address the basic issue of subjectivity highlighted above."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-con03a","title":"","text":"Independent campaign groups.  The resolution ignores the possibility that negative campaigns may occur outside of a partisan context. In India [i] and Korea [ii] , grass roots campaigns without specific party or ideological ties have been used to highlight corruption among electoral candidates and legislative incumbents. These campaigns are arguably an expression of democratic political freedom, with individual citizens banding together to enforce core democratic norms. However, as the example of the Citizen\u2019s Solidarity movement in South Korea shows, because such actions inevitably involve questioning the character and conduct of politicians running for election, they frequently fall foul of laws designed to restrict negative campaigning.  Similar problems are encountered by the professional press. Even in countries with liberal electoral and libel law regimes, the press frequently find themselves accused of political bias if they attempt to highlight mendacity or wrongdoing by a particular candidate. Unless the wrongdoing in question is particularly severe, western journalists may find themselves in the position of their Singaporean counterparts \u2013 held accountable for \u201celectoral crimes\u201d, libel or contempt of court by a body of law that treat political institutions as sacrosanct and denies that scrutiny of those institutions\u2019 officer holders is necessary.  [i] \u201cNo modern-day Mahatma\u201d. The Economist, 27 April 2011.   [ii] \u201cKorea\u2019s art of negative campaigning.\u201d The Economist, 6 April 2000."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-con01a","title":"","text":"Identifying strong, honest candidates.  As noted above, the rougher, ruder, character-oriented tone of a negative campaigning environment acts as a useful test of a politician\u2019s reputation and integrity. Further, opposition wish to restate their early counter-argument on the evolving and dynamic nature of election campaigns. No campaign is uniformly negative of positive.  A candidate who is able to stand firm in the face of attacks against his character and his policies is much more likely to be able to act as a strong advocate in a legislative forum, or when accounting for the actions of the executive. Determination and strong argumentation skills in one area imply a similar degree of dedication in other areas. By contrast, how much confidence should we have in a politician who would be prepared to appeal to the enforcement mechanism created by the proposition to forcibly exclude a particular statement or allegation from a political debate, rather than respond to it? The problems that confront national governments cannot be dismissed simply by invoking a law designed to eliminate fuzzily defined forms of unfair conduct.  Attack adverts are used much more frequently in US-style primary selection contests, which poll members of a particular political party in order determine the candidate who will represent it in national or lower-level elections [i] . The use of negative campaigning in the context of party or semi-open primaries may help to distinguish between politicians running on very similar ideological platforms.  If an aspiring president\u2019s ideological allies can be dissuaded from voting for him, based on his past actions or associations, it will be extremely easy to convince undecided voters to do the same.  By identifying politicians who are difficult to assail on an ad hominem basis, and by identifying politicians who can remain composed and professional when subjected to such attacks, political parties are able to field significantly stronger candidates in open elections. Voters then carry out similar assessments of character and integrity in the polling booth.  [i] \u201cClinton Questions Role of Obama in a Crisis\u201d. The New York Times, 01 March 2008."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pgghwbnap-con02b","title":"","text":"It is perfectly easy to rule on what is positive and negative. It is true that some positive broadcasts might be meant to play up the strengths of one candidate, precisely because that\u2019s where his opponent is weakest \u2013 but that approach still represents an improvement on the current situation, where the majority of campaign media focuses on the flaw of a candidate\u2019s rivals.  Subjectivity has no role to play in the verification of objective facts. Currently, many campaign adverts are based around misrepresenting the content of an opposition candidate\u2019s policies, or making far-fetched connections between negative social or economic trends and bills that a particular candidate voted in favour of.  Questioning the objective distance of the body that would enforce the rules created by the resolution is also ineffective. Judges are appointed based on their ability to analyse and sift complicated arguments based on disputed or compromised sets of facts. There is no reason to assume that similar principles of neutrality and respect for the separation of powers within a democratic state would not also apply to reformed election laws"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-pro02b","title":"","text":"No doubt Daesh does have long term territorial plans, but in practice Daesh is currently stuck in Iraq and Syria unable to conquer either. Yes Daesh being territorial makes it very unusual for a terrorist organisation. However this also provides a fixed target to defeat, and that defeat can be on foreign soil.  Daesh has a long shot chance of tearing up the borders of the Middle East. However as these borders have long been criticised as illogical and contrived this would not necessarily undermine the state system in the Middle East, it may even benefit from more cohesive populations with national boundaries. [1]  [1] Trofimov, Yaroslav, \u2018Would new borders mean less conflict in the Middle East?\u2019, WSJ, 10 April 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-pro02a","title":"","text":"The territory claimed by Daesh extends to Europe  Daesh territory currently spreads across parts of Syria and Iraq. It is this transnationalism that makes it a dangerous opponent. It is not just a threat to one state but to every state in the Middle East and North Africa. Daesh claims to be a Caliphate which means it claims leadership over the entire Muslim community. Such a claim would inevitably include European countries such as Bosnia and Albania where there are Muslim majorities. The Caliphate\u2019s legitimacy is tied to its territorial expansion. [1]  A threat to the territorial states system within the Middle East, let alone Europe, is a significant threat to the west who created that system. The deconstruction of the states of the Middle East would destroy western allies, give an extreme organisation immense oil wealth from the Gulf, and likely make Israel an untenable outpost.  [1] Vick, Karl, \u2018As ISIS Grows Its Territory, It Becomes Increasingly Dangerous\u2019, Time, 15 June 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-pro03b","title":"","text":"Daesh ideology and the possibility of terrorist attacks resulting from it is undeniably a problem. However the flow of fighters is mostly the other way; from Europe to Syria and Iraq, five to six thousand have made this journey. [1] It might therefore be said that Daesh is importing terrorism from the west rather than exporting it. We have no way of knowing how many terrorist attacks these fighters may have committed had they stayed in their home countries.  [1] Reuters, \u2018Islamic State smuggling terrorists among the migrants? Unlikely, say experts\u2019, EurActive.com, 28 August 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Deash has a compelling ideology  Daesh has an ideology that is a threat to western states, particularly those with Muslim minorities. Although Daesh\u2019s ideology might seem incompatible with west the west an ICM poll found in 2014 that 16% of French citizens have a positive opinion of Daesh. [1] This means that western countries face an ideological clash within their own populations. A majority dislikes and fears Daesh and its ideology while a minority supports them despite their violence. Such a split reduces community cohesion and will likely breed distrust of Muslim populations (even of those who don\u2019t have positive views of Daesh). [2]  [1] Grant, Madeline, \u201816% of French Citizens Support ISIS, Poll finds\u2019, newsweek, 26 August 2014,   [2] Hundal, Sunny, \u2018The real threat from the Islamic State is to Muslims, not the west\u2019, AlJazeera, 26 August 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Daesh may have an ideology that is compelling to some people, but that number is comparatively tiny, nothing like the millions that were attracted to western ideology during the cold war. Daesh needs a population to consider itself a success and yet the population of Syria have voted with their feet [1] \u2013 they have fled to neighbouring countries not IS controlled areas. The United Nations has almost 4.3million registered refugees, [2] when the 7.6million internally displaced are included the numbers are far higher yet these people are not flooding into IS controlled areas. [3]  [1] Sky, Emma, \u2018Standing idly by while the Middle East unravels is not an option\u2019, The Guardian, 26 November 2015,   [2] \u2018Registered Syrian Refugees\u2019 Syria Regional Refugee Response, updated 17th November 2015,   [3] \u2018Syria IDP Figures Analysis\u2019, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, July 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Daesh and the Syrian civil war is nurture terrorism for export  Daesh is a terrorist organisation. [1] There are large numbers of people within Europe who support Islamic State and Europeans travelling to fight for Daesh is an ongoing problem; more than 700 from the UK alone. [2] There is therefore concern about these people coming back and mounting terrorist attacks, as appears to have been the case with three of those involved in the 2015 Paris attacks; Omar Ismail Mostefai, Bilal Hadfi, and Samy Amimour. [3]  [1] Bureau of Counterterrorism, \u2018Foreign Terrorist Organizations\u2019, U.S. Department of State, accessed 1 September 2015,   [2] BBC News, \u2018Who are Britain\u2019s jihadists?\u2019, 25 June 2015,   [3] Farmer, Ben, \u2018Who were the terrorists? Everything we know about the Isil attackers so far\u2019, The Telegraph, 20th November 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-con03b","title":"","text":"Distance does not matter in today\u2019s world. Refugees from Syria are pouring in to Greece but also enter the EU much further afield through Hungary or Italy. Ideology has its influence regardless of distance meaning resulting terrorist attacks are as likely to happen in Paris as Nicosia and are as likely to be by those who have grown up in western Europe as those arriving from Syria itself. Thinking that distance insulates us from the threat posed by Daesh is as wrong as the belief that what a state does matters only inside its borders."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-con01b","title":"","text":"There may be threats that can cause much greater damage than Daesh but these are neither immediate nor very likely. Nuclear war is undoubtedly a massive threat, but we succeeded in getting through 45 years of cold war without these weapons being used so the probability of the threat happening is low. Climate Change on the other hand is less a security issue than an environmental, economic, and societal one. Daesh on the other hand has already struck at western states with the Paris attacks, and has sucked large numbers of western citizens into a war against their own countries in Syria and Iraq. The threat from Daesh is therefore immediate, almost certain, and large."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-con02a","title":"","text":"Daesh has little impact outside the Middle East  The main threat from Daesh is to Muslims, and to those who live in and around the areas it controls. The main goal of Islamic state is to set up an Islamic caliphate and that means the primary enemy is the existing states of the Middle East. Those who support those states, and other \u2018apostates\u2019 such as Shia Muslims are also threatened by IS but this very focus means that western states have less to worry about when considering their own national security. [1] Daesh\u2019s priority quite simply lies within Syria and Iraq not in launching attacks against western states. It is undeniable that the threat of IS attacks exists, and Daesh has struck back against states, France and Russia, that have been fighting it but unlike with 9\/11 western intervention caused the terrorist response rather than the other way around.  [1] Hundal, Sunny, \u2018The real threat from the Islamic State is to Muslims, not the west\u2019, AlJazeera, 26 August 2014,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-con03a","title":"","text":"The west is insulated by distance from Daesh  All western countries are insulated by distance from Islamic State. The closest western countries are Greece and Cyprus which is as close as the EU comes to Syria. But both are separated from Syria by the Mediterranean Sea. If Daesh were truly considered a threat of the kind that requires harsh national security responses then Europe could close its borders to the South and East \u2013 its borders with Turkey in particular. This has however not happened because the risk of terrorists (re-)entering Europe is not considered great enough to warrant such a response."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-con01a","title":"","text":"There are other larger threats.  Terrorism by Daesh is undoubtedly a threat to the West. It is however a minor one. The largest security concern should still be the small chance of complete destruction by nuclear weapons. Tensions with Russia make this more likely than at any time since the gold war. The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists\u2019 doomsday clock is set at 3 minutes to midnight in 1015 \u2013 it was last 3 minutes to midnight in 1984 at the height of the cold war before Gorbachev gained power in the USSR. [1]  Disasters are increasingly seen as an issue of national security and Climate Change is quite possibly an even greater threat as a result of the certainly of considerable warming and the resulting disasters it is likely to bring; by 2045 the Union of Concerned Scientists say that cities such as Atlantic City could face tidal flooding more than 180 times a year resulting in costly damage. [2]  [1] Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, \u2018Timeline\u2019,   [2] Union of Concerned Scientists, \u2018Encroaching Tides (2014)\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dthbismstw-con02b","title":"","text":"While Daesh may be focused on its war at home it is trying to attack those it is fighting where they are vulnerable. This is illustrated by the bombing of a Russian Metrojet Airliner leaving Sharm el-Sheikh which killed 224 by a Daesh affiliate [1] not long after Russia began bombing the Syrian rebels, and Daesh, in Syria. Such an incident may take place in the Middle East but undoubtedly affects those outside of the region. Daesh\u2019s reach has however extended to the west with the 13th November attacks in Paris which resulted in 130 deaths across the city.  [1] AlJazeera, \u2018Russia says plane in Egypt's Sinai brought down by bomb\u2019, 17th November 2015,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro02b","title":"","text":"A national primary would disenfranchise large portions of the country, as candidates would be forced to court the support of only the most populous states as they currently do in the general election. At least with the primary system as it stands, candidates have to pay attention to all of the states and all sections within the party.  Staggered primaries create a relationship of interdependence between the nomination campaigns that are run in various states. A poor showing in one state can undermine a candidate\u2019s attempts to make gains in the following state. American political culture is much more fragmentary and heterogonous than European conceptions of the Union might lead us to believe. Each state is sufficiently large that what may seem to be a parochial \u201clocal\u201d issue within the context of the entire Union may be of vital importance to a particular state\u2019s voters. The protection and promotion of the politically and cultural plural nature of the states of the Union is a key aspect of the American democratic ideal. It is appropriate, therefore, that blunders in one state\u2019s primary campaign should be open to analysis by the citizens of other states. If a president does not have a commanding understanding of the issues affecting one state, he may be unable to make effective decisions on the rights and affairs of other states.  It is also worth noting that a single national primary would also be likely to disenfranchise those who do not closely and continuously involve themselves in the political process. Staggered primaries lead major national news services to focus on the local-level issues that may affect turnout and voting in individual states. Staggered primaries allows for reflection on these regional issues. Coverage of this type brings local controversies onto the national stage and fosters cohesion and understanding between the constituent states of one of the largest federal republics in the world. However, a one off election would just deliver national totals and even where this is broken down on a state-by-state basis, there will be much less of an understanding of why certain states supported certain candidates. Only political obsessives will are likely to expend time and effort contextualising and understanding this data; the majority of the population will be less informed than under the status quo."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro02a","title":"","text":"The current system disenfranchises minorities as Iowa and New Hampshire have disproportionately low Black and Latino populations  The minority populations of both of the early states are relatively low, and this can impact on the outcome of their primaries. Minority populations- such as African and Latino Americans- and migrants who have been granted citizenship will approach the issues at the heart of a presidential campaign from a different perspective. Due to high levels of social and financial deprivation among minority populations throughout the US, African Americans are likely to vote in a way that reflects concern about laws and policies that regulate access to educational subsidies and state supported health care. Latino voters may have strong familial ties with south American nation states. Correspondingly, candidates\u2019 positions on cross border trade and the enforcement of immigration laws are likely to influence the voting decisions of Latino Americans [i] .  There have been a number of solutions proposed to this, including the rotation of first primaries around the country. However, all this does is replicate the problem in new and imaginative ways; every state will have its own demographic abnormalities. Questions of educational aspiration and social mobility among black voters in South Carolina cannot be compared to the debates surrounding community integration and immigration in Arizona.  The only way to take a vote that is representative of the nation as a whole is to ballot the nation as a whole. Internationally the model followed is for selection of a candidate by postal ballot, demonstrating that mature democracies are entirely capable of selecting national candidates without such a protracted process.  The whole purpose of the resolution is to eliminate or control for statistical and demographic inequalities that may give certain candidates an advantage unrelated to the popularity of their policies. A national primary would apply this principle but within the context of the American model of party affiliation.  [i] Kopicki, Allison, 'Iowa and New Hampshire Stand Apart', The Caucus, The New York Times, 7 December 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro03b","title":"","text":"A lengthy primary campaign gives candidates time to test each other on a whole range of issues. Voters, in turn, make their decisions based on a balance of candidates\u2019 strengths and weaknesses. Voters can do this because they have had the time to get to know the candidates well, to become familiar with their policies and positions on various issues and to analyse their professional or political backgrounds.  Admittedly the experience of getting to know- and be known by- the country is an expensive one. However, Barack Obama\u2019s reliance on small, personal donations demonstrates that this situation need not benefit any particular sectional interest.  Side opposition contend that Obama\u2019s grass roots funding model provides a viable alternative to reliance on large donation from powerful donors. Moreover, it also serves to expand and foster public engagement in the political process.  There is also little reason to suspect that the resolution would do much to reduce expenditure on campaigns. Indeed, eliminating state-level campaigning may simply mean that candidates are forced to become more reliant on communications delivered via national media, which is both more expensive and provides fewer opportunities to address state-level issues.  Finally, it should also be noted that spending in primary campaigns is already subject to a significant external control. The need to fund a full presidential election campaign will always serve to limit and moderate candidate\u2019s ambitions, and to impose a degree of equality between wealthier candidates and those who are more reliant on grass-roots support."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro01a","title":"","text":"The current system is undemocratic as it gives undue influence to the early states  As most primaries only serve to decide the number of delegates who will be bound to vote for a particular candidate at a party\u2019s national convention, a presidential hopeful will be able to ignore contests later in the election cycle if he has already secured a majority of delegates. The staggered nature of primaries under the status quo allows candidates to determine when their lead has become unassailable. As a consequence, candidates will refrain from mounting campaigns in states that poll later in the election cycle. The later a state votes, the less chance it has of influencing the size of a candidate\u2019s majority.  In 2000 and 2004, by the time New York \u2013 the third most populous state in the union \u2013 voted, both main parties had, in effect, selected their candidate. If that isn\u2019t the perfect example of an undemocratic system, then it would be difficult to think of what might be.  The current system discriminates against lesser known candidates who are already at a disadvantage. The advantage of running all primaries during a single day in February is that it would allow lesser known candidates the time to introduce themselves to the nation. A promising but little known candidate can easily be taken out of contention during the Iowa, New Hampshire or South Carolina primaries. Running a single primary in February or March would give unknown candidates a full three months to mount their own media campaigns and to build up the press contacts and public profile that established candidates already enjoy. A single primary election would also do a great deal to help with a more even distribution of donations between the candidates.  The primaries effectively function as part of the general election campaign; they are certainly central to selecting the two people from whom the eventual winner will emerge. It is therefore damaging and deceptive to continue to treat them as a purely party-political issue that has no relevance for voters who are not closely involved with the republican and democrat campaign machines.  A final argument concerns the role of political capital and states\u2019 influence over candidates\u2019 activities. Campaigning compels candidates to offer party members and voters in states incentives in return for their endorsement. These may take the form of pledges to address local issues, to provide funding to public projects or to pursue policies at a national level that are beneficial to certain states. However, states that are excluded from the primary process when a candidate secures a majority of delegates will be unable to win promises or concessions from a presidential hopeful. This creates inequalities in the ability of individual states to influence federal policy and governance, reducing the cohesiveness of the union as a whole."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro01b","title":"","text":"The primaries are simply the device by which parties select their candidates. They are part of the internal affairs of America\u2019s independent political organisations and do not require the legitimacy of the election itself.  Moving everything to one day could end up exacerbating the problems of inclusiveness and democratic deficit identified by side proposition, as the campaigns and messages of smaller candidates would be drowned out by larger, wealthier rivals and those with pre-existing contacts in the news media. Further, under the system that the resolution would bring about, donors are more likely to provide funding to \u2018safe\u2019 candidates.  However, with a protracted campaign it is possible for a surprise result to emerge, as has happened on several occasions \u2013 for example when incumbents have failed to win key states. Relatively unknown candidates can take advantage of the extended duration of the current primary system to build a public profile and to court the attention of the media. This allows \u201coutsiders\u201d and individuals with a significant political reputation, but no public profile, to establish themselves within popular discourse and to begin building a relationship with swing voters.  Staggered primaries also minimize the power of the central parties. A national primary would turn campaigns into entirely national events, run by the national party conventions, marginalising the role of the states and focussing on the large cities, rather than the diffuse populations of rural states."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro03a","title":"","text":"The current system is hugely expensive; a national primary would control the scale of spending in campaigns  Immense pressure is placed on candidates to win in the early primaries and then to deliver repeat performances across \u201ckey\u201d states. Each stage of the process is effectively a national campaign and has to be treated- and funded - as such. Even though votes in primaries are limited to the citizens of individual states, or the members of state parties, the media can communicate a poor showing in the polls or a blunder in a debate to the entire nation. The overall cost of running campaign adverts, researching a candidate\u2019s position on a huge range of local issues and organising rallies, debates and press briefings can quickly become astronomical\u2013 hence the need to establish as decisive lead as early as possible.  A single national primary would both reduce costs and provide for a clearer result. Moreover, a single national primary would compel candidates to mount campaigns based around positive policy statements and direct involvement in issues local to states. The role of attack campaigning- aimed at undermining opponents with an early lead- would be de-emphasised. To give these practical benefits some context we should consider the 2008 campaign for the democratic party nomination. By the end of primary season, Obama and Clinton between them had raised nearly a quarter of a billion dollars. Obama won on paper, but the campaign had been dominated by the differing perspectives of two figures who would go on to be President and Secretary of State. It can hardly be in the interest of party of national unity to know that the Secretary of State thinks the President lacks the experience to receive a late night phone call concerning an international crisis."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con03b","title":"","text":"The current arrangement means that a handful of small states have a massively disproportionate impact on the primary campaigns. A genuinely national primary would even that out. Grassroots campaigns would also have a reasonable basis for operating on the national stage right up to the event.  Stretching the process out ultimately play to the biggest pockets. Unless grassroots candidates get an extraordinary result early, they\u2019re knocked out. Trying to fight their way through several, effectively national campaigns, means that they only really have one chance at the moment.  It\u2019s only sensible to make that fact reality with a structure that means all candidates are in an all or nothing race rather than a financial endurance test."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con01b","title":"","text":"Respecting the interests of the majority in making a decision about a candidate to represent them in a national election is not the worst idea in the world. Equally, the state parties would need to be involved as they play a central role in the general election and it is in the interest of candidates to work with them from the start.  As things stand at the moment many of the larger states are actually disenfranchised by the same process that allows state parties to portray their role in the primary as valuable and significant. There can be no approach to the current primary election \u201cnarrative\u201d that allows the individual states to exert a proportionately fair amount of influence over the other states\u2019 choice of nominee.  Candidates with deep pockets \u2013 either their own or somebody else\u2019s - can survive early setbacks. but it means that many candidates who do not win support in the first few states can be ruled out by the end of January. By the time Nebraska comes to make their decision in the middle of May, the issue may long since have been decided."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con02a","title":"","text":"Primaries encourage organisation and activity at a local level  The primaries as they stand make an important statement not only about party structure, but also about national identity \u2013 a federation of states each with a full right to their time in the sun.  This is not misty-eyed nostalgia, but a simple reflection of the realities of the constitution. The balance of the rights of states, as well as a respect for the views of the majority, is reflected in the process of an extended primary campaign that assumes all states to be equal. A final decision made at a national convention acknowledges that the views of the different and distinct populations of the states of the union have been weighed against each other.  The current structure of presidential primaries ensures that the separate states of the Union are fully engaged in the selection process, irrespective of the balance of political power or the nature of that state\u2019s political culture. The status quo gives an invaluable opportunity to, say, Texan Democrats or Republicans in Vermont to have a meaningful say in the overall outcome [d1] of the election. Even though Texas consistently supports republican candidates and Vermont Democrat, members of the minority party in both states are able to pass judgment on the candidates they consider would best serve their interests if elected. The results encourage activism and engagement at a local level and are, ultimately, good for democracy."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con03a","title":"","text":"Iowa and New Hampshire are ideally placed to start the primary process, specifically because they are relatively small  Iowa and New Hampshire are the perfect states to kick off the primary season. It ensures that the opening focus of the campaigns is outside the usual media centers of New York, D.C. and California. This serves to remind political commentators and others that there is an entire country out there.  Equally, because they are relatively small states, campaigns in Iowa and New Hampshire allow candidates to set out their positions with greater clarity, in contests that popular consensus regard as highly significant, but which are also small enough not to threaten a nomination bid if lost. Put another way, the wealthy and homogenous nature of New Hampshire and Iowa allows candidate\u2019s campaigning there to focus on making broader statements about the policies and normative projects that they will implement on a national level. Candidates can position themselves, ideologically and politically, without becoming mired in local-level issues or demographic controversies.  Iowa and New Hampshire function as political laboratories \u2013 isolated, controlled and equipped to allow close examination of candidates\u2019 fundamental values and proficiencies.  It also gives grassroots candidates a chance to raise their profile and some funds before the costs of contesting the larger states become prohibitive.  Attempts by larger states, notably Florida [i] , to move their primaries forward have been opposed by both parties and many activists.  [i] Patrick O\u2019Connor. Early Florida Primary Would Scramble 2012 Calendar. Wall Street Journal. September 29 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con01a","title":"","text":"States\u2019 rights  Quite apart from the politically controversial contents of the phrase, states\u2019 rights describes a vital and highly relevant aspect of the relationship between the individual states of the Union and the central government.  The powers held by the federal government to control and trammel the conduct of the states of the union, and to act on their behalf on issues of foreign policy is to be contrasted with states\u2019 freedom to produce their own laws and legislation on certain issues. The debate on the areas of civil life in which a state retains authority to formulate its own laws, without interference by the federal government, remains controversial, but it can be useful in clarifying the nature of the federal bond that holds the states of the Union together.  Political culture in the United States is characterised, not only by a patriotic attachment to the idea of the federal republic, but also to the states that individual citizens inhabit. As noted above, the cultural, religious and economic tropes of each state are highly distinctive. This attachment extends to party politics as well. Political parties within the US are based much more on a consensual, community driven interpretation of political dialog than European parties. Although fund raising and promotion activities of both the Republican and Democratic parties is organised by a central committee, these committees have little influence over the policy goals and ideological position of individual candidates.  Political parties in each state view the process of electing a president from a deeply local perspective. The legitimacy and popularity of state primaries is largely a function of each primary\u2019s position within the wider narrative of American politics."}
+{"id":"training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con02b","title":"","text":"Ultimately the primary campaigns, at least for the main parties, are national campaigns. As a result of more frequent and more intensive media coverage- even during early primaries- candidates have to speak to national issues. Furthermore, Super Tuesday is basically a national primary already, it just happens to exclude some of the states.  The early primaries simply work to filter out candidates attempting to use the presidential election to promote a single, poorly developed set of maverick views in front of a much larger audience than they would otherwise have access to.  Only in the event of very close races are the later states left with any meaningful decisions. It would be far more useful to admit that reality and simply hold all national primaries in early February. Contests would still be organised by the state parties (in conjunction with the state authorities where required) and states would still record their vote separately."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Women can carry out many of these tasks without serving in combat roles in the army.  For example, female medical staff or female military police can be sent to give medical assistance or conduct bodily searches. In both Iraq and Afghanistan, female U.S. military police officers have searched local women for explosives. [1]  If female soldiers are perceived as less threatening than male soldiers, there could potentially be worrying side effects such as a reduction in the deterrent effect of the military presence in an L.I.C.  [1] Schult, Marie, \u2018Female Soldiers Assist with Cultural Sensitivities\u2019, Defend America, March 2003."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Some combat roles are better suited to women than men  Modern warfare involves many L.I.C.s, where the battleground is as much \u201chearts and minds\u201d as it is physical combat. In a conflict where hearts and minds are important delicate handling of local people is required in order gain their support. In L.I.C.s, women are often better suited to intelligence gathering, medical assistance, policing and mediation than men. They are often perceived as less threatening and more understanding. [1] In addition, they would be better placed to deal with women in the local population.  For example, the job of many of the female U.S. marines killed and injured in June 2005 in Iraq was to search women for explosives at checkpoints to avoid the near-universal sense of humiliation engendered by a member of the opposite sex conducting an intimate bodily search. [2]  [1] DeGroot, Gerard J., \u2018Women as Peacekeepers\u2019, Toronto Star, 25 July 1999.  [2] Reuters, \u2018The Female Fallen\u2019, PTSD Support, Accessed June 2nd, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no immediate pressing need for an increased pool of recruits for the army in developed countries. The late-2000s recession has led to an increase in military recruitment; particularly in the U.S. [1] This is as a result of there being many more people searching for work which makes the military a relatively more attractive career.  The number of recruits and their talent pool can also be increased in other ways. For example military service can be better promoted and greater incentives to enlist can be offered.  For example, educational funding provided to U.S. army veterans under the post-9\/11 G.I. bill is a major incentive which has increased recruit numbers in recent decades. [2]  [1] Bender, Bryan, \u2018Down economy boosts military\u2019, The Boston Globe, 1 March 2009.  [2] \u2018G.I. Bill\u2019, United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Accessed June 2nd, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro05a","title":"","text":"There should be equality between men and women.  There is a fundamental principle that men and women should be considered equal in all walks of life; and as such should both have an equal role in the military, including being in combat.  Not allowing combat roles for women has an unfortunate side effect of increasing inequality in terms of ranks. Combat duty is necessary or highly beneficial for promotion to senior officer positions in many armies. [1] If women cannot serve in combat, very few will ever reach the highest ranks of the military; this creates a glass ceiling that will be very hard to break without this change to allowing women to serve in combat. Women have to be given the same opportunities as men, in the army in order to have the same opportunities they have to be exposed to the same risks.  [1] Jones, Melissa, \u2018Combat Women\u2019, iVillage.co.uk.  Powers, Rod, \u2018What the Recruiter Never Told You\u2019, About.com guide, Accessed June 2nd, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Differences in physical strength can be overcome  Militaries can use \u2018gender-blind\u2019 recruitment and training processes, treating all candidates the same regardless of gender. This is 100% fair and some women will certainly succeed in entering combatant roles and will prove themselves the equal or better than the men. For example, several Soviet women have distinguished themselves as snipers and combat aviators. [1]  Alternatively, militaries can calibrate recruitment and training to suit female candidates. There is a precedent for this in the U.S. military\u2019s A.P.F.T. (army physical fitness test), which has variations for age. [2] If the test standards can be lowered for older men, they can also be lowered for women.  In the modern high technology battlefield, technical expertise and decision-making skills are often more valuable than physical strength.  For example, in the American army, performance targets are regularly calibrated for age and position. [3] A forty year-old senior N.C.O. (non-commissioned officer), faces a much easier set of targets than his 20 year-old subordinate, yet both are deployed in an active combat role.  [1] \u2018Women in the Russian and Soviet Military\u2019, Wikipedia, Accessed on June 2nd, 2011  [2] Casey L., \u2018Women in Combat\u2019, 1997, Accessed on June 2nd, 2011  [3] Powers, Rod, \u2018Physical Fitness Test\u2019, about.com guide, Accessed on June 2nd, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro01b","title":"","text":"If we use \u2018gender-blind\u2019 recruitment and training, some women will be able to meet the required standards, but most will not. The small number of suitable female candidates set against the additional logistical, regulatory and disciplinary costs associated with integrating them, mean that integration is not worthwhile.  For example, one test of American army officer candidates showed that \"only one woman out of 100 could meet a physical standard achieved by 60 out of 100 men\u201d [1]  Some roles such as those of sniper and combat aviator clearly require less physical strength than most active combat roles. Many tasks that combat soldiers must accomplish require high muscle density, which women do not naturally possess. [2] Examples would include carrying a wounded soldier, throwing grenades or digging a trench in hard terrain.  Older and more senior soldiers make up for their reduced physical strength with an increased amount of experience. The same cannot be said for new female recruits.  [1] Gerber, Bradley, \u2018Women in the Military and Combat\u2019, Family Problems and Social Change, 1998, Accessed on June 2nd, 2011  [2] \u2018Israeli women won\u2019t see combat\u2019, WND, 20 October 2003."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro05b","title":"","text":"This does not mean that women should have to serve in combat. The alternative is that it is possible to change the promotion policies in armies to give women a fair chance at career advancement. Men and women are both given opportunities to join the army, but with the understanding that different roles require different physical, emotional attributes. This should mean in turn that there are multiple routes to promotion so that women have equal opportunities without having to fight take part in combat operations."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro04b","title":"","text":"There are many conflicts which are not L.I.C.s.  Recent combat operations have had historically very low casualty rates, the wars that the United States has been fighting have been operations where the United States had vast technological superiority. There is no guarantee that this will always be the case, a conflict between nations with comparatively equal militaries would still have much more bloody combat operations."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Allowing women to serve in combat increases the pool for recruits  Volunteer military forces face low recruitment and retention rates as a result of it being a tough and stressful job where workers cannot work for as long as they do in many civilian jobs. [1] Injuries and trauma caused by fighting also add to the turnover rate of soldiers. As a result it is necessary to widen the applicant pool in order to be able to ensure there are more candidates for the army.  Allowing women to serve in combat effectively doubles the possible talent pool available for the military to recruit for delicate and sensitive jobs which require interpersonal skills that not every soldier possesses. The result will be better and more diplomatic soldiers who will be particularly useful in L.I.C.s. [2]  [1] Cogan, James, \u2018US military recruitment crisis deepens\u2019, World Socialist Web Site, 1 June 2005.  [2] DeGroot, Gerard J., \u2018Women as Peacekeepers\u2019, Toronto Star, 25 July 1999."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro04a","title":"","text":"All modern military roles are combatant anyway  Many modern conflicts are L.I.C.s which involve terrorist groups using guerilla tactics. In these situations, there are no clear \u2018front-lines\u2019, and no clear difference between combatant and non-combatant roles. All women serving in the military are exposed to \u201cfront-line risks\u201d. [1] Attacks on soldiers are as likely to occur on the military\u2019s bases themselves as they are when the soldiers are out on patrol.  For example, in late June of 2005 in Iraq, two women marines were killed and about a dozen injured in a pair of suicide attacks. [2] That frontline combat operations are not always much more dangerous than other roles can be shown by the casualties in Iraq comparing the initial invasion and reconstruction phases. The United States lost very few casualties in the invasion phase of the war up to President Bush\u2019s declaration of victory on 1 May 2003 with only 138 dead, [3] compared to an overall death toll of 4422. [4] If men and women are already in practice facing the same risks and as women and men are equal, there should be equality when it comes to being considered being in frontline combat service.  [1] Clark-Flory, Tracy, \u2018Should women fight on the front lines?\u2019, Salon, 5 November 2010.  [2] Glanz, James, et al., \u2018Iraq Bombing Kills 4 U.S. Women, a Record Toll\u2019, The New York Times, 25 June 2005.  [3] \u2018U.S. Casualties in Iraq\u2019, GlobalSecurity.org.  [4] \u2018Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) U.S. Casualty Status Fatalities As Of: July 24 2012\u2019, Department of Defense."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con03b","title":"","text":"Male soldiers generally take just as much time off as female soldiers, in large part due to their greater alcohol and drug use. [1]  Of course this problem can be easily anticipated. Statistics on the number or female soldiers not available for call-up due to pregnancy can be used to factor in the phenomenon so that the military has enough personnel to deploy at any one time. This is already done for male soldiers not available for call-up due to injury. [2] Moreover this should not even be considered as not all women can or want to have children. In western states, it is more common for women to become career women and leave having children to later on in life; this would just as likely be the case with women in the military.  Women, who choose to become active combat soldiers, are unlikely to shirk their duty by becoming pregnant after a call-up as these women have willingly joined the army.  [1] \u2018Sexes: The Military Is Pregnant\u2019, Time, 8 October 1979.  [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con01b","title":"","text":"Clearly, training will be required to facilitate the integration of women into combat units. Cultures change over time and the masculine subculture can evolve too. Many previously masculine professions have been successfully opened to women over the past century \u2013 some of them, such as working in factories and many other roles as a result of war.  People involved in combat will attempt to protect each other, this is natural, and sometimes this kind of act is foolish. But this is something that already happens, involving women in the combat role will not make much difference. In addition, men can be informed that acting foolishly to protect women is unacceptable and reprimanded just as any soldier acting foolishly for any other reason would be. Soldiers can be taught what constitutes sexual harassment and abuse and how to react if they witness it or are victimized. Armies already take such incidents seriously and disciplinary procedures can be put in place to deal with any increases in such incidents in the short term as a result of the change.  There would be no difference in uniform or in how males and females would be treated, other than the different physical practice tasks, in order to encourage integration. The change to incorporating women in combat unites would mean that men and women would be given the same treatment so that they would come see each other as equal members of the military."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con02a","title":"","text":"There is a relatively higher female Injury rate  If militaries use gender-blind recruitment and training, women will suffer a high rate of injury as a result of physical differences. The standards of physical fitness have been set to suit men, and women attempting to reach them will over-stretch themselves. For example, when the U.K. military began using gender-blind training in the 1990s, the rate of medical discharge of female recruits jumped from 4.6% to 11.1%. [1]  In addition, regardless of recruitment and training standards, combat units engage in activities designed to suit men\u2019s capabilities. Women serving in integrated units will suffer higher injury rates as a result of this. For example, armies march according to the male stride length of 45 cm, rather than the shorter female stride length of 38 cm. Women marching at the male pace are therefore at increased risk of stress fractures in pubic bones. [2]  [1] Gemmell, Ian M. M., \u2018Injuries among female army recruits: a conflict of legislation\u2019, Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine, Vol.95, No.1, January 2002, pp.23-27.  [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con05a","title":"","text":"Battlefield Rape is a concern  A prevalent theme in many nationalist conflicts is both sides attempting to extinguish the bloodlines of the enemy culture. This ethnic cleansing often leads to systematic rape of women and mass murder of men. For example, in the Bosnian Wars of the early 1990s, systematic rape was carried out against all ethnic groups, but particular by ethnic Serbs against Bosnian Muslims. [1]  This could present a problem in the modern interventionist or peace-keeping activities of many military forces, third party combatants are often sent to the battlefields of conflicts that involve just this kind of ethnic cleansing. While it is unlikely that anything will happen to peacekeeping units if one side does turn on the peacekeepers it is likely that female soldiers will be treated the same as women from the enemy side if the rape mentality has been set in the minds of the soldiers.  [1] Osborn, Andrew, \u2018Mass rape ruled a war crime\u2019, The Guardian, 23 February 2001."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con04a","title":"","text":"Female P.O.W.s (prisoners of war) are a liability  In wars, soldiers are often captured and become P.O.W.s. Male P.O.W.s are sometimes tortured or raped. Many societies around the world value women less than men. This misogyny may make female soldiers more likely to be tortured or in particular raped than male soldiers if they are captured. [1] At the same time this threat or reality may lead male soldiers, captured alongside female soldiers, to crack more easily under interrogation. [2]  Female P.O.W.s are also more likely than male P.O.W.s to be used in propaganda campaigns at home. This may have an effect on the nation\u2019s commitment to the war effort. For example, the story of Jessica Lynch, an American marine captured in Iraq, was widely reported in the American media, affecting national morale. The media paid little attention to the male soldiers captured at the same time. [3]  [1] Cook, Gretchen, \u2018POWs likely to endure sexual assault\u2019, Women\u2019s Enews, 2002.  \u2018Women in Combat Frequently Asked Questions\u2019, Center for Military Readiness, 22 November 2004.  [2] Brown, Steve, \u2018Female POWs Spark Calls to Reassess Military Role for Women\u2019, CNSNews, 4 April 2003, Accessed June 3rd, 2011  [3] Lynne, Diana, \u2018Spin behind Jessica Lynch story?\u2019, WND, 6 May 2003."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con03a","title":"","text":"Pregnancy affects military readiness  Women who become pregnant are not available to be deployed into warzones. This reduces military readiness. Additionally, pregnancy means that women need to take time off work, which can have worse effects in military units than any other workplace. [1] This effect has been observed in army and navy forces in the past. An increased number of women in the military would make the problem worse. [2] In 1985 up to 10% of active duty women personnel in the US armed forces were unavailable for call-up and duty due to pregnancy. [3]  Pregnancy could potentially be a means of avoiding call-up. This is likely with national guard soldiers, who are usually permanently stationed at home and often build lives and families there, not expecting to be deployed abroad. This tactic was used during the Vietnam war by some men. In 1965, the decision to expand the military draft to include married men without children was made. [4]  [1] \u2018Sexes: The Military Is Pregnant\u2019, Time, 8 October 1979.  [2] Harrell, Margaret C., and Miller, Laura L., \u2018New Opportunities for Military Women\u2019, RAND, 1997.  [3] UPI, \u201810% of Army Women Pregnant at Any Time\u2019, The New York Times, 7 July 1985.  [4] Seelye, Katharine Q., \u2018Cheney\u2019s Five Draft Deferments During the Vietnam Era Emerge as a Campaign Issue\u2019, The New York Times, 1 May 2004."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con05b","title":"","text":"No woman will be working by herself. Military units work together, and if a woman were, for example, on patrol by herself, she is armed and can legitimately defend herself against an attacker.  In fact, women are a better presence in situations where rape is being used as a weapon of war. Local women are not going to trust male soldiers so easily as women, because one man in a camouflage uniform looks much like another. If a woman has been raped, or seen\/heard about someone from their neighborhood being raped by an armed militia, or by the army, that woman is in a state of fear already. She will not be able to distinguish between soldiers in her panic. However, a female soldier is not going to rape the local women. This means there is a greater bond of trust between the two parties and they can work together in things like delivering aid, rebuilding infrastructure post-conflict. Local women will also feel more comfortable to come forward to report a crime of rape to another woman, than she would to a man. [1]  [1] Carvajal, Doreen, \u2018A Female Approach to Peacekeeping\u2019, The New York Times, 5 March 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con01a","title":"","text":"Integrating women into male combat units can cause men to behave badly  Many men who join the army maintain traditional gender roles. This may lead them to act foolishly to protect women in their combat units, endangering themselves and everyone else in the unit. In a recent review on the possible introduction of mixed-gender combat units, the British Ministry of Defense cited this as an issue. [1]  At the same time, the sudden presence of women in a masculine subculture, can lead to resentment and incidents of abuse. Sexual harassment and assault may become more prevalent. Any bad male behavior will create tensions, affect morale and weaken the military.  For example, at the three US service academies, one in seven women report being sexually assaulted, and half have been sexually harassed. [2] Integrating into combat unites is not likely to help these statistics.  [1] Norton-Taylor, Richard, \u2018Women still banned from combat roles after Ministry of Defence review\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 29 November 2010.  [2] \u2018One in Seven Attending Military Academies Report Being Sexually Assaulted\u2019, Feminist Majority Foundation, 21 March 2005."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con04b","title":"","text":"The treatment of P.O.W.s is influenced by many factors, including their captor nation\u2019s adherence to the Geneva Convention, discipline within the ranks of their captor army, whether the P.O.W. is expected to possess useful information and whether the captor army is concerned with their public image. The gender of the P.O.W. is likely to have a very small influence compared to these other factors. Upon entering the army, each applicant, male or female are aware of the risks and the possibility of being captured, even if that possibility is small, and are aware of what may occur while in captivity. By deciding to join, each person therefore agrees to understanding these risks and thus making a statement of acceptance.  Stories of P.O.W.s are compelling. They are likely to be used in propaganda campaigns whether or not female soldiers are involved. Had Jessica Lynch not been captured, the male soldiers probably would have been at the center of a similar campaign."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con02b","title":"","text":"It is possible to calibrate recruitment and training standards to women. Extra pre-training for muscle building can also be used to reduce female injury rates. [1] As for the increase of females being discharged in the 1990\u2019s, it is obvious that with an increase of people, the amount of those injured with also proportionally rise, whether male or female.  In order to accommodate to more females in the military, rather than integrating women into male combat units, all-female combat units could be created. These would engage in activities designed to suit women\u2019s capabilities.  [1] Gemmell, Ian M. M., \u2018Injuries among female army recruits: a conflict of legislation\u2019, Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine, Vol.95, No.1, January 2002, pp.23-27."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro02b","title":"","text":"Peace talks starting just 18 months before all NATO forces have left is clearly leaving it too late to ensure success. There will be little to persuade the Taliban to compromise as they believe their situation is only going to get better when there is no fear of military defeats. The Taliban has walked away from talks before and could easily do so again. It is notable that a Taliban spokesman says \u201cThere is no ceasefire now. They are attacking us and we are attacking them\u201d which makes the chances of breakdown in the talks high. [1] To make matters worse the Afghan government has only been lukewarm about the talks complaining that allowing the Taliban an office in Doha \u201cgave the Taliban an official identity, something we didn't want\u201d and responded by suspending negotiations with the United States on a security agreement that would determine how many US soldiers stay in the country after the NATO mission has ended. [2]  [1] \u2018US to hold direct peace talks with Taliban\u2019, Al Jazeera, 19 June 2013  [2] Shalizi, Hamid, \u2018Afghan government irked over U.S. talks with Taliban\u2019, Reuters, 19 June 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Negotiations to ensure lasting peace  NATO is also ensuring that peace and security remain in Afghanistan as they draw down by opening up negotiations with the Taliban. Peace can only be assured by bringing together the sides so that almost everyone accepts the status quo and does not want to destroy that status quo through force. United States officials say \u201cWe have long said this conflict won't be won on the battlefield\u201d with the deputy national security advisor, Ben Rhodes, adding \u201cThe United States will be supporting a process that is fundamentally Afghan-led\u201d meaning that NATO is no longer key to the process. [1] NATO handing over control to the Afghans and eventually withdrawing entirely will make peace more likely to succeed as the Taliban \u201cconsiderers it its religious and national duty to gain independence from the occupation\u201d with this goal it wants \u201cto support a political and peaceful solution\u201d. [2] Lasting peace is then only possible when NATO leaves.  [1] Roberts, Dan, \u2018Taliban peace talks: \u2018Peace and reconciliation\u2019 negotiations to take place in Qatar\u2019, The Guardian, 19 June 2013  [2] Taliban, \u2018Taliban agree to peace talks with US over Afghanistan \u2013 full statement\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 18 June 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro03b","title":"","text":"Some elections may be better than no elections but where the west has control there really should have been exemplary elections. The 2009 Presidential elections in particular have been accused of having been riddled with fraud. The election observers from the National Democratic Institute said \u201cpolling was marred by widespread fraud\u201d and the opposition candidate Abdullah Abdullah pulled out of the run off pointing to there being no measures taken to prevent the fraud recurring. [1] If Afghan elections are so marred by fraud when the US and NATO still have a lot of control over the country how bad will it be when there is no outside check? And if democracy may not survive the transition from NATO control what hope is there for human rights and particularly women\u2019s rights? [2]  [1] National Democratic Institute, \u2018The 2009 Presidential and Provincial Council Elections in Afghanistan\u2019, 2010  [2] UN News Centre, \u2018Georgette Gagnon: Raising the bar on respect for human rights in Afghanistan\u2019, un.org, 28 May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro01a","title":"","text":"NATO has brought peace and security  \u201cNATO\u2019s primary objective in Afghanistan is to enable the Afghan authorities to provide effective security across the country and ensure that the country can never again be a safe haven for terrorists.\u201d [1] The invasion of Afghanistan was initially about destroying al-Qaeda and with the killing of Osama bin Laden in 2011 in Pakistan this objective has been met. There are still efforts to destroy al Qaeda but these have mostly moved out of Afghanistan and into Pakistan and other countries such as Yemen.  NATO has also brought Afghanistan to the point where the Afghani\u2019s can look after themselves and exercise their own security. On 18th June Afghanistan took over the lead from NATO on security nationwide having previously been taking control district by district. Handing over security also itself improves security with Afghanis in Kandahar saying \u201cNow that the foreigners are gone, the security situation in the city and in the districts is much better\u201d. [2]  [1] \u2018NATO and Afghanistan\u2019, nato.int  [2] Loyn, David, \u2018Afghans take nationwide security lead from NATO\u2019, BBC News, 18 June 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro01b","title":"","text":"The conflict clearly is ongoing in Afghanistan; in 2012 there were 245 drone strikes in Afghanistan compared to only 44 in Pakistan and 28 in Yemen. [1] Even if those drones are not being used to attack al Qaeda but instead the Taliban in Afghanistan it is impossible to say that peace and security has been brought to the country.  It is also impossible to say that the handover to Afghan forces shows that the NATO mission has been a success; a handover could occur no matter how peaceful or otherwise the country is. In Vietnam the United States declared victory by signing the Paris Peace Accords and handing over to South Vietnam only for the country to be overrun two years later in the spring of 1975. [2]  [1] Woods, Chris, and Ross, Alice, K., \u2018Revealed: US and Britain launched 1,200 drone strikes in recent wars\u2019, The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 4 December 2012  [2] The Learning Network, \u2018April 30, 1975 | Saigon Falls\u2019, The New York Times, 30 April 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro04b","title":"","text":"There are still immense problems with infrastructure in Afghanistan, more roads and railways are needed if large scale investment by China and others is to be made a success. There is little point in huge investment in mines if the product of those mines then can\u2019t be transported out of the country to the markets as a result of either poor infrastructure or security concerns. There are also cases where infrastructure built by the US military has been allowed to deteriorate when handed over to Afghan control; there have been problems maintaining almost half the infrastructure projects built by the US in Laghman province. [1]  [1] Boak, Josh, \u2018U.S.-funded infrastructure deteriorates once under Afghan control, report says\u2019, Washington Post, 4 January 2011"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Democracy has been brought to Afghanistan  Some of the biggest benefits of the NATO occupation have been through the increase in democracy and human rights. While these were not specific aims of the NATO mission they were among the goals set out by the United Nations. [1] There have been two Presidential elections, one in 2004 the other in 2009, and two parliamentary elections, 2005 and 2010 none have been perfect but it is a clear advance from no elections at all. The most notable human rights increase has been in women\u2019s rights. Under the Taliban Afghanistan strictly limited the activities of women but today 27.3% of the representatives in the Parliament are women (better than in the UK or US) and the first female governor is in office. The literacy rate is still low but they now make up 36.6% of those in primary school up from almost nothing. [2] There have been similar gains in other human rights such as a reduction in the use of corporal punishments such as amputating hands for theft.  [1] Annex III Request to the United Nations by the participants at the UN talks on Afghanistan, S\/2001\/1154, UNDemocracy.com  [2] Haidari, M. Ashraf, \u2018Afghan women as a measure of progress\u2019, The AfPak Channel Foreign Policy, 18 March 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Investment in Afghanistan; rebuilding the economy  The \u2018rehabilitation\u2019 of Afghanistan\u2019s infrastructure has not been an immense success due to the continuing bombing campaign which inevitably damages infrastructure but there have been big economic benefits from the NATO presence. There have been more than 4,000 schools built and 175,000 teachers trained, although more is needed this is an immense boost to education in Afghanistan. [1] Another benefit of increased stability is a renewal of outside investment, from China in particular. China has been investing billions, Several mining firms have made a $4.4 billion investment in one project; an immense undeveloped copper reserve in Aynak. [2] In total there is more than $20 billion being invested in infrastructure by Afghanistan\u2019s Asian neighbours, as these investments are looking for profit they are clearly believed to be sustainable, by comparison the United States has only funded $1.6billion since 2006. [3]  [1] \u2018Afghanistan\u2019, USAID, February 2013  [2] Downs, Erica S., \u2018China Buys into Afghanistan\u2019, Brookings, 21 February 2013  [3] Barfield, Thomas, \u2018Two Diverging Roads in Afghanistan\u2019, YaleGlobal, 11 January 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con03b","title":"","text":"There will still be aid after NATO leaves and Afghanistan is not simply going to be abandoned as the troops go home. Economic growth since the fall of the Taliban has been spectacular with average growth of 9.1% of GDP since 2009 while it is true that this has been in part fueled by aid there are more sustainable sources of growth in the form of the mineral wealth of Afghanistan which can go to the giant and growing economies of India and China. [1]  [1] Al Jazeera and agencies, \u2018Afghanistan\u2019s economy at a glance\u2019, Al Jazeera, 19 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con01b","title":"","text":"In a country where the insurgents are more opposed to the foreign occupiers than their nominal opponents in the Afghan government the complete withdrawal of troops will actually be good for peace and security. Yes Afghanistan is still dangerous but the aim is not necessarily to provide security through NATO forces but to train Afghan forces to do it."}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con02a","title":"","text":"The Taliban will likely take over when the NATO forces leave  Even if they are willing to negotiate a peaceful US exit this does not mean the Taliban will not wish to use force when the United States has left. In their statement on peace talks they highlighted \u201cthe establishment of an independent Islamic system and true security which is the want and aspiration of the nation.\u201d [1] They also style themselves as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan clearly showing their political goal is regaining power in Afghanistan which would mean overthrowing the democratically elected government. Some Afghan experts such as Gilles Dorronsoro believe that this is what will happen \u201cAfter 2014, the level of US support for the Afghan regime will be limited and, after a new phase in the civil war, a Taliban victory will likely follow\u201d though this would have the advantage of bringing stability as the Taliban did before the US invasion it would represent a complete failure for the US. [2]  [1] Taliban, \u2018Taliban agree to peace talks with US over Afghanistan \u2013 full statement\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 18 June 2013  [2] AFP, \u2018Afghan govt will collapse and Taliban will rule again, Afghan expert says\u2019, news.com.au, 27 September 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con04a","title":"","text":"An Afghanistan dominated by warlords.  Under the Taliban up to the US invasion Afghanistan was at least united. Today however there is little central control beyond the NATO forces; the Taliban clearly controls some areas but there are also powerful warlords. Appointments are based on nepotism and tribal affiliations not on merit or education and those who were part of the northern alliance that fought on the US side (Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Hazaras) are taking advantage of the opportunity of the overthrow of Pashtun dominance in the country to grab power and resources. [1] Already the conflict has an ethnic dimension as almost all of the Taliban is made up of Pashtuns. The Taliban meanwhile believes that the other ethnicities want a partition of the country through a very decentralised federal state. In almost any peace scenario with NATO gone there is a large chance that one faction will walk out setting off a civil war and fragmentation of the country. [2]  [1] Noor, Ahmad, \u2018Power Politics of ethnic groups and the future of Afghanistan\u2019, World Security Network, 8 July 2011  [2] Rafiq Arif, \u2018The Coming Civil War in Afghanistan\u2019, Foreign Policy, 3 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con03a","title":"","text":"NATO has failed to solve Afghanistan\u2019s economic problems  While some progress has been made on the economic and development front in Afghanistan it is difficult to consider it a success. There are still 20% of households who are chronically food insecure and another 18% in need of assistance in some of the year with the result that nearly 40% of children under three are malnourished. [1] Afghanistan is immensely dependent on aid for its economic progress with foreign aid to the country representing 100% of GDP in 2011 which makes the country vulnerable to a change in priorities. Clearly the withdrawal will represent such a change; when NATO goes aid, and spending as a result of the military occupation, will drop at the very least constraining growth and likely taking the Afghan economy with it. [2] Already the International Labour Organisation has been warning that this will mean increasing child labour in the country as lower profit margins force families to use their children to boost incomes. [3]  [1] UNDP Afghanistan, \u2018Eradicated Extreme Poverty and Hunger\u2019, United Nations Development Programme, 21 July 2011  [2] \u2018The hand that feeds\u2019, The Economist, 14 July 2012  [3] Ferris-Rotman, Amie, \u2018Afghan child labor fears grow as aid dries up\u2019, Reuters, 7 February 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con01a","title":"","text":"Afghanistan is still a dangerous place  Peace talks or no peace talks, NATO military leadership of Afghan would all appear to make no difference. Only hours after the Taliban said it would hold peace talks and the United States handed over control of military operations to the Afghan National Army four US soldiers were killed in a mortar attack at Bagram Airbase one of the centres of NATO operations. [1] Clearly then NATO has not brought peace and security to Afghanistan. The effect of handovers to the Afghans have already been seen; August to October of last year saw a 28% spike in killings from the same period the year before at a time when NATO was handing over control implying that the Afghan army is not yet ready to protect civilians. [2]  [1] Roberts, Dan, \u2018Taliban peace talks: \u2018Peace and reconciliation\u2019 negotiations to take place in Qatar\u2019, The Guardian, 19 June 2013  [2] Borger, Julian, \u2018Can Afghan troops hold off the Taliban after Nato withdraws?\u2019, The Guardian, 1 January 2013"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con04b","title":"","text":"In a country as rugged as Afghanistan there is always going to have to be a lot of decentralisation and at the moment this means warlords having a lot of power in individual areas. However this is better than the alternative of a centralising Taliban which would still have many factions and elements but these would be much more extreme than today\u2019s warlords. It is also difficult to see how this impacts on the success of NATO in Afghanistan. They can be bad but can also bring benefits as they have an incentive to deliver stability and reconstruction to their local areas. [1]  [1] Milhopadhyay, Dipali, \u2018Warlords as Bureaucrats: The Afghan Experience\u2019, Carnegie Papers, Number 101, August 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con02b","title":"","text":"There is little reason to believe that the Taliban will succeed in rapidly forcing the Karzai government out of power. The Taliban has been failing to retake the ground they have lost after offensives by NATO forces so even if the Afghan National Army fails to take more ground it seems unlikely the Taliban will quickly succeed in driving on Kabul. [1] In the unlikely event that the Taliban does begin winning the US and other NATO states are not going to sit back and let the Afghan government fall. David Cameron, the British Prime Minister has said \u201cThe clear message is to the Taliban that you can't just wait this out until foreign forces leave in 2014. We will be firm friends and supporters to Afghanistan long beyond that.\u201d [2]  [1] American Enterprise Institute, \u2018Why we must win in Afghanistan\u2019, 17 October 2012  Biddle, Stephen, \u2018Salvaging Governance Reform in Afghanistan\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, April 2012  [2] Mason, Rowena, \u2018David Cameron: Taliban could be waiting for British troops to leave before trying to take Afghanistan\u2019, The Telegraph, 19 July 2012"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is no age at which you start to be taxed. Rich children with investment funds and child stars all earn money at a young age and are taxed on it. This does not mean that the voting age should be lowered so that these individuals are represented. Similarly every visitor to the UK pays VAT on any goods they buy, this does not entitle them to a say in government."}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro02a","title":"","text":"No taxation without representation  It is unfair to have taxation without representation. Many 16 year olds work and pay tax on their earnings just as any other worker would. Yet unlike other workers at present they are not allowed to have a say in how the government spends their money, nor in how much should be collected from them in taxes. This was famously the grievance of the thirteen colonies that sparked the American revolution. In 2011 in the UK 7.2% of 16-18 year olds were in employment but not being given fair representation. [1] Policies such as the minimum wage and working hours and conditions are also set by governments, and if young people are old enough to have jobs they should be able to have their say in these issues.  [1] \u2018Participation of 16 to 18 year olds in education and training, England\u2019, Department of Education, 21 February 2013, Table 1"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro03b","title":"","text":"Earlier voting is not a solution to the low turnout problem, the electoral commission in the UK concluded .here is evidence to suggest that extending the franchise will actually create lower turnout and projections about if it would get higher cannot be sufficiently determined [1] At the moment 18-25 year olds are the least likely to cast a vote at election time. Youth membership of political parties is falling. Lowering the voting age still further is therefore likely to reduce turnout even more. Most people don\u2019t vote because they think the election system is unfair, their vote does not count, or because they don\u2019t trust any of the political parties on offer - lowering the voting age won\u2019t solve these problems. Instead with a generation that is increasingly online, to take the UK 21 million households (80%) had internet access in 2012 [2] , and there are over 6.4 million iPhone users, [3] the answer is therefore to engage them digitally not through trying some magic bullet at the ballot box.  [1] The Electoral Commission, \u2018Voting age should stay at 18 says the Electoral Commission\u2019, 19 April 2004  [2] Office for national statistics, \u2018Statistical bulletin: Internet Access \u2013 Households and Individuals, 2012\u2019, 24 August 2012  [3] NMA Staff, \u2018UK iPhone users to reach 6.4m this year\u2019, New media age, 6 August 2010"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro01a","title":"","text":"16 year olds are mature enough to vote  16 year olds are mature enough to make important decisions such as voting. If the government agrees that 16 year olds can have sex, join the army, and apply for a passport, then surely they are mature and responsible enough to decide who runs their country and makes important decisions that affect them. Their bodies are fully adult, they have been educated for at least 10 years, and most of them have some experience of work as well as school. By this time, it is likely a teenager will have developed \u201cAdvanced reasoning skills...the ability to think about multiple options and possibilities. It includes a more logical thought process and the ability to think about things hypothetically\u201d. [1] This means they are able to form political views and they should be allowed to put these across at election time. Indeed by 16 children are as tolerant as adults and their political skill (the perceived ability to participate effectively in civil life by writing to political leaders and by speaking publically at meetings) is as high at 16 as for those in their late twenties. [2] There is no magic difference between 16 and 18 - indeed, many 16 year olds are more sensible than some 20 year olds.  [1] Morgan, Erin, and Huebner, Angela, \u2018Adolescent Growth and Development\u2019, VirginiaTech, 1 Mary 2009  [2] Atkins, Robert, and Hart, Daniel, \u2018American Sixteen and Seventeen Year Olds are Ready to Vote\u2019, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol 633:201, 2011, p.210"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro01b","title":"","text":"The UK electoral commission agrees that \u201cthere is no single definition of maturity\u201d [1] . However it is not the case that most 16 year olds are mature enough to vote. Rather, teenagers are emotionally immature and tend to behave as though \u201cthey are \u201con stage\u201d with the attention of others constantly centred upon their appearance or actions. This preoccupation stems from the fact that adolescents spend so much time thinking about and looking at themselves\u201d. [2] The large majority still live at home and go to school. They may have adult bodies, but their minds are still those of children who have to be protected. By 18 young people have become much more independent and are able to make their own way in the world. Their political views are likely to be more thoughtful compared to 16 year olds, who may just copy their parents\u2019 opinions or else will pull away from their parents and as a result \u201cthe peer group takes on a special significance... Members of the peer group often attempt to behave alike, dress alike... and participate in the same activities\u201d [3] .  [1] The Electoral Commission, \u2018Voting age should stay at 18 says the Electoral Commission\u2019, 19 April 2004  [2] University of Maryland Medical Center, \u2018Adolescent Development-Overview\u2019, University of Maryland, 17 January, 2011  [3] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro04b","title":"","text":"Since 18-24 year olds already ignore their ability to vote there is no reason to expect that 16-18 year olds will be any more interested. At the moment over 50% of 18-24 year olds don\u2019t vote even though they are eligible. [1] So this kind of change is hardly going to offset aging. It is also wrong to suggest that voters vote according to their age; the elderly are likely to have grandchildren whose interests they may well respect when voting.  [1] Dunleavy, Patrick, and Gilson, Chris, \u2018Is the UK Electorate Disengaged?\u2019, British Politics and Policy at LSE, 12 March 2010"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro03a","title":"","text":"Voting at a lower age would increase participation  There is a problem of apathy in many western countries, with low turnouts at elections. Young people are taught citizenship or civics at school with the aim of building \u201cKnowledge and understanding about being informed citizens...Developing skills of enquiry and communication...Developing skills of participation and responsible action\u201d [1] however they don\u2019t get a chance to put this knowledge into practice for several years. Is it surprising that they lose interest in public affairs during this time? Because national elections are usually only held every four years or so, many people have to wait until they are 20 or 21, years after that civic education, before their first chance to cast an important vote. It is noticeable that political interest is much higher among those in education than those who are not. In Austria it was found that 68% of 16 to 18 year olds in education were interested in politics against only 45% of those who are working. [2] By demonstrating trust and promoting inclusion, young people would feel more confident in their views, become less disillusioned and eventually teach their children the same values. Introducing a lower voting age can only have long term benefits for the expansion of democracy.  [1] House of Commons Education and Skills Committee, \u2018Citizenship Education\u2019, House of Commons, 21 February 2007  [2] Zeglovits, Eva, and Schwarzer, Steve, \u2018Lowering voting age in Austrtia \u2013 evaluation of accompanying campaigns for 16-18 year olds\u2019, Paper presented at the 5th ECPR General Conference, Potsdam, Sept 12th-15th 2009, p.9"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-pro04a","title":"","text":"Voting at 16 would help rebalance voting ages  There is a notable difference between how young people and the elderly are treated. Giving the vote to teenagers would force politicians to take them seriously. Policies on education (e.g. student loans) would have to take their views and interests into account for the first time. 16 year olds today are well-educated and media-savvy, so they can express informed opinions. But at the moment young people\u2019s views are easily ignored by those in power because they don\u2019t have the vote. The vote for 16-18 year olds would help redress the growing age imbalance which is occurring as a result of aging. In the rich world by 2050 one in three will be a pensioner and one in ten over 80. [1] These voters will clearly be looking after their benefits at the expense of the young.  [1] The Economist, \u2018A slow-burning fuse\u2019, 25 June 2009"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con03b","title":"","text":"Young people are not the only ones who vote for extremists, the elderly are also more likely to vote for far right parties. [1] It is important in a democracy to include as wide a range of opinion as possible; a tendency to vote for more radical ideas should not be a reason for disenfranchising someone, or even more so disenfranchising a whole group. There are however also reasons to believe that 16 to 18 year olds could potentially use their votes more wisely than their elders. When looking at Austria it was found that those in education paid more attention to political news than those in work. 30% of people working followed political news less than once a week compared to only 15% of those in education. [2] As students are therefore better informed it would seem to be likely they would use their votes more wisely.  [1] Arzheimer, Kai, and Carter, Elizabeth, \u2018Political Opportunity Structures and Right-Wing Extremist Party Success\u2019, European Journal of Political Research, 2006, p.4  [2] Zeglovits, Eva, and Schwarzer, Steve, \u2018Lowering voting age in Austrtia \u2013 evaluation of accompanying campaigns for 16-18 year olds\u2019, Paper presented at the 5th ECPR General Conference, Potsdam, Sept 12th-15th 2009, p.10"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con01b","title":"","text":"This is an odd idea; should parents not be voting for themselves not their children? If they are voting for their children rather than themselves are they not themselves disenfranchised? The fact is that children and their parents have different interests on account of the age gap that is likely to be at least 20 years. Someone who is 16 is much more interested in university fees than someone who is 40 who will be more interested in how much they will have at retirement. Furthermore with turnouts that are often less than 50% a great many children are not being represented by their parents at all. Adults have the choice to not vote, when their parents are choosing not to vote children don\u2019t get this opportunity."}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con02a","title":"","text":"Rights should be gained progressively  Just because 16 year olds have the right to do some things, it doesn\u2019t mean that they should use them. If all 16 year olds left home at 16 and started families it would be considered a disaster. And not all rights are given at 16 - most countries have a higher age for important things such as drinking alcohol, serving on a jury, joining the military, etc. It makes sense for different rights to be gained at different times as young people mature and get used to more responsibility. The more difficult and complex the choices involved in that right and the greater the impact the later a right should be given. Because voting is so important, involves complex decision making, and can potentially have a large impact, it should be one of the last rights to be gained. It then makes sense that it voting should be granted at the time we consider adulthood to be beginning, which was agreed in the declaration of the rights of the child is 18. [1]  [1] Archard, David William, \u2018Children's Rights\u2019, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con04a","title":"","text":"There needs to be a cut off  Everyone would agree that there has to be a minimum voting age. Most people believe that the line should be drawn at 18 rather than 16. Although some 16 year olds may be mature enough to vote, most have not yet formed political views of their own yet. On average, young people are much more likely to be ready for the responsibility of voting at 18. There is then no reason why 16 would make a better cut off point than 18. At both ages some rights are given, at both there will be some who pay tax who are not given representation, at both some will be immature. There is no clear dividing line so there can be no clear reasoning for lowering the voting age to 16."}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con03a","title":"","text":"Young people would be more likely to misuse their vote  It would be dangerous to give young people the vote. They might use it in foolish ways. For example they will be more likely to make their decision on which party had the best image; so will vote for parties that put up celebrities. They are also more likely to vote for extremists into power or vote without thinking on single issues (e.g. making drugs legal, free university places, cheap beer!). It is notable that in late 1990\u2019s Russia 80% of the Communist party\u2019s members were under 30, and a far right nationalist party, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, has called to lower the voting age to 16. [1] A study from the University of Nijmegen found that younger people are over represented in voters for extreme right wing parties, [2] and the same goes the other way with younger people more likely to support left wing populist measures at the expense of democracy, rights, and freedoms. [3]  [1] \u2018Extremists push for young voters\u2019, Times Higher Education, 7 December 1998  [2] Lubbers, Marcel et al., \u2018Extreme right-wing voting in Western Europe\u2019, European Journal of Political Research, vol. 41, 2002, pp345-378, p.364  [3] Seligson, Mitchell, A., \u2018The Rise of Populism and the Left in Latin America\u2019, Journal of Democracy, Vol.18 No.3, July 2007, pp.81-95, p.91"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con01a","title":"","text":"Parents are guardians and should be trusted to vote in their children\u2019s interests  Governments do things which affect every age group but that does not mean everyone deserves the vote. Should 12 year olds get the vote because school policies affect them? Should toddlers get the vote because health services affect them? No - we trust parents to cast votes after thinking about the interests of their families. And there are other ways for young people to have a say - they can write to elected representatives and newspapers, sign petitions, speak at public meetings, join youth parliaments, etc. It is notable that sixteen year olds themselves are divided on whether they should have the vote, [1] if many of them trust their parents to vote for them should not the government?  [1] The Electoral Commission, \u2018Voting age should stay at 18 says the Electoral Commission\u2019, 19 April 2004"}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con04b","title":"","text":"This applies equally to having the cut off at 16 rather than 18. If it is questionable at both ages then since this is an issue of human rights we should err on the side of caution and give the vote to as many as possible. This would mean lowering the voting age."}
+{"id":"training-politics-vhwlva1-con02b","title":"","text":"16 year olds already have other rights. For example, in many countries they have the right to leave school and leave home, and the rights to have sex, marry and have children, they can rent accommodation and consent to surgery [1] . It is not reasonable to have different ages for different rights. It makes sense for the right to vote to be at a younger age precisely because the individual has fewer changes to deal with at a younger age, they will therefore find it easier to learn to vote. [2] If young people are considered old enough to make important choices about their own future, why can\u2019t they have a say in deciding the future of their country?  [1] Thesite.org, \u2018What age can I?\u2019, 5 May 2013  [2] Franklin, Mark N., at al., \u2018The Generational Basis of Turnout Decline in Established Democracies\u2019, Acta Politica, March 2004, pp.8-9"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro02b","title":"","text":"The general claim here is that opinion polls can be subject to error and lead to questionable information and decision-making by voters. Also, it has been claimed that opinion polls can be manipulated consciously or inadvertently which then should justifies their damnation. The opposition claims that any tool which gathers information could be manipulated or inadvertently misused. Audience polling is simply a method to gather group opinion and audience analysis is as old as Aristotle as a method for speakers to better understand audiences. Audience response is often sought in regard to attitudes and to isolate opinion polls as not useful or necessary because of possible error or corruption. This denies the need for those advocating to understand the position of those these seek to persuade. To say that opinion polls should not be used because of these reasons would suggest that audience feedback never be used because of possible errors in conclusions. It is far better to understand the nature of polling and its risk factors than to simply abandon the use of this important link between the voter and the politician. The nature of audience polling is critical to communication and should not be dismissed because of its potential for misuse."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Opinion polls are subject to bias and often produce faulty information on which decision are made.  Since opinion polls are the products of research, they can also be heavily manipulated by the organization performing or commissioning the poll in question. A bias can easily be created by selecting a certain target group, such as a 2011 AP opinion poll which asked more democrats than republicans, [1] or more usually through asking certain questions or phrasing them in a particular way. For example it has been found that Americans are more likely to support spending for the \u2018poor\u2019 than for \u2018welfare\u2019. [2] This information can generate false information and untrue or exaggerated claims. Even if the research is done with an objective mindset, the research technique or reporting method can skew the results. For example, the opinion polls seldom report the measure of uncertainty of the conclusions, by for example reporting standards deviations from means, sample size, etc. These measures are usually not published. Reporting the results of opinion polls without further statistical information leads to more misinformation. One such example comes from the exit polls of the 2004 U.S. Presidential election. Many of the election polls predicted a win for Kerry, but didn\u2019t consider the fact that Republicans were less likely to respond to an exit poll leading to inaccurate conclusions about what would occur. [3] Thus, opinion polls are not necessarily trustworthy sources of information on which voters can make good decisions.  [1] Geraghty, Jim, \u2018Latest AP Poll Sample Skews to Democrats by 17 Points\u2019, National Review Online, 11 May 2011,   [2] Abroff, Sarah, \u2018Question Wording and Issue Salience of Public Opinion Polls: The Energy Crisis Prior to the 2008 Presidential Election\u2019, 6 January 2010,   [3] Benen, Steve, \u2018Exit Poll Update\u2026\u2019, Washington Monthly, 17 November 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro03b","title":"","text":"The proposition claims that tactical voting is bad because unintended consequences could occur. However, tactical voting is a legitimate tool of the democratic process. Voting is used as a voice to sway majorities and the methods to accomplish a long range goal are part of the political process. The very nature of tactical voting includes an element of chance and is a strategic method to influence the outcome. Any activity involving chance and risk could have unintended outcomes. Opinion polls have often existed in the past when the outcome was different than expected whether tactical voting was a strategy in play or not. Tactical voting could occur whether opinion polls existed or not. Therefore, the publication of opinion polls still remains a legitimate tool of the democratic process in which voters have a right to participate."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro05a","title":"","text":"Politicians will be less likely to engaged in political marketing and speak more directly to substantive issues.  When opinion polls become the constant focus of the media, politicians are forced to pander to an ever-changing public marketplace instead of developing a consistent party or personal philosophy. Candidates become overly involved in defending and explaining poll data. Voters become the consumers of political marketing. The democratic process is diminished when changing opinion polls interrupts substantive dialogue. Without the excessive use of poll data, a candidate\u2019s message can be more than an advertisement. Rather than the marketing of a person, important political ideas and public policy discussion occur. Even though poll data would be available during the earlier election season, a plan to control opinion polls would begin to diminish such a focus. The advantage would be less political marketing and room for better democratic discussion."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro01a","title":"","text":": Opinion polls are harmful to the democratic process because they stifle debate  In democratic nations public opinion matters as it is the public who ultimately decides who wins office and opinion polls measure that opinion. As a result politicians have become obsessed with the shifting whims of public opinion upon which the media focuses forcing politicians also focus on popular opinion even between elections. Since the media carries the news, the active use of opinion polls by the media drives the policy agenda. Lack of information on critical issues is likely to result as politicians focus only on areas where the opinion polls highlight.  Democracy is also harmed by the publication of opinion polls as subsequent citizen voter behaviour can be influenced. When , for example, an opinion poll portrays a huge majority for a certain subject, or for a particular party, its opponents might be less vocal since they feel \u201coutnumbered\u201d or that decisions have already been made thus diminishing democratic dialogue. Undecided voters may be apathetic toward the election process since they appear to be a foregone conclusion. The potential influence on voters choices is the reason the France forbids opinion polls shortly before an election. [1]  [1] Blocman, \u2018Ban on Publishing Public Opinion Polls\u2019, 1999,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Even though polls may alter public dialogue, an explanation of what stifles debate is not sufficiently provided by the proposition. They seem to infer that \u2018stifling\u2019 by opinion polls suggests a that debate shuts down whereas we claim that a politician\u2019s responses to public opinion is exactly what is sought by the public to make them better informed. The stifling of debate does not occur. So even though, the prop suggests that stifling debate is hindering debate, this has not been proven since responses by politicians to opinion polls are simply part of dialogue and not necessarily hindering discussion.  The observation that voter behaviour is some- how unfairly influenced through strength of numbers doesn\u2019t include all of the close results which are often reported between platforms or candidates. The assumption that voters feeling outnumbered will often occur and will change their vote as a result cannot be made. Most citizens are already aware of their political leanings regardless of opinion polls or popular opinion. The undecided voter is not necessarily waiting on opinion polls but more likely the continuing debate occurring through the election cycle. Apathy among voters occurs for many other reasons besides the publication of opinion polls. We cannot be certain that the exclusion of public polls to protect apathetic voters will significantly outweigh the value of a more informed public. That democracy is harmed through opinion polls has not been established."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro05b","title":"","text":"Even though the proposition promised that political dialogue would improve when focused on substantive issues, the opposition believes that this is simply a promised hope. Political campaigning is advertising by its very nature. Citizens are informed throughout the campaign through a variety of \u201cadvertising\u201d methods from slogans to claims about the product itself. And campaigns always do an analysis of the consumer. Opinion polling is not unique.  And, to make the assumption that substantive issues will more likely be addressed without opinion polls suggests that they alone have the power to influence the nature of the dialogue. There are far too many other factors which determine the discussion and debate from immediate events which occur during the campaign to long standing political positions which relate to the development of party consistency or personal philosophy. The outcome the proposition hopes for cannot be guaranteed nor can a position be sensibly made that a political campaign is not one of marketing. To be effective the candidate has the right to all available information which is also critical to better democratic discussion."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro04b","title":"","text":"The propositions plan restricts the publication of polls only for 2 weeks before the election. However, such restrictions would not make a significant impact on the harms of opinion polls that have been outlined by the proposition. The 2 week window would not diminish all the prior opinion polls which existed and were published. The frequency of these polls have already flooded the media as they have been deemed newsworthy. Many voters have already come to conclusions based on the dialogue conducted up to this point. Only the uncertain and apathetic voter could be influenced and that may not be a significant number to restrict freedom of expression. We have no facts about the size of this population. The dialogue during elections should be a continuous process of free expression and never be unnecessarily limited for uncertain proof that these opinion polls pose a serious harm. If the polls were considered to present harm, then why would they not be censored completely? The two week plan of limiting opinion polls would not solve any problems outlined and could hinder the on-going pre-election dialogue."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Opinion polls can lead to tactical voting which may have unintended outcomes.  Tactical voting is the purposeful casting of votes to sway an outcome. When the outcome is predicted in an opinion poll, it can influence voters to possibly cast a ballot differently than had that poll information not existed. This means that the votes are being cast based upon inaccurate assumptions. For instance, in the 1992 U.K. elections all polls predicted a Labour victory. However, against all expectations, the Conservatives won. It is wholly possible that many people, ensured of a seeming Labour victory, then decided to vote for the Conservatives tactically to ensure that there would be a balance in the House of Commons \u2013 or even out of sympathy, the \u2018underdog effect\u2019. [1] Or decided to vote for their first preference minor party, such as the liberal democrats, because they believed the Conservatives would be voted out without their needing to cast their votes tactically for Labour. Thus, it is possible that the voters didn\u2019t accomplish the government they actually wanted, as they cast votes based on opinion polls. The unintended outcomes are a result of these opinion polls and tactical voting.  [1] Traugott, Michael W., and Lavrakas, Paul J., The Voter\u2019s Guide to Election Polls, Fourth Edition, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008,  p.202"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro04a","title":"","text":"Opinion Polls should not be published 2 weeks in advance of an election.  This would ensure a more democratic discussion immediately prior to the decision making process of voting. This does not harm free expression because it is serving a specific purpose at a specific time. For instance, during times of national security or disaster certain citizen behaviour is restricted. Since there is information on public opinion in all of the other weeks of the year, this two week moratorium would solve some of the harms of published opinion polls. There would be less stifling of discussion, voters would not be subjected to possibly biased information or misused statistics at this critical time of thinking and making a wise choice. Tactical voting is likely to be used less, and minority voices are not as likely to be overshadowed by popularly \u201cclaimed\u201d opinions. Therefore, we propose that opinion polls not be published 2 weeks prior to an election."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con03b","title":"","text":"There can be no denial to the position that voters have a right to select their own criteria for making choices. We on the proposition believe in the individual choice of citizens. This position, however, does not change our position that opinion polls diminish public dialogue. Of course, people develop their own criteria; however, our responsibility here is to discuss the value of the opinion poll not the value of religion or astrological predictions as a criterion of choice. The criteria may but up to citizens, but the discussion of what criteria is appropriate is valuable to address. We believe that published opinion polls are not a worthy criteria not that citizens do not have a choice in that criteria. Since elections are a public shared event, then the criteria for voting is the legitimate discussion in which we are now engaged. The proposition believes that the focus of our debate is upon the worthiness of opinion polls."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con01b","title":"","text":"The claim that opinion polls are public expression cannot be denied. Although freedom of expression is acknowledged within a democracy, absolute freedom of expression does not exist. There are restrictions related to the public good. The right of free expression to cover all aspects of public speech is limited. Some restrictions are considered legitimate within a democratic society.  Also, the claim that any attempt to restrict free expression is bad because of the possible consequences which follow is faulty in reasoning. Stating that one thing \u201ccould\u201d lead to another is speculative and not sufficient reason to reject a legitimate need to restrict some expression.  Opinion polls do contain some information which may assist in transparency. However, since as has previously been noted, polls can be biased and manipulated and so could be equally untrustworthy in providing a check on fraud or corruption in the voting process. Therefore the claims provided by the opposition do not by themselves lead to a sufficient reason to reject support for restrictions to opinion polls."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con02a","title":"","text":"Citizens should be respected for their opinions  Opinion polls may vary in their quality, but we should trust our citizens and politicians to be critical when using them as a basis for decision making. This is a compelling reason to publicize them as much as possible. The more opinion polls on a topic, the more specific questions can be asked, and the greater possibility for critical analysis.  Additionally, there are many opinion polls and there is competition between opinion poll firms. There are differences about how studies are conducted as well as their reliability. Thus opinion polls themselves possess a certain level of credibility. The media and citizens discern the least valuable polls and those with less scientific reliability. Some are likely lose legitimacy, whereas the most trustworthy polls gain more attention. For example, in the U.S., the polls that Fox News runs are seen differently than polls conducted by Pew Research which is likely to receive more widespread recognition.  A well conducted poll can be very accurate. It is reckoned that a sample of 1,000 people can accurately reflect the views of more than 200 million adults to within a few percentage points. [1] Polling is a statistical science with an established literature and the publication of ongoing research. There is no reason that citizens should be denied information on which to base their decisions. It is their right and responsibility to determine the credibility of opinion polls. The media is also likely to check and question the credibility of opinion polls, particularly as many will have been commissioned by rivals. Citizens should be respected as thinking individuals.  [1] \u2018Reporting Opinion Polls\u2019, ACE The Electoral Knowledge Network,"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con05a","title":"","text":"Opinion polls provide useful information to politicians.  They provide important information about what people think of their performance during the election process. Politicians have the right to change tactics if need be and opinion polls often provide voter feedback about how a candidate is perceived. Informed candidates can better speak to voter concerns, thus increasing dialogue prior to elections. Candidates who speak more specifically to issues develop a better public trust as well as commitment regarding their future performance to which they can be held accountable. Since candidates or platforms which win the election influence future policies, citizens benefit from informed politicians who can speak to the concerns of citizens and issues of the nation."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con04a","title":"","text":"Tactical voting is legitimate within the democratic process.  The proposition highlights how tactical voting can be affected by opinion polls. However there is nothing wrong with tactical voting. In fact, it is a crucial feature of a democracy that citizens are not only able to vote for the government they want, but also for the type of opposition that that government will face. Tactical voting also avoids wasted votes under the First-Past-the-Post system Britain and America both use. To enable tactical voting, opinion polls are necessary to inform voters what way they should vote if they wish to vote tactically. That this may sometimes lead to mistakes, is an unfortunate but necessary by-product. Banning opinion polls can therefore have unintended results. In the 1981 French Presidential election once the seven day ban started Chirac\u2019s campaign suggested that their campaign was taking off and he would go through to the second round \u2013 which would make it two conservatives in the run off. This frightened communist party supporters into voting tactically to support Mitterand when there may well have been no need. [1]  [1] Bains, Paul, et al., \u2018 Public opinion polls: do they do more harm than good?\u2019, Proceedings of the 56th International Statistical Institute Conference, 22-29 August, 2007, Lisboa, Portugal, www.hansardsociety.org.uk\/files\/folders\/3069\/download.aspx"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con03a","title":"","text":"Citizens have a fundamental right to vote on whatever the basis they choose.  It is their right to select the criteria for making decisions. Even though it is assumed, certain criteria exist such as prior experience or party affiliation. However, some citizens might turn to astrology or tarot cards to decide their vote. Others may consider a candidate\u2019s religion or appearance. Many decide based upon the opinion of respected others. However much one might personally dislike some of these criteria, every citizen has a right to determine the basis of her\/his vote. Therefore opinion polls are a legitimate choice to provide."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con05b","title":"","text":"It has been claimed by the opposition that opinion polls provide useful information to politicians and are necessary for dialogue between the candidate and the public. The proposition however would like to focus upon the term \u201cuseful\u201d. Published opinion polls by their very nature present only a few and briefly stated attitudes of voters which is not useful. Knowing the level of support or agreement with a candidate reveals very little useful information about why a voter holds that attitude or how firmly that attitude is held. Thus polls by their nature do not provide useful information but only broad trends. Audience surveys and other methods of gathering feedback provide much different and more specific information on the nature of voter attitudes and beliefs. Yet, we are not discussing voter feedback, but rather the specific tool of published audience polls. The question remains then whether useful information is provided to the candidate through the availability of published opinion polls which would seem to be unnecessary as candidates could still engage in their own private opinion polls which will keep the politicians informed. [1]  [1] Bains, Paul, et al., \u2018 Public opinion polls: do they do more harm than good?\u2019, Proceedings of the 56th International Statistical Institute Conference, 22-29 August, 2007, Lisboa, Portugal, www.hansardsociety.org.uk\/files\/folders\/3069\/download.aspx"}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con01a","title":"","text":"Opinion polls are a forum for public expression and should be protected  They publicize the opinions of large numbers of citizens and therefore can be considered an exercise in free speech. Any attempt to restrict the free exchange of opinion damages the marketplace of ideas. Citizens have a right to express themselves and for their expression to be heard.  Restricting opinion polls would be a bad precedent and could become the basis for other restrictions of free speech. For example, in India some have proposed banning the publication of horoscopes during the election period.  Democracy itself is safeguarded by opinion polls which represent public expression for they also ensure transparency in public will and choices and can thus discourage or reveal electoral fraud and vote-rigging. Such information could be observed both nationally and internationally. In fact, those regimes which ban or heavily restrict opinion polling are those which are either undemocratic or where corrupt in the election process exists. These regimes know that allowing opinion polling would embarrassingly reveal their lack of legitimacy and could lead to a domestic and international outcry against them. Therefore, opinion polls are a vital form of public expression."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con04b","title":"","text":"Tactical voting may be legitimate within the democratic process but that does not deny the fact that unexpected outcomes could occur. These unexpected outcomes mean that the will of the people is less likely to be served which is the consequence with which we are concerned. Whether tactics is legitimate does not deny the fact that it may not be good or even dangerous. Tactics can vary in outcomes whether it comes to financial investment, competitive sport or election strategy. Therefore, the tactic of voting one way to achieve another outcome could achieve the desired result or it could not. That tactical voting is a choice available does that mean that it serves the democratic process well. Sometimes it is valuable to limit the choices of citizens so negative unexpected consequences do not occur."}
+{"id":"training-politics-pggvhbophd-con02b","title":"","text":"Of course, citizen opinion and intelligence should be respected and we do not disagree on this issue. Our differences lie in the nature of how mediated messages are presented to citizens as well as fair questions into the motives of those responsible for polling and media outlets which provide them to the public. First, the nature of mediated messages requires that they be reduced to brief and simply forms. There is an abundance of messages in competition for listeners\u2019 attention. Therefore the details regarding polling activity is not provided (purposely or not) and citizens are left with insufficient information on which to make critical judgements.  Second, even though the opposition hopes that the natural process of credibility will check this possibility, it cannot be denied that manipulation can occur to the unaware voter. So due to this vulnerability of inaccurate information being disseminated, it is better to acknowledge the problems which occur in mediated messages which are often the primary source of information for voters. This does not deny that polls can be accurate and are constantly being improved; however, the on-going nature of that science is different than the question at hand as to whether they can always be trusted as a form of information for those respected citizens."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro02b","title":"","text":"Corporate entities have the right to be anonymous if they choose. American elections have to reach an extremely large and spread out audience, and this requires large amounts of funding, which is provided by corporations and individuals. There simply shouldn\u2019t be parity with corporations and individuals because they are not the same thing- it is like comparing apples to beef, you can eat both of them but they are nothing alike.  Corporations can represent thousands of people that they employ or are their shareholders. They are speaking on behalf of their organisation, not as individuals. They are supporting candidates that they believe will help their business so they are speaking for those who wish to keep their jobs at the company.  It is however wrong to assert that citizens united is just about corporations \u2013 it is about all groups and therefore about individuals. The Supreme Court in this case recognised that limiting political spending limits speech by limiting citizens ability to deliver their view. In practice the best way for individual citizens to deliver their views is to create groups with other like-minded individuals. Quite the contrary to what democrats may believe this is also necessary for third party candidates such as Ross Perot who would get nowhere without large scale contributions because they have, at least initially, a narrow base of support. [1]  [1] Smith, Bradley A., \u2018The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform\u2019, in Boatright, Robert G. ed., Campaign Finance, pp.46-62, p.57-58"}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro02a","title":"","text":"More parity is necessary between corporations and the regular individuals.  There is a need to create more parity between individuals and corporations. There is much more campaign funding where there is non-disclosure, there has been little money flowing into \u2018super-PACs\u2019 that must disclose donors instead it goes to tax exempts organizations that are not subject to the disclosure requirements. [1] As non-disclosure means higher fundraising figures, then it becomes optimal for every politician to adopt a strategy of opacity in order to fare better than his or her opponents. The culture of corporate electioneering aided by legally-sanctioned anonymity would likely demoralize voters and funnel candidates\u2019 priorities towards courting big business at great cost to the average American citizen during and after the election.  While it may be a stretch to assert that Citizens United granted corporations \u201cpersonhood,\u201d the impacts of the ruling are far-reaching for campaign finance law. Even small corporations have disproportionate spending power compared to individuals. Oftentimes decisions in corporations are made by boards of executives and not aggregates of working-class citizens, exacerbating the influence of those who already wield greater financial and political capital. If money is indeed speech, then corporations speak much, much louder than individuals from the outset. Some contend that the voices of unions, which are similarly protected under the same ruling, lend a degree of partisan balance\u2014implicitly acknowledging that the divide is indeed tinged with partisanship\u2014but realistically, even the largest union contributions pale in comparison to those of Fortune 500 companies. [2] Distortion in the marketplace of ideas increases reliance on negative campaigning, which hurts voter turnout and morale while usually detracting from substantive dialogue about policy issues. It also raises the barriers of entry for third-party candidates and more moderate candidates during elections and primaries, more deeply entrenching the two-party system. [3]  [1] McIntire, Mike, and Confessore, Nicholas, \u2018Tax-Exempt Groups Shield Political Gifts of Businesses\u2019, The New York Times, 7 July 2012.  [2] Pilkington, Ed. \u2018Obama wants to see Citizens United Supreme court ruling overturned\u2019. Guardian.co.uk, 29 August 2012.  [3] United States Supreme Court. Citizens United vs. Federal Electoral Commission. October 2009."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro03b","title":"","text":"Opponents have expressed other problems with the language of the DISCLOSE Act, including seemingly arbitrary exemptions for large and long-standing organizations\u2014criteria which capture most labor unions. This makes the DISCLOSE act like any other campaign finance reform; essentially it is party political benefiting aimed at the Republicans by the Democrats who passed it who have exempted those in their own camp who might be affected. [1] It is designed to benefit the party that passed it rather than really increase transparency.  [1] Smith, Bradley A., \u2018The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform\u2019, in Boatright, Robert G. ed., Campaign Finance, pp.46-62, p.53"}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Elections should be controlled by the people not powerful interests  President Obama famously eschewed large corporate donors in favor of grassroots fundraising and social media in 2008, casting a wide net of supporters. [1] By election day his facebook page had 3.4million supporters, his website My.BarackObama.com had 2million members, the campaign had an email list of 13 million and there were 1 million text message subscribers showing how campaigns should be run by mobilizing people not powerful interests. [2] Following a similar strategy, the 2012 campaign garnered hundreds of thousands supporters in the first several months, shattering 2008 records. [3] President Obama has stated in the public record his support for increased disclosure for corporate and individual donors as well as efforts to limit the high-value contributions from corporations that are permitted under Citizen United v. Federal Election Commission [4] .  In response to the supreme court decision on Citizens United v Federal Election Commission act Obama declared in the 2010 state of the Union \u201cI don\u2019t think American elections should be bankrolled by America\u2019s most powerful interests, or worse, by foreign entities. They should be decided by the American people\u201d [5] . In a democracy where the government is supposed to be accountable to the people this should be self-evident; accountable to the people should mean that rather than accountable to corporate interests.  [1] Murray, Shailegh and Bacon, Perry Jr. \u2018Obama to Reject Public Funds for Election\u2019. The Washington Post. 20 June 2008.  [2] Corrado, Anthony J. et al., \u2018Reform in an Age of Networked Campaigns\u2019, in Boatright, Robert G. ed., Campaign Finance, pp.107-128, p.112  [3] Bingham, Amy. \u2018Money Wars: Obama Dominates Fundraising Battle\u2019. ABC News. 1 February, 2012.  [4] United States Supreme Court. Citizens United vs. Federal Electoral Commission. October 2009.  [5] Obama, Barack, \u20182010 State of the Union\u2019, State of the Union Address Library, 27 January 2010."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro01b","title":"","text":"Corporations have just as much stake in the country as individuals do, they are affected just as much by decisions taken by the president; what regulations there should be, should there be subsidies, should free trade or protectionism promoted etc., and so have just as much interest in being able to make their voice heard in elections. Corporations are unable to vote so the only way for them to do this is to finance campaigns. It is also wrong to suggest that corporations funding campaigns gives them undue influence. When looking at voting patterns in congress it appears that candidates voting behavior is almost entirely based on their own beliefs and their party\u2019s preferences and campaign contributions have next to no impact. [1] In fact it makes so little difference that Ansolabehere et al. in their conclusion say \u201cthe question is not why do corporations, unions and other interest groups give so little, but why do they give at all?\u201d [2]  [1] Ansolabehere, Stephen, et al., \u2018Why is There so Little Money in U.S. Politics?\u2019, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.17 No.1, Winter 2003, pp.105-130 p.116  [2] Ibid, p.126"}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro03a","title":"","text":"Obama has already attempted to increase transparency.  Disclosure laws are intended to bring transparency to the electoral process. By scrutinizing the sources of campaign funds, voters can gain insight into how candidates intend to appoint justices and pass laws while in office. Obama\u2019s attempt at transparency, the DISCLOSE Act, has so far failed to gather a majority of votes in Congress in 2010 [1] but it shows how Obama would like to proceed. This kind of transparency is necessary today because during the 2010 midterms the groups that don\u2019t need to disclose contributions outspent the PACs that must disclose donors by 3 to 2 spending $100million on issue ads. [2]  Without strict disclosure rules, the legislative agendas of elected officials become more opaque, and the public has fewer ways to hold them accountable. Voters would be forced to rely on the goodwill of their elected officials to voluntarily disclose the sources of funding, a system which generates negative incentives to bury the information that is perhaps most critical and relevant to the public interest.  [1] \u2018DISCLOSE Act; New Donor Transparency Law Blocked in Senate\u2019. The Washington Post. 16 July 2012.  [2] McIntire, Mike, and Confessore, Nicholas, \u2018Tax-Exempt Groups Shield Political Gifts of Businesses\u2019, The New York Times, 7 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con01b","title":"","text":"Romney\u2019s claim that there needs to be reform to campaign finance law are most likely empty words; his complaint over the disadvantage over the use of primary campaign funds demonstrates this because it is only an advantage that one candidate every eight years gets, essentially this then is a complaint at a very marginal advantage the incumbent Obama has over him.  Campaign finance needs much more than just the reform that Romney suggests. It needs a complete overhaul to stop allowing for large corporate spending which in turn results in elected officials being more accountable to corporations rather than their constituents. That is why Obama supports the overturning of the Citizens United case. [1]  [1] Pilkington, Ed. \u2018Obama wants to see Citizens United Supreme court ruling overturned\u2019. Guardian.co.uk, 29 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con02a","title":"","text":"The Supreme Court was right with its judgment on the Citizens United case.  A principled commitment to freedom of speech under the First Amendment should not distinguish, through intent or impact, protected speech on the basis of its content or source. The ability of nonprofit and for-profit corporations to directly and freely donate to candidates does not warrant a sufficient governmental interest \u2013 decrying negative effects of distortion on elections does not merit federal intervention. Furthermore, the unique harm of corporate speech has yet to be demonstrated.  The Citizens United case allows unlimited spending by non-profit corporations as well as unions so benefits both Republicans and Democrats equally. The Super PAC Priorities USA Action has spent over $20 million supporting President Obama. [1] Current campaign finance policies could be improved, but the system as a whole is fair, and repealing corporate free speech would be unconstitutional.  [1] \u2018Super PACs.\u2019 Open Secrets: Center for Responsive Politics. 14 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con01a","title":"","text":"There needs to be reform to campaign finance law.  Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney has supported campaign finance law reform. Most of Romney\u2019s recent comments on reform have been in regard to laws governing spending during primaries as opposed to general elections. Primary campaign funds are earmarked as such and forbidden for use in general election campaigns until after the Republican National Convention, so the Republican nominee is at a disadvantage against the Democratic candidate if the convention nomination outcome is evident before August 27. Over the years, Romney has advocated various stances on spending limits: in 1994, he supported capping congressional spending, but in 2007, he disparaged McCain-Feingold warning \u201cWe step into dangerous territory when politicians start eviscerating our fundamental freedoms in the name of amorphous principles, like campaign finance reform. If I am elected President, a top priority will be to push for the repeal of this deeply-flawed measure, and restore the full freedom of political participation and expression to the American people.\u201d [1] Romney expressed support for the Supreme Court\u2019s ruling in Citizens United along with concern about the corrupting influence of corporate money in elections. [2]  [1] Romney, Mitt, \u2018The Fundamental Flaws in the McCain-Feingold Law\u2019, Townhall.com, 25 April 2007.  [2] Rivoli, Dan. \u2018Romney Backs Citizens United, But \u2018Not Wild\u2019 about Corporate Campaign Spending\u2019. International Business Times, 4 November 2011."}
+{"id":"training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con02b","title":"","text":"Campaign spending caps make constitutional arguments about whose speech ought to be protected and under what circumstances.  The fact remains that for-profits corporations can have a much larger say than non profits or individuals. The pharmaceutical company Pfizer spends over $11 million PER YEAR on lobbying irrespective of elections, and this goes up to $13 million in an election year. [1]  While President Obama may have received $20 million for Priorities USA Action pales in comparison to the $82, 491, 407 that Romney has received from the Super PAC Restore Our Future. [2]  [1] \u2018Lobbying: Pfizer Inc.\u2019 Open Secrets: Center for Responsive Politics. 14 August 2012.  [2] \u2018Super PACs.\u2019 Open Secrets: Center for Responsive Politics. 14 August 2012 ."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro02b","title":"","text":"If the expectation of violence or reprisal is admitted as a legitimate reason not to undertake an action which is protected under freedoms of press and speech, then that effectively stifles a great degree of discourse. This ultimately undermines the purpose of the rights, such as a freedom to publish, and the functioning of western societies like Denmark\u2019s.  It also incentivizes groups who would resort to violence to achieve their aims; if terrorists know that Denmark and other European nations will shy away from certain seemingly controversial or offensive actions if they threaten to kill many people every time, then they can much more easily achieve their goals. We should not welcome violence, but we should not allow it to govern us either.  As the cultural editor who ran the cartoons said, \u201cWords should be answered with words. That\u2019s all we have in a democracy, and if we give that up, we will be locked in a tyranny of silence.\u201d [i]  [i] AFP, \u2018Danish book about Muhammad cartoon controversy to go ahead despite threats\u2019, New York Post, 29 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Violent reactions to the cartoons could have been predicted and should have been avoided  Printing the cartoons caused the severe exacerbation of already existing tensions between Muslims and Western communities in Europe and around the world. [i] The terrorist attack on 9\/11, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the Israel-Palestine conflict had already set the stage for increased cultural animosity in the prior few years, and this was added fuel to the fire that resulted in violent attacks on Danish embassies around the world. As a result of this, innocent people died in riots in Afghanistan and Pakistan when riot police stepped in.  Organized terrorist groups like the Al Qaeda network led by Bin Laden threatened violence against America and the European Union. [ii] Not only did this cause an emotional impact among Danish and European citizens as a result of increased worries of terrorist attacks, but given the number of terrorist plots that have cited the cartoons controversy as part of their inspiration, there is good reason to believe that the Denmark has become a less safe place as a result.  Regardless of the original intention of the editors, they should have been able to see the controversy that would result and the likely practical outcomes of this and so restrain themselves from publishing.  [i] Sullivan, Kevin, \u2018Muslims\u2019 Fury Rages Unabated Over Cartoons\u2019, The Washington Post, 11 February 2006,   [ii] Whitlock, Craig, \u2018Bin Laden Threatens Europe Over Muhammad Cartoons\u2019, The Washington Post, 20 March 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The publication of the cartoons also resulted in a vigorous debate in Denmark, which saw its Muslim community participate in discourse in the form of debates, opinion pieces in newspapers, protests, and other democratic methods. Ultimately, then, it may well have caused a greater deal of civic integration than discord.  Denmark and journalistic institutions within it ultimately have little sway over the politics and cultures of all the various Islamic countries all around the world. Newspapers in Denmark cannot reasonably be expected to gauge what the expected political reactions and emerging dynamics of Muslim communities in every other country might be because of the publication of an article or cartoon. This particular event was exceptional; newspapers publish potentially inflammatory articles and images quite regularly, but this does not result in an international reaction."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro01a","title":"","text":"The cartoons constitute a religiously motivated hate crime  The cartoons effectively constituted a series of religious hate crimes, specifically designed to offend and target the Muslim community, whom the editors very well knew would be up in arms over the publication of the cartoons. This is the deliberate association of a venerated religious figure with terrorism. Not only is this in violation of Danish laws and European norms protecting minorities, but it is also simply malicious and immoral.  There was already a widespread tendency to conflate Muslims with terrorists before the cartoons; this high-profile incident risked exposing peaceful Muslims to prejudice, discrimination, and even physical danger from increased xenophobia. The cartoons controversy was soon followed by the desecration of Muslim graves at a cemetery in Denmark, for instance. [i]  Many US journalism companies had the better judgment to report on the issue without reprinting the cartoons. [ii] Similarly, the Danish newspaper could have run opinion pieces describing their qualms with and thoughts on Islamic censorship, without resorting to the vulgar methods they utilized.  [i] \u2018Danish PM talks to Muslim group\u2019, BBC News, 13 February 2006,   [ii] Folkenflik, David, \u2018U.S. Media Avoid Publishing Controversial Cartoons\u2019, npr, 7 February 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro01b","title":"","text":"The cartoons were intended as a democratic challenge to self-censorship, and the Danish courts recognized this when they rejected lawsuits that Muslim groups in Denmark filed against the newspaper on the grounds of hate speech. [i]  Furthermore, the cartoons were targeted against the extremist fringe of Islam, and were narrowly tailored to object to the use of violent means in furthering religious causes. There is nothing wrong about pointing out the high incidence rate of terrorism and violence within radical components of a worldwide Islamic community that encompasses many different types of people spread over many nationalities. Ever since 9\/11, terrorism and conservative interpretations of Islam have constantly been on the public mind and constitute a legitimate topic for discourse. It is not a hate crime to publicise cartoons that highlight this; cartoons in newspapers target groups who are otherwise in the news all the time, bankers for example, this does not mean they are inciting hatred against that group.  [i] Olsen, Jan M., \u2018Danish Court Rejects Suit Against Paper That Printed Prophet Cartoons\u2019, The Washington Post, 27 October 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Individuals are the best actors to determine for themselves what causes they are willing to make sacrifices for. This is why we allow individuals to volunteer for wars they believe are just, to serve as humanitarian aid workers in impoverished countries, or for any number of unpleasant and potentially dangerous things. If they wanted to, no one can tell the editors and cartoonists that they were wrong to take the actions they did on account of personal safety.  But anyway, it is clear that they did not comprehend the scale of the risk they were running by publishing the cartoons, so they cannot be blamed for bringing this upon themselves."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Radical and anti western voices in Islamic communities gained authority and legitimacy as a result of the newspapers' actions  The publication of the cartoons empowered the radical fringes of many Muslim populations, by enabling them to point to the cartoons as tangible evidence of an anti-Muslim bias and anti-Muslim agenda in the West. [i] For instance, in Pakistan, these were used against the president, General Pervez Musharraf, who was perceived as being too closely aligned with the United States. Religious leaders who wanted to make the case that Denmark was deliberately offensive and a hostile environment for Muslims were able to conflate popular knowledge about the cartoon controversy with other incidents (some of them not even in Denmark) and sway support to their anti-ecumenical causes. [ii]  This set back reasonable discourse in Muslim communities about how best to integrate with the West, and ultimately resulted in the weakening of internal forces that encourage acceptance of Western culture. Such a reversal for westernising forces is likely the opposite of what the newspaper would have wanted for the Muslim world.  [i] Witte, Griff, \u2018Opportunists Make Use of Cartoon Protests\u2019, The Washington Post, 9 February 2006,   [ii] \u2018Background: Muhammad cartoons controversy\u2019, EuropeNews,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Factors motivating publication of the cartoons  On the individual level, the cartoonists and editors would have been wiser to look to their own selfish motivations for self-preservation; they have received many death threats from religious leaders and organizations spanning the globe, in a situation reminiscent of Salman Rushdie\u2019s publication of The Satanic Verses. That Rushdie\u2019s book had met with a similar reaction means that it should have served as a precedent showing what the reaction would be. As the editors should have been able to anticipate the threats they would receive if they were interested in their safety they should not have published."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con03b","title":"","text":"In as volatile an atmosphere as 2000s Europe, where rates of immigration from Muslim countries into an aging Europe are high, it is clearly not wise to openly antagonize a component of your population that is already having a great deal of difficulty integrating. Unlike America, Europe generally cracks down on a variety of xenophobic and hateful actions much more stringently, and should have in this case as well. Europe is a sufficiently enlightened place to restrict individuals from burning crosses or marching in salute to the Nazi party; one would hope these practices would extend to Islam as well. There therefore in some instances is to a certain extent a right not to be offended \u2013 or at least not to have certain offensive things publicized."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con01b","title":"","text":"There is press freedom, and there is good taste. Simply because some things are permitted in a democratic society, is not an argument for why they should be done. It would have been similarly distasteful if the newspaper had posted cartoons of Jews in concentration camps under gas showers, for instance. Where there are multiple ways to make a point, one must seek to convey one\u2019s message in a manner that is least likely to gratuitously offend others. The editors of the newspaper were simply seeking to cause controversy and garner attention."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con02a","title":"","text":"Chilling effects of excessive cultural sensitivity  Art should be given a great deal of license. Many European and American media and art outlets create art or journalistic pieces that are offensive to or poorly received by Christians and Jews, or other minorities. By limiting discourse in the form of art, we risk not only unjustly suppressing the artists\u2019 vision, but also cheapening and the artistic community and rendering it more homogenous. Satire has been used with extreme effectiveness in making political statements before, and this was no exception. The cartoons express the cartoonists\u2019 own views and beliefs, and the newspaper was simply providing a medium, not dictating what they should draw."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con04a","title":"","text":"Controversy, integration and civic participation  The controversy has actually resulted in a much higher degree of civic participation by Danish Muslims than had previously been achieved, including town hall-style meetings, opinion columns, and radio and TV debates. This may have been better than anything else at integrating the Muslim community in Denmark into Western liberal democratic norms of how to resolve conflicts. Just because violence happened elsewhere in the world, where democracy does not currently hold sway, does not mean this was not a victory for Denmark. [i]  [i] Rose, Flemming, \u2018Why I Published Those Cartoons\u2019, The Washington Post, 19 February 2006"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con03a","title":"","text":"Citizens of western liberal democracies should never be required to adhere to religious norms that they do not hold  There is no right not to be offended. It is one thing to show a religion respect. One respects Islam by removing shoes when visiting a mosque. However, following the taboos of a particular religion in public society does not constitute respect, but submission, and adherence to the principles of that religion, which is never required. The nature of a democratic society is that there will sometimes be disagreements about how individuals should act; insofar as Denmark has not democratically come to the conclusion that it would be better for it to be illegal to depict the prophet Mohammed in publications, it is permitted and that right must hold. [i]  [i] Rose, Flemming, \u2018Why I Published Those Cartoons\u2019, The Washington Post, 19 February 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con01a","title":"","text":"Free expression and journalistic integrity  Publishing the cartoons was not only an important expression of press freedom, but fulfils the fundamental journalistic mission of exposing the public to important information, by forcing the examination of topics that would otherwise go unexamined. Self-censorship in Islam is an important issue that deserves consideration by a democratic public. There is a clear norm that causes Islam and Muhammad to be treated differently in the Western press than the Christian or Jewish faiths or their leading figures, and the editors felt it was important to violate that norm as a demonstration of a social phenomenon. [i] They were well within their rights to do so, and this furthered legitimate discourse about religion within Denmark and the West. It should also be remembered that demonization of Israel and the West using Christian and Jewish figures is not uncommon in the Islamic press \u2013 this is therefore a pernicious double standard. [ii]  Ultimately, the reaction by Muslims was unfortunate, but itself indicated the ways in which Islamic religious depictions in the press differ from their Christian and Jewish counterparts. Christian and Jewish groups have not responded with violence (though they have also sometimes staged protests), and where incidents have taken place, they were isolated and nowhere near the scale of the cartoons controversy.  [i] \u2018Q&A: The Muhammad cartoons row\u2019, BBC News, 7 February 2006,   [ii] \u2018Q&A: The Muhammad cartoons row\u2019, BBC News, 7 February 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con04b","title":"","text":"This has not benefitted integration, but rather made Muslims in Denmark feel as though they are under assault and unwelcome in their country. Particularly for new or newer immigrants, this creates a tendency to form enclave communities around a shared religion or culture and resist the mainstream society as a bloc. All the Muslim organizations in Denmark banded together against their oppressors. The few Muslims that spoke out in defence of free speech were severely ostracized by their fellows."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con02b","title":"","text":"There is a difference between a government banning art, and having the good sense not to do certain things in art. Further, the \u201cartistic skill\u201d in drawing a provocative cartoon is rather minimal; it is not as though cartoonists are held to particularly high technical standards of drawing. Rather, cartoons are usually a vehicle by which a cartoonist conveys a joke (usually at someone or some group\u2019s expense) for a cheap laugh. Cartoons no more constitute art than graffiti with an offensive statement on a factory wall constitutes art \u2013 that is to say, not at all."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro02b","title":"","text":"There are three counter-points that can be used to challenge the proposition. Firstly, the opposition maintain that the Monarchy is highly cost-effective when compared to the expense of maintaining a Presidency with a large staff and equally stringent security requirements. Secondly, Royal residences are held in trust for the nation, and would require the same upkeep costs whether they were inhabited by a monarch or not. Thirdly, and possibly most importantly, the Monarchy more than pays its way through its generation of tourist revenue as millions visit sites associated with royalty, and through its role in promoting trade and industry abroad on royal visits. There is also evidence to suggest that the nation actually benefits financially from the Crown Estate. Figures suggested by Professor David Flint [1] are that in 2009\/10 all payments to the Crown came to about \u00a330 million. But the British government received \u00a3211 million from the Crown Estate. So the government made a very substantial profit from The Queen \u2013 about \u00a3181 million.  [1] Professor David Flint, Australians for Constitutional Monarchy, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro02a","title":"","text":"Supervising and protecting a monarchy is an unjustifiable public expense  The costs of monarchy are unjustifiable. Typically monarchs and their immediate family receive substantial amounts of money from the state to maintain luxurious lifestyles, complete with servants, expensive holidays and hobbies. The state also spends a great deal to maintain and run palaces and other royal residences, which are seldom accessible to the general public who support them through their taxes. In the UK what is officially termed as 'Head of State Expenditure' amounted to \u00a340 million in the 2007-8 financial year. However, this excludes the cost of security for the numerous family members and residences. Although the security costs have not been confirmed, it is estimated that it exceeds \u00a350 million a year [1] .  [1] The Monarchy in Britain, How much do they take from our pockets, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro03b","title":"","text":"On the other hand, the Monarchy could instead be seen as an institution that retains an important symbolic role as a focus for national unity. The Monarch has a less formal role as 'Head of Nation'. The Sovereign acts as a focus for national identity, unity and pride; gives a sense of stability and continuity; officially recognises success and excellence; and supports the ideal of voluntary service. [1] Since they are unelected figures which are above political conflict and can therefore help countries to avoid the political gridlock that can result from conflict between two differently elected bodies, for example within the U.S.A. between the Republicans and the Democrats. Not only does the Monarch provide a symbol of National unity but also a symbol of world-wide unity. Queen Elizabeth II is the Monarch of 16 independent countries and the Head of the Commonwealth of 54 nations across the globe.  [1] The official website of the British Monarchy, The Role of the Monarchy, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro01a","title":"","text":"Monarchies, no matter how vestigal, are undemocratic  The concept of Monarchy is undemocratic. If the monarch retains any significant political powers, as they do in Belgium and the U.K. for example, these are unjustifiable. Why should the opinion of just one person, in office purely by accident of birth, be able to influence the outcome of elections or call a government. Legally, in the UK the Monarch has the power to; choose the Prime Minister, dismiss ministers and governments, dissolve parliament, refuse to agree to legislation passed by parliament, pardon convicted criminals, declare a state of emergency and raise a personal militia. [1] And in some countries like Saudi Arabia they have much more absolute power. A recent example where the Monarch had a role in the United Kingdom was within the 2010 elections where no party achieved an overall majority, the Queen therefore had to sign her approval for the Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition.  [1] The Monarchy in Britain, What power do they have? Available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the Monarchy has legal rights, the real powers of European Monarchs are negligible. For example, while the Monarch legally has the power to dissolve parliament, no Monarch has done this since William IV in 1834. Technically the Monarchy also has the power to veto any legislation that comes through Parliament, however, this power has not been exercised since Queen Anne in 1708 [1] . To the point of the concept of the Monarchy, Canadian historian Jacques Monet has suggested that ''in choosing to leave the selection of their head of state to this most common denominator in the world -- the accident of birth -- Canadians implicitly proclaim their faith in human equality; their hope for the triumph of nature over political manoeuvre, over social and financial interest; for the victory of the human person.\" [2]  [1] Republic Organisation UK available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)  [2] Canadian Monarchist Online  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro04b","title":"","text":"The head of government will already be elected. There is no need to create a competing centre of power that has the same popular legitimacy. Just as there are worries that an elected house of lords would want more powers due to its new found legitimacy an elected head of state could demand the same. Such a change would be disruptive and is not necessary."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro03a","title":"","text":"There is no divine right to leadership or privilege  Monarchs no longer have divine right to rule. For centuries the main justification of royal authority was a religious one. Catholic rulers had their legitimacy supported by the Papacy, Protestants rulers often headed their own state churches; in both the monarch\u2019s rightful authority was preached in church every Sunday, while the ruler in turn protected a single national church. Currently, the Monarch is termed 'the defender of the Protestant faith'. She or he is required to be a member of the Church of England and is not allowed to marry a Catholic. Today societies are increasingly multi-faith, indeed, fewer than 5% of adults in the United Kingdom are practising Anglicans, and many people have no religion at all; hardly anyone believes the monarch has a spiritual right to exercise authority. Indeed, those whose religion differs from that of the monarch (often ethnic minorities) may be actively alienated by the way in which a particular faith seems to be privileged. [1]  [1] Centre for citizenship, The Monarchy in Britain, Religion and Race, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-pro04a","title":"","text":"A presidential position enable the democratic selection of a head-of-state  The alternative to the monarch is obvious. Many states around the world have Presidential systems, either like the United States where the President fulfils both the role of the Head of State and the Head of Government combining the two roles. Or as in Italy or Germany where there is both a head of state (usually president) and a head of government (usually Prime Minister, although Germany\u2019s is Chancellor) where the head of state is respected but is mostly a ceremonial role. Finally there may be both a head of state and head of government where both are powerful as in France. Therefore the head of state can still be in whatever role the state requires. Most importantly in all these cases the head of state is elected rather than simply gaining the position on account of birth."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con03b","title":"","text":"Conversely, it could be argued that instead of protecting the Nation's heritage, the Monarchy has largely become an embarrassment. In an age of mass-media monarchies are no longer able to maintain the mystique which once set them apart from the common man. Instead kings, queens, princes and princesses are revealed to be mortal, fallible and sometimes foolish creatures. As their wardrobes, squabbles and failing marriages have become constant sources of media scrutiny, so any remaining respect for monarchy as an institution has waned. One key example from the U.K. member of the Monarchy Prince Harry, was his decision to attend a fancy-dress party dressed as a Nazi. Not only was this a horrific lack of judgement but it also under-minded the fact that opposing the Nazis was arguably one of the finest moments of British National Heritage."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con01b","title":"","text":"Monarchs are not always above politics either and often become national embarrassments who also cannot act as a unifier for the nation. In an age of mass-media monarchies are no longer able to maintain the mystique which once set them apart from the common man. Instead kings, queens, princes and princesses are revealed to be mortal, fallible and sometimes foolish creatures. As their wardrobes, squabbles and failing marriages have become constant sources of media scrutiny, so any remaining respect for monarchy as an institution has waned."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con02a","title":"","text":"Separating the positions of the head-of-state and prime minister of the government makes great practical sense  The Monarchy undertakes much of the ceremonial work at home and abroad that would be necessary whether there was a monarch or not, leaving the Prime Minister free to focus more effectively upon governing. Since The Queen's first official overseas visit to South Africa in 1947, overseas visits have become one of her most important duties. The Queen pays two outward State visits each year, accompanied by The Duke of Edinburgh. She also regularly tours her other realms and member countries of the Commonwealth, so far the Queen has paid over 60 State visits to foreign governments. As well as overseas state visits, each year the Queen and other members of the Royal Family pay nearly 3,000 visits throughout the United Kingdom. Official functions often feature prominently in such visits, including opening new buildings, meeting local dignitaries and visiting businesses, schools, hospitals and other public buildings as well as community schemes, military units and charities. [1]  [1] The Official website of the British Monarchy, Queen and Royal Visits, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con04a","title":"","text":"The monarchy can serve as public role models.  Although above party politics, modern monarchs have proved able to raise important and sometimes unpopular issues that would otherwise have been ignored. For example, in the U.K. Prince Charles has legitimised discussion of environmental issues and stimulated a lively debate about the purpose of architecture, while Princess Diana\u2019s work with Aids sufferers helped shift public opinion. Charities are an important part of the Royal family's work, About 3,000 organisations list a member of the Royal Family as patron or president. The Queen has over 600 patronages and The Duke of Edinburgh over 700. [1]  [1] The official website of the British Monarchy, Charities and patronages, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con03a","title":"","text":"The monarchy is an important preserver of a nation's cultural heritage  The Monarchy acts as a guardian of a nation\u2019s heritage, a living reminder of the events and personalities that have shaped it. The Monarchy is the oldest institution of government. Queen Elizabeth II is directly descended from King Egbert, who united England under his rule in 829. As such it is a powerful focus for loyalty, the Queen's title in Britain is 'Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith'. [1] The Monarchy provides a source of strength in times of crisis, for example World War II, and a reminder of enduring values and traditions. Royal traditions such as the changing of the guard are still carried out today.  [1] The official magazine for Britain, The Monarchy, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con01a","title":"","text":"The head of state should be a position that is separate and distinct from politics  Monarchy is preferable to the alternative; an elected Presidency. It avoids the partisan nature of a Presidency, inevitably associated with one of the political parties, and thus incapable of uniting the nation as monarchy can. For example in the United States there has been a campaign against President Barak Obama with the most extreme views in the \u2018birther\u2019 movement who deny he was even born in the United States. It would be impossible for him to unite the nation while one in four Americans think their President was not born in the USA. [1] In all countries public trust of politicians is sinking to new lows, another reason why an elected Presidency fails to provide a focus for national feeling. Constitutional monarchy is also a more effective system of government, vesting real power clearly in the hands of democratically accountable leaders with a mandate to govern, without all the dangers of political gridlock that can result from conflict between two differently elected bodies (e.g. in the USA or France).  [1] Condon, Stephanie, \u2018Poll: One in four Americans think Obama was not born in the U.S.\u2019, CBS News, 21 April 2011,  (accessed 9\/9\/11)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con04b","title":"","text":"This could be contested due to the fact that these issues and many more like them were being campaigned for long before the Royal family was involved. While they did provide a focal point for the eye of the media, the media prefer to focus on celebrities fighting for causes. Prime examples are campaigns such as Comic Relief with involves a great deal of celebrity involvement to promote a cause. For example, in the 2011 Comic Relief which raised \u00a3102 million, a series of high profile challenges took place including Chris Moyles and Comedy Dave\u2019s 52 hour non-stop radio marathon which raised over \u00a32.6 million and won a Guinness World Record. While nine celebrities took part in the BT Red Nose Desert Trek across the Kasuit Desert in Kenya and raised over \u00a31.3 million in the process. The official Comic Relief mentions that the government contributed \u00a316 million and that the public raised \u00a386 million, however, nowhere does it mention any contribution made by the Royal family. [1] Supporters of the Republic UK also make the point that the Royals could continue to do charity work in a republic. They do not need the official 'royal' statute to raise money for charity. The Republic UK also points out that there is a big difference between simply turning up at engagements and being an engaged patron.  [1] Comic Relief, News: Record breaking \u00a3102 million total, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tpghwam-con02b","title":"","text":"There are others who could carry out these duties apart from the Prime Minister, for example, Deputy Prime-ministers for this exact purpose. Some of the key responsibilities of a Deputy Prime Minister involve both home and foreign affairs. The Deputy Prime Minister has significant responsibilities in other key Cabinet Sub-Committees, notably chairing the Home Affairs Committee which coordinates domestic policy issues including those relating to constitutional and political reform, migration, health, schools and welfare. The Deputy Prime Minister has an important foreign policy role, with responsibility for building a range of strategic relationships in Europe and across the world and for championing the Government\u2019s commitment to the Millennium Development Goals. He is also Deputy Chair of the National Security Council which oversees all aspects of the nation\u2019s security. [1] Those in favour of a Republic also argue that Britain has a professional diplomatic corps to represent the interests of the country both at home and abroad.  [1] Deputy Prime Minister, Role and Responsibilities, available at  (accessed 31\/05\/2011)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro02b","title":"","text":"There is nothing wrong with judging people primarily on their physical prowess - we do this all the time in competitive sport, where fitness and strength are major determinants of success. Moreover doing so is little different from judging people on non-physical qualities such as intellect. Every competition, of every kind, values certain qualities over others - we recognise that being able to lift heavy weights isn\u2019t the prime definition of human worth, but we can still give prizes for weightlifting; similarly, we can give a prize to a beautiful woman for her beauty without implying that beauty is all that matters about anyone."}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Beauty contests objectify women  Women in beauty contests are judged on their physical appearance rather than on any other qualities they may possess (the existence of a \u2018talent\u2019 element in many such contests is all very well, but ugly women simply aren\u2019t going to win). Judging women, but not men, primarily on their looks contributes to the subjugation of women because other qualities, such as intelligence, are not seen as part of ideal femininity and therefore not as things to which women should aspire. Ideal masculinity, while in itself potentially damaging to men, tends to be construed in much wider and less restrictive terms - it is notable that male beauty contests, judging men on their physical appearance, are much less popular than female ones."}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Riots often have many causes and it is only the spark that is picked up upon. The example of the riots in Kaduna is misleading; there were serious underlying tensions that were the root cause. [1]  Beauty contests, like sport, can be an important focus of national or regional pride. Despite the declining popularity of competitions such as Miss World in the UK, they hold an important cultural place in many parts of the world. The victories in recent years of Miss India, Miss Turkey and Miss Nigeria in Miss World competitions made many Indians, Turks and Nigerians proud, and were seen as symbolic of those countries\u2019 progress in competing with more powerful countries on their own terms.  [1] Astill, James, \u2018The truth behind the Miss World riots\u2019, The Guardian, 30 November 2002"}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Beauty contests are patriarchal  Beauty contests promote an ideal of female beauty to which only a minority of women can realistically aspire, but which adds to the pressure on all women to conform to it. This can be harmful to women by encouraging dieting, eating disorders and cosmetic surgery, or simply by making them feel inadequate and ugly by comparison to this \u2018ideal\u2019 that is promoted. Moreover, these contests force the models and contestants to look even slimmer and perfect all the time, thus encouraging anorexia and bulimia.  Naomi Wolf argues that \"in terms of how we feel about ourselves physically, we may actually be worse off than our un-liberated grandmothers.\" Why? Because of how \"cruelly images of female beauty have come to weigh upon us.\" [1] This pressure has therefore forced a backwards step that reduces freedom of women when in almost every other area of life there have been great advances.  [1] Naomi Wolf, \u2018The Beauty Myth\u2019."}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Beauty contests are culturally insensitive  The image of female beauty promoted by beauty contests is culturally specific and western - it doesn\u2019t matter how many Asian women win Miss World, they can still only do so if they take part in the swimsuit competition, which may well not be considered appropriate dress in their culture. This clash of cultures has led to numerous protests, demonstrations and even violence when beauty contests are going on. There were demonstrations against Miss World by feminists and Hindu nationalists when it was held in Bangalore in 1996. Riots in Kaduna in northern Nigeria over Miss World 2002 left more than 200 dead and led to the contest being moved to London. [1]  [1] CNN, \u2018Obasanjo blames media for Miss World riots\u2019"}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-con03b","title":"","text":"Beauty Pageants do limit the choice of others due to putting pressure on women to conform to this ideal of beauty which is promoted. This is limiting the lifestyle choices of many more women than choose to take part in the pageants."}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-con01b","title":"","text":"Beauty contests are part of the system that values women solely on their appearance. It is better to break down that system than seek to work within it.  Beauty contests fail to challenge harmful political attitudes to women. Despite paying lip-service to feminist keywords such as empowerment and self-confidence, they do nothing concrete to aid the liberation of women; indeed, by reinforcing looks as the most important feminine quality, they harm women\u2019s liberation in general. The fact that the organisers of Miss World 2002 had no problem with holding the contest in Nigeria at the same time as a high-profile case in which a woman was due to be stoned for adultery exposes the competition\u2019s hypocrisy. [1]  Assigning scholarship funds based on physical appearance rather than academic merit is unfair because it neuters the aspirations of many regardless of how hard they might work.  [1] Bloom, Alexis and Cassandra Herrman, Frontline World, \u2018Nigeria \u2013 The Road North\u2019, PBS, January 2003."}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-con02a","title":"","text":"Beauty pagents are about moral than physical aesthetics  Modern Beauty pageants have mandatory talent portions and are more about establishing and striving for an \u2018ideal\u2019 than rating physical beauty. This was specifically made mandatory by Lenora Slaughter in the 1938 Miss America Pageant in order to attract \u201cladies\u201d to participate in the competitions. The modern form of the beauty pageant was designed by women in order to attract women. [1]  [1] Hilary Levey Friedman, \u2018There She Goes: A Trailblazing Feminist Beauty Queen\u2019, Huffington Post, 15 March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-con03a","title":"","text":"Self defined feminists do not have the right to dictate how other women relate to their femininity  A ban is a very blunt instrument with which to attack a practice. Banning beauty contests would do little to destroy the ideal of beauty as it is prevalent in many other areas of society which are unrelated to Beauty Pageants such as advertising, fashion and the entertainment industry. The only result of a ban will simply be to reduce the choice of women \u2013 who of course do choose to participate. Choice is fundamentally a good thing and everyone should have as much choice as possible so long as they are not limiting the choice of others."}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-con01a","title":"","text":"Beauty contests are an avenue of opportunity that women are entitled to pursue  In an environment where women are valued on solely on their appearance, and in which there are more opportunities for men, beauty contests give women an opportunity to improve their situations. Winning a beauty contest can be a first step toward a successful life in the future; the most attractive earn 12% more. [1] Many Hollywood actresses are former beauty queens, and they would not have reached their success without the beauty contests they won. In addition, the winners of high-profile beauty contests are able to publicize charities and causes they feel strongly about - they have a public platform they could not otherwise have gained.  Beauty pageants can also empower in other ways: The Miss America competition is the largest provider of scholarship assistance for women in the world [2] , indeed it pioneered assistance for women in higher education in the 40\u2019s and 50\u2019s. [3]  [1] Day, Elizabeth, \u2018Honey Money: The Power of Erotic Capital by Catherine Hakim \u2013 review\u2019, The Observer, 28 August 2011.  [2] Miss America, 'Purpose'  [3] Hilary Levey Friedman, \u2018There She Goes: A Trailblazing Feminist Beauty Queen\u2019, Huffington Post, 15 March 2011"}
+{"id":"training-culture-thrhwbbc-con02b","title":"","text":"This is a red herring \u2013 beauty pageants are primarily about physical attractiveness. Broadcasting data shows that viewers turn off Miss America for the talent and interview portions of the show while continuing to watch the swimsuit portion. [1]  [1] Peterson, Ivan, \u2018A Challenge for Miss America in Reality TV Era\u2019, The New York Times, 9 April 2005"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro02b","title":"","text":"Each of the three approaches to proving a correlation between violent video games and criminal behaviour has its flaws. Studies that look for correlations between exposure to violent video games and real-world aggression can never prove that the games cause physical aggression1. Randomized tests, which assign subjects to play violent or nonviolent games and then compare levels of aggression, depend on lab-based measures of aggression that are difficult to compare with real-life aggression. Finally, longitudinal tests, which assess behaviour over time within a group, are a middle ground between the other two but similarly cannot prove it was the video games specifically that leads to increased aggression. In contrast to the claim that the effects of violent video games are worse than those of TV, a Potter study in 1999 found that 'children are more likely to be affected and more likely to imitate aggressive acts if the violence is depicted more realistically.'2  1 Schaffer, A. (2007, April 27). Don't Shoot. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from Slate:  2 Gentile, D. A., & Anderson, C. A. (2003, October 16). Violent Video Games: The Newest Media Violence Hazard. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro02a","title":"","text":"Research has shown violent video games encourage criminal and anti-social behaviour  Both experimental and non-experimental research have shown that violent video games damage young people playing them in both the short and long term, leading to criminal and anti-social behaviour. Exposure to violent video games causes aggressive thoughts and feelings. It also creates unwanted psychological arousal and belief in a 'scary world', especially among young children. This is particularly significant as video game graphics develop to become ever more realistic. The effects of violent video games are even worse than those of films and TV because of the interactive element that exists in video games. In addition, most video games are played alone, whereas cinema and television are usually a social experience, allowing social pressures to filter the experience of violence upon the viewer. An Australian Senate Committee established to look at this issue in 1993 concluded 'there is sufficient anecdotal evidence of a linkage\u2026that the community cannot fail to act to control a situation which has the very real potential\u2026to affect young people\u20191.  1 Senate Committee, 1993."}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro03b","title":"","text":"Violent video games, far from causing psychological disturbances, are beneficial to the mental health of children. Experiments show visual, tracking benefits from video games, particularly shoot-em-ups: US scientists Shawn Green and Daphne Bavelier, were commissioned to perform a study in 2003 by the National Institute of Health. According to the BBC, \"they found that regular players of shoot-em-ups, such as Half-Life and Medal of Honour, have much better visual skills than most of the population1. The researchers have shown that gamers were particularly good at spotting details in busy, confusing scenes1. Experimental tests show positive focus effects of video games: US scientists Green and Bavelier found focus benefits from shoot-em-up games, even to the extent that they could be used as a beneficial tool to treat Attention Deficit Disorder2.  1 BBC News. (2003, May 28). Video games 'good for you'. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from BBC News:  2 Olsen, S. (2005, November 8). Attention deficit disorder? Try video games. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from CNet:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro01a","title":"","text":"Violent video games desensitise users  Violent video games do not only affect individuals but also society as a whole. The sole purpose of a player in these games is to be an aggressor. The heartlessness in these games and joy of killing innocent people create a desensitization and disinhibition to violence that can ultimately lead to a more violent society. A Bruce Bartholow study in 2011 proved for the first time the causal association between desensitisation to violence and increased human aggression1. They are also a very selfish, lonely form of entertainment which undermines the structure of an ordered, interdependent society. A study conducted by psychologists in 2007 found that of 430 primary school children, 'the kids who played more violent video games changed over the school year to become more verbally aggressive, more physically aggressive and less helpful to others.'2  1 University of Missouri-Columbia. (2011, May 26). Violent video games reduce brain response to violence and increase aggressive behaviour. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from ScienceDaily:  2 Schaffer, A. (2007, April 27). Don't Shoot. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from Slate:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro01b","title":"","text":"Desensitisation is not altogether a bad development. 'For patients suffering from arachnophobia, fear of flying, or post-traumatic stress disorder, therapists are beginning to use virtual realities as a desensitization tool.'1Furthermore, society has decided to embrace violent video games, which as a result are very profitable. These games are written for adults, rather than children, and the ratings system warns of any violent content. In a modern world, the role of protecting young people should lie with responsible parents who know their kids best and take an active interest in their leisure time, discouraging or barring them from unsuitable activities. In this case, there is not enough justification for governments to intervene in people's leisure time.  1 Schaffer, A. (2007, April 27). Don't Shoot. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from Slate:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro04b","title":"","text":"The government has no such right to restrict the right of free speech inherent in all video games. In a 2011 judgement, the American Supreme Court ruled \"while states have legitimate power to protect children from harm, 'that does not include a free-floating power to restrict the ideas to which children may be exposed.'\"1 This is in part due to the fear that to restrict violent video games would be a step towards the banning or restriction of books considered antithetical to the views of the government. A state could ban all books or films that paint a negative image of society or encourage revolution, however that is clearly the action of a dictatorial or authoritarian state. Stan Lee, the creator of comic book characters like The Hulk and Spiderman, sees a comparison to the attempt in the 1950s to restrict the sales of comic books. \"Comic books, it was said, contributed to 'juvenile delinquency'. A Senate subcommittee investigated and decided the U.S. could not 'afford the calculated risk involved in feeding its children, through comic books, a concentrated diet of crime, horror and violence.'\"2 As Lee notes, in hindsight this appears comical2. The same mistake cannot be made with violent video games.  1 Holland, J. J. (2011, June 27). Can't ban violent video sales to kids, court says. Retrieved June 28, 2011 from the Associated Press  2 Lee, S. (2010, September). Defend video games with Stan Lee. Retrieved June 20, 2011, from Video Game Voters Network:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro03a","title":"","text":"Violent video games can cause psychological disturbances  Multiple groups contend that the interactive nature of computer games considerably blurs the line that separates fantasy from reality1. As a result, game players are likely to become psychologically disturbed by the violence contained within these products. It is conceivable that many young gamers will view the new age of video games as fair depictions or representations of reality, real-world themes, real-world personalities, real-world violence. Because violent video games frequently develop and an exaggerated level of violence and destructiveness, they may arouse a belief that in a \"scary world\". If this is true, a greater level of fear and paranoia can be expected from such gamers in the real world than is justified. This may have the potential to lead to many adverse social effects from these gamers, such as social disengagement.  1 Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviours, and school performance. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from Jounral of Adolescence"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro04a","title":"","text":"The government has a right to restrict the sale of violent video games, in order to protect law and order.  The government has the right, and indeed the obligation, to impose restrictions that increase the security of citizens and encourage peaceful relations between them. The foundation of the social contract is the state providing security for all participating citizens. If the state believes that violent video games increase the propensity of users to commit violent acts, it is obligated to impose restrictions that will prevent such effects. The rights of individual citizens to do as they wish, and play the video games they like most, however violent, is subordinate to the government's right to increase security through the enforcement of restrictions. For example, one accepts the government's right to restrict what we carry onto aircrafts in order to prevent violent attacks. That is not to say there aren't limits to what we can carry on, just as violent video games are still available to adults we can still carry laptops and mobile phones onto aircrafts. Ultimately however, it must be accepted that the government's right to protect society includes a right to restrict the sale of violent games."}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con03b","title":"","text":"If restrictions on the sale of alcohol can be effective, there is no reason to believe restrictions on violent video games cannot also be similarly effective. The primary role of a government is, ultimately, to protect its citizens from damaging themselves and society as a whole. It is considered acceptable and beneficial for governments to restrict the sale of dangerous things such as alcohol and tobacco to minors or even to enforce movie ratings or the use of seatbelts. Though illegal downloading programmes would permit the download of old, violent action games, video game creators would nevertheless be forced to turn their creative capacities and technology towards better, less violent games that would, over a short space of time, saturate the market."}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con01b","title":"","text":"The fact there are many other contributing factors to aggressive behaviour should not lead to a blind eye being turned to the effects of violent video games. As Dill & Dill found in 1998, 'if violent video game play indeed depicts victims as deserving attacks, and if these video games tend to portray other humans as targets, then reduced empathy is likely to be the consequence\u2026thus putting the player at risk for becoming a more violent individual\u20191. An Anderson and Dill study in 2000 also found that \u2018students who had previously played the violent video game delivered longer noise blasts to their opponents\u20192. Whilst it is a truism to say that the banning of violent video games will not prevent youth aggression, it will no longer be able to act as the catalyst for it in certain cases.  1 Goldstein , 2001.  2 Walsh , 2001."}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con02a","title":"","text":"Video games are an outlet for childhood aggression  Video games are a useful outlet for childhood aggression. As psychologist Cheryl Olson writes, kids 'use games to vent anger or distract themselves from problems.'1 Play violence has always been a natural part of growing up, especially for boys. In the past it was considered normal for young people to act out violent fantasies in harmless way, for example with toy guns in games of cops and robbers, cowboys and Indians, war, pirates, etc. These games were often inspired by films, television or comic books and magazines, just as computer games commonly are today. Now that these traditional activities are frowned upon and \"enlightened\" parents prevent children from having toy guns, aggressive play has simply moved indoors, on to the computer screen instead. Suppressing these natural instincts is not only pointless, it is probably more dangerous to remove yet another harmless outlet for aggression from the young.  1 Schaffer, A. (2007, April 27). Don't Shoot. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from Slate:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con03a","title":"","text":"Restrictions would be ineffective  Not only is it wrong for the government to take censorship-like steps against violent video games but it is also impossible to do so effectively. Violent video games will still be available on the internet and, in fact, by restricting the sale of violent video games the government will push would-be users to illegal downloading programmes (through file-sharing systems such as Limewire) and therefore to an increasingly prevalent black market. Furthermore, most games are bought by parents or with their consent. According to industry statistics, 9 out of every 10 video games are sold to adults. Moreover, there is little evidence to say that parents don't know what they are buying because a very descriptive labelling system exists for violent video games since the establishment of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) in 1994."}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con01a","title":"","text":"There is no causal link between violent video games and aggressive behaviour  Many researchers 1\/2\/3 conclude that there is no causal link between violent video games and aggressive behaviour. Other influences, such as social environment, family background and peer pressure cause aggressive behaviour. Additionally, even if video games might create violent thoughts, according to researchers there is no reason for these thoughts to display themselves in action more than the aggressive thoughts caused by frustration in non-violent video games, or by the fast pace of action films (rather than their content). The small number of people who would be affected by such aggressive thoughts are people who already are habitually violent.  1 Scott, D. (1995). The Effect of Video Games on Feelings of Aggression. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from The Journal of Psychology:  2 Funk, J. B. (1993). Reevaluation of the impact of violent video games. Clinical Pediatrics, 86-90.  3 Provenzo, E. F. (1991). Video kids: Making sense of Nintendo. Cambridge: Harvard University Press."}
+{"id":"training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con02b","title":"","text":"Video games are not useful outlets for childhood aggression. Modern video games cannot be fairly compared to traditional childhood play. Computer gaming is a largely solo experience, with none of the team play involved in games of war, cowboys, etc. Playing alone also makes it easier for the boundaries between fantasy and reality to become blurred, especially with the highly realistic graphics possible with modern technology. In any case, civilisation is about taming our base instincts, not celebrating the worst parts of human nature. Furthermore, and unique to video games, aggressive behaviour or its imitation at least is rewarded and repeated during gameplay1. Video games thereafter are not merely an outlet for aggression, but the fostering and feeding of that aggressive urge.  1 Gentile, D. A., & Anderson, C. A. (2003, October 16). Violent Video Games: The Newest Media Violence Hazard. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from"}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Violence towards women is a common and world-wide phenomenon, occurring on every continent and throughout history. Therefore it seems crazy to suggest that levels of domestic violence are related to this small sub-culture of music that depicts violence towards women. If we are arguing that it exposes people to situations where they hear (in lyrics) or see (in music videos) then it could be countered that if anything this music is just highlighting these incidences of violence that are still occurring and we might as well ban the news or television drama as they expose people just as much without an age reference."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Music depicting violence to women causes and sustains the cycle of violence.  Music depicting violence to women causes and sustains the cycle of violence. The Scottish Home Affairs correspondent Lucy Adams reported in 2005 the levels of domestic abuse committed by 16-18 year olds grew by around 70%. One of the reasons suggested for this dramatic raise is the culture of music that depicts and glorifies violence towards women [1] (heraldscotland.com). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology reports that a study conducted in a variety of US states illustrated that music that depicted acts of violence 'led to more aggressive interpretations of ambiguously aggressive words, increased the relative speed with which people read aggressive vs. nonaggressive words, [...]The violent songs increased feelings of hostility without provocation or threat'. Although they are quick to assure that it is NOT the music type that has this affect, it is simply the lyrics, as even humorous aggressive songs have this effect. They conclude with the idea that 'Repeated exposure to violent lyrics may contribute to the development of an aggressive personality' and thus lead to more aggressive behaviour. While currently there is little to no research specifically on the link between domestic violence and lyrics that depict abuse to women, the current information that we have on violence and music lyrics suggests we can expect a similar effect. Thus if we were to ban music depicting violence towards women, people could not be influenced by it and levels of violence would drop.  [1] Adams, L. Why rap drives teenagers to domestic abuse; Songs blamed for 70-per cent increase in young victims. Herald Scotland 7 October 2005"}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro03b","title":"","text":"The difficulty with this is that games, DVD's and films are all very visual medium, whereas music is audible and arguably a more imaginative medium. Other non-visual mediums, such as literature, are not restricted by age ratings and therefore it seems unfair to restrict music on these grounds."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro01a","title":"","text":"This type of music is degrading to everyone, not just women.  While music depicting violence towards women appears on the surface to only demean women, it can be offensive and degrading to a range of people. One popular culture reference to a situation like this comes from the British television show called The Office, in the episode 'Merger'1. In this episode the character David Brent tells a racist joke and while this did not offend the black character present, many other characters were still offended by this joke.  People may be offended by the ideas behind the music, as it seems that people who glorify violence towards women in song appear to think that this violence is acceptable. Men could be offended by these ideas just as much as women might. As songs like this become 'mainstream' in some cultures, everybody in that culture becomes affected by it, and some men and women may feel degraded by this association. Finally some people may argue that the person who writes and\/or sings lyric that depict violence towards women degrade themselves in this act.  1 DailyMotion. The Office (U.K.) - Explaining a Joke. Retrieved August 23, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro01b","title":"","text":"The issue of whether music is degrading to women or any other demography in society is irrelevant to the question of whether it encourages violence or aggression towards women. In fact, the proposition undermines itself through this claim by suggesting that this music should encourage violence to all segments of society; should we therefore ban all music?"}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro04b","title":"","text":"The music is not the reason for the lack of respect for women; rather it is a much broader problem that cannot be prevented simply by targeting music. Within the part of that culture that is music the problem is not that music depicting violence toward women provides negative role models but rather that there are no positive role models to balance this. Banning music depicting violence towards women would not solve the problem as it still would not provide positive role models in order to replace the previous depiction. Therefore rather than putting energy into banning music depicting violence towards women, we should create a counter culture of strong, independent women who will not stand by domestic abuse or violence."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro03a","title":"","text":"It would be easy to apply restrictions on music.  We already give films, DVD's and games an age appropriate rating. In the United States, the Motion Picture Association of America is charged with the responsibility of providing ratings to consumers [1] .  It would seem that it would be simple to stretch these criteria to a similar music body. Therefore people would only be subjected to violent lyrics when it is deemed they are old enough to hear or buy this material, and it would stop younger people from being exposed to this kind of music. This also means that no new state-run institution needs to be created; it would operate, like the MPAA, independently of government control. As such, claims that any form of music censorship would suffer from practical problems are short-sighted, we simply need to extend the medium that already exists.  [1] Motion Picture Association of America"}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro04a","title":"","text":"Music depicting violence against women encourages men (and women) not to respect women.  Asha Jennings began a boycott of misogynistic music in hip-hop, resulting in the 'take back the music' campaign supported by essence magazine. Jennings claims that this type of rap\/ hip hop music is 'telling people [black women] are bitches and hos and sluts and not worthy of respect [...] And that's exactly how society is treating us'1. She continues that images of women 'tends to be objectified, degrading, very stripper-like' or as nagging vicious and manipulative money grabbers1. Jennings' worry is that in these videos women are depicted as menial, subservient and purely as the object of men's entertainment. The lyrics that go with these music videos compound these ideas of women as undeserving of male respect e.g. 'wouldn't piss on fire to put you out' (Eminem), 'Then I straight smoked the ho [...] and she thanked me' (NWE) (All lyrics in full are in the scrapbook). These images in themselves are violence towards women, as they dehumanise them. As this becomes a dominant image in society, young people who look up to these rappers mimic their behaviour and believe it is ok to disrespect women,2 as that is what they have been exposed to. This works in the same way for young girls, who cannot relate to the male rappers and so instead mimic the women they talk about, while also following their views on women. This idea that women are not deserving of respect must affect the levels of violence towards women as if you abuse someone you cannot fully respect them. Therefore if music depicting violence (and for this argument, disrespect) towards women was banned, then violence towards women in the real world would be reduced and this must be seen as a good thing.  1 CNN, Hip-Hop Portrayal of Women Protested, 2005  2 Burnham, L. Nightmares of Depravity. Durland 21 June 1995."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con03b","title":"","text":"However, while freedom of expression is definitely an important concept to consider, such freedoms can only go so far. When it comes to language that promotes violence then freedom of expression is no longer sufficient reason not to ban something as a physical harm outweighs the right to freedom of expression. Many countries such as Canada, England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, South Africa, Australia and India ban hate speech because it has severely damaging effects injuring people's dignity, feelings and self-respect and potentially promoting violence.1 Similarly, if we accept the arguments in the proposition arguments above, and we believe that this type of music can be harmful, then it seems that perhaps freedom of speech can be over ridden in order to protect those that this music injures (i.e. some women). Furthermore the banning of music which glorifies violence towards women may perhaps overtime lead to people's attitude toward this style of lyrics changing, and therefore any harmful attitude that arise from it may begin to be unacceptable by the majority.  1 Liptak, Adam, \u2018Hate speech or free speech? What much of West bans is protected in U.S.\u2019, The New York Times, 11 June 2008"}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con01b","title":"","text":"None of these arguments pose a significant problem. While setting criteria may be difficult and there will always be cases where it is a matter of interpretation this is not a reason not to create a strict and detailed set of criteria. There could be an appeals process to make sure that a song is not banned based purely on one individual's opinion.  That a ban on recording and selling the music could be avoided through pirating or songs being passed down orally does not matter as if this was happening the ban would already have enough of an impact. The ban does not have to be totally comprehensive in order to have the desired effect of reducing violence towards women simply that it prevents many people listening to the music. The audience would be reduced to a tiny minority and those who remain would be aware of the lyrics as they would have to specifically seek out the music rather than simply being exposed to it with little thought of what it may contain.  Finally there is unlikely to be a large forbidden fruit effect, some people may want to try it in order to find out what it is like. But unlike for example drugs there are direct substitutes that would be almost exactly the same but without the violent lyrics so there is little point in going to the extra effort to get illegal versions."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con02a","title":"","text":"To ban this type of music encourages the viewing of women as helpless, victim figures.  Many feminists criticise the idea of banning music that glorifies violence against women, as they perpetuate the idea of women as helpless victims who cannot cope with male criticism or violent language. One such group of people are 'power feminists'1 These power feminists believe that by complaining that men are depicting violent language towards women, and attempting to get this banned, the gender stereotype of women as a victim is reinforced; thus undoing any feminist progress that tries to assert men and women are equals. Power feminists believe that instead women should take this language in hand, assert\/ defend themselves and retaliate in order to state that women are equals to those who produce this violent music.  1 Campbell , R. L. Part I: Power Feminist or Victim Feminist? 24 March 2004."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con04a","title":"","text":"The 'Slippery-Slope' Argument  Banning music that glorifies violence is at risk of the 'slippery-slope' of censorship, which occurs on two levels. Firstly that while music depicting violence towards women may be banned for the best intentions, this censorship may end up extending to other unpopular pieces of art, literature, film or news stories. It may follow that once music depicting violence is banned, that definition of violence may be expanded, afterwards that it is easier to ban songs that contain a political message as there is already precedent. While it is unlikely that it would ever be carried to such an extreme this could continue, until simply anything that is disliked by those in control of the banning is prohibited. It may also discourage people to say or publish expressions of their own for fear of them being considered pornography and being prosecuted1. Equally likely would be the spread of such bans to other forms of media as mentioned in opposition argument one.The second concern of the 'slippery slope' argument is that banning this type of music may cause a stagnation of creative output as people are scared to produce any music that might be considered offensive. This might result in no new styles of music being created and thus styles of music may begin to become torpid.  1Schauer, Frederick F, Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982)"}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con03a","title":"","text":"To ban music that encourages violence against women would be done with the intention of protecting women; if it is necessary to paint them as the victims of violence that they are, that is a small price to pay. Furthermore, bans on child pornography would  Many of those who argue that censorship of music depicting violence towards women would be a bad thing do so on libertarian grounds. That is, they believe that to restrict the creation, circulation and consumption of this type of music would result in a restriction of people's freedom of speech\/ expression. As some people enjoy and relate to the type of music that depicts these images, to deny people the right to listen to this music is to unfairly restrict their enjoyment and marginalise their tastes.  Some people take this further to say that morbidity is part of the human condition. A consequence of our highly developed brains is that we become very conscious of our mortality, we become fascinated with violence as well because it is so closely linked to death, and we all want to understand death, we all want to know what happens after we die. So people end up seeking different ways of dealing with their fear of death, and one common way is desensitizing ourselves to the idea, perhaps through subjecting ourselves to an environment awash with death, i.e. music that depicts violence. This obviously extends to the creative aspect of humanity as well. We all spend a lot of time thinking about violence, so it is not really surprising that the most creative of us end up making art about it. From paintings, to music, to theatre, we are obsessed with violence in our entertainment, even gratuitous violence. We have famous painters like Francisco Goya who invoke gruesome violence for effect1 and who also receive critical acclaim; Stanley Kubrick won an Oscar nomination for directing A Clockwork Orange, a movie rampant with violence, sexuality and misogyny. Both these examples show violent art which have had both critical and commercial success. Therefore for the proposition argument to successfully defend the banning of music depicting violence towards women it would seem that we would equally have to ban films and paintings that display similar themes. This would result in a huge restriction of expression and society would potentially loose a vast amount of creative output. Furthermore from the examples given above it would seem that a ban would go against popular desire.  1 Francisco Jose de Goya. 'Saturn Devoursing his Son.' Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con01a","title":"","text":"It would be highly impractical to ban this music glorifying violence.  There are many reasons it would be impractical to ban certain types of music: First, who would choose what music counts as inappropriate and on what criteria? This would include concerns such as the Rolling Stone's song, 'Brown Sugar' which depicts sexual violence towards a slave by a slave owner (see scrapbook). It would be up to this censor to assert whether this song is highlighting and mocking a distressing moment in history, or whether it is glorifying this incident or merely describing it with no moral judgement. The censor would also have to then choose which of these where fitting reasons to ban the song. This is just a matter of opinion and thus no-one can be unbiased in making a decision. If this is true then it seems that no-one should have the right of it over someone else's opinion.  Second while there could be a ban made on recording or selling songs that depict violence towards women, or prohibit them being played on the radio, with current technological advances it would be very difficult to enforce a total ban. Music is widely available on thousands of websites via video\/internet radio etc. More basically, music is a very communal activity and people may sing in crowds or to each other. Country songs (as a genre) have one of the highest percentages of music depicting violence towards women, and these songs tend to have an oral history. Thus even if there was a ban on new songs being recorded, these old songs would continue to be heard and new songs may be heard to a smaller audience. Thus people would still be exposed to these lyrics of women being abused in music.  The final reason it would be difficult to ban music that depicts violence towards women is that this runs a risk that this will only encourage musicians to write such songs, which become more popular for being 'forbidden fruit'."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con04b","title":"","text":"No 'slippery slope' situation exists. It would be clear that the ban only applies to music that glorifies violence. This is not a justification that could be infinitely expanded to cover more and more music and art. It could not be considered a precedent to ban music with a political message as most political messages do not promote violence.  Far from stifling creativity it is likely to stimulate it. Artists would need to find new styles of music and would attempt to find ways around the ban while still keeping their music as near to its previous style as possible."}
+{"id":"training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con02b","title":"","text":"To ban music that encourages violence against women would be done with the intention of protecting women; if it is necessary to paint them as the victims of violence that they are, that is a small price to pay. Furthermore, bans on child pornography would not be met with claims that their ban merely encourages the view of children as victims (as an argument against the practise). Why is that any different in this case?  improve this  We desire freedom of expression."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro02b","title":"","text":"This argument is just specious. There have been plenty of times in history when medicine was \u2018learnt on the job\u2019, it didn\u2019t make it a good idea. However, and medicine is an excellent example, we now realise that there is a huge benefit to having students acquire a theoretical underpinning of their discipline before going on to get some hands on experience. Of course there is some need for practical training but there is little reason why universities cannot offer this rather than individual artists."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Arts should be learnt on the job \u2013 it\u2019s a craft  The idea that the best place to learn an artform is a classroom is fantastically modern. The idea of teaching them at all is fairly recent. If ever there were an example of \u2018those who can, do; those who can\u2019t, teach\u2019, then it\u2019s the arts. Novelists, poets, painters, dancers, composers, musicians and others have been learning from each other as they practiced their art for, quite literally, millennia.  Practitioners learning by doing has worked perfectly well for most of history and produced, for example, the extraordinary works of the renaissance or classical art mostly without the benefit of a university degree. All a degree in this area does is extend the period of delusion that an individual is good enough to cut it as a professional artist [i] .  [i] Goldman, Jeremy, \u2018Actors dilemma: Theatre major vs. No theatre major\u2019 USA Today, 25 June 2012."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro03b","title":"","text":"This isn\u2019t an either\/or discussion. Despite Prop\u2019s efforts to suggest that there are masses of homeless, would-be engineering students roaming around university campuses, the reality is that universities pack their bankable courses just fine and ensure that they have the capacity to do so. The fact that universities do not just churn out an endless round of vocationally-focussed graduates is hugely to be welcomed. If nothing else, it ensures that the university experience itself is a well-rounded one.  The very fact that students continue to apply for these courses, and universities continue to meet that demand, suggests that applicants are interested in something more than money. Presumably the very students who are applying for such a degree \u2013 and will shoulder the repercussions of having one \u2013 form part of society and are quiet happy to \u2018afford\u2019 their degree."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro01a","title":"","text":"Creative arts graduates are rarely well rewarded  It is a simple fact that degrees in the Arts offer less earning potential than those in all other sectors (except Education and social work) [i] . As well as being an issue for the individual, this affects wider society, as those on lower incomes are more likely to become dependent on the state at some point in their life and are less well placed to stimulate other sectors of the economy through their own consumption.  The median earning figure across Arts degrees is, itself deceptive. The median in the US is $45,000 but this disguises the lower end of the scale, with 25% earning $30,000 a year or less.  Unlike education and social work which at least tend to have the consistency of a government salary, the Arts are also fantastically unreliable as an employment sector. Teachers and social workers may have comparatively low salaries but at least they can be assured of job security. The Arts offers low and unstable wages, frequently at an ongoing expense to the taxpayer, when the jobs exist at all.  As a result, encouraging the creative arts through university qualifications places both an initial and, potentially, ongoing cost on the rest of society. It also means that graduates are likely to be destined to long term financial instability because of a decision they made as a teenager.  It is difficult to see who benefits from such an arrangement.  [i] \u2018Arts\u2019, Georgetown University,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro01b","title":"","text":"Very few go into the arts expecting a high income, they do so because they enjoy it. Likewise, the very fact that people pay for the arts \u2013 both through their own purchases and social funding, suggests that the pleasure that performance - and other creative arts \u2013 gives is recognised by wider society. The output of the Arts sector provides entertainment and pleasure to others in a way that really cannot be said of, for example, banking or derivatives brokerage.  By the by, it would also be interesting to see how any graduates in, say, the humanities are likely to match the earning potential of a movie star or an \u2018it\u2019 artist."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro03a","title":"","text":"Arts degrees limit opportunities for Universities to offer other courses  Universities have to provide a range of courses, some of which are going to be more financially viable than others, that fine. However, investment in one area inevitably means that there are resources not being focused elsewhere. It\u2019s not a huge factor but some subjects \u2013 creative arts, Theology and a few others do represent a \u2018back door\u2019 into universities for those who didn\u2019t get the grades to get onto more demanding courses.  Those students still need to sleep, study and socialize somewhere \u2013 in place of those who could have taken their places on Engineering, Medicine, Economics or similar courses had the space been available.  By keeping these courses, universities are turning away students for other disciplines and those studying the arts courses are learning in a way that may not be the most productive \u2013 as mentioned in the previous argument. It\u2019s difficult to see who wins."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con03b","title":"","text":"Opp\u2019s case sounds excellent, and reasonable and sensible. And complete nonsense. Those countries that have changed their fee arrangements for students in recent years, such as the UK, have seen that students are very concerned with whether their degree is likely to cover the cost of taking it \u2013 now that they are expected to pay for it. When it is society at large footing the bill, unsurprisingly, they are less concerned. Of course the financial outcome of doing a degree is of paramount interest to both the student and wider society, suggesting otherwise is sophistry."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con01b","title":"","text":"Opp makes an excellent case for further refining the role of Higher Education but not a very satisfactory one for keeping it structured as it currently is. The whole point here is that nobody benefits \u2013 not the graduate, not the Arts and not the society that is footing the bill. The benefit to society of art would remain if the arts were no longer taught as university degrees."}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con02a","title":"","text":"The Arts pay their way in film, heritage and design industries  The major film, theatrical, dance and other artistic ventures of any nation provide an enormous benefit in terms of reasons to visit as country, or travel within one. Going to the theatre, for example, has knock on benefits for the catering, transport, and retail sectors as well as crating employment in its own right for many who never went anywhere near a degree in the Arts [i] .  For many nations one or two key sectors of the arts are massive revenue generators \u2013 especially film, television and music. Theatres and galleries have considerably more pulling power than heavy industry or high finance for tourists [ii] \u2013 and Prop has been very quiet on the subject of architecture, without which the bankers and financiers they so admire would be homeless. The arts may not square up to banking in terms of the amount of money earned for the economy but they also have much less of a record of damaging the rest of the economy through sparking crises.  Even just focussing on the finances of the sector, the Arts justify their presence not only through their own revenue but also through those other sectors that benefit as a result but pay nothing towards their development [iii] .  [i] Lord, Clayton, \u2018The Value of Arts is Not Going to be Found in Economics\u2019, New Beans, 19 May 2011.   [ii] The National Campaign for the Arts. Theatre: Contribution to the Economy. 2010.   [iii] National Endowment for the Arts. \u2018Art and GDP.\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con03a","title":"","text":"The notion that money is the best way of judging value is far more damaging to society than the Arts  If the value of a degree is judged purely on the likely salary at the end of it, then society has a very real problem. Even without rehearsing the fact that other disciplines would vanish by the wayside, it also ties into the myth that a degree is simply a vocational tool to increase the salary of the person taking it [i] .  The mindset that insists that everything can be reduced to the level of individual income has also brought us the obscenity of the bonus culture in high finance and, so far, five years of recession. The value of the arts is primarily non-monetary; it comes from the psychological benefit of well-designed buildings [ii] or the happiness and creativity stimulated by engaging with a work of art. [iii]  University fulfills a far wider societal role in terms of training the mind and socializing the individual. For the vast majority of students, it also provides a respite between the constrictions of the family home and those of the workplace.  It is also just possible that people select their degrees primarily because they are interested in them. That in itself is something that cannot be said of significant parts of the world of work.  The logic of this motion is that all members of society are employers \u2013 or at least wealth generators \u2013 first and last. Their role as voters, community members, parents, and plain human beings seems to be irrelevant to both the spirit and wording of the motion and the Proposition\u2019s case.  [i] Edgar, David, \u2018Why should we fund the arts?\u2019 The Guardian, 5 January 2012.   [ii] Steadman, Ian, \u2018Study: school design can significantly affect a child\u2019s grades\u2019, Wired.co.uk, 3 January 2013,   [iii] Alleyne, Richard, \u2018Viewing art gives same pleasure as being love\u2019, The Telegraph, 8 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con01a","title":"","text":"The Arts provide huge benefits to society; easily comparable to humanities or theoretical science  It has already been mentioned that there are plenty of degrees where it is unlikely that graduates will ever use the knowledge they acquire, per se, in their later careers. Proposition has failed to give a reason \u2013 other than earning power \u2013 as to why the creative arts should be singled out on this ground [i] .  However, in terms of the general utility provided to wider society, it would be hard to point to a discipline that out performs the arts.  Every TV drama, theatre production, concert and so on is likely to include at least a smattering of participants who studied the subject. It is in the nature of the arts that its audience massively outnumbers those participating in its production. Beyond that the trickle down affect of knowledge into every area of public life from ideas and concepts initiated by artists is enormous.  However, if Prop\u2019s entire case is that artists should be paid more for the enormous amount of good they do, we are quite happy to concede the point.  [i] McCarthy, Kevin F. et al., \u2018Reframing the Debate About the Value of the Arts.\u2019, The Rand Corporation, 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con02b","title":"","text":"This is a little like saying that the petroleum industry benefits from medicine because of the need for ambulances. People would still go out for dinner and still take holidays. More to the point, as has been suggested, they will still go the theatre or cinema, where people will still act. The issue here is that Universities are unnecessary in the process of training creative artists."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro02b","title":"","text":"Reality TV does not discourage hard work or education, rather it creates a society whereby we have shared experiences and a strong sense of community. As such, reality TV provides an important social glue. Once upon a time there were only a few television channels, and everybody watched the same few programmes. The sense of a shared experience helped to bind people together, giving them common things to talk about at work and school the next day \u2013 \u201cwater cooler moments\u201d. Reality programs like \u2018Survivor\u2019 play that role in contemporary society with viewership being \u2018almost a cultural imperative\u2019, the experience shared simultaneously with friends and family.1  Furthermore, even if it were the case that the moral lessons of reality programmes are not always advisable, just as viewers can empathize with characters in the Godfather without wanting to be them, the same applies to questionable characters and actions in reality shows.2  1 Sanneh, K. (2011, May 9). The Reality Principle. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The New Yorker  2 Poniewozik, J. (2003) All the News That Fits Your Reality Retrieved July 4, 2011, from TIME MAGAZINE"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro02a","title":"","text":"Reality TV encourages people to pursue celebrity status, and discourages the value of hard work and an education  Reality shows send a bad message and help to create a cult of instant celebrity. They are typically built about shameless self-promotion, based on humiliating others and harming relationships for the entertainment of each other and the viewers at home. These programmes suggest that anyone can become famous just by getting on TV and \"being themselves\", without working hard or having any particular talent. Kids who watch these shows will get the idea that they don't need to study hard in school, or train hard for a regular job. As John Humphrys points out, 'we tell kids what matters is being a celebrity and we wonder why some behave the way they do' 1 As American lawyer Lisa Bloom fears, 'addiction to celebrity culture is creating a generation of dumbed-down women.'2 Reality shows encourage such addictions and promote the generally misguided belief that they should aspire to be the reality stars they watch on their televisions. 1 Humphrys, J. (2004, August 28). Take this oath: First, do no harm. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The Guardian: 2 Becker, A. (2003, March 1). Hot or Not: Reality TV can be harmful to women. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from Pyschology Today"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro03b","title":"","text":"Reality TV programmes are not corrupting. They do reflect our society, which isn't always perfect, but we should face up to these issues rather than censor television in order to hide them. When Adam Lambert, an openly gay contestant on American Idol, lost in the final of the show despite being widely regarded as the best singer, many rightfully pointed out what it demonstrated about the homophobia of American society. To deride reality shows as 'corrupting' therefore is misguided; it is society who is corrupt and reality shows that offer a potential solution. To solve a problem first requires accepting one exists, and reality shows provide a means to do that; they are a window into society, permitting everyone to reflect on the issues that are most harmful to society. As such, reality show producers should not be accused of a lack of creativity or laziness for their programmes, but congratulated for drawing attention to important issues."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro01a","title":"","text":"The sheer number of reality programmes is now driving TV producers to create filthier, more corrupt reality shows  Reality TV is actually getting worse as the audience becomes more and more used to the genre. In a search for ratings and media coverage, shows are becoming ever more vulgar and offensive, trying to find new ways to shock. When the British Big Brother was struggling for viewers in 2003, its producers responded by attempting to shock the audience that little bit more1. \"Big Brother\" programmes have also shown men and women having sex on live TV in a desperate grab higher ratings to justify their continued existence. Others have involved fights and racist bullying. Do we let things continue until someone has to die on TV to boost the ratings?  When reality is \"constructed\" then it substitutes the \"natural\" reality. This in turn has adverse effect on the natural growth of the children who are either actively involved into it or as audience become a passive recepient. We therefore in a pursuit of commercialization are taking away an inalienable right of children i.e. full personality development in a natural environment which is not contaminated by \"constructed\" reality.  1 Humphrys, J. (2004, August 28). Take this oath: First, do no harm. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro01b","title":"","text":"Reality shows are not becoming more corrupt or more filthy. What has changed is rather what the public defines as acceptable viewing. In other words, the gap between what is actually real and what is presented as reality is closing thanks to modern reality programs. And the gap is closing due to popular demand to see reality on their TV screens. For example, the sex shown on Scandinavian episodes of Big Brother is not shocking or unrealistic, it is only unusual in the context of what we expect to see on television. The fact it was shown only illustrates that the gap between what is actually real and what is presented as reality on television is closing. If the proposition has an issue therefore with what modern reality shows are presenting, they have an issue with society at large, not reality programs. Even if were the case that reality programmes are getting more corrupt and filthy, viewers should take the advice of former U.S. President Bush Jr. and 'put the off button on.'"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro04b","title":"","text":"Reality shows are real; they are real people operating without scripts and often, live. The fact that characters are often cast to encourage disagreements or tension does not take away from the reality of the program, in fact it only adds to it. The unrealistic settings of shows like Big Brother and Survivor do not take away from the educational value of observing how they cope. In fact, without such shows, most people would have little concept of how a group of strangers would be able to survive, co-operate and develop in such environments. As Time describes, 'they provoke, they offend but at least it's trying to do something besides help you get to sleep'. The insight therefore into the human condition is invaluable, and it is little surprise that viewers are eager to watch such programs. What is real is not always the same as what is normal, the events on Survivor Island are no less real for being in an unrealistic setting."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Reality shows make for bad, lazy and corrupting television, encouraging such behaviour in society  Reality shows are bad, lazy and corrupting television. They mostly show ordinary people with no special talents doing very little. If they have to sing or dance, then they do it badly \u2013 which doesn\u2019t make for good entertainment. They rely on humiliation and conflict to create excitement. Joe Millionaire, where a group of women competed for the affections of a construction worker who they were told was a millionaire, was simply cruel. The emotions of the contestants were considered expendable for the sake of making viewers laugh at their ignorance. Furthermore, the programmes are full of swearing, crying and argument, and often violence, drunkenness and sex. This sends a message to people that this is normal behaviour and helps to create a crude, selfish society. One American reality show, \u201cAre You Hot?\u201d, in which competitors submit to a panel of judges for \u2018appearance-rating\u2019, was blamed by eating disorder experts as encouraging the notion that \u2018appearance is the most important thing\u2019 (Becker, 2003).1 Furthermore, Paul Watson, a former reality TV show producer, believes they are \u2018predictable and just creates more of the same and makes our film makers lazy\u2019 (Jury, 2007).  1 Becker, A. (2003, March 1). Hot or Not: Reality TV can be harmful to women.Retrieved July 4, 2011, from Pyschology Today  2 Jury, L. (2007, January 4). The Big Question: Has reality television had its day, or are audiences still attracted to it? Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The Independent"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro04a","title":"","text":"Reality shows are not 'real', therefore they have no education value  Reality TV is dishonest \u2013 it pretends to show \u201creality\u201d but it actually distorts the truth to suit the programme makers. The shows are not really \u201creal\u201d \u2013 they are carefully cast to get a mix of \u201ccharacters\u201d who are not at all typical. Mostly they show a bunch of young, good-looking self-publicists, who will do anything to get on TV. Usually the programme makers try to ensure excitement by picking people who are likely to clash with each other. They then place them in unnatural situations, such as the Big Brother house or the Survivor island, and give them strange challenges in order to provoke them into behaving oddly. In The Bachelor, where a group of women compete for the affections of an eligible male, the \u2018intimate dates\u2019 they go on are filmed in front of any number of camera; that is not reality (Poniewozik, 2003).1 Finally the makers film their victims for hundreds of hours from all angles, but only show the most dramatic parts. Selective editing may be used to create \u201cstorylines\u201d and so further manipulate the truth of what happened.  1 Poniewozik, J. (2003) All the News That Fits Your Reality Retrieved July 4, 2011, from TIME MAGAZINE"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con03b","title":"","text":"Reality shows are driving out other sorts of programmes, so that often there is nothing else to watch. Reality TV is cheap and series can go on for months on end, providing hundreds of hours of viewing to fill schedules. TV bosses like this and are cutting back on comedy, music, drama and current affairs in favour of wall to wall reality rubbish. This is even worse when reality shows crowd the schedules of public service broadcasters. Stations such as the BBC in the UK, France T\u00e9l\u00e9visions, or Rai in Italy have a duty to inform and educate the public. They should be made to meet that responsibility \u2013 as Rai has by saying it won\u2019t have any more reality shows."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con01b","title":"","text":"Reality television is not what audiences want, it is watched simply because it is \u2018there\u2019. It is what John Humphrys calls \u2018carbohydrate television\u2019, it \u2018probably hasn\u2019t done you much harm and if it leaves you feeling a bit bloated\u2026well you can search out of a bit of quality stuff\u2019. [1] With tens of television channels and twenty-four hours of programming to fill, reality is simply a cheap means to ensure there is always something on TV to watch. In Italy, the evidence supports such claims, with the state broadcaster Rai deciding to scrap reality programmes in 2008 due to low demand. [2] As Rai\u2019s President stated, \u2018I don\u2019t believe they are the type of shows the majority of our viewers expect or want from a public service broadcaster\u2019. [3]  [1] Humphrys, John. \u201cTake this oath: First, do no harm.\u201d 28 August 2004. The Guardian. 4 July 2011.  [2] Fraser, Christian. \u201cItalian TV bins reality shows.\u201d 3 April 2007. BBC News. 4 July 2011.  [3] Fraser, Christian. \u201cItalian TV bins reality shows.\u201d 3 April 2007. BBC News. 4 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con02a","title":"","text":"Reality TV can be educational and have real effects in society in a way other television programmes do not  Reality TV can be very educational. They educate people by displaying disastrous consequences of someone's behaviour, thus deterring others from doing unplanned and silly actions. Programmes such as \"The Apprentice\" have made people think about business. Jamie Oliver has raised issues of youth unemployment and poor diet, and \"Fit Club\" has got people thinking about health and fitness. Jamie Oliver's inaugural reality show, 'Jamie's Kitchen', offered jobless youngsters the 'chance to train and lead a nationwide campaign to improve the quality of school meals'1. Without the TV show's popularity funding the initiative, the youngsters involved would not have had such an opportunity and school meals would still reflect what kids want to eat, not what they should be eating. Such effects on society are beneficial and should be encouraged, not restricted. 1 Jury, L. (2007, January 4). The Big Question: Has reality television had its day, or are audiences still attracted to it? Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The Independent"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con04a","title":"","text":"Reality television forces us to analyse our own behaviour as a society  Reality TV actually has a lot of value to our society; they are effectively anthropological experiments, allowing the public to study people and societies from the comfort of their living rooms1. Humans are endlessly different and endlessly interesting to other humans. In these programmes we see people like us faced with unusual situations. Shows like Survivor, which place a group of strangers in remote environments, make us think about what we would do in their place, and about what principles govern human behaviour in general. It also shows us people who look and act very different from us, and helps us see that actually we have a lot in common with them. MTV's reality show 'Making the Band 2', a 'hip-hop American Idol', gives centre stage to inner-city kids who would be portrayed as criminals or victims on a cop drama. There is nothing immoral about reality shows, merely the society which demands them; these shows are just a product of our values and desires. We should face up to these issues rather than censor television in order to hide them. 1 Sanneh, K. (2011, May 9). The Reality Principle. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The New Yorker"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con03a","title":"","text":"The public can always just turn reality programmes off, or watch something else  Television provides a wide mixture of programmes, including reality television. For those who want it, there is high quality drama such as \"The Sopranos\" or \"Pride and Prejudice\" whilst the BBC, CNN, Al-Jazeera and other international broadcasters also cover news and current affairs in great depth. Wildlife programmes on the National Geographic or Discovery bring the wonders of the natural world into our living rooms. More sports are covered in more detail than ever before. So, ultimately, reality shows have not ruined television as a whole, they have merely added another option for viewers. Indeed, because they make a lot of money for broadcasters to spend on other types of programmes, they are actually good for all viewers, regardless of personal taste for genres."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con01a","title":"","text":"Reality television is popular and TV producers should give audiences what they want  Reality television programmes are very popular with audiences of all ages and types. They may not be high culture but most people do not want that from television. Most viewers want to be entertained and to escape for a while from the worries and boredom of their everyday life. American Idol rejectees who stubbornly insist that they have talent provide such escapism. [1] Furthermore, and importantly, such contestants are good natured in doing so, they are not exploited but offer themselves to reality shows. [2] Therefore, there is no harm in giving the people what they want \u2013 that is what the free market is all about. Reality shows are also popular because they exploit new technology so that millions of people can participate in the programme \u2013 typically by voting. Britain is believed to have had as many as 176 reality TV shows in a single year. [3] Such supply can only be driven by excessive demand.  [1] Poniewozik, James. \u201cWhy Reality TV is Good for Us.\u201d 12 February 2003. Time. 5 July 2011.  [2] Poniewozik, James. \u201cWhy Reality TV is Good for Us.\u201d 12 February 2003. Time. 5 July 2011.  [3] Jury, Louise. \u201cThe Big Question: Has reality television had its day, or are audiences still attracted to it?\u201d 4 January 2007. The Independent. 4 July 2011."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con04b","title":"","text":"Reality TV is less about exposing society and allowing us to evaluate our own behaviour than it is about 're-inforcing particular social norms'1. As such, it is deliberately misleading. If it is portrayed as being real, it implies authenticity and honesty, two things that most reality TV programmes are not. They serve not to challenge our views of society, but reinforce the often false notions we already collectively hold. For example, the US reality show \"Are You Hot?\" asks competitors to submit to appearance-rating by judges, only re-inforcing the false premise that one is defined solely by the way they look2. Furthermore, even if accepted that reality shows do present a 'real' image of society, programmes like Big Brother and Survivor erode the distinction between public and private, turning 'people with real lives and real problems and real children (into) entertainment'3. Society's entertainment cannot be allowed to come at the expense of the privacy that protects families and children. 1 Sanneh, K. (2011, May 9). The Reality Principle. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The New Yorker 2 Becker, A. (2003, March 1). Hot or Not: Reality TV can be harmful to women. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from Pyschology Today 3 Humphrys, J. (2004, August 28). Take this oath: First, do no harm. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from The Guardian:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con02b","title":"","text":"The few reality TV programmes that are educational and beneficial do not balance the bad majority. The majority are not educational, either to the public or the participants, and the insight they purport to offer into the human psyche are misguided. As Vanessa Feltz, a contestant on the British Big Brother series, describes, contestants and viewers alike 'subscribe to this utterly specious notion that fame is entirely desirable' (BBC News, 2001), whilst Narinda Kaur, another contestant on the show, admitted \"I came away from this experience thinking 'oh my God, did I really say that?\" (BBC News, 2001). As Claudio Petruccioli, head of the Italian state broadcaster Rai, notes, 'reality TV shows put people into environments that are both unrealistic and coercive'1 Any lessons learned are therefore inapplicable to real-world situations. 1 Fraser, C. (2007, April 3). Italian TV bins reality shows. Retrieved July 4, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"PSBs are a thing of the past. People no longer sit around the Television together. Commercial broadcasters provide more cultural freedom and choice for people. The idea of TV bringing a nation together no longer holds any merit in fragmented globalizing media markets where individualism dominates. TV is now more often than not a solitary experience rather than a communal one. This can be demonstrated by the amount of TV sets owned per household. A marketing report from Nielsen shows that in 1980 49% of US households had only 1 TV set and that 15% had three or more. Compare that with data from 2010 and only 17% of people in the US own only 1 TV set whereas 55% have 3 or more. [1]  [1] Nielsen (2010) U.S. Homes Add Even More TV Sets in 2010. [Accessed 1st June 2011] Available at:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"PSBs bring nations and people together and are an actively positive force within the mediasphere  As well as airing programming for minorities which the private broadcasters would not provide, by providing and presenting content in a manner that resonates with the society in which they operate and by offering universal and affordable access to such content (see definition in the introduction) PSBs can also help bring people together and thus promote social cohesion. PSBs are able to put people and society first before financial and commercial interests. For example the BBC in its 2005 \u201cBuilding Public Value\u201d report states that it \u201caims to serve its audiences not just as consumers, but as members of a wider society, with programmes and services which, while seeking to inform, educate and entertain audiences, also serve wider public purposes\u201d. [1]  [1] BBC (2005) Building Public Value. [online] [Accessed 1st June 2011] Available at:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"The same could be said equally about PSBs. They are unlikely to broadcast items which may damage their funding stream. In the case of networks using the underwriting model they are also unlikely to broadcast things which underwriters do not approve of. Due to the fragmented and competitive broadcasting market place there will always be a home for programming which challenges businesses and other entities if there is enough public interest in the given issue."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"PSBs provide quality and original content that can cater for niche or commercially unattractive market segments  PSBs create unique content which private broadcasters would be unable to produce as they strive for mass market appeal to satisfy the demands placed upon them by commercial interests looking to purchase advertising. PSBs create more educational and minority output which enriches society rather than just entertaining it.  PSBs can concentrate on creating high quality programming across all genres rather than simply producing mediocre populist programming such as low-cost game shows and reality TV. For example it is unlikely that commercial broadcasters would have aired nightly university lectures as the BBC did with its partnership with the Open University. PSBs are usually among the highest investors in the domestic content industries and nurture local creative talent."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Commercial broadcasters have to directly interact with their audience to ensure that the programming being provided is what the public actually wants to consume. Commercial broadcasters have to pull in audiences whereas the (partly) publicly funded PSBs have a financial safety net which allows them to push content onto the audience in an elitist manner and allows them to essentially tell their audience what is good for them. It is also erroneous to suggest that minority tastes are not served by commercial broadcasters. Technology has allowed for a greater number of broadcast channels and as a result many of these specialize to cater for particular niches, for example, The History Channel."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"PSB are better equipped than private broadcasters to air accurate, objective and impartial information and programming  Advertising limits the types of programming and stories commercial networks will run as they may fear losing lucrative advertising deals with large corporations. As PSBs do not rely (solely) on advertising they are more likely to air programming which is critical towards the practices of large corporations and serve the public interest. For example, In August 2011, PBS aired Food Inc., a documentary that \u2018lifted the veil on (the US\u2019) food industry\u2026exposing the underbelly that\u2019s hidden from the American consumer with the consent of (the) government\u2019s regulatory agencies\u2019. [1]  [1] PBS (2011). \u201cFood, Inc. \u2013 Synopsis\u201d. [Accessed 6th September, 2011]. Available at:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-con03b","title":"","text":"Public ownership of broadcasting is good for the citizen\/consumer, as it is free once your license fee or taxes have been paid. With the erosion of advertising revenues streams, private broadcasting companies are seeking to make popular programming (such as sports events, concerts or films) subscription based, a trend which risks excluding poorer audiences and threatens social cohesion. Nor is it in the interest of current private broadcasters to see their public rivals privatized and forced to accept advertising, as the overall increase in advertising space would drive down the amount broadcasters could charge advertisers for a spot, reducing their revenues and profits."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-con01b","title":"","text":"It is true that government should not be allowed a monopoly over broadcasting, but that is very rare outside totalitarian states. Usually countries have at least one privately owned broadcasting network competing with the public media and so limiting political manipulation by the State. In addition, corporatization, as with the BBC in the UK, or CBC in Canada, sets the broadcaster up as accurate and impartial, allowing for the benefits of public ownership without the risk of political interference. Instead, the greatest risk of bias lies within a purely private broadcasting sector, where the high costs of entry and technological development encourage consolidation to the point where powerful individuals, such as Silvio Berlusconi in Italy, can manipulate the broadcast agenda in their own interests. Without the balance guaranteed by public service media, meaningful participation by all citizens in the social and political lives of their societies and fair elections might become impossible."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-con02a","title":"","text":"Privatising PSBs would improve the efficiency of their operations and the quality of their programming  Privatization would be good for public broadcasters, exposing them to the bracing impact of proper competition and forcing them to focus more effectively upon their strengths while producing efficiencies. When it was privatized, it was expected that New Jersey Public Television could save the state $11million a year. [1] Freed from government control, they would be less exposed to political decisions about the level of license fee or direct subsidy, and better able to raise finance in the capital markets. This would allow them to compete internationally in the changing digital marketplace, developing commercial operations, and ploughing increased profits back into better program making for their domestic market.  [1] McGlone, Penny. (2011) \u201cN.J. public television to undergo name change, cuts in staff\u201d. The Star-Ledger, 7 June 2011. [Accessed 23 August 2011] Available at:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-con03a","title":"","text":"PSBs funding sources give them an unfair advantage in the broadcasting market, harming competition.  Public ownership of the media distorts competition, harming private companies in their domestic marketplace and their ability to compete internationally. It does this because the government is funding a service that could be supplied profitably by the private sector - for example, a pop music radio station or the broadcast of sporting events. The market share of private companies inevitably suffers, along with their ability to raise advertising revenue based upon the size of their audience. This means that private broadcasters end up with less money to spend on their programmes and are less well placed to compete internationally. James Murdoch, son of the medal mogul Rupert Murdoch, in his MacTaggart Lecture at the Edinburgh Television Festival in 2009 echoed this opinion stating that the free news output by the BBC \u201c\"threatens the provision of news in Britain\". [1]  [1] The Independent (2009) The BBC\u2019s Unhealthy Dominance. [Accessed 1st June 2011] Available at:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-con01a","title":"","text":"The relationship between governments and PSBs can be problematic  The broadcast media has so much power to form opinion that it is dangerous to give politicians too much influence over it. Once in government, a political party can use public ownership and control of television and radio stations to manipulate both the news agenda and its editorial policy - as many Middle-East regimes did during the 2011 Arab Spring. For example in Egypt, during sustained and substantial protests aimed at removing President Hosni Mubarak from office the state run media described protestors as \u201c... \u2018Vandals\u2019 and \u2018hooligans\u2019. A few hours after Mubarak\u2019s fall, the \u2018vandalisers\u2019 had become \u2018heroes\u2019, and what [they] had previously described as \u2018chaos instigated by foreign powers\u2019 had suddenly become \u2018a glorious revolution.\u2019\u201d [1]  [1] Diab, O. (2011) New Egypt, New Media. [Accessed 1st June 2011] Available at:"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mthspsb-con02b","title":"","text":"PSBs are already exposed to competition as their audience figures are compared with those of their private rivals, and they constantly have to justify the level of their license fee or subsidy. Outsourcing most actual program making, as the BBC does, provides a competitive environment in which costs can be controlled effectively. Nor does public ownership prevent organizations from raising money - government bodies often resort to bond issues to fund investment. The BBC has successfully launched BBC Worldwide and developed a profitable commercial arm while remaining a public corporation."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro02b","title":"","text":"Indigenous populations have no more right to special government treatment than other minority groups. Even indigenous populations did not inhabit their current territory from the dawn of time, and many ethnic groups around the world live where they do because they were pushed out of some other territory hundreds or thousands of years ago. Virtually every ethnic group in the world has been conquered and abused by some other group. Tracing the entirety of human history to determine which group owes reparations to which other group is unproductive; rather, governments should move forward to promote a better standard of living for all citizens."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro02a","title":"","text":"Existing states are responsible for the destruction of indigenous populations and their societies, and thereby have an obligation to help reverse the effects of their actions  The Indian Removal Act of 18301, the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act, and the 1887 General Allotment Act are just a few examples of legislation used to destroy Native American communities in the US2. Settlers in Australia are similarly responsible for a multitude of massacres3, as well as several decades of forced separation of aboriginal children from their parents in an effort to \"Christianize\" them4. While the current citizens of Canada, the US, and Australia are not guilty of the crimes of their predecessors, they nevertheless reap the benefits of those atrocities while today's indigenous populations still suffer from the lasting impact of oppression. When chemical companies make huge profits at the expense of damaging the surrounding community's environment, those companies are expected to pay reparations. A government that destroys an indigenous culture must similarly work to reverse their destruction.  1 Indian Treaty and Removal Act of 1830, U.S. Department of State. 2 Preamble to the Trail of Broken Treaties 20-Point Position Paper: An Indian Manifesto. American Indian Movement, 1972. 3 History of Australian Aboriginal Massacres, Treaty Republic, 2011. 4\"Living With the Past,\" FOCUS September 1997, Vol. 9, Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro03b","title":"","text":"The government should rely on just legal systems to protect the rights of indigenous people, not cultural preservation. A constitution that enumerates rights and a court system that scrutinizes government activity is a much more direct and reliable venue of protecting indigenous rights than sporadic funding for cultural programs."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro01a","title":"","text":"All of society benefits from protection of indigenous culture  Across the United States, Australia, and Canada, native customs are often tied closely to the land. For example, while descendants of the Sioux Indians of the American Midwest may no longer hunt buffalo, learning about traditional means of hunting, animal use, rituals involving the surrounding wildlife, means of ensuring a sustainable food supply, and other cultural norms related to the land gives people a greater appreciation for the land they now inhabit. Exposure to traditions that have been practiced in one's land for thousands of years helps us to appreciate the legacy we have inherited. This does not just benefit the direct descendants of those practicing these traditions but the whole of society."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro01b","title":"","text":"Protecting indigenous culture is unlikely to have a significant impact on the general population. Native groups often live in relative isolation, thereby having little contact with people outside the community. Furthermore, antiquated forms of hunting and cultivating food that were used over a hundred years ago have little relevance to the modern environment in which people live. Learning about these traditions is unlikely to impact the public's perception of its environment because the public is unlikely to make an emotional connection between these traditions and their modern homes."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro04b","title":"","text":"Governments also ignore or destroy culture all the time. Historic and significant buildings are built to build infrastructure, traditions are lost through an unwillingness to provide funding to prevent it from dying. When governments protect culture they inevitably protect one over the others. This is nearly always the culture of the majority. Instead it is not for the government to promote or protect any culture over others rather it should be left to private individuals and each cultural group to promote their own culture."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro03a","title":"","text":"The preservation of displaced cultures is important in preventing future oppression.  Notions of cultural superiority virtually always influence displacement and abuse of indigenous cultures. For example, when the government of Botswana expelled the Kalahari Bushmen from their land in 2002, President Mogai defended his actions by describing the bushmen as \"stone age creatures.\"1 This cultural insensitivity, in addition to the incentive of material gains, led the Botswani government to violate the tribe's rights. By preserving indigenous culture, governments recognize the value of these groups and prevent future hostility.  1 John Simpson, \"Bushmen Fight for Homeland,\" BBC, 2005"}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-pro04a","title":"","text":"Governments protect culture every day  Governments already protect culture so it is not a big step to apply the same protections to aboriginal culture as well. In school, students learn about traditional art and their national history. For example, the state of California compiles reading lists that largely include Shakespeare, Virgil, and John Steinback, though also including ethnic authors like Maya Angelou1. Governments recognize days like Christmas and New Years and fund programs that promote the arts. States recognize marriage and structure divorce and custody laws based on cultural norms of gender roles and family responsibility. If a government can protect the norms on one culture in society, there is no reason that the government should not also protect the culture of those who first inhabited the land. This current protection makes it easy to build on, to make highlight more aboriginal culture, recognize their festivals etc.  1 California Reading List, California Department of Education, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con03b","title":"","text":"Mainstream cultural norms are so pervasive in every aspect of society that without an active effort, indigenous values and traditions will be lost. Preserving culture often involves funding- whether it is for a theatre group, art show, language program, or other means of cultural expression. In countries like the US and Australia, indigenous groups make up less than 3% of the current population; 1;2 without assistance from the government, it is unlikely these groups would be able to sustain such cultural efforts and as a result their culture would not have any chance to evolve.  1 Race - Universe: Total Population, U.S. Census Bureau American Fact Finder, 2009. 2 Experimental Estimates and Projections, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 1991, to 2021, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con01b","title":"","text":"Cultural preservation enriches society; just because it cannot be measured quantitatively does not mean it is not worthwhile. Without government assistance, many museums and theaters would have to close down, or would be too expensive for the general public to access. Government support for cultural enrichment contributes towards the public's education and allows citizens to develop an appreciation for traditions other than their own. This does not mean arguing that the government should abandon its basic duties, but simply that a small portion of the budget be dedicated to preservation of indigenous culture."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con02a","title":"","text":"Government interference is not necessary to preserve culture  Plenty of ethnic groups immigrate to countries like Canada and the US and preserve their culture without government aid. They do so through religious education for children, speaking their native language at home, schools at the weekends that teach their culture and communication and cooperation within the ethnic community. This cultural preservation demonstrates that government assistance is unnecessary and thereby a form of excessive government involvement."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con04a","title":"","text":"Culture is an incredibly complex concept  Culture contains many elements; it is the food one eats, the clothing one wears, the holidays one celebrates, and the names of the spirits one worships. However, it is much more than that; culture dictates parent-child relationships, courting customs, family size, gender roles, healthcare, education, and every law, regulation, and standard a society holds. Governments rarely give blanket approval to an indigenous customs; children are often compelled to attend school and receive vaccines, substances used in religious rituals may be banned, and customs that infringe on the rights of group members are not permitted. These restrictions may be reasonable, however, they create a false sense of cultural preservation. Rather than ostensibly protect aboriginal culture, governments should leave it alone."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con03a","title":"","text":"Culture evolves over time and is largely impacted by improved standards of living and exposure to other cultures  Virtually all cultures around the world have changed radically over the past two hundred years; if a government takes action towards \"preserving\" an indigenous culture, it is interfering with the group's ability to mold their identity to fit the modern world on their own terms. For example, the Australian and American governments have tried to appease native groups by offering land for reserves where they may lead a traditional lifestyle. Native individuals, however, often do not want to live in isolation, and would rather adapt their culture to an urban environment where they can have a higher standard of living."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con01a","title":"","text":"Culture provides no tangible benefit that justifies the use of government funds to preserve it.  If indigenous populations feel strongly that their unique culture is worth preserving, they may direct their attention and funds towards this endeavor. However, a government's first priority must be services that improve the standard of living for its citizens. Society, including indigenous people, would be better served if tax dollars were spent on services like healthcare and law enforcement."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con04b","title":"","text":"Anarchy is not necessary for culture to exist. Legal restrictions do impact cultural norms; for example, Native American use of peyote for religious ceremonies is permitted only at the discretion of state governments1. However, restrictions on drug use have not turned native cultural expression into a meaningless practice. Rather, the fact that native groups must conform to external standards is more reason for the government to make an active effort to protect indigenous culture. In the previous example, the US government acknowledged that Native American use of peyote in religious ceremonies is different from typical drug use, and consequently permits such peyote use (with limitations). It is this active effort to respect native culture that allowed Native Americans to preserve their religious practice.  1Elijah Sweete, \"Peyote in Short Supply,\" The Moderate Voice, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-culture-tphwpac-con02b","title":"","text":"Immigrant populations generally do not retain their cultural distinctiveness in the long run; while the first generation may be heavily influenced by their parents' culture, this influence fades by the second generation. Immigrant assimilation is actually proof that government assistance would be useful to native groups."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro02b","title":"","text":"Anyone setting out on such a career is aware of the legal requirement to undertake service in the armed forces. There is absolutely nothing to stop them doing it before they start their career. There are plenty of jobs where it is inconvenient to have to take an extended break. Anything relating to technology or research, for example, where there is a need to keep up to date with the latest developments in the field is fairly unforgiving of such a break and so people build their careers around it, knowing that at some point they will be out of the loop for 24 months or so.  To suggest that it is more important that a pop star is able to keep on recording but that it is for scientist and technicians in the most wired country in the world to keep up with changes in technology is as inconsistent as it is unfair. The case of the performer is clearly weaker it\u2019s simply that they have the status and fame to mean that they can make a big fuss about it and people will notice.  Whatever the vanity of celebrity may suggest it\u2019s just another job and it\u2019s questionable as to how much benefit it actually provides to society at large.  Further pandering to that vanity by suggesting that society can\u2019t cope without a particular singer or actor for two years is ridiculous. There is no shortage of people wanting to do the job."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro02a","title":"","text":"Celebrities are in the unusual position of requiring constant media attention  The career path of celebrities is unusual in that it accretes over time on the basis of the performers standing in the public mind. Unlike other professions this does not lend itself to taking two years out of the limelight, especially years when fame is coming to its height.  The media is notoriously fickle and equally well-known for having a short memory. It generally struggles to stay interested in a celebrity if they\u2019re out of the limelight for more than a few weeks. It is simply unfeasible that they would remain interested when someone has been out of the spotlight for over two years. In effect this means that for a Korean musician or actor their career will finish at the age of 29.  In other profession it is possible to build a career around national service and employers know that at some point any young man they employ will need to undertake their military service but celebrities simply aren\u2019t employed in this way."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro03b","title":"","text":"Again, there is nothing to stop celebrities doing their military service before they start performing but, even were that not the case, military service is not something that is undertaken because it is convenient or easy but rather something that is done because it is necessary. The country is at risk of invasion, it is still technically at war with the North and in the last Kim Jong-Il has become increasingly erratic.  Of all professions surely performers, with their peculiar interest in the combination of a consumer society and the right to freedom of expression have the greatest interest in insuring that the north doesn\u2019t invade. Neither wars nor dictatorships are particularly known for encouraging the performing arts."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro01a","title":"","text":"Celebrities, like athletes, enhance the nation\u2019s image and generate revenue  The South Korean government issues occasional exemptions to athletes who have won an Olympic gold medal or achieved a similar feat. If we accept that the law ought to be consistent then there is no reason why entertainers should not be proffered the same opportunity. Both professions tend to favour the young and the requirement that military service needs to be completed before the age of thirty mean that either career would be interrupted just at the point when the individual is likely to be at the height of their skills.  Equally both groups bring prestige for Korea as a nation. Entertainers like Jung-Ji Hoon (Rain) have just as much of a following as athletes such as Park Ji-Sung who, along with his team mates on the Korean national team was exempted from military service for reaching the semi-finals of the world cup [1] .  Indeed Rain predominantly works in Korea and has a following throughout the country and the region whereas Park has spent most of his career playing for foreign teams.  [1] Arsenal Forum , August 30 2011"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro01b","title":"","text":"Celebrities, unlike athletes, work for themselves whereas athletes represent the country. Military service means representing the nation to the rest of the world as does being an athlete, that\u2019s the reason for the exemption, not simply a matter of celebrity.  The psychologist Hwang Sang-Min [1] has made clear that \u201cEntertainers are thought to work for their own sakes. That\u2019s the difference.\u201d  Park Ji-Sung and his teammates were representing their country and achieved a national first. Granting an exemption recognised their accomplishment on behalf of the country. In a very literal meaning of the phrase they performed national service.  Equating such an accomplishment with a performer who is simply doing their job \u2013 for which they are well paid \u2013 misses the point of the exemptions. Singers and actors happen to be Korean; they are not acting or singing for Korea. Indeed given the speed with which some performers have given up their nationality in a bid to avoid national service, comparing it to a genuine national accomplishment seems absurd.  When actors such as Song Seung-heon attempted to avoid national service they were rightly decried and their actions have far more in common with the sons of politicians and businessmen who seek to use their status to avoid the draft.  [1] Salon.com , Jim Lee, Pop Sensation Rain Joins the South Korean Army"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro03a","title":"","text":"Having the age of 30 as the cut-off point is uniquely unfair to performers as this is the age when they are likely to be at the height of their fame and towards the end of their career.  For most professions, getting military service out of the way early in one\u2019s career makes sense. Nobody would suggest that members of other professions should be expected to interrupt it when they are at the height of their profession. In reality for most people this would be when they are in their fifties. For professions like acting and music this tends to be the late twenties and early thirties. Indeed, for pop singers in particular their career is likely to be over when they are 35.  In the light of this setting the age limit where it is is uniquely unfair to performers \u2013 just as it is to athletes.  Military service anywhere in the world is considered to be something you undertake before your career, not in the middle of it. Regulations should reflect reality, in this instance that means allowing performers to get on with their careers."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con03b","title":"","text":"There may well be a case to be made that certain other professions or groups should be given exemptions. That does not, however, demonstrate that celebrities should not. This simply reflects the fact that, by definition, celebrities are not typical citizens.  They provide a valuable role in society and that should be recognised. They provide entertainment and glamour in peoples\u2019 lives, they promote Korea around the world and they are also very few in number.  News reports whenever a celebrity undertakes national service are always keen to stress that they will not receive special treatment, it is difficult to see why. Historically, entertainers serving in military forces around the world are always used to build national morale and yet in South Korea they are not. It is this instance that is the exception to the rule."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con01b","title":"","text":"It could be done in much the same way as with sportsman where \u2018exceptional achievement\u2019 is recognised concept and, while difficult to define, is easy to apply. As long as the whole process takes place transparently it should ensure that it is not abused. The issue is not so much introducing exemptions to the universality of the current system but, rather, ensuring the transparency of the process.  There are already abuses of the system with the children of the powerful, the so called \u2018sons of gods\u2019 often finding ways around the law. That is not a difficulty of definition, it\u2019s simple corruption."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con02a","title":"","text":"One of the great strengths of national service is that it demonstrates that everyone is equal  Both the Constitution and the National Security Act [1] make it explicitly clear that there are occasions when individuals in South Korea must surrender some of their liberty in the interests of preserving the state. These pieces of legislation and others reflect the reality of living next door to North Korea. The whole point of legislation that preserves the state is that it applies to everybody.  Particularly in the instance of national service, the moment it becomes optional it ceases to work. No doubt many of those who have been arrested under the NSA took the attitude that it really didn\u2019t, or shouldn\u2019t, apply to them. It does.  Even if a compelling case could be made for celebrities to have the right not to serve, it is inconceivable that such a case could be made exclusively for celebrities. It is hard to see how the national interest is well served by having someone appear in a soap opera or a record sleeve but not by having someone in an emergency room or classroom.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con04a","title":"","text":"Celebrities are respected by young people and this is a way in which they can act as a role model and set a positive example.  At a time when the 1950-53 war is becoming less relevant to peoples\u2019 daily lives and all generations, particularly the youngest, are becoming reluctant to fulfil their duty in a country that is still at war, celebrities have a powerful opportunity to act as role models for others to fulfil their national service obligations.  Allowing them an opt out would set a terrible example. By definition they are of a generation with others entering the military and there is a powerful symbolism in their doing so as well.  By contrast allowing them an exemption would encourage others to try and find a way out of serving.  Although it seems probable that in the event of a conflict the main protagonists would be the USA and China rather than the conscript armies of North and South Korea, there would seem to be a definite benefit in having the male population trained sufficiently well to take on civil defence duties and to be able to ensure their own safety and that of their families."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con03a","title":"","text":"There are many professions that could more sensibly be given exemption such as teachers  Only in a world truly and unhealthily obsessed with the cult of celebrity would pop singers and soap stars be at the top of the list for exemptions to military service. Surely scientists and surgeons would have a better claim. Indeed with shortages of professionals reported in both science and technology [1] it would seem to make far more sense to offer opt outs there in an effort to encourage more people to study the subjects at university and to make their careers in those areas.  On the basis that people are not even given an exemption on the basis of religious or moral conviction, it seems perverse to give exemptions on the basis of fame [2] .  [1]   [2]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con01a","title":"","text":"In practical terms how would you define who should be given an exemption and how do you prevent abuse?  The advantage of the current system is its universality, it does not require any interpretation of who is and is not included. Who exactly is a celebrity? How do you define that and how do you insure that it isn\u2019t used to cover the children of law makers and other influential individuals?  Celebrity, almost by its nature, is impossible to define and the moment you attempt to do so \u2013 \u2018all professional singers\u2019 for example \u2013 you create a loophole that people will rush through."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con04b","title":"","text":"It seems, frankly unfair to ask people to destroy their careers on the basis that it will encourage others to do something that the law already requires of them. The legislation for national service was structured on the basis of a country that was very different from modern day Korea. In 1953 Korea was the poorest country in the world and national service was, among other things, a useful tool for training and providing employment for the young. That is simply no longer the case. The legislation and the principals that underpin it are simply not designed to deal with a Korean in their twenties who is already recognised around the world and has a staggeringly successful career.  It\u2019s clear that the framers acknowledged that there was at least one profession where people could excel while still young \u2013 hence the exemption for highly successful athletes. The fact is that 60 years ago the idea of a rapper, singer or actor who could genuinely promote Korea around the world was simply not there."}
+{"id":"training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con02b","title":"","text":"Celebrities fulfill two important roles that allow them to demonstrate that they are better serving the national interests by pursuing their careers. The first is the unifying and moral building effect on the nation. It is even possible to argue as some scholars have [1] that in an increasingly fractured society, celebrities may be the only people who can have a unifying effect.  The second role is taking an international profile. They act as a constant reminder to the world of the existence of South Korea and that it is a free country with a thriving arts scene. These roles make a far greater difference to the process of protecting the state and the freedoms for which it stands than they could ever do as just another man in fatigues.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro02b","title":"","text":"A white Christmas is not traditional. Even in northern countries such as Great Britain snow has always been very rare in December \u2013 it is much more likely to fall later in the winter. It\u2019s all Charles Dickens\u2019 fault \u2013 he grew up in the unusually snowy 1810s, and later wrote snowy scenes into his popular Christmas stories, such as \u201cA Christmas Carol\u201d. Even in the 19th Century, snow at Christmas was uncommon, and in many places today it is quite rare (Western Europe, most of the USA) or impossible (southern hemisphere countries like Australia). It is better to enjoy Christmas for what it is rather than feeling sorry every year that it doesn\u2019t live up to some storybook picture."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Christmas is inextricably linked with an image of a snowy wonderland.  We all love the traditional white Christmas. When we think of Christmas we see snowy scenes, with people skating and sledging, and children making snowballs and snowmen. Later the families gather inside around a warm fire to celebrate. This is the sort of Christmas shown on greeting cards and celebrated in so many songs (for example, White Christmas, Jingle Bells, Frosty the Snowman, Walking in a Winter Wonderland, etc.). It isn't a proper Christmas without snow. \"The interest in snowy Christmases has its origins in the colder climate of the period 1550\u20131850 when Britain was in the grip of a \u2018Little Ice Age\u2019[2] That way, the traditional image was created."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro03b","title":"","text":"It might suit the non-religious people who run much of the media to say that, but it strips Christmas of all real meaning. The truth is that anyone can celebrate Christ's birth at Christmas, whether they are in snowy Lapland, summery Australia or tropical Africa. Christmas has nothing to do with snow; it is the celebration of Jesus Christ's birth in a Bethlehem stable. Snow is not mentioned in the Bible story and it is very, very rare in Bethlehem. Seeing the holiday as just a snowy winter festival is a way of taking Christ out of Christmas."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro01a","title":"","text":"The dream of a white Christmas satisfies a need for hope deep within us.  The ideal of a white Christmas also speaks to the old pagan festivals. The winter solstice (Yule, Saturnalia) was a time of hope in the cold and darkness, as nights stopped getting longer and people looked for the promise of new birth in springtime. The Christian Church recognized the power of existing winter festivals and chose December 25th for their own nativity celebrations. People still feel a need to move in time with the seasons, and snow represents winter at its most extreme. For these reasons the dream of a white Christmas satisfies a need deep within us."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro01b","title":"","text":"If the idea of a white Christmas is pagan then we should drop it. We are not pagan anymore and we have a modern understanding of the seasons. If the festival was all about the shortest day, then much of the world's population would be left out. Everyone in the southern hemisphere would have to celebrate the festival in June. Those near the equator would never get to celebrate at all. Christmas should unite humanity, not split it apart."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro03a","title":"","text":"Wishing for a white Christmas shows a desire to return to the true nature of the holiday  For most people Christmas today is not about a religious festival, but about consumption, greed and shopping. Wishing for a snowy white Christmas is about turning the clock back to a time when life was simpler. Instead of focusing on getting presents, getting fat and getting drunk, a white Christmas is something money can't buy. It symbolizes time with family, playing outdoors in the snow, making your own entertainment and enjoying the wonder of nature. Who wouldn't prefer a Christmas like that?"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-con03b","title":"","text":"Human cleverness means that a white Christmas is within reach. Modern technology includes snow-making machines \u2014 commonly in use in many ski resorts. So whenever it is cold enough, we can spray fake snow all over our towns to delight young and old alike. And even if outdoor temperatures are too warm, we can refrigerate huge buildings in order to create Christmassy winter wonderlands."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-con01b","title":"","text":"Snow is actually a lot of fun. It makes even the dullest countryside or ugliest town look beautiful, even magical. Snow changes everything, yet it is fragile and short-lived. Children love to stamp and slide in snow, to crunch it together to create snowmen and play snowballs. Young people enjoy healthy winter sports like skiing and skating. Older adults enjoy sharing the romance of a snowy landscape over a warming drink, and remembering happy childhood winters. There is no wonder people dream of a white Christmas; it's a magical image."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-con02a","title":"","text":"Global warming has made White Christmas an image of the past  Global Warming means that few people will ever get to see a white Christmas. Many of the most populated areas of Western Europe and the USA could once expect snow at Christmastime, so perhaps the idea of a white Christmas once had real meaning. Now we have to accept that those days have gone. Mankind's damage to the world's climate means we have to get use to a coldish, greyish Christmas each year. There is no point dreaming, and denial can even be harmful, as we will be disappointed every year. We need to learn to love Christmas for what it is in the modern world."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-con03a","title":"","text":"Linking Christmas with snow denies it to some countries  Dreaming of a white Christmas also suggests that some countries have a special relationship with Christmas (e.g Finland, Norway), and that hot countries (e.g. largely Christian Kenya, Ethiopia and Mexico) or Southern hemisphere countries (e.g. Australia, Argentina, South Africa) cannot celebrate Christmas properly \u2014 surely the opposite of the true Christmas message."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-con01a","title":"","text":"There is nothing Christmassy about snow.  Snow can look lovely but the novelty soon wears off. Snow is cold and wet and the ice that comes with it is dangerously slippery. Every year even light snow causes broken bones and other injuries. Heavy snow is worse \u2013 it can leave elderly people trapped in their houses, bring down power lines, shut down transport systems and cause deaths through both cold and car accidents. None of this is remotely Christmassy. Snow can even wreck Christmas for many families, as travel hold-ups prevent relatives from reaching them for the celebration. As the BBC wrote in December 2010, \u201cThe wintry weather has caused chaos for many thousands of travelers trying to get to their destination of choice for Christmas.\""}
+{"id":"training-culture-mcthdwcj-con02b","title":"","text":"White Christmases may not be common any more but we can still dream of them. The scientists say that climate change is warming the world and many places that used to get snow in winter (e.g. Moscow, New York) will see it much more rarely in future. But our desire for a white Christmas just like the ones we used to know symbolizes our awareness of climate change. This issue could help shift public opinion in favor of tackling global warming."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is true that newspapers cannot adapt as quickly as other types of media to breaking news events, however there are advantages to having slower news. Reporting news events immediately as they happen often leads to speculation as the bigger picture is often unknown by the journalists, therefore having time to digest the given event can allow for more accurate and detailed reporting rather than broadcasting facts which may not be immediately confirmable, a longer time before publication then is likely to result in more accurate, less speculative information. For example many TV news outlets were reporting, when the first plane to hit the World Trade Center on the 11th September, that it was an unfortunate accident. It of course later emerged to be the work of terrorists."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro02a","title":"","text":"In the internet age immediacy is everything, newspapers can often contain out of date information by the time they hit the shelves.  In an interconnected global world whereby technology allows us within seconds to communicate across the globe in a variety of forms the newspaper medium becomes obsolete. In the time it takes to write, edit, print and distribute a newspaper the events being covered may very well have changed, when we have the technology to overcome this problem it seems unlikely that newspapers will continue to exist because who wants to read old news? An example of newspapers not being able to adapt to changing events can be seen with the killing of Osama Bin Laden on 2nd May 2011, the story broke too late for the morning newspapers in the UK to be able to change their pages to include the story, it was then subsequently reported a day late on the 3rd May. 1  1 Front Pages Today (2011) Newspaper Headlines from UK for 3 May 2011. [online] [accessed 27th July 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Newspapers do still have a place in the modern media landscape; the environmental argument against them is flawed, for example the Newsprint and Newspaper Industry Environmental Action Group (NNIEAG) state that: \u201cRecycled paper made up 77.4% of the raw material for UK newspapers in 2010\u201d 1 so the claim regarding the amount of waste newspapers generate is not actually as high as is being suggested.  What the argument also neglects to state is that electronic media is not entirely environmentally friendly in itself, much of the power required not only by personal digital devices but also the infrastructure needed to keep it working does not on the whole come from renewable sources, whereas printed media does makes greater use of environmentally friendly sources for its production. A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers states that: \u201cForestry, paper and packaging are among the most sustainable industries in existence.'\u201d 2  1 NNIEAG (2011) Newsprint and Newspaper Industry Environmental Action Group Homepage. [online] [accessed 13th June 2011]  2 Two Sides (2011) Print and Paper is a Wasteful Product. [online] [accessed 16th June 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro01a","title":"","text":"People no longer consume media in a linear way, people prefer to pick and choose what news they consume  With the development of Digital Video Recorders (DVRs) and more generally the internet people have come to no longer simply consume media in a linear fashion, they take a more fragmented approach. In news consumption people no longer want to simply have one newspaper with a vast array of topics inside. They want to pick and choose which stories and columns they consume, people now prefer to pull the content they want rather than have it pushed on them. In a digital world the news consumer can become their own editor and no longer need to rely entirely on old hierarchical structures."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The positive side of a newspaper IS the fact you have a vast array of topics, which you would not usually consume. It broadens the mind as you may often come across stories you never usually take notice of. This opens up a whole new world of interest, whereas if people are given the role of editor they would most likely simply choose to read what already interests them and their channels of perception will become narrower. In addition to this, newspapers are not necessarily linear. They do not have to be read in a linear fashion, people can choose which stories they wish to read and reject those they do not. Newspapers are far more flexible than they are generally portrayed 1. Modern newspapers have adapted their design to increase their consumption by the public.  One good example of this is the change in size of many British newspapers, from broadsheet to tabloid 2.  1. Daily Beast, 2009  2. BBC, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro04b","title":"","text":"This argument overstates the situation. Newspapers are less profitable than they were at their peak, but newspapers have been affected by other media ever since the invention of the radio. Much of the evidence the proposition has raised focuses on the Western World. According to the World Association of Newspapers, more newspapers are being published than at any time previously. There are strong growth markets in Asia, Eastern Europe and South America. The Middle East and Africa also sustain strong markets, though there is less growth 1.  Furthermore, Newspaper advertising is an effective revenue source. Advertisements in the traditional print tend to get more attention from readers than on the internet, because people read papers more intently.  Finally, some newspapers are actively engaging with the internet by charging for premium content to their services. Even if they lose some customers, this is made up by a net increase in revenue2.  1 World Association of Newspapers (2010) World Press Trends: Advertising Revenues To Increase, Circulation Relatively Stable. [online] [Accessed 2nd September 2011]  2 Columbia Journalism Review, (2009) Print Newspapers Still Dominate Readers' Attention. [online] [Accessed 2nd September 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Newspapers cannot be environmentally sustained.  Newspapers have no place in the modern media landscape as they are not environmentally friendly, they are a waste of paper when there are many other my efficient ways in which news can be disseminated. For example a single annual subscription to the New York Times roughly generates 520lb of waste which equates to approximately 4.25 trees being cut down per reader per year 2, when you take into account all the other publications that printed throughout the world this equates to a lot of wastage of increasingly scarce natural resources which could be avoided. Using digital tools to distribute news is more efficient as you only use resources when the content is actually required rather than the print media method in which the product is printed when it may not be necessarily purchased and consumed.  1 ID2 (2011) Facts about Paper and Paper Waste. [online] [accessed 18th June 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Newspapers are financially unviable  In the internet age, Newspapers are no longer financially profitable businesses. They are struggling to encourage investment and to survive in the long-term. Revenue is falling across the three main streams available to newspapers: sales, advertising and subscriptions. Sales and subscriptions are dropping as consumers move to the internet for information (often the website of the newspaper themselves!)1 Advertising is not as profitable either, as increasingly advertisers look to pop-up systems on websites and buying space on search engines. Many newspapers have resorted to cutting costs (firing staff, reducing the length of the paper) and raising prices. Yet it does not seem likely that people will be willing to pay more for less.  1. Keevey, R., Sattin, D and Hale, T. (2009) The Newspaper Crisis. Princeton University, 1st May 2009. Policy Research Institute for the Region: Princeton University."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con03b","title":"","text":"As newspapers are funded by private companies they can be accused of avoiding to publish information which may damage their revenue streams, independent bloggers often do not have this issue so can be much more free in what they publish which is ultimately good for democracy. In addition to this journalists may vastly distort the truth in their reporting in order to satisfy advertisers which seek certain demographics, whereas independent bloggers do not have this concern.  A consequence of online freedom is of course that anyone can publish anything but it should be down to the reader to decode what has been blogged and make up their own mind as to its accuracy, it is demeaning to suggest that consumers of news information are simply passive consumers.  Professional journalists, even when based in an official setup and with a code of ethics, are not entirely guilt free in regards to publishing inaccurate information either, there are many instances where false information has been published, for example many journalists reported the potential link between MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rubella) vaccination and Autism in a sensationalized way which did not entirely relate to the research and which, as a result, caused a huge number of children not being immunized 1. Perhaps the most famous recent example where journalists have behaved unethically is the phone-hacking scandal in the UK 2.  To call blogs \u2018parasitic\u2019 is also insulting and unfair. Many of them do their own research and cover issues not in the mainstream media. It\u2019s not unique to blogging to discuss the work of others, and indeed many newspapers do so 3 So what\u2019s the difference?  1 Deer, B. (2011) The MMR-Autism Scare: An Elaborate Fraud. [online] [accessed 13th June 2011]  2 BBC, (2011) Phone Hacking: US Senator Calls for News Corp Probe [online][accessed 2nd September 2011]  3 Online Journalism Review (2007) Are blogs a 'parasitic' medium? [online][Accessed on 2nd September 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con01b","title":"","text":"Normal backlighted displays can be bad for the eyes, however there are other digital technologies which address this issue, for example Amazon\u2019s Kindle e-reader using a technology called e-ink which simulates ink on a page and requires natural light to be read 1. It could be argued that the tactile argument is flawed, because if people did prefer the tactile experience, newspapers would not be in a state of severe decline. Furthermore the concept of what constitutes a better reading experience is subjective. Shorter, more to the point text and the ability to hyperlink to related pieces of content and access information in a non-linear way could be considered a much better experience compared to reading long passages of text in a linear fashion.  1 Popsci, (2010) Testing the Best: The Kindle's E Ink Pear Display [online][Accessed 2nd September 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con02a","title":"","text":"Newspapers provide higher quality journalism than other media  As newspapers are a slow medium, having a daily output most typically, they can produce better quality material than other news sources which strive for immediacy. Professional journalists and experts have time to consider the issues and write well structured, coherent and highly informed pieces which other types of media cannot compete with. A demonstration of the high quality of journalism found in newspapers can be seen in the fact that quite often newspapers set the news agenda for the rest of the day for other media outlets 1. Perhaps most importantly, modern graduates of schools of journalism still tend to favour working for newspapers as their long term career ambition. This is because the working conditions tend to be far superior, as is the regularity of payment and job security.  Those blogging in the online media note their treatment as second-class outlets, long hours and poor pay. The best and the brightest head to newspapers 2  1 Economist, (2006) Who killed the newspaper? [online] [accessed 27th July 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con05a","title":"","text":"The internet edits what you can see without your knowledge  When you purchase a newspaper you know what biases they may contain, getting news online can be more troublesome as services such as Google and Facebook use algorithms which personalize content for you based on your interest. This creates what is known as a \u201cfilter bubble\u201d1 whereby online services filter out news which may not be of normal interest to the reader, the problem with this is that it is often done without the user being aware of it, which clearly raises issues of trust.  1 Praiser, E. (2011) Beware Online 'Filter Bubbles' [online] [accessed 15th June 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con04a","title":"","text":"The balance of analysis and relevancy is better struck by newspapers  The argument that internet news tends to offer small passages of text compared to newspapers is to be liberal with the truth, due to the vast nature of the internet it offers a variety of styles and is arguably more likely to provide longer passages than newspapers as there is not space restriction as there is with newspapers which can only be a certain size, due to advertisements and printing agreements.  With the ability to both search for and easily share content via social networks, the argument that newspapers are better as they prevent information overload feels weak because there are many ways in which content can be filtered to ensure that both the news you actually want and the style and perspective you prefer can be easily accessed."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con03a","title":"","text":"Newspapers are a more trustworthy source of information than independent bloggers  Online anyone can launch a blog and start publishing, these articles could potentially be false, badly-researched or overly bias to name but a few issues, this raises the question of quality control of information online and its trustworthiness. For example a blog purportedly written by a gay woman in Damascus trying to avoid state persecution over her sexuality turned out to be a hoax, the identity of the blogger turned out to be straight 40 year old US man living in Edinburgh. 1  As newspapers are most often subject to regulations regarding what they print as well as being subject to market forces it is on the whole unlikely that they will publish something that is factually inaccurate, at least not with intent. Journalists working at newspapers are well trained and more often than not sign up to voluntary ethic codes in order to be accepted as trustworthy sources 2. Bloggers on the other hand can publish without any formal training and for the most part stay anonymous, which could lead to falsehoods being spread. Bloggers are often described as \u201cparasitic,\u201d since they criticize \u201cold media,\u201d whilst simultaneously relying upon it for the basis of their factual information. Yet Bloggers do not tend to be the groups funding news reporters across the world 3.  1. BBC. (2011) Syria Gay Girl in Damascus Blog a Hoax By a US Man. [online] [accessed 15th June 2011]  2.Pew Research Center, 2011  3. Murley, B and Roberts, C. (2005) Biting the Hand that Feeds: Blogs and second-level agenda setting. In: Convergence Conference. BYU (Brigham Young University), 2005."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con05b","title":"","text":"While algorithms may filter out content which does not normally appeal to a particular reader the internet itself does not block access to any information, if someone wishes to seek out another view on a topic it can be easily found by changing a search term. The idea that having news personalized behind the scenes makes online news less trustworthy is a weak proposition as the personalization constantly changes along with the users unlike inflexible newspapers chasing particular demographics."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con01a","title":"","text":"Newspapers offer a better reading experience than digital alternatives  The experience of reading from a newspaper is a far better user experience than reading from a screen, reading from a screen for long periods of time is not only bad for the eyes but quite often becomes uncomfortable. A newspaper however requires natural light to be read and therefore is not as harsh on the eyes. It could also be suggested that people actually prefer the tactile physical experience of a newspaper or book over holding an electronic device, a poll taken on the Guardian 1 website found that 76.1% preferred books, i.e, a physical experience, over a digital one.  Video and audio-based advertisements placed online around the text can also disrupt the reading process, a problem, which does not afflict newspapers.  1 Guardian (2008) E-books or Real Books? [online] [accessed 13th June 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con04b","title":"","text":"The argument that internet news tends to offer small passages of text compared to newspapers is to be liberal with the truth, due to the vast nature of the internet it offers a variety of styles and is arguably more likely to provide longer passages than newspapers as there is not space restriction as there is with newspapers which can only be a certain size, due to advertisements and printing agreements. With the ability to both search for and easily share content via social networks, the argument that newspapers are better as they prevent information overload feels weak because there are many ways in which content can be filtered to ensure that both the news you actually want and the style and perspective you prefer can be easily accessed."}
+{"id":"training-culture-mmchbnatp-con02b","title":"","text":"Other types of media can produce equally, if not better, pieces of journalism than newspapers: it\u2019s more just a matter of style. While many TV news outlets do often strive for immediacy in their coverage they also feature special reports, such as the BBC\u2019s flagship Panorama program, which are much more detailed and can stand on an equal footing with newspaper journalism. There are many newspapers, such as tabloids with little journalistic quality. So, the matter of quality does not come down to the type of medium being used, as this only affects style, it comes down to the person or people behind the given output."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is wrong that civil society should have reduced influence over the governance of the internet with governments making all the key decisions. Many governments around the world are not democratic and so cannot be said to represent their people while even those that are democratic are prone to advancing the interests of minorities of their constituents as shown by treaties and legislation such as SOPA and ACTA. Governments of all stripes whether authoritarian or democratic do not have a good record of transparency; ICANN on the other hand does. [1] ICANN works on a \"bottom-up, consensus-driven, multi-stakeholder model\" meaning that ICANN is very inclusive bringing together governments, experts, private companies and ngos, potentially even individuals can get involved and have their say. [2]  [1] \u2018ICANN Accountability & Transparency\u2019, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.  [2] \u2018About Us\u2019, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Governments not \u2018civil society\u2019 must be in control of internet governance  It is governments who are in charge of setting public policy within countries so it makes sense that these same governments should set public policy in the international sphere; [1] this is why international organisations have been set up and why it is governments that are represented in them. Internet governance should also be the purview of governments on account of the wide range of issues it covers. These include who gets access to the technical resources of the internet, intellectual property, participation in the online economy (which now has an immense impact on the physical economy as well - just consider how the financial markets around the world are interconnected in part as a result of the internet), freedom of expression, and security which ultimately can affect national security and the high politics if balance of power. [2] Private companies and civil society will inevitably only represent a minority of opinions within these countries and cannot be said to truly represent their country, the right place for them is in providing advice to their governments rather than through direct control such as that currently held by ICANN.  [1] Al-Darrab, Abdullah A., \u2018The Need for International Internet Governance Oversight\u2019, Internet Governance Forum.  [2] \u2018About\u2019, Internet Governance Project Syracuse University."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The United States is unlikely to give up control and no one can force it to do, the ITU itself has accepted that it could not do so, [1] so creating CIRP would really be a pointless increase in bureaucracy. There is already government involvement in ICANN through the Governmental Advisory Committee [2] so there is little need for another body giving governments more control over the internet. If the United States does not give up control voluntarily then there is likely to be added problems arising from conflicts between the ICANN and CIRP.  [1] Kelion, Leo, \u2018US resists control of internet passing to UN agency\u2019, BBC News, 3 August 2012.  [2] \u2018About the GAC\u2019, ICANN GAC."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Internet governance must be multinational  The internet is global, things on the internet do not just affect one country, indeed they often don\u2019t just affect a small group of countries but affect every country. This is especially true of issues of internet governance as setting the rules for the internet and the architecture has to be for the whole internet not isolated bits of it. The function that ICANN currently performs is one that should rightfully be done internationally in the interests of all the nations. This is not the case at the moment as the United States has essentially has a monopoly on internet governance. While ICANN is an independent non-profit body it is under contract from the U.S. department of Commerce and is subject to U.S. laws. [1]  The United States already abuses its control over the internet. It has become commonplace for the U.S. to seize domains, as it did with Bodog.com, regardless of where their domain name registrar, or the owner of the website, is based. It can do this easily because the companies that have the contract to manage the generic top level names such as .com and .org are based within the United States. As it is U.S. based the company with these top level domains has to comply with U.S. law so when it is asked to shut down a site even if it is a foreign site with a foreign registrar it will do so. [2] Actions like this show that the United States is only interested in its own power over the internet. It is not interested in the rights of other countries and owners of websites that are registered in those countries highlighting a need to a change to a more multinational system.  [1] Singh, Parminder Jeet, \u2018India\u2019s proposal will help take the web out of U.S. control\u2019, The Hindu, 17 May 2012.  [2] Kravets, David, \u2018Uncle Sam: If It Ends in .Com, It\u2019s .Seizable\u2019, Wired, 6th March 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the US government may have more influence over ICANN than other governments it does not control ICANN. This lack of control is demonstrated by the organisation being willing to do things that the United States is opposed to. For example ICANN the rolled out of the new top level domain names which both the United States and European Union were opposed to, and was incidentally were supported by developing countries. [1]  [1] Mackinnon, Rebecca, \u2018The United Nations and the Internet: It\u2019s Complicated\u2019, Foreign Policy, 8 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Simplicity  One of the best things about the proposal to create CIRP is that it simply brings the internet into line with other areas of international communication and the global economy by bringing the internet into the United Nations system. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) for example is the body that allocates radio spectrums and satellite orbits, in other words it does for telecommunications what ICANN does for the internet, and it is a United Nations agency. [1] The ITU has 193 countries as members but is also open to the private sector and academia, just as CIRP would be. [2] Having internet governance working through the United Nations would therefore mean using a tried and tested method of governance.  [1] \u2018About ITU\u2019, International Telecommunication Union.  [2] \u2018Membership\u2019, International Telecommunication Union"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con03b","title":"","text":"ICANN has not been very supportive of growth in the developing world, as is to be expected of a body that is dominated by rich world governments and corporations. Sub-Saharan Africa for example only has three accredited registrars that provision domain names compared to the four that Denmark alone has. [1] Changing to CIRP would help rebalance the control of the internet to the global south where the majority of future growth is bound to occur. Even if ICANN has been successful in managing the growth of the internet as it spread through the developed world it is not in a good position to be as successful in the future.  Moreover as the internet becomes more ubiquitous politics will inevitably intrude regardless of whether those controlling the internet want it to or not. Creating new top level domain names is inherently political. Saudi Arabia for example objected to a number of proposed domain names such as .gay, .bar, .islam, and .baby, [2] it is clear that in cases like this governments need to decide in order to avoid there being domain names that are offensive to some users of the internet.  [1] \u2018The Accredited Registrar Directory\u2019, InterNIC .  [2] Kelly, Heather, \u2018Saudi Arabia objects to .gay and .islam domain names\u2019, CNN, 15 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con01b","title":"","text":"While this might be a valid argument if the United Nations Committee for Internet Related Policies means handing over governance to an individual state it is difficult to question that collectively through the United Nations system states have generally worked to improve citizens quality of life and human rights. CIRP will be just such a multilateral institution so will not be a threat to freedom on the internet. It is even suggested that the mandate for the new organisation include \u201cthe promotion and protection of all human rights, namely, civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights, including the Right to Development\u201d. Even those who don\u2019t want governmental control accept that there is a need for some form of constitution with a bill of rights and some kind of board for review [1] \u2013 thus showing that under ICANN the internet is not governed in the interests of the users.  [1] \u2018 A plaything of powerful nations\u2019, The Economist, 1 October 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con02a","title":"","text":"CIRP would place power in the hands of authoritarian governments  The intention for the creation of CIRP is to give more power to governments, and particularly to authoritarian governments that wish much greater control over the internet. If CIRP is meant to enable \u201cenhanced cooperation to enable governments, on an equal footing, to carry out their roles and responsibilities in international public policy issues pertaining to the Internet\u201d [1] this may result in CIRP becoming an international organisation that would impose censorship on the internet. This is practically an inevitable result as the main tool of government is regulation. In the case of the internet such regulation will mean more controls on what users can and cannot do online.  The result is likely to be similar to the U.N. Human Rights Council where many of the world\u2019s biggest human rights abusers are regularly elected and Israel and the U.S. are constantly investigated while a blind eye is turned to many abuses. [2] At the very least such control will provide an enabler that will allow countries that want to censor the internet to shelter behind the international organisation. India\u2019s Minister of Communications and Information Technology Kapil Sibal has said the solution to this problem of objectionable content online should be permanent \"That will only happen when we talk to all the stakeholders and form such a mechanism under which any objectionable content is removed,\" [3]  [1] \u2018Full text: India\u2019s United Nations proposal to control the Internet\u2019, IBNLive, 21 May 2012.  [2] Ayalon, Danny, \u2018Theater of the Absurd\u2019, Foreign Policy, 30 March 2012.  [3] Julka, Harsomran, \u2018Internet censorship: India to push for internet regulation at United Nations\u2019, The Economic Times, 24 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con03a","title":"","text":"The status quo has been very successful; don\u2019t fix something that is not broken.  The current system for control of the internet has been successful in managing phenomenal growth in the internet with very few problems. ICANN has been a success precisely because it does not focus on politics but on making the internet as efficient as possible, in contrast the telecommunications sector remained static and costly for a long time as a result of government interference. [1] Experts such as Rajnesh Singh argue ICANN\u2019s \u201cmulti-stakeholder approach has proven to be nimble and effective in ensuring the stability, security, and availability of the global infrastructure, while still giving sovereign nations the flexibility to enact and enforce relevant Internet legislation within their borders\u2026 This model has been a key contributor to the breathtaking evolution and expansion of the Internet worldwide.\u201d [2] It is this openness that has contributed to the internet generating 10% of GDP growth in the rich world over the last fifteen years. [3]  The change to CIRP would cause a lot of disruption; it would mean changing the current bottom up model of regulation to a top down model such as that used by the ITU. [4] The White House has highlighted the likely effect this would have on the internet; \u201cCentralized control over the Internet through a top-down government approach would put political dealmakers, rather than innovators and experts, in charge of the future of the Internet. This would slow the pace of innovation, hamper global economic development, and lead to an era of unprecedented control over what people can say and do online.\u201d [5]  [1] \u2018America rules OK\u2019, The Economist, 6th October 2005.  [2] Kwang, Kevin, \u2018\u2019Multi-stakeholder\u2019 management of Internet should stay\u2019, ZDNet, 15 June 2012.  [3] \u2018In praise of chaos\u2019, The Economist, 1 October 2011.  [4] \u2018OECD input to the United Nations Working Group on Internet Governance\u2019, OECD.  [5] Strickling, Lawrence, Verveer, Philip, and Weitzner, Daniel, \u2018Ensuring an Open Internet\u2019, Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con01a","title":"","text":"The internet should be governed in the interests of freedom  The internet is used by everyone and so should be governed in such a way as reflects the desires of the users of the internet; and this is somewhere where internet users are often at odds with their governments. Where the freedom of individuals are concerned it is undoubtedly the bottom up system of ICANN which will be less restrictive than the option of top down control through an international organisation in which governments have the lion\u2019s share of the power. While governments are meant to be protecting the interests of their people and their rights it is rare that this is actually the case. More usually it is states that are violating the rights of their citizens both online and offline as is shown by the human rights records of countries like Iran and China. On the internet government involvement equally regularly means attempts by states to create restrictions and prevent the internet from being a place where citizens have freedom of expression. This can even be the case in democracies, for example in South Korea a critic of the government who called the president names found his twitter account blocked as a result. [1]  [1] Sang-Hun, Choe, \u2018Korea Policing the Net. Twist? It\u2019s South Korea.\u201d, The New York Times, 12 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con02b","title":"","text":"CIRP would give some influence to authoritarian governments; among 50 governments represented some are bound to be from non-democracies. This influence would however be counterbalanced by the democracies that are represented. The United Nations have a good track record of including as many as possible through the tradition of making decisions by consensus [1] which will prevent states that might wish to use CIRP in ways that other states would not agree with from succeeding.  [1] Kurup, Deepa, \u2018Who controls the World Wide Web\u2019, The Hindu, 27 May 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro02b","title":"","text":"Historical precedent does not apply to the internet. It is very different to media reporting during times of unrest; the internet is not just a means of disseminating information but also for many people their main form of communication; the U.S. government has never tried to ban people from using telephones. There are severe downsides to the censorship of information during times of war or civil unrest, the most notable one being that it is used to hide the real cost and consequences of war from the population which is expected to support it. Conversely, in a world where every mobile phone is now connected to a global network, people all around the world can have access to an unparalleled amount of information from the field. Curtailing such internet access is to their detriment."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro02a","title":"","text":"Historical precedent.  Historically, governments have always controlled the access to information and placed restriction on media during times of war. This is an entirely reasonable policy and is done for a number of reasons: to sustain morale and prevent predominantly negative stories from the battlefield reaching the general public, and to intercept propaganda from the enemy, which might endanger the war effort [1] . For example, both Bush administrations imposed media blackouts during wartime over the return of the bodies of dead American soldiers at Dover airport [2] . The internet is simply a new medium of transmitting information, and the same principles can be applied to its regulation, especially when the threat to national security is imminent, like in the case of disseminating information for the organization of a violent protest.  [1] Payne, Kenneth. 2005. \u201cThe Media as an Instrument of War\u201d. Parameters, Spring 2005, pp. 81-93.  [2] BBC, 2009. \u201cUS War Dead Media Blackout Lifted\u201d."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro03b","title":"","text":"Other means can be employed to ensure the safety of the population without disrupting access to the internet, like deploying security forces to make sure protests don\u2019t get out of hand or turn violent. In fact, being able to monitor online activity through social media like Facebook and Twitter might actually aid, rather than hinder law enforcement in ensuring the safety of the public. London\u2019s police force, the Metropolitan Police, in the wake of the riots has are using software to monitor social media to predict where social disorder may take place. [1]  [1] Adams, Lucy, 2012. \u201cPolice develop technology to monitor social neworks\u201d. Heraldscotland, 6 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro01a","title":"","text":"National security takes precedence.  Internet access is not a fundamental right as recognized by any major human rights convention, if it can be called a right at all. [1] Even if we accept that people should have a right to internet access, in times of war or civil unrest the government should be able to abridge lesser rights for the sake of something that is critical to the survival of the state, like national security. After all, in a war zone few rights survive or can be upheld at all. Preventing such an outcome at the expense of the temporary curtailment of some lesser rights is entirely justified. Under current law, in most states, only the most fundamental of rights, like the right to life, prohibition against torture, slavery, and the right to a fair trial are regarded as inalienable [2] .  [1] For more see the debatabase debate on internet access as a human right.  [2] Article 15 of the European Convention on Human rights: \u201cIn time of war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation any High Contracting Party may take measures derogating from its obligations under this Convention to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with its other obligations under international law.\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro01b","title":"","text":"In July 2012, The United Nations Human Rights Council endorsed a resolution upholding the principle of freedom of expression and information on the internet. In a special report, it also \u201ccalled upon all states to ensure that Internet access is maintained at all times, including during times of political unrest\u201d [1] . While access to the internet has not yet had time to establish itself legally as a human right, there are compelling reasons to change its legal status, and the UN is leading the charge. Even before internet access is recognized as a human right the idea that national security should take precedence over \u2018lesser rights\u2019 is wrong; states should not survive at the expense of the rights of their citizens. States exist to protect their citizens not harm them.  [1] Kravets, David, 2011. \u201cUN Report Declares Internet Access a Human Right\u201d. Wired.com, 6 November 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro03a","title":"","text":"The internet as a threat to public safety.  The internet can be used as a tool to create an imminent threat to the public. If public officials had information that a massive protest is being organized, which could spiral into violence and endanger the safety of the public, it would be irresponsible for the government not to try to prevent such a protest. Governments are entrusted with protecting public safety and security, and not preventing such a treat would constitute a failure in the performance of their duties [1] . An example of this happening was the use first of Facebook and twitter and then of Blackberry messenger to organise and share information on the riots in London in the summer of 2011. [2]  [1] Wyatt, Edward, 2012. \u201cFCC Asks for Guidance on Whether, and When to Cut Off Cellphone Service.\u201d New York Times, 2 March 2012.  [2] Halliday, Josh, 2011. \u201cLondon riots: how BlackBerry Messenger played a key role\u201d. Guardian.co.uk, 8 August 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con03b","title":"","text":"Being able to witness atrocities from the field in real time does not change the international community\u2019s capacity or political willingness to intervene in such situations. If anything, it has had the unfortunate side effect of desensitizing international public opinion to the horrors of war and conflicts, like the one in Syria where there have been thousands of videos showing the actions of the Syrian government but this has not resulted in action from the international community. [1] The onslaught of gruesome, graphic imagery has made people more used to witnessing such scenes from afar and less likely to be outraged and to ask their governments to intervene.  [1] Harding, Luke, 2012. \u201cSyria\u2019s video activists give revolution the upper hand in media war\u201d. Guardian.co.uk, 1 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con01b","title":"","text":"Freedom of expression, assembly, and information are important rights, but restrictions can be placed on all of them if a greater good, like public safety, is at stake. For example, one cannot use her freedom of expression to incite violence towards others and many countries regard hate speech as a crime. [1] Therefore, if the internet is being used for such abuses of ones rights, the disruption of service, even to a large number of people, can be entirely warranted.  [1] Waldron, Jeremy, The Harm in Hate Speech, Harvard University Press, 8 June 2012, p.8."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con02a","title":"","text":"Disrupting internet service is a form of repression.  The organization of public protests is an invaluable right for citizens living under the rule of oppressive regimes. Like in the case of the Arab Spring, internet access gives them the tools to mobilize, make their message heard, and demand greater freedoms. In such cases, under the guise of concern for public safety, these governments disrupt internet service in an attempt to stamp out legitimate democratic protests and stamp out the dissatisfied voices of their citizens [1] They are concerned not for the safety of the public, but to preserve their own grasp on power. A good example of this are the actions of the government of Myanmar when in 2007 in response to large scale protests the government cut internet access to the whole country in order to prevent reports of the government\u2019s crackdown getting out. [2] Establishing internet access as a fundamental right at international level would make it clear to such governments that they cannot simply cut access as a tactic to prevent legitimate protests against them.  [1] The Telegraph. \u201cEgypt. Internet Service Disrupted Before Large Rally\u201d. 28 January 2011.  [2] Tran, Mark, 2007. \u201cInternet access cut off in Burma\u201d. Guardian.co.uk, 28 September 2007."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con03a","title":"","text":"The prevention of atrocities during war and unrest.  In the past, horrific crimes could be committed in war zones without anyone ever knowing about it, or with news of it reaching the international community with a significant time lag, when it was too late to intervene. But with the presence of internet connected mobile devices everywhere, capable of uploading live footage within seconds of an event occurring, the entire world can monitor and find out what is happening on the scene, in real time. It lets repressive regimes know the entire world is watching them, that they cannot simply massacre their people with impunity, and it creates evidence for potential prosecutions if they do. It, therefore, puts pressure on them to respect the rights of their citizens during such precarious times. To prevent governments from violently stamping out public political dissent without evidence, internet access must be preserved, especially in times of war or political unrest. [1]  [1] Bildt, Carl, 2012. \u201cA Victory for The Internet\u201d. New York Times. 5 July 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con01a","title":"","text":"The right to internet access as a fundamental right.  Internet access is a \u201cfacilitative right\u201d, in that it facilitates access to the exercise of many other rights: like freedom of expression, information, and assembly. It is a \u201cgateway right\u201d. Possessing a right is only as valuable as your capacity to exercise it. A government cannot claim to protect freedom of speech or expression, and freedom of information, if it is taking away from its citizens the tools to access them. And that is exactly what the disruption of internet service does. Internet access needs to be a protected right so that all other rights which flow from it. [1]  The Internet is a tool of communication so it is important not just to individuals but also to communities. The internet becomes an outlet that can help to preserve groups\u2019 culture or language [2] and so as an enabler of this groups\u2019 culture access to the internet may also be seen as a group right \u2013 one which would be being infringed when the state cuts off access to large numbers of individuals.  [1] BBC, 2010. \u201cInternet Access is \u2018a Fundamental Right\u2019\".  [2] Jones, Peter, 2008. \"Group Rights\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con02b","title":"","text":"Democratic change can come about in a variety of ways. Violent public protests are only one such way, and probably the least desirable one. And now, with access to social media nearly universally available, such protests can be organized faster, on a larger, more dangerous scale than ever before. It encourages opposition movements and leaders in such countries to turn away from incremental, but peaceful changes through political negotiations, and to appeal to mass protests instead, thus endangering the life or their supporters and that of the general public. Governments that respond to violence by cutting off access are not responding with repression but simply trying to reduce the violence. Cutting internet access is a peaceful means of preventing organized violence that potentially saves lives by preventing confrontation between violent groups and riot police."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro02b","title":"","text":"Any country\u2019s first duty is to its own citizens, and this includes countries that promote human rights and freedom abroad. It is difficult to see why pronouncements by a country should morally oblige it to act in a particular way. Rhetoric and high minded pronouncements are the bread and butter of politics, as is not living up to that rhetoric. These countries may act in response to the desire of their own people to act but this is then done not out of a duty to those in other country but to the electorate of their own."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro02a","title":"","text":"Western democracies have a moral duty to aid the liberation of oppressed people where it can effectively do so  Western democracies make frequent declarations about the universality of certain rights, such as freedom of speech, or from arbitrary arrest, and that their system of government is the one that broadly speaking offers the most freedom for human development and respect for individuals. They make avowals in the United Nations and other organizations toward the improvement of rights in other countries and the need for reforms. Take for example Obama addressing the UN General assembly in 2012 where he said \u201cwe believe that freedom and self-determination are not unique to one culture. These are not simply American values or Western values; they are universal values.\u201d [1]  By subverting internet censorship in these countries, Western countries take an action that is by and large not hugely costly to them while providing a major platform for the securing of the basic human rights, particularly freedom of speech and expression, they claim are so important. Some potential actions might include banning Western companies from aiding in the construction of surveillance networks, or preventing Western-owned internet service providers from kowtowing to repressive regimes\u2019 censorship demands. [2] Few of these regimes would be able to build and maintain their own ISPs and all the equipment for monitoring and tracking they use. [3] Other actions might include providing software to dissidents that would shield their identities such as Tor. [4] All of these are fairly low cost endeavours. The West has an absolute duty to see these and other projects through so that their inaction ceases to be the tacit condolence of repression it currently is.  [1] Barak Obama, \u2018President Obama\u2019s 2012 address to U.N. General Assembly (Full text)\u2019, Washington Post, 25 September 2012,   [2] Gunther, Marc, \u2018Tech execs get grilled over China business\u2019, Fortune, 16 February 2006,   [3] Elgin, Ben, and Silver, Vernon, \u2018The Surveillance Market and Its Victims\u2019, Bloomberg, 20 December 2011,   [4] Tor, Anonymity Online,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro03b","title":"","text":"As with all messages this will not make a \u201cclear and emphatic statement about free speech\u201d rather it will be a message that is muddied by hypocrisy. Autocratic \u2018repressive\u2019 regimes are not the only states to enable some form of censorship on the internet. Britain has a blacklist that is not even run by the government but left to a charity called the Internet Watch Foundation, [1] Iceland is considering banning internet pornography, [2] and western European countries have bans on holocaust denial which apply online as well as offline. [3] The message is then anything but clear. States on the receiving end of such action will rightly accuse their antagonists of the hypocrisy of wanting to control their own internet while not allowing other that they deem to be \u2018less free\u2019 to do the same. As a result the statement is if anything one of aggression that may cause retrenchment or even a dangerous reaction.  [1] Davies, C.J., \u2018The hidden censors of the internet\u2019, WIRED, 20 May 2009,   [2] Associated Press, \u2018Iceland seeks internet pornography ban\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 25 February 2013,   [3] See the Debatabase debate \u2018 This House would block access to websites that deny the holocaust \u2019"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro01a","title":"","text":"Repressive governments rely on internet censorship to stifle dissent and entrench their power  The internet has become the ultimate platform for dissent within repressive regimes. It breaks the government monopoly on information and communication. As the technology governments have to keep control of their people increases, with access to high-tech surveillance technology, CCTV, wiretaps, etc., the internet has become the only means of people to express their anger and to organize that is not entirely under state control. The Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia wherein people mobilized to overthrow their dictator, Ben Ali, involved numerous internet tools to share information and coordinate their efforts. [1]  Yet in many countries the internet too is highly censored, with security services investigating online posters and bringing them in for their version of justice, denying access to parts of the internet through state censors, and even ordering internet service providers to abide by strict censorship rules. Yahoo, for example, has bent the knee to China\u2019s severe censorship laws in order to maintain its lucrative market in the country. [2] All of these factors have compounded to make internet dissent risky, and much harder for inquisitive minds to get access to information that is critical of their governments. By dominating the flow of information states have the power to keep their people in check and prevent them from ever posing a threat to their repressive status quo. Only external help in alleviating this censorship could allow activists to organize effectively and perhaps to one day bring about genuine reform and justice to their societies.  [1] Zuckerman, Ethan, \u2018The First Twitter Revolution?\u2019, Foreign Policy, 14 January 2011,   [2] Gunther, Marc, \u2018Tech execs get grilled over China business\u2019, Fortune, 16 February 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro01b","title":"","text":"Internet censorship is a problem, but it is hardly the biggest one facing people in these countries. Internet access is often limited to only the more affluent segments of most poor countries, and it is thus not the best mode of building grass roots movement for reform. This means it is often not even the best platform for dissent, it is notable that the \u2018twitter revolution\u2019 may have had some of the organisation through the internet but it was action on the ground through protests that overthrew Ben Ali. [1] At best Western intervention in this case would simply prompt oppressive regimes to utilize more conventional, often more violent methods of quelling dissent.  [1] Ash, Timothy Garton, \u2018Tunisia\u2019s revolution isn\u2019t a product of Twitter or WikiLeaks. But they do help\u2019, The Guardian, 19 January 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro03a","title":"","text":"This would make a powerful statement in favour of freedom of expression and against repression  Western governments pursuing this policy serve to make a clear and emphatic statement about free speech in an arena it has significant power to influence. By taking this action it makes it clear to repressive regimes that their efforts to stifle all dissent will not be tolerated by the international community. [1] The power of regimes to enact their agendas often comes from Western unwillingness to put their money where their mouth is. By funding internet freedom Western countries do this, and in a way that is unambiguously positive in its advocacy of freedom of speech, and that cannot be imputed with alternative agendas by critics. Even repressive states usually claim officially to value freedom of speech, the People\u2019s Republic of China for example in article 35 of its constitution states \u201cCitizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration.\u201d [2] This separates this sort of action from sanctions, direct intervention, and virtually any other kind of international action that are so often condemned as being against a nations \u2018sovereignty\u2019. It is purely to enable the people on the ground to have more freedom of information and expression, which aids not only in their aim to free themselves from tyranny, but also abets the West\u2019s efforts to portray itself publicly as a proponent of justice for all, not just those it favours. An example of this is Google\u2019s choice to relocate its servers from mainland China to Hong Kong where there are fewer restrictions, which served as major totemic action in the fight against censorship in China. [3] The emphatic statement thus is an effective means of putting pressure on repressive regimes to reform their censorship policies to evade further international ridicule.  [1] Clinton, Hillary Rodham, \u2018Conference on Internet Freedom, Remarks\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 8 December 2011,   [2] Constitution of the People\u2019s Republic of China\u2019, HKHRM,   [3] Krazit, Tom, \u2018Google moves Chinese search to Hong Kong\u2019, Cnet, 22 March 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con03b","title":"","text":"Western companies must be governed by codes of ethics. These should not merely stop at the border of their home state. If they are to be ethical actors they must uphold the freedoms they claim to value. If this means not being able to profit massively in markets so be it. Western governments should have little sympathy for firms profiting from and aiding in the oppression of peoples."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con01b","title":"","text":"Appeasement does not work to increase internet freedom. This has been shown time and time again with China. China has slowly been becoming more and more accepted into the international system; it gained Security Council membership in 1971, joined the WTO in 2000, and held the Olympics in 2008 to celebrate its new role on the world stage. Yet this has not meant they have relaxed internet censorship, far from it, it simply becomes more refined and difficult to detect. [1] Even China\u2019s version of twitter is very fast at censoring posts, despite there being 70,000 messages per minute, almost a third of deletions are completed within 30 minutes. [2] Engagement simply shows that there is no cost to repressive regimes if they continue as they have been. It is therefore enabling them to continue their repression.  [1] Roberts, Eric, \u2018Where Censorship in China is Headed\u2019, International Trends concerning Freedom of Information on the Electronic Commons, 2008,   [2] Mozur, Paul, \u2018Just How Fast Are China\u2019s Internet Censors? Very.\u2019 China Realtime Report, 8 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con02a","title":"","text":"Circumvention of internet censorship will galvanize more severe, physical repression to compensate its need for security  Oppressive regimes will not be any less oppressive just because Western states seek to undermine their ability to censor the internet. They still rely on fear and force to control and cow the population into submission, and have honed many means of doing so. Technology has aided in doing this, including things like advanced surveillance equipment. But they have always relied heavily on, and have their greatest expertise in, physical repression and the strength of the security services. Even if dissidents are able to access the internet more effectively, the security services will feel it all the more necessary to crack down by more conventional, far less sightly means. At the same time as cutting off the internet in Burma the authorities were engaged in brutal arrests in a crackdown that killed several hundred dissidents, it was this that was more important. [1] Western governments do very little in this policy to actually effect meaningful change, because they do nothing to address the underlying institutions of oppression. Sure the internet is an important tool for organizing protest and opposition to the government, but they will now have to contend with a government with a heightened sense of threat that can only serve to harm them.  [1] AP, \u2018UK: Myanmar deaths \u2018far greater\u2019 than reported\u2019, CNN, 28 September 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con03a","title":"","text":"It results in Western companies getting kicked out of the countries, damaging significant Western businesses  Western businesses have been seeking entry into external markets, some of which could well be classified as oppressive. These firms have invested significant time, money, and manpower into building up their businesses. By enforcing this policy they will face huge challenges in growth, and even maintaining their place in these countries at all. Internet service providers and other technology firms in particular will suffer. Google and Yahoo have claimed that their efforts in these countries, much like those of Western governments, have helped soften regimes, much more than not engaging at all at least. [1] As Western companies face more and more competition in international markets they, and the Western economies of which they are a part, cannot afford to undermine themselves for the sake of making a political statement, one that would ultimately not necessarily serve to further the cause of freedom anyway.  [1] Gunther, Marc, \u2018Tech execs get grilled over China business\u2019, Fortune, 16 February 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con01a","title":"","text":"This policy alienates the oppressive regimes and stifles the change that discourse and positive interaction can bring  When a repressive government sees its power directly attacked by Western democracies, and sees them actively trying to subvert their power by empowering dissidents they consider unlawful criminals, it will naturally react badly. These states will be less willing to engage with the West when it plays such an open hand that effectively declares their government, or at least its policies, illegitimate. The most effective way for Western countries to effect change is to engage with repressive regimes and to encourage them to reform their systems. By not directly antagonizing, but instead trading, talking, and generally building ties with countries, Western states can put to full use their massive economic power and political capital to use in nudging regimes toward reform. [1] Burma (Myanmar) faced sanctions for decades yet it was not western policies aimed at attacking the Burmese state that brought change rather it was engagement by ASEAN that brought about an opening up and rapid improvement in freedoms. [2]  Harsh attack begets rigid defence, so the opposite of the change that is desired. It may not be exciting to make deals with and seek to engender incremental change in regimes, but it is the only way to do so absent bloodshed or other significant human suffering. A policy of flouting national laws will demand a negative response from the regimes, leading them to curtail access to the internet for all. Again Burma is an example; The Burmese government cut off all access to the internet in order to prevent the flow of videos and pictures being sent to the outside world through blogs and social media. [3] Subverting government control just brought about a complete black out. Such actions when they occur a major blow to domestic dissidents who, even with heavy censorship, still rely on the internet to organize and share information. This action would serve simply to further impoverish the people of useful tools and knowledge.  [1] Larison, Daniel, \u2018Engagement Is Not Appeasement\u2019, The American Conservative, 17 December 2012,   [2] Riady, John, \u2018How Asean Engagement Led to Burma Reform\u2019, The Irrawaddy, 5 June 2012,   [3] Tran, Mark, \u2018Internet access cut off in Burma\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 28 September 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con02b","title":"","text":"There is only so much that governments can do to oppress their people. Even if this policy did embolden repressive states to ramp up their other means of control, the genie of the internet would be out of the bottle. Without it, dissident groups would find it impossible to ever successfully organize and rebel. It is not a trade-off of one form of oppression for another, but is rather a recognition that Western countries must accept that oppressive regimes will take nasty decisions in reprisal in the short term, while being unable to maintain their firm grip on the public once it is armed with the information and organizational power the internet provides."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro02b","title":"","text":"Tax avoidance is not illegal, and it should not be treated as if it were by the prying media and would-be class-warriors. Even if one might think it unpleasant to look for loopholes to protect private wealth, it is really only natural for people to wish to pay no more than they have to in tax. Mitt Romney was simply using the skills that allowed him to be a great business success to keep his costs as low as possible. Trying to make a political issue out of these sorts of dealings only serves to obscure from the real policy issues, and to focus the debate on divisive and unhelpful issues of class war."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro02a","title":"","text":"Financial dealings can indicate candidates\u2019 willingness to circumvent the system\/play by the rules  A lot of politicians come from positions of prestige and power before seeking public office. Many politicians have wealth in their own right, or a base of wealthy supporters. Understanding where that wealth came from and how they used their privileged position is very important to citizens when choosing their leaders. Access to candidates\u2019 financial information allows good candidates to show their honesty and financial uprightness, and sometimes even to display their talent and acumen that allowed them to succeed. More importantly, it allows people to scrutinize the dealings of politicians who used their often privileged position to avoid paying high taxes and to shield their wealth from the public taking its legal due. What these insights provide is a valuable snapshot of what candidates are willing to do to promote their own interests versus those of the state and society. It shows if there is a propensity to engage in morally dubious practices, and such behavior could well be extrapolated to be a potential incentive to corrupt practice. While tax avoidance is not illegal, it can well be considered unjust when rigorously applied, especially considered that the special knowledge necessary to profit from it belongs only to those of wealth and privilege. The value of this knowledge was made particularly clear in the case of Mitt Romney\u2019s presidential bid. When Romney released his tax returns it became painfully clear that he was using the system to his advantage, at the expense of the taxpayer. [1] Citizens deserve to know to what lengths, if any, those who wish to represent them are willing to game the system they would be elected to lead.  [1] Drucker, J. \u201cRomney Avoids Taxes Via Loophole Cutting Mormon Donations\u201d. Bloomberg. 29 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro03b","title":"","text":"Personal finances mean little when it comes to financial policy. Trying to glean any sort of financial acumen on the macro scale from private dealings is extremely misguided. Successful business leaders often make poor political leaders, as the world of business is very different from the horse-trading of politics. [1] In terms of leading others as one leads one\u2019s own life, there is no reason to assume that a candidate who has used the system to his or her advantage would use the additional power of office to enrich themselves or their friends further. Mitt Romney was an effective governor of Massachusetts, and was willing to increase taxes that were personally costly to him.  [1] Jenkins, H. \u201cGood Businessman, Bad President?\u201d. Wall Street Journal. 23 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro01a","title":"","text":"Voters have a right to know the background of their would-be representatives, including financial background  In any society, no matter how liberal, rights of every kind have limitations. Rights are general statements of principles that are then caveated and curtailed to fit the public interest across a range of circumstances. When an individual seeks elevation to public office, he or she must accept that the role they are applying for requires extra transparency. As the representative of the people, the politician is more than just the holder of a job appointed by the people, but is the elected servant, whose duty is to lead, including by example. It is a strange relationship, and it is one that demands the utmost confidence in the holder. This political power will often involve power over the public purse so it is essential for the public to know if the candidate is financially honest and not going to use his election for corrupt purposes. [1] Thus, when citizens place their political power in the hands of an elected representative, they gain the reciprocal right over that representative to have his or her life and character laid bare for their approval. This is done generally through political campaigns that focus on candidates\u2019 character and life story. But often candidates prove reticent to share some details, particularly financial details. But if citizens are to make a good decision about what sort of person they wish to lead them, they require information about the financial background of their representatives, to see that they comport themselves in business in a way that is fitting to the character of a leader.  [1] Rossi, I., and Blackburn, T., \u201cWhy do financial disclosure systems matter for corruption?\u201d blogs.worldbank.org, 8 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro01b","title":"","text":"So long as politicians do their duty by representing the interests of those that elected them, they are fulfilling their end of the covenant with the people. To demand the financial records of candidates will not offer more than crude snapshot of one aspect of their lives, not giving the desired insight into their character, while massively intruding on the politician\u2019s personal life. As is often the case here the right to know conflicts with the candidates right to privacy. Of course it is right to know if a candidate pays his taxes, but do they need to know every expense he has incurred over the last few years or how much a candidate earned years ago?"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro03a","title":"","text":"This information offers valuable texture to the financial proposals candidates offer as potential policy  When candidates make proposals for public spending they often seek to use their own financial stories as evidence of their credibility. Without public knowledge of their actual financial record, besides what can be gleaned from secondary sources and their words, these claims cannot be evaluated fully by the voting public. Publishing their financial records allows the citizens to get a genuine grasp of their \u2013would-be representatives abilities. More importantly, the proposals of candidates can be scrutinized in relation to how the candidate, and those of the same financial stratum as the candidate, would benefit from them. When Mitt Romney proposed new tax and spending reforms in the last US presidential election, it was clear that his policies inordinately favored the rich and increased the tax burden of the middle class. [1] Understanding Romney\u2019s personal position of great wealth served confirm to the public their suspicions that his policies were designed to favor the financial elite of which he was a part. It is in the public\u2019s interest to elect representatives who serve their interests, not those of moneyed elites.  [1] Dwyer, P. \u201cSurprise! Romney Tax Plan Favors the Rich\u201d. Bloomberg. 1 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con03b","title":"","text":"While elections should of course focus a great deal of attention on policy, it is also critical that voters understand who exactly it is they are voting for. That means looking beyond the manifesto and getting an understanding of the candidate\u2019s character and private dealings. Having access to their private financial records can go a long way toward revealing this information, as they provide valuable insight into both the candidate\u2019s financial abilities, and his or her attitude toward the state."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con01b","title":"","text":"Privacy is a right but it is not sacrosanct, and certainly should not be for people who serve the public. Freedom of speech is considered sacred in a free society, but anyone reasonable would agree that shouting \u201cFire!\u201d in a crowded theatre is not given such protection, showing that even the most treasured rights are curtailed in the public interest. Both the special position of politicians as the effective embodiment of the people\u2019s will, and the special power they wield, which is far vaster than that of any private agent, demands a higher level of scrutiny into their backgrounds, which means looking into their financial records, which can divulge much about their competence and character."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con02a","title":"","text":"Fixating on candidates\u2019 financial records fuels the fire of class war  More and more the financial dealings of candidates are used against them in politics. In past decades, politicians in many countries were proud to run on the basis of their successes in the private sector. Today, however, that success has often become a liability. One only need look at the paradigmatic example of this occurrence, Mitt Romney. When running for governor in Massachusetts, his strong record in business was touted as a quality favoring him. Yet in the presidential election, Romney\u2019s wealth was touted as an example of capitalist excess, of often ill-gotten gains. [1] The change in rhetoric has indicated marked shift in politics in a number of countries, most visibly the United States, but also places like France, where the development of wealth and success are deemed to be the marks of greed and unfairness. These trends would only be compounded with the release of candidates\u2019 financial records. People with records of wealth and financial ability will be further demonized as being anti-poor. These sorts of political tactics obscure from the realities of politics and seeks to separate people along class, rather than political ideological, lines. Such divisions are exceptionally dangerous to the functioning of a democratic society, which demands buy-in and willing participation from all classes and groups in order to function.  [1] Erb, K. \u201cWhy Romney\u2019s \u2018Tax Avoidance\u2019 Strategies Don\u2019t Deserve Criticism\u201d. Forbes. 30 October 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con03a","title":"","text":"The focus of elections should be on policy, not personal issues like financial records  Discussion of candidates\u2019 personal finances serves only to obscure the real issues facing society. When the focus becomes on how much tax Candidate X paid and what loopholes he or she exploited, the media tends to latch onto it. It sells more newspapers and gets more hits online to make a salacious story about the financial \u201cmisdeeds\u201d of a candidate than to actually discuss what he or she stands for. It fuels the growing tendency of the media to attach itself to petty commentary rather than real investigation and analysis. Ultimately, an examination of the personal finances of a candidate tells voters little about what he or she stands for on the issue of state finances. Throughout history, personal financial success has been shown to not necessarily correlate with political acumen. For example, William Pitt became the young, and one of the longest-serving Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, yet he was in extreme debt when he died. [1] Narrow attention paid to personal finances takes up people\u2019s limited time available to consume useful information to direct their voting, and the news media have limited air time to discuss issues. It is best that both use their time to maximum effect, and not be sidetracked by distractions.  [1] Reilly, Robin (1978). Pitt the Younger 1759\u20131806. Cassell Publishers."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con01a","title":"","text":"Individuals have a right to privacy, including to their own financial records  Privacy is a fundamental human right, one that should be defended for all citizens, including those who govern us. [1] What people do with their own finances is their own business. People generally speaking have a basic respect for privacy. Politicians don\u2019t owe the electorate any special privileges like their financial history. A politician is effectively an employee of his constituents and the citizens of the polity. His or her duty is not so special as to demand the handing over of all information on one of the most critical aspects of their private life. Financial affairs like income and taxes are a private matter, and should be treated as such by voters and governments. This is even more the case when it comes to financial history, much of which may have happened long before the individual decided to become a politician. Making politicians\u2019 financial affairs fair game for reporters and others who would exploit the information only serves to undermine the rights that all citizens rightly enjoy.  [1] Privacy International. 2010. \u201cPrivacy as a Political Right\u201d. Index on Censorship 39(1): 58-68."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con02b","title":"","text":"Firstly, personal wealth may not be indicative of political belief. Wealthy people can be advocates for higher taxes and workers\u2019 rights. Secondly, maybe creating class awareness is not such a bad thing. The revelation of candidates\u2019 personal finances will help show average voters what their leaders are actually like, that they have acquired great wealth and seek to protect it. Consciousness about these things can only help to galvanize political participation and to stoke real discourse about things like the proper distribution of wealth, issues that often fall foul of the political mainstream of party politics."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro02b","title":"","text":"Certainly parents should help their children to make most of their time with the computer and their phone. However, monitoring children in order to do so is lazy, or more precisely a form of \u2018remote-control parenting\u2019. Parents abuse of their children\u2019s inherent right to privacy and feel that they have satisfactorily fulfilled their parental role when instead they are just lazy and unwilling to talk to their child personally about being a responsible netizen. [1] How are children to develop a healthy relationship to sharing information and privacy protection if they are constantly being surveilled by their own parents? More effective parents would instead choose to personally and positively teach their children about time management.  [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. \u201cPrivacy for Children.\u201d Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro02a","title":"","text":"Monitoring allows parents to correct children who are wasting their time.  Parents also need to monitor their children to ensure that they are properly using the time they have with the computer and the mobile phone. According to the Kaiser Family Foundation 40% of 8- to 18-year olds spend 54 minutes a day on social media sites.[1] and that \u201cwhen alerted to a new social networking site activity, like a new tweet or Facebook message, users take 20 to 25 minutes on average to return to the original task\u201d resulting to 20% lower grades. [2] Thus, parents must constantly monitor the digital activities of their children and see whether they have been maximizing the technology at their disposal in terms of researching for their homework, connecting with good friends and relatives, and many more.  [1] Foehr, Ulla G., Rideout, Victoria J., and Roberts, Donald F., \u201cGeneration M2 Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds\u201d, The Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2010, p.21  [2] Gasser, Urs, and Palfrey, John, \u201cMastering Multitasking\u201d, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, March 2009, p.17"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro03b","title":"","text":"Indeed it is important to consider that children do not receive or send sexually disturbing media. However, as proposition has already stated parents are much less likely to be digitally savvy than their children. Should they wish to learn children are likely to be able to penetrate any elaborate digital monitoring set by a parent. As it is, Defcon, one of the world\u2019s largest hacker conventions, is already training 8- to 16-year olds to hack in a controlled environment. [1] That pornography is so widely available and so desirable is the product of a culture the glorifies sexuality and erotic human interaction. The effects on childrens well-being are by no means clear, indeed it can be argued that much of what parents are no able to communicate to their children in the way of sexual education is communicated to them through Internet pornography. While this brings with it all manner of problems, aside from the outrage of their parents there is little scientific data to suggest that mere exposure to pornography is causing wide-scale harm to children. Instead, it may be that many of the \u2018objects\u2019 of these debates on the rights of children are themselves quite a bit more mature than the debates would suggest..  [1] Finkle, Jim. \u201cExclusive: Forget Spy Kids, try kiddie hacker conference.\u201d Reuters. Thomas Reuters. 23 Jun 2011. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro01a","title":"","text":"Monitoring prevents cyberbullying.  Social approval is especially craved by teens because they are beginning to shift focus from family to peers. [1] Unfortunately, some teens may resort to cyberbullying others in order to gain erroneous respect from others and eliminate competitors in order to establish superficial friendships. Over the last few years a number of cyberbullying cases have caused the tragic suicides of Tyler Clementi (2010), Megan Meier who was bullied online by a non-existent Josh Evans whom she had feelings for (2006), and Ryan Halligan (2003) among others. [2] Responsible parents need to be one step ahead because at these relevant stages, cognitive abilities are advancing, but morals are lagging behind, meaning children are morally unequipped in making informed decisions in cyberspace. [1] One important way to make this guidance more effective would be if parents chose to monitor their children\u2019s digital behavior by acquiring their passwords and paying close attention to their social network activity such as Facebook and chat rooms, even if it means skimming through their private messages. Applying the categorical imperative, if monitoring becomes universal, then cyberbullying will no longer be a problem in the cyberspace as the perpetrators would be quickly caught and disciplined.  [1] Bauman, Sheri. Cyberbullying: a Virtual Menace. University of Arizona, 2007. Web. May 2013.  [2] Littler, Chris. \u201c8 Infamous Cases of Cyber-Bullying.\u201d The Sixth Wall. Koldcast Entertainment Media. 7 Feb 2011. Web. May 2013 ."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro01b","title":"","text":"While cyberbullying is indeed a danger to children, it is not an excuse to invade their personal life-worlds. The UNCRC clearly states that \u201c(1) No child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation,\u201d and that, \u201c(2) The child has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attack.\u201d These \u2018interferences\u2019 or \u2018attacks\u2019 not only apply to third parties but to parents as well. [1] Moreover in less traditional \u2018offline\u2019 spaces children have far greater ability to choose which information they share with their parents and what they do not. As online spaces are not inherently more dangerous than those offline, it seems reasonable to suggest that similar limitations and restrictions on invasions of privacy that apply online should also apply offline. What a parent can do is to be there for their children and talk to them and support them. They should also spend time surfing the Internet together with them to discuss their issues and problems. But the child should always also have the opportunity to have his or her own protected and private space that is outside the every watchful surveilant eye of the parent..  [1] United Nations Children\u2019s Fund. Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Fully revised 3rd edition. Geneva. United Nations Publications. Google Search. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro04b","title":"","text":"While it is certainly beneficial for parents to immerse themselves in the digital world, it may not be good for them to be partially and informally educated by simple monitoring. Especially for parents who are not already familiar with the internet, monitoring may simply condition them to a culture of cyberstalking and being excessively in control of the digital behavior of their children. As it is, a number of children have abandoned Facebook because they feel that their parents are cyberstalking them. [1] Besides, there are other ways of educating oneself regarding ICT which include comprehensive online and video tutorials and library books that may cater to an unfamiliar parent\u2019s questions about the digital world.  [1] \u201cKids Are Abandoning Facebook To Flee Their Cyber-Stalking Parents.\u201d 2 Oceans Vibe News. 2 Oceans Vibe Media. 11 Mar 2013. Web. May 2013"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro03a","title":"","text":"Monitoring decreases children\u2019s involvement with pornography.  A 2005 study by the London School of Economics found that \u201cwhile 57 per cent of the over-nines had seen porn online, only 16 per cent of parents knew.\u201d [1] That number is almost certain to have increased. In addition sexting has also become prevalent as research from the UK suggests \u201cover a third (38%) [of] under 18\u2019s have received an offensive or distressing sexual image via text or email.\u201d [2] This is dangerous because this digital reality extends to the real world. [3] W.L. Marshall says that early exposure to pornography may incite children to act out sexually against other children and may shape their sexual attitudes negatively, manifesting as insensitivity towards women and undervaluing monogamy. Only with monitoring can parents have absolute certainy of what their children are doing on the Internet. It may not allow them to prevent children from viewing pornography completely, but regulating the digital use of their children in such a way does not have to limit their digital freedoms or human rights.  [1] Carey, Tanith. \u201cIs YOUR child watching porn? The devastating effects of graphic images of sex on young minds\u201d. Daily Mail. Daily Mail and General Trust. 25 April 2011. Web. May 2013.  [2] \u201cTruth of Sexting Amongst UK Teens.\u201d BeatBullying. Beatbullying. 4 Aug 2009. Web. May 2013.  [3] Hughes, Donna Rice. Kids Online: Protecting Your Children in Cyberspace. Michigan: Fleming H. Revell, 1998. ProtectKids. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro04a","title":"","text":"Monitoring raises digital awareness among parents.  Parents who are willing to monitor their children\u2019s digital communications also benefit themselves. By setting up the necessary software and apps to secure their children\u2019s online growth, parents familiarize themselves with basic digital skills and keep up with the latest in social media. As it stands there is a need to raise digital awareness among most parents. Sonia Livingston and Magdalena Bober in their extensive survey of the cyber experience of UK children and their parents report that \u201camong parents only 1 in 3 know how to set up an email account, and only a fifth or fewer are able to set up a filter, remove a virus, download music or fix a problem.\u201d [1] Parents becoming more digitally involved as a result of their children provides the added benefit of increasing the number of mature netizens so encouraging norms of good behavior online.  [1] Livingstone, Sonia, and Magdalena Bober. \u201cUK Children Go Online: Surveying the experiences of young people and their parents.\u201d UK Children Go Online. Second Report (2004): 1-61."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con03b","title":"","text":"While it is practical to use these parental controls, it is not always realistic to set such limited parameters to the digital freedom of children. Children need to understand that they have the capacity to breach their parents\u2019 trust. [1] This not only allows a child to understand how to interact sensibly with the internet, but to experience taking an initiative to actually obey parents in surfing only safe sites. Selectively restricting a child\u2019s digital freedom does not help in this case. Thus, monitoring is the only way for children to experience digital freedom in such a way that they too are both closely guided and free to do as they wish. Moreover, this is also self-contradictory because opposition claimed that children are capable of circumvention which children would be much more likely to do when blocked from accessing websites than simply monitored.  [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. \u201cPrivacy for Children.\u201d Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con01b","title":"","text":"The individual right to privacy must certainly encompass the digital realm as proposition says. It is also undeniable that individual privacy enhances individuality and independence. However, this privacy can and should be regulated lest parents leave children \u2018abandoned\u2019 to their rights. [1] \u201cOne cannot compare reading a child\u2019s journal to accessing his or her conversations online or through text messages,\u201d says Betsy Landers, the president of the National Parent-Teacher Association of the US and explains, \u201cIt\u2019s simply modern involvement.\u201d [2] Thus, Hillary Clinton argues, \u201cchildren should be granted rights, but in a stage-by-stage manner that accords with and pays attention to their physical and mental development and capacities.\u201d [1] Applying this principle, children should be given digital privacy to an equitable extent and regulated whereby both conditions depend upon the maturity of the child.  [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. \u201cPrivacy for Children.\u201d Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013.  [2] Landers, Betty. \u201cIt\u2019s Modern Parental Involvement.\u201d New York Times. 28 June 2012: 1. New York Times. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con02a","title":"","text":"Monitoring is lazy parenting.  The proposition substitutes the good, old-fashioned way of teaching children how to be responsible, with invasions of their privacy, so violating an inherent rights [1]. Such parenting is called remote-control parenting. Parents who monitor their children\u2019s digital behavior feel that they satisfactorily fulfil their parental role when in fact they are being lazy and uninvolved in the growth of their child. Children, especially the youngest, are \u201cdependent upon their parents and require an intense and intimate relationship with their parents to satisfy their physical and emotional needs.\u201d This is called a psychological attachment theory. Responsible parents would instead spend more time with their children teaching them about information management, when to and when not to disclose information, and interaction management, when to and when not to interact with others. [2] That parents have the ability to track their children is true, but doing so is not necessarily likely to make them better adults [3]. The key is for parents and children to talk regularly about the experiences of the child online. This is a process that cannot be substituted by parental monitoring.  [1] United Nations Children\u2019s Fund. Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Fully revised 3rd edition. Geneva. United Nations Publications. Google Search. Web. May 2013.  [2] Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. \u201cPrivacy for Children.\u201d Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013.  [3] \u201cYou Can Track Your Kids. But Should You?\u201d New York Times. 27 June 2012: 1. New York Times. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con04a","title":"","text":"Monitoring is a hindrance to forming relationships both outside and inside the family.  If children are being monitored, or if it seems to children that they are being monitored, they would immediately lose trust in their parents. As trust is reciprocal, children will also learn not to trust others. This will result in their difficulty in forging human connections, thereby straining their psychosocial growth. For them to learn how to trust therefore, children must know that they can break their parents\u2019 trust (as said by the proposition before). This will allow them to understand, obey, and respect their parents on their own initiative, allowing them to respect others in the same manner as well. [1] This growth would only be possible if parents refuse this proposition and instead choose to educate their children how to be responsible beforehand.  [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. \u201cPrivacy for Children.\u201d Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con03a","title":"","text":"Other parental controls are more practical and reasonable to administer.  Monitoring would be extremely tedious and time-consuming. Many teens send over 100 texts a day, it would clearly be very time consuming to read them all along with all other digital communication.[1] By contrast content filtering, contact management, and privacy protection parental controls, which can be used to block all incoming and outgoing information, require only minimal supervision. Parents who meanwhile deem their children immature when it comes to social networking and gaming can instead impose user restrictions on the relevant websites and devices. [2] Administering these alternative parental controls leave for more quality time with children. In this case, only when children acquire sufficient digital maturity and responsibility can these controls be lifted. As they have learnt to be mature in the digital environment the children would most likely continue to surf safely even when the parental controls are lifted.  [1] Goldberg, Stephanie, \u201cMany teens send 100-plus texts a day, survey says\u201d, CNN, 21 April 2010  [2] Burt, David. \u201cParental Controls Product Guide.\u201d 2010 Edition. n.d. PDF File. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con01a","title":"","text":"This proposal is simply an invasion of privacy.  Children have as much right to privacy as any adult. Unfortunately there is yet to be a provision on the protection of privacy in either the United States Constitution or the Bill of Rights, though the Supreme Court states that the concept of privacy rooted within the framework of the Constitution. [1] This ambiguity causes confusion among parents regarding the concept of child privacy. Many maintain that privacy should be administered to a child as a privilege, not a right. [2] Fortunately, the UNCRC clearly states that \u201cNo child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation,\u201d [3] making child privacy an automatic right. Just as children should receive privacy in the real world, so too should they in the digital world. Individual rights, including right to privacy, shape intrafamilial relationships because they initiate individuality and independence. [1]  [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. \u201cPrivacy for Children.\u201d Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013. P.764  [2] Brenner, Susan. \u201cThe Privacy Privilege.\u201d CYB3RCRIM3. Blogspot. 3 April 2009. May 2013.  [3] United Nations Children\u2019s Fund. Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Fully revised 3rd edition. Geneva. United Nations Publications. Google Search. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con04b","title":"","text":"It is true that trust is a cornerstone of relationships. Admittedly, the act of monitoring may initially stimulate feelings of distrust which are particularly destructive in relationships. But nonetheless, trust is earned, not granted. The only proactive way to gauge how much trust and responsibility to give a child in the digital world is monitoring. By monitoring a child, parents come to assess the initial capability of the child in digital responsibility and ultimately the level of trust and the level of responsibility he or she deserves and to be assigned subsequently. Ideally, the initial level of monitoring and follow-through should be maximum in order to make clear to the child that he is being guided. Only when a child proves himself and grows in digital maturity can monitoring and follow-through be gradually minimized and finally lifted. [1]  [1] Bodenhamer, Gregory. Parents in Control. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995 Inc. Web. May 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con02b","title":"","text":"Opposition claims that monitoring is \u2018laziness\u2019. Admittedly, monitoring makes digital parenting more efficient and comprehensive. But, such technology makes parenting practical, not \u2018lazy\u2019. As it is, many people blame technology for their own shortcomings. [1] Thus, parents need to know that monitoring will not do all the work for them. It is not lazy to monitor your children, it is clearly essential that children are monitored when involved in activities such as sports. The internet is a dangerous environment just as the sports field is and should have similar adult supervision.  [1] Bradley, Tony. \u201cBlaming Technology for Human Error: Trying To Fix Social Problems With Technical Tools.\u201d About. About. 30 Mar 2005."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro02b","title":"","text":"These arrangements are so onerous that they will serve as a very real disincentive to universities taking public funding. Universities are rational in their decision-making, and they will be less likely to approve or participate in research projects that end up being of no long term benefit to them. The profit motive, even in the vaunted halls of academia, should be something to harnessed, not fought against. Furthermore, much public funding is used for the purpose of funding teaching hours anyway, and not into profitable research pursuits, which tend to be more amenable to other investors. The state\u2019s role should only to be fund research when the private sector won\u2019t, otherwise its funding should be ensuring the education of the country\u2019s citizens."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Research produced with public funding is too important to be left in the hands of universities alone  The creators and producers of novel work, literary, scientific, other research, etc. enjoy large and sweeping protections due to the intellectual property rights enshrined in law in all developed countries. These laws restrict public use of these researches, which can only occur with the express permission of the owners of these works. But the research that is deemed worthy of state funding must pass a test of importance, and must be of enough social significance to make it worth doling out limited research and development money. Universities, as the important and vibrant centres of learning and research in the world, are a critical part of states\u2019 efforts to remain relevant and competitive in a world of rapid technological change. States fund many universities, in much of Europe accounting for the vast majority of university funding as a whole, across the EU almost 85% of funding is from public sources, [1] and they currently do not get their money\u2019s worth. Even when states gain partial ownership of the products of research and the patents that arise from state funding to university scientists and researchers they do not serve their full duty to the people they represent. Rather, the state should be ensuring that the information produced is made fully available to the people for their use and for the real benefit of all, not just the profit of a few institutions.  Universities are as aggressively protective of their patents and discoveries as much as any profit-seeking private firm, but the state should instead seek to minimize these urges by altering the sorts of arrangements it makes with universities. Research into new theories, medicines, technologies, etc. are all important to society and should be fostered with public funding where necessary. The state best ensures the benefit of society by making sure that when it agrees to fund a research program it guarantees that the information produced will be fully available to all citizens to enjoy and benefit from. More than just attaining a result, the state needs to give its funding maximum exposure so it can be maximally utilized.  [1] Vught, F., et al. (2010) \u201cFunding Higher Education: A View Across Europe\u201d, Ben Jongbloed Center for Higher Education Policy Studies University of Twente."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Universities that could build valuable technologies and explore new avenues of academic research and development are faced with a disincentive to accept public funding, and to pursue unprofitable research that might be dependent on state support. Universities are a critical part of a nation\u2019s research infrastructure, and by harnessing the profit motives of those institutions, not spurning them, it can use its money to most effectively promote broader development. It should be remembered that profits made by universities will simply be ploughed back into education and more research, which is all to the benefit of society."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Academic work produced by means of public funds belongs to the public  Everyone benefits from the public spreading of knowledge and information. Universities are central loci of the pursuit of knowledge and exploration of science, technology, history, the arts, and all many and varied forms of intellectual enquiry. When the state opts to fund research and development in the university setting, it becomes a part-owner of the ideas and creation that springs forth from that funding, just as it belongs to the researchers who directly produce it. State funding is given to universities not simply to further the bounds of human discovery for its own sake, but so that those boundaries can be pushed for the benefit of the citizens of the polity. This is because the state is fundamentally a servant of the people, using the people\u2019s money to further the society\u2019s aims, such as better health and a more productive workforce. Ultimately the purpose of the state in all its functions is to provide safety and services so that people can all avail of what they consider to be the good life. In order to serve this obligation to the people, the state ensures that the research it funds is publicly available. By conditioning all of its research funding to universities on their agreeing to make all of their work publicly available the state can effectively serve the people and guarantee that the citizenry gets the full benefit of their money spent on those researches. This obligation of states has been echoed in new laws passed in Australia, Canada, and other countries that now seek to expand public access to state funded research, particularly academic research produced in universities and other dedicated research organizations. [1] The ultimate purpose of the state is to serve the public interest, and it is remiss in that duty when it fails to have the products of its monetary investments serve benefit the public. Universities are the great repositories and breeding grounds of knowledge, and the state must ensure that that knowledge, when it is produced because of the state\u2019s largesse, is available for all to enjoy and benefit from.  [1] Anon. (2006). \u201cWorldwide Momentum for Public Access to Publicly Funded Research\u201d Alliance for Taxpayer Access."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro01b","title":"","text":"As an investor in university research, the state may claim some ownership over the revenues that might arise from that research. But that is not the same as an entitlement to strip all ownership from the originators of the research and throwing it wholesale into the public arena. That is an overbalancing in the extreme that reduces universities ability to benefit from their researches and efforts."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro03a","title":"","text":"The opening up of information to the public encourages further research and development  By making publicly funded academic work freely available to society, the state throws open the door to far more long term progress and invention that has been so long shut by the jealous hoarding of information and research. The arenas of science, literature, critical theory, and all other fields of academic pursuit, benefit most from a proliferation of voices and opinions, this is why the peer review system exists. This is much as how crowdsourcing and openness helps with software development, there are more eyeballs to spot mistakes, as a result research, particularly of large data capture projects is increasingly being crowdsourced itself. [1] By expanding the range of people able to utilize the information produced, more new and interesting things can be developed from it. The state funds important work, work that might never be able to attract private investment but is still important to the public interest. But this funding must then be available so that it may be best used in that public interest. And oftentimes it is only after an unprofitable, academic pursuit is explored with state support that someone else finds a profitable new use for it. That new endeavour can only be realised if academic work is made available to the public. In 2011 universities in the United States earned $1.8 billion in royalties from research. [2] Rather than simply being allowed to profit on their own, the inventions and developments of state-funded academic work should be made freely available to the public.  [1] Dunning, A., (29 July 2011) \u201cIs crowdsourcing dumbing down research?\u201d Guardian Professional.   [2] Blumenstyk, G. (2012) \u201cUniversities Report $1.8 Billion in Earnings on Inventions in 2011\u201d. The Chronicle."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con03b","title":"","text":"The expansion of knowledge that throwing all information generated in universities with state-funded research into the public domain would precipitate a vastly more influential effect on the process of research and development. Far from stifling innovation, more people would be able to examine and build upon research, magnifying the value of the initial work. What is lost from the disincentives of some institutions from taking public funding will be more than made up for by the vast knowledge base of the whole of society that now has the ability to generate derivative works for everyone\u2019s further benefit."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con01b","title":"","text":"Publicly funded research is not the sole property of researchers, indeed Universities demand to keep the rights not the individual researchers so the individual inventor or researcher is not benefiting at all from any profits. [1] When the state chooses to fund an area of academic work it is doing so for the benefit for all of society, not just for the profit of a single researcher, group, or university organisation. The only way for the state to fully do its duty in providing for its citizens is for it to demand that the products of its funding be made available to the public who pay for its development.  [1] Anon. (28 July 2005) \u201cGuidelines on the Ownership of Data University of Louisville\u201d, University of Lousiville."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con02a","title":"","text":"It reduces the ability of universities to be self-sufficient and to fund other less potentially profitable pursuits  Universities often use the revenues from their more profitable researches to fund the less financially valuable intellectual fields. This often takes the forms of patent revenues from science and engineering departments going to pay for philosophy and English departments. While there is always a chance a new development in polymers or chemicals will generate some future profit, this is rarely the case for experts in medieval history. Yet universities, as the centres of learning and knowledge in society, value all avenues of academic exploration. State funding tends to go toward the development of new technology and other \u201chard\u201d disciplines, as they can be explained to voters as valuable investments in society\u2019s future. It is easy for them to sell investment in engineering projects. It is much harder for a politician to explain the need for funding a study in 19th century feminist critical theory. The result of this policy is to create a serious depletion of universities\u2019 resources for cross-discipline funding, meaning that the study of the humanities and arts becomes less tenable. It is essential that universities retain the freedom to invest in all aspects of human knowledge, not merely those that might provide economic benefits. The quality of the human experience cannot be measured in euros or dollars alone, but must account for the understanding of things like the human condition. Only by allowing universities to keep the well-earned fruits of their researches can society hope to be able to explore all fields of human understanding."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con03a","title":"","text":"The disincentive to take public funding will stifle advancement in valuable fields that rely on the university infrastructure  Research and development relies on the profit motive to spur it on, even in the hallowed halls of academia. Without the guarantee of ownership over the products of state-funded research the desire to engage in such activities is significantly blunted. This is a major blow to the intellectual development of society because it serves as a breaker between two institutions that work best when their interests are aligned, the state and the university. Universities are the great bastions of learning, institutions that bring together the best and brightest to dedicate themselves to the furtherance of human understanding. The state has the resources of a nation to deploy in the public interest. By funding academic research in universities, the state can get more valuable information more cheaply it can through setting up its own research institutions. The universities have the expertise and the basic infrastructure that the state is best served not duplicating unnecessarily. But partnerships between universities and the state are only possible when the universities and their researchers are guaranteed the protections necessary to merit their own investment and attention to the state-funded project. Thus the best system is one that harnesses the brain power and financial incentives of the universities and channels their efforts to the public interest.  While Universities and the State cooperate on most research the State is often unwilling to fully fund research with for example many federal agencies in the United States demanding cost sharing when sponsoring projects. [1] This means that the university still needs to find funding either from foundations or other private sources. These third parties, particularly if they are institutions that desire profits, will strongly object to not being able to realise any profit from the research and are therefore much less likely to engage in joining such research. When universities retain full ownership rights while the information they create may not be freely available, at least it comes into existence in the first place and can then be put to profitable and socially valuable work by the universities.  [1] Anon. (November 2010), \u201cResearch & Sponsored Projects\u201d, University of Michigan."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con01a","title":"","text":"A publicly-funded inventor or researcher still deserves to profit from their efforts  The developer of a new idea, theory, technology, invention, etc. has a fundamental intellectual property right. Academics in universities, through deliberate effort create new things and ideas, and those efforts demand huge amounts of personal sacrifice and invention in order to bear fruit. State funding is often given to pioneering researchers who eschew traditional roads in pursuit of new frontiers. Often there are no obvious profits to be immediately had, and it is only because of the desire of these individuals to expand the canon of human knowledge that these boundaries are ever pushed. It is a matter of principle that these academics be able to benefit from the fruits of their hard-won laurels. [1] The state stripping people of these rights is certainly a kind of theft. Certainly no amount of public funding to an institution can alter the fundamental relationship that exists between creator and the product of their endeavour. The state-funded University of Illinois, for example, has led the way in many technologies, such as fast charging batteries, and has spawned dozens of high-tech start-ups that have profited the university and society generally. [2] The state can easily gain a return on its investments in universities by adopting things like licensing agreements that can provide the state with revenue without taking away the benefits from the developers of research. Furthermore, this policy strips control of researchers\u2019 control over their works\u2019 use. State funding should obviously come with some requirements in terms of some sharing of revenues, etc., but it is also important to consider the extent of the impact work may offer the world. For example, the team that produced the atomic bomb at the University of Chicago became extremely worried after seeing what their invention could wreak, yet the power over their invention was taken over entirely by the state. [3] Certainly that is an extreme example, but it highlights the risks of stripping originators of control over what they produce.  [1] Sellenthin, M. (2004). \u201cWho Should Own University Research?\u201d. Swedish Institute for Growth Policy Studies.   [2] Blumenstyk, G. (2012) \u201cUniversities Report $1.8 Billion in Earnings on Inventions in 2011\u201d. The Chronicle.   [3] Rosen, R. (2011). \u201c\u2019I\u2019ve Created a Monster!\u2019 On the Regrets of Inventors\u201d. The Atlantic."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con02b","title":"","text":"If universities want to invest in pursuits that will not have any tangible benefit for society then they are welcome to do so. But they should not expect to be able to do that on the government dime. If people want to study the humanities they can pay the tuition fees needed, and universities should be able to prioritize its funding as they prefer. The state acts best when it serves the public interest. By making the research and work of academics who receive state funding available to the public it does its job by freeing people to use vast amounts of information to the betterment of all. If that means a few less books about Marxist-Feminist literary theory, then that is a cost the state should be willing to pay."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro02b","title":"","text":"To use such websites governments already need to be committed to democracy. Promoting democracy in already-democratic countries is irrelevant. Countries that are not democratic, and seek to maintain autocratic rule will not be impacted by the availability of those resources and harness the internet only for continued repression 1.  1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded, 2010"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro02a","title":"","text":"Websites can strengthen democratic institutions.  The promotion of democracy is not only about forming new democracies; strengthening existing democratic institutions around the globe. To do so, transparency and government-citizen communication is necessary. Britain has set up two websites that achieve exactly that. Writetothem.com is a website where people can figure out who their parliamentary representatives are, and write to them about their problems in an effort to create a stronger relationship, and channels of communication between MPs and their constituents1. 130,000 people were using the website in 2009. Theyworkforyou.com is another website where people can find out who their representatives are, and then read about their recent actions in parliament. This site receives between 200,000 and 300,000 hits per month2. Elections are also strengthened by the internet. Voting can be conducted online which makes the process easier and can reduce intimidation at the polls. Now that politicians have websites, their policy platforms can be more easily accessed and understood by voters. Increasing information and communication between leaders and their constituents contributes to a more transparent system and therefore a healthier democracy. The internet is not only useful for promoting movements for democratic reforms in authoritarian countries, but also for making democracy more effective in democratic countries.  What about civil society and alternative media action sites within \u2018official\u2019 democracies that aim to bring about greater democratization through their protests and information for example-  .  1. Escher, Tobias, Analysis of users and usage for UK Citizens Online Democracy, mysociety.org, May 2011  2. Escher, Tobias, WriteToThem.com, mysociety.org, May 2011"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro03b","title":"","text":"The internet is only a place for coordination and cannot replace real-life action so if people are not willing to take to the streets, then the internet is not going to help\u2014and even without the internet, disgruntled masses can still make their points known, as in the French Revolution1. Egypt shut down internet and phone service during part of the revolution, yet it continued indicating that this movement is not based online2. Therefore the internet is not necessarily the force that propels people towards change. SMS has been a very important part of the organization of these protests, which is entirely separate from the internet3. Close to 5 billion people use cell phones and SMS, therefore the impact of the cell phone cannot be distinguished from the internet so it is inaccurate to say that the internet is contributing to democratization when it is very possibly thanks to mobile phones4.  1. Wikipedia, French Revolution  2. BBC, \u201cEgypt\u2019s opposition pushes demands as protests continue\u201d, 2011  3. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded: The Power of Mobile Phones, 2010  4. Melanson, David, \u201cUN: worldwide internet users hit two billion, cellphone subscribers top five billion\u201d, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro01a","title":"","text":"The internet promotes the free flow of information both in and out of a country, which is essential for a truly free democracy.  Media can be one of the most important factors in democratic development. If governments successfully control the media, they can direct information towards their constituents that casts the regime in an undeniably good light. They can prevent news of faked elections, protests, violence, repression, and arrest from ever reaching the people subject to those violations 1. Without external sources of information people do not question government propaganda, which decreases the likelihood that they advocate for their civil liberties and democracy. The internet promotes the free flow of information that leads to social consciousness and enhances democracy. News of political corruption and scandal in China can go viral in a matter of minutes among its 540 million internet users 2. Even when the government blocks certain websites, and makes avid use of firewalls for censorship, uploading videos to Facebook and YouTube, and posts to Twitter can allow information to be disseminated within the country. Once information is accessible it is almost impossible for the government to continue to censor the internet. For example, in the most recent Egyptian protests, as information leaked out of the country via social networking sites, cell phone pictures and videos were shown on international news broadcasts, making it difficult for the government to spin the situation in a positive light 3. The internet provides a place to find information, and also a place to discuss and debate it with others. The latter is the essential step to truly shifting views. The internet promotes free media which is essential to both creating and maintaining a functioning democracy as it promotes government transparency.  1. Reporters Without Borders, \"Press Freedom Index 2010\" 2010,  2. Economy, Elizabeth and Mondschein, Jared, \"China: The New Virtual Political System\", Council on Foreign Relations 2011  3.  \">Richard Waters. \"Web firms aim to benefit from role in uprising\" Financial Times, February 13, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro01b","title":"","text":"overnments still successfully censor information. Take China for example. Often the government shuts down Facebook and Twitter, arrests bloggers, and takes down content. Terms like \u2018Tiananmen Square\u2019 and \u2018Inner Mongolia\u2019 provide no search results because of the protests that have gone on there1 Governments\u2019 ability to censor information is advancing. Therefore the idea that the internet promotes the flow of unbiased information is not necessarily true, which counters the claim that the internet promotes democracy. Further, the internet is not always used for access to Western news sources, but instead, over 500 million sites in the indexes of search engines are pornographic. In 2003 25% of internet use was for accessing porn. Five of the twenty most visited internet sites are download sites for video games and porn 2. The internet is not largely used for access to information, but instead other forbidden resources, and therefore cannot be directly linked to democratic development.  1. Shirong, Chen, \"China Tightens Internet Censorship Controls\", BBC, 2011  2. Change.org, \"Petition to Unsubscribe America from Internet Porn\", 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro04b","title":"","text":"For many countries, communication with outside actors does not make any difference. Iran has some internet freedom and access to outside information, yet president Ahmadinejad casts the West as a great evil trying to destroy Iran's culture1 . The government remains a theocracy and while there have been some protests, there are many that still support the system of governance2 . Additionally, China may have made reforms, but it is not a democracy even though they have extensive contact with the West3 . Therefore, contact does not necessarily indicate that values will be adopted. When it comes to information flowing out of oppressive countries, the international community might make matters worse. When the West gets involved in local movements, often it can make leaders hold a tighter grip on their power, and turn the blame for the situation on the West leading to violence, and hindering democratic development. This is similar to the situation in Libya4.  1 CNN Wire Staff, 'The West is to blame for regional unrest, Ahmadinejad says', CNN Worl, 18 April 2011  2 Wolverson, Roya, 'How Iran Sees Egypt's Protests', Council on Foreign Relations, 10 February 2010  3 Kurlantzick, Joshua, 'Beijing has bought itself a respite from middle class revolt', The National, 7 March 2011  4 Zenko, Micah, 'Think Again: Libya', Foreign Policy, 28 April 2011"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro03a","title":"","text":"The internet allows political dissidents to communicate, organize, and grow a grassroots movement.  Another extremely important requirement for successful opposition movements advocating democratic reform is the ability to organize mass numbers of people. It is one thing if you hate your government, but don\u2019t think anyone else does. It is entirely different if you can access the thoughts of thousands of others and realize that you are in fact not alone 1. Proportionally the number of people benefiting from repressive authoritative regimes is very small in comparison to the people who are suffering. Therefore, if the people who are hurt by the regimes realize the numbers that they have, it spells trouble for the governments. The internet has 2 billion users, and 950 million people have mobile broadband 2. Mobile phones with pay-as-you-go access plans are more available and affordable than ever before. Protesters do not need to own a computer: they can access social networking and news sites from their phones. The internet means that opposition groups don\u2019t have to be organized under a particular leader, as there can now be many leaders and various causes that fit under the same umbrella and band together. These loose connections, as in Egypt, strengthen the movement 3. The internet also reduces the cost of organization, which can be the difference between success and failure 4. In the revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia which called for democracy, the internet was first used to create events on Facebook to increase the number of people aware of and attending protests 5. Then the videos, photographs, and twitter posts that became available on the internet increased the support for the movement as citizens became aware of the violence the government was subjecting the country to. The internet allows users to communicate, then organize demonstrations, and then grow the movement. All of these functions of the internet are essential factors of a grassroots push for democratic reforms.  1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded, 2010, pp. 101-118  2. Melanson, Donald, 'UN: worldwide internet users hit two billion, cellphone subscriptions top five billion', engadget, 28 January 2011  3. BBC, \"Egypt's opposition pushes demands as protests continue\", 2011  4. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded: Digital Activism in Closed and Open Societies. 2010  5. Alexander, Anne (2011), \"Internet Role in Egypt Protests\", British Broadcasting Company,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro04a","title":"","text":"The internet enhances communication between countries.  The internet does not only make information available to oppressed people within a country, but also communicates that situation to the rest of the world. People also learn about other authoritarian\u2014and democratic\u2014governments around the world. For example, the internet allowed information about Tunisia\u2019s revolution to reach Egypt, which made it clear that overthrowing a government was entirely possible1. Information about the actions of other countries, and their governments can lead to a push for democratic reforms around the world. In addition, as information flows out of a country it becomes more difficult for the globe\u2019s powers to ignore the events that are ensuing, and makes it more likely that they will take action. This action can create the internal and external pressure necessary for democratic reform as was seen in both the revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia2. Contact between countries can also have a more subtle impact as well. It enhances communication between open and closed societies particularly in the form of business, which can bring about an exchange of values. Thanks in part to the internet; Western firms increasingly own large shares of Middle Eastern and East Asian businesses, putting pressure on governments to remove their economic protectionism measures and to allow greater transparency. For example, while China is not a democracy it has made some government and economic reforms that are on the right track3.  1. Jerome, Deborah (2011), \u201cUnderstand Tunisia\u2019s Tremors\u201d, Council on Foreign Relations, [Accessed June 22, 2011].  2. Wikipedia, \u201cInternational reactions to the revolution in Egypt\u201d, [Accessed June 24, 2011].  3. Wikipedia, \u201cChinese Economic Reforms\u201d, [Accessed June 24, 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con03b","title":"","text":"With any tool there are going to be people who misuse it, yet cases of misuse do not outweigh times when the internet has proven to be an important force for democracy. Internet and SMS have helped to organize almost every uprising in the Middle East and the Orange Revolution in Georgia1. Cases of citizen misuse are few and far between in comparison to the change that has been made partially thanks to the internet. Further, the internet provides tools to successfully catch the abusers and prevent continued undemocratic actions through tracking IP addresses and other tactics. The same goes for targeting terrorist networks.  1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded: Digital Activism in Closed and Open Societies. 2010"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con01b","title":"","text":"The quantity of information on the internet, and the number of talented computer users makes it very difficult for the government to fully censor information. The more information there is, the harder it becomes for the government to control it. The US is investing $19 million into researching how to break the firewalls of China and Iran1. There is plenty of easy to use software to evade firewalls2. Internet censorship can be evaded. Therefore, regimes cannot entirely maintain control over information, and any external information can be considered good information.  Furthermore, regimes like China and Iran are not the only countries to \u201cwatching\u201d their populations. Many democracies including the US and most of Western European use digital surveillance to safeguard their population- watch out for possible activity that may be harmful to the state.  1. Gaouette, Nicole, 'U.S. Launches New Effort to Evade China's Internet Firewalls', Bloomberg.com, 11 May 2011  2. Irish Times, 'Bunnies Hop the Great Firewall', 2 February 2011"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con02a","title":"","text":"The digital divide leaves the same people in places of influence and power.  The internet doesn\u2019t necessarily put power in the hands of the vulnerable; in many places it strengthens the influence of the traditional elite. In low-income countries the cost of broadband is 900% of average monthly income1. Most people simply cannot afford to have internet access. Internet penetration is not up to par in low income, developing, and traditionally non-democratic countries. For example, Africa has 15% of the world\u2019s population and only 5% of its internet users. There are only about 100 million internet users on the continent, which accounts for only 11% of its population2. As the lower income members of society remain unable to afford internet access, the power that the internet boasts remains with those who can afford it. The traditional elites are the ones that maintain the ability to access the internet, and they can use it for their own purposes and to strengthen their position and power \u2013 i.e. the internet may actually increase inequalities on the ground, against democracy. The internet could play a positive role in society, but until it is affordable, the oppressed who long for democracy will not have the tools to advocate for it.  1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded, 2010  2. Internet World Stats. \u201cInternet Usage in Africa\", 2011"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con04a","title":"","text":"The internet can be used to quash democratic movements.  The internet makes it much easier for states to target and locate dissidents. They can be located by their IP addresses or records kept by internet cafes. It is almost impossible by today\u2019s standards to remain anonymous on the internet1. Surveillance used to be the only technique for governments to track down dissidents, however the internet has made governments\u2019 task of quashing opposition easier. Since 2003, 202 bloggers have been arrested around the world and 162 of the arrests were for political reasons. The government doesn\u2019t need a true reason because only 37 of the cases were tried in the judicial system. Political parties, ethnic and religious groups, civil rights movements, and leaders can all be targeted through government internet surveillance2. When the government can find the names of political dissidents and arrest them, it makes it more difficult for successful movements to occur, because they lack leaders and potential participants are intimidated. The internet can also be used to reverse democratic momentum  1. Digital Activism Decoded: Digital Activism in Closed and Open Societies.  2. Digital Activism Decoded: New Casualties: Prisons and Persecution."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con03a","title":"","text":"Citizens often use the internet in ways that detract from democracy.  The idea that the internet promotes democracy also operates under the assumption that the people with internet access will use the tool for \u2018good\u2019. Yet, this is also not the case. The internet is the primary medium of coordination for Jihadist groups looking to undermine the few Middle-Eastern states which are in the process of transition to democracy. In April 2007, groups of hackers (allegedly backed by the Russian government) attacked the websites of key politicians, ministries and utilities in Estonia in retaliation for the removal of a Soviet war memorial. Hackers can block access, destroy content, and organize in malicious activity as in the case of terrorism and the Estonian \u2018hactivists\u2019 1. Information can also be misused.In the US, neo-Nazism has always been an issue of contention and use the internet to further promote their viewpoints.For example, UK animal rights activists post information about people they feel to be targets, which can lead to intimidation. The internet can often be hijacked for less-than-ideal purposes and therefore does not directly promote democracy, but can be used by the people to counter reform 2.  Moreover, there are questions over the limits on democratic freedoms due to the \u2018corporate colonization\u2019 o f the internet. For a start, a lot of the \u2018trusted\u2019 news sites that users frequent for their information simply reproduce the views of Western media corporations. And corporate social network platforms like Facebook claim to provide for democratic interaction while undertaking surveillance of their user information so as to produce profiles to sell advertising, profiles that could also be used by governments.  1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded: The Double Edged Sword of Digital Tactics. 2010  2. Ibid"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con01a","title":"","text":"The internet can be successfully censored so that it only promotes pro-regime propaganda.  The internet is said to promote democracy based on the claim that it leads to the free flow of information. Unfortunately, this is false in many parts of the world. 40 countries around the globe actively censor the internet, and 25 have blocked Google over the past few years1. This gives their governments a false legitimacy by removing material critical of anti-democratic policies and as acting as a psychological bulwark against discontent and dissent. The government retains the ability to control the information that its citizens have access to and can use this power to promote pro-regime information and prevent anti-regime, pro-democratic content from ever seeing the light of day. The internet is a new tool, but governments can become more sophisticated as well and harness the internet to repress dissent2. For example, China has almost no internet freedom and the terms \u201cTiananmen Square\u201d and \u201cInner-Mongolia\u201d provides no search results because protests occurred there3. Google in 2010 refused to uphold their firewalls and were therefore no longer allowed to operate in the country. The internet can be used by authoritarian government for enhanced media repression.  Even more concerning is corporate surveillance for marketing purposes, which means that people are pushed certain information from certain sources, meaning that not all voices are equally heard online. Democracy in the online world is not about having your voice published, but about it being seen and heard. As a result some players can gain a lot more attention than other, even if everyone with access can publish.  1. Hernandez, Javier C., 'Google Calls for Action on Web Limits', The New York Times , 24 March 2010  2. Joyce, Mary (Editor). \u201cDigital Activism Decoded: New Mechanics of Change\u201d. International Debate Education Association, New York: 2010.  3. Shirong, Chen, \"China Tightens Internet Censorship Controls\", BBC, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con04b","title":"","text":"Governments cannot always get away with the targeting of internet dissidents. Bloggers are often famous and followed intently by many people. If a popular blogger all of a sudden disappears it is more likely to generate increased support for the blogger and the cause than lead supporters to defect to the government1. Further, the government cannot arrest everyone, and the internet provides a tool for social movements to be poly-centric2\u2014they have many leaders and anyone can step in.  1. Digital Activism Decoded: New Casualties: Prisons and Persecution.  2. Digital Activism Decoded: Digital Activism in Closed and Open Societies."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con02b","title":"","text":"There are ways to make the internet affordable. Internet cafes and purchasing multiple SIM cards and pay as you go plans for cell phones can address the need to have a computer and therefore decrease the cost of internet use1. Further, the internet is a jumping off point. Not every low-income person needs to have internet access but if a handful do, then they can be part of the organization of protests and movements by taking the information available online and disseminating it through networks of people through SMS, calls, and word of mouth. Tunisia was not a rich country; in fact, people were protesting the pervasive poverty. Even so, they were able to successfully organize a revolution, with the help of the internet2.  1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded: The Power of Mobile Phones, 2010  2. Jerome, Deborah, 'Understanding Tunisia's Tremors', Council on Foreign Relations, 14 January 2011"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro02b","title":"","text":"Hate speech will happen regardless. A significant amount of online hate speech is made through accounts under the real life name of the speaker. It is notable that Facebook has required its users to use their real names since 2011, [1] but has still had significant issues with hate speech long after that. [2] The fact is that an enormous amount of hate speakers see what they are saying as entirely legitimate, and are therefore not afraid of having it connected to their real life identities. The fact is that 'hate speech' is localised and culture-dependent. Since the Internet brings many cultures together, hate speech will happen almost inadvertently.  Additionally, online hate speech is very difficult to prosecute even when connected to real life identities, [3] so this policy is unlikely to be effective at making those who now would be identified see any more consequences than before. In the Korean example the law was simply avoided by resorting to foreign sites. [4] The similar lack of consequences is likely to lead to a similar lack of disincentive to posting that kind of material.  [1] \u2018Twitter rife with hate speech, terror activity\u2019. Jewish Journal. URL:   [2] \u2018Facebook Admits It Failed On Hate Speech Following #FBrape Twitter Campaign And Advertiser Boycott\u2019. International Business Times. URL:   [3] \u2018Racists, Bigots and the Internet\u2019. Anti-Defamation League. URL:   [4] \u2018Law on real name use on Internet ruled illegal\u2019, JoonAng Daily,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Reducing hate speech.  Openly racist, sexist, or otherwise discriminatory comments made through public forums are much more likely when made anonymously, as people feel they are unlikely to see any consequences for voicing their hateful opinions. [1] This leads firstly to a propagation of these views in others, and a higher likelihood of attacks based on this hate, as seeing a particular view more often makes people feel it is more legitimate. [2] More importantly, it causes people from the targeted groups to feel alienated or unwelcome in particular places due to facets of their identity that are out of their control, and all people have a right not to be discriminated against for reasons such as these.  The proposed policy would enormously reduce the amount of online hate speech posted as people would be too afraid to do it. Although not exactly the same a study of abusive and slanderous posts on Korean forums in the six months following the introduction of their ban on anonymity found that such abusive postings dropped 20%. [3] Additionally it would allow governments to pursue that which is posted under the same laws that all other speech is subject to in their country.  [1] \u2018Starting Points for Combating Hate Speech Online\u2019. British Institute of Human Rights. URL:   [2] \u2018John Gorenfield, Moon the Messiah, and the Media Echo Chamber\u2019. Daily Kos. URL:   [3] \u2018Real Name Verification Law on the Internet: A Poison or Cure for Privacy?\u2019, Carnegie Melon University,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro03b","title":"","text":"Moves illegal activity in harder to monitor areas. Those partaking in planning illegal activity will not continue to do so if hiding their identities is not possible. Instead, they will return to using more private means of communication, such as meeting in person, or using any online services that do guarantee anonymity such as TOR. While this may make planning illegal activity more difficult, it also makes it more difficult for law enforcement officials to monitor this behaviour, and come anywhere near stopping it: at least under the status quo they have some idea of where and how it is happening, and can use that as a starting point. Forcing criminals further underground may not be desirable. The authorities in cooperation with websites are usually able to find out who users are despite the veil of anonymity for example in the UK the police have arrested people for rape threats made against a campaigner for there to be a woman on UK banknotes.1  1 Masters, Sam, 'Twitter threats: Man arrested over rape-threat tweets against campaigner Caroline Criado-Perez', The Independent, 28, July, 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Reducing cyberbullying.  When internet anonymity is used for bullying, it can make the situation much worse. Firstly, perpetrators are much less likely to hold back or be cautious as they are less concerned with the possibility of being caught. This means the bullying is likely to be more intense than when it is done in real life. [1] Additionally, for victims of cyberbullying, being unable to tell who your harasser is, or even how many there are can be particularly distressing. [2]  Anonymous posting being significantly less available takes away the particularly damaging anonymous potential of cyberbullying, and allows cyberbullying to be more effectively dealt with.  [1] \u2018Traditional Bullying v. Cyberbullying\u2019. CyberBullying, Google Sites. URL:   \u2018The Problem of Cyberbullies\u2019 Anonymity\u2019. Leo Burke Academy. URL:   [2] \u2018Cyberbullying\u2019. Netsafe. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro01b","title":"","text":"Stopping anonymity does not meaningfully prevent bullying. Internet anonymity is not essentially to bullying: it can be done through a nearly infinite number of media. Importantly, it is not even essential to anonymous bullying. For example, it is quite simple to send anonymous text messages: all that is required is access to a phone that the victim does not have the number of. It is similarly easy to simply write notes or letters, and leave them in places where the victim will find them. Anonymous posting on the internet is far from the only place where these kinds of anonymous attacks are possible.  All this policy does is shifts the bullying into areas where they may be more difficult to monitor. Rather than sending messages online that can be, albeit with some difficulty, traced back to the perpetrator, or at least used as some kind of evidence, bullies are likely to return to covert classroom bullying that can be much more difficult to identify."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro04b","title":"","text":"Similar prevention can be achieved through raising internet awareness. In the case of children, parents taking a more pro-active role in monitoring and controlling their children\u2019s online activities is likely to be more effective than the measures of this policy. Indeed, signalling that they do need to monitor their children can actually put their children in more danger, as there are considerable risks to children online even without anonymous posting.  Other kinds of fraud can be similarly avoided by raising awareness: people should be made to realise that sending money or bank details to people you don\u2019t know is a bad idea. In fact, the removal of internet aliases may even encourage people to trust people they don\u2019t know, but do know the real names of, even though that is no more advisable."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Reducing currently illegal activity.  Internet anonymity is very useful for planning and organising illegal activity, mostly buying and selling illegal goods, such as drugs, firearms, stolen goods, or child pornography, but also, in more extreme cases, for terrorism or assassinations. This is because it can be useful in making plans and advertisements public, thus enabling wider recruitment and assistance, while at the same time preventing these plans from being easily traced back to specific individuals. [1] For example, the website Silk Road openly offers users the opportunity to buy and sell illegal drugs. Sales on this site alone have double over the course of six months, hitting $1.7million per month. [2]  This policy makes it easier for the police to track down the people responsible for these public messages, should they continue. If anonymity is still used, it will be significantly easier to put legal pressure on the website and its users, possibly even denying access to it. If anonymity is not used, obviously it is very easy to trace illegal activity back to perpetrators. In the more likely event that they do not continue, it at least makes organising criminal activities considerably more difficult, and less likely to happen. This means the rule of law will be better upheld, and citizens will be kept safer. [3]  [1] Williams, Phil, \u2018Organized Crime and Cyber-Crime: Implications for Business\u2019, CERT, 2002,  \u200e p.2  [2] \u2018Silk Road: the online drug marketplace that officials seem powerless to stop.\u2019 The Guardian. URL:   [3] \u2018Do dark networks aid cyberthieves and abusers?\u2019 BBC News. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Reducing fraud using fake identities.  Anonymous posting can be used to make people believe you are someone who you are not. This can be done in order to acquire money from victims either by establishing a dishonest relationship or offering fraudulent business opportunities. [1] It is also a frequently used tool in child abduction cases, where the perpetrator will pretend to be a child or even classmate to gain enough access to a child in order to make abduction viable. It is estimated that nearly 90% of all sexual solicitations of youth are made in online anonymous chat rooms. Additionally, in the UK alone over 200 cases of meeting a child following online grooming, usually via anonymous sites are recorded. [2]  These are enormous harms that can be easily avoided with the removal of anonymous posting online.  [1] \u2018Online Fraud\u2019. Action Fraud. URL:   [2] \u2018Online child grooming: a literature review on the misuse of social networking sites for grooming children for sexual offences\u2019. Australian Institute of Criminology. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con03b","title":"","text":"Protest of this kind is less meaningful. When an organisation such as this is criticised only by anonymous individuals, who are likely to be difficult to contact or learn more about, it is less likely to lead to any kind of long-term meaningful resistance. In the case of Anonymous and the Church of Scientology, there have been no notable acts of resistance to the Church of Scientology other than Anonymous.  Anonymous resistance makes other kinds of resistance less likely to happen, and rarely leads to significant change or action."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con01b","title":"","text":"Freedom from consequences is not a necessary component of freedom of speech. If someone is free from legal restraints surrounding their ability to speak, they are free to speak. Freedom of speech does not entitle an individual to absolute freedom of consequences of any kind, including social consequences to their speech. While someone should certainly be free to state their opinion, there is no reason why they should be entitled to not be challenged for holding that opinion."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con02a","title":"","text":"Limiting ability of oppressed individuals to seek out help and community.  Anonymous posting means people who are made to feel ashamed of themselves, or their identities within their local communities can seek out help and\/or like-minded people. For example, a gay teenager in a fiercely homophobic community could find cyber communities that are considerably more tolerant, and even face the same issues as them. This can make an enormous difference to self-acceptance, as people are no longer subjected to a singular, negative view of themselves. [1] Banning anonymous posting removes this ability.  [1] \u2018In the Middle East, Marginalized LGBT Youth Find Supportive Communities Online\u2019 Tech President. URL:   \u2018Online Identity: Is authenticity or anonymity more important?\u2019 The Guardian. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con04a","title":"","text":"Limiting ability to experiment with identity.  The ability to post anonymously on the internet means that people can create a new identity for themselves where they will not be judged in terms of what they have done before. This can be particularly useful for people who are attempting to make significant positive reformations to their lives, such as recovering addicts, thereby facilitating self-improvement. Banning anonymous posting reduces individual\u2019s abilities to better themselves in this way. [1]  [1] \u2018Online Identity: Is authenticity or anonymity more important?\u2019 The Guardian. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con03a","title":"","text":"Reducing the extent to which large and powerful organisations can be criticised.  Organisations with lots of wealth and legal power can be difficult to criticise when one\u2019s name and personal information is attached to all attempts at protest and\/or criticism. Internet anonymity means that individuals can criticise these groups without fear of unfair reprisal, and their actions are, as a result, held up to higher levels of scrutiny. For example, internet anonymity were instrumental in the first meaningful and damaging protests against the Church of Scientology by internet group Anonymous. [1] Similarly anonymity has been essential in the model for WikiLeaks and other similar efforts like the New Yorker\u2019s Strongbox. [2]  [1] \u2018John Sweeney: Why Church of Scientology\u2019s greatest threat is \u2018net\u2019. The Register. URL:   \u2018Anonymous vs. Scientology\u2019. Ex-Scientology Kids. URL:   [2] Davidson, Amy, \u2018Introducing Strongbox\u2019, The New Yorker, 15 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con01a","title":"","text":"Damaging to freedom of speech.  People are only truly free to say what they wish when they do not have to worry about being personally persecuted, either by peers, strangers, or their government, for what they are saying. [1] Removing the right to post anonymously increases the pressures people feel to post in a particular way, and thus limits the extent to which they can speak freely.  [1] \u2018Anonymity\u2019. Electric Frontier Foundation. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con04b","title":"","text":"Self-improvement through an alias or false identity is unlikely to lead to genuine self-improvement. When individuals have multiple identities, they may think of them as distinct from one another, and are thus unlikely to transfer self-improvement from one to another. For example, a recovering addict may only have a renewed attitude in their online identity, and not in real life where it is more important. This is unlikely to be beneficial, and may be actively harmful in terms of limiting the improvement of real life identities."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con02b","title":"","text":"Small reduction in ability to seek out help and community outweighed by a large reduction in hate speech. Anonymity is not essential to seeking out help and community. The internet is a large and expansive place, meaning that if an individual posts on an obscure site, people that they know in real life are very likely to see it. Even having your real name attached is unlikely to single you out unless you have a particularly distinctive name. Anonymity adds very little to their ability to seek out this help and community.  Additionally, anonymity is frequently used as a tool to spread hate speech, [1] which the people this point is concerned with are the primary victims of. Even if a lack of anonymity means a marginal reduction in their ability to seek out a supportive community, this is a worthwhile sacrifice for a significant reduction in the amount of hatred directed at them.  [1] \u2018Starting Points for Combating Hate Speech Online\u2019. British Institute of Human Rights. URL:"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro02b","title":"","text":"Providing such mechanisms does not help activists and can even harm them. These activists will have few guarantees that the technology will work. Previous technologies meant to give anonymity have often not worked or else the governments will come up with ways to break them. Haystack is a good example of a technology meant to help dissidents that could have ended up causing more harm than the good it did."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro02a","title":"","text":"Providing secure channels is the easiest way to help dissidents and democracy activists  If democracies are to provide money to help dissidents then this option of funding research into and distributing software to defeat censors is the easiest way in which to help these dissidents. Those who are trying to exercise their freedom of speech do not want help in the form of military intervention or diplomatic representations rather they want to have the space and capacity to exercise those freedoms. The internet means that for the first time it is possible for external actors to provide that platform for freedom of speech without having to take those who wish to exercise these freedoms outside of the country that is violating those freedoms.  The internet is very important in the economies of many authoritarian regimes. In China for example there are 145 million online shoppers and the e-commerce market is worth almost $100 billion and could be worth over $300 billion by 2015. [1] As a result authoritarian regimes can\u2019t easily just turn off the internet and ignore it so long as they want their economy to operate. As a result except in extreme cases such as North Korea or for particularly prominent dissidents who are locked up physical access to the internet is unlikely to be denied.  So long as there is physical access to the internet it will be possible to help by providing ways to avoid firewalls so that they can access information their state has banned and express opinions to both the outside world and their compatriots. It is equally important to provide ways for these people to avoid being tracked by the authorities so as to prevent retaliation against them for evading censorship. While Haystack was a failure there have been other projects that are receiving state department funding that may be more successful such as \u2018InTheClear\u2019 which provides a \u201cpanic button\u201d app for smart phones allowing contents to be quickly erased and prewritten texts sent so having the dual effect of making it more difficult for those making the arrest to find out what the user was doing and raising the alarm that this person has been arrested. [2] This technology helps meet a clear need; Egyptian democracy activists when asked what kind of technology they needed most said they wanted safer cellphones. [3]  [1] The Economist, \u2018An internet with Chinese characteristics\u2019, 20 July 2011.  [2] Burkeman, Oliver, \u2018Inside Washington\u2019s high risk mission to beat web censors\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 15 April 2012.  [3] McManus, Doyle, \u2018Technology that protects protesters\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 18 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro03b","title":"","text":"Funding such technologies is unlikely to result in large benefits or will result in escalating costs. China has billions invested in its online censorship activities. Any attempt to fund ways to counter this censorship would likely become involved in an online arms race if it wanted to do more than temporary good. This could end up being a costly on-going operation with very few benefits. The money would be better spent helping the truly needy from hunger than allowing the global middle classes to exercise their freedom of speech."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro01a","title":"","text":"We all have an obligation to help maintain freedom of speech.  Article 19 of the universal declaration of human rights defines freedom of speech as \u201cEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.\u201d [1] It is something innate in humans to have opinions and to want to express them to others and within a few limits governments have a duty to allow this freedom of expression. Where governments are not allowing this freedom of information this affects not only those whose opinions are being suppressed but those who cannot hear their opinions. The right to the freedom to receive and seek this information is just as important as the right to voice these opinions. Moreover as stated in Article 19 this is \u201cregardless of frontiers\u201d; those outside a country have just as much right to hear these opinions as those inside.  Government aid programs from democracies in Western Europe and America are already concerned with promoting human rights including freedom of speech. Australia\u2019s aid program for example has a Human Rights Fund of $6.5 million per year that provides grants to among other things \u201ceducate and\/or train human rights victims, workers or defenders\u201d. [2] Enabling victims of human rights abuse to get around their government\u2019s censorship is the obvious next step.  The concept of the \u2018responsibility to protect\u2019 introduced by the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty in 2001 provided that when governments were unable or unwilling to protect their own citizens then that responsibility devolves to the international community and may ultimately lead to military action for particularly gross violations. This responsibility to react should be \u201cwith appropriate measures\u201d [3] and for the breach of the human right of freedom of expression providing a method to enable those whose freedom of expression\/speech is being violated to exercise this right is the most appropriate and proportional response.  [1] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, \u2018Article 19\u2019, 1946.  [2] AusAID, \u2018Human rights and Australia\u2019s aid program\u2019, Australian Government, 22 February 2012.  [3] Evans, Garath and Mohamed Sahnoun Chair\u2019s, \u2018The Responsibility to Protect\u2019, International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, International Development Research Center, December 2001, p.XI."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro01b","title":"","text":"That there is a right to freedom of speech does not mean that we have an obligation to make sure that everyone around the world has freedom of speech. Freedom of speech and expression is indeed a human right in the universal declaration of human rights however this is something that it is obligated for governments to uphold for their own people rather than for other countries to enforce. If governments are infringing on the freedoms of their people the correct way to counter this is through international diplomacy rather than seeking to undermine that state.  The responsibility to protect, itself controversial, was only ever meant to apply to the very worst human rights violations - such as the genocide in Rwanda. If there are massacres of civilians and all other options have failed then there may be a need to intervene to prevent more killing. However violations of freedom of speech are not something that is time dependent. Diplomacy may often take a long time but can eventually work, as is being shown in Burma's opening up"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro03a","title":"","text":"Funding technologies to evade censorship could have immense benefits for very little cost  Most government aid budgets are small and have numerous other important calls on their resources such as development aid. Between 2008 and 2011 the United States Congress funded the effort against internet censorship with $76 million. [1] While this may sound like a lot compared to the $168 million of aid to Liberia and $152 million to UNICEF in 2011 it is not a large commitment. [2] Yet due to the nature of the internet small investments can have immense benefits. Money spent on food aid will buy enough food to feed a limited amount of people yet if a technology is developed that allows internet users to get around censors and not be tracked then hundreds of millions would benefit. It would at the same time have the incalculable benefit of making it more difficult for authorities to track and crack down on those who are breaking the authorities\u2019 censorship.  [1] Burkeman, Oliver, \u2018Inside Washington\u2019s high risk mission to beat web censors\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 15 April 2012.  [2] USAID, \u2018Where does USAID\u2019s Money Go?\u2019 30 September 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con03b","title":"","text":"While most of the population may not be enraged enough by censorship to attempt to get around it this does not mean they would not benefit from having the capability to do so. Governments often intrude into social discussion, music and even games by banning them and taking down discussions. These people would be much freer if they had complete freedom of choice rather than a government controlled set of boundaries on the internet."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con01b","title":"","text":"Far from being a violation of sovereignty it should be considered that the internet is a global commons that needs to be defended against the encroachment of sovereignty. As Hillary Clinton has argued \u201cThe internet has become the public space of the 21st century \u2013 the world\u2019s town square, classroom, marketplace, coffeehouse, and nightclub. We all shape and are shaped by what happens there, all 2 billion of us and counting.\u201d [1] This means that national sovereignty cannot be considered to apply to the internet. If one part of the internet becomes fenced off then it affects the rest of the internet as well.  [1] Clinton, Hillary, \u2018Secretary of State Hillary Clinton\u2019s Speech on Internet Freedom *updated*\u2019, Secretaryclinton, 15 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con02a","title":"","text":"Funds could be better spent on helping development  Access to the internet is not the most pressing concern that foreign aid should be used to solve. Instead aid should help the 1.4billion who live on less than a dollar a day, [1] the 216 million people infected with malaria every year, [2] or the 42 million people who have been uprooted by conflict and natural disaster. [3] Internet access while it has expanded immensely is still something that only the relatively rich have access to, not the kind of people that aid money should be spent on.  Finally if money is to be spent on the internet it should not be on the issue of evading censorship but focusing on the potential economic benefits of increasing internet penetration to the poorest.  [1] World Bank Updates Poverty Estimates for the Developing world\u2019, World Bank, 26 August 2008.  [2] Malaria, World Health Organisation, Fact Sheet no. 94, April 2012.  [3] \u2018UNHCR annual report shows 42 million people uprooted worldwide\u2019, UNHCR, 16 June 2009."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con04a","title":"","text":"This will needlessly antagonise non-democratic countries  The relationships which democratic countries have with non-democratic countries are much too important to jeopradise with such interference. Democracies and non-democracies need to be able to live peacefully with each other and engage in economic contact. Having democracies supporting segments in a non-democracy\u2019s population that is seen to be undermining the state not only sours relations but provides a direct point of contention that could potentially lead to conflict.  Democracies already show that they are aware of the conflict they create through their promotion of human rights by toning down their rhetoric in relation to the most powerful non-democratic countries. The British Council has for example invited Liu Binjie, China\u2019s censor in chief, to lead a delegation to the London Book Fair which is celebrating Chinese Literature. [1] It is double standards to be lauding autocrats in public and yet seeking to undermine their countries through helping dissidents.  [1] Jian, Ma, \u2018Britain\u2019s Cultural Kowtow\u2019, Project Syndicate, 12 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con03a","title":"","text":"Evading censorship is already possible and censorship does not prevent the use of the internet.  Proposition itself concedes that authoritarian states in the vast majority of cases are unlikely to cut off access to the internet for their population entirely. For many people the internet is not about free speech but about economic benefits. Most don\u2019t want to protest but rather carry on inane social discussions, play computer games and listen to music. Things that even authoritarian governments are happy to occur. This money is therefore not aimed at addressing the concerns of the vast majority of netizens.  Those few who are concerned are already able to find ways around censorship for example proxies can be used to access external sites. China\u2019s censorship system may be vast but it is only 40,000 attempting to watch hundreds of millions. Even China\u2019s censors sometimes work at cross purposes as for example where weibo censored the official Xinhua news bulletin that Bo Xilai, former party chief in Chongqing, had been stripped of his party posts. [1] During this same event for the first time the weight of discussion has shown that the censors can fail to keep up and where the mass of the public really is interested in discussing something they can. [2]  [1] MacKinnon, Rebecca, \u2018The Not-So-Great Firewall of China\u2019, ForeignPolicy, 17 April 2012.  [2] Pei, Minxin, \u2018The Paranoid Style in Chinese Politics\u2019, Project Syndicate, 17 April 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con01a","title":"","text":"Violation of Sovereignty  Sovereignty is the exercise of the fullest possible rights over a piece of territory; the state is \u2018supreme authority within a territory\u2019. [1] The sovereignty of nations has been recognised by all nations in article 2 of the UN charter. [2] Funding attempts by citizens of a nation to avoid its own government\u2019s censorship efforts is clearly infringing upon matters that are within the domestic jurisdiction of individual states and is as such a violation of sovereignty. It is also clear that when it comes to enforcement of human rights there is a general rule should be followed that states should have the chance to solve their own internal problems domestically before there is international interference. [3]  Censorship by governments can be there for the good of society; for example South Korea censors information about North Korea and forces internet users to use id cards and real names when posting on forums and blogs making them easy to trace. [4] This does not however mean that democracies should be helping South Koreans to bypass this system, South Korea as a nation has decided to place some restrictions on the use of the internet and that should be respected by other nations.  It is simply unfair and unequal to apply one set of standards to one set of nations and different standards to another. If democracies have the right to decide how their internet should operate so should non democracies. The fundamental principle of non-interference should apply to all states.  [1] Shaw, Malcolm N., International Law 4th ed., Cambridge University press, 1997, p.333  [2] Charter of the United Nations, \u2018Chapter 1: Purposes and Principles\u2019, 1945.  [3] Shaw, Malcolm N., International Law 4th ed., Cambridge University press, 1997, p.202  [4] The Economist, \u2018Game over: A liberal, free-market democracy has some curious rules and regulations\u2019, 14 April 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con04b","title":"","text":"This implies that without efforts by democracies to \u2018undermine\u2019 non democratic regimes the internet would be nice and peaceful and everyone could get on with what they like doing on the internet. Nothing could be further from the truth. There is already a significant amount of conflict on the internet both in the form of insulting each other on forums and criminal activity. There have been numerous attempts, particularly originating from authoritarian countries, to attack the internet presence of other countries firms or governments or to hack and steal state secrets. This kind of behaviour is much more likely to cause conflict than any funding of research towards bypassing censors."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con02b","title":"","text":"Money will be spent on development anyway. However trade is often the best way to encourage growth and reductions in poverty. These technologies by making communication easier will make doing business in that country easier. Breaking through communication barriers on the internet could have much more impact than 'development' aid."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Governments have, prima facie, a different relationship with their own citizens than they have with those of other countries. In addition, as with the previous argument, extending the right of access does not, per se, require total access. The approach is also simply impractical as it would require every nation on the planet to take the same approach and to have comparable standards in terms of record keeping and data management. At present most states publish some data but the upper and lower thresholds of what is made public vary between them. To abolish the upper limit (ministerial briefing, security briefings, military contractors, etc.) would require everyone to do it, otherwise it would be deeply unsafe for any one state to act alone. The likelihood of persuading some of the world\u2019s more unsavory or corrupt regimes to play ball seems pretty unlikely. The first of those is improbable, the latter is impossible."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Compelling public bodies to publish information ensures that non-citizens, minors, foreign nationals and others have access to information that affects them.  Genuine transparency and accountability of government action is not only in the interests of those who also have the right to vote for that government or who support it through the payment of taxes. The functioning of immigration services would seem to be a prime example. Maximising access to information relating to government decisions by dint of its automatic publication of information relating to those decisions ensures that all those affected will have recourse to the facts behind any decision.  If, for example, a nation\u2019s aid budget is cut or redirected, why should the citizens of the affected nation not have a right to know why [i] ? If, as is frequently the case, it has happened because of an action or inaction by their own government, then it is important that they know. Equally if such a decision were taken for electoral gain, they at least have the right to know that there is nothing they or their government could do about it.  [i] Publish What You Fund: The Global Campaign For Aid Transparency. Website Introduction."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro03b","title":"","text":"The idea that, presented with a vast mass of frequently complex data, everyone would be able to access, process and act on it in the same way is fantasy. Equally the issue of \u2018who guards the guards\u2019 that Proposition raises is a misnomer; exactly the groups mentioned are already those with the primary role of scrutinizing government actions because they have the time, interest and skills to do so. Giving a right to access would give them greater opportunities to continue with that in a way that deluging them with information would not."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro01a","title":"","text":"If public bodies do not have an obligation to publish information, there will always be a temptation to find any available excuses to avoid transparency.  The primary advantage of putting the duty on government to publish, rather than on citizens to enquire is that it does not require the citizen to know what they need to know before they know it. Publication en masse allows researchers to investigate areas they think are likely to produce results, specialists to follow decisions relevant to their field and, also, raises the possibility of discovering things by chance. The experience of Wikipedia suggests that even very large quantities of data are relatively easy to mine as long as all the related documentation is available to the researcher \u2013 the frustration, by contrast, comes when one has only a single datum with no way of contextualising it. Any other situation, at the very least, panders to the interests of government to find any available excuse for not publishing anything that it is likely to find embarrassing and, virtually by definition, would be of most interest to the active citizen.  Knowing that accounts of discussions, records of payments, agreements with commercial bodies or other areas that might be of interest to citizens will be published with no recourse to \u2018national security\u2019 or \u2018commercial sensitivity\u2019 is likely to prevent abuses before they happen but will certainly ensure that they are discovered after the event [i] .  The publication of documents, in both Washington and London, relating to the build-up to war in Iraq is a prime example of where both governments used every available excuse to cover up the fact that that the advice they had been given showed that either they were misguided or had been deliberately lying [ii] . A presumption of publication would have prevented either of those from determining a matter of vital interest to the peoples of the UK, the US and, of course, Iraq. All three of those groups would have had access to the information were there a presumption of publication.  [i] The Public\u2019s Right To Know. Article 19 Global Campaign for Freedom of Expression.  [ii] Whatreallyhappened.com has an overview of this an example of how politicians were misguided \u2013 wilfully or otherwise can be found in: Defector admits to lies that triggered the Iraq War. Martin Chulov and Helen Pidd. The Guardian. 15 February 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Relying on a right of access would also have addressed the concerns set out by Proposition but would do so in a way that would not endanger actual concerns of national security by allowing citizens the right to challenge such decisions. An independent review could determine where the motivation is genuinely one of national security and those where it is really political expediency. The right to information for citizens is important but should not jeopardize the right to life of combat troops."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro04b","title":"","text":"It seems unlikely that total publication would save much in the way of time or money. If the data was not indexed in some way it would be absurdly difficult to navigate - and that takes time and money.  There are advantages to building a delay into systems such as this, if a piece of information genuinely justifies a news story, then it will do so at any time. If it\u2019s only of interest in the middle of a media feeding frenzy, then it seems unlikely that it was all that important."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Even the most liberal FoI regime tends to pander to certain groups in society full disclosure levels that playing field  People have many different interests in the accountability of governments; different areas of concern, differing levels of skill in pursuing those interests and so on. They deserve, however, an equal degree of transparency from governments in relation to those decisions that affect them. Relying on a right to access is almost certainly most likely to favour those who already have the greatest access either through their profession, their skills or their social capital. The use of freedom of information requests in those countries where they are available shows this to be the case, as they have overwhelmingly been used by journalists, with a smattering of representation from researchers, other politicians and lawyers and so on. In the UK between 2005 and 2010 the total number registered by all \u2018ordinary\u2019 members of the public is just ahead of journalists, the next largest group. The public are overwhelmingly outnumbered by the listed professional groups [i] .  Required publication, by contrast, presents an even playing field to all parties. Rather than allowing legislators to determine how and to whom \u2013 and for what \u2013 they should be accountable, a presumption in favour of publication makes them accountable to all. As a result, it is the only truly effective way of ensuring one of the key aims set out in favour of any freedom of information process.  [i] Who Makes FOI Requests? BBC Open Secrets Website. 14 January 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro04a","title":"","text":"A faster, cheaper and simpler process  There are cost concerned with processing FoI requests both in terms of time and cash terms. [i] To take one example Britain\u2019s largest local authority, Birmingham, spends \u00a3800,000 a year dealing with FoI requests. [ii] There is also a delay from the point of view of the applicant. Such a delay is more than an irritant in the case of, for example, immigration appeals or journalistic investigations. Governments know that journalists usually have to operate within a window of time while a story is still \u2018hot\u2019. As a result all they have to do is wait it out until the attention of the media turns elsewhere to ensure that if evidence of misconduct or culpability were found, it would probably be buried as a minor story if not lost altogether. As journalism remains the primary method most societies have of holding government to account, it doesn\u2019t seem unreasonable that the methodology for releasing data should, at least in part, reflect the reality of how journalism works as an industry.  [i] Independent Review of the Impact of the Freedom of Information Act. Frontier Economics. October 2006.  [ii] Dunton, Jim, \u2018Cost of FoI requests rises to \u00a334m\u2019, Local Government Chronicle, 16 September 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con03b","title":"","text":"There are, of course some costs to having a truly open and accountable government, but an effective right of access would allow much of that information to be made available. After all what the public sector bodies are paying in commercial transactions is of great interest to the public. If public bodies are getting a particularly good rate from suppliers, it might well raise the question of \u201cWhy?\u201d For example, are they failing to enforce regulations on a particular supplier in return for a good price. In that instance, their other customers and their competitors would seem to have every right to know."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con01b","title":"","text":"Although it would be time-consuming to approach so much information, it is not impossible to manage it effectively. As Wikileaks has demonstrated, given access to large quantities of information, it is a relatively straightforward process to start with records that are likely to prove interesting and then follow particular routes from there. In addition, governments, like all organisations, have information management systems, there would be no reason not to use the same model.  Additionally, the very skill of journalism is going beyond the executive summary to find the embarrassing fact buried away in appendix nineteen. That would still be the case under this model, it would just be easier."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con02a","title":"","text":"Public bodies require the ability to discuss proposals freely away from public scrutiny  Knowing that everything is likely to be recorded and then published is likely to be counter-productive. It seems probable that anything sensitive \u2013 such as advice given to ministers by senior officials \u2013 would either not be recorded or it would be done in a way so opaque as to make it effectively meaningless [i] .  By contrast knowing that such conversations, to focus on one particularly example, are recorded and can be subjected to public scrutiny when there is a proven need to do so ensures that genuine accountability \u2013 rather than prurience or curiosity, is likely to be both the goal and the outcome.  None of us would like the process of how we reached decisions made public as it often involves getting things wrong a few times first. However, there are some instances where it is important to know how a particular decision was reached and whether those responsible for that decision were aware of certain facts at the time \u2013 notably when public figures are claiming that they were not aware of something and others are insisting that they were. In such an instance the right to access is useful and relevant; having records of every brainstorming session in every public body is not. As the Leveson inquiry is discovering, an extraordinary amount of decisions in government seem to be made informally, by text message or chats at parties. Presumably that would become evermore the case if every formal discussion were to be published [ii] .  [i] The Pitfalls of Britain\u2019s Confidential Civil Service. Samuel Brittan. Financial Time 5 March 2010.  [ii] This is nothing very new, see: Downing Street: Informal Style. BBC website. 14 July 2004."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con03a","title":"","text":"It is reasonable that people have access to information that effects them personally but not information that relates to their neighbours\u2019, employers\u2019, former-partners\u2019 or other citizens who maythose who work for public bodies.  The right to access allows people to see information that affects them personally or where there is reasonable suspicion of harm or nefarious practices. It doesn\u2019t allow them to invade the privacy of other citizens who just happen to work for public bodies or have some other association [i] .  Unless there is reason to suspect corruption, why should law-abiding citizens who sell goods and services to public bodies have the full details of their negotiations made public for their other buyers, who may have got a worse deal, to see? Why should the memo sent by an otherwise competent official on a bad day be made available for her neighbours to read over? A presumption in favour of publication would ensure that all of these things, and others, would be made a reality with the force of law behind them.  This would place additional burdens on government in terms of recruitment and negotiations with private firms \u2013 not to mention negotiations with other governments with less transparent systems. Let\u2019s assume for the moment that the British government introduced a system, it is quite easy imagine a sense of \u201cFor God\u2019s sake don\u2019t tell the British\u201d spreading around the capitals of the world fairly quickly.  [i] Section 40 0(A) od the FOIA. See also Freedom of Information Act Environmental Information Regulations. When Should Salaries be Disclosed? Information Commissioner\u2019s Office."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con01a","title":"","text":"Considering the amount of data governments produce, compelling them to publish all of it would be counterproductive as citizens would be swamped.  It is a misnomer in many things that more is necessarily better but that is, perhaps, more true of information than of most things. Public bodies produce vast quantities of data and are often have a greater tendency to maintain copious records than their private sector equivalents. US government agencies will create data that would require \u201c20 million four-drawer filing cabinets filled with text,\u201d over the next two years. [i] Simply dumping this en masse would be a fairly effective way of masking any information that a public body wanted kept hidden. Deliberately poor referencing would achieve the same result. This \u2018burying\u2019 of bad news at a time when everyone is looking somewhere else is one of the oldest tricks in press management. For example Jo Moore, an aide to then Transport Secretary Stephen Byers suggested that September 11 2001 was \u201ca very good day to get out anything we want to bury.\u201d Suggesting burying a u turn on councillors\u2019 expenses. [ii]  For it to genuinely help with the transparency and accountability of public agencies it would require inordinately detailed and precise cataloguing and indexing \u2013 a process that would be likely to be both time consuming and expensive. The choice would, therefore, be between a mostly useless set of data that would require complex mining by those citizens who were keen to use it or the great expense of effectively cataloguing it in advance. Even this latter option would defeat the objective of greater accountability because whoever had responsibility for the cataloguing would have far greater control of what would be likely to come to light.  Instead ensuring a right of access for citizens ensures that they can have a reasonable access to exactly the piece of information they are seeking [iii] .  [i] Eddy, Nathan, \u2018Big Data Still a Big Challenge for Government IT\u2019, eweek, 8th May 2012,   [ii] Sparrow, Andrew, \u2018September 11: \u2018a good day to bury bad news\u2019\u2019, The Telegraph, 10 October 2001,   [iii] Freedom of Information as an Internationally Protected Human Right. Toby Mendel, Head of Law at Article 19."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con02b","title":"","text":"It is frequently useful to see the general approach of a public organisation as reflected in routine discussions. Opposition is wrong to suggest that such information would only cast a light on ideas that were never pursued anyway so they don\u2019t matter. It would also highlight ideas that agencies wanted to pursue but felt they couldn\u2019t because of the likely impact of public opinion, knowing such information gives useful insight into the intentions of the public agency in question."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro02b","title":"","text":"The state is rarely an efficient service provider. Conventionally, it provides a shoddy service when it faces no competition, and when it charges low prices it is usually at the expense of the infrastructure and quality of service. When free of market forces, the state is even more likely to rest on its position of monopoly and provide insufficient service. But even with a state service, prices cannot be guaranteed to be kept low, but rather states can well overcharge and exploit their privileged position."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro02a","title":"","text":"It would provide an efficient service for everyone  A single, universal provider of broadband would allow the government to rationalize the management and development of the service. Multiple private service-providers ultimately end up causing three serious problems. The first two are straightforward, that private firms competing in the same area waste money creating multiple distribution channels that are unnecessary for the number of consumers, and that when they opt not to compete they end up dividing up territory into effective utility monopolies. The third problem is especially salient to the state when it is attempting to provide for everyone: many areas are too sparsely populated or economically underdeveloped that private firms are unwilling to invest in them; these areas are entirely dependent on state intervention to allow them to get broadband access. Thus for example, in the United States 19 million people in the United States still have no broadband access. [1] Much like electrical and water utilities, a single provider can create the most efficient outcome for consumers, and when that provider is the state it can guarantee affordable prices and commit to not price-gouging as private firms are wont to do. [2] Broadband should be treated as a utility, and the state has always proven to be the best purveyor of public utilities.  [1] Elgan, M. \u201cShould Wireless Carriers be Nationalized?\u201d. Huffington Post. 10 October 2012,   [2] Encyclopaedia Britannica. \"Public Utility.\" Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Inc. 2013"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Broadband is a necessary evolution of internet technology that firms would be wise to avail of if they wish to remain competitive. But it is this very desirability that makes the provision of broadband a lucrative business in which many firms participate. Business on a large scale is rarely organised in diffuse patterns, but clustered in major population centres. Economic development can be furnished by the private sector investing in broadband where there is a market. Growth will not be slowed just because some farmers in Nebraska have slower internet. Singapore is an aberrant example, as it is so small and its population so dense that it would be impossible to compare its provision of broadband access to most other countries."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro01a","title":"","text":"The information age demands a right to broadband access  As information technology has come more and more to pervade people\u2019s lives, it has become abundantly clear that a new set of positive rights must be considered. In the forefront of this consideration stands broadband. Broadband allows for far more rapid access to the internet, and thus access to the world of information the internet represents. Today, a citizen of a free society must be able to access the internet if he or she is to be able to fully realise their potential. This is because the ability to access the fundamental rights to freedom of expression and civic and social participation are now contingent upon ready access to the internet. Thus access to the internet has itself become a right of citizens, and their access should be guaranteed by the state. This right has been enshrined by several countries, such as France, Finland, Greece, and Spain, thus leading the way toward a more general recognition of this service as a right in the same way other public services are guaranteed. [1] It is a right derived from the evolution of society in the same fashion that the right to healthcare has grown out of countries\u2019 social and economic development.  [1] Lucchi, N. \u201cAccess to Network Services and Protection of Constitutional Rights: Recognizing the Essential Role of Internet Access for the Freedom of Expression\u201d. Cardozo J. of Int\u2019L & Comp. Law, Vol.19, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Internet access is not a fundamental right. It is a useful enabler of rights. But that is not reason to guarantee it to all, any more than states owed every citizen access to a printing press a few centuries ago. Even were it a right, internet access could be provided far more efficiently and effectively through the private, rather than the public, sector."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro04b","title":"","text":"States can develop new power-grids without needing to furnish all citizens with broadband in order to avail of the smart grid. The cost of developing these technologies and implementing them across the board are woefully high, and the inefficient nature of government services means they would only be more costly to the taxpayer. A better solution would be to liberalize the energy markets in order to encourage private firms to invest in the development of the smart grid."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Broad-based access to broadband is essential for countries to be competitive and to excel  Information technology is critical to the success of contemporary economies, with even the simplest business ventures. Uneven or non-existent penetration of broadband is a major drag on economic progress. [1] The private sector has been unable to effectively adapt with a holistic approach to the provision of data space and internet speed. The state providing these services would guarantee a high quality of service, and penetration across the country, linking all citizens to the network. For a country to compete internationally it needs broadband, and the surest way to provide it, since the private sector has resolutely failed to do so, and where it does provide services, it tends to overcharge. [2] As the Western world is left behind by the internet speeds of erstwhile developing states like Singapore, which has almost total penetration of high quality, state-sponsored broadband, it needs to refocus on what can reverse the trend. [3] Broadband is one of the steps toward the solution.  [1] Elgan, M. \u201cShould Wireless Carriers be Nationalized?\u201d. Huffington Post. 10 October 2012,   [2] ibid  [3] Kass, D. \u201cFCC Chairman Wants Ultra High Speed Broadband in 100 Million US Households by 2020\u201d. IT Channel Planet. 18 February 2010."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Universal broadband is a necessary prerequisite to developing more efficient and effective power-grids  Advanced infrastructure technology often relies on the existence of broadband technology universally installed across the grid. Countries like South Korea and Japan have succeeded in expanding their power grids by means of \u201csmart grids\u201d, power-grids that are far more efficient than existing structures in previously leading states like the United States, that make use of the broadband network in the provision of power. The US government has since committed to creating its own new grid, one that would increase efficiency, supply and management, and lower costs of energy provision to its citizens. [1] Such grids depend on the reliable and advanced broadband networks. The incentive for states to employ broadband across their territory is tremendous, beyond mere access to fast internet. This is why private firms will never be sufficient in efficient provision of broadband, because they do not reap all the benefits directly of the smart grid that can arise from its development. The state providing broadband is an essential part of upgrading energy provision for advanced countries in the 21st century.  [1] Kass, D. \u201cFCC Chairman Wants Ultra High Speed Broadband in 100 Million US Households by 2020\u201d. IT Channel Planet. 18 February 2010."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con03b","title":"","text":"If the state overstepped in its regulation, no doubt private competitors would be able to fill the void. But such an eventuality is rather unlikely given the robustness of civil institutions in free societies and the willingness of people to come out in arms against attacks on their freedoms. The state is not a bogey-man. Rather, it is the best outlet by which to deliver inexpensive, efficient broadband service."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con01b","title":"","text":"State firms do not necessarily crowd out private firms. Rather, they can furnish services in areas that private firms consider unprofitable, and can coordinate infrastructural process on a wider area, allowing for gains in economies of scale. Eircom provides an example of this too as its reduction in investment in broadband post privatisation meant that the government had to begin reinvesting in broadband itself. [1] Private firms will still have incentives to develop new technologies because there will still be profits to be made. But absent private firms, innovation will still exist. State investment in innovation and new technology can be very effective, as was the case with the Space Race.  [1] Palcic, D., and Reeves, E., \u201cPrivatisation and productivity performance in Ireland\u201d,  P.200"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con02a","title":"","text":"The state can work more effectively through the private sector  If the state is worried about provision of broadband in areas too sparsely populated or disadvantaged, they can provide subsidies to private firms to develop the areas that are not profitable without needing to develop full government-operated companies. Just because the state is not providing the service does not mean that there cannot be compulsory to provide access to everywhere, many countries post offices for example are obliged to deliver to every address. [1] Government employees tend to be overpaid and underworked, leading to chronic inefficiencies that would be absent in a private firm, even one backed with government money.  Furthermore, the cost to the state is prohibitively expensive to go it alone, because state contracts have a marked tendency to go over budget, ultimately harming the taxpayers. These overruns are a standard part of government projects, but they can be ruinous to large scale information technology projects. Indeed, one-third of all IT projects end with premature cancellation as the direct result of overruns. [2] The future of countries\u2019 economic prosperity cannot be entrusted to an organization that will stack the odds toward failure. This policy does not make sense when it is an area in which the private sector is willing to make substantial contributions to the cost. The only way to guarantee a decent level of service and an appropriate level of cost is to allow the private sector to take the lead, and to supplement it with incentives to build more and better systems. In the United States encouraging private investment in broadbrand infrastructure has led to a total of $1.2trillion ploughed into broadband access while Europe\u2019s more state investment approach is falling behind. [3]  [1] United States Postal Service, \u201cPostal Facts\u201d, 2012,  Royal Mail Group, \u201cUniversal Service Obligation\u201d,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con03a","title":"","text":"It would give undue power to the government over access to the internet  Monopoly, or near-monopoly, power over broadband is far too great a tool to give to governments. States have a long history of abusing rules to curtail access to information and to limit freedom of speech. Domination of broadband effectively gives the state complete control of what information citizens can or cannot consume online. ISPs function generally under the principle of Net Neutrality, in which they are expected to allow the free transit of information online. If they are the sole gatekeepers of knowledge, people may well be kept from information deemed against the public interest. It is harder for opponents of government regulations to voice their opinions online when they have no viable alternative to the state-controlled network. The internet is a place of almost limitless expression and it has empowered more people to take action to change their societies. That great tool of the people must be protected from any and all threats, and most particularly the state that could so profit from the curtailment of internet freedom."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con01a","title":"","text":"State intervention would crowd out private firms  The imposition of a powerful state firm dominating the broadband market would serve to reduce the ability of private providers to compete. The greater resources of the state would be able to give it the power to dictate the market, making it less attractive to private investment. Creating a monopolistic provider would be very dangerous considering that this is a sector upon which much of future national development relies. [1] Crowding out private firms will make them less inclined to invest in new technologies, while the state provider is unlikely to fill the gap, as traditionally state utilities rely upon their power of incumbency and size rather than seeking novel services. An example of this is Eircom which, when it was the state utility, provided broadband of a lower quality and at higher price than most private providers. The end result of state dominance and reduction of private competitors is a loss of innovation, a loss of price competition, and an erosion of customer service.  [1] Atkinson, R. \u201cThe Role of Competition in a National Broadband Policy\u201d. Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law 7. 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con02b","title":"","text":"The private sector will never be able to meet the demands governments would make in order to build a working broadband network and the subsequent smart grid because their profit motives cannot internalize the social benefits of the new grids and technology. Unfortunately the private sector will only build the infrastructure in profitable densely populated areas neglecting rural areas. The state must therefore fill the gap, either by subsidizing private firms to provide service to unprofitable areas, or to service them itself. Furthermore, it can provide the service more freely and more fairly in order to guarantee that citizens get the services they deserve and need to succeed in the 21st century."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Collaboration in editing does not encourage democratic principles, but merely privileges the loudest voice, or in this case, the most regular user. As such, creating knowledge by consensus is inherently flawed. A fact is not true simply because lots of people think so. Traditional encyclopaedias are written and edited by academics and professional experts, whose reputation is put on the line by the articles they produce. They have the credentials and expertise that give them the authority to write without requiring widespread communal feedback. However, anyone can write a Wikipedia article, regardless of how much or how little knowledge he or she has of the subject. Worse yet, because contributors are effectively anonymous, it is impossible to assess the quality of an article on an unfamiliar topic by assessing the credentials of those who have produced it. Collaboration, therefore, becomes a barrier to the provision of reliable, accurate and up-to-date information."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Collaboration in editing encourages democratic principles  The process of collaboration required to create and maintain an up-to-date, factual source of information encourages democratic practices and principles. Wikipedia seeks to achieve its democratic goal of the spread of free, open material by democratic means. As an open-source project it relies upon the collaboration of tens of thousands of people who constantly add, check and edit articles. Disagreements and disputes are sent up the line to moderators, who oversee the editing process. This \u201csocialisation of expertise\u201d as David Weinberger puts it [1] ensures that errors and omissions are rapidly identified and corrected and that the site is constantly and accurately updated. No traditional encyclopaedia can match this scrutiny. Indeed, \u201cWikipedia has the potential to be the greatest effort in collaborative knowledge gathering the world has ever known, and it may well be the greatest effort in voluntary collaboration of any kind.\u201d [2] Not only do such democratic processes encourage democracy more generally, but they are an effective means to create a user-friendly product, as illustrated by open source software such as Firefox and Linux.  [1] The Economist. (2006, April 20). The wiki principle. Retrieved 16 May 2012, from The Economist.  [2] Poe, M. (2006, September). The hive. Retrieved May 11, 2012, from The Atlantic."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Wikipedia is a common starting point for enquiries, but not because it is excellent; it has become a standard source of reference because it is free and easy to access. Wikipedia, through its popularity, is often the first search result found when using public search engines like Google, which draws users to its information regardless of the reliability that other sources may offer. Many of its users are students, with too little experience to ascertain the quality of an article but anxious to find the quickest and ostensibly most efficient path to the information they require. Overdependence on Wikipedia means that students in particular never develop proper research skills and increasingly accept that an approximately right answer is good enough. [1] , [2] Middlebury College\u2019s history department even banned students from citing Wikipedia in papers, [3] and Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales himself has asserted that changes to Wikipedia are necessary to make it a suitable resource for college students. [4] , [5]  [1] Graham, L., & Metaxas, P. T. (2003, May). \u201cOf course it\u2019s true; I saw it on the Internet!\u201d Critical thinking in the Internet era.Communications of the ACM, 46(1), 71-75.  [2] Frean, A. (2008, January 14). White bread for young minds, says University of Brighton professor. The Times. Retrieved June 9, 2008.  [3] Jaschik, S. (2007, January 26). A stand against Wikipedia. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved March 4, 2008.  [4] Young, J. R. (2006, June 12).Wikipedia founder discourages academic use of his creation. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved October 4, 2008  [5] Young, J. R. (2008, May 16). A \u2018frozen\u2019 Wikipedia could be better for college, founder says. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved October 4,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro05a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia models, in an accessible form, the process of knowledge creation through writing.  hrough the process by which its articles are constructed, Wikipedia supports \u201cnotions of revision, collaboration, and authority\u201d that many academics value and helps to make visible the knowledge-making process. [1] With its Discussion and History pages, Wikipedia illustrates the peer review process academic writing goes through as well as the iterative, recursive nature of public writing. Thus, it can disabuse students of the notion that good writing happens in isolation in one sitting. Therefore, Wikipedia can be an excellent teaching tool. [2] [3]  [1] Purdy, J. P. (2009). When the tenets of composition go public: A study of writing in Wikipedia.\u201d College Composition and Communication 61(2), W351-W373. Retrieved May 9, 2012.  [2] Wilson, M. A. (2008, April 1). Professors should embrace Wikipedia. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from Inside Higher Ed.  [3] Lundin, R. W. (2008). Teaching with wikis: Toward a networked pedagogy. Computers and Composition 25(4) (2008) 432\u2013448."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro01a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia provides free, open access to knowledge  Wikipedia exists to provide free, open and easy access to information and knowledge. Its goal is to \u2018distribute a free encyclopedia to every single person on the planet in their own language, and to an astonishing degree (it) is succeeding\u2019. [1] It already has over 3.5 million articles in English alone. [2] This is more than ten times those of Encyclopaedia Britannica, its nearest printed rival. Traditionally, reference works were very expensive, which meant previously that knowledge was restricted to the wealthy, or those with access to well-funded public libraries. Wikipedia liberates that knowledge and provides volumes of online information to anyone with access to a computer, or even a smartphone, and the internet. Its impact is only restrained by the reach of internet providers and the desire of people to learn. Users do not need to be able to afford particular print objects but can access contents of Wikipedia from any location with Internet connectivity.  [1] Schiff, S. (2006, July 31). Know it all: Can Wikipedia conquer it all? Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The New Yorker  [2] Asrianti, T. (2011, April 27). Writing culture on the web: Are we still better at talking? Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Jakarta Post"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro01b","title":"","text":"Wikipedia does not provide free, open access to knowledge, for it only applies to those who already have access to both a computer and internet access. Furthermore, since very few computer retailers or internet service providers are willing to provide their services free of charge, to declare Wikipedia free is disingenuous; there are substantial charges before Wikipedia can be utilized. Moreover while Wikipedia may provide free open access to knowledge this is mostly for those who speak English. Those who need this resource are those who speak much smaller languages but as yet Wikipedia is not a good resource in these languages. The Punjabi Wikipedia only has 3,000 articles [1] despite it being a language with more than sixty million speakers. [2] . Lastly, whilst Wikipedia has advantages over traditional print encyclopaedias, tangible objects have the advantage of never going offline and therefore being able to provide their information constantly.  [1] Wikimedia. (2012). List of Wikipedias, Retrieved May 16, 2012, from meta.wikimedia.org.  [2] Ethnologue. (2000). Languages of Pakistan, Retrieved May 16, 2012, from ethnologue.org."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro05b","title":"","text":"Wikipedia may document the process of creation of encyclopaedia articles, but it does not illustrate the kind of research-writing we should be teaching students. Academic peer review is limited to expert readers. While expert readers can participate in Wikipedia, their voices are often drowned out by the less knowledgeable masses. Moreover, Wikipedia discourages appropriate source use and citation practices. Not only do students frequently plagiarize from Wikipedia, [1] but they also plagiarize in contributing to it. [2]  [1] Nagel, D. (2011, November 3). Wikipedia tops list of plagiarized sources. Retrieved May 9, 2012, from THE Journal.  [2] Sormunen, E., & Lehtio, L. (2011, December). Authoring Wikipedia articles as an information literacy assignment: Copy-pasting or expressing new understanding in one\u2019s own words. Information Research 16(4). Retrieved April 27, 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro04b","title":"","text":"No organisation can succeed in being completely neutral and unbiased as is shown by the number of complaints the BBC, which is obliged to be impartial in political matters, [1] gets about bias on issues ranging from politics, [2] [3] to Israel, [4] [5] to climate change. [6] Similarly Wikipedia can be criticised for its inbuilt bias, intolerant of dissenting views. Even Wikipedians themselves acknowledge that its topic coverage is slanted. [7] Religious conservatives object to the secular liberal approach its editors consistently take and have found that their attempts to add balance to entries are swiftly rejected. This bias even extends to the censorship of facts which raise questions about the theory of evolution. Some conservatives are so worried about the widespread use of Wikipedia to promote a liberal agenda in education that they have set up Conservapedia as a rival source of information. [8]  [1] BBC. (2012). BBC Charter and Agreement. Retrieved May 16 2012, from the BBC.  [2] Helm, Toby. (2011, December 31). Labour turns on BBC over \u2018pro-coalition coverage\u2019. Retrieved May 16, 2012, from The Observer.  [3] Johnson, Boris. (2012, May 14). The statist, defeatist and biased BBC is on the wrong wavelength. Retrieved May 16, 2012 from The Telegraph.  [4] PNN. (2012, May 16), Protest Outside the BBC: End Your Silence on Palestine. Retrieved May 16, 2012 from Palestine News Network.  [5] Paul, Jonny. (2010, April 28). Watchdog: BBC biased against Israel. Retrieved May 16, 2012, from The Jerusalem Post.  [6] Black, Richard. (2009, October 13). Biases, U-turns, and the BBC\u2019s climate coverage. Retrieved May 16, 2012, from the BBC.  [7] Why Wikipedia is not so great. Retrieved November 14, 2004, from Wikipedia.  [8] Jane, E. (2011, January 11). A parallel online universe. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Australian"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia is an excellent starting point for enquiries  Wikipedia pools information that previously was spread far and wide in cyberspace into one readily accessible location. Enquiries will not and should not end at Wikipedia, but it provides accessible background information as well as links to additional research and publication on a topic and is, therefore, an obvious starting point. [1] Nobody at Wikipedia has claimed that it is a definitive account of human knowledge or a replacement for in-depth research. But it gives a quick guide to an unknown subject and points the enquirer on to more specialist sources. It is used to good effect by students, teachers, journalists and even judges, among many others \u2013 showing it is a valued reference source. Experienced users can quickly assess the quality of an article from its written quality and the thoroughness of its references, so they need not accept its content out of hand. Nothing on the internet should ever be accepted uncritically, but Wikipedia has earned its reputation as a valuable starting resource.  [1] Purdy, J. P. (2010). Wikipedia is good for you!? In C. Lowe and P. Zemliansky (Eds.), Writing spaces: Readings on writing, Vol. 1 (pp. 205-224). Fort Collins, CO and West Lafayette, IN: WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro04a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia enshrines the principle of freedom of information  A key principle for Wikipedia is to present information as neutrally as possible. This has led to Wikipedia being banned in China, after Jimmy Wales refused to censor articles to make the site acceptable to the Chinese government. [1] Wikipedia, thus, epitomizes the principle that all should have access to the necessary information required not just to live, but also enjoy and cherish our lives. As such, Wikipedia is not threatened by variants and rivals that also seek to promote freedom of knowledge because it views them as partners to a mutual goal, not rivals. Its founder, Jimmy Wales, readily acknowledges it will eventually be superseded by another way of sharing knowledge on a mass level. [2]  [1] Revill, D. S. (2006, September 10). Wikipedia defies China's censors. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Observer  [2] Barnett, E. (2009, November 17). Jimmy Wales interview: Wikipedia is focusing on accuracy. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Telegraph."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con03b","title":"","text":"Wikipedia does offer a better service, not necessarily in terms of the quality of information, but in terms of the depth, breadth and accessibility of information. Enquiries will not and should not end at Wikipedia, but it provides accessible background information as well as links to additional research and publication on a topic and is, therefore, an obvious starting point. [1] Nobody at Wikipedia has claimed that it is a definitive account of human knowledge or a replacement for in-depth research. But it gives a quick guide to an unknown subject and points the enquirer on to more specialist sources. It is used to good effect by students, teachers, journalists and even judges, among many others \u2013 showing it is a valued reference source. Experienced users can quickly assess the quality of an article from its written quality and the thoroughness of its references, so they need not accept its content out of hand. Nothing on the internet should ever be accepted uncritically, but Wikipedia has earned its reputation as a valuable starting resource.  [1] Purdy, J. P. (2010). Wikipedia is good for you!? In C. Lowe and P. Zemliansky (Eds.), Writing spaces: Readings on writing, Vol. 1 (pp. 205-224). Fort Collins, CO and West Lafayette, IN: WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press. Retrieved May 9, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con01b","title":"","text":"Studies indicate that the information on Wikipedia is, in fact, accurate.  The only systematic comparison of Wikipedia\u2019s quality against its leading traditional rival, the Encyclopaedia Britannica, showed Wikipedia to be of similar accuracy. A survey in the leading journal Nature compared 42 pairs of articles on a wide range of science subjects. [1] Experts in each topic found that Wikipedia\u2019s user-contributed articles had only 30% more errors and omissions overall than Britannica, despite the latter\u2019s much vaunted pride in its expert authors and editors. And as Wikipedia is a constant work-in-progress, these faults were quickly corrected, whereas a traditional publication like Britannica will only revise articles at intervals of years, if not decades, if they ever do. So, over time, errors in traditional encyclopaedias persist longer than in Wikipedia.  [1] Giles, J. (2005, December 15). Special Report: Internet encyclopaedias go head to head. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from Nature"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con02a","title":"","text":"Entries are too easily manipulated  Wikipedia entries are far too easily manipulated due to the ease at which they can be edited and the lack of official or authoritative oversight. Wikipedia is therefore subject to the worst qualities of humanity \u2013 as is shown by a number of scandals affecting the site. Entries can be deliberately vandalised for comic effect (as happens every April Fool\u2019s Day), for commercial gain, or for more insidious purposes of libel or insult. Some of these deliberate errors are picked up and corrected quickly, but others exist on the site for long periods. Notoriously, respected journalist John Siegenthaler was libelled in an almost solely fictitious addition to an article that was was not detected for months. [1] Recently one very senior editor was exposed as a college drop-out, rather than the distinguished professor of theology he had claimed to be. [2] Such examples seem to confirm the doubts of Larry Sanger, the original project coordinator for Wikipedia. He has since left Wikipedia and written a number of warning articles about how open to abuse the online encyclopaedia is. [3] Without a more stringent, hierarchical editing process, such abuses can never be prevented, and the trustworthiness of Wikipedia\u2019s information will always be questionable.  [1] Siegenthaler, J. (2005, November 29). A false Wikipedia 'biography'. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from USA Today  [2] Elsworth, C. (2007, March 7). Wikipedia professor is 24-year-old college dropout. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Telegraph  [3] Sanger, L. (2008, January 23). How the Internet Is Changing What We (Think We) Know. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from Larry Sanger Blog"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con05a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia threatens the academic enterprise.  If Wikipedia is taken to be an accurate resource, then the academic expertise is threatened because anyone can produce \u201ccorrect\u201d knowledge. Though academics can continue to participate in this work, they are not essential. Normal, ordinary people can do as good a job. Not only does relying on Wikipedia (incorrectly) make academics seem unnecessary, it proliferates the misinformation that academic work seeks to combat. Overdependence on Wikipedia means that students never develop proper research skills and come to believe that an approximately right answer is good enough. [1] Free, open access to huge swathes of information is a threat to both good research and the teaching of good research-writing skills. [2] Middlebury College\u2019s history department even felt so strongly about Wikipedia\u2019s negative influence that in 2007 it banned students from citing Wikipedia in papers. [3]  [1] Graham, L., & Metaxas, P. T. (2003, May). \u201cOf course it\u2019s true; I saw it on the Internet!\u201d Critical thinking in the Internet era.Communications of the ACM, 46(1), 71-75.  [2] McClure, R. (2011.) Googlepedia: Turning information behavior into research skills. In Vol. 2 of Writing spaces: Readings on writing, edited by Charles Lowe and Pavel Zemliansky, 221\u201341. Fort Collins, CO and West Lafayette, IN: WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press.  [3] Jaschik, Scott. (2007, January 26). A stand against Wikipedia. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved March 4, 2008."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con04a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia lacks the necessary coverage  One of the major problems with Wikipedia is that it has very patchy coverage. Traditional reference sources provide consistent coverage over the whole field of knowledge, with priority given to the most important topics in terms of space and thoroughness of treatment. By contrast, Wikipedia has very detailed coverage of topics in which its main contributors are interested, but weak material on other, much more important issues. [1] Thus, there is, for example, much more on the imaginary language of Klingon than there is on the life and philosophy of John Locke.  [1] Why Wikipedia is not so great. Retrieved November 14, 2004, from Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con03a","title":"","text":"Wikipedia is driving high-quality encyclopaedias out of business, without offering a better service.  By providing its articles for \u201cfree,\u201d Wikipedia will drive traditional, high-quality encyclopaedias out of business by destroying their business model. Indeed the traditional print version of the Encyclopaedia Britannica has already been discontinued with the focus changing to the online version after sales had declined from 120,000 in 1990 to only 8000 in 2010. [1] Wikipedia may make articles available for nothing to those with access to the internet (still only a minority of people in the world), but many of these articles are not worth reading. The cost of a traditional encyclopaedia may be high, but it pays for articles written, checked and edited by experts and professionals. Even on the internet there is no such thing as a free lunch: people have to pay for internet access and computers. If Wikipedia makes it harder for ordinary people to access reliable information, then the world will be a poorer place.  [1] Bosman, Julie, (2012, March 13). After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses. Retrieved May 14, 2011, from The New York Times Media Decoder blog."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con05b","title":"","text":"\u201cIf we see the ongoing evolution of information in public spheres as a part of scholarly work . . . Wikipedia can enrich, extend, and enliven, rather than threaten, the scholarly enterprise.\u201d [1] Wikipedia encourages more people, including students, to participate in scholarly work by asking them to edit and respond to its articles. In this way, it makes scholarly work more visible and accessible. Wikipedia integrates research and writing in productive ways in the service of knowledge production, which educators can exploit to teach students. [2] Wikipedia transforms people from passive users of web content to active producers of it. [3]  [1] Purdy, J. P. (2009). When the tenets of composition go public: A study of writing in Wikipedia.\u201d College Composition and Communication, 61(2), W351-W373. Retrieved May 9, 2012.  [2] Purdy, J. P. (2010). The changing space of research: Web 2.0 and the integration of research and writing environments. Computers and Composition, 27(1), 48-58.  [3] Bruns, Axel. (2009). Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From Production to Produsage. New York: Peter Lang."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con01a","title":"","text":"The information is not accurate and sometimes undermined by poor writing  Wikipedia has become a standard source of reference because it is free and easy to access, not because it provides quality, accurate information. While a 2005 Nature comparison of Wikipedia and Britannica found that the online and print encyclopaedias were both inaccurate, [1] the Nature study itself was badly skewed, and Britannica disputed nearly half the errors or omissions for which it was criticised. [2] On this basis, Wikipedia is not just 30% less accurate than Britannica; it would be two and a half times less reliable. Comedian Stephen Colbert has even publicly skewered Wikipedia for its inaccuracy. [3] In addition, the Nature study took no account of the written quality of the submissions under comparison. All of Britannica\u2019s entries are edited carefully to ensure they are readable, clear and an appropriate length. Much of Wikipedia\u2019s material is a cobbled together from different contributions and lacks clarity. [4] This can mean that even where Wikipedia is accurate readers do not get the wrong information from it. Furthermore, many of its users are students, with too little experience to weigh up the quality of an article.  [1] Orlowski, A. (2005, December 16). Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Register.  [2] Fatally flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature. (2006, March). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved December 12, 2010.  [3] Colbert, Stephen. (2006, July 31). The word\u2014Wikiality. The Colbert Report. Comedy Central TV Network.  [4] Schiff, S. (2006, July 31). Know it all: Can Wikipedia conquer it all? Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The New Yorker"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con04b","title":"","text":"Wikipedia is a service that offers information where it is felt most necessary. If there is more information on the imaginary language of Klingon than the works of John Locke, for example, that is because more people want to read and learn about Klingon or are unable to find the information they desire elsewhere. In this way, Wikipedia is responsive to audience desires and needs. As such, there are few shortcomings in Wikipedia\u2019s coverage. If Locke was to come into vogue, then undoubtedly his page would soon expand to meet that demand."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con02b","title":"","text":"Entries are not easily or wantonly manipulated. Wikipedia harnesses the best qualities of humanity \u2013 trust and cooperation in pursuit of an unselfish goal. Sceptics essentially take a negative view of society, unable to understand why people would club together to produce something so valuable without any financial incentive. [1] Wikipedia is not na\u00efvely trusting. The majority of entries are written by a close online community of a few hundred people who value their reputations. Examples of abuse have led Wikipedia to tighten up its rules so that cyber vandals can easily be detected and editing of controversial topics restricted to the most trusted editors. Overall, Wikipedia is a tremendous human success story, which should be celebrated rather than criticised.  [1] Ciffolilli, A. (2003). Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia. First Monday 8(12). Retrieved April 27, 2005."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Inefficient or not, artists should have the right to retain control of their creations. Even if they are not making any money out of it, they still have the right, and often the desire, to maintain control of the way their art is used. If artists do not desire such control, they can opt to release their works into the public domain, while allowing those who do not wish to do so to protect their work."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Lengthy copyright protection is extremely inefficient for the dissemination of works  Only a tiny fraction of copyrighted works ever become massive successes, breeding the riches of a JK Rowling or the like. Far more often, artists only make modest profits from their artistic works. In fact, almost all income from copyright comes immediately after publication of a work. [1] Ultimately, copyright serves to protect a work from being used, while at the same time that work does little to benefit the original artist. Freeing up availability of artistic works much faster would serve to benefit consumers in the extreme, who could now enjoy the works for free and engage in the dissemination and reexamination of the works. If artists care about having their work seen and appreciated, they should realize that they are best served by reduced copyright. Ultimately, long copyrights tend only to benefit corporations that buy up large quantities of work, and exploit it after artists\u2019 deaths. Notably when the United States has a system that required a renewal of copyright after 28 years only 15% of copyrights were actually renewed. [2] It would be far better for everyone that copyright be shortened and to increase appreciation of works.  [1] Gapper, J. \u201cShorten Copyright and Make it Stick\u201d. Financial Times. 1 July 2010   [2] Center for the Study of the Public Domain, \u201cWhat Could Have Entered the Public Domain on January 1, 2012?\u201d, Duke University, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro03b","title":"","text":"The problems associated with \u201corphan works\u201d can be sorted out separate from limiting copyright length. It simply demands a closer attention from executors and legal professionals to sort these issues out. In terms of availability, it must be up to the artist to release the work as he or she sees fit. Encouraging artists and their successors to release their works into the public domain could go a long way to solving this problem without recourse to adulterating existing protections."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Overlong copyright protection stifles the creativity and saps the time of artists  In some instances, when artists achieve success they face the enervating impulse that their achievement brings. They become satisfied and complacent with what they have, robbing them of their demiurgic drive. Worse, and more frequently, successful artists become embroiled in defending their work from pirates, downloaders, and other denizens of the internet. The result is artists wasting time in court, fighting lawsuits that sap them of time to actually focus on creating new works. Artists should be incentivized to look forward, not spend their time clinging to what they have already made. Obviously, they have a right to profit from their work to an extent, which is why a certain, reduced length of copyright is still important. But clearly the current length is far too great as artists retain their copyright until their death and many years after. Moreover once the artist has died it is difficult to see how copyright can be considered to be enhancing or even rewarding creativity; it simply becomes a negative weight on others creativity."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro01b","title":"","text":"The artistic drive to create is rarely stifled by having been successful. Individuals deserve to profit from their success and to retain control of what they create in their lifetime, as much as the founder of a company deserves to own what he or she creates until actively deciding to part with it. However, even patents, novel creations in themselves, have far less protection than copyright. While most patents offer protection for a total of twenty years, copyright extends far beyond the life of its creator, a gross overstretch of the right of use. [1]  [1] Posner, Richard A., \u201cPatent Trolls Be Gone\u201d, Slate, 15 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro04b","title":"","text":"While there is value in other artists exploring their own creativity by means of others\u2019 work, it does not give them an overriding right. Rather, artists should have a meaningful control over how their art is disseminated and viewed in the world, as it is ultimately their creation. Furthermore, the protections copyright affords means that the responses that do arise must be more creative and novel in and of themselves, and not simply hackneyed riffing on existing work. This helps to benefit the arts by ensuring that there is regular innovation and change."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Long copyrights serve to severely limit access by the public to creative works  Because copyrights are so long, they often result in severely limiting access to some works by anyone. Many \u201corphan works\u201d, whose copyright holders are unknown, cannot be made available online or in other free format due to copyright protection. This is a major problem, considering that 40% of all books fall into this category. [1] A mix of confusion over copyright ownership and unwillingness of owners to release their works, often because it would not be commercially viable to do so, means that only 2% of all works currently protected by copyright are commercially available. [2] The public is robbed of a vast quantity of artistic work, often simply because no one can or is willing to publish it even in a commercial context. Reducing copyright length would go a long way to freeing this work for public consumption.  [1] Keegan, V. \u201cShorter Copyright Would Free Creativity\u201d. The Guardian. 7 October 2009,   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Long copyright stifles creative responses to and re-workings of the original work  Artistic creations, be they books, films, paintings, etc. serve as a spark for others to explore their own creativity. Much of the great works of art of the 20th century, like Disney films reworking ancient fairy tales, were reexaminations of existing works. [1] That is the nature of artistic endeavor, and cutting it off by putting a fence around works of art serves to cut off many avenues of response and expression. When copyright is too long, the work passes beyond the present into a new status quo other than that in which it was made. This means contemporary responses and riffs on works are very difficult, or even impossible. In the United States tough copyright law has prevented the creation of a DJ\/remix industry because the costs of such remixing is prohibitive. [2] While a certain length of copyright is important, it is also critical for the expression of art to develop that it occur within a not overlong time. Furthermore, it is valuable for artists to experience the responses to their own work, and to thus be able to become a part of the discourse that develops, rather than simply be dead, and thus voiceless.  [1] Keegan, V. \u201cShorter Copyright Would Free Creativity\u201d. The Guardian. 7 October 2009,   [2] Jordan, Jim, and Teller, Paul, \u201cRSC Policy Brief: Three Myths about Copyright Law and Where to Start to Fix it\u201d The Republican Study Committee, 16 November 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con03b","title":"","text":"The vast majority of artistic output results in having little lifelong, let alone postmortem economic value. Most artists glean all they are going to get out of their art within a couple years of its production, and the idea that it will sustain their families is silly. In the small number of cases of phenomenally successful artists, they usually make enough to sustain themselves and family, but even still, the benefits accrued to outliers should not be sufficient reason to significantly slow the pace of artistic progress and cross-pollination of ideas. Besides, in any other situation in which wealth is bequeathed, that money must have been earned already. Copyright is a bizarre construct that allows for the passing on of the right to accrue future wealth."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con01b","title":"","text":"Copyright would still exist, and the artist is able to profit from it, even if the length of copyright is reduced. People deserve recompense, but the stifling force of current laws make for negative outcomes. It would be better to strike a more appropriate balance, allowing artists to profit while they can, which in practice is only during the first few years after their work\u2019s release, and at the same time allowing the art to reach the public sphere and to interact with it in fuller fashion."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con02a","title":"","text":"Control of an artistic work and its interaction in the public sphere is the just province of the creator and his or her designated successors  The creator of a piece of copyrighted material has brought forth a novel concept and product of the human mind. That artist thus should have a power over that work\u2019s use. Art is the expression of its creator\u2019s sense of understanding of the world, and thus that expression will always have special meaning to him or her. How that work is then used thus remains an active issue for the artist, who should, as a matter of justice be able to retain a control over its dissemination. That control can extend, as with the bequeathing of tangible assets, to designated successors, be the trusts, family, or firms. In carrying out the wishes of the artist, these successors can safeguard that legacy in their honor. Many artists care about their legacies and the future of their artistic works, and should thus have this protection furnished by the state through the protection of lengthy copyrights."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con04a","title":"","text":"The promise of copyright protection galvanizes people to develop creative endeavors  The incentive to profit drives a great deal of people\u2019s intellectual endeavours. Without the guarantee of ownership over one\u2019s artistic work, the incentive to invest in its creation is significantly diminished. Within a robust copyright system, individuals feel free to invest time in their pursuits because they have full knowledge that the fruits of their efforts will be theirs to reap. [1] With these protections the marginal cases, like people afraid to put time into actually writing a novel rather than doing more hours at their job, will take the opportunity. Even if the number of true successes is very small in the whole of artistic output, the chance of riches and fame can be enough for people to make the gamble. If their work were to quickly leave their control, they would be less inclined to do so. Furthermore, the inability of others to simply duplicate existing works as their own means they too will be galvanized to break ground on new ideas, rather than simply re-tread over current ideas.  [1] Greenberg, M. \u201cReason or Madness: A Defense of Copyright\u2019s Growing Pains\u201d. John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con03a","title":"","text":"Artists often rely on copyright protection to support dependents and family after, including after they are dead  Artists may rely on their creative output to support themselves. This is certainly no crime, and existing copyright laws recognize this fact. Artists rarely have pensions of the sort that people in other professions have as they are rarely employed by anyone for more than a short period. [1] As a result artists who depend on their creations for their wherewithal look to their art and copyright as a guaranteed pension, a financial protection they can rely on even if they are too old to continue artistic or other productive work for their upkeep. They also recognize the need of artists to be able to support their dependents, many of whom too rely on the artist\u2019s output. In the same way financial assets like stocks can be bequeathed to people for them to profit, so too must copyright be. Copyright is a very real asset and financial protection that should be sustained for the sake of artists\u2019 financial wellbeing and that of their loved ones.  [1] The Economist, \u201cArt for money\u2019s sake\u201d, 27 May 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con01a","title":"","text":"Artists deserve to profit from their work and copyright provides just recompense  Artists generating ideas and using their effort to produce an intangible good, be it a new song, painting, film, etc. have a property right over those ideas and the products that arise from them. It is the effort to produce a real good, albeit an intangible one, that marks the difference between an idea in someone\u2019s head that he or she does not act upon, and an artistic creation brought forth into the world. Developing new inventions, songs, and brands are all very intensive endeavours, taking time, energy, and often a considerable amount of financial investment, if only from earnings forgone in the time necessary to produce the work. Artists deserve as a matter of principle to benefit from the products of the effort of creation. [1] For this reason, robbing individuals of lifelong and transferable copyright is tantamount to stealing an actual physical product. Each is a real thing, even if one can be touched while the other is intangible in a physical sense. Copyright is the only real scheme that can provide the necessary protection for artists to allow them to enjoy the fruits of their very real labours.  [1] Greenberg, M. \u201cReason or Madness: A Defense of Copyright\u2019s Growing Pains\u201d. John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con04b","title":"","text":"Artists generally desire to create, and will do so whether there is financial incentive or not. Besides, many artists live and die in relative poverty, [1] yet their experience seems to not have put off people from pursuing art as a profession and passion. The loss of a few marginal cases must be weighed against the massive losses to art in general, such as the huge curtailment of exploration of and response to existing works, which are often artistically meritorious in their own right, and also the rendering unavailable of much of the artistic output of the world.  [1] The Economist, \u201cArt for money\u2019s sake\u201d, 27 May 2004,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con02b","title":"","text":"Once a piece of art enters the public sphere, it takes on a character of its own as it is consumed, absorbed, and assimilated by other artists. It is important that art as a whole be able to thrive in society, but this is only possible when artists are able to make use of, and actively reinterpret and utilize existing works. This can only be furthered by a significant reduction in length of copyright protections. It is also disingenuous to suggest that the artist\u2019s work is not itself the product of exposure to other artists\u2019 work. All art is a response, even if only laterally, to the previous traditions. While those who gain a copyright get it because of a \u2018novel concept\u2019 it is open to question just how novel this has to be. A painter who paints a new painting in a style never seen before may well still be using oil and canvas just as thousands of artists have in the past."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Western states, like all states, owe their primary responsibility to their own citizens, not those in a distant land claiming to be striving for common notions of rights. It is difficult for Western states to ascertain the actual motivations of the body of risers in any given scenario, let alone the motivations of specific individuals utilizing the technology. The West is not necessarily aiding seekers after freedom by providing this technology, but may rather be abetting crimes and violence worse than the regime being challenged. The nature of the technology is that it would have to be indiscriminate, making it unsuited to the task of aiding in the liberation of oppressed peoples."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Western states have a duty to aid those striving for the ideals they cherish  The West stands as the symbol of liberal democracy to which many political dissidents aspire in emulation. It is also, as a broad group, the primary expounder, propagator, and establisher of concepts and practices pertaining to human rights, both within and without their borders. The generation and dissemination of anonymity software into countries that are in the midst of, or are moving toward, uprising and revolution is critical to allowing those endeavours to succeed. This obligation still attains even when the technology does not yet exist, in the same way that the West often feels obligated to fund research into developing vaccines and other treatments for specifically external use, thus in 2001 the United States spent $133million on AIDS research through the National institutes of Health. 1 The West thus has a clear duty to make some provision for getting that software to the people that need it, because it can secure the primary platform needed to build the groundswell to fight for their basic rights by ensuring its security and reliability. 2 To not act in this way serves as a tacit condolence of the status quo of misery and brutality that sparks grassroots uprisings. If the West cares about civil liberties and human rights as true values that should be spread worldwide and not just political talking points, then it must adopt this policy.  1 Alagiri, P. Et al., \u201cGlobal Spending on HIV\/AIDS Tackling Public and Private Investments in AIDS Prevention, Care, and Research\u201d, July 2001.  p.5  2 Paul, I. and Zlutnick, D. \u201cNetworking Rebellion: Digital Policing and Revolt in the Arab Uprisings\u201d. The Abolitionist. 29 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro03b","title":"","text":"All software can be hacked, even with cruder hardware and software. The ability of Chinese hackers to undermine businesses\u2019 advanced firewalls in the United States, having demonstrated a potent ability to penetrate several major media companies. 1 Products made in the West with government subsidy will just have a bloated price tag thanks to the extra costs of production in the West, and the tendency to overrun costs that tends to occur when government is involved. The incentive may not even be enough to persuade many software companies to work on such a project, as they will wish to maintain their markets in authorotarian states such as China which such an innitiative would annoy. China in particular has a history of blacklisting and retaliating against companies that are involved in activities that it sees as being against its national interests.  1 Pakzad, X. \u201cDepth of Cyber Attacks from Chinese Hackers on American News Outlets\u201d. IVN. 9 February 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Anonymity software helps to guarantee protection for people involved in uprisings  The past few years have been marked by an explosion of uprisings around the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, and Arab world generally. These uprisings have all been marked by the extensive and pervasive use of social media and social networking tools, like Twitter, BlackBerry Mobile, and other platforms. The Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia, for example, wherein people mobilized to overthrow their dictator has even been called the Twitter Revolution after the huge number of people using that platform to lead and chronicle the successful uprising. 1 It was the sophistication of physical surveillance technology and the resourcefulness of the security forces that forced dissenters onto the internet, which quickly became, prior to the start of large scale demonstrations, the primary mode of expressing discontent with governments. But the internet is no safe haven, and technology has caught up, allowing governments to crack down on individuals who engage in dissent online. Anyone using the internet to coordinate demonstrations therefore faces the threat of being tracked and arrested as a result. This was the case in Iran after the failed Green Revolution, dissenters were rounded up and punished for challenging the government. 2 Without anonymity, participants in uprisings are liable to face reprisals. Only external help from the technologically advanced West can these freedom fighters maintain their safety and still be able to fight for what they believe in.  1 Zuckerman, E. \u201cThe First Twitter Revolution?\u201d. Foreign Policy. 14 January 2011.   2 Flock, E., \u201cIran Gets Back E-mail Access, But Other Sites Remain Blacked Out Ahead of Protest\u201d. Washington Post. 13 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro01b","title":"","text":"First it is wrong to simply assume that this will guarantee protection for people involved in uprisings. Previous attempts at providing software to help dissenters have had security vulnerabilities that could have allowed the regime to expose its users identities. This was the case with Haystack a tool that was meant to keep users anonymous during the failed green revolution in Iran. 1  Second providing anonymity and thus snubbing the regimes that survive uprisings means those states will be less willing to envision working with the West toward reforms. When an uprising occurs clearly something needs to change. But when the West is putting such undue pressure on a government, it will not react in a way that would benefit the civil rights of the people. Operating from a position of weakness, it will seek to retrench its strength, through force if necessary. Anonymity means little in this scenario, as governments can simply round up all participants in protests and enact harsh punishments to deter future acts.  1 Zetter, K., \u201cPrivacy Tool for Iranian Activists Disabled After Security Holes Exposed\u201d, WIRED, 14 September 2010."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Whether the West thinks it is being clever by hiding behind the intermediary of private companies and acting as if the software they are creating is not for use in destabilizing undemocratic, or perhaps just unfriendly, regimes, that story will not fly on the ground. If the west wants to support uprisings then it is better for it to do so in the open. Without open western support authoritarian regimes will feel they are enabled to crack down on uprisings when they occur. When such crackdowns occur democratic states can either stay silent and so tacitly endorse the regime or condemn it so supporting the uprising."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Incentives are the best way to produce effective, affordable software  The West has clear reasons to seek to provide the software necessary for anonymity to people involved in uprisings, and it has the means. Western countries are the most advanced technologically and have been the leaders in creating and developing the internet and thus they are best suited to producing and disseminating this technology. Firstly, as they are more advanced in software development, the products they distribute will be much more difficult for the target regimes\u2019 to hack or subvert to their own advantage, or at least significantly more difficult to than were it produced in any other locale. 1 Secondly, the efficient production of software requires special industry clusters. These exist almost exclusively in the West. Silicon Valley, for example is the high tech capital of the world, and were companies there incentivized to produce software for the participants of uprisings it would be a simple matter of efficient distribution, which these firms are best in the world at doing. The need for subsidy is also clear. People involved in uprisings tend not to have huge amounts of disposable income, so to date there has been little market for the production of these sorts of software devices. With a subsidy from Western governments the incentive is created and a top quality product that will save lives and make the uprising more likely to succeed is born.  1 Paul, I. and Zlutnick, D. \u201cNetworking Rebellion: Digital Policing and Revolt in the Arab Uprisings\u201d. The Abolitionist. 29 August 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro04a","title":"","text":"It is a means of vocalizing support for uprisings and liberty at a remove, preventing the backlash of direct intervention  By enacting this subsidy, the West makes a tacit public statement in favour of those involved in uprisings without coming out and publicly taking a side. This is a shrewd position to take as it blunts many of the fall-backs opposed regimes rely upon, such as blaming Western provocateurs for instigating the uprising. Rather than making a judgment call involving force or sanction, the simple provision of anonymity means the people involved in the uprisings can do it themselves while knowing they have some protections to fall back on that the West alone could provide. This is a purely enabling policy, giving activists on the group access to the freedom of information and expression, which aids not only in their aim to free themselves from tyranny, but also abets the West\u2019s efforts to portray itself publicly as a proponent of justice for all, not just those it happens to favour as a geopolitical ally. In essence, the policy is a public statement of support for the ideas behind uprisings absent the specific taking of sides in a particular conflict. It throws some advantages to those seeking to rise up without undermining their cause through overbearing Western intervention. And that statement is a valuable one for Western states to make, because democracies tend to be more stable, more able to grow economically and socially in the long term, and are more amenable to trade and discourse with the West. By enacting this policy the West can succeed in this geopolitical aim without making the risers seem to be Western pawns."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con03b","title":"","text":"In an uprising the government is going to try to level lots of accusations. Some will stick, some will not. In this case the government has a touch more ammunition on the anti-Western front, but this is entirely overwhelmed by the boon of protecting the leaders and organizers, who are at greatest risk using the social media needed to coordinate the uprising, and are the most essential to a successful outcome. The benefits of providing anonymity clearly outweigh the tangential costs of giving a bit more mud to the government to sling."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con01b","title":"","text":"Regimes will paint everyone as looters and disturbers of order irrespective of anonymity. This software changes that status quo by offering the political dissidents, the real people regimes will be trying to root out during and in the aftermath of uprisings, a means of not falling immediately foul of the state security forces. They are the people that need protection in this scenario because it is on them that the success of the uprising and its ideals rest."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con02a","title":"","text":"Clandestine aid to dissidents will serve to alienate and close off discourse on policy  Reform in oppressive regimes, or ones that have less than stellar democratic and human rights records that might precipitate an uprising, is often slow in coming, and external pressures are generally looked upon with suspicion. The most effective way for Western countries to effect change is to engage with repressive regimes and to encourage them to reform their systems. By not directly antagonizing, but instead trading, talking, and generally building ties with countries, Western states can put to full use their massive economic power and political capital to good use in coaxing governments toward reform. 1 Peaceful evolution toward democracy results in far less bloodshed and instability, and should thus be the priority for Western governments seeking to change the behaviour of states. Militant action invariably begets militant response. And providing a mechanism for armed and violent resistance to better evade the detection of the state could well be considered a militant action.  The only outcome that would arise from this policy is a regime that is far less well disposed to the ideas of the West. This is because those ideas now carry the weight of foreign governments seeking actively to destabilize and abet the overthrow of their regimes, which, unsurprisingly, they consider to be wholly legitimate. A policy of flouting national laws will demand a negative response from the regimes, leading them to take harsh measures, such as curtailing access to the internet at all in times of uprising, which would be a major blow to domestic dissidents who, even with heavy censorship, still rely on the internet to organize and share information. This action would serve simply to further impoverish the people of useful tools for organization and uprising, such as occurred in Russia when the government ejected American NGOs they perceived as trying to undermine the regime. 2  1 Larison, D. 2012. \u201cEngagement is Not Appeasement\u201d. The American Conservative. Available:   2 Brunwasser, M. \u201cRussia Boots USAID in a Big Blow to Obama\u2019s \u2018Reset\u2019 Policy\u201d. September 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con04a","title":"","text":"Western businesses will be forced out of lucrative markets  The Western firms being incentivized to produce and distribute this software will require at least some market penetration to be able to reach these dissidents. This means they have business interests in these countries that may well be important to their own bottom line and to jobs back home. Putting these relationships and long-standing business arrangements at risk through a risky gamble like software specifically to help rebels is foolhardy. When regimes that are the target of these efforts get wind of these efforts, they will no doubt sever ties, damaging long term business interests, which is particularly damaging considering it is in authoritarian regimes like China and Vietnam that technology companies see the greatest room for growth. 1 The illusory benefits of catalysing regime change are far outweighed by the huge potential business costs. Furthermore, the ability of businesses to help effect change in these countries is hampered by this policy. It is the business interests linked directly into these economies that generate the most sharing of ideas and principles. It is through these channels that eventual reforms shall flow. It is best not to cut the tap for an all-or-nothing play.  1 The Star Online. \u201cIntel Upbeat on South-East Asia, Sees Double-Digit Growth for Processor Manufacture Next Year\u201d. 12 November 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con03a","title":"","text":"Aiding of the agents of chaos will allow the government to discredit the uprisings as being instigated and abetted by the West  The fact that dissidents can be conflated with other rioters gives real power to the government to discredit the uprising. Firstly, they can report the rioting and looting in tandem with the uprising, as they hide behind anonymity, making it difficult to ascertain specific agents and their directives. Secondly, the regime can identify the West as the instigator of the unrest. This is what Iran\u2019s leaders did during the Green Revolution, when it blamed the foreign tools of dissent like Twitter and other social media for aiding in the rebel protests. 1 This two-pronged attack can be used to drive a wedge between the general public and the leaders and primary agents of dissent seeking to build a broad base of support, a necessary prerequisite for an uprising to succeed. While anonymity gives some ability for individual leaders to hide themselves in the crowd, they lose their moral authority and impact when they can be easily construed as cowardly Western-backed ag\u00e9nts provocateur.  1 Flock, E., \u201cIran Gets Back E-mail Access, But Other Sites Remain Blacked Out Ahead of Protest\u201d. Washington Post. 13 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con01a","title":"","text":"Justice demands that those who seek actual political redress be sorted from opportunistic marauders  The technology of anonymity can have the effect of providing needed security to dissidents seeking to make their country a better place, but it is just as likely to provide cover for the violent opportunists that arise in the midst of the chaos. When the state is unable to locate the culprits, and even to sort between those who are dissidents from those who are mere criminals, everyone involved gets blamed for the worst excesses of the chaos, discrediting the people with legitimate claims. Anonymity is a dangerous tool to give anyone, but particularly so in the context of violent uprising where it can be taken up by anyone. All governments, even authoritarian ones, have a right to defend their citizens from violent criminals capitalizing on mayhem. Western governments only make the cause of justice, often a tenuous one in these countries, all the more likely to go undefended, as governments are forced to clamp down on everyone, and find excuse in the looters to discredit the entirety of uprising with the same brush of destruction. Worse still is the possibility that the technology could fall into the hands of dangerous groups such as terrorists and militants who might use the greater safety of anonymity to increase their reach and scope of violence so turning the software against its creators."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con04b","title":"","text":"Engagement will still occur. The software exists to aid in uprisings, which is the endpoint of the regime, or at least a signal of its imminent change. It is a play that Western governments should back on a human as well as political level. The subsidies and incentives, furthermore, can be sufficient to compensate companies if things do indeed go sour. This would be expected, in fact, since the companies, acting rationally will have to be coaxed into producing and supplying this technology."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con02b","title":"","text":"It is often not enough simply to encourage gradual change, many states when given such encouragement simply take what the west offers and ignores what the west asks. This indeed was the case with Mubarak's Egypt for three decades, it took billions in aid from the United States yet did not reform, the U.S. even strengthened the regime by respecting restrictions on which NGOs could get funding. 1 If people are able to act and organize with more limited government reprisal, their chance of success is significantly increased. The incentive of the West should be to bet on the dissidents when they rise up and to take the gamble so that they can welcome a new, freer regime into the congress of nations.  1 Bery, S., \u201cRoots of Discontent: Egypt's Call for Freedom\u201d, Harvard Kennedy School Review, 2011."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro02b","title":"","text":"By creating celebrities in the first place the media is often creating artificial demand for such stories; it is too simplistic to suggest that such stories are what the public wants in light of this. There will, however, always be a fascination in learning intimate details about the lives of the powerful and famous, but this should not be a reason to deny public figures the right to privacy that the rest of us enjoy. The media likes to portray itself as an important pillar in society and democracy, and while in some respects it is, by undermining the law by disregarding the right to privacy the newspapers are in fact damaging their own justification for their existence. The argument that many celebrities have courted the media for their fame is a misnomer, it can often be a bi-product of their career, why should their lives be necessarily punished via having their private lives scrutinized by the public just because it\u2019s what the public may want?"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro02a","title":"","text":"It\u2019s what the public want to know about  Newspapers are simply publishing the kind of stories the public want to read, it is no accident that the best-selling newspapers in the UK are the tabloids which regularly publish stories into the private lives of celebrities and that some of the highest rating news shows in the US are loaded with celebrity gossip. The News of the World, which pushed the boundaries of intrusion right up to its closure in 2011, was consistently Britain\u2019s most-read newspaper. [1] When you enter a career which is in the public domain, in particular those such as acting, which often requires courting the media to gain publicity, it is well known that intrusion into your private life may occur. It could even be argued that by entering such a profession you agree to forfeit your right to privacy as a condition of entry. Thereafter, when success has been gained via manipulating the press it is hypocritical to complain of \u201cpress intrusion\u201d. Celebrities should not bemoan the media for simply providing information that the public wish to read.  [1] Audit Bureau of Circulations. (2011) National Sunday newspaper circulation June 2011. [online][accessed 14 May 2013]"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro03b","title":"","text":"Much media reporting of private lives is not being done under a watchdog mandate but rather to simply titillate the audience with gossip which is unnecessary for the public to know. Having distinct rules as to what can and cannot be reported is important to protect the lives of public figures who are entitled to the same rights as everyone else. Such firm distinctions between what is public and private and what can and cannot be reported will of course on occasion limit the press from unveiling a story which may be very important for the world to know about. However, on the whole, what such regulation would do is ensure that the vast majority of reporting which is of no use to the public and is being published at the detriment of someone\u2019s private life is severely restricted, if not eliminated. This is the ethical thing to do as it ensures that the right to privacy is universal."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro01a","title":"","text":"Those in power need to be held to account  All people that are considered public figures have, to one degree or another, the power to affect society; be it in an overt way via politics or economics or more subtly via changing peoples\u2019 perceptions of the world. These people need to held to account and the media is the most effective way of doing this as normal people do not have the time or resources to scrutinize everything pubic figures are doing whereas the media can. If the private lives of public figures are conflicting with their actual public persona it is in the wider interest to reveal this. For example, in 2009 during the UK\u2019s \u201cMPs expenses scandal\u201d it was revealed that some MPs, whose responsibility it is to create and review laws, were breaking their own tax laws in their private lives. This clearly demonstrates a misuse of their position and deserves to be known. [1] Another such example can be seen with golfer Tiger Woods who was seen to represent excellence and determination in sport and most importantly was presented as an ideal clean-cut role model. However this image was found to be a sham when stories into his private life revealed he was unfaithful to his wife and he subsequently admitted to numerous affairs. This came to light as a direct result of media reporting into his turbulent private life and it is in the public interest to know such information due to both the power he and others wield as public icons and the money generated from their public image.  [1] Prince, R. (2009) MPs Breaking Tax Laws, Chief Inspector Says.\u201d [online] [accessed 14th July 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro01b","title":"","text":"Of course people need to be held to account and in some cases the publication of the private affairs of public figures can be justified. However, on the whole, most reporting into the private lives of public figures is simply gossip which the public has no need to know and is holding no-one to account. Instead it is often simply being used to sell media products. There are hundreds of examples which could be cited of such intrusion, often involving actors\/actresses and models which offer no real justification at all as to why they were printed. Printing stories about celebrities on holiday for example is not holding them to account or benefiting society in an actively positive way.  This can also extend to those in more traditional power roles. Is it in the public interest to know all the details about the private lives of politicians and CEOs if what is being reported does not have a direct effect on their role? For example Max Mosley, the now ex-president of the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), a group which not only represents the interests of motoring organizations but is also the governing body for Formula One, was exposed in 2008 by the now defunct News of the World newspaper as being involved in a sadomasochistic sex act which involved several female prostitutes. The reporting of this was unnecessary as the event did not have a direct effect on his running of the FIA and was therefore not in the public interest. Mosley took the case to the UK High Court claiming infringement of his private life and the court found in his favor. [1]  [1] BBC (2008) Mosley Wins Court Case Over Orgy. [online] [accessed 14th July 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro03a","title":"","text":"No clear dividing line between public and private can be made.  No clear dividing line can be drawn between public and private behavior; drawing up rules would be arbitrary and would prevent some corrupt, dubious or dishonest behavior from being exposed. For example, President Mitterrand of France hid his cancer from the French electorate for years. Was this a public or a private matter? He also had a mistress and illegitimate daughter, who were secretly taken on some of his foreign visits at state expense. [1] Again, is this a private or a public matter? The creation of solid distinctions would undermine the power of the press to carry out its watchdog role because in a scenario where such strict rules existed something in the public interest could be transpiring in the private lives of public figures and the media powerless to report it.  [1] Allen-Mills, T. (2009) From The Archive: Mitterrand\u2019s Illegitimate Daughter is Revealed. [online] [accessed 14th July 2011](paywall)"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con03b","title":"","text":"As previously stated upon entering a profession which involves being in the public limelight one should expect to be put under such stresses. If you are publicly known, there will be a demand for information about you and the media is simply obtaining stories which their readership wish to consume. The Diana example was, as the opposition argument expresses, an extraordinary case; one which is extremely rare and from which lessons have been learnt. However there are codes of ethics which all journalists sign up to which contain caveats to ensure that physical and mental harm is kept to a minimum if in existence at all. While on occasion a journalist can fail to live up-to these ethics they are, on the whole, well adhered to and in those instances when not, professional sanctions often take place to minimize such an issue from occurring again."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con01b","title":"","text":"Whether or not a public figure has chosen to be a role model, once they become one then they have a moral duty to society to ensure they represent all the things a good role model should. While a footballer may just want to be a footballer and simply reach the highest level in the game, they have to accept that people at the top of the sport are necessarily role models and it comes with the territory. In addition to this, many sporting personalities and others in different fields go on to promote organizations, either for charitable reasons or huge fees. If their behavior contradicts the message they are promoting the public has a right to know this as it is a case of deceiving the public. Being a public figure in any of its guises should be seen as a special exception to the privacy law as their success is founded on communicating though the media in one sense or another."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con02a","title":"","text":"Unrestricted scrutiny into private lives could be a detriment to democracy  Continual probing into the private lives of public figures actually harms the functioning of democracy. Very few potential political candidates, for example, will have entirely spotless private lives, free from embarrassing indiscretions committed while young and irresponsible. The prospect of fierce and unforgiving press scrutiny will thus deter many from seeking public office and deny their talents to the public good. Those who do present themselves for election will therefore tend to be rather unrepresentative individuals of a puritanical nature, whose views on sex, family life, drugs to name but a few may be skewed and intolerant as a result. The sex scandals of Elliott Spitzer and Anthony Weiner, to use just New York politicians, are not therefore representative of New York as a whole, but rather a system that is only attractive to those who believe in their own invincibility and potentially lack the necessary humility to truly represent their constituents."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con03a","title":"","text":"The media could be endangering peoples\u2019 mental and physical health.  Pursuing stories regarding the lives of public figures could be putting the health of the person being pursued and their families lives in danger. The most extreme and infamous case of this would most arguably be the events which are said to have contributed to the untimely death of Princess Diana, whereby her car crashed into the wall of a tunnel having been pursued by tabloid journalists and paparazzi seeking an ultimately trivial story. While this was an extraordinary event it does show the extent to which journalists have been known to pursue public figures for a story which undoubtedly places stress on the targets and their families lives which could leave to both health issues and psychological distress. [1]  [1] Balakrishnan, A. (2008) Chauffeur and paparazzi to blame for Diana death, jury finds. [online][accessed 14 May 2013]"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con01a","title":"","text":"Those in public positions deserve the same privacy rights as the general public  Many public figures achieve celebrity status largely by mistake; it is a by-product of their pursuit of success in their particular field. For example, most professional footballers when young simply wanted to become the best player they could be, at the highest level they could reach. As Tottenham Hotspur Football Club defender Benoit Assou-Ekotto has stated, he had no desire to end up in an office job he wasn\u2019t suited to so football became the means to ensure he could live out his life comfortably. Expelled from school, he assumed the profession he was naturally good at, just as a natural mathematician goes into engineering. [1] They do not wish to be \u201crole models\u201d and claim no special moral status, so why should their private lives be subjected to such public scrutiny? Individuals who happen to be public figures still deserve the same rights to privacy as the rest of us; simply because they may have a degree of fame does not make them fair-game.  [1] Hytner, D. (2010). Benoit Assou-Ekotto: \u2018I play for the money. Football\u2019s not my passion\u2019. [accessed July 19 2011]"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con02b","title":"","text":"Many politicians in their campaigns make an explicit or implicit point out of emphasizing their family values and other aspects of their \u201cprivate\u201d life, for example by being photographed with their loyal family and through taking a stance on such issues as divorce, single mothers, sex education or drugs. If the public image such people seek to create is at variance with their own practices, such hypocrisy deserves to be exposed. This would not be to the detriment of democracy but in fact may improve it as it would encourage future politicians to ensure that they live by what they preach, rather than cynically trying to manipulate the media into creating a false image of who they are only for it to be fatally undermined by their own actions."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro02b","title":"","text":"The marketing programmes and collations have over time become far more sophisticated and textured in allocating ad space. While some people feel it a bit disconcerting that their computer seems to know what might interest them, many others have found that the targeted advertising has made the seeking out of desired goods and services far easier. And even if people feel it is a bit alienating, it does not necessarily stop them from availing of the marketed services. Nor does some people disliking it provide a good reason for banning the practice."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro02a","title":"","text":"Consumers tend to find these strategies alienating  Internet users have come to understand the nature of demographic and personal marketing, and have generally rejected it. This is because they consider the whole process invasive, with their personal details exploited to the profit of third party businesses seeking to peddle their wares. This has resulted in a substantial backlash against these forms of marketing, and built up prejudicial attitudes toward the companies that use these schemes, and the internet services that facilitate them. The facts of these attitudes have been borne out in a number of research studies, showing that as much as 66% of Americans do not want their personal information used to tailor advertising to them. [1] This has led to less than the desired outcome for marketers who rather than experiencing their sales increased efficiently through more targeted marketing alienate their potential customers. More than just invasive, this form of marketing tends toward stereotypes, using programmes that favour broad brushstrokes in their marketing, resulting in stereotyped services on the basis of apparent gender and race. A recent example of this sort of racial profiling took place in 2013 when it was revealed that having a stereotypical \u201cblack\u201d name brought up ads for criminal records checks 25% more often than for users with other names. [2] This was, to say the least, considered exceptionally alienating by many users. This and other incidents have compounded the sense of alienation from these forms of marketing among consumers.  [1] Pinsent Masons. \u201cUS Web Users Reject Behavioural Advertising, Study Finds\u201d. Out-Law. 30 September 2009.   [2] Gayle, D. \u201cGoogle Accused of Racism After Black Names are 25% More Likely to Bring Up Adverts for Criminal Records Checks\u201d. The Daily Mail.5 February 2013."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro03b","title":"","text":"The extent to which the online experience is altered by targeted marketing is extremely limited. Certainly they are less influential on how people interact with the internet than are search engines\u2019 own choices in search priorities. The user of Bing has a much more differentiated experience from the Google user, than do individuals targeted by demographic-based marketing strategies. Ultimately, it does not matter overmuch if people have somewhat differentiated experiences anyway as long as those different experiences make the online experience better."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro01a","title":"","text":"This advertising strategy undermines people\u2019s right to personal privacy  Targeted advertising based on profiles and demographic details is the product of information acquired in a fashion that is fundamentally invasive of individuals\u2019 privacy. When individuals go online they act as private parties, often enjoying anonymity in their personal activities. Yet online services collate information and seek to use it to market products and services that are specifically tailored to those individuals. This means that individuals\u2019 activities online are in fact susceptible to someone else\u2019s interference and oversight, stealing from them the privacy and security the internet has striven to provide. At the most basic level, the invasion of privacy that collating and using private data gleaned from online behaviour is unacceptable. [1] There is a very real risk of the information being misused, as the data can be held, Facebook for example keeps all information ever entered to the social network, [2] and even resold to third parties that the internet users might not want to come into possession of their personal details. People should always be given the option of consent to the use of their data by any party, as is the case in many jurisdictions, such as the European Union has done in implementing its 'cookie law'. [3] This can lead to serious abuses of individuals\u2019 private information by corporations, or indeed other agents that might have less savoury uses for the information.  [1] The Canadian Press. \u201cAcademics Want Watchdog to Probe Online Profiling\u201d. CTV News. 28 July 2008.   [2] Lewis, J., \u201cFacebook faces EU curbs on selling users\u2019 interests to advertisers\u201d, The Telegraph, 26 November 2011,   [3] European Union, \u201cDirective 2009\/136\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council\u201d, Official Journal of the European Union, L 337\/11, 18 December 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro01b","title":"","text":"The data that is used in targeted marketing is freely available online and can be protected in many ways. The programmes that target marketing often do not ever gain real access to individuals\u2019 identities, but rather collate their search details. It is highly unlikely that any of this information could be used to identify actual individuals. Furthermore, the information in question is put into the public sphere by individuals availing of online services and not guaranteed any form of special protection. They exist and are revealed in the public sphere, and belong there. It is therefore wrong to say that privacy is being undermined by targeted advertising."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro03a","title":"","text":"Demographic\/profile-based advertising fundamentally alters the experience of the internet for people of different backgrounds  When the experience of the internet differs between people because of their backgrounds and past activities, the position of the online experience as one free of informational prejudice is undermined. It is important that the internet and the sites and services that float around it be as free from external prejudicing that contemporary targeted marketing creates. This marketing shapes at the most basic level the internet experience people interact with, and as it differs between people the quality of the universal service is diminished in a way. [1] This is particularly problematic when that internet experience is designed to differentiate between people of differing demographic backgrounds, which serve only to heighten divisions between these groups. The internet should remain a neutral space.  [1] Cartagena, R. \u201cOnline Tracking, Profiling and Targeting \u2013 Behavioural Advertisers Beware\u201d. eCommerce Times. 19 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con03b","title":"","text":"The benefit to small firms is far outweighed by the loss of privacy, something that the size of firms involved potentially makes worse. Smaller companies are unlikely to have the sophisticated data security that larger businesses do making it more likely that the information will fall into the hands of individuals who wish to misuse it. Moreover if targeted advertising alienates consumers then those small firms who are able to use such advertising may not be getting the full benefit. While individuals may well enjoy the various smaller or niche services being offered, they often do not like having it shoved in their faces. Being put off can detract customers from these markets, preventing the flourishing of niche market businesses desired. The strategy is just too invasive and disconcerting. Furthermore, far from successfully hitting their markets all the time, the programmes used to collate data rely on stereotypes and broad characterizations of users to try to reach their markets. This lack of sophistication leads to further alienation by users."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con01b","title":"","text":"Even if the services advertised are effective in providing services that may interest them, the fundamental violation of privacy entailed in compiling personal search data is too serious a danger to people than the fleeting benefits that this sort of advertising might furnish. But this form of advertising is often not as effective, since its reliance on programmes that stereotype demographics can often result in misallocation of advertising. Furthermore, the discomfort people feel at this advertising means they do not like experiencing it, useful or not."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con02a","title":"","text":"The sort of information being used in this advertising is legitimate for firms to utilize  The information trail left online through cookies etc. is a public statement, put into the public sphere. Provided the individual's identity is not revealed the information is usable through the impermeable intermediary of security settings, etc. Thus firms get information about users without ever being able to ascertain the actual identity of those individuals, protecting their individual privacy. [1] For this reason it cannot be said that there is any true violation of privacy. Furthermore, this sort of targeted advertising, while focusing on general demographics and programmes, does succeed in hitting its mark most of the time. Thus there is a value in having the programming, and it is absent stereotype. All of this advertising is simply the continuation of firms\u2019 age-old effort to better understand their clients and to cater for their needs and should not be considered any differently to adverts being placed as a result of working out what programs are watched by what demographic. TV is also moving towards targeting ads to individuals through information such as household income and purchasing history, this is information that is not private and online usage should be considered the same way. [2] Advertising is difficult business, given media saturation, and it is only right that this system exist to better serve the customers, given it is the natural outgrowth of past efforts.  [1] Story, L. \u201cAOL Brings Out the Penguins to Explain Ad Targeting\u201d. New York Times. 9 March 2008.   [2] Deloitte, \u201cTargeted television advertisements miss the point\u201d, 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con03a","title":"","text":"This advertising strategy benefits companies by making marketing more efficient and allows smaller markets to develop  Targeted advertising using the wealth of personal information left for collection and collation online makes business far more efficient for advertisers. Until recently advertisers were forced to use ads that went into the world basically at random, hitting everyone and not necessarily reaching the desired audience. This meant that producers could rarely target small markets, and thus advertising and mass media products all focused on large groups. [1] Thus small producers have been crowded out from the mainstream. With the advent of targeted marketing, producers can now afford to compete for business and to advertise their services to the groups that actually want what they have to sell. Thus businesses have been able to flourish that once would have languished without access to a proper market. An example of this is the targeting by niche fashion boutiques targeting the diffuse but expansive \u201chipster\u201d market. [2] This has led to a more efficient business world, with lots of producers that can compete with the larger mainstream quite effectively.  [1] Columbus Metropolitan Library. \u201cUsing Demographics to Target Your Market\u201d. 2012.   [2] Fleur, B. \u201cNew Meaning for the Term \u2018Niche Market\u2019\u201d. New York Times. 29 September 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con01a","title":"","text":"This form of marketing makes for better advertising that benefits consumers  By targeting demographics and personal profiles, businesses are able to put forward the services that are statistically likely to pique their target\u2019s interest. In the past, because advertisers had limited budgets and no sophisticated means of reaching their target audience, they had to settle for broad demographics and to cater to majority tastes and interests. This led to a reduction in the breadth of goods and services to niche markets. Targeted advertising helps to alleviate this issue by allowing customers of eclectic tastes to actually find services they are interested in outside the mainstream, enriching their own lives in the process. The internet is vast, and it is often difficult to sift out things that might be interesting to the individual consumer from all the information available. Targeted advertising is one of the most effective ways of providing this information to people. [1] The data compiled to create an individual profile is easily able to divine a broad brushstrokes outline of a person\u2019s likely interests. This creates a better experience for internet users because it provides a far easier means of finding goods and services that would interest them, often from sources they might not have otherwise been aware. When Facebook furnishes this service to advertisers, users are shown ads that fit their profiles, ones they might find interesting. [2] Given that there is only finite ad space, it is far better for the consumer to see ads for things they care about while using the service rather than just ignoring pointless things.  [1] Columbus Metropolitan Library. \u201cUsing Demographics to Target Your Market\u201d. 2012.   [2] Lewis, J., \u201cFacebook faces EU curbs on selling users\u2019 interests to advertisers\u201d, The Telegraph, 26 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con02b","title":"","text":"The anonymity of this information is far from guaranteed and firms\u2019 data collection can indeed serve as a serious threat to people\u2019s privacy and identity on the internet. The technology in use is extremely difficult to police, and the data, once collected, can wander off to less reputable places. It is not enough to claim this as a natural evolution of advertising when it is accepted that there are personal boundaries advertisers cannot cross, such as into the home. This advertising strategy carries too many risks to be permitted."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro02b","title":"","text":"The internet is a flourishing place for discourse because it is absolutely free to all, and everyone accepts and experiences the fruit of that freedom. When the government abandons its stance of neutrality and begins censoring materials, even if it begins only with the nastiest examples, it compromises the copper-fastened liberties that the internet was created to furnish. Many people will abuse that tool, but thankfully people can evade the hate sites easily and never have to experience them without compromising their own freedoms by censoring their opponents."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro02a","title":"","text":"Holocaust denial sites are an attack on group identities  The internet is the center of discourse and public life in the 21st century. With the advent of social networks, people around the world live more and more online. Unlike any other kind of hateful speech that might flourish on the internet, Holocaust denial stands apart. This is due firstly to the particular mark that the Holocaust has made on the collective consciousness of western civilization as the ultimate act of human evil and depravity. The Holocaust is now a defining part of Jewish identity, denying it attacks all those who suffered and their decedents. Allowing Holocaust denial websites is allowing the rejection of groups\u2019 very identity. Thus its apologists do far more harm than any troll, misogynist, or even apologist of other atrocities. For this reason, the government can justifiably censor sites promoting these absolutely offensive beliefs while not falling down any sort of slippery slope. The second reason Holocaust denial stands apart from other sorts of internet abuse is that these sites are often flashpoints for violence materializing in the real world. More than just talk, neo-Nazis seek dangerous action, and thus the state should be doubly ready to remove this threat from the internet. [1] Accepting that Holocaust deniers have a point that should be articulated across the internet would be helping these neo-nazi groups gain a foothold. The particularly grievous nature of the Holocaust demands the protection of history to the utmost.  [1] BBC. \u201cGermany\u2019s Neo-Nazi Underground\u201d. BBC News. 7 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro03b","title":"","text":"While it is true that Holocaust deniers spread misinformation and seek to undermine and bend the systems of discourse to be as favorable as possible, they are a tiny fringe minority of opinion, and the number of sites debunking their pseudo-history is far greater than that of the actual deniers. Even young people are able to surf the web with great skill, and can easily see that the Holocaust denial position is fringe in the extreme."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro01a","title":"","text":"Governments should not allow forums for hate speech to flourish  Denial of the Holocaust is fundamentally hate speech. It is the duty of the government to deny these offensive beliefs a platform of any kind. [1] By blocking these sites, the government denies a certain freedom of speech, but it is a necessarily harmful form of speech that has no value in the market place of ideas. Many people, often Jews, but also members of other discriminated against minorities like Roma, suffer directly from the speech, feeling not only offended, but physically threatened by such denials. Holocaust denial however goes beyond hate speech because it is not only offensive but factually wrong. The attempt to rewrite history and to sow lies causes a threat to the truth and an ability to co-opt the participation of gullible individuals to their cause that mere insults and demagoguery could not. It represents a threat to education by undermining the value of facts and evidence. For this reason, there is essentially no real loss of valuable speech in censoring the sites denying the Holocaust.  [1] Lipstadt, Deborah. Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. New York: Free Press, 1993."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro01b","title":"","text":"Denying Holocaust-denier their right to speak is a threat to everyone\u2019s freedom of speech. It is essential in a free society that people be able to express their views without fear of reprisal. As Voltaire said, \u201cI disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it\u201d. As the facts are against the Holocaust deniers their opponents should have no fear of engaging them in open discussion as they will be able to demonstrate how erroneous their opponents are."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro04b","title":"","text":"Holocaust deniers will always find ways to organize, be it in smaller pockets of face-to-face contact, clandestine social networking, or untraceable black sites online that governments cannot shut down because they cannot find them. The result of blocking these views from the public internet only serves to push their proponents further underground and to make them take less public strategies on board. Ultimately, it is a cosmetic, not substantive solution."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro03a","title":"","text":"The freedom of Holocaust deniers to use to the internet legitimizes their organization and message in eyes of consumers  When the internet places no moral judgments on content, and the gatekeepers let all information through on equal footing, it lends an air of legitimacy that these beliefs have a voice, and that they are held by reasonable people. This legitimacy is enhanced by the anonymity of the internet where deniers can pose as experts and downplay their opponents\u2019 credentials. While the internet is a wonderful tool for spreading knowledge, it can also be subverted to disseminate misinformation. Holocaust deniers have been able to use the internet to a remarkable extent in promoting pseudoscience and pseudo-history that have the surface appearance of credibility. [1] Compounding this further, the administrators of these sites are able to choke of things like dissenting commenters, giving the illusion that their view is difficult, or even impossible to reasonably challenge. They thus create an echo chamber for their ideas that allows them to spread and to affect people, particularly young people susceptible to such manipulation. By denying these people a platform on the internet, the government is able to not only make a moral stance that is unequivocal, but also to choke off access to new members who can be saved by never seeing the negative messages.  [1] Lipstadt, Deborah. Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. New York: Free Press, 1993."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro04a","title":"","text":"A ban would stop Holocaust deniers from engaging in effective real world actions  The greatest fear with hate groups is not just their hateful rhetoric online, but also their ability to take harmful action in the real world. When Holocaust deniers are able to set up standard websites, they have the ability to mobilize action on the ground. This means coordinating rallies, as well as acts of hooliganism and violence. One need only look at the sort of organization the Golden Dawn, a neo-fascist Greek party, has been able to develop in part through active use of social media and websites. [1] By capitalizing on the tools of the 21st century these thugs have succeeded in bringing sympathizers to their cause, often geographically diffuse, into a tight-knit community capable of action and disruption that harms all citizens, but particularly the minority groups they are presently fixated upon. By utilizing social media and websites Holocaust deniers have gained a new lease on life. The government can significantly hamper these organizations from taking meaningful actions, and from coalescing in the first place by denying them their favored and most effective platform.  [1] Savaricas, Nathalie, \u201cGreece\u2019s neo-fascists are on the rise... and now they\u2019re going into schools: How Golden Dawn is nurturing the next generation\u201d, The Independent, 2 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con03b","title":"","text":"While some people might be enticed by the mystique of Holocaust deniers as transgressors, far more people will be put off by the firm hand of the state denying them a powerful platform from which to speak. Even if some are enticed these individuals will find it much more difficult to access the information they seek and so only the most determined will ultimately be influenced. Some Holocaust deniers will always lurk in the shadows, but society should show no quarter in the battle for truth."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con01b","title":"","text":"Freedom of speech certainly may be curtailed when there is a real harm manifested from it. Holocaust denial, in its refusal to acknowledge one of the most barbaric acts in human history and attempt to justify terrible crimes, is an incredibly dehumanizing force, one that many people suffer from, even if they do not need to read it themselves. We may have the freedom to express ourselves but that does not mean we have the freedom to make up our own facts. The threat Holocaust deniers represent to free society demands that their right to speech online be curtailed."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con02a","title":"","text":"The internet should operate on the basis of net neutrality  The internet is a free market of ideas in which all beliefs can be submitted to the whole of the online community and then put to criticism and judgment. In the same way irrational beliefs like Creationism first found purchase on the internet only to be undermined and discredited by the efforts of online activists, so too have Holocaust deniers been forced by their presence on the web to justify their beliefs and submit evidence for scrutiny. In so doing the online community has systematically discredited the deniers and undermined their efforts at recruitment. By taking on a stance of net neutrality in the provision of internet and the blocking of sites, governments allow this process to play out and for the free exchange of ideas on which liberal democratic society is built upon to show its strength. [1] A neutral stance upholds the highest principles of the state, and allows people to feel safe in the veracity and representativeness of the internet content they are provided.  [1] Seythal, T. \u201cHolocaust Denier Sentenced to Five Years\u201d. The Washington Post. 15 February 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con04a","title":"","text":"The organizers will go underground  A major risk with any extremist organization is that its members, when put under significant legal pressure, will go underground. For example The Pirate Bay, a major bittorrent file sharing website, simply moved to cloud hosting providers around the world to prevent it being shut down. [1] The power of the state to actually stop the development of neo-Nazi and Holocaust denier networks is extremely limited, as they will be able still to organize in secret, or even semi-publicly, via social networks and hidden websites. While their visible profile would be diminished, it would not guarantee any positive gains in terms of stamping down on their numbers. Indeed, when they no longer use public channels it will be ever harder for the government to keep track of their doings and of their leaders. The result of this censorship is a more emboldened, harder to detect group that now has a sense of legitimate grievance and victimhood against the state, which it can use to encourage more extreme acts from its members and can spin to its advantage during recruitment efforts. By leaving them in the open they feel more comfortable acting within the confines of the law and are thus far less dangerous, even if they are more visible.  [1] BBC, \u201cThe Pirate Bay moves to the cloud to avoid shutdown\u201d, BBC News, 17 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con03a","title":"","text":"Denial of access adds mystique to their beliefs  By denying people the ability to access sites set up by Holocaust deniers the government serves only to increase their mystique and thus the demand to know more about the movement and its beliefs. When the state opposes something so vociferously that it is willing to set aside the normal freedoms people have come to expect as granted, many people begin to take greater notice. There are always groups of individuals that wish to set themselves up as oppositional to the norms of society, to be transgressive in behavior and thus challenge the entrenched system. [1] When something like Holocaust denial is given that rare mystique of extreme transgression, it serves to encourage people, particularly young, rebellious people to seek out the group and even join it. This has been the case for neo-Nazism in Germany. In Germany Holocaust denial is illegal, yet it has one of the liveliest communities of neo-Nazis in Europe. [2] Their aggressive attacks have only served to boost the movement\u2019s mystique and many have flocked to its banner. By allowing free expression and debate, many people would be saved from joining the barbaric organizations that promote the lies of Holocaust denial.  [1] Gottfried, Ted. Deniers of the Holocaust: Who They Are, What They Do, Why They Do It. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2001.  [2] BBC. \u201cGermany\u2019s Neo-Nazi Underground\u201d. BBC News. 7 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con01a","title":"","text":"Everyone has a right to freedom of expression  No matter how unpalatable their opinions may be, everyone should have the right to voice them. The very core of a free society is the right to express one\u2019s mind freely, without hindrance from the state. When the state presumes to judge good speech from bad, and to shut off the channel by which the designated bad speech may flow, it abrogates its duty to its citizens. The government does this by presuming to make value judgments on kinds of speech, and thus empowering itself, and not the people, to be the final arbiter of acceptable speech. Such a state of affairs is anathema to the continuation of a free society. [1] With free speech the all sides will get to voice their views and those whose opinions have most evidence will win out so there is no need for censorship as the marketplace of ideas will prevent ideas without sufficient evidence from having an impact. Furthermore, the particular speech in question is extremely fringe, and is for that reason a very unusual one to be seeking to silence. Speech can be legally curtailed only when there is a very real and manifest harm. But that is not the case here, where the participants are few and scattered, and those who would take exception to what the Holocaust deniers have to say can easily opt out online.  [1] Chomsky, Noam. \u201cHis Right to Say it\u201d. The Nation. 28 February 1981,  \/19810228.htm"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con04b","title":"","text":"Forcing Holocaust deniers out of the spotlight and underground can only serve the cause of justice. Surveillance efforts can be employed more rigorously if need be, and will be considerably more legitimate to employ against these groups when their actions are acknowledged to be illegal. With them out of the spotlight they are less likely to rope in new recruits among casual, open-minded internet-goers."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con02b","title":"","text":"Taking a neutral stance is a tacit endorsement of the validity of the message being spread as being worthy of discussion. Holocaust denial does not deserve its day in the sun, even if the outcome were a thumping victory for reason and truth. Besides, the Holocaust deniers are not convinced by reason or argument. Their beliefs are impervious to facts, which is why debate is a pointless exercise except to give them a platform by which to spread their message, organize, and legitimize themselves in the marketplace of ideas."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro02b","title":"","text":"Is it really in the public interest that there should be a norm that government information should be shared? There are clearly some areas where we do not want our government to share information; most clearly in the realm of security, [1] but also where the government and through them taxpayers can make a profit out of the product that the government has created. If the government creates a new radar system for the navy does it not make sense that they should be able to sell it at a profit for use by other country\u2019s shipping? Also, the abundance of piracy online is not a reason to submit to the pirates and give them free access to information they should not receive.  [1] See \u2018 This House believes transparency is necessary for security \u2019"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro02a","title":"","text":"The default of copyright restricts the spreading of information  Current copyright law assigns too many rights, automatically, to the creator. Law gives the generator a work full copyright protection that is extremely restrictive of that works reuse, except when strictly agreed in contracts and agreements. Making the Creative Commons license the standard for publicly-funded works generates a powerful normalizing force toward a general alteration of people\u2019s defaults on what copyright and creator protections should actually be like. The creative commons license guarantees attribution to the creator and they retain the power to set up other for-profit deals with distributors, something that is particularly useful for building programs that need to be maintained. [1] At base the default setting of somehow having absolute control means creators of work often do not even consider the reuse by others in the commons. The result is creation and then stagnation, as others do not expend the time and energy to seek special permissions from the creator.  By normalizing the creative commons through the state funding system, more people will be willing to accept the creative commons as their private default. This means greater access to more works, for the enrichment of all. The result is that a norm is created whereby the assumption is that information should be open and shared rather than controlled and owned for profit by an individual or corporation. All governments recognise a right to freedom of information as part of freedom of expression making it the government\u2019s responsibility to provide access to public information [2] and many are enabling this through creating freedom of information acts. [3] This is simply another part of that right.  [1] \u2018About The Licenses\u2019, Creative Commons, 2010,   [2] \u2018Access to public information is government\u2019s responsibility, concludes seminar in Montevideo\u2019, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 8 October 2010,   [3] See \u2018 This House believes that there should be a presumption in favour of publication for information held by public bodies \u2019"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro03b","title":"","text":"The choice to release work into the viral market is a business decision creators should have the power to choose, not a mandated requirement for funding. Some may decide that they will profit and gain more recognition through releasing their work into the creative commons, others may not. It should be remembered that Ordinance Survey was originally mapping for military purposes rather than for the general public so it might very well have decided that there is no reason to have its data open to the public and it would pose no benefit to enable to public to use that data for modification."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro01a","title":"","text":"If the public funds a product it belongs to them  Everyone benefits and is enriched by open access to resources that the government can provide. A work is the province of its creator in most respects, since it is from the mind and hand of its creator that it is born. But when the state opts to fund a project, it too becomes a part-owner of the ideas and creation that springs forth. The state should thus seek to make public the work it spends taxpayer money to create. This is in exactly the same way that when an employee of a company creates something presuming there is the correct contract the rights to that work go to the company not the employee. [1]  The best means for doing this is through mandating that work created with state funding be released under creative commons licenses, which allow the work to be redistributed, re-explored, and to be used as springboards for new, derivative works. This is hampered by either the creator, or the government, retaining stricter forms of copyright, which effectively entitles the holder of the copyright to full control of the work that would not exist had it not been for the largesse of society. If state funded work is to have meaning it must be in the public sphere and reusable by the public in whatever form they wish. Simply put taxpayer bought so they own it.  [1] Harper, Georgia K., \u2018Who owns what?\u2019, Copyright Crash Course, 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is a difference between the general public and the government. It is the government that bought the rights to the work not the people even if the people are the ones that originally provided the money to develop the work by paying their taxes. It can be considered to be analogous to a business. Consumers pay for the products they buy and the profits from this enable the business to make the next generation of products. But that the consumers provided the profit that enabled that development does not enable the consumers to either get an upgrade or for the product to be released with a creative commons license"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro03a","title":"","text":"Creative commons allows existing work to be used as a building block by others  The nature of the internet and mass media is such that many creators can benefit from the freedom and flexibility that creative commons licenses furnish to them. Creative commons provides vast benefits in allowing a creation to have life after its funding has run out or beyond its original specifications. Creative commons means that the original work can be considered to be a building block that can simply be used as a foundation for more applications and modifications.  For example in many countries government has for decades produced official maps for the country but these can only be irregularly updated \u2013 often with a new release of a paper map. However the internet means that maps could easily be regularly updated online by enthusiastic users and volunteers as things change on the ground if those maps were available under creative commons. This is why applications like openstreetmap or google maps (which is not creative commons but can be easily built upon by creative commons projects) are now much more successful than traditional mapping and has often forced government map providers to follow suit such as the UK\u2019s Ordnance Survey making many of its maps free and downloadable. [1] It is important to recollect that those operating under a creative commons license still maintain control of the marketable aspects of their work and can enter into deals for the commercial distribution of their works. [2]  [1] Arthur, Charles, \u2018Ordnance Survey launches free downloadable maps\u2019, The Guardian, 1 April 2010,   [2] \u2018About The Licenses\u2019, Creative Commons, 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con03b","title":"","text":"The government should not be interested in the profit motive but what is best for its citizens which will usually mean creative commons licenses rather than the state making a profit. This is even more likely when developments are a joint project with a for profit operation; taxpayers will rightly ask why they should be paying the research costs only for a private business to reap the profit from that investment. The government already provides a leg up to businesses in the form of providing infrastructure, a stable business environment, education etc., it should not be paying for their R&D too."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con01b","title":"","text":"Government is quite simply not \u2018like everyone else\u2019. If government acted like a profit maximising business it would clearly have the ability to turn itself into a monopoly on almost everything. This is why the role of government is not to make a profit but to ensure the welfare and freedoms of its citizens."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con02a","title":"","text":"Creative commons is not a good option for many government works  It is simply wrong to paint all government funding with one brush decreeing that it should only be spent if the results are going to be made available through creative commons. Governments fund a vast diversity of projects that could be subject to licensing and the pragmatic approach would be for the government to use whatever license is most suitable to the work at hand. For funding for art, or for public facing software creative commons licences may well be the best option. For software with strong commercial possibilities there may be good financial reasons to keep the work in copyright, there have been many successful commercial products that have started life being developed with government money, the internet being the most famous (though of course this is something for which the government never made much money and anyway the patent would run out before it became big). [1] With many military or intelligence related software, or studies, there may want to be a tough layer of secrecy preventing even selling the work in question, we clearly would not want to have creative commons licensing for the software for anything to do with nuclear weapons. [2]  [1] Manjoo, Farhad, \u2018Obama Was Right: The Government Invented the Internet\u2019, Slate, 24 July 2012,   [2] It should however be noted that many governments do sell hardware and software that might be considered militarily sensitive. See \u2018 This House would ban the sale of surveillance technology to non-democratic countries \u2019"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con03a","title":"","text":"Creative commons prevents the incentive of profit  The incentive of profit, rather than a creative productive drive, spurs the creation of new work. Without the guarantee of ownership over one\u2019s work, the incentive to invest time and effort in its creation is significantly diminished. When the state is the only body willing to pay for the work and offers support only on these strict terms, there will be less interest in being involved with that work. Within a robust copyright system, individuals feel free to invest time in their pursuits because they have full knowledge that the fruits of their efforts will be theirs to reap. [1] If their work were to immediately leave their control, they would be less inclined to do so.  The current copyright system that is built on profit encourages innovation and finding the best use for technology. Even when government has been the source of innovation those innovations have only become widespread when someone is able to make a profit from it; the internet became big when profit making companies began opening it up. If the government wants partnerships with businesses, or universities that are not directly linked to government then it has to accept that those partners can make a profit. Furthermore, the inability of others to simply duplicate existing works as their own means they too will be galvanized to break ground on new ideas, rather than simply re-tread over current ideas and to cannibalize the fecund ground of creative commons works.  [1] Greenberg, M. \u2018Reason or Madness: A Defense of Copyright\u2019s Growing Pains\u2019. John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. 2007."}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con01a","title":"","text":"Government, like everyone else, should be able to profit from its work, that profit benefits its citizens rather than harming them  We generally accept the principle that people who create something deserve to benefit from that act of creation as they should own that work. [1] This is a principle that can be applied as easily to government, whether through works they are funding or works they are directly engaged in, as to anyone else. The owners of the work deserve to have the choice to benefit from their own endeavours through having copyright over that work. Sometimes this will mean the copyright will remain with the person who was paid to do the work but most of the time this will mean government ownership. Public funding does not change this fundamental ownership and the quixotic bargain state funding in exchange for mandatory creative commons licensing is a perversion of that ownership.  The Texas Emerging Technology Fund is an example of the use of state funding in the private sector to produce socially useful technologies without thieving the ownership of new technologies from their creators. [2] Moreover states clearly benefit from being able to use any profit from their funding. It would clearly be in taxpayers interest if the state is able to make a profit out of the investments that taxpayers funding creates as this would mean taxes could be lower.  [1] Greenberg, M. \u2018Reason or Madness: A Defense of Copyright\u2019s Growing Pains\u2019. John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. 2007.   [2] Office of the Governor. \u2018Texas Emerging Technology Fund\u2019. 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con02b","title":"","text":"While there will be a few cases where it is undesirable that things that the government pays the funding for to be licensed through creative commons this should not stop creative commons from being the default choice. Creative commons is a good choice for the vast majority of what government does as weapons systems and other security related items are only a small part of government investment. Think of all the IT systems for government departments, it clearly makes sense that they should be creative commons so that they can be improved and adapted when it turns out they don\u2019t work in quite the way they were designed. For example the UK government wasted \u00a32,7billion on an IT project for the NHS, [1] in such a situation it would have made a lot of sense to have what was done open to others to pick up on and build upon if there was any of the software that could be of any use.  [1] Wright, Oliver, \u2018NHS pulls the plug on its \u00a311bn IT system\u2019, The Independent, 3 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Protestant churches, which do not require celibacy, are also having problems recruiting clergy. Worldwide, the number of new priests is increasing. Only the developed world has seen a decline in priestly vocations, although even here devout countries such as Poland buck the trend. A recent study showed that vocations were on the rise in dioceses in the USA that were loyal to the teachings of the church, including priestly celibacy."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Celibacy reduces the pool of people wanting to become priests  The number of priests in developed countries is on the decline. In Ireland in 2007 160 priests died but only nine were ordained to replace them. It is expected that the number of priests in Ireland will fall from 4758 in 2008 to 1500 by 2028. [1] As a result almost 50,000 parishes worldwide are without a priest despite the number of parishes not having risen with the increase in numbers of Catholics. [2] The prohibition on marriage pushes some men away from the priesthood. The requirement of celibacy drastically reduces the pool from which the church can select priests and means that the church is not always getting the \u201cbest and the brightest\u201d. As a result even many within the church believe the demand for celibacy should be ended. [3]  [1] McDonald, Henry, \u2018Psychological vetting of would-be priests exacerbates decline\u2019, The Guardian, 11 September 2008,   [2] Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, \u2018Frequently Requested Church Statistics\u2019, 2011,   [3] Staff reporter, \u2018European theologians call for end to priestly celibacy\u2019, CatholicHerald.co.uk, 7 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro03b","title":"","text":"The priest is set apart from the world. He has a unique role: he represents Christ to his parishioners. Just as Jesus led a life of chastity dedicated to God, so a priest must offer his life to God\u2019s people."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Priest have not always been celibate  While celibacy had been encouraged since the beginning of the church, until the beginning of the twelfth century, when it was banned by the Lateran Councils of 1123 and 1139, Priests in the Western church were permitted to marry. [1] The Bible does not mandate celibacy and, in fact, St Peter, the first pope, was married. Even today within the Catholic Church celibacy is not universal as Eastern Rite Catholics can marry and it is the norm that they do, [2] and there are some Lutheran and Episcopalian ministers who have converted to Catholicism. [3] The true history and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church include the option for priests to marry or at least for married men to become priests.  [1] Parish, Helen, Clerical Celibacy in the West: c.1100-1700, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Farnham, 2010, pp103-4,   [2] Brom, Robert H., Bishop of San Diego, \u2018Celibacy and the Priesthood\u2019, Catholic.com, 10 August 2004,   [3] Johnston, George Sim, \u2018The Case for Priestly Celibacy\u2019, Catholic News Agency,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro01b","title":"","text":"The earliest church fathers, including St Augustine, supported the celibate priesthood. In the fourth century, church councils enacted legislation forbidding married men who were ordained from having conjugal relations with their wives. We do not know if any of the apostles, other than Peter, were married, but we do know that they gave up everything to follow Jesus. More importantly, Jesus himself led a celibate life."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Celibacy and paedophilia are not connected. Sexual abuse also occurs in religions where clergy are permitted to marry. Studies have shown that sexual abusers account for less than 2% of Roman Catholic clergy, a figure comparable to clergy in other denominations, or even less than in the wider male population as a whole. [1]  Sexual abuse in the church is undoubtedly a serious problem to be addressed, but not one that is linked to the issue of celibacy.  [1] Oddie, William, \u2018Now we have real evidence \u2013 sexual abuse is not a \u2018Catholic problem\u2019, Catholic Herald, 9 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Celibacy is outdated  Priestly celibacy is out-dated. It sets the priest apart from the modern world and the experiences of his parishioners. Originally, around 1100 the Gregorian Reform movement in the church was keen to enforce celibacy for fear that too many married priests would leave church property and benefices to their children, or create local priestly dynasties. [1] At the time these fears were reasonable and necessary to maintain the property and discipline of the church, but today they are utterly unnecessary.  [1] Thurston, Hernert, Celibacy of the Clergy Second Period, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.3, Robert Appleton Company, New York, 1908,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Celibacy draws sexually dysfunctional men into the priesthood  The prospect of celibacy draws sexually dysfunctional men to the priesthood. They hope that by totally denying their sexuality, they will not engage in deviant acts, but unfortunately they often cannot overcome their deviant desires. Permitting priests to marry would bring men with healthy sexual desires to the priesthood."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con03b","title":"","text":"Protestant clergy, for example in the Episcopal church which has similar parish structures to Roman Catholicism, successfully balance their work in the church and their families. Were priests permitted to marry and have families, their families could serve as examples to others. In addition, marriage can provide a priest with increased social support and intimacy. Too many priests burn out through overwork and stress, having no one at home to support them and tell them its time to stop working."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con01b","title":"","text":"Celibate priests can never experience the intimate and complicated marital relationship. They lack credibility when conducting marriage and family counselling. Married priests can better serve their parishioners because of their marital and family experiences."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con02a","title":"","text":"Principles should be maintained even when it is convenient to change them  The Catholic church should not bend its principles for the sake of expediency. Many more issues divide Roman Catholicism from other churches (e.g. the authority of the Pope, the nature of the sacrament, even the wording of the creed). If the church accepted this change for the sake of convenience, where would it stop? Should women also be allowed to become priests? What about practising homosexuals? More likely such a compromise would see a further split in the church, as those who upheld traditional Catholic teaching rejected the change.  Look how the Episcopal (Anglican) church is falling apart over the ordination of gay priests and women bishops, including some bishops leaving the Anglican for Catholic Church. [1] In any case, allowing priests to marry would undoubtedly lead to a two-class priesthood, with many good Catholics continuing to feel that clergy who continue to choose celibacy are superior to those who reject it. That would hardly be a healthy development for the unity of the church or for the authority of the priesthood.  [1] Butt, Riazat, \u2018Archbishop of Canterbury accepts resignation of Anglican bishops\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 8 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con03a","title":"","text":"Celibacy allows a priest to devote himself entirely to his vocation  A celibate priest can devote all his time to his parishioners. A married priest must spend time with his family. Protestant clergy have balanced their work for the church with their family responsibilities only with difficulty. Many wives and families of Protestant clergy report feeling second to the congregation."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con01a","title":"","text":"Celibacy grants an understanding of self-control  The celibate priest has a unique understanding of the power of self-control and the giving of self, which are key ideas in marriage. The celibate priest is in a very good position to counsel people on how to keep the marital vows such as fidelity as they have experience of keeping the much stricter vow of celibacy. [1] The priest is married to the church and can counsel couples and families using that knowledge.  [1] \u20185 Arguments Against Priestly Celibacy and How to Refute Them\u2019, catholiceducation.org,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con02b","title":"","text":"The insistence on priestly celibacy is one of the major stumbling blocks to church unity. Discussions with the Orthodox church (which has always allowed married priests) and protestant denominations such as the Episcopal (Anglican) church often founder on the different conception of priesthood held by the Catholic church. Yet there is a precedent for allowing married priests - in the 1990s when British Anglican priests who could not accept women priests left the Church of England to become Catholics, they were allowed to serve as Catholic priests despite being married. Changing the rule more generally would make ecumenical dialogue more possible and open the way to the healing of historic schisms in the body of Christ."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro02b","title":"","text":"Many of the fiscal benefits enjoyed by married couples (e.g. child support payments) are not geared towards encouraging marriages in itself, but to promote the existence of the conventional family and procreation. Gay couples, unable to propagate society, should not be provided access to the benefits of marriage which are, implicitly, the state's reward for reproductive couples. 'Collecting a dead spouse's social security, claiming an extra tax exemption for a spouse, and having the right to be covered under a spouse's health insurance policy' are just a few of the benefits a state provides to married couples 1. The aforementioned benefits should not be applicable to couples who are unable to provide anything in return.  1 Kolasinksi, A. (2004, February 20). The Secular Case Against Gay Marriage. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from The Tech"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro02a","title":"","text":"Gay couples should be able to take advantage of the fiscal and legal benefits of marriage  To allow gay couples to marry would enable them to take advantage of the various fiscal benefits accorded to married couples in general. As Scott Bidstrup argues, a gay couple together for 40 years can still be compelled by law to testify or provide evidence against one another, something married spouses cannot be forced to do 1. Such antiquated laws take the discriminatory view that the love between homosexuals is artificial and extend it to encompass legal benefits. As Justice Anthony Kennedy noted in a Supreme Court ruling, 'homosexuals are forbidden the safeguards that others enjoy or may seek without constraint'1. A gay couple's inability to reproduce should not prevent them from obtaining the benefits of marriage, benefits granted not to encourage or reward child birth but to recognize the bond between two loved ones.  1 Bidstrup, S. (2009, June 3). Gay Marriage: The Arguments and the Motives. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Bidstrup:"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro03b","title":"","text":"States cannot ask registrars to conduct civil marriages between homosexual couples that violate their religious precepts. How can a state that espouses multi-culturalism and respect for the faiths of its citizens thereafter declare it fair and impartial to ask a Christian registrar to conduct a homosexual marriage ceremony, and thereafter fire them if they refuse? That merely replaces one discrimination with another. In the United Kingdom in 2009, a Christian registrar was demoted to a receptionist after refusing to preside over the civil marriages of gay couples1. Ms Davies, the demoted registrar, said: \"Britain is supposed to be a nation that respects freedom of conscience\"1. That freedom of conscience is not respected in a state that can fire anyone refusing to marry same-sex couples.  1 Millard, N. & Moore-Bridger, B. (2009, June 22) Gay marriage case registrar in legal battle. Retrieved June 24, 2011 from London Evening Standard:"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro05a","title":"","text":"It is discriminatory to refuse gay couples the right to marry  One of the last bastions of discrimination against gays lies in the fact that gay couples in many countries are at present not allowed to marry. Such discrimination should be eradicated by permitting gay couples to marry as a means of professing their love to each other. The contemporary views of society ought to change with the times; as recently as 1967, blacks and whites in some Americans could not marry, no-one would defend such a law now 1. Gay marriage is possibly, as Theodore Olson, a former Bush administration Republican suggests, \u2018the last major civil-rights milestone yet to be surpassed 2\u2019. To permit heterosexual couples to profess their love through the bonds of marriage, but deny that same right to homosexual couples ultimately devalues their love, a love that is no weaker or less valid than that of straight couples. As New York State Senator Mark Grisanti admitted when voting in favour of a 2011 bill, \u2018I cannot deny a person\u2026the same rights that I have with my wife\u2019 3. It is clearly discriminatory and reflects an out-dated view of homosexuality.  1.The Economist, 1996  2.Olson, 2010  3. Black, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro01a","title":"","text":"Marriage is about more than procreation, therefore gay couples should not be denied the right to marry due to their biology.  It is inaccurate to perceive marriage merely as an institution for child-raising purposes. There are many married couples in society today who do not have children of their own, often by choice, and infertile couples, who cannot conceive children, are still permitted to marry. They marry because marriage symbolizes a long-term commitment to one another, not a pledge to reproduce for the state or humanity as a whole. In any case, gay couples may adopt children in countries where they are permitted to do so, revealing society's view at large that homosexual couples can readily act as capable parents and provide loving home environments. Furthermore, the advance of medical science has also enabled same-sex couples to have children of their own through surrogate mothers and sperm donors. It can no longer be said that homosexual couples should not be granted the right to marriage because, either, they cannot have children, or that they cannot raise children adequately. Both claims are evidently false."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro01b","title":"","text":"Marriage is most certainly about raising children and has always been regarded as the predominant means of creating a conducive environment in which children can be brought up. As gay couples are unlikely to have children, there is no real necessity for the right to marry to be extended to them. It is true that many heterosexual marriages do not result in offspring, through choice or infertility, however the male-female relationship preserves the general rule of marriage: only between those with the potential for procreation1. 'Children have a valid claim to be raised by their own biological parents', to encourage otherwise is to undermine long-held perceptions about the right way to bring up our youth.2  1 Shell, S. M. (2004). The liberal case against gay marriage. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from National Interest:  2 Somerville, M. A. (2003, April 29). The Case Against 'Same-Sex Marriage'. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from McGill Centre for Medicine, Ethics and Law"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro05b","title":"","text":"It is not discriminatory, for marriage is an institution designed for the union of men and women alone. It is intrinsically about the \u2018values that govern the transmission of human life to the next generation\u2019 1; to deny gay couples the right to marry is merely, and obviously, to admit that they have no reproductive capacity. The public recognition that is so vital to the institution of marriage \u2018is for the purpose of institutionalizing the procreative relationship in order to govern the transmission of human life\u2026that results\u2019 2. So long as reproduction requires a man and a woman, marriage will necessarily remain the domain of heterosexual couples to protect the reproductive human relationship that fosters future generations.  1.Somerville, 2003, p.1  2.ibid."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro04b","title":"","text":"Gay relationships do not contribute to the interest of the state in propagating society, therefore they should not be granted access to the legal and economic benefits of marriage. Furthermore, as David Blankenhorn argues, 'for healthy development, what a child needs more than anything else is the mother and father who together made the child, who love the child and love each other'1. In addition, Susan Shell believes that 'most, if not all, of the goals of the gay marriage movement can be satisfied in the absence of gay marriage'2. The presence of civil partnerships, potentially celebrated with the same festivities that surround weddings, could provide many of the same legal and fiscal benefits that gay couples currently do not have access to.  1 Blankenhorn, D. (2008, September 19). Protecting marriage to protect children. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Los Angeles Times:  2 Shell, S. M. (2004). The liberal case against gay marriage. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from National Interest:"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro03a","title":"","text":"State registrars conducting marriage ceremonies could not discriminate between homosexual and heterosexual couples  The state is charged with the responsibility of both providing registrars to conduct marriage ceremonies and authenticating marriages certificates. If gay marriage was to be legalized, all registrars could be thereafter forced, by the state and their commitment to the law, to legally bind themselves to avoid discriminating between homosexual and heterosexual couples who ask for their service. All registrars who refused to marry homosexual couples could be fired. There could be no difference in the process or the paperwork required for either a heterosexual or homosexual marriage. The dismissal of discriminating registrants would have a legal precedent in the charges brought upon hotel owners who refused gay couples and adoption agencies who refused to deal with gay couples."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro04a","title":"","text":"Gay marriage is good for society  Gay marriage has clear and tangible positive effects on societies where it is permitted. There are now ten countries that allow gay marriage, with no obvious or noticeable detriment to society at large. As Chris Ott reports from Massachusetts, one of few US states to grant gay marriage rights, \u2018predictably, the sky hasn\u2019t fallen\u2026ensuring equality doesn\u2019t mean there\u2019s less to go around for everyone else\u2019 1. Further to that, gay marriage encourages gay adoption, granting a home and a loving environment for an increasing number of orphaned or unwanted children worldwide. The evidence also suggests that gay parenting is \u2018at least as favourable\u2019 as those in heterosexual families, eroding fears that the adopted children will be worse with gay parents 2 . The economist Thomas Kostigen also argues gay marriage is a boost for the economy, \u2018weddings create revenue of all sorts\u2026even if a marriage doesn\u2019t work out that helps the economy too. Divorces cost money\u2019 3. Finally, and most simply, societies benefit from the net utility of their citizens, to allow and even encourage gay marriage ensures that those gay citizens wishing to celebrate their love are able to do so, in an environment conducive to their mutual happiness.  1. Ott, (2005)  2. Short, Riggs, Perlesz, Brown, & Kane, (2007), p.25  3. Kostigen, (2009)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con03b","title":"","text":"It is completely circular to argue that Marriage should be only between a man and a woman because marriage is between a man and a woman. First it is based upon a false assumptiuon as there is a strong historical and religious precedent for polygamy, so marriage between one man and one woman can not be considered a singular historical or religious norm. Second it assumes that things should stay the way they are because they have been that way for a long time which precludes any idea of progress ever being made.  Marriage describes an emotional relationship, it does not refer to the gender make-up of the couple. It is a commitment to love and care for your spouse till death does you part, an obligation that is no more difficult for a gay couple than a heterosexual couple. Furthermore, if gay couples wish to make such marital commitments to each other, 'why should they be prevented from doing so while other adults, equivalent in all other ways, are allowed to do so?1' It is clear discrimination to deny to one sub-set of the population the right to marry based purely on traditional and out-dated notions of what constitutes marriage.  1 The Economist. (2004, February 26). The case for gay marriage. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from The Economist"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con01b","title":"","text":"The argument that gay marriage, or even the discussion of it, leads to a decline in the institution of marriage does not match with the figures. Far from leading to an increase in divorce rates, marriage in the last decade is only growing stronger. As Adam Sullivan points out, in the United States, roughly 75% per cent of those who have married since 1990 reported they had reached their 10-year anniversary. That\u2019s up about three percentage points for those who had married a decade earlier in the 1980s\u2019 1. Though this is not proof that marriage equality has strengthened the bonds of marriage, it is proof that marriage equality is not undermining them. Further to that, \u2018it was heterosexuals who in the 1970s changed marriage into something more like a partnership between equals\u2026with gender roles less rigid than in the past\u2019 1. In contrast, there are good arguments to suggest gay marriage could re-affirm pre-70s notions of marriage for it would initially be more likely to attract older, long-term gay couples whose stability would thereafter ripple through society 1.  1. Sullivan, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con02a","title":"","text":"Gay couples can declare their union without resort to marriage  There are alternative means for gay couples to formalize their love without resort to marriage. In the United Kingdom, gay couples are able to form civil partnerships, which offer all the fiscal and legal benefits of marriage without the actual ceremony. Moreover, also known as the \"love contract\", the registration of the union of gay couples has been carried out successfully in countries such as Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium and Spain. Both of these would be avenues for gay couples to declare their union to the world. The practice in countries which implement this system is to allow registered couples to be entitled to joint insurance coverage and to allow them to file for joint tax returns as well as inheritance and tenants' rights. On the other hand, such a proposal makes no incursions into the sanctity of the institution of marriage itself, thereby proving acceptable to the religious sections of society."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con04a","title":"","text":"Marriage is a religious institution, and the major world religions frown upon homosexuality  Marriage is historically a religious institution. As most of the major religions in the world (e.g. Christianity, Islam and Judaism) frown upon homosexuality itself, it would thus be unacceptable to extend the right to marry to gay couples. In Christianity, the Bible is clear in Genesis that marriage is between that of a man and a woman; \u2018it is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper fit for him\u2026a man leaves his father and mother and cleaves to his wife, and they become one flesh\u2019 1. In the Quran, it is stated that \u2018Allah has given you spouses of your own kind, and has given you, from your spouses, sons and grandsons\u2019 2. There is little room for conjecture with such statements; marriage, so finely entwined with the religious roots of modern societies, renders marriage an institution between a man and a woman.  1.Catholic Answers, 2004  2. Eldin, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con03a","title":"","text":"Marriage should be between a man and a woman  Marriage has always been viewed by society as the religious and\/or civil union between a man and a woman, and has therefore always been regarded primarily as a heterosexual institution. It confirms the natural truth that marriage, as the traditional rite of passage required before procreation, requires a man and a woman. Barack Obama, whilst on the presidential campaign trial, reaffirmed his personal belief that marriage 'is between a man and a woman', one that he shared with the majority of candidates1. Indeed, marriage, throughout its thousands of years of existence, has only been used to describe the union of a man and woman, toward the general end of starting a family and raising children.  1 Elsworth, C. (2008, November 3). Barack Obama: 'marriage is between a man and a woman'. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from The Telegraph:"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con01a","title":"","text":"Gay marriage undermines the institution of marriage, leading to an increase in out of wedlock births and divorce rates  The legalization of gay marriage undermines the principles that have traditionally linked marriage and the family. Marriage is no longer viewed as a necessary rite of passage before a family is started, leading to a rise in out of wedlock births. As Stanley Kurtz discovered in a study of Norway, where gay marriage is legal, 'an extraordinary 82.7% of first-born children' in one specific county were born out of wedlock; he goes on to explain 'many of these births are to unmarried, but cohabitating, couples'. Yet, without the bonds of marriage, such couples are two to three times more likely to break up and leave children thereafter to cope with estranged parents1. The most conservative religious counties in Norway, in comparison, 'have by far the lowest rates' of out-of-wedlock births1. The legalization of gay marriage and the, often concurrent, ban on clergy eager to discourage the practise of out-of-wedlock only serves to undermine the institution of marriage; and it is the children that pay the price.  1 Kurtz, S. (2004, February 2). Slipping toward Scandinavia. Retrieved June 29, 2011, from National Review:"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con04b","title":"","text":"Marriage is not a religious institution, but an institution that has been co-opted by religion as the means by which couples declare themselves to each other for an indefinite period. As such, marriage has always complimented contemporary attitudes and institutions. Traditional beliefs regarding the 'sanctity' of marriage are now out of touch both with contemporary opinion on the matter and concurrent advances in human rights elsewhere. In Australia a recent poll found that 75% of the population felt gay marriage was inevitable, leading marriage equality advocates to claim 'the tide of history is running toward equality and nothing can turn it back'1. Furthermore, the fact that atheists and agnostics are free to get married, but homosexuals are not undermines claims that marriage is a derivative organ of religion.  1 Wockner, Rex (2011, June 16). Australians accept marriage equality. Retrieved June 16, 2011, from the Bay Area Reporter"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con02b","title":"","text":"The alternatives presented do not satisfy the rights of gay couples to equality. Gay couples can in many countries, where gay marriage is banned, register their unions officially however they would still not enjoy complete equality with married heterosexual couples in society. If they did, their union would be deemed marriage. As Theodore Olson points out, 'a civil union reflects a second-class status that fails to protect committed same-sex couples who choose to be married'1. Moreover, this would also fuel the idea that registered gay couples enjoy an inferior status to married heterosexual couples, thereby giving rise to discrimination all over again.  1 Olson, T., & Schneiderman, E. (2011, May 16). The civil union bait-and-switch: Compromise is far from true marriage equality. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from NY Daily News:"}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Many people have been keen to wrap themselves in the trappings of religion just as they do in the flag or in the rhetoric of one political ideology or another.  Seeking to associate one\u2019s opinions with one creed or another is the oldest trick in the ideologue\u2019s book.  The fact that men of violence claim to be doing things in the name of peaceful religions tells us very little about the religions themselves. In the modern world they is no reputable religious leader doing so and those minority leaders who attempt to are generally condemned and ostracized by the principle leaders of their faiths.  Laying responsibility for violence at the foot of religion as a whole gives credibility to a handful of extremists \u2013 in much the same way that conflating patriotism and fascism would."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Because religion combines dogmatic certainty with the existence of the afterlife, violence and death is all too easy to justify  Particularly in the case of contemporary Islam, although other historical examples could be referred to, the combination of certainty and the promise of life after death is a sure route towards violence. That said, Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland demonstrated this until recently; the Yugoslav wars between Catholics, Orthodox and Muslims, both sides of the battle for Israel\/Palestine and many others in history could also be thrown into the mix.  Allowing people the opportunity to claim that \u201cGod\u2019s on our side\u201d can be used to justify anything, especially when He appears to be fighting on both sides."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Secularism is a peculiarly Western European concern. In most of the world religious observance is taken very seriously. Denying people access to the guidance of religious leaders flies in the face of allowing people freedom of choice and conscience.  Secularists routinely, and somewhat arrogantly, insist that their voices must be heard but those of people of faith, despite representing the overwhelming view of humanity, should be silenced.  Equally where there are religious precepts incorporated within the law. One of the oldest systems of secular, state arbitrated law- the common law of England- is based largely on religious principles. For secularists to attack religious people for criticizing difference, when all they are really saying is that most people aren\u2019t secularists, is the height of hypocrisy.  Most of the world takes religious observance very seriously and expect their beliefs to be respected by their international political leaders and others"}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro01a","title":"","text":"Religious organisations tend to act as a reactionary pull on wider society opposing egalitarian reforms and developments  It is a basic tenant of all religions that they divide humanity into \u2018us\u2019 and \u2018them\u2019 \u2013 believers and non-believers. However, the divisions of society perceived by religious believers do not stop there, and have a tendency to reflect the social and moral views of an earlier and far less progressive age.  As well as condemning those who practice other faiths, or who choose to follow no faith, they have fought, and continued to fight, the expansion of the rights of women and of socially marginalised castes, among other social groups. All of the major churches and sects have had to be dragged kicking and screaming into the modern world, and most of them are still desperately trying to ignore the existence of modernity. While justifying their political and moral positions through obtuse and deliberately obscure interpretations of religious texts, obscure texts even the mainstream interpretations of major religions are usually sexist, frequently racist and almost universally homophobic.  Preventing access to contraception is the single largest block to women getting out of poverty. There are many other examples of the excesses and double standards of mainstream religion \u2013 too many examples to pick one."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro01b","title":"","text":"All of the major religions teach respect for others regardless of whether people agree with their lifestyle or beliefs. That\u2019s a huge advance on much of secular thought \u2013 quite without the help of religious organisations, prejudice exists within the worlds of business, politics and science. It seems a little unfair to single out one area of life. At least religious organisations are based on the belief that everybody should be treated with respect, which is not a claim that could be made be most political creeds.  In addition there are few social changes that have not involved religious radicals at their foundation. Rightly or wrongly, major religious organisations tend to reflect the views of the societies of which they are a part. It seems unfair to blame the religious organisations for that.  It is also worth distinguishing between nations where one religious belief is wide-spread and almost normative in nature, and those where it is far more of a choice. If women or homosexuals chose to join a church in a pluralist society, presumably they are not expecting to be a priest."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Regardless of the protestations of some there is no major religion that has not been involved in persecuting non-believers at some point in its history and most still are  Although in much of the world the days of the crusades and the inquisition may be gone, there are plenty of nations were religious disobedience still is still punished harshly, summarily or extra-judicially. In other countries, semi-official militias are left to enforce the minutiae of religious law, although usually in such a way as to disadvantage women and others already persecuted in society.  It should be noted that what tends to be the focus of such persecution is a lack of adherence to an ultra-orthodox position. It is frequently a cover for political or social prejudice. Charges of heresy or apostasy are easy to level and nigh on impossible to disprove.  Even beyond these extremes, demands for religious observance play out in US elections and, inexplicably, the views of religious leaders are sought on areas where they really have no relevant expertise at all, such as advances in medical progress. Those who disagree on matters such as stem cell research or gay rights are, apparently, arguing with the Almighty."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con03b","title":"","text":"Religious education frequently has more to do with indoctrination than anything else, as is seen in so-called schools where reciting the Koran or Talmud passes for education or in privately funded education in the UK and US where evolution is taught as \u2018just another theory\u2019.  In terms of tackling poverty, there is no doubt that many religious organisations- especially the Catholic Church- provide enormous quantities of relief to the poverty directly caused by their policies in the first place.  No single cause of poverty, especially among women, is greater than denying women access to contraception, closely followed by denying them access to education. As the woman is frequently the primary care giver, their poverty affects their children."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con01b","title":"","text":"The simple reality is that religious organisations in most of the world are all too willing to involve themselves in ecumenical politics and issue declarations on economic matters. Equally, presenting the absurd and grotesque wealth and power of the world\u2019s major religions as having anything to do with quiet spiritualism is, frankly, absurd.  In some circumstances, major religions can provide international perspective but, all too often, that simply means importing the most reactionary position available \u2013 African Anglicans on gay ordination in the US; the mediaeval views from Islam in the Middle East into discussions on the rights of women in European migrant communities. Generally this brand of internationalism simply reopens social battles that were settled a century and more ago in the West"}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con02a","title":"","text":"Religious ceremonies and organisations provide solace and celebration for the great changes in life such as birth, marriage and death, there is democratic support for this around the world  At times of great need or celebration, religious communities and organisations are often the only organisations that seem fit to the task of marking them.  This principle applies both in people\u2019s own lives, with the birth of a child or the death of a loved one, but it can also apply to national events. At times of great tragedy it is frequently the main religious community that is expected to sum up the mood of a nation and to provide explanation and succour. It is difficult to see how a politician, jurist or academic could fulfill that role so well.  It is interesting that although we may ignore the day-to-day role of religion in society and in communities, at moments of great trial, or great celebration, it is to religious rites that most people turn."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con03a","title":"","text":"Religious organisations are by far the largest providers of charity in the world  Whether sending food support in famine zones, providing education, hospices or a vast range of other charitable activities, religious organisations are streets ahead. In addition they frequently are the only organisations willing to go into certain high risk areas throughout the world.  I addition in many sociogeographic areas, especially those of urban poverty, priests may be the only professional that many hundreds of people can access. Churches and mosques are frequently the only place of sanctuary and peace.  In addition religious organisations have historically been the first to provide education and healthcare with nation states following their example."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con01a","title":"","text":"Religious organisations remind societies and the world that there are other important things in life beyond economics and that moral and other concerns should be taken into account in public life  In a world consumed by the belief that the only thing in life that genuinely matters is money, religious bodies serve as a welcome reminder that other activities- besides \u201cwealth creation\u201d- can be meaningful and valuable too. In addition to promoting morality and spirituality within society they have also, historically, been sponsors of great art and music.  The fact that religions are also international organisations bring perspectives that believers in some countries may find uncomfortable, but which act as a reminder of more universal truths \u2013 primarily, altruism."}
+{"id":"training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con02b","title":"","text":"It is an interesting defence of a position to note that people only really turn to it when they are emotionally vulnerable and their mental faculties are at their weakest. It\u2019s scarcely a clarion defence of the benefits or religious observance or practice.  It is no doubt true that when we need an explanation for the apparently inexplicable- the death of a child, say- there is more comfort to be found in the ministrations of a cleric than that of a statistician. However that in no way makes the cleric, or their creed, right.  The cold hard truth is that personal and national tragedies do have logical explanations, it just happens that we may not want to hear them at the time. However, any other credo which used other peoples emotional weaknesses to push their view of the world and the universe would be treated with contempt. For some reason, religion gets a pass."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro02b","title":"","text":"To weigh up human lives in this calculated manner inherently strips them of dignity and reduces them to mere numbers. This \u201caggregative\u201d ethical standpoint, in which a loss of utility to one person can be compensated for by gains in utility to other people, fails to respect \u201cthe separateness of persons\u201d [1] . We are all different people, and we do not all share in the alleged benefits to maximizing total utility. For this reason, our moral intuitions reject out-of-hand many variants on \u201ckilling one to save five\u201d; for instance, we would think it abhorrent to abduct a random person and harvest their organs in order to save five dying people, even in the absence of side effects like people now being afraid of having their organs taken. Also, see \u201cdifferent lives weigh differently\u201d argument below.  [1] Richardson, Henry S., \u2018John Rawls (1921-2002)\u2019, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 18 November 2005,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro02a","title":"","text":"A utilitarian approach will result in a decision that saves the largest number of lives possible.  Every time a life is extinguished, some amount of present and future good vanishes from the world. All the good things that that person would have experienced \u2013 joy, accomplishment, delight \u2013 will no longer occur. Similarly, all the beneficially effects they will have one other people, from productively working to loving their family, will also not occur. True, people also experience unhappy times, and they sometimes negatively affect others, but in all but an exceptionally small number of cases, the net contribution of a human life to total utility is positive (indeed, if it weren\u2019t, we probably wouldn\u2019t consider death to be bad). Even though there will be some fluctuations in how much each life contributes to total utility \u2013 a happy doctor probably adds more utility than a miserable meter maid \u2013 it is overwhelmingly likely that saving the five lives will result in a situation of greater utility than preserving the life of the one."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro03b","title":"","text":"Behind the veil of ignorance, human beings may not in fact side with what gives them the statistical greatest chance of survival. As Rawls himself notes, people are naturally risk-averse, and thus will select the rules that protect them from the worst possible situations, even if that sacrifice would help many others. Most people find the prospect of being actively killed by the conscious action of another human being worse than simply dying in an accident, and would seek to protect themselves against that worse outcome."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro01a","title":"","text":"The human right to life compels us to save as many as possible  We have good reasons to value keeping people alive: it allows people the opportunity to enjoy their time on Earth and effect changes to everyone\u2019s benefit, even if that simply means being around for our loved ones. Most people would even go so far as to say that, by virtue of being conscious creatures, human beings deserve to live. That is to say, they have a right not to suffer an untimely death. This is the reason that we normally abhor killing: it cuts short human life. However, in this thought experiment, the inescapable reality is that someone\u2019s right to life will be violated. Either the one or the five will die, and all the horrible results attached to the cessation of a human life will inevitably befall one of the groups. In light of this fact, our moral obligation is to reduce the number of people whose right to life is violated and maximize the number for whom that right is actualized. One ought to commit the act that results in the fewest deaths, and that is to kill the one and save the five."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro01b","title":"","text":"The idea of a \u201cright to life,\u201d while appealing, is highly suspect. \u201cRights\u201d are the highest order of human entitlements, things which one can reasonably expect will never ever happen to them, and which if violated represent a colossal failure of our moral and legal infrastructure. In reality, people die all the time for a variety of natural and artificial reasons, and while we certainly think that these deaths are unfortunate, we don\u2019t think that someone\u2019s human rights were infringed upon every time someone dies in a motor vehicle accident. By contrast, we do have an actual right not to be murdered. When one human being deliberately kills another human being, we rightly see that as an exceptional and grave violation of a basic human right. Therefore, it doesn\u2019t violate anyone\u2019s rights to let the five people die, but it certainly does violate the right of putative sixth person to actively murder them to save the others. Moreover, it may be questionable to assume that all lives are equally valuable; if we are going to engage in the grisly business of actually summing up human lives, why treat someone who we\u2019d expect to only live for another year equal to someone we can expect to live for another sixty? If the advocate of killing the one is going to adopt a \u201cmaximizing\u201d ethical view, they should at least commit to a true utilitarianism, rather than a view that is not necessarily supported by either utilitarianism or deontology; treating all deaths as equal, regardless of much they cut a life short, is not something a utilitarian would get behind."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro04b","title":"","text":"Assessing the value of a life on the basis of family members and how much the person is worth to everyone else creates a perverse priority on those with large families and many connections. To do so makes an injunction: position yourself so that you\u2019re important and well-connected, and suddenly you get priority when we are deciding who to save."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro03a","title":"","text":"Give a choice, all rational individuals would prefer to live in a world in which behaviour prefered the choice to sacrifice one to save many  While Rawls did oppose utilitarianism, he generated a hypothetical scenario that is useful, even to the utilitarian, for evaluating moral theories. Imagine that all human beings were placed in a scenario where they knew nothing about their station in the world, and know only the basic laws of reasoning and human nature. They do not know what their level of intelligence, personality traits, gender, socioeconomic status, race or religion will be, nor even when or where they will be born; they are \u201cbehind the veil of ignorance.\u201d Every single person who will ever exist is placed in this situation at the beginning of the universe. Next, these human beings are told they will decide which rules will govern human conduct when they come to inhabit the world. In such a situation, all rational human beings would ensure that they are treated fairly no matter who they are; they will have perfect sympathy for every human being ever, because they could end up being that person. Whatever rules they come up with in this situation are the rules that are ethically correct, because these rules will never treat anyone unfairly (as that would be an irrational move). [1] So how would people in this hypothetical treat the decision whether to kill one to save five? Rational actors would agree on the rule to kill the one and save the five. After all, any given person is five times as likely to end up as a member of the five rather than as the one. Thus, behind the veil of ignorance, the rational human being would proudly prescribe \u201cSave the five and kill the one.\u201d  [1] Rawls, John, A Theory of Justice, Harvard University press, 1971, p.136"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-pro04a","title":"","text":"The harms related to a death extend beyond the loss of life  Every person who dies leaves behind people whose lives are made dramatically worse by the loss of a loved one. The average person, by continuing to live, helps those around them in a multitude of ways: love for their family, productive enterprise, and any philanthropic behavior in which they may engage. Out of sheer sympathy for the loved ones of the dead, and others who depend on their continued survival, one ought to minimize the number who die, and thus save the five."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con03b","title":"","text":"Moral intuitions are even more unreliable than that. When the \u201ckill one save five\u201d dilemma is presented in the form of pulling a lever to divert a train onto a track with one person on it, most people say to do it. However, when it is presented as pushing a fat man onto the track in order to stop the train, most people say not to do it [1] . The two scenarios are morally identical; the only change is what physical act needs to be done in order to result in the one person getting hit by the train. This demonstrates that we cannot directly consult our intuitions on this question.  [1] Reiner, Peter B., \u2018The trolley problem and the evolution of war\u2019, Neuroethics at the core, 11 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con01b","title":"","text":"Consequences do in fact matter more. People ought to be morally judged by what occurred when they had the power to decide who lives or dies; fatal non-action is just as blameworthy. This is the reason why many countries, particularly those with a civil law tradition as is the case in most of continental Europe, have Good Samaritan laws creating a legal responsibility to provide help when one can. [1] Someone who stands by and watches someone drown, even though they could have thrown them a rescue line, is rightly thought of as being no less heartless than a murderer. As Sartre put it, choosing not to act is still choosing to act. [2] Moreover, defining an \u201cactive killing\u201d is difficult; how direct must one\u2019s involvement in the cause of death be to constitute a killing? A prohibition on active killing overemphasizes the physical rather than the moral aspect of the choice. Finally, an absolute prohibition on killing to save a larger number soon fails to square with our moral intuitions if we crank up the numbers: if the choice is whether to kill one person in order to save five billion, then almost no one would disagree with the act.  [1] The Dan Legal Network, \u2018The Good Samaritan Law Across Europe\u2019,   [2] Daniels, Victor, \u2018Sartre Summery\u2019, Sonoma State University,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con02a","title":"","text":"We cannot make value judgments as to who should and should not be marked for death or for salvation  Different people\u2019s lives may indeed weigh differently. Some people may go on to cure cancer, while others may become serial killers. However, we do not know who will do what with their future, and it is an act of immense hubris to perform calculations that presume otherwise. We could be killing future a serial-rapist in order to save future a philanthropist who funds Somali famine-relief, but we could just as easily be doing the opposite. We are in a state of incredible ignorance as to what these individuals will choose to do. It truly is to \u201cplay god\u201d, and vastly overestimate our ability to judge who will be good for the world and who will be bad."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con05a","title":"","text":"The act of killing can wreak immense psychological damage upon rational individuals  To know that one has actually killed another human being will haunt the moral agent forever. Instances of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder for soldiers returning for warzones are increasingly reported, suggesting that a situation of killing very often warps the killer\u2019s life [1] . This holds true even for people not directly and viscerally involved in killings, such as the incredible guilt felt by the team of the Manhattan project. [2]  [1] ScienceBlog, \u20181 in 5 Iraq, Afghanistan Vets has PTSD\u2019, 17 April 2008,   [2] Long, Tony, \u2018Aug. 6, 1945: \u2018I Am Become Death, Destroyer of Worlds\u2019, Wired, 6 August 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con04a","title":"","text":"We should not will a world where killing is acceptable in to existencele in to existence  Knowing that we have agreed that there are situations where we can decide to kill others for the greater good makes us fearful of the prospect of others visiting such judgment on us (independent of whether such an act is objectively right or wrong). Immense psychological harm accrues from knowing that other people may actively judge oneself to be worth killing for an external purpose. Moreover, an acceptance of killing tends to brutalize society and make people more receptive to the idea of killing in general, which leads human beings to behave more violently."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con06b","title":"","text":"Firstly, it may well be the case that we are indeed morally obligated to donate all of our disposable to charity; the longer one considers how many people could be saved with the money one spends on a flat screen television, the less acceptable the purchase becomes. However, there are also meaningful distinctions between the thought experiment and donation to charity. In the thought experiment, there is no one else who can possibly come to the aid of the five. This is distinct from the complexities of a global economy where there are other possible moral saviors and the path to saving lives is far less clear."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con06a","title":"","text":"Utilitarianism is morally demanding  If we recognize a duty to actively go out of our way (and indeed, carry the burden of killing another person) to save another person just because it\u2019s in our power, then all sorts of new obligations open up. For instance, we are now obliged to donate all of our disposable income to charity because we could do so and each save dozens of lives a year. The reason why some religious institutions canonize people is precisely because their philanthropy is exceptional and beyond what could be expected of the average person: people like Damien of Molokai, who traveled to an island to help people suffering from leprosy, knowing that he would eventually contract the disease in the process [1] . While such actions may be praiseworthy, it is implausible that they would be morally obligatory.  [1] Donadio, Rachel, \u2018Benedict Canonizes 5 New Saints\u2019, The New York Times, 11 October 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con03a","title":"","text":"Intuitively, it is possible to understand that participating in a decision to kill is a priori wrong  While simply consulting our moral intuitions case-by-case is not always reliable (indeed many people have contradictory moral intuitions), certain moral intuitions are needed in order to morally theorize. If a moral theory was impeccably well thought out, but prescribed actions completely at odds with our moral intuitions (such as advocating indiscriminate assault and robbery), then we would rightly dismiss it out of hand. When it comes to killing, our intuition prohibiting it is foundational and widely held."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con05b","title":"","text":"All the same harms apply if the moral agent lets the five die. They still must cope with the knowledge that their decision resulted in deaths, in fact, more deaths. Indeed, PTSD is brought on by experience with horrific death regardless of whether or not the sufferer caused the death [1] .  [1] Martynowicz, Daniel, \u2018Afghanistan PTSD Worse Than Vietnam\u2019, News By The Second, 1 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con01a","title":"","text":"It is worse to actively participate in a death then to simply allow an individual to die  While people die all the time, it is exceptionally rare for one human being to intentionally cause the death of another, even for a perceived \u201cgreater good.\u201d The difference is that when one actively kills, one causes the killing. They bring about something that would not otherwise have happened, and they set it in motion. What is key is the moral actor\u2019s role in the very inception of the threat to the life of another person. Their responsibility for the resulting death is far greater than had they committed the same non-action as every other person who wasn\u2019t present to make the decision at all."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con04b","title":"","text":"The moral agent\u2019s decision will not necessarily have such wide-ranging consequences. In many cases, the matter will remain fairly quiet (even if it is reported to the police). Furthermore, this is only dubiously a \u201ckilling\u201d if one does not adopt a deontological take on the action; it\u2019s simply a weighing of the benefits of who can be saved. In another sense, branding it as making \u201ckilling\u201d acceptable is misleading, because this is not a moral license to commit wanton murders, but instead a sacrifice in a situation with no bloodless answer. Moreover, even if the decision becomes public knowledge, and is defined as killing, people will recognize that the circumstances of having to make this decision were truly exceptional."}
+{"id":"training-religion-mhwkosm-con02b","title":"","text":"That is exactly right: we cannot know who will be most valuable to the world, and to think otherwise is \u201cplaying god.\u201d However, this is a point for side proposition; given that we don\u2019t know who the really valuable people are, we ought to save the greater number because it statistically increases the chances that they will be saved. The only time this would not be true is if the average person had a net negative effect on the world, but if this were the case it would commit us to the implausible position that we ought to act in a manner so that the fewest people survive, which is absurd."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro02b","title":"","text":"The words \u201cunder God\u201d show no preference to Christianity. \u201cGod\u201d can refer to the chief deity of any religion. The opposition does not accept that America\u2019s history has a Christian state has any bearing whatsoever on the meaning of this statement."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Upholding of the First Amendment  The First Amendment is that the state \u201cshall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof\u201d.(Archives.gov) This prohibits favouring one religion over another.(Cornell University Law School, 2010) The use of the words \u201cunder God\u201d in this way, particularly regarding America\u2019s history as a Christian state, clearly shows favour towards Christianity, or at its most expansive monotheistic religions, over alternative religions or no religion, even without explicitly mentioning Christianity. (Newdow 2003)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is undeniable that any change to the Pledge of Allegiance will be met with resistance from strong patriots who believe it should never be changed.  This change would be associated with and blamed on atheists and non-Christian religious people, thus causing animosity towards them on the part of people who would have otherwise been indifferent towards them.  National pride will, therefore, be associated with Christianity, as opposed to atheism or other religions, to an even greater extent than it is under the status quo."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro05a","title":"","text":"Prevents the coercion of school children  It is key to this debate that school children are required to recite the Pledge of Allegiance at the start of each day. Although they have the opportunity to opt out, the proposition does not believe they have the knowledge necessary to fully understand the oath that they are taking. (The Humanist Society 2004) According to the decision in Newdow v. US \"The [school's] policy and the [1954 Act adding 'under God' to the Pledge] fail the coercion test. Just as in Lee [Lee v. Weisman, 1992], the policy and the Act place students in the untenable position of choosing between participating in an exercise with religious content or protesting.\"(United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, 2002) Children should not be put in this position so \u2018under God\u2019 must be taken out."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Separation of state and religion  The inclusion of the words \u201cunder God\u201d in the Pledge of Allegiance is representative of religion\u2019s involvement with the state. The words under God in the pledge of allegiance were clearly government sanctioned as the words were added by congress with the sanction of President Eisenhower.(83rd United States Congress 2nd Session) When they did this congress, the state, was clearly promoting religion. The proposition believes that religion has no place in politics and so these two words should be removed."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro01b","title":"","text":"The mention of the words \u201cunder God\u201d does not betray an involvement of religion within the state. The mere mention of religion means nothing for how the government is actually run. Even if religion were unduly involved with the American government, the removal of the words \u201cunder God\u201d from the Pledge of Allegiance would do nothing to change this. (Obama 2006)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro05b","title":"","text":"The opposition does not accept that children do not have the knowledge to understand the oath they are taking as it is said in plain words. The opportunity to opt out is a real and viable option for all school children."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro04b","title":"","text":"True neutrality would be adhering to the status quo; this legislation will be seen as a wilful act on the part of the government to remove religion and faith from patriotism.  As a result, religious people are likely to feel sidelined and alienated by their government to a far greater extent than atheists are likely to feel included."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Removing under god would promote religious tolerance  Even if the proposition accepts, which it does not, that the words \u201cunder God\u201d do not show preference towards Christianity, it is undeniable that it is widely understood that these words are a reference to Christianity.  This associates national pride with Christianity and presents other religions as inherently un-American. The proposition believes that this is divisive and promotes religious intolerance and that, therefore, this legislation would help relieve the tolerance and divisions caused by the current Pledge of Allegiance."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Prevents the marginalisation of non-believers  The inclusion of the words \u201cunder God\u201d in the Pledge of Allegiance implies that there is no place for atheism in American patriotism and that non-believers have nothing to give to their country. The removal of these words would create a more inclusive America that accepts that everyone, including all non-Christians and non-believers, have something to give to their country. (Buckner 2002)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con03b","title":"","text":"If the opposition accepts that the inclusion of the words \u201cunder God\u201d is a state sanction of religion, then they cannot deny that their inclusion sidelines atheists.  The proposition believes that the status quo is inherently pro-religion and anti-atheists and thus needs to be changed. Religious people will not see a move to the state, which is supposed to be completely separated from religion, making no comment about religion as an anti-religious comment."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con01b","title":"","text":"Tradition is not a reason for persisting wth anything!  The proposition believes that the fact that references to God are made throughout official American state proceedings is not a reason to persist in including the words \u201cunder God\u201d in the Pledge of Allegiance but a reason for its removal to be all the more urgent. References to God do not have a place in official state proceedings as the church and the state should be completely separate from one another.  \"Under God\" as us in the Gettysburg address, had different meanings then. It could mean \"God wiling\". For that reason alone the phrase should be removed from the Pledge because \"one nation, God willing\" goes against the whole point."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con02a","title":"","text":"Associates change and, by extension, anti-nationalism with atheism  Any change to something as ingrained in American patriotism as the Pledge of Allegiance will be met with extreme resistance. As Supreme Justice Sandra Day O\u2019Connor has argued \u201cthe Pledge has become, alongside the singing of the Star-Spangled Banner, our most routine ceremonial act of patriotism; countless schoolchildren recite it daily, and their religious heterogeneity reflects that of the Nation as a whole. As a result, the Pledge and the context in which it is employed are familiar and nearly inseparable in the public mind.\"(O\u2019Connor, 2004) With it being so ingrained most members of the US public would not see any reason to get rid of the words. The change would be widely accredited to atheists and would create animosity towards them. This legislation, therefore, is inherently divisive."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con05a","title":"","text":"Implies ultimate power on the part of the state  The words \u201cunder God\u201d reaffirm individual rights of American citizens as divine and coming from above the state. These words show that taking away these rights is not even within the conceivable grasp of the state. Removal of these words puts power back into the hands of the state and reinforces the state as the ultimate authority over what happens to its people. (The American Center for Law and Justice 2004)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con04a","title":"","text":"The American people would be against the change  As discussed above, the removal of \u201cunder God\u201d will not be a move towards neutrality but a move against religion. As a result it is not surprising that the American people would be against such a move. An immense majority, 87% in a newsweek poll said the pledge should contain \u201cunder God\u201d against only 9% saying no.(CNN, 2002) No democratic government should go against the will of such a majority of the population they are supposed to represent."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con03a","title":"","text":"Likely to be seen as a state sanctioned condemnation of religion  After nearly sixty years of having the words \u201cunder God\u201d included in the Pledge of Allegiance this legislation will not be seen as a move to neutrality but a move against religion. 78.4% of Americans are Christian with a further 4.7% believing in other religions.(The Pew Forum, 2007) Most Americans, 60%, think it is good for the country when government leaders publicly express their faith in God.(CNN, 2002) As a result the signal that taking out under God will send to American people is that the state is against religion.  Any modification to the Pledge of Allegiance will be seen as a wilful act by the current government; true neutrality can only be shown by maintaining the status quo."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con05b","title":"","text":"The proposition totally rejects the idea that the words \u201cunder God\u201d are necessary to indicate that the government does not have the power to do whatever it wants whenever it wants. The fact that the constitution exists and the government cannot contradict it is what means the government cannot act without consideration; the words \u201cunder God\u201d add nothing to the government\u2019s answerability and their removal would detract nothing."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con01a","title":"","text":"\u201cUnder God\u201d is part of American tradition and history  Reference to God is made throughout American patriotism. The Supreme Court opens by saying \u2018God save America and this honourable court\u2019. The \u2018under God\u2019 in the pledge itself came from Lincoln\u2019s Gettysburg address a significant speech in American history.(Library of congress) It is impossible to remove references to God from American patriotism and to do so would severely damage American heritage and tradition. (Robertson 2002), (Federer 2003)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con04b","title":"","text":"The majority is not allowed to oppress the minority, they would not be allowed to go back to slavery if they wished, in exactly the same way congress should not be able to establish religion even if the majority wants it to as it is against the US constitution."}
+{"id":"training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con02b","title":"","text":"Shows that the government values atheists as much as religious people and that one does not have to be religious to contribute to the state.  The proposition does not accept that people will regard atheists with animosity as a result of this legislation but will come to recognise them, to a greater degree, as people will an equal potential to give to America."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro02b","title":"","text":"This argument only works under the assumption that we live in a society where divorce does not exist. If a person enters into a marriage without full awareness of what they have committed to and later need to get out of that marriage, they are free to.  Being able to leave a marriage, though, does not make marriage a meaningless charade, as the proposition claims. It is still more difficult to leave a marriage than it is to leave a non-marital committed relationship and so it makes a big difference."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro02a","title":"","text":"Unreasonable commitment to expect of people  The average age, in the UK, to get married is approximately 30 years old. (Office for National Statistics 1999) Life expectancy in the UK is approximately 80 years. (Office for National Statistics 1999) This means the average marriage expects people to commit to maintain a certain way of life for a period that is longer than they have actually been alive. This goes hand in hand with the rise of social acceptability of people having more than one life partner in their life to show that either marriage is an unreasonable expectation of someone or a meaningless charade that is not actually expected to be maintained.(Cherlin 2009)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro03b","title":"","text":"The purpose of marriage is not an eternal, unrelenting union, whether it is wanted or not. The purpose of marriage is to foster a more stable relationship than would be possible without marital vows. Therefore, the fact that divorce is becoming more common and easier to obtain does not undermine the institution of marriage at all."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro05a","title":"","text":"Undermines same-sex couples and single parent families as legitimate ways of raising children  As explained in the first proposition point, one of the primary functions of marriage is seen to be to raise children. Marriage is therefore seen as the best way to raise children. This undermines same-sex couples and single parent families raising children.  The existence of marriage is essentially saying that same-sex couples and single parents are less able of raising children than heterosexual couples. Marriage, therefore, can be seen to promote outdated ideals that our society no longer holds and, as such, is itself an outdated institution."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro01a","title":"","text":"Does not provide any more of a stable environment for child rearing than a regular monogamous relationship  The main objective of marriage is often said to be bringing up children in a stable environment. However in 2010 in the UK there were 119589 divorces; 11.1 per 1000 married population. Furthermore in the same year, the median duration of a marriage remained at a low level of 11.4 years.(Rogers, 2011) This clearly does not fulfill the initial basic aim of marriage as so many marriages end In divorce with the resulting splits affecting the children. In fact, a much more stable environment can be provided by a better relationship, even without matrimonial vows (Cherlin 2009). This relationship should not have to be through marriage; rather it would simply be a partnership in the way that many couples already live today."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro01b","title":"","text":"Once a couple get married, they have made an official and legal commitment, which makes it more difficult for them to split up. This means that, irrespective of divorce statistics, adding marriage to a relationship will only serve to make it more stable and give the children of that relationship more security. Therefore marriage still gives benefits in modern society and is not outdated. (Waite 2000)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro05b","title":"","text":"The idea that the existence of marriage undermines other methods of raising children is ridiculous. This is equivalent to saying that making it legal for same-sex couples to adopt undermines raising children as a heterosexual couple or as a single parent.  Some people choosing to raise children in a certain way does not prevent or inhibit other people doing so in a different way."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro04b","title":"","text":"Firstly, the opposition does not accept that the proposition have proven that marriage has no function outside of religion. However, even if they had proven this, they still have not proven that marriage has no religious function and, therefore, have lost the debate anyway.  The proposition asserts that because numbers of religious people in the UK are declining, this means marriage is no longer relevant religiously. The fact is that nearly 50% of people in the UK still identify as religious. (British Social Attitudes Survey 2007)The fact that this is less than before is meaningless; it is still the case that marriage has religious significance for nearly half the country."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro03a","title":"","text":"Frequency and accessibility of divorce undermines the entire purpose of marriage  With pre-nuptials, which essentially amount to pre-planning for divorce, heavily on the rise, and divorces becoming ever easier to obtain, it is clear that our society no longer respects marriage as a permanent institution. Serial monogamy is also becoming ever more common, with 50% of all divorcees in the UK going on to remarry. (Office for National Statistics)  Since the purpose of marriage has always been to foster a stable and permanent relationship, it is clearly an entirely outdated institution as it no longer leads to a stable or permanent relationship."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro04a","title":"","text":"Marriage should be for all by Marriage is a religious institution in a society of declining religion  The proposition believes that they have proven that marriage no longer has a social or practical function. This leaves its only function as one of religious significance. However, with the percentage of people in the UK who identify as having no religion having risen by nearly 20% in the last 20 years and the percentage of people who identify as religious having dropped by approximately the same amount (British Social Attitudes Surveys 2007). Church attendance is even lower at a mere 6%(whychurch.org.uk). As a result there needs to be a new more inclusive institution that is open to all religions and those of no religion. It is clear that marriage can no longer perform this function for everyone in society."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con03b","title":"","text":"If marriage\u2019s main function is to protect against bereavement and divorce then it is essentially protecting against harms that it itself brings. Without marriage, bereavement and divorce would cease to be as serious harms as they currently are."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con01b","title":"","text":"The fact that 40% of marriages end in divorce and that this is on the rise (National Office for Statistics 1999) shows that marriage clearly does not offer the stability that the opposition claims it does. In fact, it seems that marriage offers no more stability than a stable relationship, thus making it redundant in terms of raising children."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con02a","title":"","text":"Remarriage rate shows that even people who go through failed marriages retain faith in the institution of marriage  50% of all divorcees in the UK go on to remarry. (National Office for Statistics 1999) This shows that, although their own marriage failed, they retain faith in the institution of marriage. The fact that, even when marriage has failed to work for them once, many people wish to give it another go shows that it is still meaningful to society. If an institution is so meaningful and relevant to modern society in this way, it cannot possibly be outdated."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con05a","title":"","text":"Marriage promotes a better way to raise children  Marriage promotes raising children as part of a monogamous couple. Without marriage, the frequency of single parent families would rise. Statistically, children who come from single parent families are more likely to live under the poverty line, more likely to be convicted of a criminal offence, more likely to become ill, less likely to complete every level of education and more likely to grow up to have low incomes themselves. (O\u2019Neill 2002) Clearly then, marriage provides a lot of goods to children of married families, thus it provides goods in modern society and therefore cannot be outdated."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con04a","title":"","text":"Marriage is an important institution to religious people  Nearly 50% of people in the UK identify as being part of some religion. (British Social Attitudes Survey 2007) Marriage is an integral part of most major religions, particularly Christianity, where it is one of the sacraments(Lehmkuhl, 1910) which are necessary for salvation (Vatican.va). which encompasses over 40% of the population of the UK. (British Social Attitudes Survey 2007) While there are still such huge numbers of people who practice religions to which marriage is integral, marriage cannot be outdated."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con03a","title":"","text":"Marriage represents a legal bond which protects both parties in a relationship  Marriage has relevance to modern society in not only an emotional, religious and practical sense but also in a legal sense. According to Sir Mark Potter in English Law marriage is regarded as an \"age-old institution\" that is \"by longstanding definition and acceptance\" a formal relationship between a man and a woman primarily designed for producing and rearing children. It gives many rights in areas like property rights and pension benefits.(Travis, 2011) A marital bond gives important rights to both parties in cases of events such as severe injury, bereavement or even divorce. An institution cannot be outdated if it retains legal importance in modern society."}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con05b","title":"","text":"These statistics do not conclusively prove that married life is a better way to raise a child in every case. It is harmful to promote a message that a marriage is always a better way to raise a child than a single parent family. For instance, in the case of an abusive relationship or an individual who is clearly a completely unsuitable parent, it would be better for the parent who was suitable to raise the child by themselves than to hold up a marriage that was harmful to the raising of that child.  The choice is not always between a good marriage and single parent life but often between a harmful marriage and single parent life, so marriage does not necessarily promote a better way to raise children. (Cherlin 2009)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con01a","title":"","text":"Removes the transient and casual aspects of a monogamous relationship, thus giving a child a far more stable environment.  Marriage represents a commitment and a bond that is, although not unbreakable, difficult to break. This may not be appropriate for couples who wish to have a more casual relationship, however, it offers a more stable and official relationship, which is far preferable to a more transient relationship when it comes to raising a child. (Waite 2000)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con04b","title":"","text":"In the last 20 years, the number of people in the UK who identify as religious has declined by 20%. This shows that religion as a whole is becoming less important and, with it, marriage is becoming less important. (British Social Attitudes Survey 2007)"}
+{"id":"training-religion-msfhbmoi-con02b","title":"","text":"The fact that 50% of all divorcees (National Office for Statistics 1999) go on to remarry does not, as the opposition claims, show that marriage is a meaningful and relevant institution but quite the opposite. What this means is that a huge number of people vow to spend the rest of their life with another person, forsaking all others until death do them part, on multiple occasions. This does not show that society still has faith in marriage, it shows that society no longer respects the institution of marriage."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro02b","title":"","text":"Property rights are not fair: it is up to individuals to protect themselves in the sphere of relationships. Married couples have entered into a state-endorsed relationship which provides advantages (both financially in terms of taxes and inheritance, and through recognition and validation). It is reasonable for the state to require something in return: namely, that the parties are treated fairly, should that marriage end. Moreover, married couples are forced to share their property because they have chosen to commit themselves to each other. When people get married they know what they are signing up to and can therefore be taken to consent."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro02a","title":"","text":"The courts have a duty to develop services that will meet the needs of society  Fairness requires that cohabiting couples share their property on separation: when couples have lived together for a long period (such as five years or more) they will have gained benefits at each other\u2019s expense but also suffered disadvantages for the other\u2019s benefit. If one partner gives up a career to raise children or support the other in their career, they are seriously disadvantaged upon separation. Where the other partner has gained as a result of this sacrifice, they should compensate the former, so that the two parties can move towards independence in equal positions. Parties may choose not to marry, but this should not have to cause such financial harm to one partner."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro03b","title":"","text":"Marriage is no longer the only type of serious long-term relationship and the law should reflect this: the absence of property rights on separation for cohabiting couples sends a message to society that cohabitation is a less meaningful relationship than marriage. Marriage has strong religious connotations and was historically a vehicle for the oppression of women. It is consequently unsurprising that some couples may not wish to enter into the institution of marriage. These couples can still have long-term relationships which are just as stable as marriage. Legal rights would help to validate such relationships and recognise the reality of diverse family structures within society. Furthermore, the status quo can be seen to be coercive in that individuals, who may not want to get married, are forced to do so if they wish to have legal rights."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro01a","title":"","text":"The status quo discourages interdependence  The status quo discourages interdependence: the absence of property rights under the status quo encourages unmarried couples to act as individuals, protecting their own financial interests, rather than supporting each other. In UK law, \u201ctheir relationship with one another is not recognised as having any legal standing, and they have no special status in the eyes of the English legal system\u201d [1] Individuals are usually more able to pursue their own ambitions when they have the support of another. For example, financial support and security makes it easier to take risks which may be economically beneficial, such as setting up a new business, or undergoing further education to improve employment prospects.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro01b","title":"","text":"The absence of property rights does not prevent interdependence: the law does not prevent individuals supporting each other or taking risks. However, it requires that couples discuss such plans properly with each other and decide how they wish to structure their own relationships. Expecting all couples, regardless of their circumstances, to support each other financially is unrealistic. Furthermore, it is possible that at the margin some couples may not cohabit in order to avoid having to share their property. These couples will have even less support."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro03a","title":"","text":"Property rights for cohabiting couples will undermine the institution of marriage  Property rights for unmarried couples undermine marriage as an institution, harming society. The societal shift away from marriage is harmful. Marriages tend to be more stable than cohabitation because of the greater level of commitment involved: the mutual support of a marriage is beneficial for individuals and can create a more secure environment for raising children. Because of the higher exit costs (divorce is difficult and time-consuming), married couples are more likely to resolve their problems than cohabiting couples who can walk away more easily. Giving legal rights to cohabiting couples endorses more diverse relationships, suggesting that marriage is less important. This is harmful as it is likely in the long term to further reduce the number of marriages, leading to fewer stable relationships."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con03b","title":"","text":"Care can be provided without property rights: as with interdependence, the status quo does not prevent individuals reducing their income to care for others. It merely requires that couples discuss their plans and make provisions to deal with the need to care for children or elderly relatives.  i"}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con01b","title":"","text":"It is unreasonable for the law to expect unmarried couples to plan for when they separate: people within relationships tend to be optimistic about the prospects of their relationships. They do not expect to split up, and most choose cohabitation to see if the relationship is going to work out at all. Making agreements about property at this stage can seem unromantic and unnecessary. USA Today writes: \u201cFor young couples who have never been married, cohabiting may seem like a hassle-free way of testing a relationship before tying the knot. And for those who already have been through a divorce, who have children or other significant assets, cohabiting may seem like a way to avoid costly legal entanglements if the relationship doesn't work out.\u201d [1]  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con02a","title":"","text":"The creation of such a law would strengthen trends toward paternalist law making  When couples choose not to get married, perhaps because one party is not willing to do so, this does not indicate the same commitment to each other. Where there are considerable disparities in income or wealth couples may have no desire to divide their assets and the choice not to get married may reflect this. Those who desire financial protection can choose to marry but the state should not intervene when couples do not make this choice, beyond ensuring that provision is made for children. Such intervention undermines the autonomy of individuals within cohabiting couples because it suggests that they cannot make these decisions competently for themselves."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con03a","title":"","text":"The current situation discourages altruistic in a relationship  The status quo discourages care for children and the elderly: a further consequence of the perceived need for independence is that individuals are less able to reduce their working hours in order to care for young children or elderly relatives, in case they suffer significantly as a result, for example if their relationship ends. Children who see more of their parents often develop stronger relationships with their parents which are valuable in later life when they need advice or support. In addition, studies show that it is beneficial for their emotional development. Elderly people, on the other hand, often feel particularly vulnerable and isolated and care from relatives plays an important role in maintaining their inclusion within society."}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con01a","title":"","text":"Legal supervision will discourage independent planning  The law should encourage people to plan adequately: individual people are different and one size does not fit all. If the state plans how your property should be owned, this fails to provide for each individual\u2019s specific lifestyle and circumstances. An increasing number of couples enter cohabitation contracts (where they agree how to split property if they separate) and this should be encouraged instead of automatic rights.  That is why some countries (like the US) offer cohabitation agreements, which is s a written agreement that governs the rights and obligations of two people who are in a relationship and live together in a shared residence. [1]  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con02b","title":"","text":"Creating legal provisions for property sharing after the end of a cohabitating relationship in no way limits the autonomy of individuals. If anything, the status quo does that. It forces couples to either get married (which they may not want to do) or to sign a cohabitation agreement before the beginning of a relationship (which is a preposterous idea to most couples). By creating a legal way to handle disputes after the end of a cohabitating relationship, the state would offer a middle road between the extremes of marriage and signing an unromantic contract early on."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Intolerant schools are a problem because they don\u2019t allow freedom of religious expression. In a free society, pupils should appreciate the different faiths of their fellow pupils and respect them. Without that respect, they may just end up going to separate schools which is even more divisive [1] .  As for safety, it also prevents some potential hazards such as hair getting caught in machines or flames, which when hidden won\u2019t be a problem.  [1] The Economist, \u2018Faiths and schools Religious rights and wrongs, 4 September 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro02a","title":"","text":"It causes problems in schools  Like in society as a whole, religious symbols are divisive. It marks some out as different from the others, which could cause bullying. They may also be impractical for PE, technology or science lessons where they get in the way.  Face veils also mean that people\u2019s lips cannot be seen when they are speaking, which can cause problems with communication (especially with any D\/deaf people who lip read). For this reason, a UK court considered it reasonable for a school to not permit a teacher to teach while wearing a face veil [1] .  [1] BBC News, \u2018School sacks woman after veil row\u2019, 24 November 2006,  . See court case listed higher up for full legal decision (resource for teachers)."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro03b","title":"","text":"No-one is in a vacuum \u2013 everyone has social pressures affecting what they wear.  Banning veils itself is divisive and will create strong reactions in highly religious communities [1] . Framing laws that only ban the veil could be seen as an attack on Islam, and lead Muslim communities to think they are being unfairly targeted. The result will be that they won\u2019t co-operate with people of other faiths. This would be bad for society and make extremists more influential.  [1] Huffington Post, \u2018France Bans Burqas: A Look At Islamic Veil Laws in Europe\u2019, 4 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro01a","title":"","text":"The veil is a symbol of oppression on women  Face coverings in particular divide men and women. Face veil is seen by some as a symbol of the oppression of women, because in some countries it is mandatory, as was the case in Afghanistan under the Taliban.  When worn in Europe, with equality and democracy, it can be seen as a rejection of such oppression \u2013 this is why Belgium banned it [1] . Islamic dress rules are often stricter for women than men.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Belgian ban on full veils comes into force\u2019, 23 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro01b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s not seen as oppressive by those who wear it \u2013 instead they see at as a way of preserving their modesty and privacy. Everyone has their own tolerance as to how much clothing makes them comfortable. It\u2019s a personal decision that should be left to the individual."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro03a","title":"","text":"It causes division within society  Religious symbols, such as the veil divide society. When some Muslim women wear the veil, it creates pressure on others to do so as well. Pressure comes from wanting to fit in, and pressure from other people in the community seeing those who don\u2019t wear the veil as being somehow less religious.  Allowing it in schools makes it more visible to non-Muslims, making them more likely to perceive it as a core part of the faith. It then gives the impression to outsiders that Islam is more extreme than it really is."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro04a","title":"","text":"A ban would be easy to enforce  As a face covering is very obvious, it would be a school to check to see if someone is wearing one. France [1] and Turkey [2] already have attempted such bans on headscarves, which do not cover the face.  This could be enforced by teachers, not police.  [1] BBC News, \u2018French scarf ban comes into force\u2019, 2 September 2004,   [2] Rainsford, Sarah, \u2018Turkey divided over headscarf ban\u2019, BBC News, 11 February 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con03b","title":"","text":"Each religious symbol should be taken on its own merits. Unlike many other religious manifestations, the veil covers the face, which has its own problems in Western societies because it makes it harder to understand someone wearing it. This is not about the religious symbol of the burqa but about the communication problem it creates."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con01b","title":"","text":"A ban on face coverings wouldn\u2019t be a target to a particular faith as it would also ban veils that might be desired by people of other faiths as well. Moreover only a small minority of Muslim women in Europe wear the veil; in France with 5million Muslims it is thought that only 350 wear the face veil. [1]  [1] O\u2019Neill, Brendan, \u2018There\u2019s nothing enlightened about burka-bashing\u2019, Spiked, 19 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con02a","title":"","text":"It\u2019s a personal matter \u2013 it doesn\u2019t concern others  Wearing religious and cultural symbols are a matter of personal choice. Getting the government involved in such a personal matter is a breach of privacy. The Belgian ban has been unpopular amongst some people because those who want to wear it are being limited to staying within their homes. In France a ban on the burqa has led to increasing abuse of those who do wear it; 94% of victims of anti-Muslim physical and verbal abuse are women. [1]  [1] Irving, Helene, \u2018France\u2019s \u201cBurqa Ban\u201d Enforcing Not Solving Inequality\u2019, Open Society Foundations, 13 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con04a","title":"","text":"It\u2019s their culture and religion  Religion is intimately linked to culture and people\u2019s identity. To many people who believe that religion, it is very important to them. In a society with respect for human rights, people are able to not just have their religious beliefs, but put them in to practice."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con03a","title":"","text":"If you ban it, you have to ban everything else  If one form of religious symbolism is banned, it would be difficult to justify not banning others. If the government considers face coverings which would be seen as an attack on Muslims (while only a small minority of Muslim women wear them, they are not popular in other faiths apart from for specific uses). If the motive for such a ban is integration and uniformity, items such as the Sikh turban and potentially the Christian cross should be banned as well."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con01a","title":"","text":"A ban on the veil is just a way of targeting Muslims  This measure would just be seen as a way of targeting Muslims. Religious symbols would be used as a way of singling out Muslims as a cause of division when any such problem is bigger than any one community. Muslims would be right to ask why the veil is banned while the Kirpan, a small ceremonial knife carried by Sikhs so potentially dangerous, is allowed."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con04b","title":"","text":"Not all Muslims believe that a full veil is a necessary part of their religion or culture. On the other side must be considered a culture that believes in being able to see the people who you are dealing with. Communication is an important part of culture, and visual contact is an important part of communication."}
+{"id":"training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con02b","title":"","text":"The veil is a visible symbol intended to be seen by others so it is clearly not just personal. It could be used to conceal identity, for example in the UK a group of robbers disguised themselves in burqas to steal over a million pounds of watches in Selfridges [1] .  [1] Davenport, Justin, \u2018Selfridges 'burka gang' detectives arrest five men in dawn raids\u2019, London Evening Standard, 22 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro02b","title":"","text":"There can be no description of human reality, in general or in particular, outside the reality of Christ. We must be on guard, therefore, against constructing any other ground for our identities than the redeemed humanity given to use in him. Those who understand themselves as homosexuals, no more and no less than those who do not, are liable to false understandings based on personal or family histories, emotional dispositions, social settings and solidarities formed by common experiences or ambitions. Our sexual affections can no more define who we are than our class race or nationality. At the deepest ontological level, therefore, there is no such thing as \"a\" homosexual or \"a\" heterosexual; therefore there are human beings, male and female, called to redeemed humanity in Christ, endowed with a complex variety of emotional potentialities and threatened by a complex variety of forms of alienation. [1]  [1] The Lembeth Conference 1998. Resolution I.10"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Sexuality is an intrinsic part of personality  Sexuality is an indivisible part of personhood; people need to be able to express their sexuality openly in order to fully actualise themselves. It is wrong therefore to use sexuality as an individual metric by which they are eligible to become priests or not \u2013 they should be taken on the whole of their personhood."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Priests act as representatives of God towards members of their congregation, not vice versa. The argument against women priests is that, while women are children of God and part of the church, they cannot represent Jesus in performing the communion service simply because he was male. The same applies to homosexuals; they cannot represent Him in the same way. The rule against gay priests but not against gay laity is not hypocritical but merely reflects the application of differing standards of discipline."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Homosexuality exists in nature and is therefore part of God\u2019s plan  Homosexual behaviour occurs naturally \u2013 both in humans and in the animal world, it has been observed in over 1500 animal species of all different types from mammals to crabs to worms. [1] It must be a misunderstanding of God\u2019s plan to say that homosexuality is unnatural \u2013 it forms a part of the world that He has created and therefore must form part of His plan.  The substance of what the Bible says about sexuality is that what matters is having a stable and loving relationship, not who that relationship is with.  [1] NewsMedical, \u20181,500 animal species practice homosexuality\u2019, 23 October 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Infanticide is a part of nature, as is cannibalism. What separates humanity from the rest of the natural world is our ability to appreciate morality beyond \u2018what is natural\u2019.  One of the moral rules that God has imparted to us is that the only moral sexual behaviour is between man and wife. Other moral systems obviously take a different view of sexual ethics, but they aren\u2019t relevant how a Christian Church should organise itself."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro04b","title":"","text":"Religion is not a political party, changing and catering to the views of the current electorate. The Church acts as the curator of God\u2019s Word and maintains its principles no matter how unfashionable they may be. This is especially important in an increasingly secular age when Christianity will only survive by virtue of it maintaining a clear, consistent message."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Priests have to represent their congregations  Priests have a responsibility to represent the members of their congregations. A large number of Christians are gay, and they can receive better spiritual direction from gay ministers than from heterosexuals who do not understand their lifestyles or relationships as well."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro04a","title":"","text":"The Church has adapted before, it can adapt now  The Church has adapted over the centuries on a number of social and natural issues as it seeks to re-interpret and re-explain God\u2019s message of love in the terms of modern society. For example Churches have adapted to the problems that science has thrown up, even the Catholic church, often the slowest to embrace change did eventually agree with Galileo over the earth going round the sun. [1] The acceptance of homosexuality and admission of gay priests is a necessary next step for the Church today. There will be others in the future.  [1] Butt, Riazat, \u2018The Vatican may be cosying up to science but it will never go all the way\u2019, Notes&Theories guardian.co.uk, 23 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-con03b","title":"","text":"Catholic doctrine is not the doctrine of all Christian churches. It is right to say that ordination is a privilege of service granted to men deemed mature enough to be faithful to that service \u2013 which is why that decision should be taken on each person as a rounded basis and not as an absolute litmus checklist of issues."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-con01b","title":"","text":"The part of the Book of Leviticus which sentences homosexuals to death also: permits polygamy, bans tattoos, prohibits eating meat that isn\u2019t well-cooked, prohibits eating rabbits, pigs or some forms of seafood, and prohibits the wearing of clothes made of blended textiles (such as polyester). Most Christians accept that parts of the Bible were written according to the out-dated social opinions of the time and can be taken lightly. The only New Testament comments about homosexuality come from the moralising apostle Paul; there is nothing directly from Jesus, in the Gospels themselves."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-con02a","title":"","text":"The Church condemns all sex outside of marriage, hetero or homosexual in nature  There can be no doubt that the Bible and Jesus strongly condemn sex outside of Christian marriage (or \u2018fornication\u2019). Indeed for much of Christian history sex even within marriage has been seen as a necessary evil that should only be for creating children, as a result priests, monks and nuns had to be celibate. [1] Although Jesus spent time in the company of adulterers, He loved \"the sinner, not the sin\" - and ordered them to cease their behaviour. His response to homosexuals would have been just as unequivocal.  [1] Bacchiocchi, Samuele, \u2018Marriage and Sex\u2019, The Marriage Covenant: A Biblical Study on Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage,"}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-con03a","title":"","text":"Ordination is not a right.  Ordination is a privilege of service granted to men deemed mature enough in all aspects of their lives to be able to be faithful to that service  It is Catholic doctrine that Homosexuals are incapable of perceiving human nature as God as created it, consisting of male and female persons meant for mutual attraction, complementarity, and, God-willing, marriage and children.  Instead, they see members of their own gender as mutually attractive in a sexual sense. They do not see females as such. In other words, they do not see or experience objective reality. Since this is so, it follows that homosexual priests possess a serious handicap which makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to serve well as ordained ministers. [1]  [1] Abbott, Matt C., \u2018Three priests speak on \u2018gay priest\u2019 ban\u2019. September 2005."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-con01a","title":"","text":"Homosexuality is a sin in the Bible  Homosexuality is \"a grievous sin\" in the Bible (Gen 18:20), a capital crime (Lev 20:13), and punishable by exclusion from the Kingdom of Heaven (1 Cor 6:9-10). Christians - especially priests - must accept the Bible as the ultimate authority. Christian ministry is therefore incompatible with homosexuality. Jesus was a radical teacher and overturned Jewish tradition where He saw it was necessary to do so; His silence on homosexuality indicates that He saw no need in this case."}
+{"id":"training-religion-chwccaogalp-con02b","title":"","text":"Condemning homosexuality as sex outside marriage is unfair, since it is the Christian church which does not offer the right of marriage to gays and lesbians. If it were to do so, they could enjoy sex within loving relationships, sanctified by the Church, just as heterosexuals do. Jesus\u2019 main teaching was clear - \"love your God and love your neighbour\" - and there is clear difference between adultery and homosexuality in this respect; the former causes pain and has a victim (the betrayed partner), the latter can be a purely loving relationship."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro02b","title":"","text":"The appreciation for complex life by all reasoning should be universal among intelligent species. It seems intelligent life is a rarity in the Universe, and thus it would be unlikely for any civilization, no matter how advanced beyond our own, not to appreciate the advent of complex life on Earth and the value of humanity, flawed and inferior as it might appear to them1. The time energy necessary to traverse the stars in order to reach Earth would only be worth spending if it were to a peaceful end. War would yield only the resources of this small planet, hardly the spoils worth an interstellar war, however one-sided it might prove. Human civilization, as short as its span has been, has developed far in terms of both physical and social sciences. The wealth of knowledge that might be had from contacting extraterrestrials is too great an opportunity to pass up. 1 Sagan, Carl. 1973. Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Cambridge: MIT Press."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro02a","title":"","text":"There is no way to prevent attempts at contact so they should be official.  There is no way for us to attempt to prevent everyone in the planet from trying to contact aliens so the attempts might as well be done officially. There are more than 6 billion people on Earth, we cannot control their actions or keep an eye on them all. If we had no official messages going out then we would be allowing private individuals to monopolize the message which could have consequences if there ever is contact as a result of these attempts1. At the same time we can't just turn off all our communication signals. We have been broadcasting our radio and television shows, mobile phone conversations etc. for decades, how would we just shut it all off and make sure nothing leaks further out to space? It is therefore better for governments who are at least the representatives of their people to be controlling the message by themselves attempting to contact extraterrestrial life. 1  \">Drezner, Daniel, 'How do you say \"realpolitik\" in Klingon?' ForeignPolicy.com, 25th April 201"}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro03b","title":"","text":"Certainly there are many concerns on Earth that must be addressed if mankind hopes to survive. Pollution and climate change are real threats that deserve a great deal of attention from all governments around the world, since everyone is affected. This attention, however, does not need to exclude from the agenda the effort to contact extraterrestrials. Rather, states can focus on more than one science-based issue at a time. It is rather disingenuous, in fact, to suggest that it is a matter of one or the other. Furthermore, the international unity created by mankind's collective search for intelligent life in space, binding people not as members of separate nations, but as members of the human race, can serve as a means of promoting unified action on issues affecting the whole planet. Space exploration and the search for intelligent life among the stars can thus actually help to ameliorate coordination problems between states in their efforts to deal with global issues. Clearly, when people think of themselves as citizens of the world they are more ready to think globally and consider issues affecting other countries. The search for extraterrestrials is a very real means of promoting such thinking."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro05a","title":"","text":"The effort to contact extraterrestrial life causes humans around the world to think of themselves as one community, with an identity and purpose that transcends borders:  Space exploration fosters a general sense of internationalism. For example, in no endeavor have scientists from around the world more readily worked together than in the development of the International Space Station and other space-related enterprises. Looking beyond the Earth serves to unite humanity in a way nothing else can1. When the Apollo astronauts first transmitted images of the Earth back to the waiting masses, the sight of that tiny blue-white marble suspended in the vast void profoundly changed the way many people viewed themselves. There was for the first time a sense of oneness, of citizenship of this island Earth. In the transmissions beamed into space in hopes of contacting extraterrestrials, the messages are emissaries of the entire human race. In this way space exploration actually gives mankind a transcendent purpose, promoting peace and understanding among nations that no amount of conventional diplomacy can create. Further to this, in seeking to be representative of all humanity, the formers of messages to be sent into space must actively ask the question of what it is to be human. In seeking an answer, people foster greater understanding of one another and of the oneness of human existence.  1 Van de Hulst, H. 1961. \"International Space Cooperation\". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 17(5)."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro01a","title":"","text":"Space exploration produces many valuable technological innovations that benefit all of human society:  Space exploration and research have resulted in many major advances in science and technology. Everything from Velcro to more efficient and powerful computers has come out of the space program1. The technological advances produced by the space program would not have been possible were it not for the intensity of focus on the paradigm of exploration. That same paradigm has come to permeate scientific enquiry generally, pushing scientists to seek new answers and to develop new technologies. So long as mankind keeps pushing the barriers of its own knowledge, it will never stagnate, and human understanding of the Universe will continue to grow. Should humanity, however, take an insular view of itself and turn back on a history of pushing of boundaries, the paradigm of progress might dissolve as well. 1 Coalition for Space Exploration. 2010. \"Benefits of Space"}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro01b","title":"","text":"The benefits accrued from spin-off technology resulting from space exploration are generally overstated. NASA, for example, had claimed that protein crystals could be grown in zero gravity that could fight cancer, as well as numerous other claims of benefits. Most of these benefits have never materialized. With all the billions of dollars wasted on space exploration and trying to contact extraterrestrials, most of the spin-off technologies could likely have been created independently, given the resources, and probably at lower overall expense. As to the paradigm of exploration, efforts to explore parts of space, as well as our own planet would continue. The paradigm is not shattered by the choice to take a cautious approach toward extraterrestrial life, which is likely a waste of effort anyway."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro04b","title":"","text":"The search for extraterrestrial life does not solve the problem of the human propensity toward group distinctions. Even if such projects succeeded in fostering a sense of universal humanity, it only does so at the cost of creating a new in group-out group dynamic, namely humans defining themselves against the out group that is extraterrestrial life. Such redefinition of identity could cause serious problems in the extremely unlikely event that humans ever actually do make contact with extraterrestrial life."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro03a","title":"","text":"Humanity in many ways defines itself through exploration, and the search for alien life is part of mankind's exploration of the Universe:  Human history is one of exploration. Since the earliest days of Homo sapiens, people have striven to look beyond the horizon, to see what is out there. It was this impetus that led humans out of the small corner of Africa where the species was born, to see new places, to find new fertile lands to explore. It was this impetus also that led the first European explorers to traverse the great waters of the Atlantic Ocean in search of new trade routes, braving the very real risks of storm, disease, piracy, and fatal disorientation, as well as the perceived risks of sea serpents and other monsters awaiting unwary travelers. When the surface of the world was finally mapped, people set their sights on exploration of the sea floor, to climb the highest mountains, and finally to reach the stars themselves, all because they were challenges, unknowns to be made known1. Mankind's place is among the stars, and what lies beyond the Earth will also fascinate the human imagination. Nothing is so exciting as the pursuit of other life, other beings with whom to share the knowledge of mankind and the wisdom of the cosmos. Governments should not try to slow Man's progress to the stars but should promote and fund it, for to do otherwise is to end part of what it is to be human. Truly, the quest to discover and contact life amongst the stars is a pursuit of truth and understanding. To not pursue such knowledge is to deny truth itself. 1 Dick, Steven. 2009. \"Why We Explore\". NASA. Available Why_We_\/Why_We_05.html"}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-pro04a","title":"","text":"The knowledge and technology to be gained from interaction with extraterrestrials is potentially limitless:  Humanity has built, in the relatively few millennia since formal writing was invented, compiled a truly gigantic quantity of information and knowledge, to which it is constantly adding, at increasingly rapid rates. To imagine the treasure trove of knowledge and experience that would become available to humanity in the event of contact with intelligent extraterrestrial life of similar, or even greater, technological and social development is almost impossible1. The wisdom that could be gained, especially considering that alien life would likely have evolved along very different lines than humans, could be of a kind that mankind could never have conceived without such contact. This great potential for the gaining of knowledge is reason enough to devote resources to the effort of making contact. 1 Sagan, Carl. 1973. Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Cambridge: MIT Press."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con03b","title":"","text":"There is no need for us to be searching for alien life to be exploring the universe. The dream of contacting aliens seems to be an example of humanity's dreams gone awry. Earth's beamed messages and questing probes have for their efforts received no return signal. Surely if intelligent life were near enough to have received our signals, they would have replied. Alternatively, if they are too far away, there is no physical means by which they could ever reach Earth, due to the constraints of the laws of physics, which deny objects the power of reaching the speed of light. Furthermore, the value of the drive to explore itself should be questioned, since humanity's track record on the subject is far from stellar; the abysmal treatment of the Native Americans by European settlers, for example, shows that the will to explore can come with terrible costs."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con01b","title":"","text":"It seems unlikely that humans would not be able to survive a great change of circumstance. The human mind is quite resilient, and while the change in how people viewed themselves and the Universe would likely change substantially, it might well be for the better. In fact, discovery of extraterrestrials might help free people from the shackles of dogmatic religious belief, which has caused untold suffering to many through the ages."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con02a","title":"","text":"Contact with an extraterrestrial civilization more advanced than our own could lead to mass existential crises, putting the existence of human civilization at risk:  Almost every human belief system, religious or secular, is based on an anthropocentric outlook. Humanity is the collective center of its Universe; the cognitively aware being that can interact with physical reality not simply by impulse, but by self-aware, conscious agency. Human belief in itself is based upon its conception of dominion over the physical world. Mankind shapes its own environment; while weaker, slower, and smaller than many other species, the intelligence of Man makes Him the apex predator. Mankind's image of itself is compromised by the existence of other intelligent life, especially more advanced intelligent life. It seems that most religious belief systems could not effectively survive with such knowledge, since the existence of intelligent, advanced extraterrestrials seems to imply the nonexistence of a creator God with any active interest in humanity over any other species1. The realization that we are not the center of the Universe could shake many people to their cores, particularly the religious, many of whom would likely find great difficulty coming to terms with that reality. It would be better that humans not seek out such revelations about the Universe. If intelligent life does exist elsewhere in the Universe, better not to invite it to Earth. The cost to people's beliefs and sense of being is too high. 1 Peters, Ted. 2011. \"The Implications of the Discovery of Extra-Terrestrial Life for Religion\". Philosophical Transactions of the"}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con04a","title":"","text":"The focus of states and individuals should be on fixing the problems of this planet, not with exploring other ones:  The Earth is faced with many problems that people should be focusing their efforts on addressing, not on the stars and what may or may not be out there. Global warming, the destruction of ecosystems, rising sea levels, pollution, poverty, and resource depletion are all issues weighing heavily on states and the international community as a whole. Individuals and governments need to rally and fight these growing terrestrial problems1. The resources poured into space exploration and the contacting of extraterrestrials, which will likely serve no lasting purpose, would be better spent in combating the hundreds of serious issues facing the planet today. The search for extraterrestrials serves only as a distraction, keeping people's minds off the pressing concerns of the Earth. To make things worse, governments use manned space flight as a means of distraction quite deliberately. It is often easier to devote attention and resources to headline-grabbing endeavors like efforts to contact extraterrestrials than to address concerns like global warming, which requires extensive international coordination to a degree rarely reached in history. As is shown by developing countries like China and India having space programs while helping to block progress on climate talks and while they still have millions in poverty. Governments may find utility in keeping people focused on such grand projects while doing comparably little to affect change where it is direly needed. Clearly, humanity's concerns should be focused wholly on the survival of its home world, not on trying to get in touch with worlds that might not even exist, and almost certainly cannot sustain human life. 1 Carreau, Mark. 2009. \"NASA Urged to Keep Feet On Earth\". The Chronicle."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con03a","title":"","text":"Attempts to contact extraterrestrial life are a waste of time and money:  Billions of dollars have been spent by a number of countries, principally the United States, on great projects seeking to make contact and signal extraterrestrials. None of these has received so much as a peep in reply. The reason for this is likely that intelligent life is an extreme rarity, with humanity its only exemplar in this part of the galaxy1. If there were intelligent life within receiving range of Earth-based transmissions, the extraterrestrials would have had ample opportunity to respond, or at least make their presence known. The fact that they have not suggests that there are no extraterrestrials within contactable range, or at least none with any interest in talking to Earthlings. If there were extraterrestrials on more distant planets, efforts to contact them would be pointless, as they would be so far away that communication would take many years and would be unreachable physically. Furthermore, the search for extraterrestrials violates reason. Money should only be spent on projects after phenomena worth analyzing have been detected. There is no evidence that intelligent lie other than our own exists at all. Trying to contact little green men in space is just a waste of time. 1 Ward, Peter. 2000. Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. Philadelphia: Springer."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con01a","title":"","text":"Extraterrestrials might prove unintelligible, or even hostile toward humanity:  Were extraterrestrials to actually be contacted, an unlikely event in itself, the ability to share in any form of meaningful communication might well prove more difficult than might first seem. The extraterrestrials will have evolved on a different world, perhaps along lines so alien to that of Earth's life that it would be utterly impossible to understand what they said, even if they could be heard. Language is built largely on frames of reference, and when an extraterrestrial, evolving on an entirely alien world, perhaps possessing an entirely alien thought process, and certainly having an entirely alien linguistic frame of reference, no level of communication might be possible. With no conceptual similarities or cognitive common ground, the potential for sharing knowledge between species would likely prove impossible to decipher. They could simply be too alien. Furthermore, the hope that technologically advanced extraterrestrials would be friendly towards humanity is entirely unfounded. They might well prove hostile, and if they are more technologically advanced, they could prove an existential threat to the survival of mankind1. This is especially true if the extraterrestrials were actually capable of physically reaching Earth, which would require an understanding of physics and engineering centuries ahead of that of mankind. Welcoming such creatures to Earth could well spell ruin for humanity, as so advanced a civilization might well consider humanity to be of no higher an order of life than we might consider insects. It is far better than humanity not make such a habit of broadcasting its position. It could prove dangerous, especially if the Universe is not as friendly a place as scientists hope.  1 Brin, David. 2006. \"Shouting at the Cosmos\". Lifeboat Foundation."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con04b","title":"","text":"The potential for sharing of knowledge, were extraterrestrials to actually be contacted, might well be more limited and difficult than might first seem. The extraterrestrials will have evolved on a different world, perhaps along lines so alien to that of Earth's life that it would be utterly impossible to understand what they would have to say, even if they could be heard. They could simply be too alien. There is no reason to believe that any aliens are going to benevolent they could very well be hostile. (Brin, 2006) We should not therefore be attempting to contact aliens to share technology rather we should be focusing on advancing our own technology. 1 Brin, David. 2006. \"Shouting at the Cosmos\". Lifeboat Foundation."}
+{"id":"training-science-euhwcface-con02b","title":"","text":"Just because efforts to contact extraterrestrials to date have proven unsuccessful does not mean they are not out there. In fact, as communications technology develops over time, humans' ability to project messages and to receive them will increase manifold. Extraterrestrial transmissions could well be beaming toward Earth, but humans might simply lack the capacity to receive them. There could be an interplanetary conversation happening right now, and no one would even know (Sagan, 1973). Only by pushing the boundaries of science and of human imagination can such technological improvements arise. The paradigm of exploration must be maintained with the scouring for life amongst the heavens."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro02b","title":"","text":"While ISPs are private firms, they perform a public service. They have a special duty in society as providers of information not to bias that information through private censorship policies. When they embark on any form of site-blocking, ISPs cease to be doing their job. Governments should maintain that ISPs act as neutral gatekeepers of information and not take up the role of ad hoc censor. Moreover this would be different from filtering adult content as that is a service that is provided if the subscriber wishes it, if this was the case with extremist content then such a block would be useless as those interested in extremist content would just opt for packages that do not restrict access."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro02a","title":"","text":"ISPs are private service providers and should thus be able to have some filters on the most extreme spectrums of extremism  ISPs are ultimately private providers of a service. Because of this they should retain the right to restrict that service to certain groups. So long as ISPs make public their policy for what constitutes extremism so that consumers can decide if they want to opt into it, there is no real issue. There are many filters available to users to screen out certain materials already, for example internet providers offer customers the option to block adult content, [1] and this is merely an extension of this approach. Businesses must be able to sort their own ethos. Some ISPs may not opt to use this power given to them by the state, but others may not wish to carry content they consider dangerous. Because extremism is on the very fringe of speech and opinion, and because of the potential dangers that can arise from it, it is only right that the state give some ability to ISPs to block objectionable content.  [1] BBC News, \u201cInternet providers offer parents bar on porn\u201d 11 October 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro03b","title":"","text":"While it is true that extremists seek to undermine and bend the systems of discourse to be as favorable as possible, they are a tiny fringe minority of opinion, and the number of sites challenging their skewed narrative is far more numerous. Even young people are able to surf the web with great skill, and can easily see that the extremist view is fringe in the extreme. There is also little evidence that preventing access to some sites would make it more difficult for extremists, when large numbers of jihadi websites went offline in 2012 discussion simply moved elsewhere and leaders emphasized recruiting more people offline. [1]  [1] Zelin, A. et al. \u201cThe State of Global Jihad Online\u201d. New America Foundation. January 2013.  \/Zelin20130201-NewAmericaFoundation.pdf Pp.10, 15"}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro05a","title":"","text":"ISPs are better placed than governments to make decisions on when and who to block  As the access providers for the internet ISPs are best placed to implement policies for blocking extremist sites and so are the natural option for deciding when and which sites to block. Furthermore, because the state is often slow due its extensive bureaucracy, it is less able to respond with alacrity to extremist sites popping up online. ISPs on the other hand are likely to be able to act as soon as they are informed of the existence of a website whereas working through government would simply add an extra layer of requests and orders. The ISPs blocking the site also creates a fire break between the state and the action so not giving the extremists the ammunition that state intervention might give them. Essentially, the good result of eliminating these sites from public access is accomplished faster, more effectively, and with lesser backlash than if any other agent did the blocking."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro01a","title":"","text":"The freedom of speech can be curtailed when it represents a serious threat to society  Freedom of speech certainly may be curtailed when real harms can be shown to arise from it. Extremist sites serve as centers of dangerous dissent, whose members threaten all of society. They promote a message that is fundamentally bad speech, because it cannot it cannot be argued with and promotes aims that are so anathema to free society that its dissemination represents a true threat to people\u2019s safety. The threat extremists represent to free society demands that their right to speech online be curtailed. [1] By blocking these sites, ISPs certainly are denying some freedom of speech, but it is a necessarily harmful form of speech that has no value in the global commons. Thus, there is essentially no real loss of valuable speech in censoring extremist websites.  [1] Kaplan, E. \u201cTerrorists and the Internet\u201d. Council on Foreign Relations. 8 January 2009."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro01b","title":"","text":"Denying extremists their right to speak threatens everyone\u2019s freedom of speech. It is essential in a free society that people should be able to freely express their views without fear of reprisal, however extreme or unsavory their views are. If you value free speech you must be willing to defend that right for everyone, even for those you find repugnant."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro05b","title":"","text":"Putting the power to censor the internet, no matter how stringent or specific the guidelines, into the hands of a private organization is misguided. It is the state not individual ISPs who are needed to assess how dangerous a site is, whether it is actually promoting extremism, and ultimately make a decision as to whether a site needs to be blocked. The ISPs may end up being the actors that implement the policy but it has to be government that decides which websites to block and why. This also means that the decision would be much more centralised. Leaving this decision to the discretion of individual ISPs will mean that some websites will be blocked on some ISPs and not on others. Only government can ensure that there is consistency."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro04b","title":"","text":"Extremist groups will always find ways to organize direct actions, be it via in-person meetings, furtive use of social networking tools, or even by using untraceable black sites online that ISPs cannot block because they cannot see them. The result of blocking these views from the public internet only serves to push the extremists further underground."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro03a","title":"","text":"It makes it more difficult for extremists to organize and spread their message when blocked  The ISPs are the gatekeepers of information. When the internet places no moral judgments on content and the ISPs let all information through without commentary, it lends an air of permissiveness to the beliefs put forward, that they are held by reasonable people. The internet is a great tool for education, but also one that can be used to sow misinformation and extreme rhetoric. Extremist groups have been able to use the internet to a remarkable extent in promoting their beliefs and recruiting new members. Worse still, the administrators of these extremist sites are able to choke of things like dissenting commenters, giving the illusion that their view is difficult, or even impossible to reasonably challenge. In doing so they create an echo chamber for their ideas that allows them to spread and to affect people, particularly young people susceptible to such manipulation. The best example of this activity is in the international jihadist community and its reaching out to people in the West. Young disaffected Muslims have received an introduction to militant Islamism from sites often based abroad, but also some domestically, increasing the number of believers in an extreme, militant form of that religion. [1] By denying these people a platform on the internet, ISPs are able to not only make a moral stance that is unequivocal, but also to choke off access to new members who can be saved by never seeing the negative messages.  [1] Kaplan, E. \u201cTerrorists and the Internet\u201d. Council on Foreign Relations. 8 January 2009."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Blocking these sites makes it more difficult for extremist groups to coordinate extremist action in the real world  The greatest fear people have about extremist groups is not their rhetoric, but the actions the rhetoric precipitates. Extremists have proven adept at setting up basic websites through which to build communities to organize and coordinate extreme actions. This means in the most limited form the coordinating of extremist demonstrations and rallies, but also violent and terrorist actions. The best example of this is As-Sahab, al-Qaeda\u2019s media arm, which has used an extensive web presence to galvanize supporters and to coordinate terrorist attacks. [1] In using the tools of the mass media extremists have succeeded in bringing supporters to their cause, people who are often geographically diffuse, into a close community capable of action and disruption that harms all citizens. If blocking these websites entirely ISPs would pose a significant barrier to these extremist groups organising. Even more damaging to these networks in the long terms would be the drop in recruitment due to a reduction in their reach. ISPs can significantly hamper these organizations from ever embarking on serious violent actions, and from coalescing in the first place by denying them their most effective springboard. The most important effect is in the prevention of radicalization in the first place. Preventing, or at least hampering access to extremist materials serves to keep impressionable, swayable people from experiences that might turn them to extremism. [2]  [1] Kaplan, E. \u201cTerrorists and the Internet\u201d. Council on Foreign Relations. 8 January 2009.   [2] Silber, M. and Bhatt, A., \u201cRadicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat\u201d The New York City Police Department, 2007.  p.83"}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con03b","title":"","text":"The ISPs would not be defining the parameters of what constitutes extremism; they would simply be interpreting the parameters that are given to them by government. They do not need to gauge the extent of the harm from a site simply determine whether it falls within the kind of site they are to be blocking. There would be no expectation that the ISPs would need to work out complex cost-benefit analyses. ISPs, as the purveyors of the internet are perfectly capable of policing their own service, and are well-placed to do so because they manage the software that feeds the internet service. Furthermore, as private agents providing a service, they retain the right to alter the extent of that service if they see fit to do so."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con01b","title":"","text":"Freedom of speech is important, but must be curtailed when people are threatened. Extremists are a very real threat because their messages and actions galvanize people to take violent, disruptive actions against the state and its citizens. ISPs have a right, and even a responsibility to block extremist websites if it is written into the contract when a user purchases the service. When people opt into an ISP they accept the parameters of the service, so their freedom is not being limited by the blocking of extremist content as they have already accepted that extremist websites are not a part of the access package they bought."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con02a","title":"","text":"ISPs should be required to maintain Net Neutrality  The internet is such a great thing because it is a free market of ideas in which all beliefs can be submitted for the scrutiny of the global online community. Debate online and rational argument serves as a major check on the extreme views of the political fringe. By maintaining net neutrality in the provision of internet and not blocking websites, ISPs allow this process of the exchange and scrutinizing of ideas on which liberal democratic society relies. [1] A neutral stance upholds the highest principles of the freedom, and allows people to feel safe in the veracity and representativeness of the internet content they are provided, and unafraid of artificially constructed bias.  [1] Seythal, T. \u201cHolocaust Denier Sentenced to Five Years\u201d. The Washington Post. 15 February 2007."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con05a","title":"","text":"Censorship provides a propaganda victory to its targets  By denying people the ability to access sites set up by extremists, ISPs serve to increase extremists\u2019 mystique and thus the demand to know more about the movement and its beliefs. When the public appears to oppose something so vociferously that it is willing to have its internet provider set aside the normal freedoms usually taken as granted, people begin to take notice. There are always groups of individuals that wish to set themselves up as oppositional to the norms of society, to transgress against its mores and thus challenge what they see to be a constraining system. [1] When extremist beliefs are afforded this mystique of extreme transgression, it serves to encourage people, particularly young, rebellious people to seek out the group and even join it. Such has been the case of young, disaffected Muslims in Europe, and the United Kingdom in particular. These young people feel discriminated against by the system and seek to express their anger in the public sphere. Islamists have been able to capitalize on this disaffection in their recruitment and have become all the more attractive since their sites have come under attack by the UK government. [2] By allowing free expression and debate, many people would be saved from joining the forces of extremism.  [1] Gottfried, Ted. Deniers of the Holocaust: Who They Are, What They Do, Why They Do It. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2001.  [2] Jowitt, T. \u201cUK Government Prepares to Block Extremist Websites\u201d. Tech Week Europe. 9 June 2011."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con04a","title":"","text":"Blocking extremists will make anti-terrorism surveillance more difficult as the organizations go underground  A major risk with any extremist organization is that its members, when put under significant legal pressure, will go underground, or find other means of communicating, or use any ISPs that not blocking extremist content. The power of ISPs, or the state for that matter, to actually stop the development of extremist networks is limited, as they will be able still to organize in secret, or even semi-publicly, via social networks and hidden websites that evade detection by the censors. As Mark Burgess, director of the World Security Institute warns \u201c\u201ctoo much focus on closing down websites could also be counter-productive, since it likely forces terrorist websites to go underground to the so-called \u2018deep\u2019 or hidden web.\u201d [1]  Terrorist groups visible profile would be blunted, but it would not guarantee any positive gains in terms of stamping down on the number of extremists. Indeed, when extremists are driven from public channels it will be ever harder for the government to keep track of their doings and of their leaders. The result of this censorship is a more careful organization that now has a sense of victimhood against the society that censors it, which it can use to encourage even more extreme acts from its members and can spin to its advantage during recruitment efforts. By leaving them in the open extremists feel more comfortable acting within the confines of the law and are thus less dangerous, even if they are more visible.  [1] Andrews, S., \u201cThe dark side of the web\u201d, PC Pro, 9 March 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con03a","title":"","text":"ISPs are not well placed to make judgments on what constitutes extremism  ISPs are businesses, not scholars or governments. They do not have the expertise to effectively define the parameters of what constitutes extremism or when a certain site is such, and cannot gauge the extent of damage the site is having. If governments give the power to ISPs to take down extremist sites they are giving these companies the ability to dissipate the freedom of the internet on the basis of its own judgment. [1] That is a very dangerous power to give the agents that are the gatekeepers of information to the people. Even if the state sets guidelines for ISPs to follow, it will be difficult to police their decisions effectively and will set the dangerous precedent that service providers should have a degree of power over what content citizens can consume. The ISPs also face the risk of legal challenge by groups blocked that claim to not be advocates of extremism at all so burdening the ISPs with long and costly court battles which would effectively be being fought on behalf of the government. Ultimately private actors cannot be given the authority of the public censor.  [1] Mitchell, S. \u201cBT Resists Move to Make ISPs Block Extremist Content\u201d. PC Pro. 7 February 2012."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con05b","title":"","text":"While some people might be enticed by the mystique of extremism as transgressors, far more people will be put off by the positive statement of denying them their favored platform from which to speak. There will always be extremists, but their views must always be challenged and their influence curtailed wherever it is found"}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con01a","title":"","text":"Everyone, even extremists, deserve their freedom of expression protected  No matter how distasteful, or extreme, their opinions may be, everyone should have the right to voice them freely and publicly. That is the very essence of a free society. When groups presume to judge good speech from bad, and to shut off the channel by which the designated bad speech may flow, it abrogates its duty to protect the rights of all. When ISPs do this, which they do when they block sites they designate as extremist, they rob the people of their fundamental role as the final arbiters of acceptable speech in the marketplace of ideas, taking that power unto themselves without any form of democratic or moral mandate. Such a state of affairs is anathema to the continuation of a free society. [1] Speech can be legally curtailed only when there is a very real and manifest harm arising from it. But that is not the case here, where the participants are few and scattered, and those who would take exception to what the extremists have to say can easily opt out online. When extremists try to organize terrorist action online, then the government should step into protect its citizens. That duty does not fall to the ISPs.  [1] Chomsky, Noam. \u201cHis Right to Say it\u201d. The Nation. 28 February 1981."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con04b","title":"","text":"Forcing extremists underground can only serve the cause of justice. With them out of the spotlight they are less likely to drag in new recruits among casual, open-minded internet-goers. Underground they are less visible, less legitimate-seeming, and less likely to be able to build an organization capable of violent action."}
+{"id":"training-science-ciidffehwa-con02b","title":"","text":"Taking a neutral stance is a tacit endorsement of the validity of the message being spread as being worthy of discussion. Extremism does not deserve its day in court, even if the outcome were a thumping victory for reason and moderation. Besides, the nature of extremists is that they are not amenable to being convinced by reason or argument. Their beliefs are impervious to facts, and that is why debate is a pointless exercise except to give them a platform by which to spread their message, organize, and validate themselves to a wider audience."}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Many other things such as radios within cars are just as distracting as mobile phones. Although it is easy for police and prosecutors to prove that a mobile phone was in use during a particular period of time, it is difficult to monitor the use of mobile phones in most situations. Enforcing a ban on mobiles would be as impractical as a ban on arguing with a spouse.  Further, the point of the ban on mobile phones is to minimise distractions. However, a simple ban on mobile phones is likely to create a false sense of security among road users.  Objects similar to cell phones are not subject to bans, despite the fact that they might be distracting as well. For example, a tablet PC in the passenger seat would not be under this ban, but could easily be as distracting. This false sense of security could practically cause drivers to be less conscious of distractions and thus hurt in the long run. Whilst the law might incorporate these bans into the system, the prevalent message that will get to the people will typically be centred on a mobile phone ban. This is because mobile phones are the single most prevalent item that would be banned under the proposition. As such, even though the law covers all distracting goods, it might still breed complacency in people, causing them to ignore other items in the car that might be distracting and assume that they are legitimate. [1]  [1] Tetlock, Paul. Burnett, Jason. Hahn, Robert. \u201cBan Cell phones In Cars?\u201d Cato.org 29\/12\/2000"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Cell Phones are worse than other distractions  Cell phones in cars, unlike a variety of other distractions, can be regulated easily. They are an object which can easily be identified, and with phone bills it is possible to find out if a person is lying when they are caught for using cell phones in cars. As such the fact that other distractions exist, even if they are as harmful as cellphones, is no reason to not to ban their use.  Further, other sources of potential distraction, such as passengers or car radios, may provide a net gain in utility to road users and other stakeholders in mass transit systems. Being able to carry multiple people in cars for example helps society through a reduction in carbon emissions as well as simply through a reduction in traffic. To take this argument further, there are many people who cannot drive but require use of cars. For example, children might require their parents to drive them to school. Car radios are somewhat more controversial and principally if they prove to be as bad a distraction as a mobile phone then proposition would have no problem with banning them. However, things such as news and traffic updates are probably more useful to a driver than the use of mobile phones. Whilst they may be distracting, given the huge benefit they cause for society it is legitimate for them to be allowed.  Even if the benefit that they confer is the same as that of phones however, it is legitimate within our mechanism that we would ban them as well if required. [1]  [1] \u201cEditorial: Cellphone ban long overdue.\u201d The Dominion Post. 12\/06\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Some studies have placed the economic cost of a ban on cell phones in cars at around $25 billion in total economic losses, including deaths and injuries set to cost $4.6 billion. [1]  The reason for this is explained in the first opposition counterargument. Being able to call and manage business on the fly is a valuable convenience, given the frantic nature of competitive business in the world today. As such, more transactions at a faster rate leader to a much more powerful economy. [2]  [1] \u201cEditorial: No Strong Case for Ban on Driving With Cell Phones.\u201d Hlbr.com 16\/07\/2002  [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Cell Phones Are a Public Health Hazard  Cell phone use within cars is consistently linked with an increased chance of an accident. This is because if a driver only has a single hand on the wheel he lacks the ability to control the car properly. Further, with both hands free and normal sets, the driver has their hearing incredibly impaired by the phone call, reducing their ability to react to certain hazards. Dialling the phone itself results in an even worse outcome as it takes the concentration of the driver away more, by forcing them to look at the phone instead of the road. Estimates indicate that such phone use has led to the death of 2,600 drivers annually in the U.S.  Further, having a cell phone in the car and fumbling for it when it rings often causes accidents due to the distraction that it presents, firstly psychologically because of the noise going off, secondly due to the fact that both hands again would not be on the steering wheel to control the car. [1]  [1] \u201cEditorial: Cellphone ban long overdue.\u201d The Dominion Post. 12\/06\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro01b","title":"","text":"Firstly, it has been found by some studies that cell phone use does not have a statistically significant impact in the reduction of car wrecks. [1] This might be plausible because being able to call ahead to work for example and tell them that you will be late reduces the chance that people will speed on the roads. It also reduces the chance that you will attempt to weave between traffic to increase your speed even where acceleration might not be possible.  Further, given the societal benefits from cell phone use in cars, such as better organisation for the entire population, it seems that a ban on the use of cell phones should not be implemented because the cost of doing so is too great when compared to the benefits allowing phones would confer. [2]  [1] Paul Tetlock, Jason Burnett and Robert Hahn. \"Ban Cell Phones In Cars?\". Cato.org. December 29, 2000   [2] Tetlock, Paul. Burnett, Jason. Hahn, Robert. \u201cBan Cell phones In Cars?\u201d Cato.org 29\/12\/2000"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Cell Phone Use is not necessary in vehicles.  In the past the economy has not had to deal with mobile phones in cars and has been fine without their use in cars. There is no great loss in liberty or freedom when you are unable to make a mobile phone call. In fact, if you do have a pressing need to make a call, all you need do is pull over and park the vehicle, which is often not a great problem.  Further, people adjust and will adjust to the inability to use phones in cars. When the restriction was implemented in California, people were simply able to give up their phones because it emerged that they were not truly necessary. [1]  [1] \u201cEditorial: Cell phone law worth pain.\u201d Examiner. 3\/07\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con03b","title":"","text":"Conversations of any kind (with or without the involvement of the hands) impair concentration and reactions in braking tests. For some reason the brain treats a telephone conversation differently from talking to a passenger, perhaps because the passenger is also aware of possible road hazards in a way the telephone caller cannot be and so makes less demands upon the driver in terms of concentration at critical moments. In any case, voice activated technology is often unreliable, risking drivers trying to use it getting frustrated and losing concentration. It would be inconsistent to ban one sort of mobile phone while allowing the other sort, which can be just as lethal. Therefore, hands-free mobile phone use while driving should also be banned.  Further, \"Some researchers, in fact, fear that the new law may cause more traffic accidents, not fewer, because they envision more distractions for many motorists. When ring tones chime and drivers scramble to find their newly purchased headsets -- or, alternatively, scan the roadsides for police enforcing the new ban -- their attention, already stretched, will be further taxed. [1]  [1] Healy, Melissa. \u201cHands-Free cellphone use while driving won\u2019t make the roads safe, studies show. Why? Brain Overload.\u201d 30\/06\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con01b","title":"","text":"The logical extent of opposition\u2019s argument is a strongly libertarian society that does not legislate on almost any issue because it fears taking away people\u2019s ability to choose.  It is important to note that when someone causes a death through ignorant driving they have resulted in the dehumanisation of a person through the removal of their ability to choose.  However, more so, the resulting society where people are free to do what they want ignores the fact that often people lack full information to make their decisions in an informed way. It also fails to understand that as time goes on people often regret decisions that they once made. As such, people are often happy to and do make the choice to give up some of their freedoms and allow the state to make those decisions for them.  Given then that people consent to having the \u201chumanity\u201d taken away from them, it seems legitimate that the state can make decisions that they might not immediately agree with, under the assumption that the state, as a composite of a large number of different people has a level of oversight that the individual doesn\u2019t.  The state has the advantage of being able to take a step back and have a broader perspective. Individuals will make decisions that impact them in a positive way but this does not mean that those decisions will not have a negative wider impact on society. The state uses this broader perspective under the mandate to protect society as a whole looking at what is best for the group not the individual."}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con02a","title":"","text":"The Ban is Unenforceable  This is especially true of hands-free phones, where accused motorists could simply claim to be singing along to the radio or talking to themselves. In any case, the widespread introduction of speed cameras in many countries, and an increased public fear of violent crime have led to the redeployment of the traffic police who would be needed to enforce such laws. [1]  [1] Miller, Craig. \u201cLaws Limiting Car-Phone use Tough to Enforce.\u201d NPR. 08\/2007"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con03a","title":"","text":"Hands Free Phones Are not Dangerous  Hands-free cell phones are sufficiently safe on the road. These allow drivers to communicate freely without taking their hands off the controls or their eyes off the road. Effectively there is no difference between talking to someone on a hands-free mobile, and holding a conversation with a passenger next to you; in fact, the latter is more dangerous as you may be tempted to turn your head to directly address the passenger.  Further, allowing the use of hands free sets has been shown to reduce fatalities, especially in adverse weather conditions through drivers being able to report their status to their loved ones and the local authorities should things become too difficult for them to handle. [1]  [1] Stuckey, Mike. \u201cHands-free phones are lifesavers, study says.\u201d MSNBC. 13\/5\/2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con01a","title":"","text":"The State Does Not Have the Authority To Limit Citizens in This Way  The state places rules upon its citizens for the overall betterment of society. However, whenever possible the state also affords citizens liberty.  This is the case because the state sees that when people are free to do what they want they are able to make better decisions for themselves and further are able to interact with the state better. They do this because they feel that the state is allowing them to make their own decisions and as such the state is showing its trust in its citizens. This bond of trust between the state and the citizens as well as the state giving the citizens their own responsibilities means that citizens respect the state for the fact that it does not limit them.  To examine this from a point of view that does not rely on moral consequentialism and a utility based principle, it is possible to say that the state should afford people liberty and freedom because the starting point of any rational moral calculus should be the admission that an individual is the best judge of what is in his own interest. To not give people choice is ultimately an idea that dehumanises people. As such, the only time where freedoms should truly be restricted is when allowing the freedom results in a greater level of dehumanisation among the people. So for example, we prevent murder because allowing people to kill one another results in allowing some people to entirely remove other people\u2019s ability to choose on purpose."}
+{"id":"training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con02b","title":"","text":"New laws would be enforceable, as billing records will show whether a phone was in use at the time. Improving camera technology may also allow the automatic detection of drivers breaking laws against mobile phone use at the wheel. In any case, just because a law is not completely enforceable, it does not follow that it should be scrapped."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro02b","title":"","text":"Humans are more liability than asset when it comes to space travel. While humans can think outside the box more readily than machines, developments in cognitive science and computer design have resulted in ever more competent computers that are gaining more and more the ability to solve problems on their own. Furthermore, humans are physically fragile; in the event of even slight damage to a spacecraft, all humans on board could be killed. They are also susceptible to health risks in the form of radiation damage and muscle and bone loss due to the zero gravity conditions of space. [1] Unmanned ships are far more capable of surviving the dangers of space, and of completing missions successfully.  [1] Ad Hoc Committee on the Solar System Radiation Environment. \"Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision of Space Exploration.\" National Research Council."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Some activities in space require human dexterity of both mind and body to succeed  Space exploration and research have resulted many major advances in science and technology. Everything from Velcro to more efficient and powerful computers has come out of the space program. Many of these developments arose due to the focus on the human element of space travel; scientists had to focus on the very real challenge of getting humans into space and back home safely. [1] Furthermore, there are some experiments that can only be conducted in space and that require the dexterity and problem-solving skills of humans. While robots are very good at carrying out pre-designed programs and collecting data, their ability to think critically and engage in problem solving is quite limited. In order to get the most of space travel and exploration, humans must be present to add their critical thinking and physical capacity to missions. For technology to continue to develop through the space program the paradigm of exploration must be maintained. This can only be done through manned space flight.  [1] Coalition for Space Exploration. \u201cBenefits of Space\u201d. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro03b","title":"","text":"While unmanned space exploration is not as romantic as manned space flight, it is more functional. Exploring space is extremely expensive and governments have to consider the practicalities of exploration more than the glamour. Scientifically, little is gained by manned flight over unmanned flight. In terms of increasing interest in space flight, it is questionable whether states encouraging interest in space exploration is the best thing at all. They could simply use space exploration, especially exciting manned voyages, as means of distracting public attention from domestic problems. It is better for people to be focused on life on this planet than on the mysteries of space."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Humanity in many ways defines itself through exploration, and space is the next logical frontier  Human history is one of exploration. Since the earliest days of Homo sapiens, people have striven to look beyond the horizon, to see what is out there. It was this impetus that led humans out of the small corner of Africa where the species was born, to see new places, to find new fertile lands to explore. It was this impetus also that led the first European explorers to traverse the great waters of the Atlantic Ocean in search of new trade routes, braving the very real risks of storm, disease, piracy, and fatal disorientation, as well as the perceived risks of sea serpents and other monsters awaiting unwary travelers. When the surface of the world was finally mapped, people set their sights on exploration of the sea floor, to climb the highest mountains, and finally to reach the stars themselves, all because they were challenges, unknowns to be made known. [1] Mankind\u2019s place is among the stars. Simply perusing pictures of space sent back by unthinking, unfeeling robots would never be enough to satisfy humanity\u2019s curiosity. Governments should not try to slow Man\u2019s progress to the stars but should promote and fund it, for to do otherwise is to end part of what it is to be human.  [1] Dick, Steven. \u201cWhy We Explore\u201d. NASA, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Curiosity and the will to explore certainly is a fundamental part of the human condition. But the human body has natural limitations that technology cannot overcome. While artifice can go a long way to making places suitable for the frail human form, it can only go so far. Manned space flight is extremely expensive, costing the US government, the primary investor in space technologies tens of billions of dollars every year, yet there remains no clear plan for humans to return to the moon, let alone Mars and the rest of the solar system. [1] Exploration beyond the solar system remains a pipe dream. The laws of physics likewise seem to make the possibility of human exploration beyond the solar system nigh impossible. Other stars are simply too far away for a human to reach. The reality simply is that manned space flight is too costly and will likely never find application beyond Sol.  [1] Kaku, Michio. \u201cThe Cost of Space Exploration\u201d, Forbes, 2009."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro04b","title":"","text":"The probability of any cosmic collision or other destructive event is extremely low and not worth thinking about. In any event, manned space flight would not be viable for the purpose of saving humanity from a dying Earth for many years, if ever. Governments and people should focus their attention on developing this planet, rather than worrying too much about finding new ones to inhabit."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Manned space flight excites the human imagination more than unmanned missions, allowing members of nations everywhere to see themselves as part of the same human race  People do not get excited when they see robots launched into space; there is no romance or adventure in a computer attached to a rocket. To enflame people\u2019s imaginations and enthusiasm for space travel, real-life astronauts must be involved. Furthermore, it is harder for people around the world to develop a sense of connection to an unmanned space flight. Manned missions, however, can become ambassadors of all humanity. In no endeavor have scientists from around the world more readily worked together than in the development of the International Space Station and other space-related enterprises. Looking beyond the Earth serves to unite humanity in a way nothing else can. [1] When the Apollo astronauts first transmitted images of the Earth back to the waiting masses, the sight of that tiny blue-white marble suspended in the vast void profoundly changed the way many people viewed themselves. There was for the first time a sense of oneness, of citizenship of this island Earth. In the exploration of space, astronauts are not just citizens of their home countries, but are emissaries of the entire human race. In this way space exploration actually gives mankind a transcendent purpose, promoting peace and understanding among nations that no amount of conventional diplomacy can create.  [1] Van de Hulst, H. \u201cInternational Space Cooperation\u201d. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 17(5). 1961"}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-pro04a","title":"","text":"Manned space flight, and the new worlds it would serve to unlock, are essential to the long-term survival of humanity  The Earth has suffered a number of catastrophic events in its history. The galaxy is permeated with giant meteors like the one that struck the Earth 16 million years ago, which succeeded in wiping out the dinosaurs and precipitating an ice age. [1] Other cosmic risks exist as well, such as the threat of deadly radioactive waves given off by supernovae that can span the gulfs between stars and scorch planets many light-years away. Likewise, risks closer to home could prove equally destructive. Intense solar flairs from our sun could scorch a whole side of the planet. While all these occurrences are very rare, they remain possibilities, and should any of them ever occur, it could prove the end of humanity, and even life on Earth. In order to guarantee the survival of the human race, manned space flight must be made viable. One day it may prove necessary to leave this cradle of life in pursuit of a new home, and it would be wise to invest in developing the technology to do so rather than to wait until it is too late and only be able to watch as mankind\u2019s doom arrives.  [1] Gerakines, Perry. \u201cWhat is the Chance of an Asteroid Hitting Earth and How Do Astronomers Calculate It?\u201d 2005."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-con03b","title":"","text":"Certainly there are many concerns on Earth that must be addressed if mankind hopes to survive. Pollution and climate change are real threats that deserve a great deal of attention from all governments around the world, since everyone is affected. This attention, however, does not need to exclude from the agenda the development and propagation of manned space flight. Rather, states can focus on more than one science-based issue at a time. It is rather disingenuous, in fact, to suggest that it is a matter of one or the other. Furthermore, the international unity created by manned space exploration, binding people not as members of separate nations, but as members of the human race, can serve as a means of promoting unified action on issues affecting the whole planet. Space exploration can thus actually help to ameliorate coordination problems between states in their efforts to deal with global issues. Clearly, when people think of themselves as citizens of the world they are more ready to think globally and consider issues affecting other countries. Space exploration is very real means of promoting such thinking."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-con01b","title":"","text":"The paradigm of exploration is essential to the progression of technology. Space is the last great frontier and represents the perfect object on which to construct and maintain this paradigm. The costs of manned space flight are great, but the core human drive to explore can only be satisfied by supporting it. Furthermore, the spin-off benefits of space exploration are numerous. Computers have become more compact and more powerful due to research conducted under the aegis of space exploration. Even things as ubiquitous and central to everyday life as Velcro, Teflon, and ballpoint pens find their origin in space exploration. [1] The dream of exploration should not be killed for the sake of saving money.  [1] Coalition for Space Exploration. \u201cBenefits of Space\u201d. 2010."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-con02a","title":"","text":"Manned space flight is a technological dead end  Manned space flight appears to have little practical use. While its supporters talk about traveling to other planets, the technology simply does not exist, nor may ever exist, to send humans to worlds that could be even potentially habitable. It may be possible to send humans to Mars, or the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, but doing so would have little value other than for the sake of planting boots on alien soil. [1] Any research worth conducting on planets within the solar system can be done just as well by robots, at considerably less expense. The laws of physics seem to show that it is impossible for ships to travel at or past the speed of light, meaning any journey to planets beyond the solar system would take centuries at least. It is unlikely, for this reason, that manned space travel will ever be a practically useful endeavor. Research should be put into technology that can actually lead humanity somewhere. There is nowhere for humans to go in space that robots cannot, and nowhere worth the cost of their going.  [1] Leath, Audrey. \u201cShould Mars Be Human Space Flight Objective?\u201d. American Institute of Physics 2003."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-con03a","title":"","text":"The focus of states and individuals should be on fixing the problems of this planet, not with exploring other ones  The Earth is faced with many problems. Global warming, the destruction of ecosystems, rising sea levels, pollution, and resource depletion are all issues weighing heavily on states and the international community as a whole. Individuals and governments need to rally and fight these growing terrestrial problems. The resources poured into manned space travel that will likely serve no lasting purpose would be better spent in combating the hundreds of serious issues facing the planet today. Space exploration serves only as a distraction, keeping people\u2019s minds off the pressing concerns of the Earth. Furthermore, governments can use manned space flight as a means of distraction quite deliberately. It is often easier to devote attention and resources to headline-grabbing endeavors like putting a man on the moon or on Mars than to address concerns like global warming, which requires extensive international coordination to a degree rarely reached in history. Governments may find utility in keeping people focused on such grand projects while doing comparably little to affect change where it is direly needed. Clearly, humanity\u2019s concerns should be focused wholly on the survival of its home world, not on exploring worlds that might not even exist, and almost certainly cannot sustain human life."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-con01a","title":"","text":"Manned space exploration is prohibitively expensive while providing limited spin-off benefits:  Space exploration costs enormous amounts of money. The United States spends tens of billions of dollars every year on its space program, and the Chinese and European space agencies are seeking to catch up technologically. Overall, the amount of money wasted is astronomical. Even if manned space flight were a desirable goal, the cost is far too great. Unmanned space flight offers the same benefits at far less expense, since unmanned vessels weigh less than those needed to carry humans, and do not require the expensive and sophisticated life-support technology necessary to sustain human life in the harsh wilderness of space. [1] Furthermore, the benefits accrued from spin-off technology resulting from space exploration are generally overstated. NASA, for example, had claimed that protein crystals could be grown in zero gravity that could fight cancer, as well as numerous other claims of benefits. Most of these benefits have never materialized. With all the billions of dollars wasted on manned space flight, most of the spin-off technologies could likely have been created independently, given the resources, and probably at lower overall expense.  [1] Kaku, Michio. \u201cThe Cost of Space Exploration\u201d. Forbes. 2009."}
+{"id":"training-science-uhbmsf-con02b","title":"","text":"While the technology is still in its infancy there is still much lending itself to the value of interstellar travel. The Earth cannot sustain life forever, and the risk of a catastrophic event such as a giant asteroid impact is always real. [1] Developing technology that can sustain humans aboard spacecraft for several generations as well terra-form potential new homes are of the utmost importance to lasting human survival. Many things in the realm of science fiction today can be made reality given the will and resources. It is essential that humanity dedicate itself to the cause of manned space exploration, for the sake of its will to explore, as well as its will to survive.  [1] Gerakines, Perry. \u201cWhat is the Chance of an Asteroid Hitting Earth and How Do Astronomers Calculate It?\u201d. Scientific American. 2005."}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-pro01a","title":"","text":"State-sponsored space programs can utilize the infrastructure built up in the last half-century, and therefore be substantially cheaper  Since Sputnik was launched in 1957, the space race has given rise to an infrastructure, particularly in the United States and Russia, which can be exploited for economies of scale. The cost of developing shuttles and training astronauts is far cheaper in Cape Carnarvon where the necessary equipment and skills lie to do so. Furthermore, the International Space Station costs upwards of $100 billion, however it serves as a terminal where shuttles can thereafter be pointed to any corner of the universe1. The potential therefore is to save costs by using the existence of the ISS as a stepping stone to elsewhere. To not use fifty years of space development and technology is to render all that investment meaningless. 1 Kaku, M. (2009, July 16) The Cost of Space Exploration. Retrieved June 22, 2011 from Forbes"}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-pro01b","title":"","text":"If only it were true. The typical shuttle mission to the International Space Station costs $500-700 million. Private individuals, space tourists, have managed it for just $20 million a head1. Therefore, there is little in the argument that the existing space infrastructure is driving costs down. Furthermore, whilst the ISS has been justified as a terminal for the shuttles, the shuttles themselves have been justified as means to reach the space shuttle; a circular argument that offers little hope to the space explorer. Moreover, despite over fifty years of investment, NASA specifically has maintained a shuttle program at the expense of new materials, new fuels and innovative concepts1. As such, the technology has not advanced significantly since the original missions to the Moon between 1969 and 1972. The infrastructure, in this case, appears to have been more of a hindrance and intellectual barrier to development and cost-cutting than an aid. 1 Kaku, M. (2009, July 16) The Cost of Space Exploration. Retrieved June 22, 2011 from Forbes"}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-con03b","title":"","text":"Space exploration gives back more than it takes from the treasury. Dr. Joan Vernikos, a former head of NASA Life Sciences, argues \u2018economic, scientific and technological returns of space exploration have far exceeded the investment\u2026royalties on NASA patents and licenses currently go directly to the U.S. Treasury, not back to NASA.' Furthermore, as Keith Cowing points out, the funding for space exploration is insignificant compared to our other discretionary spending: \u2018Americans spent more than $154 billion on alcohol (in 2006); We spend $10 million a month in Iraq; all of America\u2019s human space flight programs cost around $7 billion a year.\" Cowing also points out the fact that \u2018the money is spent on the earth \u2013 it creates jobs and provides business to companies, just as any other government program does\u2019 (Dubner, 2008). [1  [1] Dubner, S. J. (2008, January 11). Is Space Exploration Worth the Cost? A Freakonomics Quorum. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from Freakonomics"}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-con01b","title":"","text":"Since the \"historic handshake in space\" when a US Apollo and Soviet Soyuz capsules docked in 1975, the two countries have in fact grown increasingly close. This relationship involves sharing technology (which is almost all 'dual use' i.e. it could be used for military purposes as well as civilian, thus requiring a high degree of trust), scientific knowledge and working side-by-side to build and support the ISS. With the involvement of the 11 member states of the European Space Agency as well as Canada, Japan and Brazil in the project, space is one of the few spheres where governments have been able to put aside their differences in pursuit of something more fundamentally important to humanity."}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-con02a","title":"","text":"The cost of space exploration exceeds the positive benefits  NASA during the 1990s spent over a third of its budget simply keeping the ISS manned and the Space Shuttle working1; it will now spend $60 million per seat to use Russian transport to the ISS2. The vast majority of its spending on scientific research comes through ground based research, telescopes and unmanned missions. China has made no claims that there is a scientific benefit to its manned mission and nor has Russia in recent years. There are few experiments so important that they can justify the huge cost needed to allow them to be carried out by humans in zero gravity. NASA made a lot of noise about growing zero-gravity protein crystals as a potential cure for cancer when it was trying to justify building the ISS but has since dropped the claims as experiments have shown the claims were overstated. There are few experiments so important that they can justify the huge cost needed to allow them to be carried out by humans in zero gravity. 1 New York Times. (1995, March 6). Is NASA Among the Truly Needy? Retrieved May 19, 2011, from New York Times 2 Stein, K. (2011, May 18). Critical juncture for U.S. human spaceflight. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from The Examiner:"}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-con03a","title":"","text":"Space exploration takes resources away from more worthy causes  High ideals are all well and good, but not when they come at the expense of the present. Our world is marred by war, famine, and poverty; billions of people are struggling simply to live from day to day. Our dreams of exploring space are a luxury they cannot afford; U.S. Senator Joseph Lieberman stated in the wake of President Bush's 2004 proposals that money was needed 'right here on Earth to give health care that's affordable to everybody, to improve our education system and do better on veterans' benefits and homeland security.'1 Instead of wasting our time and effort on macho prestige projects such as the space programme, we must set ourselves new targets. The money spent on probes to distant planets would be better invested in the people of our own planet. A world free from disease, a world where no-one lives in hunger, would be a truly great achievement. 1 Pop, V. (2004, January 19). Is Space Exploration Worth the Cost? Retrieved May 19, 2011, from Space Daily:"}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-con01a","title":"","text":"The 'space race' fuels nationalistic sentiment and antagonism  Sending humans into space or to other planets so that they can erect the flag of a particular nation is a distinctly nationalistic act and one that is likely to create aggressive 'races' in the future just as it has before. China's manned program is openly intended to challenge the US dominance of space for the Communist regime's huge propaganda benefit. George W. Bush's pledge to boost spending on NASA and to restart the manned mission to Mars program was a direct response. This is damaging not only because of the potential for space race conflicts to escalate into greater international hostility, but also because of the way such races could result in the militarization of space, thereby turning something which should be preserved for the common good of humankind into a neo-colonial battlefield."}
+{"id":"training-science-cpesgguhwe-con02b","title":"","text":"The positive benefits of space exploration are innumerable and profound. As Joan Vernikos describes, '43 countries now have their own observing or communications satellites in Earth orbit.' Such satellites provide the G.P.S that directs our transport, meteorological forecasts, global monitoring of the environment, as well as surveillance and intelligence for our national security1. Furthermore, the common misconception that NASA has a huge budget is just that; in 2007, the NASA budget of $16.3 billion was dwarfed by the overall G.D.P of $13 trillion1. 1 Dubner, S. J. (2008, January 11). Is Space Exploration Worth the Cost? A Freakonomics Quorum. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from Freakonomics:"}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro02b","title":"","text":"The complications in the legal framework are not reason to eliminate intellectual property rights. In fact, most licensing arrangements are done swiftly and amicably between firms. Intellectual property battles over licensing arrangements are the exception rather than the rule. With intellectual property, firms feel free to share openly through licensing. Without it, they will be more reticent to share anything."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro02a","title":"","text":"The complicated legal arrangements created by intellectual property raise costs of doing business:  Many firms cannot act independently, but rather rely on the technology and systems of other firms. The complicated, and often convoluted, licensing arrangements needed by many firms to function sap resources and effort, slowing productivity and causing general economic sluggishness. In high-tech and science research firms particularly, mutual licensing pacts are needed that often slow production and advancement due to the complicated legal arrangements that must be entered into to allow firms to go about their business. For example, the recent battle over rights to computer technology between Hewlett-Packard and Oracle, which has cost both firms millions of dollars in legal fighting1. These costs are entirely mitigated in the absence of intellectual property rights, as ideas flow freely and people can go about their business without the complications of licensing. 1 Orlowski, Andrew. 2011. \"Oracle and Itanic: Tech's Nastiest Ever Row?\". The Register."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro03b","title":"","text":"The cost of research and development of new products is often extremely high for firms. In order to reap a profit from their efforts, they must be able to count on the guarantee of ownership over their intellectual property. In the absence of such a guarantee, the incentive of firms to research and innovate declines substantially, resulting in a less dynamic business climate. The duplication of effort by research firms is rare in practice, and the efforts to develop spin-off products can easily become the beginning of entirely new inventive projects."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro05a","title":"","text":"There is no such thing as intellectual property, since you cannot own an idea:  An individual's idea, so long as it rests solely in his mind or is kept safely hidden, belongs to him. When he disseminates it to everyone and makes it public, it becomes part of the public domain, and belongs to anyone who can use it. If individuals or firms want to keep something a secret, like a production method, then they should keep it to themselves and be careful with how they disseminate their product. One should not, however, expect some sort of ownership to inhere in an idea one has, since no such ownership right exists1. No one can own an idea. Thus recognizing something like a property right over intangible assets is contrary to reason, since doing so gives monopoly power to individuals who may not make efficient or equitable use of their inventions or products. Physical property is a tangible asset, and thus can be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideas do not share this right to protection, because an idea, once spoken, enters the public domain and belongs to everyone. 1 Fitzgerald, Brian and Anne Fitzgerald. 2004. Intellectual Property: In Principle. Melbourne: Lawbook Company."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Intellectual property slows the dissemination of essential information and products  An individual or firm with a monopoly right to the production of something may not have the ability to efficiently go about meeting demand for it. Intellectual property rights slow, or even stop the dissemination of such ideas and inventions, as it may prove impossible to sway the creator to license or to market the product. Such an outcome is deleterious to society, as with the free sharing of ideas, an efficient producer, or producers, will emerge to meet the needs of the public1. A similar harm arises from the enervating effect intellectual property rights can generate in people and firms. When the incentive is to simply rest on one's patents, waiting to for them to expire before doing anything else, societal progress is slowed. In the absence of intellectual property, firms and individuals are necessarily forced to keep innovating to stay ahead, to keep looking for profitable products and ideas. The free flow of ideas generated by the abolition of intellectual property rights will invigorate economic dynamism. Furthermore, many firms that develop and patent ideas do not share them, nor do they act upon them themselves do to their unprofitability. This has been the case with various treatments for predominantly developing world diseases, which exist but are unprofitable to distribute to where they are needed most, in part of Africa and Asia.2 With no intellectual property rights, the access to such drugs would be facilitated and producers interested in helping the sick rather than simply profiting would be able to help those in need left to die due to intellectual property. 1 Stim, Rishand. 2006. Profit from Your Idea: How to Make Smart Licensing Decisions. Berkeley: Nolo. 2 Boseley, Sarah. 2006. \"Rich Countries 'Blocking Cheap Drugs for Developing World'\".The Guardian."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is no significant slowing down of the spread of information in the long run, since intellectual property generally only lasts for a short time, meaning owners have an incentive to make the most of it while they can. Besides, any small slowing down of the spread of ideas and innovations is a small price to pay for the recognition of a person's fundamental right to the product of his effort. Furthermore, licensing arrangements are becoming more and more refined to allow for the quick transfer of rights in order to meet societal demands for products. Licensing law has also begun to extend to products that producers may not wish to produce, such as medication for sick Africans, and is helping to force firms that refuse to act upon their patents to license the right to those that will."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro05b","title":"","text":"Intellectual property rights systems create perverse incentives in firms, leading them to inefficiently allocate resources. One such inefficiency arises from the duplication of effort by firms seeking to develop the same process or product, though only the first to do so may profit from it. This leads to brutal races and excessive expenditure of resources to be first over the line and to monopolize the production, at least for a time. Another serious inefficiency arises in the production of similar products to existing ones, seeking to get around existing intellectual property rights. Such has been the case for years in the pharmaceutical industry, which has succeeded in curing erectile dysfunction dozens of times. An overemphasis on such spinning off of similar products is the result of intellectual property rights perverting incentives1. Furthermore, intellectual property rights create the problem of corporate espionage. Firms seeking to be the first to develop a new product so as to patent it will often seek to steal or sabotage the research of other competing firms so as to be the first to succeed. Without intellectual property rights, such theft would be pointless. Clearly, in the absence of intellectual property, markets and firms will behave more efficiently. 1 Gabb, Sean. 2005. \"Market Failure and the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Proposal for Reform\""}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro04b","title":"","text":"It may be costly and sometimes ineffective to police property rights, but that does not make them less of a right. Efficiency and Justice are not the same thing. If firms feel they can benefit from fighting infringers of their intellectual property rights, it is their right to do so. The state likewise, has an obligation to protect the rights, physical and intangible, of its citizens and cannot give up on them simply because they prove difficult and costly to enforce. For the state the costs accrued by efforts to enforce intellectual property are repaid many fold by the fact that businesses feel safer to invest in them due to the perceived protections the state promises."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Firms and individuals misallocate resources trying to race others to the same goal, and spend resources stealing from one another:  Intellectual property rights systems create perverse incentives in firms, leading them to inefficiently allocate resources. One such inefficiency arises from the duplication of effort by firms seeking to develop the same process or product, though only the first to do so may profit from it. This leads to brutal races and excessive expenditure of resources to be first over the line and to monopolize the production, at least for a time. Another serious inefficiency arises in the production of similar products to existing ones, seeking to get around existing intellectual property rights. Such has been the case for years in the pharmaceutical industry, which has succeeded in curing erectile dysfunction dozens of times. An overemphasis on such spinning off of similar products is the result of intellectual property rights perverting incentives1. Furthermore, intellectual property rights create the problem of corporate espionage. Firms seeking to be the first to develop a new product so as to patent it will often seek to steal or sabotage the research of other competing firms so as to be the first to succeed. Without intellectual property rights, such theft would be pointless. Clearly, in the absence of intellectual property, markets and firms will behave more efficiently. 1 Gabb, Sean. 2005. \"Market Failure and the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Proposal for Reform\". National Health Federation."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Costs of monitoring intellectual property rights by states and companies outweigh the benefits, and is often ineffective:  The state incurs huge costs in monitoring for intellectual property right infringement, in arresting suspected perpetrators, in imprisonment of those found guilty, even though in reality nothing was stolen but an idea that, once released to it, belonged to the public domain. The United States government, for example, projects costs of investigating intellectual property claims will cost $429 million between 2009 and 20131. Firms likewise devote great amounts of resources and effort to the development of non-duplicable products, in monitoring for infringement, and in prosecuting offenders, all of which generates huge costs and little or no return2. Furthermore, the deterrent effect to intellectual property piracy generated by all the efforts of the state and firms has proven generally minimal. This is because in many cases intellectual property rights are next to unenforceable, as the music and movie industries have learned in recent years. Only a tiny handful of perpetrators are ever caught, and though they are often punished severely in an attempt to deter future crime, it does little to stop it. Intellectual property, in many cases, simply does not work in practice; firms should move with the times and recognize they need to innovate in ways that will compensate.  1 Legal Alert. 2009. \"PRO-IP Act Promises Increased Focus on IP Rights and Expanded Counterfeiting Remedies\". Sutherland.  2 World Intellectual Property Organization. 2011. \"Emerging Issues in Intellectual Property\"."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con03b","title":"","text":"Research and development will continue, irrespective of intellectual property rights. The desire of firms to stay ahead of the competition will drive them to invest in research regardless. That their profits will be diminished by the removal of intellectual property rights is only natural and due to the fact that they will no longer have monopoly control over their intangible assets, and will thus not be able to engage in the rent-seeking behavior inherent in monopoly control of products."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con01b","title":"","text":"While there is little cost to the government of recognizing intellectual property rights there is a big cost to those whose intellectual property is being protected. The cost of both processing and enforcement is passed on to the users who are the people who are most innovative. This is adding a cost to innovation and so making it less attractive to innovate."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con02a","title":"","text":"The product of an individual's intellectual endeavour is the property of that individual, who deserves to profit from it  Every individual deserves to profit from his creative endeavours, and this is secured through the application of intellectual property rights. When an individual mixes his labour with capital or other resources, part of him inheres in the product that arises from his effort. This is the origin of property rights. Property rights are an unquestioned mainstay of life in all developed countries, and are an essential prerequisite for stable markets to develop and function. [1] Intellectual property rights are protected by law in much the same way as more conventional physical property, as well it should be. Individuals generating ideas and using their effort to produce an intangible good, be it a new invention, piece of replicable art, etc. have a property right on those ideas and the products that arise from them. It is the effort to produce a real good, albeit an intangible one, that marks the difference between an idea in someone's head that he does not act up, and intellectual property. Developing new inventions, songs, and brands are all very intensive endeavours, taking time, energy, and often a considerable amount of financial investment. People and firms deserve as a matter of principle to benefit from the products of the effort of creation. For this reason, stealing intellectual property is the same as stealing an actual physical product. Each is a real thing, even if one can be touched while the other is intangible in a physical sense. Often the product of intellect is the source of income of an individual; the musician who is too old to play any longer, for example, may rely entirely upon revenues generated by their intellectual property rights to survive. As a matter of principle, property rights can be assigned to intangible assets like intellectual property, and in practice they are a necessity to many people's livelihood.  [1] Fitzgerald, Brian and Anne Fitzgerald. 2004. Intellectual Property: In Principle. Melbourne: Lawbook Company."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con05a","title":"","text":"Intellectual property rights allow individuals to release their inventions into the public domain  Without the protection of intellectual property, artists, inventors, and innovators may develop ideas without ever releasing them to the public because they lack the ability to market them successfully, or to profit by their endeavours. After all, no one likes to see others profit by their hard work, and leaving them nothing; such is tantamount to slavery. The recognition of intellectual property rights encourages the release of ideas, inventions, and art to be released to the public, which serves to benefit society generally. Furthermore, the disclosure of ideas and inventions to the public allows firms to try to make the product better by \"inventing around\" the initial design, or by exploiting it once the term of the intellectual property right expires1. If the idea never enters the public, it might never do so, leaving society bereft of a potentially valuable asset. 1 Business Line. 2007. \"Patents Grant Freedom to Invent Around\". Hindu Business Line."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con04a","title":"","text":"The salable and conferrable nature of intellectual property allows for the efficient and just distribution of ideas  Intellectual property rights are extremely important in the efficient and equitable allocation of ideas to firms and individuals1. The ability to sell intellectual property rights allows the price mechanism to assign ownership to the firms most likely to make a profit, and that are thus most likely to produce the product most efficiently, which will benefit all consumers. Furthermore, the ability to confer intellectual property rights on others is important, as often intellectual property, like licensing and patents, can support inventors' and artists' families after they are incapacitated or die. This is no different from the fact that ownership of physical property can be conferred for the betterment of dependents and family. It is only just that intellectual property be recognized and protected by law, so that it may be efficiently and fairly sold and transferred between parties."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con03a","title":"","text":"Intellectual property rights incentivize investment of time and money in developing new products  When a real chance of profit exists in the development of a new product, or writing a new song, people put the effort into developing and creating them. The incentive to profit drives a great deal of people\u2019s intellectual endeavors. Research and development, for example, forms a major part of industries\u2019 investment, as they seek to create new products and inventions that will benefit consumers, and thus society as a whole. Research and development is extremely costly, however. The 2000 largest global companies invest more than \u20ac430 billion a year in researching new products1. The fear of theft, or of lack of profit stemming from such research, will serve as a powerful disincentive to investment, which is why countries with less robust intellectual property rights schemes are not home to research and development firms. Without the protection of intellectual property rights, new inventions lose much of their value, since a second-comer on the field can simply take the invention and develop the same product without the heavy costs of research involved, leaving the innovative company worse off than its copycat competitor. This will lead to far less innovation, and will hamper companies currently geared toward innovative and progressive products. Furthermore, intellectual property is particularly important to firms with high fixed costs and low marginal costs, or with low reverse engineering costs, such as computer, software, and pharmaceutical firms. The costs of commercialization, which include building factories, developing markets, etc., are often much higher than the costs of the initial conception of an idea2. Without the guarantee of ownership over intellectual products, the incentive to invest in their development is diminished. Within a robust intellectual property rights system, firms and individuals compete to produce the best product for patenting and licensing that will give them a higher market share and allow them to reap high profits. These incentives lead firms to \u201cinvent around\u201d one another\u2019s patents, leading to gradual improvements in technologies, benefiting consumers. Clearly, intellectual property is essential for a dynamic, progressive business world.  1 Institute for Prospective Technological Studies. 2009. \u201cThe 2009 EU Industrial R&D Investment Socreboard\u201d. Economics of Industrial Research and Innovation  2Markey, Justice Howard. 1975. Special Problems in Patent Cases, 66 F.R.D. 529."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con05b","title":"","text":"More ideas are not released into the public when there is intellectual property. The release of ideas is most bountiful when there is active and constant competition to produce newer and better products and ideas. This is only possible in the absence of constricting intellectual property rights. The ideas circulating in the public domain are only expanded by the constant competition and innovation essential for firms to succeed in the absence of intellectual property protections."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con01a","title":"","text":"Policing intellectual property rights is self-sustaining  While there is a cost to implementing intellectual property rights and policing them this cost is mostly met by those who apply for the patents. Each country\u2019s patent office charges for the patent application, in the case of the UK this is between \u00a3230-280.1 It also costs to renew the patent year on year with the cost often rising. This means that the government offices that process intellectual property meet their costs through the user fees.2 Much of the costs of enforcement are also met by those who own the intellectual property as their patents enable them to go to court against those who they believe are infringing their intellectual property rights.  1 Intellectual Property Office, How much does it cost?  2 Inventors Digest, Patent Office Unveils New, Bigger Budget, 2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con04b","title":"","text":"It is no more just that an individual's family benefit from a monopoly over an idea, than the individual who created it. There remains no inherent right to an idea. As for the sale of patents and licenses, firms will waste precious resources in fighting amongst each other for monopoly control over intellectual property, and will even buy the rights to products with no intention of using them, planning simply to prevent any competitors from doing so. The most efficient system is to have ideas be public and accessible and usable by everyone. When they are, more innovation will occur."}
+{"id":"training-science-cidfiphwa-con02b","title":"","text":"No one can own an idea. Thus creating something like a property right over intangible assets is a meaningless endeavour. Doing so gives monopoly power to individuals who may not make efficient or equitable use of their inventions or products. Physical property is a tangible asset, and thus can be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideas do not share this right to protection, because an idea, once spoken, enters the public domain and belongs to anyone who can use it."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is simply wishful thinking on the basis of current technology getting a manned mission to another planet is simply not on the radar \u2013 or even close. In the light of this sobering fact there is no reason to go to the moon as some sort of test run for something we\u2019re never going to do. Even if one were to think that it may one day be possible to travel to other planets, surely the sensible thing would be to spend the money developing that technology rather than blowing it on a manned trip to the moon we may well never need."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro02a","title":"","text":"The technology required for colonizing \u2018a second Earth\u2019 would be easier to develop on the moon  The idea of colonizing another planet as either a contingency against a future extinction event or simply as an area for growth. Extinction events are considered to be any event which destroys over 50 per cent of life on Earth and there are believed to have been five of them in the last 540 million years. [i] It is in the nature of such an event that the warning we would have of such an event would not be sufficient to develop the technology required to relocate to another planet and so, by definition that technology needs to be developed when there is not the need. Taking global warming as an analogy, we now know that we should have been changing our lifestyles and economic models back at a time when virtually nobody believed that it was a reality. The moon could be used to develop biosphere and other technology which could be used in such a future colonization.  [i] Sanders, Robert, \u2018Has the Earth\u2019s sixth mass extinction already arrived?\u2019, UC Berkeley News Center, 2 March 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro03b","title":"","text":"The modern world is vastly different to either of the periods Prop mentions both in terms of our capacity for the retention of existing knowledge and the speed of developing new solutions to old problems.  In addition to which this is comparing two completely different things the technology required here is to keep people alive for extended periods of time.  Equally the technology required for a colonization would need to be permanent and designed to be used many times, quite different from the disposable, one-time-only technology of the 1960s. As a result knowledge of those earlier missions may well be a disadvantage.  We still have the ability to launch and fly spaceships and that knowledge is vastly improved on those early attempts.  As far as the issue of spinoff technology is concerned, if you\u2019re looking to develop products designed for Earth, developing materials and technologies for extra-terrestrial environments is a very odd way to go about it."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro01a","title":"","text":"It would be the first step in colonizing space \u2013 the moon is preferential to Earth as a base for investigating life elsewhere in the universe  Colonizing the Moon should not be seen as an end goal in and of itself but rather a platform for reaching out further into the universe. The moon makes a better base than Earth for a number of reasons.  Any civilization that is serious about space exploration would probably have to start with the moon. It\u2019s a comparatively simple mission which would allow us to learn the pitfalls and problems while staying within a few days of earth.  The moon also provides a better base for SETI than Earth as Radio telescopes on the far side of the moon would be shielded from the interference of Earth. Equally the Moon\u2019s slow rotation would allow light-based observatories to undertake experiments lasting for days at a time.  Most experts are agreed that it is statistically unlikely that Earth is the only life-bearing planet, to date we have not been serious investigating this issue despite the enormous implications it has for almost every area of human thought and activity."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro01b","title":"","text":"Whatever the merits of the search for ET, none of this requires a human presence on the moon all of the observational technology required to undertake the research could be controlled from Earth.  It doesn\u2019t require a human presence on the moon, indeed if the purpose is for scientific research, there seems to be a strong argument for not having a human presence.  A human presence on the dark side of the Moon provides extra complications \u2013 and therefore extra costs \u2013 to simply keep the scientists alive. It seems likely that anybody based in such a situation would have to spend a large amount of their time and effort simply staying alive and performing monitoring functions that could as easily be provided from Huston."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro04b","title":"","text":"The idea of a mining community on the moon is even more absurd than that of a scientific one. However valuable the minerals found the cost of extraction would never be covered. Furthermore the quantities required to meet the cost of extraction, let alone make a profit, would have a downward effect on the price of the commodity on earth. The whole exercise would become self-defeating. Equally, although chemicals such as Helium 3 would be useful if thermonuclear fusion was being used to produce energy it is a technology that does not yet exist. [i] Once again it would seem to make sense to invest the money in fusion technology first, then, if it happens, we how where to find Helium 3 \u2013 after there\u2019s a practical use for it, not before.  [i] Lasker, John, \u2018Race to the Moon for Nuclear Fuel\u2019, Wired, 15 December 2006"}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro03a","title":"","text":"We are already losing the technology and knowledge necessary for manned extra-terrestrial travel \u2013 critically that required to land people, we owe it to future generations to retain it.  If we compare the dual experience of Columbus and the Chinese Treasure Fleet of the fifteenth century, the Chinese decided not to pursue exploration and the technology of how to build and sail ships was lost until they were themselves colonized by sea-faring nations. Columbus\u2019 voyages, by contrast were followed up with further expeditions, leading to the largest expansion in the history of humanity.  The technology required to land human beings on the surface of another planetary body is comparable.  All of those involved in the original moon landing are now elderly it seems sensible to deploy that expertise before it is lost. Recorded knowledge is all well and good but experience is also valuable.  Equally, one of the biggest justifications for NASA\u2019s relatively modest budget \u2013 roughly nine billion dollars at the moment \u2013 is the trickledown technology from its innovations. Developing technology for survival in hostile alien environments may have applications on Earth such as inhabiting Antarctica or using resources vastly more efficiently"}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-pro04a","title":"","text":"We already know something about it and so have a clearer idea of what to look for  In many ways our trips to the moon so far tell us which questions we need to ask, the next stage is to find the answers. It also has the advantage of being close enough to earth that samples and data can be relatively easily sent between the two.  The moon functions as a sort of attic for the Earth, a repository of rocks than are no longer found on earth. There are also resources, such as lunar glass and Helium3, which could be potentially very valuable if they are there in sufficient quantities, human beings can simply cover more territory than Robots and make assessments like these more easily. If these rare minerals exist in sufficient quantity they could potentially fund the whole project [i] .  [i] \"Why Go Back to the Moon?\" NASA. January 14, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-con03b","title":"","text":"There are many worthy projects that could benefit from this funding, however that doesn\u2019t defeat the importance of returning to the moon and developing a base there. There is absolutely nothing in the history of other manned projects into space that suggests that humanity as a whole is poorer, hungrier, sicker or more stupid because we did so.  Rather, we received those remarkable pictures of the Earth from space confirming what we look like in a way no map ever could. The various detritus of the mission in terms of solid rocks as well as ephemeral experience to prove that there is a universe out there waiting for us to find it.  A reminder, even in the darkest of times economically, that humanity has an astonishing capacity for exploration \u2013 both of the universe around us and within our own minds. Likewise the capacity of scientists and others to inspire us by showing our place in an extraordinary universe is beyond price.  We left the cave, went over the hill, crossed the Atlantic, circumnavigated the globe, went into space, went to the Moon\u2026  And then stopped.  It\u2019s time to start again."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-con01b","title":"","text":"Our fascination with discovery and exploration \u2013 especially anything to do with space \u2013 is one of the enduring aspects of the human condition. There are many areas of scientific development for which there is little popular support as people don\u2019t really see the point, however space exploration is one which retains support [i] .  Polling levels no are at broadly the same level they were in the 1960s, receiving support from about forty per cent of the electorate. However, it\u2019s worth noting that NASA has consistently higher public approvals than other federal agencies. It seems that, unsurprisingly, people aren\u2019t that happy about the government spending any of their money but, if they\u2019re going to do it, NASA gets more votes than the Environmental Protection Agency or the Internal Revenue Service.  [i] Public Opinion Polls and Perceptions of US Human Space Flight, Roger Launius, Space Policy 19 (2003) 163-175"}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-con02a","title":"","text":"There\u2019s nothing more to find out, at least nothing that can\u2019t be done with much cheaper unmanned missions  There are simply no good scientific reasons to send a manned flight to the moon. The desire to do so may have good justification in science fiction but not science fact [i] .  This research is simply not related to the reality of modern cosmology, it will tell us nothing about how the universe works or, frankly, anything we don\u2019t even know already or could find out through unmanned missions.  The idea that there is serious research to be done is simply untrue. Cosmology is being conducted at the edge of the universe and the beginning of time. It\u2019s not about collecting moon rocks.  [i] \u201cBrave New World\u201d, Editorial, Nature, 1 February 2007"}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-con03a","title":"","text":"There are simply better things to be spending money on  Whichever argument you pursue for going to the moon there are better and cheaper ways to achieve those designated goals. Whether it\u2019s scientific, business-related, or as a \u2018practice\u2019 for exploration of deep space, there are better ways of spending the money and deploying the scientists, engineers and technicians. To waste not only the money but, more importantly, the time and expertise in the name of extending a national mythology or a political ego-fix is absurd. The cost of a moon landing, let alone an extended colonization, is foolish when there are other projects in all of those fields that are crying out for public funding."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-con01a","title":"","text":"It is impossibly expensive and lacks the kind of popular support required to get the 1969 mission of the ground  To make the kind of funding this project would require available, massive public and political will would be needed. This simply doesn\u2019t exist.  The Cold War mentality of the \u201860s provided a justification. Having been beaten to get a man into space, there was an imperative for the American people to beat the USSR to the Moon.  No such justification exists for going the at all now, let alone going back. The only country in the world with both the technical and financial resources to do this, the United States, simply doesn\u2019t have the political stomach to do it."}
+{"id":"training-science-sguhwcm-con02b","title":"","text":"Clearly there is more than one way to skin a cat and there is research that can be done away from work that cannot be done here. The benefits that could come from a low-gravity, non-atmospheric research facility are not about \u2018collecting moon rocks\u2019 there would be benefits in, for example, the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) would benefit greatly from small radio telescopes based away from the distractions and interferences based on Earth [i] . As has been shown by the International Space Station, there is useful medical research that can be conducted in low or zero gravity, notably research based on aging.  [i] \"Why Go Back to the Moon?\" NASA. January 14, 2008"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Secular scientists extrapolate the age of the earth backwards from examining current natural processes, but they assume that they have always taken place at the same speed and for the same reasons, but this is not necessarily the case.  There are a number of possible solutions to the distant starlight problem: God could have created the light in transit; the speed of light may have been much greater in the past; Einstein\u2019s theory of general relativity indicates that time is relative, and so a few thousand years on Earth could be millions elsewhere in the universe. [1]  The volcanic eruption at Mount St Helens, Washington State in 1980 shows how catastrophic events can very quickly lay down geological formations that appear to have formed slowly. The Genesis flood would account for the rapid formation of geographical features that evolutionists interpret as old. [2]  [1] James Upton \u2018Beyond Distant Starlight: Next Steps For Creationist Cosmology\u2019, Answers Research Journal 4 (2011) www.answersingenesis.org\/articles\/arj\/v4\/n1\/distant-starlight-cosmology Accessed 31\/5\/2011  [2] \u2018Mount St Helens in Washington State\u2019, Answers in Genesis,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-pro02a","title":"","text":"The Age of the Earth  Evidence from many different disciplines shows that the Earth is very old, allowing enough time for life as it exists today to evolve and contradicting a Creationist belief in a young earth.  For example, most of the stars in the sky are thousands and millions of lightyears away, which means that light took thousands and millions of years to reach us. [1]  Similarly, there are many geographic features that took thousands or millions of years to form. For example, ice cores such as those from Vostok, Antartica, give evidence of changes in climate going back 400,000 years, [2] far older than the 6,000 or so calculated from a literal reading of Genesis.  All the evidence points this way, from archaeology, geology, physics, astronomy and more. There are many different indicators that all point to an old age of the Earth.  [1] Bj\u00f6rn Feuerbacher, \u2018Determining Distances to Astronomical Objects\u2019, Talk.Origins,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011  [2] \u2018Vostok Ice Core\u2019, National Climactic Data Centre,  Accessed 2\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Creationism makes empirical claims, such as that the Earth is less than 10,000 years old. The use of scientific arguments against these claims shows that Creationism is in fact falsifiable. [1]  Scientific Creationism is a relatively new discipline which only really started in the 20th century. It has not had the same time or resources put into developing it as has evolutionary science, because of broader cultural prejudices and philosophical assumptions against it.  Recent Creationist research has focused not on reacting to evolutionary theory, but building its own research and models working from Biblical presuppositions. Many earlier Creationist theories, models and arguments have been modified or abandoned, showing that Creationism is able to adapt in light of new research. [2]  Creationism is actually more open-minded than evolutionary theory, because evolutionary scientists exclude the possibility of the supernatural on principle, not because of lack of evidence.  [1] Larry Laudan, \u2018Commentary: Science at the Bar \u2013 Causes for Concern\u2019, Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 7, No. 41, Autumn, 1982  , Accessed 31\/5\/2011  [2] Paul Garner, \u2018The New Creationism\u2019, Evangelicals Now, June 2009,  Accessed 2\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-pro01a","title":"","text":"The fossil evidence  Fossils allow us a glimpse into the development of life on Earth. Fossils show a development from earlier, less complex forms of life, through to newer, more complex forms of life, with characteristics developed from earlier organisms. This progression is strong evidence for evolution. Since fossilization is a rare event, there are some gaps in the fossil record, but all the available evidence is consistent with, and fully explained by, evolution. [1]  There are many examples of transitional fossils, including of our own ancestors, showing how humans evolved from apelike creatures. For example, scientists discovered the skeleton of Ardipithecus ramidus, nicknamed \u201cArdi\u201d. Ardi is the oldest fossil of a human ancestor, and the last common ancestor of humans and modern apes. Ardi shows a mixture of advanced characteristics and primitive traits. [2]  If fossils had been laid down by a catastrophe such as the Genesis flood, as Creationists argue, then complex and simple lifeforms should be mixed together, with no clear order or progression. But the fossil record shows a clear progression in complexity.  [1] Austin Cline, Fossil Evidence Supports Evolution,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011  [2] Jamie Shrieve, \u2018Oldest Skeleton of Human Ancestor Found\u2019, National Geographic,  , Accessed 1\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is an absence of transitional fossils. The evidence for \u2018missing links\u2019 between different species is itself missing. Fossils are jumbled up, rather than ordered from simple to complex. [1]  Supposed transitional species will often be wildly extrapolated from small fragments to fit with evolutionary theory. Supposed human ancestors are either extinct apes, actual human beings, or accidental mix-ups of human and ape bones. There are no clear anatomical markers separating homo erectus and homo sapiens, for example. [2]  The fossil record is better explained by a global catastrophic flood, as described in the story of Noah in Genesis. The massive geological upheaval which would take place in such an event would leave the remains of millions of dead animals and plants in layers across the world, which is exactly what we find. [3]  [1] John D Morris, \u2018What\u2019s a missing link?\u2019, Institute for Creation Research,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011  [2] \u2018People were always people!\u2019 Answers in Genesis,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011  [3] Andrew A. Snelling, \u2018Geologic Evidences for the Genesis Flood\u2019,"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Falsifiability  Evolutionary theory is open to change and is in principle falsifiable: if enough evidence was found, scientists would change their views. Scientists make their reputations by making new discoveries, so if evolution could be disproved, someone would have done it, but it is still standing after over 150 years of research since Darwin, showing how strong it is. [1]  Although Creationism is falsifiable scientifically, with plenty of evidence to disprove it, it is non-falsifiable on its own terms. Any scientific evidence against it can be explained away by Creationists by saying \u2018God did it\u2019 \u2013 for example, by claiming dinosaur fossils were put there to test people\u2019s faith. Science is able to change in light of new evidence, unlike Creationism, which is a matter of dogma.  Even if evolutionary theory cannot yet explain every detail, this does not give any support to Creationism. If something cannot yet be explained by science, it does not mean that God did it; it means we need to investigate further to find a better scientific explanation. Creationism discourages scientific investigation and encourages blind faith.  [1] \u2018Evolution Falsifiable\u2019, Talk.Origins,  Accessed 2\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con03b","title":"","text":"Evolution is not just a matter of chance. Mutations can add, change or remove genetic information. Natural selection acts as a feedback mechanism to filter those mutations to pass on useful changes in organisms to adapt them to their environment.  Beneficial mutations have been observed. For example, gene duplication is a common mechanism for introducing new information. When a long stretch of DNA is copied, then mutations often occur in one or both of the copies. This is the likely origin of some proteins. [1]  The argument from irreducible complexity is an argument from ignorance: if we cannot currently explain how a complex system arose naturally, it must have been God who created it. But the development of supposedly \u2018irreducibly complex\u2019 systems can be explained: different parts in biological systems often have multiple and changing useful functions, and apparently irreducibly complex systems arise when these interlock in new ways. [2]  [1] \u2018Mutations Adding Information\u2019, Talk.Origins,  Accessed 3\/6\/2011  [2] Pete Dunkelberg, \u2018Irreducible Complexity Demystified\u2019,  Accessed 3\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con01b","title":"","text":"Most scientists are not Christians and do not accept the Bible as God\u2019s word: in 1996, only 40% of US scientists believed in God. [1]  Many Christians interpret the Creation account symbolically and have done so since long before Darwin. For example, in the 5th century, the theologian Augustine argued that the account in Genesis was not a literal, chronological account. [2] Even if Genesis was inspired by God, it could not have been intended to be a literal, scientific account, because it would have made no sense to the people of the time. It must be interpreted according to its original genre and purpose. [3]  When the Bible says death entered the world through Adam, it could refer exclusively to humans rather than the animal kingdom as a whole. Alternatively, it may refer to spiritual death, which is separation from God, rather than physical death, the separation of soul from body. [4]  Science proceeds by reason, evidence and observation, not by arguments from religious authority. If science contradicts the Bible, we should accept the findings of science, which is based on reason and evidence, rather than the Bible, which is based on faith.  [1] Edward J. Larson, Larry Witham, \u2018Leading Scientists Still Reject God\u2019, Nature, 23rd July 1998, p. 313  , accessed 24\/5\/11.  [2] Alister McGrath, \u2018Augustine\u2019s Origin of Species\u2019, Christianity Today, May 2009,  Accessed 3\/6\/2011  [3] Ernest Lucas, Science and the Bible: Are they Incompatible? The Creation story as a test case,  Accessed 31\/5\/11  [4] \u2018Was there Death before the Fall?\u2019, Biologos Forum,  Accessed 2\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con02a","title":"","text":"Naturalistic assumptions  Evolutionary science rules out the possibility of God on principle, rather than on the basis of evidence. On an unbiased assessment, without the presupposition of naturalism, Creationism offers a better interpretation of the evidence. But most scientists refuse to allow the possibility of God creating the world, blinding them to the facts.  Secular science is committed to only looking for natural explanations (methodological naturalism), but this only makes sense if you already know that nothing supernatural exists (ontological naturalism). If God intervenes in the natural world, then this can be investigated empirically and scientifically.  Evolutionists assume that \u201cthe present is the key to the past\u201d, otherwise known as uniformitarianism. They are attempting to reconstruct the past after the event from fragmentary evidence. But God was there in the beginning and so can tell us what actually happened. We should believe God\u2019s revelation, not human speculation. [1]  [1] Jason Lisle, \u2018Is the Present the Key to the Past?\u2019, Answers in Genesis,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con04a","title":"","text":"Evolution undermines meaning and morality  Evolution gives no basis for morality or human dignity. If we evolved from animals rather than being uniquely created in the image of God, then humanity should be accorded no more status than an animal, plant or amoeba. Acceptance of evolution leads to Social Darwinism and eugenics.  If we are only the product of time plus chance plus impersonal forces, there is no objective standard of right and wrong, only what benefits the survival of our genes or not. For example, rape may have an adaptive benefit in enabling the passing on of genes of the rapist. An evolutionary worldview has no rational basis for condemning such an action. [1]  [1] Frank Turek, \u2018Evolution Cannot Explain Morality\u2019, CrossExamined.Org,  Accessed 3\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con03a","title":"","text":"Chance cannot produce complexity  Evolution depends on chance mutations in genes producing changes that make it more complex and introduce survival benefits. Mutations do not increase the complexity of organisms, but damages them: for example, cancer. Mutants might gain new powers in comic books, but not in real life. [1]  Mutations may have beneficial side-effects, but do not add new information. For example, sickle-cell anemia increases resistance to malaria. [2] However, it does this because the normal functioning of the blood cells is impaired, not by evolving into something more complex, which is necessary for evolution to take place.  Many biological systems are irreducibly complex: you need all the parts to work, or they will not work at all, like a mousetrap. They cannot have arisen by step-by-step changes.  [1] Daniel W. McShea, \u2018Complexity and Evolution: What Everyone Knows\u2019, Biology and Philosophy, 6: 303-324, 1991.  Accessed 1\/6\/2011  [2] Michael Aidoo et al., \u2018Protective effects of the sickle cell gene against malaria morbidity and mortality\u2019, Lancet 2002; 359: 1311-12  Accessed 3\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con01a","title":"","text":"The Bible says God created the world  The Bible is God\u2019s Word, inspired and infallible, and it reveals that the world was created by him in 6 days within recent history (Genesis 1-2). God says it, so we should accept what he reveals as truth. [1]  If the Bible is true at all, it cannot just be \u2018symbolically\u2019 true about spiritual matters, but must be true in matters of fact and science as well. You cannot divide meaning from facts. Theologically, the Bible teaches that death entered the world through Adam\u2019s sin (Romans 5:12), which contradicts evolution because death is necessary for natural selection. [2]  There is no neutral interpretation of the evidence. Evolutionists interpret the scientific evidence in light of the presupposition that there is no God, while Creationists interpret it on the presupposition there is a God. Christians who accept evolution have bought into secular assumptions that are inconsistent with their faith and what the Bible teaches.  [1] Don Landis, \u2018\u201cAnd God Said\u201d\u2019, Answers in Genesis,  Accessed 31\/5\/11  [2] Fred Van Dyke, \u2018Theological Problems of Theistic Evolution\u2019, Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation,  Accessed 1\/6\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con04b","title":"","text":"Evolution has nothing to do with morality. Science simply describes what is, not what ought to be. Social Darwinism and eugenics are misapplications of science. We have evolved the capacity for higher reasoning, and so we can develop ethical and moral systems to suit us, rather than following the principle of \u2018survival of the fittest\u2019. [1]  Social studies indicate that secularised societies in which evolutionary science is widely accepted enjoy lower rates of societal dysfunction, whereas the USA, which is much more religious and anti-evolution, has worse social health. [2]  Morality may have an evolutionary basis. People who look after their relatives, those who share many of their genes, are maximising the likelihood those genes will be passed on. Altruism benefits the survival of the group as a whole.  [1] \u2018Evolution is the foundation of an immoral worldview\u2019, Talk.Origins,  Accessed 3\/6\/2011  [2] Gregory S. Paul, \u2018Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies\u2019, Journal of Religion and Society (Volume 7, 2005)  Accessed 31\/5\/2011"}
+{"id":"training-science-gsehbehdc-con02b","title":"","text":"Theists and atheists alike use \u2018methodological naturalism\u2019 when doing science, because scientific method depends on understanding and explaining the natural world in natural terms. It does not assume that God does not exist. Many Christians do not believe that the evidence supports Creationism despite believing in God, and instead believe that God is the one who sustains and upholds the natural order as understood by science.  Uniformitarianism is a necessary assumption for understanding the world. If the laws of nature changed on a whim, so that science worked one way on Tuesday and another on Wednesday, we would not be able to make observations and predictions that worked. But all our observations indicate that the world does operate consistently. The success of science in providing accurate models and explanations of the world shows that its presuppositions are correct.  Science cannot prove or disprove the existence of God, since that is a metaphysical question outside the scope of science. But science can show that evolution explains the origins of life, and there is no need to invoke a God of the Gaps to explain it. The supernatural is outside the scope of scientific enquiry, and therefore a matter of faith."}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro02b","title":"","text":"This idea is rather flawed if you decide to take into consideration the whole aspect of one\u2019s life. This just kicks the communication problem down the road when it needs to be dealt with early rather than essentially discouraging the child from learning the language until they have to get a job.  It is also in many cases likely to be wrong; the child will already have started learning the language of the country in which they are living. Even if the father and the mother are only able to talk their first language, kids go to nursery school or have child minders because their parents have to work. A perfect example would be the one of Mexicans in the United States. Two-thirds of Mexican-origin Hispanics ages 5 and older speak English proficiently. More than that, about nine-in-then native-born Mexicans speak English proficiently. [1] The whole idea of parents not being able to talk the local language might be true for first generation immigrants, but not for others. Even when the grasp of the language is less than perfect school is the obvious place to learn it.  [1] Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana, and Lopez, Mark Hugo, \u2018A Demographic Portrait of Mexican Origin Hispanics in the United States\u2019, PewResearch, 1 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro02a","title":"","text":"Educating in their mother tongue is the best option for children\u2019s education  Because parents that are immigrants teach their kids only the mother tongue, at the age in which they should go to school they barely know the local language. Their parents sometimes don\u2019t know the language of the country that they live in and other times they choose not to use it at home. Therefore, at the age when children have to go to school, they have little or no interaction with the language of the country they live in. In the United States, 72% of immigrant families speak a language other than English at home and 26% live in households where no one has a strong command of the English language. [1] This simply hands over the problem of language to the school damaging education across all subjects. This is because the children will not be able to communicate with other kids in school or understand what the teacher is saying. Because of the exclusion that the immigrants feel when going to school and the fact that they are not able to understand much of what is taught, they choose to leave school early. 70% of Turkish children in Germany have no General Certificate of Secondary Education [2] ; as they leave before completing secondary school. By far the most sensible way to solve this problem is to send these children to a school where they do understand the language in which they are being taught.  [1] Shields, Margie K., and Behrman, Richard E., \u2018Challenges Faced by Children of Immigrants\u2019, Children of Immigrant Families, Vol.14, No.2, Summer 2004,   [2] Greenfield, Daniel, \u201880% of Turkish Muslim Settlers in Germany Live off Welfare\u2019, Frontpage Mag, 31 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro03b","title":"","text":"The idea that immigrants that are part of large groups are not able to conserve their language and culture without the help of the foreign state is flawed.  First of all, on the broadest level large immigrant groups come from countries with big population and their culture or language is not in danger of any kind. Just to take a couple of examples, Turkey has almost a 76 million population, while Mexico has a population of almost 120 million.  Secondly, there is no clear link between education in the mother tongue and the willingness of the people to conserve their own culture. Those who are educated in the language of the culture in which they are living are just as likely to be interested about their roots and culture as those in their mother tongue.  Thirdly while there may be a link between language and thought does this extend on to culture; are Japanese unable to enjoy and take part in Taiko drumming if they don\u2019t speak the language as well as the language of their host nation? Only in a few areas, like literature is it vital and if someone is interested in the literature of their mother country they will learn the language as a part of that interest.  Finally this assumes that all immigrants should desire to preserve their own culture rather than partake in the culture of the country to which they have migrated. Integration is the best solution. In order to achieve integration for large immigrant groups you need to convince them to be opened towards your national culture and language and not make them learn in their mother tongue."}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro01a","title":"","text":"Minorities deserve linguistic rights  Everyone should have the right to communicate in their own mother tongue so enabling them to maintain their roots with their mother country. In a world of change, where people are able to move their residence from a country to another country, protecting minority rights becomes necessary. Some migrations are historically and economically driven, take place over decades, and involve large numbers. For example, an estimated 33.7 million Hispanics of Mexican origin live in the United States, with 11.4 million immigrants born in Mexico, accounting for almost 3.5% of the US population [1] . In Europe, a lot of migration there have been successive waves of migration, as a result of World War II, the end of empires, economic boom and the European Union. To take Germany first there was an influx from lands Germany lost as a result of the war, of Turks to help power the economic miracle meaning that now more that 2.6 million Turks live in Germany [2] , and recently there has been an influx from Eastern and Southern Europe as Germany\u2019s economy has held up in the Economic crisis. Each wave, or group of immigrants, forms a distinct community within their host nation. There is no reason why these groups should be forced to entirely give up their old identity as they embrace a new identity as a part of their host nation. Just as every human has rights so does every immigrant. Part of these rights should be education in the mother tongue. Language is what connects people and makes them able to communicate their feelings, emotions and ideas. A person should be able to communicate and express ideas in its own mother tongue in order to be able to create a connection with their family and the immigrant community that they live in.  [1] Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana, and Lopez, Mark Hugo, \u2018A Demographic Portrait of Mexican Origin Hispanics in the United States\u2019, PewResearch, 1 May 2013,   [2] The Economist, \u2018Two unamalgamated worlds\u2019, 3 April 2008,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro01b","title":"","text":"The state has indeed certain obligations towards the immigrant groups both to individuals and if they represent a large part of the population to the group. Once you leave your country, you are no longer under the legislation of the country. You decide to sign a new social contract with the country that you emigrated to and therefore you are under their jurisdiction, obliged to respect their laws. Minority rights are respected in the sense that immigrants are not obliged to use the local language everywhere and at any time. You are still able to use your mother tongue language to talk to your family, your foreign friends and other people from the same country. These are the fundamentals and there are cases where linguistic rights are not respected, where the minority population is forbidden to talk or write in their mother tongue. This was the case if Turkey which forbade Kurds to speak their native language until 1991. [1] While these rights should be respected there is not \u2018right\u2019 for the state to provide, or subsidize, education in languages that are not the official language of the state. If large minority groups wish to provide such education that is their prerogative.  [1] Akreyi, Minhaj, \u201819th Century mentality in 21st Century: Kurdish language still banned in Turkey\u2019, Alliance for Kurdish Rights, 12 March 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro04b","title":"","text":"Actively promoting mother-tongue education for immigrants that are part of a large group will create a segregated society in which people are not able to communicate and relate one to another. Integration will be harder to achieve in these conditions - the state may gain some goodwill from the concession but it is unlikely to last. The difficulty in communicating with the state, even for everyday tasks such a doctor\u2019s appointment, will surely sour relations more. Different languages create a segregated society in which foreigners are not able to integrate.  Secondly, diplomacy and trade matters have no connection with the way immigrants are treated on a minor issue like this. Those immigrants who want to trade and promote links between their old home and their new one will continue to do so regardless."}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro03a","title":"","text":"Conserving languages and immigrant community cultures  Being able to learn and teach in our own language will preserve the culture of large immigrant groups as part of another state, this is both good for that community and for the nation. For the community and the individual speaking and learning their own language will give immigrants a sense of belonging. They are part of a community that they know and understand because it speaks the same language even before they come to know the rest of the country. This provides security, belonging, and close contact with relatives. For the community it means keeping their own customs and identity alive, in a few cases this may actually be contributing to conserving a language. For the country as a whole this does not represent a threat as there can be many different levels of identity that all intermix. Instead it provides an opportunity; it diversifies the country. It gains the benefit of a different perspective on problems and new ideas as people who speak different languages think about things in different ways so it is useful for innovation to have many different communities brought up in different languages interacting. [1] It also gains from having another culture add diversity to its own; there are new festivals, concerts, art, and perhaps most commonly encountered a greater diversity of cuisines to be sampled through restaurants.  [1] Bordoditsky, Lera, \u2018Lost in Translation\u2019, The Wall St Journal, 23 July 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-pro04a","title":"","text":"This policy would benefit the state and provide trade  If the government decides to promote mother tongue education for large immigrant groups it will be enhancing mutual understanding between its own population and another nation as the immigrants provide a go between. The state will send a positive message towards the large immigrant groups by allowing them to study in their first language. It will acknowledge the importance of such groups in the national society by providing this additional opportunity. The importance of cooperation between immigrant groups and the state is often recognized, for example in combating extremism, this kind of measure encourages such cooperation as it brings with it the good will of the immigrant community.  On the other hand, promoting diversity will promote understanding between countries. A favorable treatment towards the large immigrant groups will be seen positively by the country the immigrants come from. Having migrants creates a link between the two countries. This may produce clear advantages for both parties, in the form of collaboration, diplomacy and trade. The effect of migrants on trade is often ignored but studies have shown that in the case of Spain from 1995-2008 exports are boosted by having immigrant communities; \u201cdoubling the number of immigrants from a certain country in a province leads to an increase of the export values from the destination province to the country of the immigrants\u2019 origin by around 10%.\u201d The reason was because new exporting firms are created \u2013 immigrants know the conditions in their own country so can access that market, something that would be impossible without a native understanding of the language. [1]  [1] Peri, Giovanni, and Requena-Silvente, Francisco, \u2018Do immigrants create exports? Evidence from Spain\u2019, VOX, 26 January 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-con03b","title":"","text":"The simple premise of this argument is wrong. Immigrants are not discriminated by the fact that they don\u2019t know the language. Discrimination is much more often a matter of skin color, religion and social background. Mexicans in the United States, at least American citizens of Mexican origins know very well how to speak English but they are still discriminated by the majority population. This shows in the unemployment statistics. In 2011, while the rate of unemployment for Whites was 7.9%, the jobless rate was 11.5% for Hispanics. [1]  The link between language and low skilled jobs is also open to question. Immigrants are not finding these jobs because they don\u2019t speak the native language but because these are the jobs the natives don\u2019t want. There is a demand for labor that the native population will not fulfill. Less fussy migrants however are more willing. These are also likely to be the jobs that the migrants have done in the past if coming from less developed countries so they have the relevant skillset. On the other hand where the migrant is skilled they will go into a job that suits those skills.  [1] \u2018Labour Force Characteristics by Race and Ethnicity, 2011\u2019, U.S. Bureau of Labor, August 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-con01b","title":"","text":"The premise that states that second generation immigrants lack incentive to learn the local language is flawed. Although they might choose to learn in their mother tongue, they will still have a big incentive to learn the local language. Learning the language of the country in which they live will provide to them more opportunities and better integration. Those who find they don\u2019t know the language will take courses to learn the language of the country in which they reside. Most certainly, their friends will not only be from their own community so they will feel obliged to talk German, or English or French. The example of Papua simply shows this is the case; promoting a national language is not incompatible with learning in another language."}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-con02a","title":"","text":"Services offered the government cannot be used if the user does not know the language  Anyone who does not know the native of the place where they reside will find themselves having problems with health-care, job centers or the taxman because they are not able to understand or communicate with these people. It doesn\u2019t matter where you live, as a citizen you will have to use different services provided by the government. A good example will be hospitals. Hospital staff are unlikely to know the immigrant\u2019s language so making communication difficult, a problem exacerbated by all the specialized language that may be required. Being incapable of telling your doctor what the problem is or not being able to tell a police officer what happened may have devastating consequences. Sarah Bowen, a professor at the University of Alberta and expert on access to health care believes that language is the most important barrier preventing some immigrants from staying healthy. [1] This is a barrier that remains if a little of the native language has been learnt because it is still unclear if there is mutual understanding when communicating. It is therefore clear that second generation immigrants need to be taught in the language of everyday life in the country in which they live rather than just learning it on the side as a \u2018foreign\u2019 language.  [1] \u2018For newcomers, language is the most important barrier to staying healthy\u2019, Canadian Immigrant, 27 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-con03a","title":"","text":"Migrants need to learn the language to improve job prospects  An immigrant that studies in the local language will be a citizen that is better integrated in the society, respected by the natives and with more economic opportunities. First of all, we have to acknowledge that going to a school for natives will permit the development of personal relations with people that are not from the same community community. Interaction will be possible with everybody in school and in the country. The first step towards becoming friends with someone is by understanding them. This is only possible if they can communicate properly in a single language. Secondly, the native language is necessary for most jobs. Jobs require interaction with natives and ability to discuss and work alongside co-workers. Immigrants are forced most of the time to do low-skilled jobs like working in constructions or agriculture because they are not able to speak the local language, though even in these sectors language skills would be useful. By promoting mother tongue education this problem will exacerbated. Language proficiency for immigrants that are trying to find a job in the United Kingdom increases employment probabilities by 17% to 22% and gives them an earning advantage of 18-20%. [1] Getting a new job is already hard, so why should the state through its education policy wish to damage the chances of immigrants of finding one that requires them to know the language of the country they are in?  [1] Dustmann. Christian, and Fabbri, Francesca, \u2018Language proficiency and labour market performance of immigrants in the UK\u2019, The Economic Journal, Vol.113, July 2003, pp.695-717  , p.707"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-con01a","title":"","text":"A common language is necessary for a unified national community  The moment when the governments starts subsidizing mother tongue education for large immigrant groups is the moment when they will lose any incentive to learn the local language. Because most of these children do not interact with the local language until the age they should go to school, under the proposition plan they will not interact with it at all and therefore creating a major gap between native population and immigrants. A common language represents a unifying framework under which a state can function properly by promoting mutual help and understanding inside the population. [1] When people talk different languages, there is no unifying framework and the state as a whole loses its ability to promote unity within its borders. This is the case of Papua New Guinea where there is no central authority. The tribes live separately and are not able to one with another because there are over 800 different languages spoken at this moment in the country. [2] As a result during the post-colonization era efforts were made to create and promote a common language to help trade and understanding between tribes. The language that was called Tok Plsin is now the most widely spoken language in the country and one of the three official languages. [3] Because mutual-help and overall social stability can be achieved only with a strong communication between different parties, promoting mother tongue language for immigrants will only slow the road towards progress.  [1] Center for Child Well Being, \u2018The Importance of Language\u2019, education.com, 15 July 2013,   [2] \u2018Papua New Guinea\u2019s tribes and traditions\u2019, The Telegraph,   [3] Siegel, Jeff, \u2018Tok Pisin\u2019, Hawaii.edu,"}
+{"id":"training-society-negsimhwso-con02b","title":"","text":"It is wrong to assume that people who can\u2019t speak the language will not be able to access government services; the government also provides interpreters. For example in the United States and Canada, interpreters are trained and paid by the health authority to address the problems of large immigrant groups. In Ottawa, you additionally have the option of hiring interpreters from local agencies. [1]  [1] Taylor, Louisa, \u2018For immigrants, language barrier is a health barrier\u2019, The Ottowa Citizen, 27 April 2012,"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro02b","title":"","text":"Only idealists believe that prisons have rehabilitative role; we have to look at the reality. Juveniles sent to prison are less employable afterwards, and thus more likely to resort to crime. They meet established criminals in prison who both encourage the lifestyle and teach necessary skills for criminal behaviour. Prison often fosters resentment of the police and the courts and anyway the harassment of juveniles associated with zero tolerance already creates an extremely antagonistic relationship with the police.  If punishment is not proportionate it simply breeds resentment. [1]  [1] Maiese, Michelle, \u2018Retributive Justice\u2019, Knowledge Base, May 2004, www.beyondintractability.org\/essay\/retributive_justice\/ , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Zero tolerance also allows for a sound rehabilitative role  A custodial sentence, particularly for juveniles, takes them out of the atmosphere (often surrounded by drug use and living in poverty and or abusive homes) that encourages criminality. Rehabilitation through the prison system is not just a possibility but a central tenet of many penal codes. Education and discipline are both vital to our prisons. The large number of police on the ground also allows for a supervisory role in the community after the prisoner is released to reduce re-offending.  The earlier on in the chain of criminality that people are given help, the greater chance there is of success that a cycle of re-offending will not develop. [1]  [1] Petersila, Joan, \u2018When Prisoners Return to the Community: Political, Economic, and Social Consequences\u2019, Sentencing & Corrections, No.9, November 2000, www.ncjrs.gov\/pdffiles1\/nij\/184253.pdf , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro03b","title":"","text":"They are able to stop and search, and harass individuals constantly. Everyone who carries marijuana cannot be arrested so in reality certain vulnerable groups, usually ethnic minorities, are targeted and labelled as criminals. New York saw a vast growth in complaints over police racism and harassment after zero tolerance Sydney\u2019s has been similarly racist [1] and Liverpool\u2019s system was closed down because of corruption and unacceptable aggression by police officers.  If the police are to be fully respected they should behave in a courteous and fair manner. While treating all citizens in a respectable and decent manner \u2013 never using unnecessary force. Zero tolerance policing reduces police accountability, openness to the public, and community cooperation.  [1] Kennedy, Michael Hartley, \u2018Zero tolerance policing and Arabic-speaking young people\u2019, New South Wales Council for Civil Liberties, 2001"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Zero tolerance policing provides a powerful deterrent to criminals.  Zero tolerance creates a far greater awareness of police presence because there are more officers on the ground. If people perceive that they have a greater chance of being caught, they are less likely to commit an offence. Strict punishments provide another firm deterrent because they make it clear that the consequences of detection will not be a minor irritant. Convicts are less likely to re-offend because zero tolerance catches them early on in the escalating cycle of crimes and provides the \u2018short, sharp shock.\u2019 There is a clear message that crime will not be tolerated. If a law is to exist at all then it ought to be enforced. Otherwise they will be held in contempt. [1]  There has to be a meaningful mechanism in place to punish actions that don\u2019t merit criminal punishment, but that damage the quality of life of others, especially through constant repetition. In this way a slide into more serious lawlessness and criminality can be prevented, and the rights of the law-abiding majority to walk the streets and live peacefully with their neighbours can be secured. It is the law-abiding majority who should be the prime focus of the protection the State offers.  [1] Marshall, Jayne, \u2018Zero Tolerance Policing\u2019, Information Bulletin, Issue 9, March 1999, www.ocsar.sa.gov.au\/docs\/information_bulletins\/IB9.pdf , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro01b","title":"","text":"Minor offenders, gang members, and the poor are extremely unlikely to be aware of the punishments for the crimes which they commit so deterrence doesn\u2019t have much effect there. Many crimes are a product of necessity (through poverty and drugs) and therefore can be reduced only by structural changes to the society, not by threatening punishment. The idea of a \u2018short sharp shock\u2019 is unconvincing. Labeling people as criminals at an early age actually causes them to perceive themselves as such and gives them fewer other options by placing them outside mainstream society. This leads to \u2018deviance amplification\u2019 where convicts increasingly commit more serious crimes as a result of their contact with law enforcement. [1]  [1] Becker, Howard S., \u2018Labeling Theory\u2019, from Becker Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, The Free Press, 1963,  , accessed 20 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Zero tolerance improves the standard of policing  They are able to stop and search, and harass individuals constantly. Everyone who carries marijuana cannot be arrested so in reality certain vulnerable groups, usually ethnic minorities, are targeted and labelled as criminals. New York saw a vast growth in complaints over police racism and harassment after zero tolerance Sydney\u2019s has been similarly racist [1] and Liverpool\u2019s system was closed down because of corruption and unacceptable aggression by police officers.  If the police are to be fully respected they should behave in a courteous and fair manner. While treating all citizens in a respectable and decent manner \u2013 never using unnecessary force. Zero tolerance policing reduces police accountability, openness to the public, and community cooperation.  [1] Kennedy, Michael Hartley, \u2018Zero tolerance policing and Arabic-speaking young people\u2019, New South Wales Council for Civil Liberties, 2001"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con03b","title":"","text":"Economic and demographic changes will always impact crime rates and of course, these factors would have played their part in the noticeable improvement in New York. However, zero tolerance has proved successful in many instances and provides a more stable promise of crime reduction less susceptible to transient factors (such as economic and demographic ones).  For example, the Swedish parliament introduced its \u2018drug-free society\u2019 as the official goal for the drug policy in 1978. Long before such policies were called \u2018zero tolerance. The Attorney General in 1980 stopped allowing for waivers for possession of drugs for personal use. Meanwhile, police were to prioritize the crack down on those in possession of drugs. In 1988 all non-medicinally prescribed usage became illegal. Finally, in 1993 the police were permitted to take blood or urine samples from suspects. [1]  This zero tolerance approach is now cited by the UN as one the main reason for Sweden's relatively low drug prevalence rates. [2]  [1] Wikipedia, \u2018Zero Tolerance\u2019,  , accessed 21 September 2011  [2] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Sweden\u2019s Successful Drug Policy: A Review of the Evidence, February 2007,  , accessed 21 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con01b","title":"","text":"There is no point building in inner cities if we don\u2019t protect these resources from graffiti and vandalism by concrete and certain means. Zero tolerance reduces the amount of dead ground used for drug dealing and so returns parks and open spaces to the community. Unless businesses are protected from vandalism and petty crime, it is usually uneconomic for them to return to the worst areas. It is these businesses which are vital to raising the standard of living. Zero tolerance policing is often seen to lead to the return of public transport and services to deprived areas because it can be protected through a guaranteed means. [1]  [1] Kurki, Leena, \u2018Restorative and Community Justice in the United States\u2019, 2000, 27 Crime & Just. 235, www.julianhermida.com\/polnotesbrokenwindows.htm , accessed 21 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con02a","title":"","text":"Zero tolerance policing is enormously expensive  The enormous expense of zero tolerance in money and manpower and prisons actually makes policing worse. Either we have to throw limitless money at doubling the number of officers (it is almost impossible to recruit and train so many even if we could afford it). Or we have to divert officers away from investigations and serious crime prevention in order to put them back on the pavement. This reduces detection of important crimes in return for catching graffiti artists. Even when reported crime rates drop this does not prove that zero tolerance achieves anything because it is corporate crime, large scale drug dealing that is ignored and these are rarely reported. [1]  [1] Croall, Hazel, Understanding white collar crime, Open University Press 2001, www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk\/openup\/chapters\/0335204279.pdf , accessed 21 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con03a","title":"","text":"There is no concrete proof that a zero tolerance approach to crime exists0  There is no proof that zero tolerance is effective and yet it comes at the great expense of full police accountability and practical financial outlay.  An examination of the main \u2018success stories\u2019 of zero tolerance reveal that not all success can be attributed to the zero tolerance approach. In fact, the vast majority of the improvement in these circumstances were largely attributed to simultaneous social and economic changes.  In New York, the decline of crime rate started prior to 1993 and the arrival of Rudy Giuliani to his post. During Giuliani\u2019s time in power a similar decrease in crime was happening in other major US cities. The main factors that can be attributed to this decrease in crime were economic and demographic ones. With huge economic growth millions of jobs were being created and taken by young people. Simultaneously, there was a move from cocaine to other drugs and this also reduced street crime. The economists Steven Levitt and John Donahue even famously argued that the primary cause of the decrease in crime in New York during the 1990s was actually the legalization of abortion in 1973. [1]  Therefore, it is these social and economic problems which should be targeted if we are to see a successful reduction in crime.  [1] Donohue, John J., and Levitt, Steven D., \u2018The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime\u2019, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2000,  , accessed 21"}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con01a","title":"","text":"Urban regeneration is one of the most powerful ways of targeting crime  Urban regeneration is one of the most powerful ways of targeting crime, and zero tolerance policing detracts from that effort. The most important element of urban regeneration is the way individuals come to take pride in their area. This is far more likely when it is not associated with police persecution, antagonism with the government and constant fear of arrest. No police presence is sufficient to properly defend a business which has not fostered good relations with the local community. Regeneration has worked on its own to solve crime problems; this can be seen in Hong Kong and Brixton in London."}
+{"id":"training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con02b","title":"","text":"Protecting businesses and creating a reputation for low crime and sound policing attracts inward investment and immigration both to a country as a whole and to individual areas. The cost to a country of theft and vandalism per year is a significant chunk of GDP, in the United States for example a 1994 report estimated the annual cost at $674 billion. [1] Deterrence reduces the number of crimes that police are forced to investigate and although prisons are expensive the reduction in recidivism should start to empty them in time. [2]  However, with economic hardship comes higher likelihood of petty crime. It is for this reason that those in the lower classes are more likely to commit crime than those in higher classes. This effect is heightened in the aftermath of a recession. As people feel less and less willing to pay and put the blame on society, they are more likely to steal. It is cost effective in as much as it is less expensive than prison and is ultimately less expensive to society than ignoring the criminality.  [1] Shapiro, Emily, \u2018Cost of Crime: A Review of the Research Studies\u2019, Information Brief Minnesota House of Representatives, August 1999, p. 15, www.house.leg.state.mn.us\/hrd\/pubs\/costcrime.pdf , accessed 21 September 2011  [2] Friedman David D., \u2018Rational Criminals and Profit-Maximizing Police: Gary Becker's Contribution to the Economic Analysis of Law and Law Enforcement\u2019, Cambridge University Press 1995,  , accessed 21 September 2011"}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is a marginal impact at best. The vast majority of illegal immigrants will try to flee the scene of a crash because they would be worried that the police might be called in to investigate the crash and find out they are illegal and therefore deport them. Although this isn\u2019t always a realistic expectation, it is an expectation that most people in the illegal immigrant community have because of their paranoia over the state pursuing them and wanting to deport them. This fear is only exacerbated by the anti-illegal immigrant rhetoric that permeates American society at present and makes them feel that the state will try to seek them out however they can to get rid of them."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-pro02a","title":"","text":"This allows illegal immigrants to get drivers insurance, which makes safer and fairer roads.  Insurance is a key component in making the streets safe for all drivers on the road. Allowing illegal immigrants to get driver\u2019s licenses allows them to gain driver\u2019s insurance.  Driving absent insurance means that there is an incentive to drive off if you cause an accident to avoid having to pay for the damages you have caused and being criminally punished for driving without insurance. This leaves the other driver having to foot their own bill for the repairs to their vehicles [1] . Moreover, even if the uninsured driver stays at the scene, illegal immigrants are characteristically very poor as they must engage in exploitative work to make a wage because they must hide from the state and do not get the same protections from the state, so would still be unable to pay for the damages they have caused. Moreover, having uninsured drivers on the road increases insurance premiums for all insured drivers on the road, as they have to de-facto pay for the risk and damage these uninsured drivers cause [2] .  Therefore, offering illegal immigrants driver\u2019s licenses allows for more fair and accountable systems of insurance and driving conditions on the road.  [1] Confessore, Nicholas, and Danny Hakim. \"Licenses for Immigrants Find Suppot.\" New York Times 09 Oct 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011.   [2] Confessore, Nicholas, and Danny Hakim. \"Licenses for Immigrants Find Suppot.\" New York Times 09 Oct 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-pro03b","title":"","text":"These people do not deserve to use the services of the USA. They are not citizens, they are law-breakers and society has no obligation to make life easier or more comfortable for those who break the law. Regardless of their contributions to society or the economy, illegal immigrants have broken the law. The consequences of their breaches of the law should be remedied. If necessary, illegal immigrants should be punished in proportion to the harm that their act has caused. Under no circumstances should illegal acts allow these individuals to gain access to the status and legal privileges that citizenship confers."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-pro01a","title":"","text":"The provision of driver\u2019s licenses makes the streets safer.  Offering drivers licenses to illegal immigrants makes the streets safer by giving drivers training to people who would otherwise be driving on the streets without adequate education. Unlicensed drivers are five times more likely to get into a fatal crash than licensed drivers [1] .  A fact that needs to be acknowledged is that illegal immigrants have a necessity to drive and the vast majority will do so regardless of if they are given licenses or not. This is very dangerous both for them and for those who they share the road with as they are operating motor vehicles with a proper education on the rules of the road or any form of driving instruction or test to ensure that they can competently and safely drive on the streets [2] .  Illegal immigrants are very likely to opt into this system of driver\u2019s education and licensing because it is in their own interest to avoid breaking the law to avoid detection, but also because it is very much in their interest to get instruction on how to drive as they are as much a danger to themselves as they are to the rest of society when they drive without instruction [3] .  Therefore, offering illegal immigrants driver\u2019s licenses will help make the streets safer by giving drivers access to the education and instruction they need to be safe and competent drivers.  [1] \"Immigration: Let them drive.\" Economist 25 Oct 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011.   [2] \"Immigration: Let them drive.\" Economist 25 Oct 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011.   [3] \"Driver's Licenses for Undocumented Aliens.\" Institute of Governmental Studies. UC Berkeley, n. d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is very unlikely that illegal immigrants will even opt into this scheme. Illegal immigrants are notoriously paranoid about going to the state for any form of assistance as they are afraid of deportation. The vast majority of them would rather risk getting caught driving without a license then they would risk going to the state as an illegal to receive a license in the first place."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-pro03a","title":"","text":"This is a gateway privilege that allows these people to integrate into American society.  Drivers licenses are used a major form of identification in America and so granting illegal immigrants these forms of identification can help enfranchise one of the most exploited minorities in America.  Despite American feelings on illegal immigrants, they are there in their society, contribute to their communities and are a group of people that are routinely and unjustly exploited because of their lack of access to state protection. Despite popular opinion of this being a punishment for breaking their laws, these people operate like any other citizen in American society and are human beings who deserve to be treated as such and to be offered at least some level of protection for the fact that they are human and for what they contribute to America communities and society.  Providing these people with a proper form of identification, especially a driver\u2019s license, which is almost universally accepted as an adequate form of identification to access services from the state and to interact with the rest of society. Specifically, this allows immigrant communities to not feel as though they are confined to an isolated area as they now can travel further distances to gain better employment without fear of being caught and thrown into jail [1] . Moreover, this allows them access to all services offered by the state that require identification such as voter registration.  Therefore, this helps enfranchise a group that is normally exploited in America society.  [1] \"Driver's Licenses for Undocumented Aliens.\" Institute of Governmental Studies. UC Berkeley, n. d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-con03b","title":"","text":"The first problem with this argument is that it assumes that illegal immigrants are easily identifiable without a driver\u2019s license. It is not like illegal immigrants walk around with a giant red sign that says \u201cPotential Security Threat\u201d at present, and that when we give them licenses they will finally get to put down their signs.  On this basis, the security risk presented by this policy is minimal. Moreover, for what security risk might exist, it is very easily mitigated or gotten rid of all together. For example, if identification is needed for access to something that is vulnerable to security threat, it is very easy for the government or relevant officials to say that the only sufficient form of ID is a passport instead of a license, due to the risk people may pose.  The additional harms identified by side opposition are the result of service providers\u2019 discriminatory practices. Federal and state race equality laws prevent businesses and government employees from refusing service to individuals based on their physical characteristics or ethnicity. Therefore, official discrimination cannot exist. At best, this will simply be soft discrimination."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-con01b","title":"","text":"There is a very big difference between rewarding people for breaking the law and taking positive action to prevent them being exploited and financially marginalised. The United States\u2019 legal system supposedly exists to protect everyone resident within its borders \u2013 not just individuals possessing citizenship. Giving illegal immigrants basic access to very rudimentary things such as the driver\u2019s education does not reward law-breaking or undermine the rule of law. Even if side opposition disagree with granting illegal immigrants any rights, this argument is still defeated by the beneficial consequences of ensuring that a much larger number of drivers have received training on the rules of the road. Under the resolution, America\u2019s highways and cities will generally safer for both pedestrians and other drivers.  On the point of deterrence, there are already very large deterrents to trying to immigrate illegally. The trek is long, dangerous and controlled by violent groups on either side of the border. Bandits and people smugglers engage in robberies and people trafficking on the Mexican side; extremist groups such as the minutemen attempt to assault or shoot immigrants in transit from the American side. Not being able to get a driver\u2019s license once here is not in any way a deterrent that holds any weight when put in context.  Being able to drive is a necessary skill in the US, where under-investment in public transport infrastructure has led to workers developing a dependence on private transport. The weak bargaining position of an immigrant seeking work would be completely undermined if she were unwilling to drive for or to her job. Even the most risk averse migrant labourer accepts that the possibility of being caught driving without a licence is a risk that they have no choice but to take."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-con02a","title":"","text":"This will foster further resentment of the Hispanic community in America.  This policy will only further the resentment that exists for illegal immigrants in America, and will make life harder for the entire Hispanic community as a result.  It is no secret that the idea of granting illegal immigrants driver\u2019s licenses is a very unpopular idea. In New York, for example, 70% of the electorate is against this policy [1] . Looking to California, not only are drivers licenses out of the question, but in 1994 the state passed a bill denying illegals access to welfare, healthcare and education by a 59% margin [2] . Resentment for the community is high and it is undeniable that this policy will be wildly unpopular with the vast majority of Americans.  The issue with Americans being unhappy with this policy is that they will channel their unhappiness toward all immigrant communities and the Hispanic community more generally. The concept of driver\u2019s licenses especially fuels this hatred because Americans believe that this will allow them to \u201cmasquerade\u201d as normal Americans and therefore will assume all Hispanics are these illegals that are masquerading as legal immigrants in their communities. This will only engender more hate and discrimination against these communities.  Therefore, this will seriously harm the Hispanic-American community by fuelling hatred against them in the American majority.  [1] \"Immigration: Let them drive.\" Economist 25 Oct 2007, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011.   [2] \"Driver's Licenses for Undocumented Aliens.\" Institute of Governmental Studies. UC Berkeley, n. d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-con03a","title":"","text":"This allows illegals to masquerade as normal immigrants.  Allowing illegal immigrants to get drivers licenses is a security issue for America.  Illegal immigrants are a threat to the US because they have not gone through the necessary background checks that all immigrants are supposed to go through before being allowed into the US to ensure that they are not going to harm American citizens.  Giving illegal immigrants documents that- as proposition argument three says- could grant them access to state services and to a wider range of private services is dangerous [1] . There is no way for frontline state and business staff to determine whether drivers licence holders are migrants who have undergone appropriate police screening, or criminals with a history of dishonest or exploitative behaviour. The resolution may, therefore, allow disreputable individuals to falsely claim to be normalised American citizens.  Alternatively, and more likely, the resolution will undermine the value and utility of state drivers licences \u2013 for Latin-American US citizens at the very least. As it becomes known that immigrants from the south bearing licences might be more likely to be dishonest, banks, stores and hospitals will become less willing to accept drivers licences as conclusive proof of a Latin-American individual\u2019s identity.  If the degree to which service providers will trust a driving licence is reduced, the improvements to illegal immigrants\u2019 quality of life that the resolution brings about will be short lived. Moreover, legally resident Latin-Americans will find that their lives become much more difficult. Service providers will adopt a stance of suspicion toward Latin-American individuals, assuming that a Latino-American\u2019s driving licence offers no useful indication as to his immigration status and background. Therefore, this policy constitutes a large security threat to America and its citizens, and a significant danger to the integration and lifestyles of thousands of Latino-American individuals.  [1] \"Position Paper: No Drivers Licenses for Illegal Aliens.\" News Blaze. Realtime News, 23 Sep 2001. Web. 30 Nov. 2011."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-con01a","title":"","text":"This rewards law-breaking.  This policy rewards those who break the law and therefore is unjustified.  There are immigration policies for a reason, and to skirt them because you do not want to wait in line like everyone else does not entitle you to be treated on the same level as those who adhere to American laws and immigration procedures. Allowing illegal immigrants to get driver\u2019s licenses simply because they made it here is just rewarding them for being good at breaking our laws.  We have a moral obligation to continue to deny illegal immigrants the perks of citizenship because they have undermined the very laws and processes that citizenship relies on in America. Moreover, if we simply treat them the same as legal immigrants in our country, there is no deterrent left to stop people from just ignoring our immigrant processes and trying to immigrate illegally to avoid the queue.  Therefore, we shouldn\u2019t give illegal immigrants drivers licenses because that simply rewards law-breaking and undermines the legal system and immigration policy we rely on."}
+{"id":"training-society-imhwgiidl-con02b","title":"","text":"The state should never allow mob mentality to govern its policies and specifically should never let prejudice of its people allow the state to let exploitation and abuse of human beings go unaddressed. This resentment and assumption that all Hispanics are illegal immigrants leeching from the state is something that is already a perception that permeates US thought. This policy will at worst marginally increase that sentiment, and even if it does, the state has a duty to ignore blind hate and not let it drive state policy."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro02b","title":"","text":"The policy itself has no malicious intent and is not aimed to harm different communities to a different level. An argument about the rich ignoring the one child policy is an argument for better regulation of the current policy, which is meant to be completely fair no matter a family\u2019s status or wealth, not the abolition of the policy itself."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro02a","title":"","text":"The one child policy is ignored by Chinas elite  The one child policy is a policy that can be ignored fairly easily by richer people within China. Through their ability to bribe officials as well as their ability to hide extra children using foster parents and the like, it is easily possible for richer people to flout the one child policy. This has shown itself in the form of many wealthy Chinese officials, entrepreneurs and celebrities who have been caught ignoring the one child policy. For example between 2000 and 2005 1968 government officials in Hunan violated the one child policy.1  Given that this is true, the one child policy serves to create social division in China. It is perceived by the poorest Chinese communities as an obstacle to prosperity. By imposing harsh penalties (both moral and fiscal) on parents who attempt to maximise not only their future welfare, but also their family\u2019s economic prosperity by trying for a son, the one child policy undermines social development within China\u2019s rural and working classes. Moreover, it serves to entrench negative perceptions of Chinese officials and business owners as corrupt tyrants. How else will marginalised communities relate to a law that undermines the cohesion of their families and that the wealthy can exempt themselves from? 2  1 Liu, Melinda, \u2018China\u2019s One Child Left Behind\u2019, Newsweek, 19 January 2008,   2 ibid"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro03b","title":"","text":"The Chinese authorities outlaw forced abortions. The violations of human rights are outliers and rarely occur. When they do they are punished badly.  Such violations are regrettable; however the one child policy carries a number of benefits for the vast majority of Chinese families. Since the implementation of the policy family planning in China has become significantly better and thus the overall benefit to all of China outweighs the harm that is incurred by a tiny minority of people. 1  Without population control measures, quality of life in China would decline for all citizens who must compete for limited jobs, healthcare resources, and access to social services, particularly in rural areas.2  1 Associated Press. \u201cChina Will Outlaw Selective Abortions.\u201d MSNBC. 07-01-2005.   2 \"Family Planning in China.\" Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro01a","title":"","text":"The one child policy skews gender demographics  Many Asian cultures have a preference for sons over daughters due to traditions involving inheritance. Further, in rural communities a son is often preferable to a daughter simply because of the amount of work that they can do for the family. As well as this, sons act as primary caregivers for the parents when they go into retirement and the son\u2019s parents are often treated better than the daughter\u2019s.  It is for these reasons that often when a Chinese family finds out that they are set to have a daughter they attempt to selectively abort it and try again for a son. This is technically illegal in China, however, this has only led to back alley abortions which often carry a much higher chance of mortality for the mother. Further, it has also led to parents abandoning female children or leaving them to starve so that they may try again with a son. In China\u2019s rural provinces it is much more difficult for the authorities to deal with every case given the sheer number of people over such a large area and as such these crimes often go unprosecuted or punished.  This process not only leads to human rights violations, as mentioned, but it also skews the gender balance of the Chinese population. Specifically, since the implementation of the policy in 1979 many men are finding there are simply no women to marry. By 2020 it is estimated there will be 40 million men unable to marry in China simply because of the lack of females.1  1 Baculino, Eric. \u201cChina Grapples with legacy of its \u2018missing girls.\u201d MSNBC. 09-14-2004."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro01b","title":"","text":"The Chinese authorities are getting better at preventing selective abortion of females since it was banned in 2005. Whilst the demographic changes resulting from the one child policy are regrettable, they are ultimately what the Chinese authorities are seeking from the one child policy. 40 million men who cannot marry are unlikely to have children and contribute to China\u2019s population problems.  Whilst there is harm to society from these men being unable to marry, the problem of overpopulation in China\u2019s future which is being prevented by the one child policy outweighs this harm significantly.1  1 Associated Press. \u201cChina Will Outlaw Selective Abortions.\u201d MSNBC. 07-01-2005."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro03a","title":"","text":"The one child policy results in sweeping human rights violations  The One Child policy is often strictly enforced in China and many parents are given information about contraception to prevent any chance of an unplanned pregnancy. However a large number of pregnancies- within any population- are inevitable, despite the precautions that parents may take. Whether as a result of defective medication, irresponsible behaviour, or simple bad luck, sufficiently frequent sexual activity will always lead to pregnancy.  Reports from human rights workers indicate that the Chinese states deals with such eventualities by forcing women to have abortions against their will. By some accounts, the state directly detains and punishes women who resist family planning policies.1 The psychological trauma caused by this is almost indescribable. Not only does a forced abortion represent a significant attack on a woman\u2019s bodily autonomy, procedures of this type are officially contextualised as correcting the results of wrongdoing. The woman is not counselled or assured that she is not morally culpable for her actions; she is placed in a position where the destruction of her foetus is portrayed as the inevitable result of her own lack of responsibility. Chinese women are made to feel directly responsible for the loss of their unborn children or for the circumstances that gave rise to their pregnancy.  Further the Chinese authorities often force people to be sterilised against their will. This has happened in some cases almost immediately after birth, which is incredibly traumatic for the people involved. Further, should these people ever leave China it prevents them from raising a family in the future with more than a single child. Again, forced sterilisation in this way causes large psychological harms due to the manner in which the person\u2019s body is violated.2  1 Life Site News. \"Forced Abortion Still a Reality in China Says New Amnesty Report.\" Life Site News. 27-05-2005.   2 Elegant, Simon. \u201cWhy Forced Abortions Persist in China.\u201d Time. 30-04-2007."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con03b","title":"","text":"The Chinese economy may well have grown anyway; correlation is not causation. It was not the one child policy that has caused China\u2019s incredible economic growth but the opening up of the Chinese economy to the market.  Moreover the economic benefits from the one child policy do not come without costs.  \u201cAn associate professor of economics at Columbia University, Lena Edlund, found that a 1% increase in the ratio of males to females equates to an increase in violent and property crime of as much as 6%, \"suggesting that male sex ratios may account for 28% to 38% of the rise in crime.\u201d  Further to this, the economic benefits of the one child policy do not outweigh the harms to human rights that the one child policy causes.1  1 \u201cOne-Child Policy, Chine Crime Rise Linked by Study.\u201d New Yorks Sun. 19-11-2007."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con01b","title":"","text":"Interventions and contraceptive techniques such as condoms and sex education have proven to be more effective than the one child policy in aiding population control. Thailand and Indonesia for example achieved the same ends as China in reduction of their population just using these methods of birth control and family planning.  Further, the benefits of one child in population control are often exaggerated. From 1970 to 1979, through education and an emphasis on having smaller families and more time between pregnancy the Chinese government was able to reduce its birth rate from 5.2 to 2.9.  Population growth within China at a stable rate, which a replacement fertility level of 2.1 would bring, might actually be beneficial. The extra man power will be useful to China, it would mean that instead of having its population decline from 1. 341 billion today to 941 million by 21001 as is currently projected there would be a more stable population which would result in less problems with an aging population.2  Other critics question the assertion that the One-Child policy is effective at achieving population control in the first place. Fertility levels dropped between 1970 and 1979 due to government policies that pushed for later marriages and fewer births.3 Additionally, economic growth and social programs are likely to encourage smaller family sizes -- this phenomena has been observed in other countries without similar government policies.4 In cities and wealthier rural areas, surveys indicated that women on average wanted to have fewer than two children, which is below the \"replacement rate\" of 2.1 children per couple.5 It is difficult to isolate the One-Child policy as the primary cause of declining birth rates when other socioeconomic factors also affect families' decisions.  1 \u2018China Population (thousands) Medium variant 2010-2100\u2019, United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2010 revision,   2 \u201cThe most surprising demographic crisis.\u201d The Economist. 05-05-2011.   3 Feng, Wang. \"Can China Afford to Continue its One-Child Policy?\" Analysis from the East-West Center. No. 77. March 2005.   4 Engelman, Robert. \"What happens if China's 'one child' is left behind?\" Worldwatch Institute. 03-03-2008.   5 The Economist. \"The child in time.\" 10-08-2010."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con02a","title":"","text":"One child benefits women  It is reported that the focus of China on population control helps provide a better health services for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes. Help is provided for pregnant women to closely monitor their health. In various places in China, the government rolled out a \u2018Care for Girls\u2019 programme, which aims at eliminating cultural discrimination against girls in rural and underdeveloped areas through subsidies and education.  Within many Chinese communities, women have traditionally been the primary caregivers for children; however, with fewer children, they have more time to invest in their careers, increasing both their personal earnings and the national GDP.1,2  1 \u201cFamily Planning in China.\u201d Information Office of the State Council of the People\u2019s Republic of China. 1995.   2 Taylor, John. \u201cChina-One Child Policy,\u201d Foreign Correspondent. 02-08-2005."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con03a","title":"","text":"Single child families are economically efficient  The one child policy is economically beneficial because it allows China to push its population growth rate well below its growth rate in GDP.  This has allowed the standard of living in China for the average Chinese citizen to improve significantly since the policy was implemented. Specifically speaking, since 1978 the income of the urban population in China has increased tenfold. Per capita housing space has also increased both in towns and in rural areas allowing Chinese people to enjoy a higher standard of living.  Further, the individual savings rate has increased since the introduction of the One Child Policy. This has been partially attributed to the policy in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese more money with which to invest. Second, since young Chinese can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.  On top of this, the one child policy has also been instrumental in the eradication of poverty in China. Often, the greatest problem with poverty is that families grow to unsustainably large sizes and as such the entire family is forced to be hand to mouth. However, the one child policy prevents this from happening and as such allows for the single child to be educated properly without providing too much strain on the family. Hence, by improving educational attainment and by reducing the financial pressures bearing on poor families, the one child policy has contributed significantly to reducing poverty within China.1  1 \u201cFamily Planning in China.\u201d Information Office of the State Council of the People\u2019s Republic of China. 1995."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con01a","title":"","text":"The one child policy is needed for population control  The One Child policy in China acts as an extremely powerful check on the population. With 1.3 billion people, problems of overcrowding and resource depletion in China are bad and will get significantly worse without change.1  The reality of the abolition of the one child policy is that with an increase in birth rate from the current level of 1.7 to 2.1 which is not unreasonable given population growth in other countries, there would be 5 million more births per year in China than there are now resulting in 250 million more people by the middle of this century.  Given that China is already one of the biggest contributors to global warming in the world, the addition of another 250 million people would be catastrophic in the prevention of damage to the climate. Ecological damage of this kind has been a common feature of overpopulated societies, china included, for centuries. Soil erosion, depletion of soil nutrients in arable land and pollution of water sources are already an increasing problem in China, desertification for example causes US $6.5billion of losses to the country each year.2 Further, the strain on Chinese resources would also be incredible. The policy also prevents other problems associated with overpopulation, such as epidemics and the growth of slums.3 Stable and balanced population growth requires that the policy remain in place for the time being.4  1 \"Family Planning in China.\" Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China.   2 People\u2019s Daily, \u2018China Faces Challenge of Desertification\u2019, 1 September 2001,   3 Revkin, Andrew. \u201cAn End to One-Child Families in China?\u201d New York Times.28-02-2008.   4 Yardley, Jim. \"China Sticking with One-Child Policy.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con02b","title":"","text":"The benefits for women in this situation could easily be enforced via legislation, without the need for a one child policy to begin with. The gain from mothers who are able to work could easily be replicated through family planning and a greater focus on equality between genders in the country. As it is, the one child policy as defined in side opposition\u2019s case causes women\u2019s rights to be violated and often results in the deaths of otherwise healthy baby girls."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro02b","title":"","text":"Even if the international community decided it wanted to better protect the human rights of migrants, an international treaty will not necessarily advance that cause, as international law has proven to be very difficult to enforce. This will continue to be a problem into the foreseeable future."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro02a","title":"","text":"The U.N. Convention is the best available mechanism for addressing the widespread problem of migrant rights.  Because the issue of migrant rights is a global one, concerned with human rights and the domestic and international actions of states, a U.N. convention is an appropriate solution. The U.N. is the best body to act because although the situation for migrant workers may be slightly different in each state, there are basic rights that they all deserve. In addition, even if each state sought individually to protect migrant rights, they might not be able to, because governing migration takes coordination between states. With international legislation, states would be held accountable for protecting migrant rights; and, migrant policies and protections would be better coordinated. The international community has helped the global economy adapt to rising globalization, with such bodies as the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. Migration is an essential part of globalization, but there is no international body regulating the flow of workers around the world. Jason Deparle of the New York Times writes, \u201cThe most personal and perilous form of movement is the most unregulated. States make (and often ignore) their own rules, deciding who can come, how long they stay, and what rights they enjoy.\" [1] The U.N. Convention would fill this gap.  Indeed, the U.N.\u2019s solution to regulate migration represents a reasonable and thorough approach. It is reasonable because it does not ask too much of states, requiring only that they provide migrants with basic rights. It is thorough because it provides protection for each of the many challenges and injustices facing migrant workers. Because migrant rights are a growing problem and an essential part of globalization, an international regulatory body would be an effective way of improving human rights around the world.  [1] Deparle, Jason. \"Global Migration: A World Ever More on the Move,\" New York Times. June 26, 2010."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro03b","title":"","text":"In most democratic, developed countries\u2014which are those that receive the most immigrants\u2014all people share equal rights in the workplace, as long as they immigrated legally. The workplace protections in the U.N. Convention that only apply to legal migrants. Ratifying the Convention would thus not make much positive change for migrant workers around the world.  The workplace protections in the U.N. Convention that apply to illegal immigrants are unjust, as migrants surrender the right to work when they come to a country illegally. Article 26, which provides the right to unionize, applies to all migrant workers, but countries cannot be expected to grant illegal immigrants these powers. People who broke the law to come to the country do not deserve these rights. In fact, because they usually come to work, the workplace is the ideal place to discover illegal immigrants. Not only are they not allowed to unionize, but they are not allowed to get paid. Workplace rights do not need to be strengthened for legal migrants, and they should not be for illegal migrants."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro05a","title":"","text":"Ratifying the U.N. Convention would improve diplomacy between source countries and receiving countries.  Migrant rights is a major diplomatic issue between receiving and source countries, and ratifying the U.N. Convention would improve relations, clearing the way for states to work together to solve other international problems.  The diplomacy of western liberal states depends on the principle of rights for all, which is somewhat delegitimized by the unresolved issue of migrant rights. The International Federation for Human rights argues, \u201cNon-ratification [of the U.N. Convention of migrant rights] brings the core values of the EU into question.\u201d [1] If receiving countries were to join source countries in strengthening protections for migrants, it would send a message that they are committed to freedom for all citizens of the world, and so it would improve their legitimacy in international diplomacy.  [1] International Federation for Human Rights, \"Europe, It's Time to Ratify the Migrant Workers Convention,\" June 21, 2010 , accessed June 27,  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro01a","title":"","text":"Migrants face a growing human-rights problem that needs fixing.  Migrants around the world are often seen as second-class citizens, and this inequality is encouraged by legislation. Unless migrants receive equal social and economic rights, they will never be seen as equal in a human sense. According to Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, everyone has the right to leave or enter a country, as well as to move within it (internal migration). This freedom of movement is often not granted under current laws.  Human rights also include fair treatment under the welfare state, which migrants are often denied. Without this equal treatment, common myths about migrants will continue to be widely believed. These myths claim that immigrants are criminals and that they steal jobs from natives. The organization Migrant Rights says, \u201cAll these myths rob migrant workers and refugees of their humanity, and are aimed at portraying them as less deserving of our sympathy and help.\u201d [1]  It is a violation of migrants\u2019 human rights to be treated this way, and they will only be seen as equals when there is a sweeping change in their legal protections in and between the nations of the world.  [1] Migrant Rights, \"Fact-checking the Israeli government\u2019s incitement against migrants and refugees,\" October 1st, 2010 , accessed June 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Migration is a problem; not migrant rights. Migrant rights are already protected under human rights law. If a nation violates existing international human rights law against a migrant, perhaps with exploitative working conditions, wrongful imprisonment, seizure of property, discrimination, or violence, existing international law already adequately protects them. There is no need to expand human rights law to create a separate category and separate protections for migrants."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro05b","title":"","text":"Even seriously talking about full ratification of the U.N. Convention would actually cause international tensions. This is especially true in the European Union, which has tried to avoid the issue as much as possible. Stanley Pignal, of the Financial Times, calls migration \u201camong the most sensitive topics in any of its 27 member states.\u201d [1] Since its formation when it allowed for internal migration, the European Union has tried to avoid this difficult issue. Many of the protections that are proposed are very unpopular there, as well as in the United States. These include particularly the right of family reunification, and any measures that clear a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants. Even broaching the topic of the Convention would cause diplomatic fights between many of the world\u2019s leading countries, who must stay friendly in order to keep a state of peace.  [1] Stanley Pignal, \"EU faces threat to migration principle,\" Financial Times,September 28 2010 ,  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro04b","title":"","text":"Migration puts too heavy a burden on receiving countries, and it essentially means giving up on source countries. It is not a mechanism of the market, but rather an unfair system that takes money from taxpayers in certain countries and gives it to people in other countries. Not all aspects of migration are bad, but in addition to its workplace protections, the U.N. Convention would protect the right of immigrants to send money home. This would solidify the current unfair system (Article 47). Remittances are a short-term fix that come at a high cost for receiving and source countries. If migrants are not allowed to send home remittances, it is possible that the most skilled workers would stay in their home country and work to rebuild the economy for the long-term.  The supposed intangible benefit of \u201cinnovation and invention\u201d is much less important than the real cost that these countries feel as a result from the unemployment and increased cost of health, education, and welfare systems that migrants cause."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Ratifying the U.N. Convention would benefit the economies of the countries that have not yet done so  Migrants face a number of challenges in integrating into a new workforce, and the opportunities to exploit them can be dangerous. These challenges include the right to join unions as well as inhumane working conditions. According to Dr Tasneem Siddiqui, \"In 1929, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) identified migrant workers as the most vulnerable group in the world. Seventy years have elapsed since then, but they still belong to that group.\" [1] Ratifying the U.N. convention would create specific changes in many countries that would finally make migrants less vulnerable. For example, Articles 26 and 40 provide all migrant workers the right to join and form trade unions, which is banned for them in all of the Arab Gulf states. [2] Protecting the right to unionize, allows migrants to fight for their own rights in the workplace, which is the best way to ensure that they will be protected in the long-term.  In addition to the right to unionize, the Convention ensures, in Article 25, \u201cMigrant workers shall enjoy treatment not less favourable than that which applies to nationals\u201d in the workplace. All states that have not already done so ought to immediately ratify the U.N. Convention so that migrant workers will receive equal treatment in the workplace.  [1] Daily Star, \u201cRatify U.N. convention on migrant workers\u2019 rights,\u201d May 3, 2009,  .  [2] Human Rights Watch. \"Saudi Arabia\/GCC States: Ratify Migrant Rights Treaty.\" April 10th, 2003.  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-pro04a","title":"","text":"Ratifying the U.N. Convention would benefit the economies of the countries that have not yet done so.  The economic protections in the U.N. Convention are not only good for migrants themselves; they benefit all countries involved. Migrants move to countries with a lot of work available, but not enough workers. In a globalized world, migration is a market mechanism, and it is perhaps the most important aspect of globalization.  The growth of the world\u2019s great economies has relied throughout history on the innovation and invention of immigrants. The new perspective brought by migrants leads to new breakthroughs, which are some of the most important benefits to receiving countries from migration. The exploitation of migrant workers that exists in the status quo creates tensions and prejudices that hamper this essential creative ability of migrants in the workplace.  Irene Khan shows that migrant protections are important for everybody involved: \"When business exploits irregular migrants, it distorts the economy, creates social tensions, feeds racial prejudice and impedes prospects for regular migration. Protecting the rights of migrant workers -- regular and irregular -- makes good economic and political sense for all countries -- whether source, destination or transit.\" [1] The U.N. Convention works to combat this exploitation, ensuring equal treatment for migrants in the workplace, and requiring, in many Articles (e.g. Article 17) covering various aspects of political life, that migrants are treated with respect. This will create an atmosphere in which migrants can contribute their invaluable input as well as their low-wage labor, to help boom the economies of the receiving countries that have not yet ratified the Convention.  [1] Irene Khan, \"Invisible people, irregular migrants,\" The Daily Star, June 7th, 2010 ,  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con02a","title":"","text":"Receiving countries should not and cannot afford to ratify the U.N. Convention because of the burden it would put on their health, education, and welfare systems.  Because immigrants are frequently less well off financially, and they sometimes come to a new country illegally, they cost a lot for receiving countries. Therefore it is not practical for countries to grant them the equal access to health, education, and welfare systems, as they would have to under the U.N. Convention. Immigrants make heavy use of social welfare, and often overload public education systems, while frequently not pulling their weight in taxes. Illegal immigrants alone have already cost the United States \u201cbillions of taxpayer-funded dollars for medical services. Dozens of hospitals in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, have been forced to close\u201d because they are required by law to provide free emergency room services to illegal immigrants. In addition, half a billion dollars each year are spent to keep illegal immigrant criminals in American prisons. [1] The money spent to build and maintain schools for immigrant children, and to teach them detracts from the education of current schools, existing students, and taxpayers. This is unfair. Increasing social and economic protections and rights for migrants means increasing migration and increasing benefits that migrants receive from societies. This could be a burden that a state's welfare system is not capable of handling.  [1] Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform, \"Economic costs of legal and illegal immigration,\" accessed June 30, 2011,  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con05a","title":"","text":"The U.N. Convention would make it harder for states to deport illegal immigrants who broke the law by entering the country.  States have the right to deport people who entered the country illegally, and the U.N. Convention would make that more difficult. The Convention gives extensive rights even to illegal immigrants, especially in the realm of the justice system (Article 17). Indeed, migrant activists often see deportation policies as immoral. Yet, a state has every right to arrest, imprison, and deport illegal immigrants. When an illegal immigrant commits a crime (in addition to unlawful entry into the country), states are often forced to pay to keep the criminal in prison, rather than deport him. The United States loses half-a-billion dollars each year this way. [1] Ultimately it's a matter of enforcing national laws, sovereignty, and the integrity of a nation's welfare-system.  [1] Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform. \"Economic costs of legal and illegal immigration.\" Accessed June 30, 2011.  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con04a","title":"","text":"If states were to ratify the U.N. Convention, many of them would not be able to protect their national identities.  A state-by-state approach would allow each state to pass a law that fits its needs, particularly those of protecting its national identity, which is a concern international law cannot approach. Maintaining an original ethnic and cultural structure is important to many states, especially those that are populated by one ethnic group. Is Israel, for example, wrong to term itself a \"Jewish state\"? There is nothing inherently wrong with its efforts to maintain this identity, even if that effort constrains the expansion of migrant rights."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con03a","title":"","text":"Ratifying the U.N. Convention would increase unemployment rates in receiving countries at a time when they are already painfully high  Increasing protections of migrant rights has the general effect of increasing migration. Article 8 of the U.N. Convention grants all workers the right to leave their state of origin. This implies an obligation of other states to receive them, and so it would protect increased migration. Further, the right to family reunification for documented migrants, found in Article 50, would also increase migration.  This increase in migration would be problematic in many countries. It could worsen overpopulation problems, increase tensions between ethnic and\/or religious groups, and raise unemployment rates. The economies of many receiving countries are barely managing to fight unemployment in the status quo. If migrants receive further protection, they will take more jobs, making it harder for citizens to find employment. Everybody should have the opportunity to work in his home country, but the economic protection of migrants overcrowds receiving countries, driving up unemployment. In America, for example, between 40 and 50 percent of wage-loss among low-skilled workers is caused by immigration, and around 1,880,000 American workers lose their jobs every year because of immigration. [1] In addition to unemployment problems, overcrowding can have a variety of negative consequences affecting air pollution, traffic, sanitation, and quality of life. So, why are migrants deserving of \"protection\"? It should be the other way around: the national workers of a state deserve protection from migrant workers and the jobs they are taking.  [1] Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform. \"Economic costs of legal and illegal immigration.\" Accessed June 30, 2011.  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con05b","title":"","text":"It is in the nature of international treaties that they represent a compromise, if it was not a compromise receiving nations were willing to make they should have made changes during the negotiations. However the convention does not impose a heavy burden on states wishing to deport migrants, it simply ensures that their human rights are upheld. Suggestions such as \u201cMigrant workers\u2026 who are subjected to any form of detention or imprisonment\u2026 shall enjoy the same rights as nationals of those States who are in the same situation.\u201d (Article 17) is simply asking for equality for all rather than allowing the current inequality to continue."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con01a","title":"","text":"States should form their own migration policy, because the U.N. Convention violates state sovereignty.  Every state has different issues and problems related to migration. There is no monolithic economic and social crisis facing migrants around the globe. It is inappropriate, therefore, to call for all nations to ratify a piece of one-size-fits-all legislation, like the U.N. Convention. Instead, immigration policy and migrant rights need to be approached on a case-by-case, nation-by-nation basis.  The U.N. Convention would violate state sovereignty. Not all international law is necessarily bad, but these protections go too far, because they force a huge burden on certain nations, and not others. It is fair for an international body to say that all nations should treat their citizens with equality and respect, but it is not fair to say that certain countries should have to provide for many additional citizens from less-well-off states. It is not surprising that only source countries have ratified the Convention thus far; that is because those are the countries that would benefit from the changes, at the expense of those countries that are still holding out."}
+{"id":"training-society-imassirucr-con02b","title":"","text":"While it is true that migrants are poorer than natives, or they would likely not be migrating to that country, it is not the case that they are costly for the receiving country. Immigrants come for a reason; to work. It therefore stands to reason that these people are going to be working and paying taxes. In the US in 2010 the labor force participation rate for foreign born men was 80.1%, much higher than among native born men. They are at the same time likely to be young, and therefore healthy so relatively less of a burden on healthcare, and in many cases leave their families behind so are not a burden on the education system. The typical immigrant in the United States and their descendants represent an $80,000 gain to the government. [1]  [1] Daniel T. Griswold, \u201cImmigration and the Welfare State\u201d, CATO Journal, Vol.32, No.1, Winter 2012,  p.163"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro02b","title":"","text":"The scientific debate is not as settled as proponents of gay rights claim. The studies, while positive in their conclusions, have generally been based on very small samples, not more than a dozen families. Some experts claim that there is also a volunteer bias, with the subjects of these studies usually supportive of the gay rights agenda and therefore keen on reporting positive results. Lastly, the researchers themselves can be biased and willing to find evidence to back a political agenda1.  1 Parke, Mary. \"Are Married Parents Really Better for Children?\".Center for Law And Social Policy. May 2003. (accessed 2 August 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro02a","title":"","text":"There is no fact-based evidence for this exclusion.  The overwhelming majority of scientific studies on this issue have convincingly shown that children raised by gay couples are certainly not worse off than those raised by straight parents1. Some studies have gone as far as to demand that in the face of this evidence, gay bans be ended2. Based on the robust nature of the evidence available, the courts in Florida were satisfied in 2010 that the issue is beyond dispute and they struck down the ban3. When there isn't any scientific evidence to support the differential treatment of one group, it is only based on prejudice and bigotry, which should have no place in a democratic society.  1 Carey, Benedict. \"Experts Dispute Bush on Gay-Adoption Issue\". New York Times. 29 January 2005. (accessed 2 August 2011).  2 Wikipeida. \"LGBT adoption status around the world\" .(accessed 2 August 2011).  3 Foster Care 1999 Statistics. Adoption.com .(accessed 2 August 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro03b","title":"","text":"States place many restrictions on adoptions. China, for example, does not permit adoptions by couples who are too old, have disabilities or are obese1. It doesn't mean that there is anything wrong with being overweight, old, or disabled. But the Chinese authorities are trying to decrease the likelihood of the adopted child losing a parent before the age of 18, which for these kids can be especially traumatic. If the parents being gay can be shown to be inherently harmful or less desirable for a child than straight parents, then such a ban would not constitute discrimination. It would be a decision based on a relevant and valid criterion.  1 Belkin, Lisa. \"An End to Gay-Adoption Bans?\". New York Times. 28 July 2010 .(accessed 2 August 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Where same-sex households exist, they should have equal rights as opposite-sex households.  There are still many ways for gay people to become parents. Some of them are able to pay for a surrogate; some may have a natural child from a previous (heterosexual) relationship and then raise the child with a gay partner. In effect, what this law does is make it impossible for two gay people to have legal rights over a child they may already be raising together. These kids deserve the security of two legally recognized parents. If being raised by gay parents is really that harmful, why would the law allow two gay people to raise a child together as parents but refuse to legally recognize them as such?"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro01b","title":"","text":"Because no democratic government should ever attempt to regulate people's reproductive rights and dictate who is or isn't allowed to have children. And unless a massive harm can be shown to the child, the government usually doesn't take children away from their parents, as that might be more harmful. But the government is allowed to define what a family is or should be, under the law."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro04b","title":"","text":"Just because the government will protect people's right to have a family from outside interference, and will publicly fund the treatment of a medical condition, such as infertility, it doesn't mean the government has to give children to those who don't or are unable to have any in order to protect their right to a family life."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Gay adoption bans amount to state sponsored discrimination against gay people.  Discrimination is the practice of treating people differently based not on individual merit but on their membership to a certain group. The adoption bans are a clear example. Rather than assessing gay couples individually, it is simply assumed that they would all make bad parents because they are gay, while straight couples are assessed based on their individual merit. This breaches the fundamental right of all people to be treated equally under the law and it should be stopped. This principle is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; article 1 \"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.\"1 And also many other national and regional legal texts (e.g. The US Constitution,2 The European Convention on Human Rights).  1 United Nations General Assembly, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights , (accessed 2nd August 2011)  2 James Madison et al., Constitution of the United States ,(accessed 2nd August 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro04a","title":"","text":"Gay people have the right to a family life.  Getting married and raising a family is considered in most societies one of the most important and fulfilling experiences one can aspire to. It is so important it is considered a human right (Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights states \"Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.\"1) It is considered so important for people to be able to become parents that some governments (the UK, for example) fund fertility treatments for couples who are reproductively challenged, and a majority of the population supports that policy2. But members of the LGBT community are stopped from pursuing this human right by repressive and discriminatory laws.  1 Council of Europe, The European Convention on Human Rights, 4th November 1950 ,( accessed 2nd August 2011)  2 Schwartz, John. \"Florida Court Calls Ban on Gay Adoption Unlawful\". New York Times. 22 September 2010 .(accessed 2 August 2011)."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con03b","title":"","text":"Even if it were true, that the ideal environment for a child is a mother and father, which studies show it isn't, that still wouldn't justify a flat-out ban. Most governments still allow single people to apply for adoption, and even single gay people1. That is because there won't be an 'ideal' family available for every child who needs a home. So other options should be considered. After all, a child is better off with 'non-ideal' parents than with no parents at all. With adoptions, there is generally great demand for babies and toddlers, but older children are generally unwanted2 and end up in foster care until they're 18.  Proposition fails to tell us what studies they are referring to which does leave the question open whether these studies have taken into account other factors such as whether or not the biological parents were drug users. The heritage left by the biological parents needs to be remembered.  1 United Nations General Assembly, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights , (accessed 2nd August 2011)  2 James Madison et al., Constitution of the United States ,(accessed 2nd August 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con01b","title":"","text":"These kids won't be completely deprived of models from the opposite sex to their parents'. They will still have contact with grandparents, teachers, friends, etc. But even if they didn't, why would the opposition just assume that gender roles are a valuable thing to learn? Why would we want to teach children to act and think differently based on being a boy or a girl? Parents should help them develop as individuals, based on their own interests and propensities."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con02a","title":"","text":"The government's interest in protecting traditional families.  Numerous studies have shown that children do best when they are raised by two married, biological parents1. In the case of adopted children that is impossible, but a man and a woman is the best approximation of that family. Since that is the best environment to raise children, the government has to encourage and promote these traditional unions, not undermine them. Allowing gay couples to legally become parents, would legally and socially redefine what a family is and society as a whole may suffer. Children who are adopted already face bullying and exclusion in school because of their difference, placing them in same-sex households will double their exclusion and make their lives much harder than if placed in an opposite-sex household.  1 Council of Europe, The European Convention on Human Rights, 4th November 1950 ,( accessed 2nd August 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con03a","title":"","text":"The welfare of the adopted child as the primary concern of the state.  The focus of this debate should not be on gay rights, but on what is in the best interest of the adopted child. The adoption process' goal is to find the most suitable parents for that child, not to resolve other social inequalities and injustices. Being raised in a traditional family, by a mother and father, is the best environment for a child. Studies have shown that children who are raised by homosexual couples can have problems with substance abuse, violence and 'at risk' behaviour. Therefore the state has the obligation to try to provide the child with that environment."}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con01a","title":"","text":"Gender roles.  Children raised by gay couples will find it more difficult to learn appropriate gender roles in the absence of male and female role-models. Although not an exact match single parents provide a similar case where there has not been someone of the other gender as a role model. Although the evidence is not nearly as conclusive as is often claimed1 there have been many studies that have shown that two parents from different genders is beneficial to the child in its development2. Similarly it is often claimed that boys develop negative attitudes to study because there are very few male teachers in primary schools3.  1 Flood, Michael, Fatherhood and fatherlessness, The Australia institute, Discussion Paper Number 59, (November 2003), p.xi ,(accessed 2nd August 2011)  2 Sarkadi, Anna et al., 'Father's involvemen and children's developmental outcomes: a systematic review of longitudinal studies, ActaPaediatrica, 97 (2008) pp.153-158, p.155 (accessed 2nd August 2011)  3 Gerver, Richard, 'Lack of male role models a primary concern', The Telegraph, 22nd March 2009, (accessed 2nd August 2011)"}
+{"id":"training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con02b","title":"","text":"These studies often confuse correlation and causation. The reason why children do best in these unions is not because there is some type of magical component to traditional marriage. It is the quality of the relationship not the form of it that benefits children. The government should encourage people to be stable, committed, loving parents, regardless of their marital status or gender. The stability of a relationship is what causes children to thrive, and it is merely usually correlated to heterosexual marriage, not produced by it. Also, there are more children up for adoption than there are opposite-sex couples willing to adopt, in this sort of a world it is clearly better for children to get out of the foster care system and into a loving home. Gay parents have also faced more discrimination and exclusion than most straight parents, which makes them especially able to help children who feel unwanted or out of place in the world."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-pro02b","title":"","text":"The glass ceiling is extremely variable. The two deciding and overlapping factors, being whether women have children and which profession they are in. Higher numbers of women now going to university may change the number of lawyers, judges, doctors etc in the future. Doctors, barristers, leading scientists, all now contain a significant female percentage. Since 2001 there are more women called to the bar than men. [1] Huge advancements have been made and given positive intervention in the past statistics are now changing. Therefore, the feminist movement has achieved its objective.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-pro02a","title":"","text":"Males Still Dominate the Top Positions  Out of over 250 countries, only a few are currently headed by women. [1] Women still account for only about 14% of members of parliament worldwide in 2002. [2] Some argue that gender quotas should be established to ensure equal input of men and women in parliament. Therefore, the feminist movement is still needed to fight this battle.  Woman still hold lower position in business, the legal profession and in the world of politics. It is therefore hard to argue that the glass ceiling has disintegrated. Until women hold higher positions in these fields the feminist cause has still not achieved its goals- in seeking to create a world where, amongst other things women can advance up the ladder in their career without being blocked by a glass ceiling and held back in lower positions.  [1]   [2]"}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-pro03b","title":"","text":"Most corporations, in almost every country on the earth will not even offer their male employees something close to paternity. [1] But, most countries mandate by law, that women get a set amount of maternity leave. The truth is that, the lack of any kind of paternity leave for the male, indicates that there is a \"glass ceiling\" hovering over fathers heads, and is preventing them from being good parents. It would benefit every family, if fathers were allowed to spend time with their new borns, like women can.  This is not a battle for the feminist cause.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-pro01a","title":"","text":"Feminism Has Plenty More To Achieve  Feminism is still of relevance today, and is indeed needed. In the UK, one in four women suffers domestic violence, and an increase in the reporting of rape in the last thirty years has gone alongside a threefold drop in conviction rates. In countries such as Ireland and Malta abortion is still not legal for all women, this can be seen as an important part of equality for woman that has not been achieved yet and needs to be fought for. If we take feminism as a global movement then the movement is still of huge importance. That's because U.S. women still earned only 77 cents on the male dollar in 2008, according to the latest census statistics. (That number drops to 68% for African-American women and 58% for Latinas.) [1] These are all real problems, on which feminists continue to campaign - as they should.  [1]"}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-pro01b","title":"","text":"Feminism has no more battles left to fight. Victories such as gaining the vote, the right to an abortion(in most of the northern hemisphere) and the right to equal pay were important and worth winning. But given that sexual equality is now - rightly - enshrined and protected in law, there is nothing left for the feminist movement to do in most western countries. It may still be useful in parts of the world where women still lack basic democratic and other rights. However, in western society the feminist cause in no longer needed."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-pro03a","title":"","text":"Maternity and Paternity Leave Are Not Yet Equal  Employers worry when they hire young\/middle aged women. They fear that after hiring a woman, she will only cost the company money by getting pregnant and going on maternity leave. To combat this attitude, maternity and paternity leave should be equal. Currently, paternity leave is a maximum of two consecutive weeks. These two weeks must be taken within 56 days of the child\u2019s birth. This can be contrasted with the long maternity leave that is allowed for. Women are entitled to 52 weeks of maternity leave from day one of employment. Women are entitled to maternity pay for 39 weeks if they have been working for their employer for 26 weeks.  Father\u2019s also do not have the right to take time off work to attend antenatal classes, this allowance is for pregnant employees only. The feminist cause still has this issue to resolve. Until paternity leave is offered an employer can safely assume that a woman will be the partner to burden the care of the child and the employer will be the one to bear these costs of maternity leave. This gives men an unfair advantage in the workplace as they are a \u201csafer bet\u201d for employment."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-con03b","title":"","text":"Feminism is not about judging women for choices they make. It is about allowing women to make that choice. If we haven\u2019t got to a point where all woman are given the choice either to stay in the home or advance equally in their career or do both then this is a point to indicate that feminism is still needed and relevant. In many ways women are still dictated to about the way they should act or what should interest them. Girls are told in school that science is more of a \u201cboys subject\u201d, while subjects such as wood work are rarely offered in all girls schools. In the media magazines tell girls how to \u201cplease your man\u201d further cementing the idea, that women have long fought to remove, that women are solely the object of a man\u2019s desire.  Stereotypes of women still exist and as long as they still exist in the minds of many, feminism still has an active role to play in dispelling these stereotypes. Take rape for an example. There are definitely legislative parts that need to be drastically improved and also better policing, but one way to challenge the cause of rape is to challenge traditional perceptions of the role of men. Why do men rape? Is it something to do with a certain perception of domination, a need to feel powerful? If this is the case can we challenge the traditional pressures and perceptions placed on men that they are the powerful ones. We may have challenged stereotypes about women, but it is still very difficult for men to feel comfortable expressing a 'feminine side.' All of these male stereotypes must also be tackled if we want to establish equality, which is what feminism has always been about."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-con01b","title":"","text":"There are two responses to this. First, many of the ways in which men suffer inequality are relatively minor when compared to the ongoing subordination of women in many areas of private and public life such as pay, childcare and sexuality. Second, where such inequality does exist, feminism possesses the resources to offer a distinctive and useful critique of the causes and consequences of sexual inequality, whether it is men or women who suffer as a result - men and women should be joining forces to offer feminist responses to discrimination, not blaming feminism where men have problems disconnected from the feminist cause.  Additionally, Feminism is a rights movement to place the female sex on equal footing as males. This naturally means that when an inequality exists it needs to be corrected. Yes, even when women have an apparent advantage in something over men it needs to be fixed. It is true men are given lower rights in certain cases. The results of divorce with children involved comes to mind. However, this, like many issues, will be solved in time through feminism. The main issue with this particular example is that women are seen as primary caregivers and are given the responsibility to be in that position. By showing women can succeed in traditionally male dominated areas it also opens the oppurtunity for men to step into female dominated areas. When men and women are seen as equal caregivers then there is less bias to grant custody to a mother over an equal father."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-con02a","title":"","text":"The Feminist Cause No Longer Appeals to Women  Many women no longer identify themselves as feminists, associating feminism with man-hating, sex-hating humourlessness, and seeing it as a relic of the 1970s. Modern women are perfectly capable of competing with men on equal terms, and they resent suggestions that they need special treatment.  Some women would question where the line between feminism and positive sexism begins. Women no longer want to associate themselves with a cause that is outdated and outmoded."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-con03a","title":"","text":"Now Damaging Gender Roles?  There is certainly a case to be made that women, in modern-western society have completely shattered the traditional values and roles that are best suited to them.  For example, it has always been the case that men have been the providers, the defenders of themselves, the household and the family. Women have been the maintainers of these things. These things are not unfair. They are not unequal. They are simply what each gender is best suited for.  Women should not feel lesser than men simply because they are \"supposed\" to do \"motherly things\". The feminist movement has gone beyond its cause in beginning to deem what role in life is more appropriate."}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-con01a","title":"","text":"Men Have Big Problems Too  By focusing on women and their problems, feminism fails to recognise that there are inequality issues in which men are the victims. For example: boys are falling behind girls in academic achievement; far less money is spent on combating \u2018male\u2019 than \u2018female\u2019 diseases (the difference between the amount of research into breast cancer and prostate cancer is a striking.) [1] Single fathers are discriminated against over child custody and child support; fear of being accused of sexism is so widespread that it often leads to unfair discrimination against men. [2] Even the way men are portrayed in the media is a cause for concern. Last year, an oven cleaner ad drew a thousand-plus complaints for the slogan, \u201cSo easy, even a man can use it.\u201d These can only be tackled by recognising that feminism has gone too far. The battle for equality is no longer needed but rather, we must remember feminism was never a tool for women to get their own back.  [1]   [2] www.mens-rights.net"}
+{"id":"training-society-ghbfsn-con02b","title":"","text":"Opponents of the feminist movement have always sought to stereotype feminists in order to reduce their support. That this enterprise is often successful is not an argument against feminism; in any case, many of the women who dislike the label \u2018feminist\u2019 turn out to hold what would until recently have been seen as extreme feminist views, such as the belief that women are perfectly capable of competing with men on equal terms. Feminists have always argued that women are just as capable of men; they have campaigned against legal, cultural and social barriers which have worked against women, preventing them from achieving equality."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro02b","title":"","text":"Paying housewives would not make much difference to images of women and family life, and could even make things worse rather than better. By paying housewives, monetizing the position of housewife and home-keeper, the state re-affirms the idea that the only true value a person can hold is an economic one and that the only way to assess and quantify the value of an individual or their impact is through financial means. Re-enforcing such a financial-centric version of worth and value is dangerous to housewives, who, by any reasonable expectation, will never make as much as private-sector professionals such as CEOs. It simply re-enforces the inferiority of house-keeping and the role of the family unit in society.  This pay gap simply re-affirms prejudice and bias of the inferiority of home-keeping as a profession and gives tangible evidence to support this by placing a monetary value on what housewives do and inevitably not including the non-monetary benefits, such as the children having their mother to take them home from school.  Keeping a division between the money-led economic world and the love-driven family world is beneficial to the family dynamic and the perceptions of all those involved."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro02a","title":"","text":"Paying housewives promotes more positive images of women and family life  Gender stereotypes dictate that the woman\u2019s place is in the home and that that is an inferior position in the social hierarchy than that of the male\u2019s corporate bread-winner status. The stereotype is particularly damaging to women\u2019s expectations for themselves and the way society treats women.  By paying housewives for their work, a greater emphasis is placed on the role of the home-keeper and on the women that tend to this job. It elevates the position of women in the household by economically empowering them and giving them the very thing that usually implies the greater importance of the bread-winners in the family (economic power and status). Moreover, it elevates societal views of housewives and home-keepers by valuing their contributions to the household and society in a tangible, monetary way that society cares about.  Paying housewives for their work grants greater social status and power to women and family lives, which improves views of women and the roles they take in the family."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is highly unlikely that this can be implemented in any country where female empowerment is as restricted as is discussed. If women are as dependent and oppressed as the proposition suggests, the political will to pass such legislation will not exist. Even if a law were passed, the pay would be very low, and so the wife would still rely on the husband\u2019s income."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Housewives are entitled to pay  The philosophical basis of entitlement for pay is derived from the notion that if something comes into being as the product of an individual\u2019s labor, then that individual is entitled to the profit and benefit of such a product because its existence was resultant of that individual\u2019s labor [1] . That in this case the labor is on services does not make any difference, the product of the housewife\u2019s labor is that the children are looked after and domestic matters are all sorted. This is beneficial to society as housewives in addition to helping their own family are likely to have the time to help out others \u2013 through volunteering, through looking after other\u2019s children after school etc.  It is estimated that the value of a housemaker\u2019s services would be equivalent to approximately \u00a330,000 per year [2] . In the same way that any product or service is created, offered or manufactured by individual workers, the services of home-keeping are delivered by the labor of the home-keeper. Just as all workers are entitled to remuneration for the goods and services they create, so is a housewife is so entitled for the house-keeping services they offer.  [1] \"Locke's Political Philosophy.\" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2010. Web. <  .  [2] \"'Housewives should be paid \u00a330,000 for doing the cooking, laundry and childcare'.\" Daily Mail 19 Feb 2008, Print."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro01b","title":"","text":"Not all labor is rewarded with wages or pay despite the fact that goods and services are products of said labor. For example, voluntary and charity work are both types of labor that is not paid. The distinction is where the work is done and the obligations owed to people as a result. Home-keeping is a voluntary job that has its own forms of remuneration (family connections etc.) in the same way that volunteering and charity work do (e.g. feeling as though you are part of something larger)."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Paying housewives for their work is an important form of economic empowerment.  One of the most important factors of oppression of women\u2019s rights, particularly in the developing world, is dependence [1] . Women are often confined to the home by force, lack of opportunity or social stigma, on behalf of their husbands. When she is not paid, a housewife must rely on her husband for money, especially if she has children she is expected to take care of. Economic empowerment allows further freedom for women in countries where women are confined to the home [2] . By making women economic actors, you empower them to engage in different social structures and hold a stake and position in the centres of economic power. This is the most empowering tool one can offer women in most countries around the world [3] .  By paying housewives for their work, you offer one of the most powerful forms of social empowerment for women around the world.  [1] United Nations. Women's Work and Economic Empowerment. Accessed July 1, 2011.  .  [2] United Nations. Women's Work and Economic Empowerment. Accessed July 1, 2011.  .  [3] United Nations. Women's Work and Economic Empowerment. Accessed July 1, 2011.  ."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con03b","title":"","text":"There are many ways to implement this on a practical level. Wages can be created through tax exemptions as opposed to the creation of new streams of wages and wealth.  Moreover, the prohibitive expense can be paid for by an increase in taxation. Home-keeping can be seen as a public good as it create good, strong homes and helps create constructive bases of support that help create productive future members of society, it can qualify as a public good that would therefore be a legitimate expense to tax the public for."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con01b","title":"","text":"The job of housewives provides an essential service to society\u2014to raise a healthy family\u2014and so those who perform the job should be paid. Even if a product or service is not economically quantifiable, the person who provides it may have created something that otherwise would not exist through the exertion of their labor. Moreover, simply because they never had an option to opt into a monetized agreement or exchange does not mean that they do not deserve such an option in the future or that their services are not economically valuable, and thus, entitles them to wages."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con02a","title":"","text":"Paying housewives reduces social mobility  By paying housewives for their work, you create negative stereotypes about families and women by commodifying the role of home-keeper. Paying housewives for their work re-enforces the very framework that is seen as oppressive on home-keepers. It creates a system in which women are even more strongly expected to be housewives than they are now, rather than seeking out career jobs with upward mobility. The result is that women are discouraged from seeking to fulfil their own dreams by creating their own careers as they are more firmly chained to their traditional role. This is damaging to societal views of women and the family.  As a result the full potential of many more women will not be reached. As is the case in Saudi Arabia women are likely to be very well educated but then have their education and talents wasted by being expected to remain in the home. [1] This would neither be good for the individuals involved or the economy as a whole.  [1] Saner, Emine, \u201cSaudi Arabia opens the world\u2019s largest university for women\u201d, The Guardian, 27 May 2011, <"}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con03a","title":"","text":"Paying housewives is financially impractical.  On a very practical level, this policy could never be implemented. As much as housewives are valuable members of society, it is economically impossible to pay them wages. It is only possible to increase somebody\u2019s pay if that person creates increased wealth. There is no direct increase in wealth creation caused by housewives and therefore it would be impossible to gain a direct or accurate valuation or mechanism of exchange for housewife pay.  Even if there was no market mechanism needed, and assuming that there is no interest in getting an accurate valuation of housewife economic contribution, there is no way for a government to finance this. Without the creation of a product or service that has a consumer who would be able to use the money to purchase such services, there is no method of capital accumulation to reimburse the home-keeper with. The baby or child who is receiving the service does not have the ability to pay. Should the government attempt to fill this void, it would be prohibitively expensive to create wages for every single housewife in a country."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con01a","title":"","text":"Payment and obligation works differently in public and in private.  The economic sphere and the private (family) sphere have separate obligations and systems of contracts. The way in which the economic system works is that generally people are paid for their labor by those who benefit from it, either directly or indirectly. This is a mutual relationship of monetary-labor exchange. In the family sphere, the contracts are based on personal obligation and the family unit as opposed to individual contraction of services. The family unit is a pre-existing relationship not created on labor-pay agreements. Individuals opt into being a parent in a family unit on a voluntary basis and with no expectation or pretence of return for their services, except perhaps from their children in the future. Remuneration is created in the form of a functioning, rewarding family unit and family life and the products and services produced are of no quantifiable monetary value nor can they be sold or do they create wealth. Because housewives do not labor for anybody outside of their household, they should not be paid by anybody outside of their family. Moreover most of the work that housewives do would have to be done by a member of the family unit regardless of whether everyone was also engaged in monetized work \u2013 there would still need to be washing, cleaning, shopping etc done.  Housewives do not exist as workers in the economic sphere as they do not create a monetized product with their labor and opt into the agreement on voluntary non-monetary bases. As such, they are not entitled to pay."}
+{"id":"training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con02b","title":"","text":"Paying housewives a wage would improve not reduce social mobility. Many women would still choose to go to university and the vast majority who do will still want to work. Paying housewives will not prevent any women who wants to work from working. Rather it will simply provide another option for those who wish to devote themselves full time to their family. This will give these women some financial freedom giving them more opportunities to educate themselves and their children so that they can get a better job than they otherwise would when they no longer wish to just be a housewife."}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro02b","title":"","text":"What is best for the economy is making sure that government money is spent as efficiently as possible. This may mean taking some money away from spending on youth as well as providing more in some areas. Education for example can be changed to focus more specifically on skills needed for the workplace rather than learning for learning\u2019s sake or could be made more efficient by transferring some learning online. This need not involve more spending on youth but better spending on youth."}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro02a","title":"","text":"Spending on youth is best for the economy  Spending on young people is an investment. While there may be other objectives too, such as taking young people off the street to prevent trouble, when there is spending on young people this is almost always to ensure they have either a broader, or more focused skill base. This is done through education, training, and apprenticeships. Having a better skilled workforce has a beneficial effect on economic growth. This means that there are several economic benefits to spending on youth; there is the initial fiscal benefit from the spending on youth followed over years and decades by a return on the investment from having higher skilled workers. This higher skilled workforce will then over time pay back the initial investment through paying more tax as a result of being more productive (so earning more). There is then a change from the unemployed youth being a burden on the state and the economy to a contributor.  A study in the US suggests that a 25 year old with little education past 16 and no job will cost the taxpayer $258,000 over their lifetime. [1] If trained and given a job this can clearly be turned into a gain for the taxpayer and society. This is similar to why it is more beneficial to the economy to spend on infrastructure than simply handing cash out. Both will give a fiscal boost from the money being spent but handing money out won\u2019t bring a return decades later.  [1] Belfield, Clive R., \u2018The Economic Value of Opportunity Youth\u2019, Kellogg Foundation, January 2012,  , p.2"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro03b","title":"","text":"It seems a little unfair to blame baby boomers for their fortune in terms of demographics. They were simply lucky to be born when they were. Most countries are already considering the impact of aging; the pension age for example is being raised almost everywhere. And of course it is wrong to suggest that the youth are getting a raw deal in every possible area; for example they have much more technology to play with, and average incomes are much higher than they were when the boomers were young. While the government may not pay for as much for the youth parents and grandparents step in, in the UK \u00a3470million is contributed to child trust funds each year by grandparents and they provide an estimated \u00a34billion worth of childcare each year. [1]  [1] Mitchell, Michelle, \u2018Debate: Is the baby-boomer generation selfish?\u2019, totalpolitics,"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro01a","title":"","text":"The government must do what is in the long term interest of the county  Typically businesses, and most people, think about the short term; how they are going to live or produce a profit over the next few years. This leaves the role of thinking across broader horizons to the government. Governments need to plan to ensure the prosperity of the nation in twenty or even fifty years\u2019 time because many of their current citizens will still be alive. This planning is also necessary because of the length of time that large scale construction projects or social changes take. For example \u201cIn the energy sector, investments are made for a period between 20 and 60 years.\u201d [1] Decisions on what kind of power to support, coal, gas, nuclear, or renewables, will still be making an impact in half a century. Clearly when thinking longer term it simply makes sense to focus on younger people as they are going to have an impact for longer. Just the same as in energy policy if a nation makes mistakes with its treatment of its youth it will be feeling the consequences for half a century. It is clearly in the long term interest of the state to invest in its youth.  [1] \u2018The Commission's Energy Roadmap 2050\u2019, Europa, 15 December 2011, MEMO\/11\/914,"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is unclear that the long term interest of the country really means investing in youth. Instead it should mean anticipating the changes that are necessary to ensure future security, health, and prosperity for every citizen. This is what happens with investing in energy; we anticipate that if we don\u2019t invest in it for the future the lights will go out. But we also need to change along with changing circumstances so taking the comparison with energy further that means not just investing in power generation but in renewable power generation. Considering current demographics this should mean spending more to ensure that health services are ready for an older population and ensuring that pensions are on a stable long term footing rather than more on youth."}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro04b","title":"","text":"Scaremongering is not the best way to create policy. Clearly leaving large numbers of unemployed young people could be dangerous but so could large numbers of unemployed of any age. Every government wants more economic growth and to solve unemployment but they should be focusing on how to bring the economy as a whole back to growth rather than specifically on youth unemployment. When this happens unemployment will begin to fall. Artificially focusing on reducing youth unemployment will simply prevent broader action to regain competitiveness. It should be remembered from communist states that it is possible for government action to create full employment while destroying the foundations of the economy."}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro03a","title":"","text":"The youth are getting a raw deal  In most western countries the \u2018baby boomers\u2019 (those who were born between the end of the second world war and the mid-1960s) could be considered to have led a charmed life. They were the beneficiaries of free schooling and university education, then of an expanding economy that provided enough jobs, and finally high pensions. David Willetts, the UK Minister for Universities and Science, estimates that the boomers are set to take out about 118% of what they put in to the welfare state. [1] The current generation on the other hand in some countries are having to pay more for their education and then find there is no job available. To make matters worse they are likely to be paying more for their elders\u2019 pensions (which come out of current workers national insurance not that which was paid in by the boomers themselves) and healthcare and then will have to work longer for a smaller pension themselves. This means that if spending remains on its current trajectory most spending will remain directed at the baby boomers for decades to come.  [1] Reeves, Richard, \u2018The Pinch: How the Baby Boomers Stole Their Children\u2019s Future by David Willetts\u2019, The Observer, 7 February 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-pro04a","title":"","text":"Leaving large numbers of young people unemployed could be dangerous  Allowing high rates of youth unemployment and underemployment to continue could be disastrous. When people lose hope they are much more likely to turn to violence, or towards crime and drugs. There are clearly extreme examples of this; one cause of the second world war was the great depression and feeble recovery that preceded it, similarly in Africa according to the World Bank 40% of those who join rebel movements are motivating by a lack of jobs. [1] A new World War, or succession conflicts, are unlikely, though not impossible, in Europe. [2] Much more likely however are riots and social unrest aimed at government; youth unemployment was a spark for the Arab Spring. In the west youth protests such as the occupy movement or indignados have so far mostly been peaceful [3] but they may not remain that way without hope of improvement.  [1] Ighobor, Kingsley, \u2018Africa\u2019s youth: a \u201cticking time bomb\u201d or an opportunity?\u2019, Africa Renewal, May 2013,   [2] See the debatabase debate \u2018This House believes the Euro is a threat to peace\u2019   [3] \u2018The youth employment crisis: Time for action\u2019, International Labour Conference, 101st Session, 2012,  , Pp.2-3"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con03b","title":"","text":"In health services where much care is provided for free there has always been a question of balancing resources. Some treatments are just too expensive, when this is the case the individuals are free to pay for private healthcare. Clearly then if there is less money to be spent on healthcare there just needs to be a rethink about which treatments are affordable as a part of free healthcare. In the United States deciding what treatments are worth the cost is left to the market, in more centrally organised health systems as is the case in Europe there is a regulator or commission that decides. In the UK this is NICE (the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence) which decides what drugs are worthwhile based upon quality-adjusted life years and usually does not recommend treatments that cost more than \u00a320-30,000 per QALY. [1] The answer then would be to drop this down to a lower figure.  [1] Dreaper, Jane, \u2018Researchers claim NHS drug decisions \u2018are flawed\u2019\u2019, BBC News, 24 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con01b","title":"","text":"In theory it is great to say that government should treat all people equally, but we all know that in practice this does not happen. Government spending is determined by what programs already exist and where there spending is regardless of current need while new spending is based on where the government thinks it will get votes. Because older people are more likely to vote, and there are more of them, the political system is clearly prejudiced against providing for youth."}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con02a","title":"","text":"Older people have paid into the system.  Those who are retiring today were promised good pensions that they could draw from their early sixties. They paid into national insurance, and other pension schemes on the assumption that they would get a good pension at the end of it. Doctors are a good example of a group that have paid a large amount into their pensions and expect to get a large pension in return. At the moment the UK\u2019s NHS pension scheme pays more than \u00a32billion per year into the treasury than it takes out. [1] The public purse has gained from boomers payments for pensions for years and they are responsible to pay the boomers back with what they were told they would be entitled to.  [1] \u2018Our response to government claims about the NHS pensions dispute\u2019, British Medical Association,"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con04a","title":"","text":"The youth already have a lot of spending focused on them  It may be true that there is little spending specifically on \u2018youth\u2019 but that does not mean there is not a lot of spending young people more generally. Government education budgets in Europe vary but are generally between 10-15% of government spending, [1] added to this should be the 2.3% of GDP spent on family\/child benefit [2] (since European governments typically spend about 50% of GDP this generally means about 5% of spending). While this may not seem like much compared to 26.89% of the population being under 25 [3] we need to remember that most other government spending (with the exception of pensions) is not age targeted and so also goes pretty proportionally on youth; children and youth are as likely to use healthcare, young people use roads and public transport, many in the military are under 25 etc. Since young people are more likely to be unemployed they are also getting a larger proportion of welfare spending on them. Added to this there are areas of government spending which don\u2019t really go on any age group, such as interest repayments on European government\u2019s debts. It is difficult to see why the government should be spending yet more on youth when they already receive a large amount of spending.  [1] UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Public spending on education, total (% of government expenditure), The World Bank,   [2] Mossuti, Giuseppe, and Asero, Gemma, \u2018In 2009 a 6.5% rise in per capita social protection expenditure matched a 6.1% drop in EU-27 GDP\u2019, Eurostat, 14\/2012,  , p.5  [3] European Union, The World Factbook, 6 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con03a","title":"","text":"Aging means we will be spending more on the old, not less  There is simply no room to be increasing spending on young people as an Ageing population means that western nations are going to have to focus more resources on the elderly. A larger elderly population will mean less tax take for the government as there will be less people working, at the same time there will many unavoidable costs. The average cost of retires households to health services is \u00a35200, compares to just \u00a32800 for those who are not retired. [1] The expansion and progress of medical science has been amazing, we can treat many conditions that were incurable. But this means many more are living longer with medical support, which is costly. A US study estimates total healthcare expenditures \u201cincrease substantially with longevity, from $36,000 for persons who die at the age of 65 to more than $230,000 for those who die at the age of 90\u201d. [2] Clearly the government cannot both increase spending on youth and pay more on healthcare for the elderly at the same time. With healthcare a matter of life and death it seems clear which should be prioritised.  [1] \u2018The ageing population\u2019, parliament.uk,   [2] Alemayehu, Berhanu, and Warner, Kenneth E., \u2018The Lifetime Distribution of Health Care Costs\u2019, Health Services Researech, vol.39, no.3, June 2004, pp.627-642,  (does not show pages but near the end)"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con01a","title":"","text":"The government should not prioritise one age group over another  The government should not be playing favourites when it comes to government spending. It should not prioritise one age group over another, just as it should not prioritise one ethnic group or religion over another. The government has just as much responsibility to the middle aged or elderly as it does to the young. Rather than artificially deciding to spend more on certain age groups government spending should clearly just be based on what provides the most value for taxpayers\u2019 money. In some cases this may mean spending on youth but it could also mean spending on the elderly."}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con04b","title":"","text":"It is difficult to see why there should be large amounts of public spending on \u2018youth\u2019 directed through the education system that then simply stops as soon as education is left behind. When young people are finished university or particularly school when they are not going on to university they are suddenly left on their own with no clear path to transition into work. [1] Those not in the education system get very little spending on them and this is clearly where the problem lies. There needs to be much more spent on ensuring that young people get a first job both in ensuring that they have the right skills and ensuring a good standard of living until they get a job.  [1] ACEVO Commission on Youth Unemployment, \u2018Youth unemployment: the crisis we cannot afford\u2019, ACEVO, 2012,  , p.46"}
+{"id":"training-society-fygspsmy-con02b","title":"","text":"Pensions are not paid by what the retiree paid in during their lifetime but by those who are earning and paying taxes and national insurance while the pensioner is drawing their pension. Current pensioners did not pay for their pension but for their parents\u2019 pensions. In the UK \u201cIn 2008 there were 3.2 people of working age for every person of pensionable age. This ratio is projected to fall to 2.8 by 2033.\u201d [1] With fewer workers for every pensioner pensions are clearly unsustainable and so should be reduced.  [1] \u2018The ageing population\u2019, parliament.uk,"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro02b","title":"","text":"The principle reason some countries have higher ages of consent for males compared to females [1] is simply because of the medical evidence that males reach sexual maturity at a later age than females. [2] This has nothing to do with discriminating against homosexual sex. However it is true that when it comes to children, some countries do view underage homosexual as slightly more dangerous than underage heterosexual sex. Largely because there is the higher risk of HIV infection in the case of the former. [3]  [1] Canadian Department of Justice, \u2018Age of Consent to Sexual Activity\u2019, justice.gc.ca,   [2] Neinstein, Lawrence S., \u2018Puberty: Normal Growth and Development\u2019, Adolescent Health Curriculum: University of Southern California,   [3] HIV, AIDS and Young Gay Men, AVERT: Averting HIV & AIDS,"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro02a","title":"","text":"Consent Laws are discriminatory.  Some countries have one age of consent for young females (say 16) and a different, higher age of consent for young males or for having anal sex (say 18). This means that a heterosexual adult male who wants to have sex with a 17-year-old female is free to do so, but a homosexual adult male cannot have intercourse with a young man who is 17. [1] Not only are such laws clearly discriminatory, they entrench and perpetuate the myths, stereotypes, and prejudices against homosexuals and homosexual sex. Age of consent laws, if we are to have them at all, should be equalised across the genders.  [1] HIV, AIDS and Young Gay Men, AVERT: Averting HIV & AIDS,  , \u2018Worldwide ages of Consent\u2019, AVERT: averting HIV & AIDS,  , HIV, AIDS and Young Gay Men, AVERT: Averting HIV & AIDS,"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro03b","title":"","text":"Liberals tend to assume that many young boys and girls would want to have sex if not for age of consent laws. In reality many boys and girls themselves actually do not want to have sex or sexual contact, but lack the social and emotional confidence to say \u2018no\u2019. Age of consent laws protect such children, by preventing others from putting them in such a difficult position and help them against peer pressure."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro01a","title":"","text":"We should defend children\u2019s freedom of expression.  The freedom of sexual expression (and exploration) is not only a matter of choice which is fundamental to the individual \u2013 it is also particularly important to young people as they proceed through the stage of adolescence into young adulthood. Age of consent laws place artificial limits on this freedom. Sex is entirely natural and should be celebrated in the context of loving relationships, not criminalised and put under the prying eye of an authoritarian state. Violence, coercion and exploitation in sexual relationships should still be punished, but not consensual activity. Such restrictions go against the human rights to privacy and of freedom of expression.  The concept that young people do not know what they are doing is flawed, because every person who has gone through sexual development has learnt by doing. There is no process of suddenly coming into full knowledge without acting and exploration. Such exploration would be more safely done in an environment that doesn't criminalize it. Such criminalization can actaully lead to the very harm that the law ostensibly seeks to avoid, coercion and exploitation, for it is people who are naturally more inclined to coercion and exploitation that will disregard the law anyway. This feeds the lambs to the wolves."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro01b","title":"","text":"Those who are underage are not 'expressing' themselves through sex. They are unlikely to fully know what they are doing so this is not an area where they are going to be expressing themselves. Children have freedom of expression in many other areas and through technology gaining more and more options. This is therefore a step that is unnecessary if all it is about is 'freedom of expression'."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro04b","title":"","text":"It seems important to note that the age of consent could be maintained \u2013 or raised- while allowing people who need advice on or access to contraceptives, or other services to access them. The idea would be that school students are still taught about sex, contraceptives and consequences, and doctors are to give free, impartial and \u2013most importantly- confidential advice, and contraception to be readily available to all"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro03a","title":"","text":"The censorship laws are a relic from the past.  The idea that young people should not be having sex is a leftover relic from the past: its justifications are anachronistic and have little place in modern times. Age of consent laws were the product of a \u2018purity campaign\u2019 in Britain in the 1800s, when it was believed that sex was a \u2018male privilege\u2019, that it led to the sexual ruin of young women, that it meant the loss of their virtue, which was a fate worse than death, and that it contributed to women\u2019s second class citizenship. [1] In the UK the age of 16 was chosen and set in 1885, more than 100 years ago, and has remained ever since. [2] Today these ideas would offend both men and women.  [1] Harman, Lillian, \u2018Understanding the Age of Consent in the Context of the 1800\u2019s\u2019, Liberty No. 235, pp.3-4 from Age Of Consent,   [2] Bullough, Vern L, \u2018The Age of Consent\u2019, Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality Volume 16, Issue 2-3, 2005"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro04a","title":"","text":"Age of consent laws prevent the most vulnerable receiving contraceptives.  Age of consent laws are in fact dangerous because they drive underground the very people who should be, and are in most need of, receiving contraceptives, advice on safe sex, and access to health and other educational services. This is true both of the \u2018statutory rapist\u2019 as well as the under-16 consenting \u2018victim\u2019, who may worry about having assisted in the commission of a crime. Both parties then become real victims as they are put at greater risk of contracting STDs or unwanted pregnancies."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con03b","title":"","text":"Liberalising age of consent laws will not encourage paedophilia or make sexual exploitation any easier. That is simply a false nightmare scenario propagated by scaremongers. Many countries have lowered the basic age of consent while strengthening their \u2018plus elements\u2019. For example, by making \u2018sexual grooming\u2019 an offence (to stop rings of internet paedophiles); by making it an offence to have sex with a young child if you are above a certain age or if the age differential between the partners is above a certain limit (to target adult paedophiles while allowing teens their sexual freedom); and by making it an offence to have sex with someone who is in a relationship of trust of dependency with you (to stop sexual exploitation)."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con01b","title":"","text":"Even if we can accept that children need protection from sex, is it right to use the full force of the criminal law \u2013 which includes the threat of criminal prosecution and the prospect of a criminal sentence \u2013 to do it? It is contrary to both justice and common sense for people who have merely had consensual sex with a teen who happens to be under-16 to be arrested, tried, branded with a criminal label (\u2018statutory rapist\u2019, \u2018sex offender\u2019), thrown in prison, and thereby treated on the same footing as real (sometimes violent) rapists, arsonists and kidnappers.  The debate surrounding the age of consent raises the broader point of the role of the criminal law. The function of the criminal law is to preserve public order and decency, not to intervene in the lives of citizens, especially those who have mutually consented to taking part in a harmless activity in private. To accept otherwise would be to disregard the crucial notion of human autonomy and the free will of the individual, which are expressed, regardless of one\u2019s age, each time a person presents his or her consent. This is why it is so important that the law recognises the sanctity of consent."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con02a","title":"","text":"We must protect the vulnerable from themselves.  It is undeniable that young children form a special and vulnerable group in society. Nowhere is this truer than in the context of sex \u2013 so much so that we often need to protect them by placing limitations on what they do sexually. Below a certain minimum age, children are at risk of not having the physiological, biological and, most importantly, emotional development to cope with sex, and with the many possible consequences of having sex, which include teen pregnancy, illegal or legal abortion, childbirth, parental and societal disapproval, unsupported parenthood, legal consequences and increased risk of cervical cancer. [1]  Unfortunately everyone matures a different age. That does not mean that choosing an average, approximate age for consensual sex, such as 16, is arbitrary or wrong. There is no great harm in asking \u201cearly developers\u201d to wait for a year or two before they begin to have sex. Especially young people are not always as mature as they believe they are.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Cervical cancer link to early sex\u2019, 21 December 2009,  ,"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con03a","title":"","text":"Lowering the age of consent will cause criminal dangers.  Lowering the age of consent (or worse, getting rid of it entirely) legalises, legitimises and brings above ground the many problems that we are fighting underground. It will provide an opportunity for paedophile networks to expand, by allowing them to target even younger children \u2013 now lawfully. The problem of paedophilia is already a rapidly growing one, made worse by its expansion into \u2018related\u2019 avenues such as child pornography. In addition to the obvious problem of paedophilia, the problem of the sexual predation of young children also encompasses the problem of youth prostitution (since prostitution is itself already legal in many countries), and the international traffic in boys and girls."}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con01a","title":"","text":"We must protect the vulnerable in society.  Even without resorting to a moralistic view of the criminal law (i.e. that its function is to stem moral disintegration and to uphold the \u2018shared morality\u2019 of society), there is adequate justification for age of consent laws. Society has a vital interest in ensuring that its naturally weaker members are protected from harm, and doing so is precisely the function of the persuasive and coercive powers of the criminal law. It is therefore legitimate for the law to aim to prevent sexual harm to children by criminalising sex with them. Indeed, age of consent sex laws are not the only laws dependent on age. In many countries it is also an offence, for example, to sell tobacco to children, or to employ children below a certain age in the entertainment industry, whether or not the child \u2018consents\u2019. Society must recognise the reality that the apparent expression of \u2018consent\u2019 by a child is often different from consent expressed an adult. In the case of the former, therefore, it is not always true that saying \u2018yes\u2019 is a true expression of human autonomy.  The argument that these laws may cause injustice to someone who truly thought his partner was above the legal age is also a poor one \u2013 many countries already provide a defence for such situations"}
+{"id":"training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con02b","title":"","text":"Age of consent laws are also arbitrary as children become sexually and emotionally mature at very different rates, so any artificially imposed limit will be too high for many and too low for others."}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-pro02b","title":"","text":"There are thousands of citizens who have been made unemployed during the economic crisis of the last few years who would be happy to have a paying job again. In 2010 unemployment across the OECD ranged from 3.7% of the labour force in Norway to 20.2% in Spain with an OECD average of 8.5%. [1] These unemployed could fill the jobs left by migrants in no time at all, as a result migrants do not benefit the economy rather provide drag to it as they mean that some natives who would otherwise be in employment are unemployed.  [1] Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, \u2018How do OECD labour markets perform?\u2019, OECD Employment Outlook, 27 September 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-pro02a","title":"","text":"Migrants benefit the economy  Migrants, including illegal migrants, are necessary for the economies of rich countries. There are schemes run by these countries that allow the migration of skilled workers for jobs where there is a skills shortage in the native population, for example the United Kingdom takes in a lot of migrants to work as doctors and migrants. However these schemes fail to acknowledge that migrants are also vital for unskilled jobs which native workers are often unwilling to take; for example jobs in catering, picking crops and cleaning. Approximately 6.3 million illegal immigrants are working in the USA, and these are benefiting the economy. [1] The Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas says \u201cThe pace of recent U.S. economic growth would have been impossible without immigration. Since 1990, immigrants have contributed to job growth in three main ways: They fill an increasing share of jobs overall, they take jobs in labor-scarce regions, and they fill the types of jobs native workers often shun.\u201d [2] Amnesties are necessary to ensure the economy keeps benefiting from these workers.  [1] Goyle, Rajeev, and Jaeger, David A., \u2018Deporting the Undocumented: A Cost Assessment\u2019, Center for American Progress, July 2005, p.9.   [2] Orrenius, Pia M., \u2018U.S. Immigration and Economic Growth: Putting Policy on Hold\u2019, Southwest Economy, Issue 6, Nov.\/Dec. 2003,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-pro03b","title":"","text":"Far from being necessary immigrants are a drain on the economy. The vast majority of immigrants have few skills. These low skill migrants pay few taxes and take a lot of government benefits. For example in the United States each immigrant without a high school diploma costs the US taxpayers $89,000 over their lifetime. Since there are six million illegals without a high school diploma living in the US this adds up to half a trillion dollars. This increases further if they are given an amnesty so are able to claim citizenship and more money and the costs spiral yet further when the cost of educating their children is included with the possible cost rising to $2 trillion. [1] Some migrants may be necessary as a country ages, but the state should pick the migrants it wants - if a state wants migrants with skills to work in care homes it should let in those who have those skills or are applying to colleges to learn the relevant skills rather than granting an amnesty to those who are already here regardless of their worth to the economy.  [1] Rector, Robert, \u2018Importing Poverty: Immigration and Poverty in the United States: A Book of Charts\u2019, The Heritage Foundation, 25th October 2006,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-pro01a","title":"","text":"Amnesties are the only long term solution  Amnesty is the only way to deal with the fundamental problem behind immigration; the developed world much richer and has more jobs available than the developing world. For example the USA has a per capita GDP of $48,100 [1] by comparison Mexico\u2019s is only $15,100 [2] using PPP the gap with the Central American countries to the south of Mexico is even starker with Guatemalan GDP\/capita at $5,000. [3] Not surprisingly the USA far outstrips the Central American countries in the Human development index; the US is 4th, Mexico 57th and Guatemala 131st. [4] So long as there is such diversity of income and opportunity immigrants will keep coming, and this will continue no matter what the state that is receiving migrants does in an attempt to deter them.  Amnesties will help allow labour to get to where it is needed, through NAFTA the US is integrating North America but it is specifically excluding labour from this integration while tightening border controls at the Mexican border. Amnesties would help to counter-act the problems caused by leaving labour as the resource that is not allowed to cross borders and so provide benefits to both the host economy and the country of origin for the migrants. This is because the migrants will send back remittances that will help to develop their home nation and they themselves may well return after developing new skills that can then be put to use at home.  [1] The World Factbook, \u2018United States\u2019, Central Intelligence Agency, 15 February 2012,   [2] The World Factbook, \u2018Mexico\u2019, Central Intelligence Agency, 21 February 2012,   [3] The World Factbook, \u2018Guatemala\u2019, Central Intelligence Agency, 21 February 2012,   [4] United Nations Development Programme, \u2018Human Development Index\u2019, 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-pro01b","title":"","text":"An amnesty will not solve this problem either; all it will do is move poor people from one country to another. Those granted an amnesty might be slightly higher paid than they would be if they had stayed at home but without skills they will remain at the bottom of the pile while having to adapt to a new nation. Instead what is needed is economic growth in the poorer countries that are the origin of the migrants. This is something the rich world can encourage through numerous different methods. For example the USA allowed Mexico to join the North American Free Trade Agreement and so the US is Mexico's biggest export partner with 80% of Mexican exports being to America. Secondly rich countries can provide investment and the skills necessary to develop industries in these developing countries. For example Mexico has \"structural inefficiencies\" in its farming industry, [1] something which the United States as the world's most efficient agricultural producer could help with.  [1] Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, \u2018Background Note: Mexico\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 16 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-pro03a","title":"","text":"Immigrants are needed to make up for aging populations  Much of the rich world is aging, and in a few cases is close to having a declining population. As a result the size of the available workforce will decrease. For example in Germany by 2050 a third of the population will be over 60, [1] and over the next 15 years will as a result loose five million workers from the current workforce of 41 million. [2] While increasing retirement age can mean that these reductions in the size of the workforce come later to maintain the size of the workforce immigration or a rapid increase in birth rate is necessary. These countries in order to maintain the size of their economies will therefore either have to rapidly increase productivity, which itself may not be easy as they are already the most productive nations, or else allow migrants to fill the gaps in the labour force. At the same time there will be an increase in some jobs that rely on migrants such as care workers to help look after the increasing number of elderly. [3]  [1] Ripperger, Sabine, \u2018The Challenge of Demographic Change in Old, Shrivelling Europe\u2019, Deutche-Welle,   [2] Elliott, Larry, and Kollewe, Julia, \u2018Germany faces up to problem of ageing workforce\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 17 March 2011,   [3] Martin, Susan, et al., \u2018The Role of Migrant Care Workers in Aging Societies: Report on Research Findings in the United States\u2019, Institute for the Study of International Migration, December 2009, p.vii,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-con03b","title":"","text":"Amnesties do not increase immigration. For examples it is not the case that the Immigration Reform and Control Act encouraged immigration. A study by the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas concluded \u201cit appears that amnesty programs do not encourage illegal immigration. If anything, IRCA reduced the number of illegal immigrants in the short run, perhaps because potential migrants thought that it would be more difficult to cross the border or to get a job in the United States after the law was passed.\u201d And also over the long term illegal immigration did not increase. \u201capprehensions [at the Mexico-US border] were about 11 percent lower during the pre-filing period than prior to IRCA\u2019s passage, controlling for other factors.\u201d While there was little change overall between the periods before and after the amnesty. [1]  [1] Orrenius, Pia M., and Zavodny, Madeline, \u2018Do Amnesty Programs Encourage Illegal Immigration? Evidence from IRCA\u2019, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, Oct. 2001, pp.11, 14."}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-con01b","title":"","text":"An amnesty is not a reward for breaking the law, and any illegal immigrant who has committed crimes other than entering the country illegally could be excluded. Instead amnesty should be seen as acknowledging those who live and work in a country but are nonetheless ignored. An amnesty would mean the state would get to collect more money in taxes from immigrants and they would be subject to all the requirements that all citizens are expected to abide by. They could also be expected to pay a processing fee to cover town or government expenditure for the amnesty amongst other things. So an amnesty wouldn't be a reward in its entirety as much as an acknowledgment and a way to balance the books. [1] The government would also be free to impose strict restrictions on any amnesty. For example the one proposed by the liberal democrats in 2010 was only to allow those who had been in the UK for ten years, spoke English and wished to work towards earning citizenship. There would also have been a probationary period and some form of voluntary service. [2]  [1] Barney, Katherine, \u2018Mayor Wants Amnesty for Illegal Immigrants\u2019, London Evening Standard, 9 March 2009,   [2] Standford, Daniel, \u2018Illegal immigration: Is an amnesty the answer\u2019, BBC News, 19 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-con02a","title":"","text":"Amnesties are unpopular; governments need to get tougher if they want to be reelected.  Amnesties are unpopular, in the UK for example 65% of the population wants tougher immigration laws, [1] and so most governments are unlikely to resort to them except as a last resort. Instead of granting an amnesty governments need to get tougher on illegal immigrants in order to find, deport and deter them. This would be a much more popular policy and could be achieved using better monitoring and communications between departments. For example in the United States the Inland Revenue Service knows where millions of illegals live and are employed as they know 600,000 people work under the Social Security number 000-00-0000, presumably many more were used different made up numbers. [2] This would therefore not only catch illegal immigrants but would help end misuse of Social Security and IRS identification numbers. There are also other tactics that can make illegal immigration more difficult and less likely to pay such as preventing illegal immigrants from obtaining drivers licences or, as in Tennessee, employers that knowingly employ illegal immigrants can have their business licence suspended. [3]  [1] Standford, Daniel, \u2018Illegal immigration: Is an amnesty the answer\u2019, BBC News, 19 April 2010,   [2] Sensenbrenner, James F., et al., \u2018Social Security Better Coordination among Federal Agencies Could Reduce Unidentified Earnings Reports\u2019, United States Government Accountability Office, February 2005, p.3.   [3] Department of Labor and Workforce Development, \u2018Illegal Alien Employment Act Frequently Asked Questions\u2019, Tn.gov,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-con03a","title":"","text":"An amnesty would encourage rather than reduce immigration  An amnesty would simply mean more immigration resulting in new illegal immigrants. First, it would quickly become known that a country is offering an amnesty resulting in a rush to gain entry in time. An increase would continue even after the amnesty because migrants would believe that country would be more likely to grant another amnesty in the future.  Second, Once there is an amnesty those who have been granted amnesty and are able to work legally so have gained a measure of security will bring family to live with them.  This is exactly what has occurred with previous amnesties. After the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act in the United States which 2.7 million immigrants took advantage of to become legal residents the number of illegal immigrants arriving in the USA rose to 800,000 before falling back down to a more normal level of 500,000 per year. [1] Spain has granted numerous amnesties since 1985 as a response to increasing immigration, particularly from South America. There has as a result been an ever increasing number of applications for these amnesties from 43,815 in 1985 to 350,000 in 2001. [2] A general amnesty in 2005 that had 700,000 applicants. [3] If the result is simply increased immigration an amnesty will have achieved nothing except pushing up immigration; there will still be illegal immigrants, there will be more anger against them, and ultimately there will need to be more deportations or another amnesty.  [1] Camarota, Steven A, \u2018New INS Report: 1986 Amnesty Increased Illegal Immigration\u2019, Center for Immigration Studies, 12th October 2000,   [2] Maas, Willem. \"The Politics of Immigration, Employment, and Amnesty in Spain\" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Town & Country Resort and Convention Center, San Diego, California, USA, Mar 22, 2006.  pp.10, 14  [3] Tremlett, Giles, \u2018Spain grants amnesty to 700,000 migrants\u2019, The Guardian, 9th May 2009,"}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-con01a","title":"","text":"An amnesty rewards law breakers  An amnesty by its very definition is letting someone who has engaged in an illegal act off the hook. It is letting criminal activity pay. It is also an admission of government defeat; other options have failed and there are still lawbreakers who are not being deported as they should be so there is a need for an amnesty. These people who have entered the country illegally, and have worked illegally are then being forgiven for their having broken the law. This is not something that rich countries should be encouraging."}
+{"id":"training-society-ihwgaii-con02b","title":"","text":"The question is what happens then? Do we immediately deport all these newly found immigrants despite the large cost? Would the occupation they are engaged in or having made a family make a difference? Finding or knowing where illegal immigrants are is not the same as getting them out of the country, in the UK in 2006\/7 20,700 people were recorded as failing in asylum requests but the UK only managed to deport 18,280. [1] Finding more illegal immigrants would mean the deportation systems could not cope.  [1] Johnston, Philip, \u2018Number of failed asylum seeker removals falls\u2019, The Telegraph, 21st August 2007,"}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro02b","title":"","text":"Just because many people are in favour of a policy does not mean it is normatively justified. Policies that have little to no efficacy and actually even create the opposite outcome than is desired are certainly not justified by this logic. People only want a fence because they think that it will protect American jobs and border security. If a closer examination of the economics of illegal immigration demonstrates that immigration actually grows the economy, it seems nonsensical to continue maintaining the fence. This just perpetuates racist attitudes."}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro02a","title":"","text":"A state has a fundamental right to set immigration policies and take the necessary steps to make them work.  Ironically, even Mexico recognizes this when it attempts to increase border enforcement along its own southern border with Guatemala1,2. If those policies are lawfully set by the people and legislature, then regardless of how efficacious a particular tool is, it is justified. It is clear that the fence is wildly popular \u2013 well over half of the United States supports it3 , and many individuals are so adamant about increasing border security that they are willing to make donations for these purposes4. The social contract of the United States means that the government is democratically elected and therefore accountable to its people. If they want to focus on securing the borders instead of providing more extensive welfare programs or reforming education or anything else they could be spending money on, that is their prerogative.  1Thompson, Ginger. \u201cMexico Worries About Its Own Southern Border.\u201d  2Cutler, Michael. \u201cHypocrisy: Mexico Building Security Fence Against Guatemala.\u201d  3Rasmussen Reports. \u201cSupport for Mexican Border Fence Up to 68%.\u201d  4Crawford, Amanda. \u201cArizona\u2019s State-Owned Mexico Border Fence Attracts Donors From Across U.S.\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro06a","title":"","text":".\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro03b","title":"","text":"Safety arguments are a red herring; terrorism will not be effectively prevented by the erection of the border fence. We need a proactive strategy that gathers intelligence and works with counterterrorism officials abroad to disrupt recruitment and training centers for terrorist groups.1 If some immigrants can slip through, so can some terrorists. At any rate, the 9\/11 hijackers and other Al-Qaeda terrorists traditionally have not come through the Mexican border but rather from abroad and by airplanes or seaports, or they are homegrown radicals. Spending billions of dollars in a vain series of attempts to seal ourselves in an impenetrable fortress simply helps terrorists fulfill their goals of making us live in a culture of perpetual fear. As for drug trafficking, this problem is largely born of the tremendous market for it that still exists in the United States. If the demand dried up, so would the suppliers; on the other hand, if there is still an incredibly lucrative market, no fence will stop them from ferrying large amounts of drugs over the border, and most of the weapons the narcotics traffickers use actually come from the United States as well.2 We need to look to other solutions besides simplistic fences.  1 Bruguire, Jean-Louis. \"The holes in America's anti-terror fence.\"  2McGreal, Chris. \"The battle of the US-Mexico frontier.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro05a","title":"","text":"The fence is a practical way to stop immigration and large parts of it have been built.  The Secure Fence Act of 2006 authorized the construction of at least two layers of reinforced fencing in high-crossing and high-risk sections along the border. This includes around the border town of Tecate, Calif., and a huge expanse stretching from Calexico, Calif., to Douglas, Ariz., which is virtually the entire length of Arizona's border with Mexico. Another section would stretch over most of the southern border of New Mexico. An additional section will wind through Texas, from Del Rio to Eagle Pass, and from Laredo to Brownsville. This would not only be a fence but will include technology to secure \"operational control\" of the border by using unmanned aerial vehicles, ground-based sensors, radar, satellites and cameras.1  1Weisman, Jonathan. \"With Senate Vote, Congress Passes Border Fence Bill.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro01a","title":"","text":"A fence would help defend the economy of the United States.  A fence would help defend the economy of the United States during difficult times by protecting American jobs. It is a popular misconception that immigrants only do the types of jobs that native-born Americans will not take. Many professions encompassing construction, grounds-maintenance, housekeeping, and janitorial services actually have the majority of jobs performed by native-born Americans.1 Furthermore, illegal immigrants constitute a tremendous drain on various public benefits. These include medical treatment (because no one who is seriously injured or sick can be turned away from the emergency room as a result of a law called EMTALA)2 , municipal services like fire and police protection, food stamps, and education in public schools. Every dollar that gets spent on illegal immigrants is a dollar that could have been spent on law-abiding American citizens, who need all the help they can get during these difficult times.  1 Camarota, Steven and Jensenius, Karen. \"Jobs Americans Won't Do?\"  2Jordan, Miriam. \"Illegal Immigration Enters the Health-Care Debate.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro01b","title":"","text":"This assumes the fence is efficacious and therefore the cause of the reduction. It is not \u2013 there are numerous bypasses, ranging from simple ladders on pickup trucks to complex tunnels for the movement of people and drugs.1 While it may seem to be the case that the fence has caused the reduced numbers of illegal immigrants attempting to cross, in actuality this is because of the economic downturn in the United States.2,3 If there are no jobs, it stands to reason there is not going to be an influx of workers.  Even if it were efficacious, however, the idea that immigrants steal jobs is fundamentally flawed. Immigrants fill gaps in the domestic labour market.4 They are non-competitive for most types of jobs, such as supervisor positions.5 And anyways, most economists say that immigration grows the economy by expanding demand for goods and services that immigrants consume, and consequently this actually creates more jobs. While immigrants certainly may push down wages for some occupations, the net effect is to increase average wages for non-immigrant Americans.  Finally, the economies of many border towns on the United States\u2019 side of the fence will suffer because of decreased demand for their goods and services.  1McGreal, Chris. \u201cThe battle of the US-Mexico frontier.\u201d  2Associated Press. \u201cU.S.-Mexico border fence almost complete.\u201d  3Archibold, Randal and Preston, Julia. \u201cHomeland Security Stands by Its Fence.\u201d  4Cowen, Tyler. \u201cHow Immigrants Create More Jobs.\u201d  5Novak, Viveca. \u201cDoes Immigration Cost Jobs?\u201d"}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro05b","title":"","text":"The border fence is a waste of money. It and the associated measures was given a budget of $1.2billion [i] and it is not likely to be a comprehensive fix. If the fence just covers current high crossing areas then these areas will simply move to more inhospitable areas or migrants will find other ways around \u2013 such as travelling through the gulf of Mexico by boat as occurs between in the Mediterranean for migrants travelling from North Africa to Europe.  [i] Weisman, Jonathan. \"With Senate Vote, Congress Passes Border Fence Bill.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro04b","title":"","text":"Just because something is a law does not mean that it is justified or morally correct. There have been many bad and unjustified laws on the books of the legal codes of many countries. Any means of carrying out the ends of a just law that will have terrible impacts are themselves also unjustified. When there are hundreds of people who have died in attempts to cross deserts or dangerous terrain to go around the fence in order to find gainful employment, that is a good indication that a policy is failing."}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro03a","title":"","text":"A fence would dramatically increase American safety.  Mexican violence between drug cartels frequently spills over and threatens the lives and peace-of-mind of Americans as well. The Council on Foreign Relations has said that Mexico's levels of violence and lawlessness over the past few years exceed even those in Iraq or Afghanistan.1 That has forced a costly increased police presence in border areas, and even that often proves insufficient to quell the killings. But even if the violent common criminals were somehow suppressed because of stepped up actions by the Mexican government, an easily penetrated border presents a national security threat. The FBI has warned that it is likely that Al Qaeda operatives and other terrorist groups will use the porous Mexican border as a means of infiltrating the country and launching deadly plots against American citizens in future. To prevent the carrying out of attacks, America needs secure borders.  1 McGreal, Chris. \"The battle of the US-Mexico frontier.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-pro04a","title":"","text":"It is important to maintain and enforce the principle of the rule of law, and a fence does that.  Illegal immigrants are openly flaunting the law, and permitting them to enter the country in this way demeans the hard-working individuals who immigrated legally. If people become angrier about illegal immigrants because more of them are coming in without a fence, this may also lead to the negative outcome of poorer treatment of Latinos who live and work legally in the United States. If there were no or very few illegal immigrants, there would be much less tension in communities since everyone would know that all the inhabitants had come there legally."}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con03b","title":"","text":"The United States has consistently demonstrated that it is a true partner in the war on organized crime in Northern Mexico. For instance, it has used unmanned drones like the ones in Pakistan to gather intelligence on Mexican drug lords.1 The relationship is healthy and Mexican officials frequently cooperate; it is certainly possible that there are underlying domestic political motivations for those politicians to be making such strong statements, and we should not necessarily take them at face value as representing the best picture of Mexican-American relations.  1 Defense News. \"US Drones Track Drug Lords Over Mexic"}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con01b","title":"","text":"While environmental concerns are certainly serious and warrant consideration, we need to balance the competing interests here. It is only a handful of species that would be threatened by this project, and any such endangered species can be moved into specially-designed preservation facilities that mimic the natural habitat. On the other hand, there is no other truly effective way to stop illegal immigrant crossings. In this sense, the local environment is a sacrifice of necessity. A related environmental concern is the pollution border-crossers leave in the desert and surrounding habitats, which would actually be reduced if fewer of them were crossing."}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con02a","title":"","text":"The fence is morally wrong and inhumane  Because it does not create an airtight border, it simply forces crossings at more dangerous locales like the hot, snake-infested deserts. Thousands of Mexicans have died since 2000 attempting the crossing, while less than 300 people died attempting to cross the Berlin Wall in almost three decades.1 The bodies of at least four hundred people were found in 2010.2 Simply put, barriers do not diminish the desire for a better life.3 That sort of catastrophic disregard for the fundamental humanity of these people demeans America as a nation. It is hard to reconcile this disregard with our considerable humanitarian support for starving people in Somalia and all over the world. We should work together to help hard-working individuals provide for their families. Most border-crossers are not drug runners, but people who just want legitimate jobs so they can feed their families.  1 Defense News. \"US Drones Track Drug Lords Over Mexico.\"  2McGreal, Chris. \"The battle of the US-Mexico frontier.\"  3McFadyen, Jennifer. \"Immigration Issues: US-Mexico Border Fence Pros and Cons.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con05a","title":"","text":"The fence only seems to solve the problem and detracts from dialogue about real solutions.  The fence serves as a band-aid fix, seemingly solving the problem while not really advancing comprehensive immigration reform. Maintenance of the fence and stringent border patrol contingents drains money that could be used to facilitate better solutions to the supposed problems immigration creates.1Additionally, the perception that something is already being done about illegal immigration saps the political will to find better solutions to the problem. This enables us to ignore the need to investigate shady business practices by employers, for instance.  1 Emmott, Robin. \"A costly U.S.-Mexico border wall, in both dollars and deaths.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con04a","title":"","text":"The fence is ineffective at carrying out its stated goals.  Not all illegal immigrants who are in the United States arrive by means of crossing the border; some overstay legally-acquired work visas. Attempts to implement \"virtual\" components of the fence have failed on several grounds. Images were too blurry, the systems performed poorly in bad weather, and there were false detections because of the inability to distinguish between animals and people.1 The technology also suffered from software bugs, and ultimately squandered billions of dollars.2 Because not all of the approximately 2000 mile border is covered by actual fencing, and even the physical fencing that exists is not continuous and relied on virtual components to cover the gaps, immigrants can easily go around the fence or through the weak points.3 In the past, immigrants have also used ladders or deception techniques (like cars with hollowed out dashboards) to bypass the fence. Additionally, drug runners have developed extensive and sophisticated tunnels to duck the wall and clear any sort of security checkpoints, rendering this defense mechanism with a price tag in the billions of USD4 (and expensive upkeep costs to boot) virtually useless.5 Finally, many individuals who cross the border looking for employment do so repeatedly, even when they are deported or turned back at the border by agents.6 In jurisdictions where these individuals are held in detention on misdemeanour charges, they contribute to overcrowding in prison facilities and consume valuable prosecutorial resources.7  1Ryan, Jason. \"Homeland Security Axes Bush-Era 'Virtual Fence' Project.\"  2NYT Editors. \"Virtual Failure on the Border.\"  3The Economist. \"Good neighbours make fences.\" 4McFadyen, Jennifer. \"Immigration Issues: US-Mexico Border Fence Pros and Cons.\"  5Global Security. \"US-Mexico Border Fence.\"  6Federation for American Immigration Reform. \"US Mexico Border Fence and Patrol Operations.\"  7Archibold, Randal and Preston, Julia. \"Homeland Security Stands by Its Fence.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con03a","title":"","text":"A fence hurts our political relationship with Mexico.  The United States needs to demonstrate that it is interested in being a true partner with Mexico in efforts to reduce drug trafficking and the pervasive cartel-driven violence of northern Mexico. Trying to simply keep all the Mexicans out is offensive; the governor of the Mexican state Coahuila has called the fence a \"wall of hate\",1 and in 2005 Mexican President Vincente Fox called the situation \"disgraceful and shameful.\"2 Many individuals in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas have family and friends on the Mexican side and speak fluent Spanish, and don't support the wall. On the other hand, Arizona's demographics reflect population growth as the result of many Midwestern \"snowbirds\" with little experience of Latino culture moving there, and thus Arizona has much harsher prejudices against Mexicans.3 If we do not cooperate with Mexico, they will be less likely to share information valuable to our national security or cooperate with us on foreign policy initiatives.  1Hylton, Hillary. \"Opponents of the Border Fence Look to Obama.\"  2Global Security. \"US-Mexico Border Fence.\"  3The Economist. \"Good neighbours make fences.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con05b","title":"","text":"This argument is based on drastically different goals than the one that would support the fence being raised. While some individuals may want to take in illegal immigrants and provide them with generous welfare benefits and call that \"comprehensive immigration reform\", that is not what the majority of Americans want. They want illegal immigrants kept out of the country, and that in and of itself is a solution from their perspective, so to say that a fence distracts from the goal is just a straw-man. In the sense that it helps keep people out, it is working just as intended.  Erecting the fence and taking other measures (such as investigating employers who hire illegal immigrants) are by no means mutually exclusive, and we can do both to ensure that American jobs are going to people who are in America legally."}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con01a","title":"","text":"The fence is a serious environmental threat and endangers wildlife.  By cutting off components of the habitat, the fence diminishes gene flow and reduces the ability for survival, or creates remnant populations that are too small to sustain the species.1 Counter-intuitively, even certain winged species which fly low to the ground would be at risk. Climate change is forcing more migrations, and this would also prevent animals from carrying those out.2 This has been so lightly regarded by U.S. officials that at one point Mexico actually threatened to file a claim with the International Court of Justice.3  1Goldstein, Rob. \"US-Mexico border fence putting wildlife at risk of extinction.\"  2Marshall, Jessica. \"U.S.-Mexico Border Fence May Snag Wildlife.\"  3Magee, Megan. \"The U.S.-Mexico Border Wall: An Environmental And Human Rights Disaster.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con04b","title":"","text":"The role of concentrated fencing around urban areas in particular is to prevent immigrants from blending immediately into a town population, and in that sense, it is effective.1Even if you divert some illegal immigrant traffic elsewhere along the border, fencing still reduces overall rates of crossing by forcing those who would cross to go through more dangerous and barren territory; this is a significant deterrent. 2 Additionally, you can step up border patrols in the areas that do not cover the fence to catch drug smugglers and other illegal border crossers.3 This reduces the numbers of border patrol agents necessary to create an effective net to catch would-be illegal immigrants, and consequently reduces the long-term costs of border protection measures. The fence is meant to be merely a tool in the tool box, not a comprehensive solution to the problem of illegal immigration.4  1Associated Press. \"U.S.-Mexico border fence almost complete.\"  2Wood, Daniel. \"Where U.S.-Mexico border fence is tall, border crossings fall.\"  3Hendricks, Tyche. \"Border security or boondoggle?\"  4Archibold, Randal and Preston, Julia. \"Homeland Security Stands by Its Fence.\""}
+{"id":"training-society-iasihbmubf-con02b","title":"","text":"We have no absolute moral obligation to everyone in the world. Many individuals are now calling for serious reductions in foreign aid and in foreign interventions in order to help Americans who are also suffering. That suffering is no less worthy of support just because it is not as highly publicized or televised on international news. Times may be difficult in Mexico, but they are difficult in America as well, and a country has an obligation to its citizens first, and then everyone else. It is legitimate and justified to build a fence to protect the American economy."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro02b","title":"","text":"In the case of foxes, most of the alternative ways of killing them are crueler - e.g. trapping, snaring, or shooting, which often have the end result of maiming the fox and leaving it to die slowly of starvation and infection. A fox killed by hounds dies very quickly. In the case of killing animals to eat - such as fish, or game birds such as pheasants and grouse - the justification is even more straightforward; it is the most natural activity in the world to hunt and eat. And given the controversy surrounding the welfare of animals in modern farms, it would seem preferable to eat an animal that had had a free and happy life in the wild than one that had been reared in a factory farm, as many examples of secret filming (Warning: may find disturbing) in abattoirs show far more cruelty than you see on your standard deer or rabbit hunt. In the case of fishing, many anglers who fish for sport throw their catches back in, so the fish come to no lasting harm."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro02a","title":"","text":"Blood sports cannot be justified by reference to their role in pest control or conservation  All sorts of hunting, shooting, and fishing boil down to slaughtering other animals for pleasure. If the prey is a pest (e.g. foxes), or needs culling (e.g. hares, deer), there are always more humane ways to kill it than hunting it to the point of terror and exhaustion with a pack of hounds- e.g. killing it with a rifle shot. If the prey is being killed for food it is entirely gratuitous. In modern society people do not need to kill food for themselves but can buy it from a source where animals have been killed humanely; indeed no-one needs to eat meat at all and for moral, health, and environmental reasons they should not (see vegetarianism debate). As for fishing, again there is absolutely no need to catch or eat fish; even when anglers throw their catch back in they have first put a hook through its palate."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro03b","title":"","text":"\u201cSpecieism is not merely plausible; it is essential for right conduct, because those who will not make the morally relevant distinctions among species are almost certain, in consequence, to misapprehend their true obligations.\u201d [1]  Conflating specieism with racism or sexism is fallacious because it fails to recognise that the former involves fundamental differences, whereas all people regardless of skin colour or gender are \u2018human beings\u2019.  As animals are incapable of moral enquiry they can never acquire rights beyond those that humans choose to bestow on them.  [1] C. Cohan (1986) The case of the use of animals in biomedical research, The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 315, No 14."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro01a","title":"","text":"The use of animals in sport demeans humans  Other animals may not have the same level of sapience as humans, but they feel fear, stress, exhaustion and pain just as we do. It is immoral to derive pleasure either from the suffering or forced performance of another living being, especially when that being is under one\u2019s power and control.  It would of course be absurd to suggest that animals should have equality with humans on the level of having the right to vote or of criminal responsibility, but they should have equality with us on terms of equal consideration of interests, that is, pain and suffering should be equally significant whether it is a human or an animal that feels it. [1]  [1] For further reading see any work by Peter Singer."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro01b","title":"","text":"This point assumes a na\u00efve and Disney-like conception of nature. Hunting and fishing are natural activities - many other species in the wild kill and eat each other. If fear, stress, exhaustion and pain are natural parts of the cycle of life then why should there be any particular duty on us to prevent them?  We, like other animals, prefer our own- our own family, the \u201cpack\u201d that we happen to run with, and the larger communities constructed on the smaller ones, of which the largest is the \u2018nation-state\u2019.  Suppose a dog menaced a human infant and the only way to prevent the dog from biting the infant was to inflict severe pain on the dog \u2013 more pain, in fact, than the bite would inflict on the infant. Any normal person would say that it would be monstrous to spare the dog, even though to do so would be to minimise the sum of pain in the world. We should respect this instinctive moral reaction. [1]  [1] See the arguments of Richard A. Posner from 'Animal Rights debate between Peter Singer & Richard Posner'."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro04b","title":"","text":"The circus is where children first learn to love animals! The proposition is right to draw attention to issues of animal welfare but again, they do not need to take such an extremist approach. There is evidence that animals enjoy performing and can form close relationships with their trainers and with an audience. Closer scrutiny of circuses and better enforcement of animal welfare laws are desirable, but once those conditions are met the circus can be seen as a celebration of wild animals and the relationships they can form with animal-loving human beings. If the reality falls short of this ideal then reform is called for, not abolition.  We need to strike a balance between human pleasure and animal welfare. The proposition's point of view is much too unbalanced. Putting the animal welfare case at its strongest, we should ban all sports in which animals are treated cruelly, or are at high risk of injury or death. None of the sports mentioned by the proposition here fall into that category. Anyone who works in horse- or dog-racing will tell you that it is in their interest to ensure that the animals are healthy and happy, or else they will not perform well. They will also tell you that most of these animals enjoy racing and enjoy winning. As for polo, horses are rarely injured; the risk of injury is acceptably low."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro03a","title":"","text":"Treating animals as property prevents them from being perceived as part of the moral community  As long as animals are treated as property, their interests will always be subsidiary to the interests of their owners. To treat animals as property simply because they are not human is specieism [1] and no different to discrimination on race or gender. [2]  For humans, not being a slave is the practical prerequisite of all other rights. So too must it be for animals. Making the treatment of animals more \u2018humane\u2019 is an inadequate solution because it does not change the fundamental problem of exploitation.  [1] BBC Ethics guide, \u2018The ethics of speciesism\u2019  [2] Gary Francione, \u2018The animal rights debate: abolition or regulation?\u2019 p.22"}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro04a","title":"","text":"Animals are harmed when used as objects of entertainment, no matter how innocent that entertainment is  The circus is another arena in which human beings abuse other animals. Animals are trained to perform tricks using whips, electronic goads, sticks, food-deprivation etc. Wild animals such as lions, tigers, and elephants are kept in shamefully inadequate conditions in tiny spaces. The necessity of regular transportation means that the circus can never provide an appropriate home for wild animals. These animals are forced to travel thousands of miles in cramped and squalid conditions and frequently end up physically and mentally ill. And what for? Purely for the entertainment of we arrogant exploitative humans. What sort of lesson does it teach our children about non-human animals to take them to the circus and see these great creatures demeaned and controlled by force to perform silly tricks?  Horses and dogs are among the principle victims of exploitation in human sporting activities. The main purpose of horse- and dog-racing is for human beings to indulge their penchant for gambling. The welfare of the animals involved is at best a secondary concern. Horses are frequently injured and die in horse races, especially races over hurdles such as the infamous British 'Grand National'; they are also blinkered and whipped to make them run faster, even the British Horseracing Authority has accepted the use of the whip needs to be limited out of concern for the welfare of the animals. [1] Or the Riverside (Washington)Suicide Race [2] [3] , where horse often die from the nearly 400 foot steep grade of the suicide hill, the riders trying to make it down and through a river. It is unconvincing to claim that the animals can enjoy being subjected to this. As for the conditions the animals are kept in, these may be good for the top dogs and horses, but in the main conditions are poor, and once the animals cease to win races they are likely to be neglected, abandoned, or slaughtered. Horses are also forced to take part in the dangerous contact sport of polo in which collisions and a hard, fast-moving puck pose serious danger to the animals who, unlike their riders, have no choice in whether they take part.  [1] British Horseracing Authority, \u2018Whip use and specification\u2019, 2011.  [2] Wikipedia, Suicide Race  [3] Nick Timiraos, \u2018The Race Where Horses Die\u2019."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con01b","title":"","text":"It is consistent to oppose both uses of the animal.  Moreover, Bull fighting is probably the most barbaric exploitation of animals that is still legally practised (in Spain, Portugal, parts of France, Mexico, and, illegally, in the United States). The idea that there is a fair match between the bull and the matador is laughable. The bull dies at the end of every single bullfight (it is either killed by the matador or slaughtered afterwards if it survives); for a matador to be seriously injured is rare and it is very rare indeed for a matador to die as the result of a bull fight. During bull fights the animals are taunted and goaded, and have sharp spears stuck into their bodies until eventually they collapse from their injuries and exhaustion. Matadors are not heroes or artists, they are cruel cowards."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con02a","title":"","text":"Animals can be used to enhance the quality of human life  Activities involving the hunting or performance of animals are often large scale social activities. The Grand National for example has an audience of 153,000 paying spectators at the event [1] and a further 600 million in 140 countries watch it on television. [2] They can invoke themes of struggle and competition that serve to bring communities together in a shared experience.  [1] Pwc, \u2018Attendances rise at UK\u2019s biggest annual sporting events\u2019, 4 August 2011.  [2] Aintree, \u2018Broadcasting the Grand National\u2019."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con01a","title":"","text":"Fighting bulls have a better quality of life than meat-producing bulls  If animal welfare is the primary concern then consistency requires that if one accepts the raising and slaughter of animals for meat then one should also accept the raising and slaughter of animals for entertainment.  \u201cThose who see bullfighting as cruel are, of course, right. It is cruel that man should breed and kill animals for his enjoyment whether as a dinner or a dance. But to my mind the life of an Iberian fighting bull, a thoroughbred animal which lives to a minimum age of four, roaming wild, feasting on Spain's finest pasture, never even seeing a man on foot, is far superior to that of the many thousands of British bulls whose far shorter lives are spent entirely in factory conditions and killed in grim abattoirs so that we can eat beefburgers.\u201d [1]  To condemn bull fighting is to fail to be sensitive to cultural differences and to the true nature of the sport. First, bull fighting is an integral part of traditional Spanish culture that should therefore be respected in the same way that any other minority activity (such as the slaughtering of animals according to certain Jewish or Muslim ritual laws) would be. Secondly, the bull fight is a symbolic enactment of the battle between man and beast; the matador is a highly trained and highly skilled artist and fighter and takes his life in his hands when he enters the ring - it is a match between man and animal. Finally, since the bull would be killed anyway, it is of little consequence how it is killed.  [1] Robert Elms, \u2018End bullfighting and you give in to the neutering forces of accepted taste\u2019."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con02b","title":"","text":"If animal suffering is equal to human suffering then the benefits of exploiting animals in this way are only appropriate if it would also be appropriate to use a mentally disabled human in the same way."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro02b","title":"","text":"No renewable energy is going to provide the sheer quantity and variety of energy needed to power a developed society. Wind suffers from being unreliable \u2013 producing either too little or too much \u2013 and as a result would be a bad choice to be the core technology.  The basic staple of the energy supply needs to be predictable as well as clean. Wind may well have a useful role providing a surplus that can be tapped in to at times of high demand. However, it is simply not reliable enough to be the mainstay of the energy blend.  It is worth noting that wind energy requires government subsidies which is simply not viable in the long term, people are unlikely to be keen on the idea of paying for their energy twice; once through their power bill and then again in their taxes [i] .  [i] Industrial Wind Energy Group. 23 August 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro02a","title":"","text":"Wind energy provides a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels and nuclear power  There is little doubt that the current mix of energy provision is simply unsustainable. Fossil fuels are simply too damaging to the environment and nuclear is just too expensive. Wind power is an established technology providing, for example, 21% of electricity in Denmark. [i]  The research is already done and can be made available around the world.  Once externalities are taken into account nuclear energy is the single most expensive way of producing a therm. Clean coal is, frankly, a myth and the trend for oil and gas is constantly upwards in term of price.  Other renewables are embryonic technologies fraught with development costs whereas wind is an established technology already providing a significant share of the energy mix in several developed economies.  [i] World Wind Energy Association, World Wind Energy Report 2010, April 2010, p.5"}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro03b","title":"","text":"The difficulty with wind energy is not whether it will be here in 500 years, it\u2019s whether it will be here next Tuesday. Relying as a long term prospect on something so unreliable is simply building fallibility into the future.  A short term reliance on wind would be risky enough, building it in for the long term would be incredibly dangerous.  This is particularly true in countries where the weather is considerably less reliable that it is in Europe. Not only does wind face the risk of a shortfall but it also risks surges to the network at times of high wind. Denmark which pioneered wind energy in Europe, and remains the largest producer, is compelled to export much of that energy to Norway and Sweden because production frequently outstrips demand. That\u2019s fine if one nation in the region is relying on the technology; if everyone is then the capacity simply isn\u2019t there [i] .  [i] Mark Landler. \u201cSweden turns to a promising power source, with flaws.\u201d New York Times. 23 November 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro01a","title":"","text":"Wind energy is an economic form of energy generation reducing both running costs and environmental harm  The installation costs of an entire wind farm are, admittedly, fairly high \u2013 although they pale into insignificance compared to an oil station or a nuclear plant \u2013 but after that there is almost no associated cost whatsoever. In addition to which farms can be built incrementally; a half completed wind farm is simply one that is half its original size for virtually any other form of power generation it\u2019s an all or nothing proposition [i] .  Furthermore, many experts agree that so-called micro-renewables will play an increasingly important role in the energy future of the planet and wind energy is the example par excellence of how this can be done; the most basic homemade windmill can power a generator and wind power predates electricity \u2013 offshore and on \u2013 by centuries.  [i] \"The Future of Energy. Trade winds\". Economist.com. Jun 19th 2008"}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro01b","title":"","text":"The pro-wind lobby always dismisses the externalities of wind power when discussing it. No other form of power requires quite so much space to create so small an amount of energy, an average of between 22.4 and 34.5 hectares per MegaWatt. [i]  In some countries that may be an appropriate use of land but in many others it is simply a waste of space. It is interesting that those countries that have moved toward wind energy \u2013 Denmark, Spain, Germany, Portugal and Ireland \u2013 are all in Europe. Geographically small nations with economies that can support an interesting experiment and with an infrastructure that allows for diverse additions to their power supplies.  Wind is simply not a serious option for most of the world, it is a rich nation\u2019s toy. In most nations, either where land is a premium or where development costs for the transition between technologies are prohibitive, wind cannot be the solution.  [i] Denholm, Paul et al., \u2018Land-Use Requirements of Modern Wind Power Plants in the United States\u2019, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, August 2009, p.10"}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro03a","title":"","text":"Wind energy provides for price stability in the long-term, wind will be with us for the duration  The critical, and increasing, issue of a reliance on fossil fuels is that the price is not only increasing but is doing so in an unpredictable manner. Oil and gas in particular are subject to the political whim of some of the world\u2019s most unpredictable regimes. Wind, by contrast, is produced domestically or, where it is exported, is produced in stable European nations.  Given the choice between negotiating with Chavez\u2019s Venezuela or Putin\u2019s Russia for oil and gas or with Belgium or Germany for wind energy is really not a difficult choice.  Critically, in addition, any form of mineral-dependent energy is based on a resource that will deplete \u2013 be that coal or uranium. Wind, by contrast, is the ultimate sustainable resource."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con03b","title":"","text":"Both tidal and geo-thermal are untried technologies and have significant environmental implications in their own right.  It also seems highly unlikely that deploying nuclear as a \u2018bridge\u2019 technology would be anything like that, certainly the history of energy production does not suggest that industries are likely to plan for their own extinction in favour of more environmentally sensitive technologies.  This is especially true of nuclear power; it simply is not a short-term technology as the reprocessing and containment schedules are enormous. A decision to use nuclear even for a matter of decades would have implications that would run for longer than the history of human civilization to date.  Wind, by contrast, is a developed technology that has no implications for future generations."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con01b","title":"","text":"Nobody disputes that any energy strategy will have to include a shift away from the way much of the developed world depends on energy. Clearly energy conservation must be part of the process, but so should micro-renewables. In both categories wind power is the best available option \u2013 cheap to build and easy for small scale energy users to use as an when they need it and when built in the right place is reliable, in the UK wind energy is generating 75-85% of the time. [i] Moreover any worries over reliability can be alleviated by building numerous wind farms over a wide area as the wind is always blowing somewhere. [ii]  Battery capacity is easier to build on a smaller scale and surplus can be exchanged internationally relatively easily. All power supplies require backup [iii] . Power outages apply just as much in the supposedly stable world of fossil fuels; surplus capacity is built into any system.  [i] RenewableUK, \u2018Wind Energy\u2019, 2010  [ii] Green, \u2018Wind Power Unreliable? Build More Turbines\u2019, New York Times, 20 January 2010  [iii] Wind Energy Myths. \u201cWind Powering America Fact Sheet\u201d. May 2005."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con02a","title":"","text":"Wind turbines represent a threat to the local wildlife habitat  Although the issue of the impact on bird populations has been somewhat exaggerated there is no doubt that wind farms has an impact on bat populations and some impact on birds [i] . [ii]  There are also indirect impacts on local populations of wildlife as a result of the disturbance caused to otherwise remote wildlife communities as a result of the construction and maintenance of wind power sites.  Wind farms impact on migratory routes as they need to be based in areas where there is little human habitation or activity. This is simply humans as a species taking over land which has been the preserve of other creatures which already have few enough areas to live in, away from the voracious implications of human consumption.  [i] ScienceDaily, \u2018Why Wind Turbines Can Mean Death For Bats\u2019, 25 August 2008  [ii] Bat Conservation Trust. \u201cWind Turbines\u201d. February 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con03a","title":"","text":"The financial support required to further develop wind technology would be better deployed in more consistent processes such as geo-thermal and nuclear  Realistically, there is a set pot of funding to deal with this energy crisis and it is essential to use on technologies that have long term benefits. Several environmentalists have talked about the difference between \u2018bridge\u2019 technologies which can provide a temporary solution and long term, sustainable technologies.  There is a broad agreement that nuclear fills the first category and geo-thermal and tidal powers fulfil the latter. Wind simply doesn\u2019t feature."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con01a","title":"","text":"Wind energy is unreliable and provides only an irregular source of supply \u2013 and even then only in some countries  Wind will only ever be a useful additional technology to provide extra capacity at time of high demand. We know it to be both unreliable and unpredictable. We know that unreliable technologies are fraught with expensive difficulties. As a result relying on such a technology would be reckless.  To take one example, the only way of building in a capacity for wind into a regular energy network would require the construction of \u2018battery capacity\u2019 such as hydro-power. Developing such a capacity would be both hugely expensive and unreliable \u2013 it\u2019s useful if the wind fails to blow for a few hours, if the doldrums last for a few days, then everything grinds to a halt."}
+{"id":"validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con02b","title":"","text":"Experience teaches us that the natural environment responds to changes in human activity and rebalances itself. By contrast a shift in the entire climate, driven by human activity, would have devastating implications for all species. We know that migration routes can change over time and that, for example, bat colonies can move. However, a shift in climatic process would destroy migration patterns [i] and cause untold damage to wildlife populations.  Dealing with the effects of climate change is not just a responsibility that humanity needs to take on for itself but for all species on the planet. The tiny impact of individual wind farms on local populations is as nothing compared to the catastrophic implications of a significant and mostly unpredictable shift in the climate of the globe.  [i] Alasdair Fotheringham. \u201cIs this the end of migration?\u201d The independent. 18 April 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-pro02b","title":"","text":"Quercioli et al (2012)\u2019s study on the relationship between investing in private health care and mortality does not come to clear conclusions about the best course [1] . The results show investments in public sector health services is associated with a 1.47% reduction in \u2018avoidable\u2019 mortality. Investing in the public-sector is more cost-effective, and achieves faster results. The rate of return from private investment is slower.  Privatisation is not necessarily best for maternal care.  [1] The research was carried out in Italy."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-pro02a","title":"","text":"Improving health care for mother and child  Private-sector investment will provide crucial training for health professionals, infrastructure, and resources to improve maternal and child health care. Providing affordable maternal care acts as a means for promoting gender equality, and empowerment.  Jacaranda Health [1] operate on a business model, meeting the demand, and need, for affordable and high-quality maternal care in East Africa. Through mobile clinics and new maternity hospitals Jacaranda Health is empowering women and children. Within the first year Jacaranda Health provided care for 4,000 women, and changed the lives of 20,000 families.  Additionally, free maternal care holds negative side-effects. As Burundi shows, the social policy ideas implementing \u2018free\u2019 maternal health care resulted in overburdening the health resources and understaffed facilities; and putting vulnerable children at greater risk (IRIN, 2013).  [1] See further reading: Jacaranda Health, 2013."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-pro03b","title":"","text":"Although mobile technology is introducing innovative approaches, location and physical access is still often required. Disparities cannot be alleviated until the private actors are willing to invest in remote areas. Not all health problems can be dealt with by a mobile conversation with a doctor.  Further, it remains debatable as to whether rural environments receive worse health-care. Debates have been raised as to the extent of an urban bias - do urban populations hold an advantage or penalty in health [1] ? Frequently neglected by private-investors, the urban poor have been identified as vulnerable groups. Investment, planning, and intervention, is required within slums and for the urban poor.  [1] See further readings: Goebel et al, 2010;"}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-pro01a","title":"","text":"Funding solutions to combat disease  Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 24% of the global disease burden; but only 1% of global health expenditure and 3% of the world\u2019s health workers (McKinsey and Company, 2007). $25-30bn is required to invest in healthcare assets in the next decade to meet needs (McKinsey and Company, 2007). Public resources are not available, so the private-sector is critical.  The private sector can help fill this funding gap; private-sector actors - including Actis - are planning to invest $1.2bn into Adcock Ingram to provide and supply drugs [1] . The investment will provide key funding to enable research; and the availability for ART [2] within Adcock Ingram\u2019s Anti-Retroviral Portfolio. To combat HIV, and other diseases, investors are required for R&D and the distribution of drugs. In 2012, only 34% of the people living with HIV in low and middle-income countries had access to ART showing how necessary such investment is [3] . Furthermore, the private-sector have established partnerships to implement training programmes, improving qualified treatment for HIV, TB and malaria [4] .  [1] See further readings: Private Equity Africa, 2013.  [2] ART (Anti-Retroviral Treatment) involves drugs which prevent the progression of HIV; reduce transmission and mortality.  [3] According to the WHO 2013 guidelines of people eligible for ART. See further readings: UNAID, 2013.  [4] See further reading: AMREF USA, 2013; AMREF, 2013."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-pro01b","title":"","text":"In order to combat disease equality needs to be a central component. Drug distribution, new training schemes, and facilities, targeting disease prevention and treatment are influenced by market economics and feasibility. Treatments by Anti-retrovirals should not just be for those who can afford private healthcare.  Further, when considering health care private actors need to broaden horizons. Although funding remains uneven and below target, the specific inclusion of HIV, TB and Malaria within the MDG has distorted the focus on disease. Investment is required in neglected tropical diseases and non-communicable diseases something the private sector has yet to be willing to invest in."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-pro03a","title":"","text":"Alleviating rural-urban disparities  Private health is enabling improved access to health services in neglected areas and reducing disparities in access to health.  In Sub-Saharan Africa rural-urban disparities in health-care have received increasing attention. Private investment is bringing services to remote locations. The potential role of technology companies bringing healthcare to areas without it is showcased in Samsung\u2019s investment in mobile solar-powered clinics in rural South Africa [1] . Mobile technology is providing crucial innovations [2] ; used as tools by private investors, mobiles mean individuals can be updated on health status and preventative practices without physical access to doctors, or nurses.  [1] See further readings: All Africa, 2013.  [2] See further readings: Deloitte, 2013, Graham, 2012; Knapp et al, 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-con03b","title":"","text":"Having the government only paying for some health care for those who can\u2019t afford private healthcare is still better than the government paying for all. Competition between both public and private will help raise standards in both."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-con01b","title":"","text":"In seeking to make private health care affordable new models are being introduced. The new models introduced tackle issues over affordability from a demand and supply perspective.  First, multiple health financing schemes have been rolled-out across Sub-Saharan Africa. A range of financing and insurance options are being built, from investing in health providers [1] to including bottom-up approaches. Community based health insurance, as found in Rwanda and Ghana, are ensuring a move towards universal coverage (see USAID, 2012).  Secondly, in tackling supply issues, low-cost private clinics models are being constructed. In Kenya, the Avenue Group provides a positive example working to provide affordable private health care. Risk-pooling, by members, is accepted as a method of payment. Costs are reduced by working with patients, whilst a regular payment source is provided for the caregiver (see Avenue Group, 2013).  [1] The IFC recently announced a $4mn investment in AAR East Africa, expanding out-patient care (see AVCA, 2013)."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-con02a","title":"","text":"Unregulated health-care  With the incorporation of a diverse range of private actors, both formal and informal, can health-care still be regulated? Quality and staff need to be regulated, with standards and prices set, but who will enforce regulation and how can we ensure rules are followed? Just treatment is required. Public-sector delivery protects patients from poor, dangerous, treatment.  When looking at regulation in health care, the relationship between private healthcare provision, efficiency and quality is variable. Outcomes depend on the institutional settings (economic, political, and social) and what private actors are involved. Private health providers have a profit incentive to cut corners and provide the cheapest care they can while charging high prices. The theory of a virtuous cycle is far from the reality."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-con03a","title":"","text":"Ideas and interests in a neoliberal model  The ideas driving private health need to be deconstructed. 65% of expenditure received for health care was from the for-profit sector (USAID, 2012). Health care is not a business or market - patients become customers and needs become sidelined by competition when in the private sector. Private health care involves adopting a neoliberal approach to care; competition is central and markets volatile. The market logic focuses on what is a good investment, will the elderly be included when they are a high risk population? This is why even in private systems like in the United States the elderly need public funding.  The privatisation of basic services, across Sub-Saharan Africa, has been shown to be a failure [1] . Access to health care should be based on need, rather than ability to pay.  [1] See further readings: UNDP (2007)."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-con01a","title":"","text":"The missing MDG: inequality  Privatising health care cannot be discussed without raising concern over inequality. The privatisation of health care promotes exclusive health care, and is failing to bridge the gap between accessible care for low-income groups and the elite. The model remains unaffordable for many, and therefore ineffective. Even where affordable options are available the quality of care deteriorates. Quality assurance, and affordable care, is needed.  For example, taking the case of South Africa. Health care is provided through both public and private systems. However, the pricing of private health care: whereby better facilities and speed of treatment are found, leaves a majority out-of-pocket and excluded (All Africa, 2013). Prices need to be controlled and affordable options made available. Although formal employers have been involved in supporting access and coverage to health insurance schemes, to prevent a two-tier health system, a majority work within formal employment. If everyone has a \u2018right\u2019 to adequate health care, privatisation neglects their rights to health [1] .  [1] See further readings: War on Want (2013)."}
+{"id":"validation-health-hpiahbps-con02b","title":"","text":"Being part of a brand ensures investors maintain a standard, and ensure infrastructure, drugs, and medical practices are met. Building franchises for health-care ensures familiarity and is setting standards to follow. Blue Star is a case in point. The Blue Star Network has been rolled out across Africa, and the franchise provides family planning resources and training on sexual and reproductive health. Once the private clinics have completed training, Blue Star recognition is awarded [1] .  Including the private sector in health care provision means a structural shift in the model of care: improved efficiency, quality and methods of care.  [1] See further readings: Marie Stopes International, 2013."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro02b","title":"","text":"Whether rehabilitation reduces crime more than prison has been the subject of considerable debate for more than a century. [1] Not all treatments work and the twelve step model used by most rehab clinics does not work and almost all the success in treatment for addictive substances (in this case alcohol) comes down to the willpower to initially take treatment rather than the treatment itself. [2] Obviously those who are sentenced to drug treatment programs rather than prison are not making that crucial first step so the programs are unlikely to be very successful.  We also should remember that many of those who are in prison who are addicts are also violent criminals [3] and those who commit criminal acts should got to prison to prevent them being a threat to others as well as to punish that act. Treatment as a sentence is only a sensible alternative if the offender\u2019s only crime is possession of drugs.  [1] Cullen, Francis T., and Gendreau, Paul, \u2018Assessing Correctional Rehabilitation: Policy, Practice, and Prospects\u2019, in Policies Processes, and Decisions of the Criminal Justice System, 2000, pp.111-113.  [2] Johnson, Bankole A., \u2018We\u2019re addicted to rehab. It doesn\u2019t even work\u2019, The Washington Post, 8 August 2010.  [3] \u2018Breaking the Cycle of Drugs and Crime\u2019, 1999 National Drug Control Strategy, 1999."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Judicial and Penal reform is needed  Short of a nationwide restructuring of drug policy, the president\u2019s ability to affect the everyday implementation of drug laws is limited. So far, President Obama has emphasized much needed judicial and penal reform. Currently the United States incarcerates a higher percentage of its population than any other country in the world, and 22 percent of those incarcerated in federal and state prisons are drug offenders. Obama hopes to begin to address these numbers. He has supported alternatives to current detention strategies both in principle and as a cost-cutting technique. Specifically, he supports establishing of special drug courts [1] and sentencing offenders to drug treatment programs rather than prisons. [2] This is necessary because so many crimes are committed while people are high or to fund the habit. For example more than half of people arrested in San Diego had illegal drugs in their system. [3] As a result treatment rather than prison will reduce the numbers of crimes committed. Obama also signed into law the Fair Sentencing Act, which reduces the disparity in sentencing of crack cocaine users as opposed to sentencing for cocaine users. It also eliminated mandatory minimums for possession and increased penalties for traffickers. [4]  These judicial policy changes are cost-effective, pragmatic toward the goal of reducing drug use, and just. Incarceration costs approximately $30,600 annually per inmate, so treatment programs and reduced mandatory minimums for sentencing will save taxpayer dollars. [5] The RAND Corporation (a government-supported non-profit think tank), among others, has found repeatedly that drug policies prioritizing treatment over punishment are more effective, while costing less. [6] [7] [8] Finally, Obama has made US drug policy more just by reducing a sentencing disparity that had unduly punished African Americans for decades. [9]  [1] \u2018Drug and Veterans Courts\u2019, Office of National Drug Control Policy.  [2] Obama, Barack, \u2018National Drug Court Month\u2019, The White House, 23 May 2012.  [3] Fudge, Tom, \u2018Tests Show Majority Of People Arrested In San Diego Are High On Drugs\u2019, KPBS, 6 September 2012.  [4] One Hundred Eleventh Congress, \u2018Fair Sentencing Act of 2010\u2019, Government Printing Office, 5 January 2010.  [5] Sabol, William J. et al., \u2018Prisoners In 2008\u2019, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 8 December 2009.  [6] Everingham, Susan S., and Rydell, C. Peter, \u2018Projecting Future Cocaine Use and Evaluating Control Strategies\u2019, RAND Corporation, RB-6002, 1995.  [7] Caulkins, Jonathan, \u2018Cost-Effectiveness of School-Based Drug Programs\u2019, RAND Corporation.  [8] Rydell, C. Peter et al., \u2018Enforcement or Treatment? : modelling the relative efficacy of alternatives for controlling cocaine\u2019, RAND Corporation, RP-614, 1997.  [9] CNN Wire Staff, \u2018Obama signs bill reducing cocaine sentencing gap\u2019, CNN, 3 August 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro03b","title":"","text":"Presidents are meant to lead not simply open up national discussions and follow whatever the public wants. While discussion is always welcome it is unlikely to actually provide any answers except telling us what the public wants \u2013 most people may consider the war on drugs a failure but that does not mean that they have any idea of what policies they want to replace it. A dialogue also simply kicks the problem down the road; how long is a national discussion going to take? If it is comprehensive this is likely to delay any decisions until after the next election."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro01a","title":"","text":"The United States must find a \u2018third way\u2019  President Obama\u2019s Director of U.S. National Drug Control Policy\u2014or Drug Czar\u2014R. Gil Kerlikowske has rejected the term \u201cWar on Drugs,\u201d stating, \u201cthe Obama Administration supports a \u2018third way\u2019 approach because balanced drug policies such as those in Sweden have accomplished much for the countries that have implemented them.\u201d Nearing the end of the administration\u2019s first term, however, the rhetoric has changed more than the policy. In his Fiscal Year 2013 budget, Obama requested $25.6 billion for drug enforcement\u2014the highest annual total yet. [1]  Despite this if reelected, Obama would take further steps to scale back the so-called War on Drugs. Rejecting the term is a symbolic start as it moves the issue away from being an issue of national security that the term \u2018war\u2019 implies it is. A third way would mean reducing the securitization of the issue; changing the view of drug addiction from being a moral crime to being a treatable disease so focusing on education and health. This may eventually mean decriminalising some drugs such as marijuana as happened in Seattle [2] while not actually legalising drugs. In addition to Drug Czar Kerlikowske\u2019s rejection of that term, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has also acknowledged that the United States holds much of the responsibility for the ongoing violence in Mexico. [3] Obama has since expressed willingness to collaborate with Mexican leaders to change policy, but has not proposed a detailed plan to do so.  [1] \u2018The National Drug Control Budget: FY 2013 Funding Highlights\u2019, Office of National Drug Control Policy, February 2012.  [2] Good, Chris, \u2018Obama\u2019s Drug Czar Stumps for \u2018Third Way\u2019 Policy\u2019, abc News, 1 May 2012.  [3] Clinton, Hillary Rodham, \u2018Digital Town Hall at TecMilenio University\u2019, U.S. Department of State, 26 March 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Saying you want a third way is simply attempting to find a way to dress up moving away from prohibition as being a new and innovative policy. If there was a golden third way between prohibition and legalisation that prevents crime while allowing choice it would already have been found. While treating drugs as a public health issue may help reduce the number of people who are locked up for possession it does nothing to break drugs cartels or reduce the problem of supply so it is unlikely to be of much help to Mexico as the policy will mean reducing the help provided to Mexico while it is unlikely to have an effect on demand at least in the short to medium term. In short this would mean leaving the door open to the cartels."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro03a","title":"","text":"The War on Drugs has failed and there needs to be a new dialogue to decide on the course forward  The Obama administration has indicated that it will publicly address the failures of the War on Drugs if it wins a second term. [1] In terms of the direction of drug policy as a whole, several Obama \u201caides and associates\u201d have indicated that the President will bring drug policy to the forefront of the national discussion if he is reelected, but it is unclear what specific steps he would take, going forward. This would be welcome to most Americans; only 10% of people believe the policy of the war on drugs has been a success against 66% who consider it a failure. [2] A national discussion is the only way to determine whether there should be a fundamental shift in policy.  [1] Ambinder, Marc, \u2018Exclusive: In His Second Term, Obama Will Pivot to the Drug War\u2019, GQ, 2 July 2012.  [2] AngusReid, \u2018 Americans Decry War on Drugs, Support Legalizing Marihuana\u2019, 6th June 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-con03b","title":"","text":"This makes it sound like the US government does not currently have an education program on drugs, this is not true. The current program is making very little difference to drug use. [1] So Romney\u2019s policy is really the same failed policy being recycled again; more border security and a few measures that will make little impact on the demand side. The White House has been highlighting that it has been spending $5billion on reducing drug use while also increasing border security this is not a change so how can we expect an improvement? [2]  [1] Hanson, Prof. David J., \u2018Ineffective DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) Program Remains Popular\u2019, State University of New York.  [2] Napolitano, Janet et al. \u2018Administration Officials announce U.S.-Mexico Border Security Policy: A comprehensive response & commitment\u2019, The White House, 24 March 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-con01b","title":"","text":"Privatising prisons does not work \u2013 of course it will result in more prisons but it will also result in more convictions and soon those new prisons will be full too. This is because if prisons are privatised they become an industry, often literally meaning the prisoners manufacture goods for as little as 17 cents an hour, [1] and those engaged in law enforcement have a stake. The local sheriffs often run these for profit facilities and so have a financial incentive to keep the prisons full so as to keep the money coming in. [2] It is not correct that the three strikes rule in California have caused crime to fall, it has been similar to declines in states that don\u2019t have the rule, instead there are other explanations for why crime has fallen such as a reduction in the consumption of alcohol. [3] The Punitive policy towards drugs has been tried; it has resulted in one of the highest incarceration rates in the world and little appreciable drop in crime. It is time to change the policy.  [1] Bowie, Nile, \u2018Profit Driven Prison Industrial Complex: The Economics of Incarceration in the USA\u2019, Centre for Research on Globalization, 6 February 2012.  [2] Talbot, Margaret, \u2018Prisons, Colleges, and the Private-sector Delusion\u2019, The New Yorker, 14 June 2012.  [3] Miller, Bettye, \u2018Three-strikes Law Fails to Reduce Crime\u2019, UCR Today, 28 February 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-con02a","title":"","text":"Allowing drug use is wrong \u2013 Prohibition must remain  Romney also has a record of preferring prohibitory policies over those that allow drug use with the intention of making it safer. For example, as Governor of Massachusetts, he vetoed a bill to allow the sale of syringes without a prescription. [1] He has not since stated that he would take a different approach as president, and his position on marijuana use suggests that he would continue to support prohibitory laws.  Romney has staunchly opposed calls to legalize and regulate marijuana, making a moral argument against such a change by claiming that pot legalization is simply a pet issue of a \u201cpleasure-seeking generation that never grew up.\u201d [2] While President Obama has not supported the legalization of marijuana, Romney is stronger in calling for harsh penalties for marijuana users in order to demonstrate the seriousness of the crime. He has also gone further than Obama in his opposition to marijuana by coming out against the legalization of the drug for medical use. [3]  [1] U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \u2018Massachusetts: Needle Sales OK\u2019d After Legislature Barely Trumps Veto\u2019, The Body, 18 July 2006.  [2] \u2018Mitt Romney on Drugs, Former Republican Governor (MA); presidential nominee-apparent\u2019, On The Issues, 2012.  [3] Mooney, Alexander, \u2018Romney confronted with medical marijuana issue\u2019, CNN, 8 October 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-con03a","title":"","text":"The United States can reduce domestic demand for drugs through education  Like Obama, Romney has indicated a willingness to talk to Mexican leaders about collaboration and has admitted the need to address large-scale demand for drugs in the United States. When asked how to improve the War on Drugs, he stated, \u201cWe gotta stop the demand here in this country.\u201d [1] And that demand is immense, it is estimated that there are 22.6 million Americans aged 12 of over using illegal drugs. [2] Additionally, he told the Hispanic Leadership Network that along with preventing demand through education, the United States needs to improve its control of the Mexican border. [3]  Romney will try to control domestic demand for drugs by prohibiting their use, educating young people about their harms (as exemplified by his record as Governor of Massachusetts) [4] , and punishing those who break the law. Through education and regulation, the United States can win the War on Drugs, rather than appease drug growers, traffickers, dealers, and users.  [1] Romney, Mitt, \u2018Romney Rally Pinkerton Academy Derry, NH\u2019, Youtube, 7 January 2012.  [2] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, \u2018Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings\u2019, NSDUH Series H-41, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4658. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2011.  [3] Romney, Mitt, \u2018Mitt Romney Remarks at Hispanic Leadership Network\u2019, C-Span, 27 January 2012.  [4] Harclerode, Kelsey, \u2018What Would President Mitt Romney\u2019s Drug Policy Look Like?\u2019, the Atlantic, 2 March 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-con01a","title":"","text":"Drugs policy must be punitive  Governor Romney would not scale back the War on Drugs, as he supports the punitive approach that characterizes drug policy in the status quo. Romney supports punitive strategies toward criminal justice in general, such as \u201cthree strikes and you\u2019re out\u201d laws, which impose mandatory sentences for people who have committed three offenses. [1] These policies can be effective in reducing crime, in California after three strikes was implemented the crime rate declined by 43% although the three strikes was only one factor. [2] Romney maintains that those who break current laws should be punished, and therefore has proposed that states should contract with for-profit prison companies to continue expanding prison populations in order to keep up with current rates of incarceration. If larger prisons are necessary in order to keep drug users and dealers off the streets, then they are a necessary cost.  [1] \u2018Mitt Romney on Crime, Former Republican Governor (MA); presidential nominee-apparent\u2019, On The Issues, 2012.  [2] \u2018A Primer: Three Strikes \u2013 The Impact After More Than a Decade\u2019, Legislative Analyst\u2019s Office, October 2005."}
+{"id":"validation-health-aapdpglovr-con02b","title":"","text":"Dismissing drug users as a \u2018pleasure-seeking generation that never grew up\u2019 almost concedes the point. These people have a right to make the choice for themselves whether to use drugs \u2013 the government should make sure the risks are known, and the substance priced accordingly but ultimately there is nothing wrong with seeking pleasure.  Romney further muddies the waters by not allowing the sale of syringes as this is an act that would save lives. A study in the lancet estimated that with a needle exchange program in the US between 10000 and 20000 HIV infections could have been prevented between 187 and 2000. [1]  [1] Lurie, P. and Drucker, E. \u2018An opportunity lost: HIV infections associated with lack of a national needle-exchange programme in the USA\u2019. Lancet. 1997 Vol.349 pp.604-608."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-pro02b","title":"","text":"Tobacco and fatty foods are different. A balanced diet will include many food groups, including fats. Cigarettes, however, have no health benefits whatsoever.  While smoking is harmful at any level, \u201cjunk food\u201d in moderation has no resulting health problems [13] and there is no way to only tax people once they are consuming harmful amounts."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Other taxes try to change behaviour  Taxes that try to change people\u2019s behaviour on things that are not liked have been used since the 16th century, and are commonly applied to alcohol, smoking and gambling.  In the US, when cigarette prices went up 4%, use dropped by 10% [11]. As this worked with tobacco, which creates similar health problems to obesity, this tried and tested strategy can work.  Research has shown that when the price of unhealthy food goes up, people eat less of it [12]. A fat tax would make people healthier."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-pro03b","title":"","text":"What the tax would do is just make poorer people spend more on food by taxing them more.  Instead of making healthy food more accessible, it would just make all food less accessible \u2013 which wouldn\u2019t work. People who currently eat junk food may just continue to eat what they are used to. All that will happen is that people will spend more on food \u2013 not change what they eat, and it would be poor people who pay more."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-pro01a","title":"","text":"Being fat causes problems for everyone  Obesity causes huge medical costs - in the USA alone, around 150 billion dollars [6]. This is because obesity is linked to Type 2 Diabetes, cancer, heart problems, strokes, asthma and other medical problems.  Many of these diseases need lifelong treatment following expensive diagnosis, and often emergency treatment.  This not only has human effects, but causes problems for the economy due to being less productive at work and taking lots of medical leave. Due to obesity\u2019s costs (financial and otherwise) to society, it can\u2019t be considered as something that only affects individuals any more [7]."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-pro01b","title":"","text":"The USA is not a good place to take figures from as its health sector is very expensive and inefficient compared to most other countries [9]. If anything, that is getting worse.  It\u2019s not possible to say if the rising cost of healthcare is due to obesity related disease, as there are numerous other possibilities such as the risk of doctors being sued, an aging population, and spiraling drug costs.  Also, there are other lifestyle choices that can cause problems, for example eating meat can contribute to cancer [10], we should not single out one lifestyle choice that can cause problems over others."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-pro03a","title":"","text":"Unhealthy food is cheaper  A reason why people eat unhealthy foods is that it\u2019s often cheaper and easier than cooking something with fresh ingredients. Studies have shown that not only is junk food cheaper, its costs are less likely to increase due to inflation [14]. This was confirmed by research in Australia that showed that while healthy food became more expensive, junk food got cheaper [15].  Obesity is more common amongst poorer people. Because junk food is so cheap, it is eaten more. The best way to change this consumption pattern is to tax unhealthy food so that the healthy option is also the cheaper option."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-con03b","title":"","text":"A fat tax could be offset by subsidizing the price of healthier foods so that the overall food budget is unaffected. No one will be forcing the poor to pay this tax as the intention is to have them change their eating habits.  The families that would be affected by the tax most are those affected most by obesity related disease. Spending some money now on food would save a lot more later in health care. It will also make them more productive at work, meaning a better economy and hopefully higher wages to help compensate. [21]"}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-con01b","title":"","text":"This is a very limited view of government; today everyone agrees that the government should be allowed to tax things that harm us such as alcohol and tobacco. These, like fat, only indirectly harm others.  Attitudes towards fat are changing as the problem becomes much greater. It is now accepted that when people do things that harm others indirectly the government must have a role. The rise in healthcare costs creates just such costs by increasing the cost of the healthcare system as a whole which is either paid for by everyone through taxes or passed on through higher insurance premiums."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-con02a","title":"","text":"Such a tax would not work  A fat tax would only produce a slight change in behaviour. Research by the London School of Economics said that \u201cthose on the very poorest diets will continue to eat badly. [16]\u201d  People like fast fatty food because it is quick and tasty. Eating is something we need to do to live \u2013 it solves a specific need quickly, and people are happy to pay for it. [17]  Obesity has many causes. It is not something that can be solved with something as simple as a fat tax. Things like healthy food vending machines, more exercise and better education would be more effective in the long run."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-con03a","title":"","text":"Costs more to those who can\u2019t afford to pay  A fat tax will be a tax on poor people. It will hit the poorest, those who can least afford to pay it. It is the poorest who buy the cheapest food because they can\u2019t afford otherwise and who are least likely to have the kitchen equipment necessary to prepare healthy meals. Because it is what they know they will simply end up paying more taxes and having less money to spend on anything else. The result will be attempts to save by eating even worse food, or cutting back on some other necessity such as heating. [19]  The impact of rising food prices and concerns that the result would be turning to worse food is what stopped Romania from introducing such a tax in 2010. [20]"}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-con01a","title":"","text":"Free choice  It is the government\u2019s job to provide schools and courts not to tell people what to eat. The government should stop people harming each other. But it\u2019s not the government\u2019s job to tell people what to do to themselves. Consuming fatty food does not harm other so should not be subject to government control.  A fat tax would be like the government trying to prevent us from frivolous spending and getting into debt by being allowed to tax investments it considers to be bad."}
+{"id":"validation-health-dhwiftj-con02b","title":"","text":"Education campaigns, such as Jamie Oliver\u2019s campaign about school dinners to the Change for Life scheme are already being tried. They aren\u2019t working very well [18]. The only thing that really affects behaviour is cost \u2013 making unhealthy food expensive and healthy food cheaper."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro02b","title":"","text":"Does it really work? Efforts to include men is claimed to have failed in several districts across Uganda. Men remain skeptical of letting women use family planning; believing the planning the number of children a woman has is unnatural. Therefore women are vulnerable to abuse if such programs are used [1] .  [1] See further readings: Nangonzi, 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro02a","title":"","text":"Controlling domestic violence  By including men in family planning the ideas, and misconceptions, of what happens when women use family planning can be changed. Gender-based violence is a key concern that can be reduced by involving men in family planning decisions. If they buy into having fewer children then they are less likely to object to using contraception and condoms \u2013 something that has other potential benefits such as preventing STDs. The United Nations Development Fund for Women has found that one in four women is abused during pregnancy, teaching men about reproductive health and family planning can prevent this from happening.(International Women\u2019s Health Program)  Although evidence is limited the MAP (Men As Partners) program in South Africa showcases the positive effect of including men. The intervention is changing men\u2019s attitude and behaviors [1] .  [1] See further readings: Peacock and Levack, 2007; Engender Health, 2014."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro03b","title":"","text":"The idea of family planning is wrong; and it reflects the unequal power structures operating in society. Within African cultures families are polygamous, extended, and far from the \u2018normal\u2019 neutral family structure. Therefore by enforcing family planning we are failing to understand what the family is across Africa.  Family planning is simply seeking to limit choice about the structure of the family. Just including man and wife rather than any more extended family is itself encouraging a certain structure that not all Africans agree with or desire for their family."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Gender equality in family planning  By including men in family planning programs and the decisions made concerning family structures equality is enabled. The decisions made, and responsibilities, concerning the \u2018family\u2019 are no longer solely the burden of the woman. Men are provided with a voice, and therefore responsibility and obligation to act upon caring for the family.  By introducing men into family planning a platform is provided enabling negotiations on the family to be discussed between man and woman. Men are key actors in decisions made; therefore their inclusion is fundamental. This also means that the man is also much more likely to take on other responsibilities in terms of caring for the family or doing things the woman would have done in the past like collecting medicine (Wasswa, 2012)."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro01b","title":"","text":"Whether gender equality in family planning creates wider gender equality is questionable. Does gender equality emerge by including men in family planning, previously a predominantly female domain (the reproductive sphere), without changing gender structure? For example, what has actually changed? Presumably if the men wanted a say in how many or few children they had before they would have been listened to. Another question is whether the negotiation decisions, and outcomes, equal?  Gender equality requires changing what gender means; and how women, men, and sexuality are experienced. Can we talk about gender equality when socially constructed gender roles remain prevalent? Moreover is there a spillover effect? If there is not then women are simply ceding control over one area without a gain elsewhere; hardly good for equality. Gender equality is a right; therefore universal and it should count everywhere not just in the reproductive sphere."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro03a","title":"","text":"Involving men is the best way to ensure family planning works  By including men fast action can be taken to control the size, and growth, of families. The patriarchal power structures mean men have a key voice in household decisions. Therefore the involvement of men in family planning is enabling perceptions of what the family should be to change. The cost of raising a family is realized, and intervening methods are being used to have fewer children. Family planning means planning how one can cope with having a child \u2013 mentally, emotionally, financially, and physically, and sensitizing couples as to what kind of life standard they want. With the young generation of Ugandans a new culture of a smaller family can emerge [1] .  Men often have limited knowledge about family planning so it is necessary that they are included in learning and the transfer of knowledge (Kaida et al, 2005). When both partners are knowledgeable and involved family planning is far more likely to become a reality.  [1] Wasswa, 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con03b","title":"","text":"Reducing the cost of family planning; making more contraceptive resources and materials available around the clock; and distributing commodities to hospitals does not ensure access. There is no point increasing funding for programs that will not get used due to a lack of popularity or continued ideas of family planning and management. Improving the \u2018alternative essentials\u2019 can only work if those using reproductive resources are supported and in a patriarchal society this means needing the involvement of both men and women."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con01b","title":"","text":"By including men in family planning programs a new respect emerges towards sex and what men expect women to do. By being made aware of the reproductive costs and demands men are able to respect the bodies and choices of women. Women no longer become passive, but recognized and respected as having their own sexual desires, preferences, and constrains. Family planning does not suppress sexuality, if anything through encouraging the use of contraception and condoms encourages it."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con02a","title":"","text":"The need to include the wider family  Decisions on how big, or small, a family should be; and how it should be structured are not solely the decisions of husband and wife, or man and woman. Extended family members play a key role. For example, research carried out in Nigeria by Smith (2004) indicates decisions remain influenced by cultural norms and pressures. The pressure for a high fertility, amongst Igbo-speaking Nigerians, is shown to be a paradoxical factor of patron-clientalism and the culture of \u2018people power\u2019. High fertility and subsequent kinship networks enable state legibility, resource access, and the continuation of \u2018tradition\u2019. Elder family members aim to maintain traditions. A crucial distinction therefore emerges, as it is not simply a rational choice when it comes to family planning but rather influenced by political-economy factors and wider family demands. Therefore including men in Uganda does not necessarily allow an understanding of what role the wider family plays. Decisions on family planning are not simple, or always open for discussion."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con03a","title":"","text":"Alternative essentials  We should not be focusing on including men, but rather alternative essentials such as funding, resource distribution, and awareness. For example President\u2019s Museveni\u2019s recent commitment to raise government funding for family planning from 3.3 million to 5 million is vital [1] . Further, by improving the supply and distribution of contraception, into the health service sector, President Museveni has drawn attention to the financial constraints in family planning.  [1] Advance Family Planning, 2014."}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con01a","title":"","text":"Family planning is wrong: controlling sexuality  The idea of family planning involves controlling, and suppressing, sexuality. Sex becomes understood as purely a source for reproduction, and women and men in Africa (or Uganda) requiring control.  Additionally the \u2018normal\u2019 relationship is identified between man and women. Freedom to express sexuality is repressed by understanding sexuality as heterosexual. The idea of the family is maintained as a heterosexual reality"}
+{"id":"validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con02b","title":"","text":"When it comes to family planning the extended family has little power over intra-household decisions. Extended family members will not be attending clinic meetings, collecting contraception, or engaging in intimate action. The power in family planning returns to man and wife. Additionally, the inclusion of men into family planning will change ideas of reproduction for all. If men are included at all levels ideas will change, and overtime pressures will change. As all men and women learn about family planning they will become much more sympathetic to it within their extended family."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Most athletes can only compete at the elite level when they hit their peak. And the \u2018big\u2019 competitions, like the Olympics, don\u2019t come around very often.  So because a coach, in a team they\u2019re not part of, used harsh training methods, they now miss their only chance to compete in the highest competition possible and receive the biggest payout (in terms of wage and sponsorship) opportunity of their career.  Now, this may not weigh against the harm suffered by a beaten athlete, but when you multiply that number out and consider how many people you\u2019re taking this opportunity away from, the harms stack up."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro02a","title":"","text":"The suffering of those who are treated to harsh training outweighs banning the team  This ban is, admittedly, highly punitive and may be called harsh. It will punish hundreds of athletes and coaches who aren\u2019t implicated in cases of abuse. Yet, on a balance of harms, the disappointment those people feel can\u2019t be compared to the suffering of an athlete who is beaten and starved and conditioned into a mode of thinking where they accept this without putting up a fight.  According to Melanie Lang of Metropolitan University harsh and over intensive training \u201cremoves the element of fun that first attracts so many youngsters to sport. It can inhibit bone growth, cause physical and mental burnout and increase the potential for injury and dropout.\u201d [1] And worse the coercion can lead to injury and even death; American gymnast Christy Henrich became anorexic and as a result died weighing only 3st 5lb while Chinese gymnast Sang Lan was paralysed after being cajoled into attempting a vault. [2] It\u2019s more important to ensure all athletes can train in a safe environment free from physical and mental abuse, than it is to safeguard against the disappointment of professional athletes who want to compete. Given that there are major sporting events annually or bi-annually, usually, it\u2019s not as if those forced to miss out can\u2019t compete again soon.  [1] Cassidy, Sarah, \u2018Olympic swimming training \u2018too hard on young athletes\u2019, The Independent, 4 September 2008,   [2] \u2018Beijing Olympics: The Games are not child\u2019s play\u2019, The Telegraph, 16 August 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro03b","title":"","text":"This simply shows that it is the coaches that are to blame and therefore it is unfair to punish the athletes for what their coaches are persuading them to do. Young manipulatable, athletes do not necessarily know what their coaches responsibilities are and what should be considered abuse. Instead this is the responsibility of the coaching team who therefore are the ones who should be penalised."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Banning countries with harsh training measures from competing would be a strong deterrent  This measure introduces a strong deterrent against those who allow and facilitate abusive training methods.  Firstly, it incentivises national athletic and sporting bodies to diligently check the background of coaches before their employment and continue to investigate them throughout the year. It is now in the interest of every single member of national sporting bodies and teams to ensure abuse doesn\u2019t continue. In most it is currently in your interest to keep quiet, lest you risk disturbing the national programme or being ostracised by your federation.  As a result coaches are far less likely to think these training methods will help them achieve success. Since it could see their athletes banned from the competition and lose their medals it makes using harsh training methods an immense risk to take. It would also mean they\u2019re unlikely to ever get hired again if caught."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro01b","title":"","text":"This isn\u2019t necessarily true. Consider that currently coaches already are already disincentivised by the use of these training methods by the threat of losing their job. For example in South Korea fourteen Ice Skating coaches resigned after allegations of beatings. [1] Yet these practices continue.  Deterrents rarely work because people don\u2019t think they\u2019ll be caught, and focus on the short term benefit of what they are doing. For example, even if you explain to someone that smoking kills, they may still take a cigarette because they assume they won\u2019t be the one that gets cancer and so the short term benefit can be taken guilt free.  The kind of coaches who already think like this and risk their job are unlikely to change as a result of this proposal. In this case, coaches are unlikely to think they\u2019ll ever get caught, even if people like them are caught and punished, so they\u2019ll think it is pointless to abandon the training methods they think will guarantee them success.  [1] MacIntyre, Donald, \u2018Breaking the Ice\u2019, Time Magazine, 15 November 2004,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro04b","title":"","text":"First this is not all the responsibility of the IAAF to police; the same guidelines state \u201cAthletes must be instructed in health and safety practices and must bear a large degree of responsibility for their own welfare\u201d. [1] The IAAF has already passed laws about what constitutes \u2018proper training methods\u2019. [2] The IAAF has therefore done what it needs to do to protect athletes. This duty of responsibility does not extend to a right to impose collective punishment.  Most people wouldn\u2019t argue with the fact that we should try to reduce the amount of harsh training methods being used, where we can. The debate is about how appropriate and effective this punishment is. This policy may lead to less whistleblowing, while simultaneously punishing lots of athletes unfairly. So no matter how high the IAAF\u2019s moral burden is, this policy should not be enacted.  [1] \u201cPrincipals and Ethical Guidelines\u201d, IAAF,   [2] \u2018Principles of Training\u2019, International Association of Athletics Federations,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Athletes are vulnerable to their coaches  Athletes dedicate their lives to their sport and becoming the world\u2019s best at what they do. They are willing to put their body and minds through all sorts of punishment to do this. As such, they\u2019re not in a position to judge what is and isn\u2019t an acceptable training method. If they\u2019re told that starvation makes them more likely to win gold then their intense desire for Olympic glory often clouds their judgment and ability to make rational choices for themselves. Their coaches are authority figures who assumed to have their best interests in mind, and most athletes also assume their coaches know more than them about how to achieve glory. So, if a gymnastics coach tells her athlete that she needs to starve herself to win gold, the athlete will think themselves a bad athlete if they refuse. [1] This is shown by the long history of drug use in the Olympics where both coaches and athletes know it is wrong to use drugs but still do so in the hope it will bring them gold. [2]  Because of this, the IAFF has to make this decision for them. It also means that the chance of whistleblowing is low, since athletes cannot rationally consider whether the training methods are acceptable. So it has to set an incredibly punitive deterrent to make sure coaches aren\u2019t tempted to use a training method they probably won\u2019t be caught for.  [1] Harris, Paul, \u2018Secret world of a gymnast: starvation, sex and fear\u2019, The Observer, 27 April 2008,   [2] \u2018Historical Timeline History of Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports\u2019, ProCon.org, 28 February 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro04a","title":"","text":"The IAAF and the Athletics commission have the highest burden to protect their athletes.  Just as an employer has a responsibility to provide a safe working environment for their employees, the IAAF has a duty to provide a safe environment for their athletes. The sports medical team is responsible for \u2018preventing illness and injury\u2019, [1] clearly something that is caused by harsh training. As do all those who are involved in sports.  These athletes only exist in a professional capacity because bodies created the positions for the athletes to exist. If the world wants to pay people to perform and compete for them, then once that offer is made they have a moral duty to ensure that work is safe, since they are culpable in creating that work.  Moreover, we give the IAAF power in the promise that by giving up localised power of judgement over sport, they can better protect athletes and creating a fairer sporting environment.  Abusive training methods are a huge failure on the part of the IAAF and as such they must use the most powerful disincentive possible to them.  [1] \u201cPrincipals and Ethical Guidelines\u201d, IAAF,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con03b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s simply untrue to claim that \u2018unconnected athletes\u2019 have done nothing wrong. It is the responsibility of every member of the national team to ensure standards are met, because abuses only go tolerated so long as they are allowed by athletes and other coaches to continue. In the case of the victim if they did not whistleblow early then they clearly are responsible for allowing that abusive practice to continue. It is the victim who the harsh regime was supposed to benefit through driving them to glory and if they acquiesced to the treatment then this is likely the reason."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con01b","title":"","text":"Firstly, this argument assumes consent on the part of the athlete. That\u2019s somewhat unfair as most of these \u2018harsh\u2019 training camps are fairly secretive. We know this because even though the Karoyli\u2019s were called out, no punishment could be made due to the difficulty in obtaining conclusive evidence. So it is unlikely athletes really know what they\u2019re getting themselves into.  You can\u2019t consent to abuse, not like this, we wouldn\u2019t let you sign a contract to allow someone to starve you. Moreover, just because athletes would do anything to get gold, doesn\u2019t mean we should let them. Some people would happily sell an organ for money, but we stop them doing that and morally are right to do so. Individuals don\u2019t always know what\u2019s best for them, that\u2019s in-part, why the state exists."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con02a","title":"","text":"The policy is counter productive  If your goal is, ultimately, to reduce the amount of coaches using this method, this policy is massively counter-productive. For people to get punished, you need athletes to report abuse, this policy makes that less likely to happen.  The athletes being abused won\u2019t want to report their coaches as the abuse is happening, because that means they and their teammates all lose their chance at and competing in the biggest sporting stages which in turn is likely to reduce their chances of ever achieving glory or getting a big payday from sponsorship. It is already the case that sometimes whistleblowers suffer for calling time. In India Dr Sajib Nandi was first removed from his position as a medical officer and then beaten up as a result of whistleblowing about doping. [1] This policy simply makes the stakes and the risks of whistleblowing much higher.  At least now after they\u2019ve been abused athletes come out and report abuse. Why would an athlete do this under this policy? It damages their stock as they become the one responsible for shaming sport in their country. Also, they\u2019re likely to personally know and have training with people still on national programmes, so they\u2019re not going to want to ruin their friends chances of earning more and competing for the top prizes.  [1] NDTV Correspondent, \u2018Dope mess: Whistleblower doctor attacked, Sports Minister assures a meeting\u2019, NDTV Sports, 13 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con03a","title":"","text":"Collective punishment is unjust  Under this policy the victim is punished for the crimes of coach. This seems unfair, why should someone have their professional dream denied to them because somebody else did something wrong? Banning an entire nation from a sporting competition expands this, individuals with no or little attachment to cases of abuse will also be punished and suffer, when they have taken no steps that deserve punishment.  Punishments should fit the crime and this means punishing those who are responsible not innocents. It is right that the punishment should be harsh as it needs to deter coaches but this deterrent should be through steep penalties for the coach not for others."}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con01a","title":"","text":"Harsh training methods aren\u2019t necessarily abusive.  Consider that athletes already subject themselves to the kinds of environments that most people actively avoid, and would probably be considered \u2018harsh\u2019 by the average person. These routinely involve long days, week after week, often planned out years in advance, practicing special diets and routines [1] and in some countries this may mean being isolated from home and family for years at a time.  Athletes consent to having very harsh training in order to reach the prize, they\u2019re used to putting themselves in extreme discomfort to achieve their goal. To the average person these things may seem abusive but an athlete considers these physical and mental demands differently.  Communist teams used these kinds of training methods frequently and achieved lots of Olympic success, [2] why can\u2019t an athlete choose to emulate these methods in the pursuit of their professional and personal dreams?  [1] Dusen, Allison Van, \u2018How To Train Like An Olympian\u2019, Forbes, 8 July 2008,   [2] \u2018Olympics: planned economies and the need to succeed\u2019, euronews, 20 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con02b","title":"","text":"The reason athletes don\u2019t report the abuses is because they don\u2019t think the abuse is worse than losing their place on the team. This policy changes that by sending a strong message out. Athletes will attach the gravity of the punishment to the crime and might finally begin to understand that this kind of treatment is utterly unacceptable.  It\u2019s also fairly easy to get around the worry of being blamed for the repercussions by having anonymous tip-offs or witness protection.  The IAAF can compensate for lack of earnings too, but ultimately actually this potential makes abuse less likely to happen. If everyone knows what a risk using harsh methods is, then that\u2019s a good thing. Athletes will be less likely to take it and allow it to continue, and coaches won\u2019t want to risk using them.  Currently it\u2019s worth everyone\u2019s while to shut up and let abuse continue, these changes would mean the risk is too high to let that happen."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro02b","title":"","text":"Unlike hate speech or defamation, when some burns a flag no one is actually hurt. Some people may feel their sensibilities offended by such acts, but making people feel uncomfortable should not be illegal. The act of flag burning is in itself neutral. The direction of the message the act is meant to convey is what must be considered, not the act itself. Prohibiting flag burning is in this sense pointless. Furthermore, it should be within someone's rights to challenge the values of the nation and to destroy the symbol of those values as evidence of their disagreement. If people cannot challenge those values then society is not free at all."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro02a","title":"","text":"The First Amendment to the Constitution, which protects freedom of speech and expression, does not extend to particularly inflammatory types of speech and expression, which includes flag burning  Freedom of speech and expression is an important right, which is why it is listed first in the Bill of Rights; it is central to a fair and free democracy. However, it has limits. Some forms of speech are contrary to the values of democracy, namely when they infringe upon or violate the ability of others to enact their own rights and freedoms. This is why such things as incitement to hatred, other violence-promoting speech, as well as defamation and perjury are legislated against; they are expressions that infringe the rights of others, by causing fear and increasing risk of harm in case of hate speech, and by harming reputations and the effective administration of justice in terms of defamation and perjury respectively. Rights stop where harm to others begins. In the case of flag burning, as the dissenting opinion of Justice William Rehnquist on the issue says, the act is an extremely visceral one, and is often perceived as a direct attack on the core values of America itself, which many consider to be representative of those values, leading to feelings of anger and violation1. It is an infringement of these offended people's rights when flags are allowed to be burned.  1Goldstein, Robert. 2000. Flag Burning and Free Speech: The Case of Texas v. Johnson. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is exactly because of the visceral response it causes that flag burning is such an effective tool of protest. It draws media and public attention, thus giving the protestors the chance to speak to a wider audience than they might ever have been able to had they used other methods. While there might be some rhetorical backlash, it is not enough to make it not worthwhile. In the case of violent response, the ability to exercise a right should never be infringed by the potential for a violent response to its exercise. People's rights should be better protected in that case, not restricted."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro01a","title":"","text":"The flag of the United States is its primary symbol of nationhood, with a unique importance in the eyes of most Americans, and thus should be protected  When destroying the flag of the United States it is the values of the United States that are under attack. Since the birth of the nation the flag of the United States, the eponymous \"Star-Spangled Banner\", has been flown proudly in all parts of the country. It has become an endemic fixture in American culture and has come to be seen by people all over the United States, and the world, as a representation of the spirit and identity of nation. It appears on every seal of public office, is flown outside every public building and a flag-shaped pin is worn upon the breast of virtually every public figure. The flag has been imbued with a special significance by the citizens of the United States, and is viewed almost universally with extensive reverence1. It has come to be seen as emblematic of all the values and virtues of American society. In a way it is the physical sublimation of those values; at least that is how it is often treated. For this reason, to destroy the flag is to destroy the values they represent, and thus the flag must be protected in order to protect the values of the nation the flag represents.  1Miller, J. Anthony. 1997. Texas v. Johnson: The Flag Burning Case. Berkeley Heights: Enslow Publishers."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro01b","title":"","text":"The values of the United States are what should be protected, not the flag. One of those values is the upholding of freedom of speech and expression. The right to express ones views and opinions must be held inviolable to an extent. While there is a case for defamation and hate speech laws because they have a very real and direct impact on people, the flag is only important insofar as people ascribe meaning to it. It is foolish to make illegal a view contrary to the mainstream that may not value the flag so highly."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro04b","title":"","text":"Popular support is not reason enough to deny people their constitutionally protected rights. The framers of the Constitution were wary of popular opinion, having a justifiable fear that the majority might try to circumscribe the rights of the minority. This is why there are so many check and balances within the Constitution and is exactly why the Supreme Court has defended citizens' right to expression irrespective of the will of the legislature or of the majority of people to enforce their views upon a minority. Popular opinion should not concern fundamental rights."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro03a","title":"","text":"Flag burning does not serve as an effective method of conveying a message, since it is always met only with outrage and sometimes even violent public unrest  It is highly questionable whether burning a flag can be considered a speech or expressive act at all. It seems to offer up no new concepts or true opinions to the \"marketplace of ideas\". Nothing is genuinely expressed by the act that could not be done through words or other, less fiery means. The act of flag burning does nothing to help the advancement or elucidation of truth, which is why people have the right to freedom of expression in the first place. Rather, it clouds the issue supposedly being furthered by the act. It welcomes the rhetoric of \"un-Americanism\", whereby critics and commentators question the protestors' general patriotism, not the validity of their underlying cause, which can eventually lead to the same criticism of their cause itself. Anger clouds the discussion, with people viewing the cause in terms of unpatriotic people supporting the cause, and thus calling for patriots to oppose it. Examples of this problem can be seen clearly in the various protests during the Vietnam War in which misguided protestors burned flags to show their opposition to the war and killing of innocents. The response to these protests, however, were accusations of lack of patriotism on the parts of those involved and gave a powerful rhetorical tool to the political groups still supporting the fight1. Furthermore, when anger and rhetoric cloud all discussion of an issue, it can lead to unmeasured, even violent responses from authorities and concerned citizens. Flag burning is thus counterproductive as a tool of protest, since it stops the message being propagated and pollutes the forums of discourse from being able to search for answers reasonably.  1 Amar, Akhil. 1992. \"The Case of the Missing Amendments: R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul\". Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro04a","title":"","text":"The popular will calls for a prohibition of flag burning  All national polls conducted in the United States have shown a majority popular support for banning flag burning1. State and federal laws, passed by democratically elected representatives, have for decades passed popularly supported laws aimed at protecting the flag from desecration. The Supreme Court, however, has struck down these laws as being contrary to the rights to free speech, by a narrow 5-4 vote2. Yet popular support for such laws has not diminished. This has led to attempts to pass a Flag Desecration Amendment to the Constitution, which would then necessarily have to be accepted by the Court. In 2006, the House of Representatives passed such an amendment by the requisite supermajority, and it died in the Senate by only a single vote3. Clearly, the vast majority of citizens and legislators actively support legislation to protect the flag. Law should reflect the will of the people and prevent the desecration of the nation's most sacred symbol. Failing to do so gives precedence to the rights of a small minority to perform an act that does not hold any major sway over their lives over the democratic rights of the democratic public.  1 CNN. 2006. \"Flag-Burning Amendment Fails by a Vote\". CNN. 2Miller, J. Anthony. 1997. Texas v. Johnson: The Flag Burning Case. Berkeley Heights: Enslow Publishers. 3 Hulse, Carl and John Holusha. 2006. \"Amendment on Flag Burning Fails by One Vote in Senate\". The New York Times."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con03b","title":"","text":"Banning the burning of flags does not in any way ban opinions about the state or the ideals the flag represents. Arson is an essential tool in the quest for reform. Rather than using such methods that do more to offend than to inform, protestors should focus on actually starting measured discourse in a way that is not simply offensive."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con01b","title":"","text":"Burning a flag may grab attention, but it will invariably be attention of a kind unwanted by the ones doing the burning. If individuals desecrate a flag with the intent of gathering attention to their cause they will be disappointed when they see that public opinion is turned against them not because of their cause, but because of their methods. An attack on the flag is often seen, and is often portrayed in the media, as being an attack on America itself. For this reason flag burning is almost universally counterproductive to the furtherance of a cause, whether legal or not."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con02a","title":"","text":"The act of flag burning can be done for patriotic reasons, when an individual considers the government to be doing something unworthy of the national ideals represented by the national flag  Burning a flag may not be an act of \"un-Americanism\", in the sense of opposing widely held principles considered emblematic of the United States, at all in many cases. Often the flag can be burned as an act of patriotism. When individuals feel the state is doing something contrary to the ideals of the nation, and thus those that the flag represent, burning of a flag can be symbolic of the state's non-adherence to the values it is meant to defend1. The act of burning thus serves to connect the cause of the protestor to the very ideals of the nation, and shows that it is central to the discourse of what the nation's values are and how they should be maintained, rather than simply being the ancillary opinions of a few people that can simply be discarded.  1Welch, Michael. 2000. Flag Burning: Moral Panic and the Criminalization of Protest. Piscataway: Aldine Transaction."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con04a","title":"","text":"The right to free speech and expression must include the expression of ideas through means not shared by the majority, including flag burning  For society to be free and democratic it must have provision for the expression of views contrary to the mainstream, and even directly oppositional to it. This must furthermore extend to the means by which to convey such messages. Public disgust is certainly not justification enough to deny the right to expression. The exercise of a right can only be denied to someone when there is a direct harm to others by exercising that right. In terms of free speech, the words or expressions used by someone must result in actual harms to others, harms that outweigh the inherent harms of denying someone their rights, which is itself a kind of violation. No such harm exists in the case of flag burning1. Some people have an irrational attachment to the symbolic significance of the flag, but it should not be expected by law that everyone share that view. The flag, like all symbols of beliefs and groups, is not inviolable, nor is anyone's piece of mind or health so attached to its wellbeing that the desecration or defacing of it could cause any true harm. Furthermore, the patriotism of individuals watching a flag burning is not affected by it. This view is upheld, for example, by Supreme Court opinion in Texas v. Johnson, when the opinion argued that there could be no better response to a flag burning by someone opposed to such an action than waving their own flag or saluting and paying respect to the burning flag2. People can thus show their opposition peacefully without infringing the right of a protestor to burn a flag. Banning flag desecration on account of a sense of moral disgust, or of the threat to public order caused by angry counter-protestors, is the prohibition of an otherwise lawful act for the reason that others will commit crimes in response. Clearly, these are not justification for banning flag burning.  1Welch, Michael. 2000. Flag Burning: Moral Panic and the Criminalization of Protest. Piscataway: Aldine Transaction. 2Eisler, Kim. 1993. A Justice for All: William J. Brennan Jr. and the Decision that Transformed America. New York: Simon and Schuster."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con03a","title":"","text":"Banning flag burning effectively bans questioning of what it represents, and thus bans questioning of the widely held values of the United States  When an individual's views are particularly opposed and contrary to those the national flag is customarily considered to embody, there can be no more valuable way of showing opposition. Should views be judged outdated or in error, people must have a way of showing it in a visceral way that will gain attention and spark discourse. Conventional patriotic views deserve to be challenged, if only to be reaffirmed by the public in the ensuing debate. The problem with prohibiting the act of flag burning is that it necessarily sends the message of banning discourse on the subject of what the flag represents1. It makes those values inviolable, but a free society should be able to question and change its values. Banning flag burning thus essentially bans dissent from the prevailing view. Yet banning something on the basis of majority opinion and their easily offended sensibilities is little more than a heckler's charter. If views are banned simply because the majority disagrees with them, it is little more than the tyranny of the strong over the weak, and thus clearly unjust2. The very reason there are checks and balances in the United States government is to prevent such tyranny. This is exactly why the Supreme Court has stood against the laws passed by the federal and state legislatures banning desecration of the flag; they protect the rights of citizens with a minority opinion from the majority seeking them away3. Flag burning is a form of free speech that helps people question what the United States should be. Banning it only serves to corrupt society.  1Welch, Michael. 2000. Flag Burning: Moral Panic and the Criminalization of Protest. Piscataway: Aldine Transaction. 2Mill, John Stuart. 1859. On Liberty. London: Penguin Classics (1982). 3Eisler, Kim. 1993. A Justice for All: William J. Brennan Jr. and the Decision that Transformed America. New York: Simon and Schuster."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con01a","title":"","text":"The power of the act of flag burning generates considerable attention making it a very effective tool of expression and protest  Flag burning is such a powerful and useful method of protest for the very reason that it is a visceral expression to which many people will respond. Jarring statements grab attention, and force discourse on the issue1. A conventional protest can be overlooked, but images of a flag being burned immediately drags in media attention and starts a commentary. While some commentary does center on the issue of flag burning itself, it also necessarily brings it to the cause as well. When protesters are called to explain themselves, they get a chance to explain their views and promote their cause to a much wider audience than they might well not have been able to reach otherwise. Thus flag burning can be very valuable for gaining attention, and if done thoughtfully, to generate support.  1Epstein, Lee and Thomas Walker. 1998. Constitutional Law for a Changing America: Rights, Liberties, and Justice. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con04b","title":"","text":"The prevailing will of the majority can outweigh that of individuals with regard to free speech in some instances, namely when there is harm to people from the acts of individuals. Such is the case with things like hate speech, and certainly does so in the case of flag burning. This is because the American people have such a universal attachment to it that the desecration of the national flag is internalized as a personal attack on themselves. This is certainly a serious and real harm that makes the prohibition of flag burning entirely justified."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con02b","title":"","text":"Regardless of the reasons a protestor chooses to burn the flag, the act of burning is a violation of the nation's ideals and an attack upon the people who uphold them. No intelligent discourse is created regarding the behavior of the state when a flag is burned, but rather is simply counterproductive, as the state is able to declare the opinions of the protestors to be as unpatriotic as the act of burning a flag in protest itself, thus shifting public opinion against them."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is important not to confuse two issues. The ongoing \u2018Battle of the Brands\u2019 between, for example, Coke and Pepsi or McDonalds and Burger King are the focus of the sponsors. It really seems unlikely that the directors of McDonalds lose a lot of sleep over competition from a family butcher in Dorset. The problem has come because the butcher is caught in the crossfire. It\u2019s worth noting that that butcher has received the sort of media coverage that money really can\u2019t buy, so he\u2019s probably not complaining too much. It may have been wise to draft the legislation so that it only applied to companies of a certain size but, in reality, it only affects large-scale efforts to circumvent the rules. [i]  [i] London 2012: Organisers clarify rules on branded clothing for spectators. BBC website. 20 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro02a","title":"","text":"Those unable to respond will be worst hit  Smaller businesses and other organisations see their freedom of expression worst hit by laws that prevent them from associating themselves in any way with major events, to the detriment of their communities. Free speech is not relative or conditional and certainly should not be determined on the basis of the thickness of someone\u2019s chequebook. In this regard, freedom of information is a very real issue. Those organisations without access to huge legal departments are hardest hit, further disadvantaging them against corporations who can already outspend them on advertising. Free speech means that in the world of words and ideas, at least, there is an even playing field and undermining that runs against a sense of natural justice.  Sponsors are simply using this to increase an already fairly unfair advantage; many people supported Britain\u2019s bid for the games on the basis that it would offer great benefits to local businesses, legislation restricting their ability to use their geographical and cultural association with the event make that pledge look extremely hollow.  One of the noticeable failings of the Games is just how little positive impact they have had for small business in East London where most of the events are being held added to this, 62% of small businesses think the games will have no impact while 25% believe the impact will be negative [i] and business outside the capital have actually suffered as a result [ii] .  The major sponsors already went into this situation with massive advantages over small traders who had the sole advantage of the geographical proximity to the events. The idea that, for example, Coca Cola can prevent street vendors in the Olympic Village from selling Pepsi is absurd. Coke isn\u2019t planning to make their money back on direct sales of their product around venues but on the prestige it brings them as a global brand.  [i] FSB News Release, \u2018Olympics legacy will be damp squib for small firms\u2019, Federation of Small Businesses, 9 January 2011.  [ii] Now Retailers Outside London Suffer From Olympics Effect. Simon Neville. The Guardian. 3 August 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro03b","title":"","text":"This is clearly not the same as buying a gene as the timescales are quite different. These are not words sold off in perpetuity, neither were they previously in use by someone else as was the case with land grabs by colonizing settlers. This is a description of an event that would not have taken place without the sponsorship for the duration of that event. Both of the other examples are of the permanent acquisition of something that was previously communal property."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro01a","title":"","text":"Governments and corporations have been complicit in an effective \u2018privatization of language\u2019.  Recent developments in IP legislation, particularly in the UK, have given corporations a carte blanche with regards to protecting their claim on associations with events they are sponsoring. The Olympics, for example, has required vastly more investment from the taxpayer than from any sponsor [i] [ii] and yet those very taxpayers have been prevented from using associations with the event to their advantage. The build-up to the games saw the international media full of stories of small businesses and others banned from using the logo or name of the games for their own advantage [iii] . Sponsors may have ploughed in millions but the taxpayers has invested billions, many of them will see precious little return on that investment and this is exacerbated by the official sponsors buying those terms. Effectively government has conspired with corporations to own chunks of language which morally, linguistically and financially can be said to belong to the public.  Nobody would challenge the right of sponsors to proudly promote their bought association with an event they are sponsoring and to use all of the means at their disposal to declare that association to the world, which they have done. However, there is a world of difference between the positive right to proclaim a particular association and the negative right to prevent anyone else from proclaiming theirs. Of course sponsorship should provide bragging rights and privileged access but that is a world away from buying the silence of others.  [i] London 2012 Olympic Sponsors List: Who Are They And What Have They Paid? Simon Rogers. The Guardian. 19 July 2012.  [ii] London Olympics Could Cost Taxpayer $17Bn. Fred Drier. Forbes Magazine. 10 March 2012.  [iii] Even Sausage Rings Are Put on The Chopping Block. Jere Longman. New York Times. 24 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is a massive overstatement to say that recent events are equivalent to the privatization of language. Were people to be charged every time they used the word \u201cOlympic\u201d, say, that would look like the privatisation of language, this is merely sponsors protecting the association with an event that they paid for in the first place.  Additionally, to portray this as a conspiracy raises the question of, \u201cTo what end?\u201d Government works with major organisations as partners all the time, precisely because it saves the taxpayer money to do so. Although the taxpayer has footed a significant bill for the games, it would have been that much larger without sponsors and it is the taxpayer, not the sponsors, who receive the infrastructural benefits, which is what they paid for. The sponsors receive promotion for their brands, which is what they paid for. It\u2019s a simple quid pro quo. Other companies trying to muscle in on the act have paid for nothing \u2013 and that is just what they should get. [i] .  [i] London 2012. Olympic Legacy Website."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro03a","title":"","text":"This creates a dangerous precedent  The idea that corporations can, effectively, buy words and phrases set a pernicious precedent similar to their ability to own genes. There are certain things that, self-evidently, are the property of the people. They are held in common and in trust for future generations. They cannot be sold because they are not owned. Attempts to evade that reality have, generally, been seen as pernicious by history \u2013 even where they have not been rectified. European settlers laying claim to land used by indigenous people would be one example.  Recent attempts by pharmaceutical companies to purchase genes [i] and now other Corporations to own chunks of the language \u2013 or at least rent them from governments and NGOs that also don\u2019t own them in the first place - seems to come in a similar spirit.  Who can reasonably be said to own, for example, the phrase \u201cLondon 2012\u201d? If anybody could make such a claim, Londoners living in the city in 2012 would seem to be the obvious answer. However, there is a far more satisfying answer that nobody does.  The London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006 extends the scope of protection given to the Olympic and Paralympic Games by making it an infringement of the \u201cLondon Olympic Association Right\u201d (LOAR) to do anything which is \u201clikely to create in the public mind an association\u201d with the London Olympics [ii] . [iii]  The fact that this is happening in relation to the Olympics makes the precedent particularly troubling as the idea that the Games are for all mankind is at the heart of the Olympic ideal. It is an aspiration of our common humanity and all that entails. If chunks of that are for sale then it raises very real concerns about what else could go under the hammer.  [i] Noonan, Kevin ed., \u2018This House would allow the patenting of genes\u2019, Debatabase, 2011.  [ii] International Trademark Association.  [iii] Davies, Malcolm, \u2018Intellectual Property and the London 2012 Olympic Games - What businesses need to know\u2019, Intellectual Property Office, November 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con03b","title":"","text":"All of the other inconveniences mentioned by Opposition have been mitigated as much as possible by the organisers. For example local government and transport bodies have been providing advice and encouragement on arranging different routes and minimizing the need to travel at all for months in advance of the games. In this matter however, the organizers and elected officials have come down firmly on the side of sponsors. The very inconveniences outlined by Opposition are already hurting some traders as people choose to work from home or take the opportunity to leave the city altogether. Denying those traders every opportunity to recoup the lost revenue from their regular clientele is, as a result, doubly unfair."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con01b","title":"","text":"It would be nice to think that, at least at some level, sponsors offer sponsorship out of a desire to give something back to the customers who create vast profits for them but perhaps that is na\u00efve. Ultimately, however, this exercise in ownership has been counter-productive. It would be difficult to imagine an \u2018ambush advertising\u2019 action that would come close to inflicting the damage on corporate reputations that the bad press surrounding this issue has generated. From the point of view of sponsors, this was a real example of the best getting in the way of the good. The net result has been that nobody has benefitted as they could have if the sponsors had not been so set on exclusivity of association."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con02a","title":"","text":"There is a clear difference between protecting commercial interests in terms of association with a sponsored event and \u2018owning words\u2019.  It would be both illegal and impractical for a sponsor to \u2018buy\u2019 the word \u201cLondon\u201d. The rules make it clear that they are not attempting to infringe on, for example, the right of journalists to report the Games nor on people to discuss them. A simple Google search will bring up thousands of articles \u2013 like this one \u2013 using the Olympic rings, the phrase \u201cLondon 2012\u201d and many of the others words and phrases that concern Proposition. At no point have the news organisations concerned been asked to pay. There is clearly a world of difference between an existing magazine running a feature about the event \u2013 indeed several features \u2013 and the creation of a one-off special publication stuffed full of advertising for a direct competitor of the event.  An equivalent would be paying for a meal in a restaurant only to see that everyone else was eating for free. That is the infringement of natural justice. Sponsors have paid to have a certain association with the Games and it is both fair and reasonable that they should get that association in a way that does not allow their competitors to get a free lunch.  It is ridiculous to suggest that this is tantamount to \u2018owning words\u2019 as Proposition has done. To start with the preclusions cited here are temporary, additionally they are only in reference to this event. It would seem to be in everyone\u2019s interest for sponsorship of sport and the arts to continue, for that to happen, they sponsors need to get something in return."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con03a","title":"","text":"Sponsorship is necessary to host major sporting events  It is in the interests of communities and countries to attract sponsorship for events on this scale, as with other areas, such as transport, that requires a little sacrifice. Hosting major events, inevitably, requires some degree of inconvenience for those living in the area trying to go about their daily lives. These inconveniences are tolerated because there are wider benefits. In the instance of the Olympics, a core part of the initial bid was the assumption that hosting them would produce long term benefits for the city in the form of tourism [i] and regeneration. [ii] Whether that proves to be the case remains to be seen although, given the number of historic venues used for events [iii] , it doesn\u2019t seem unreasonable to suppose that it may be likely.  To ensure these future benefits, there is an understanding that there will be some disruption caused and some inconvenience, allowing sponsors a degree of autonomy is comparable to that inconvenience.  LOCOG argues without the sponsors \u201cinvestment the Games wouldn\u2019t happen.\u201d [iv] Without the Games the future benefits wouldn\u2019t happen \u2013 quite the reverse if they simply fell apart after the bid had been won. The smaller traders who feel aggrieved now are exactly the people who will benefit for years to come as people make use of the new facilities or see London as a tourist destination they would not otherwise have considered. It\u2019s a simple quid pro quo.  [i] Woodman, Peter, \u2018London 2012: Olympic boost to retailers and tourism new figures show\u2019, The Independent, 6 August 2012.  [ii] \u2018Regeneration and economic growth Olympics legacy\u2019, Communities and Local Government, accessed 9th August 2012  [iii] London Olympics: Some Events Set Amid Historic City Landmarks. LA Times. 27 July 2012.  [iv] London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Limited, \u2018Rule 40 Guidelines\u2019, July 2011, p.6."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con01a","title":"","text":"Sponsors pay for the privilege  Sponsors pay an enormous amount of money to support events such as the Olympics, it is only fair that they can protect themselves against \u2018ambush advertising\u2019 by competitors. This is an issue of simple financial reality. Although there have been some unpleasant \u2013 and probably unwise \u2013 accounts of smaller traders getting caught up in the crossfire, and opposition concedes that should be rectified in future events \u2013 the purpose of this kind of legislation and the regulations it spawns is to prevent direct competitors of sponsors finding ways to ambush the event [i] .  The issue of concern is not really a lone athletics fan wandering into the final of the Men\u2019s 100m with a can of Pepsi. The intention is clearly to prevent representatives of that company standing outside the venue handing out thousands of free T-shirts.  There have been some problems with the implementation of this legislation but the principle remains sound and serves to the benefit of all. The alternative would be both Coke and Pepsi reps handing out T-shirts outside and the organisers of the event not getting a penny from either. It is only fair that those who pay the piper to a certain extent get to call the tune.  [i] London 2012: Coe Sparks Olympic Sponsorship Row. Shiv Malik. The Guardian. 20 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con02b","title":"","text":"There are examples of Journalists running foul the Olympics and its partners. The most famous being Guy Adams, whose Twitter account was suspended following criticism of NBCUniversal\u2019s coverage of the event. Although NBC are a media partner rather than a sponsor, they paid $1.8bn for the media rights and the principles of belligerent protectionism would still seem to apply [i] . Even if it is just for the duration of the Games, even if it is for one day of them, or one minute of them, this would still be an attack on the freedom of speech of the individuals concerned. By its nature, freedom of speech is indivisible, we either have it or we don\u2019t; the pretence that it is possible to say that \u2018people are free to say whatever they like, apart from this\u2019 completely misses that point.  [i] Journalists Twitter Account Restored After Suspension. BBC Website. 30 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro02b","title":"","text":"Let us say, for the sake of argument that the opposition had tabled a motion of impeachment \u2013 which would have even less impact in the long run. Would it still be inappropriate to report? What if the allegation were corruption, a partisan approach in Mexico\u2019s interminable and bloody drug wars? Would it still not be correct to report it?  Clearly something which is widely discussed in political circles and, if true, would have grave implications for the political direction of the country should be reported. Aristegui did so with all of the tact and professionalism available."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro02a","title":"","text":"Aristegui was fairly obviously played by the opposition; she should not have provided the coverage they desired.  Opposition parties in every democracy in the world produce stories or actions calling on those in power to do or say something ridiculous or making unfounded allegations just to get some coverage and damage their opponent\u2019s credibility. Viewers and readers expect journalist to use their professional judgement in choosing where to give real stories the oxygen of publicity and when to ignore something as a publicity stunt. Unfurling banners in parliament is clearly the latter.  As a result journalists are able to present their audience with something they have good reason to believe is true. Instead Aristegui, effectively, came up with \u201cwell, some people said these, it might be true, it might not, someone should find out.\u201d That \u2018someone\u2019 should have been her.  An equivalent would be the difference between sharing some gossip about someone at work with a colleague and sending a memo about it to that person\u2019s boss [i] .  By mentioning this at all on air, the rumour is given credibility that it did not deserve and the President\u2019s reputation was unfairly sullied.  [i] William Booth (Washington Post). Mexico buzzes over Calderon\u2019s alleged drinking. Printed in the San Francisco Chronicle. 12 February 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro03b","title":"","text":"The three examples prop cites come from a quite different period in history. President Sarkozy\u2019s personal life, in contrast to his predecessors, received massive scrutiny in the domestic and international press.  Furthermore, alcoholism is a rather different case to measles if, as has been alleged online, Calder\u00f3n has been drunk to the point of incapacitation at official functions, that impacts on the image of Mexico in the world. This can be shown by the laughing stock that Boris Yeltsin became around the world. [i] It should also be noted that the President having a relatively minor ailment may have been an issue as his secretary highlighted in response to the allegations \"During the four years of his administration, he has never missed any event because of health problems\". [ii]  [i] BBC News, \u2018Boris Yeltsin: Master of surprise\u2019, 31 December 1999  [ii] Booth, William, \u2018Respected Mexican journalist fired for addressing Calderon drinking rumor\u2019, Washington Post, 11 February 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro01a","title":"","text":"The journalist in question failed to produce any evidence that this affected Calder\u00f3n\u2019s job performance.  There is no public interest issue here, otherwise that would have been the main thrust of the story, moreover other news media would have picked up on the story as well. Instead this is a simple case of intrusion into a public figure\u2019s private life, apparently for no reason other than it being a fairly easy story. This is exactly the kind of story that a reasonable distinction between public and private issues is meant to avoid. There is was evidence of alcoholism by President Calderon presented by the banner waving opposition [i] so a good journalist should have either found evidence as if it was affecting Calderon\u2019s ability to govern then there would be evidence that could be found or else she should have dropped the story rather than reporting rumour and insinuation.  The fact that by doing so she endangered not only her own reputation with the president\u2019s office but that of the show and the company clearly makes it a disciplinary matter. Intruding on anyone\u2019s private life unnecessarily is unpleasant invading the privacy of a figure with whom one is likely to need to work in the future is professional stupidity.  On both of these grounds, this particular intrusion was unnecessary. This has nothing to do with Aristegui\u2019s freedom of speech and everything to do with Calder\u00f3n\u2019s right to privacy [ii] .  [i] Booth, William, \u2018Respected Mexican journalist fired for addressing Calderon drinking rumor\u2019, Washington Post, 11 February 2011  [ii] Fox news website. Mexican president denies rumoured drinking problems. 10 February 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro01b","title":"","text":"It has to be accepted that a person accepts a certain loss of privacy when they stand for office. Beyond that, the issue at stake here is not whether this is good or bad journalism but whether it is journalism. By any reasonable definition a protest staged by leading members of the national legislature and concerning the character of the president would seem to qualify. As Aristegui herself argues \u201cThe health status and degree of equilibrium of a president is a matter of clear public interest.\u201d [i]  [i] Booth, William, \u2018Respected Mexican journalist fired for addressing Calderon drinking rumor\u2019, Washington Post, 11 February 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro03a","title":"","text":"Alcoholism is a disease, if the story was that the president had measles, it wouldn\u2019t have got a mention.  Let\u2019s take an historical example of the \u2018well-being of the head or state\u2019 in \u2018democracies around the world\u2019. A majority of US citizens were unaware that FDR was wheel chair bound \u2013 even after his death. [i] The fact the Churchill hit the bottle early in the morning was never mentioned to voters in the UK, even at their \u201cdarkest hour\u201d, and still remains a matter of debate. [ii] The French have long ignored the streams of mistresses wandering in and out of the \u00c9lys\u00e9e Palace throughout the history of the Fifth Republic. [iii]  All of these things were well known by the journalists of their time but there was no need for the story to be revealed. The allegation of the opposition was that Calder\u00f3n was a drunk, this then became a suggestion that he was an alcoholic \u2013 they\u2019re different things. This rather suggests that now research at all was undertaken into the allegation but that a slur was repeated as though it were news.  Because of popular confusion between the two, it was repeated, presumably, because it was salacious. Hardly the highest standards of journalism [iv] .  [i] Anderson, Stacy, \u2018FDR made 'tacit agreement' with public about disability\u2019, The University Record Online  [ii] Richards, Michael, \u2018Alcohol Abuser\u2019, The Churchill Centre and Museum at the Churchill War Rooms, London, 19 January 2009  [iii] Rocco, Fiammetta, \u2018Widows in weeds, mourning mistresses - plus ca change to the French\u2019, The Independent, 14 January 1996  [iv] UK National Union of Journalists (NUJ) Code of Conduct. The NUJ code is widely seen by British journalists as the final word on journalistic ethics. It is also widely ignored in practice."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con03b","title":"","text":"All political hothouses are rife with gossip \u2013 usually directed upwards. It\u2019s usually not given credence by being repeated by an experienced journalist who should know better. Perhaps she was having a bad day, perhaps it was a momentary lapse of judgement, perhaps there was just nothing else happening that day but it was a pretty foolish thing to say on national television and tarnished both her reputation and that of Calder\u00f3n."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con01b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s not a news story, it\u2019s a stunt. A news story would have required the journalist in question to do some work and either substantiate their claims or disprove them. Either could be done by finding evidence of wrongdoing by the president or skulduggery by the legislators. For example \u201cOpposition resort to baseless claim in political fights\u201d would also be a significant story if it were backed up with evidence.  As the story was presented, it was just speculation put in the national media in the full knowledge that mud gets stickier and dirtier the less material it has inside it [i] .  The point about the Paxman incident, as was later demonstrated, is that it was true \u2013 and the journalist in question knew it and could prove it.  [i] Guillermo Gustavo P\u00e9rez Lara. El president Felipe Calder\u00f3n, el alcohol y sus secuelas. Suite 101: Pol\u00edtica y Sociedad. 8 February 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con02a","title":"","text":"The job of the reporter is to report the news not to decide what is news and what isn\u2019t.  Any political reporter has a duty, first and foremost, to report on the issues being discussed by political leaders on all sides. The whole point of a democracy is that the people get to chose what and who they believe. The electorate in many countries have proven themselves remarkably willing to turn a blind eye to the peccadilloes of politicians as long as unemployment is low, wages are on the rise and housing is affordable. So for example the electorate ignored Tony Blair\u2019s daliances with the property market and famously Bill Clinton was reelected despite already being plagued by scandals and reached his highest approval ratings after the Lewinski scandal. [i]  However, others will make decisions on the basis of the perceived character of the candidate or elected official [ii] . Many politicians are keen for the virtuous aspects of their private lives \u2013 families, personal achievements, sportsmanlike activities \u2013 to be shared with a usually uninterested public, it seems only reasonable that their inner demons should enjoy the same publicity has the angels on their shoulders.  Aristegui was doing her job to the letter \u2013 reporting the issues exercising the political class of the day and leaving it to the voters to decide what mattered to them and what did not.  [i] \u2018Poll: Clinton\u2019s approval rating up in wake of impeachment\u2019, CNN.com, 20 December 1998  [ii] Matthew D\u2019Ancona. Politics in this age of austerity will be a contest of character. The Daily Telegraph. 12 May 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con03a","title":"","text":"Even accusations affects reputations and therefore ability to do the job  Even if this were only gossip, the fact that the perception existed that the president was an alcoholic would affect how other politicians interacted with him \u2013 it is, therefore, a matter for public concern. [i] National leaders are left politically weakened by plenty of things that aren\u2019t true. They are further undermined by things that are true but apparently trivial if they are kept secret. If that is actually what members of congress believe then it will affect their interaction with the president. By contrast, if that is not what they truly believe, then it speaks a great deal to their character that they are willing to resort to the politics of the gutter. Either way Mexicans have a reasonable right to know that the argument is going on.  Aristegui did just that. It is far more worrying that a news organization would even consider dismissing her for doing her job \u2013 presumably because it inconvenienced or embarrassed someone powerful [ii] .  [i] Seymour-Ure, Colin, \u2018Rumour and politics\u2019, Politics, Vol.17, No.2, 1982, pp.1-9  [ii] Kate Katharine Ferguson. Column: Politicians\u2019 private lives make a difference. We should pay attention. Thejournal.ie. 1 August 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con01a","title":"","text":"The protest by the opposition was a news story in its own right.  A protest by opposition members of parliament alleging behaviour unbecoming of the office of president is clearly a news story. They have the right to say it \u2013 and the media should report it as just that; a claim made by the opposition. A protest with a large banner unfurled would make the news in almost any country.  The British journalist Jeremy Paxman confronted newly elected Liberal Democrat leader Charles Kennedy over his drinking. Much of the media feigned outrage over the action right the way up until he was dumped by his party \u2013 as a result of drinking too much. [i]  There is a myth that it\u2019s okay for a privileged few within the professional elites of politics and journalism to know these details about leading politicians but their constituents, the people who ultimately employ them and whose lives they control should be left in the dark that their representative is an addict.  Most people wouldn\u2019t hire a plumber who was known to have a drink problem, why should they be expected to hire a parliamentarian or president in the same situation.  [i] Campbell, Menzies, \u2018How drink destroyed Charles Kennedy, by Menzies Campbell\u2019, 14 February 2008"}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con02b","title":"","text":"This is simply untrue; journalists decide what counts as news all the time. It\u2019s called professional judgement. Indeed, it\u2019s what they\u2019re paid to do \u2013 sift through what is idle gossip and speculation and discover what is both true and relevant. That\u2019s why we trust newspapers and broadcasters of record and have less time for scandal-sheets.  In this incident, the reporter didn\u2019t just say that a protest had happened, she gave it credibility by commenting on it, despite the fact that she had no proof."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Blasphemy laws are unlikely to promote social harmony as readily as the proposition side claims they will. Accusations of blasphemy can enflame tensions between antagonistic groups. Telling people they no longer have recourse to words to voice their disagreements and discontentment might push them to resort to violence instead. Communities with diverging beliefs are unlikely to engage in discussion and negotiation if statements aimed at promoting peace can easily be used to launch expensive libel prosecutions. Exchanges and debates between different communities will not take place if participants fear that they might be arrested if an audience member choses to take offence at their words.  Anti-blasphemy laws would undoubtedly control group violence of the sort that followed the publication of the \u201cMohammed cartoons\u201d. But they would also spur further social division, and deepen misunderstandings about religion. Anti-blasphemy laws would remove debate on religion from the public sphere and leave both bigots and zealots to propagate their distorted interpretations of religious belief unchallenged in private. To the case more simply, debate and discussion on the nature of religion and the nature of the sacred will always occur. Even if the proposition side successfully extend hate speech laws to encompass blasphemy, they will not be able to prevent private discussion these concepts without abolishing democracy wholesale and advocating the creation of a surveillance state. A blasphemy law would only serve to prevent groups with differing ideas from being brought together to engage in debate and conversation. Contact between groups would cease, because of concerns that allegations of blasphemy might lead, at the very least, to unwelcome and intrusive police and prosecutorial investigations. But discussion of controversial ideas about other faiths would continue. In the absence of dissenting voices, closed and concealed dialog would be vulnerable to manipulation and inaccuracies.  While words can be powerful it is preferable to allow people to speak freely, even if what is said is not always constructive. The alternative is to make the courts and justice system complicit in creating a culture of victimhood and vexatious litigation.  Debate is also likely to suffer under this mechanism. By allowing a group that has been the target of a religious slur to feel victimised and justified in deploying the force of law against their opponents, we disincentivise these same religions from engaging with blasphemers and offering clear and robust justifications for the offence they feel.  The argument that blasphemy laws would bring different parts of society together is nonsense; firstly such laws tend to favour the largest religion in a society which would be to the detriment of minorities but also just because certain discourse is blocked does not mean that individuals will inherently become more educated about other cultures and beliefs. This is the case for example in Pakistan where minorities are rarely protected by blasphemy laws and are often persecuted by it, buts being a member of the Ahmadi sect is synonymous with being blasphemous to Islam and without having to prove intent the law is therefore used to persecute them and other minorities. (Mehmood, \u2018Pakistan blasphemy laws retake center stage\u2019, 2011)"}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Social cohesion and hate speech  Laws combating discrimination- such as the blasphemy law that the proposition side are advocating- promote social cohesion and stability, both important policy objectives in increasingly mobile and cosmopolitan societies.  The United Nations General Assembly in 2006 argued \u201cdefamation of religions is among the causes of social disharmony and leads to violations of human rights.\u201d (United Nations General Assembly, \u2018Combating defamation of religions\u2019, 2006). Coexistence between communities with radically different creeds, values and viewpoints needs to be carefully supervised in multi-cultural societies. Too often the uncertainty that accompanies migrant life can serve to inspire to give too much credence to the views of zealots and fundamentalists. To prevent communities deliberately isolating themselves from their neighbours; to prevent communal violence, it is necessary for the state to create an environment in which disputes can be resolved by impartial and properly trained prosecutorial authorities. Discrimination laws are instrumental to building peaceful social realities. They signify a welcoming society, in which it is unacceptable to offend entire segments of the population by debasing what they hold most precious.  Blasphemous statements have a power that reaches far beyond \u201cordinary\u201d hate speech. Acts covered by this law would include intentionally provocative publications such as the cartoons of the prophet Mohammed that featured prominently in a Danish newspaper in 2005. These images led to widespread protests and violence in both western states and majority Muslim countries. The offensive content of the cartoons gave credence and legitimacy to sects and clerics espousing absolutist ideas that have no space for compromise or understanding. Further, the protests also brought individuals who would ordinarily have considered themselves moderates into contact with violent extremists. Neither of these outcomes does anything to promote a culture of free and frank discussion within the societies affected.  The legal measures that side proposition supports do not oblige free thinkers to remain silent in the face of zealotry and bigotry. However, they does require writers, journalists and artists to apply their reason and their sense to content that they want to publish for mass consumption. Much like laws that prevent the negligent operation of businesses, anti-blasphemy laws would set a minimal standard of responsible conduct in order to ensure that publications did not cause a dangerous level of offense to significant numbers ordinary and rational religious believers. Legal definitions and enforcement of standards of responsibility do not preclude individuals from pursuing dangerous or entrepreneurial business ventures or public works. They need not prevent the creation of controversial and challenging forms of free expression either."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Blasphemy a free expression  Blasphemy cannot be shielded by the rationale which is used to defend freedom of speech. Blasphemy constitutes an attack on the religion it is targeted at. Beyond its ability to shock and offend, blasphemy exposes religious believers to ridicule, and perpetuates lies and falsehoods about their faith. Moreover, blasphemy also drives conflict and exclusion within particular faiths, deepening schismatic divisions and encouraging believers to become more hostile to those who do not share their religion.  Blasphemy occupies a distinctly different position in public debate and discussion than civil, respectful discourse about religion. The forms of blasphemy law that were maintained in the legal systems of western liberal democracies throughout the twentieth century criminalised only the most extreme and intentionally provocative forms of religious expression \u2013 images of religious figures involved in humiliating or sexualised scenarios; statements about a religion that amounted to hate speech; and words that were intended to mislead and deceive the na\u00efve, credulous or doubting. The English blasphemy case of R v Boulter drew on the conclusions of the sixth report of the commissioners on criminal law, which had observed that a criminal charge could only arise when \u201cirreligion\u201d took the form of an \u201cinsult to God and man\u201d. The judge in the case remarked that \u201cif the decencies of controversy are observed, even the fundamentals of religion may be attacked with tout the writer being guilty of blasphemy.\u201d  Ruling in the case of Whitehouse v Lemon, heard in 1977, a senior English judge remarked that blasphemous libel, although thought to have fallen into disuse and irrelevance remained useful in safeguarding \u201cthe internal tranquillity of the kingdom.\u201d This principle appears to be an antecedent to the public order justification for hate speech legislation \u2013 speech that spurs people to commit violent or disruptive acts should be curtailed to protect public safety. That case restated the idea that \u201cIt is not blasphemous to speak or publish opinions hostile to the Christian religion, or to deny the existence of God, if the publication is couched in decent in temperate language.\u201d  This is the sense in which the proposition side will discuss the term \u201cblasphemous\u201d. The proposition side does not intend to limit free speech, but has every intention of ensuring that free speech is not undermined or delegitimised by allowing the unobstructed broadcasting of hateful and provocative statements. We protect freedom of speech in our society not as a good in and of itself, but because through debate of even the most improbable propositions, socially valuable ideas may emerge and concerns that might otherwise be hidden can be expressed. By contrast, language aimed solely at offense has no redeeming value and does not contribute to any wider exchange of ideas and concerns. Blasphemy does not appeal to reason, and by being directly exclusionary and offensive, it limits that ability of believers and non-believers to engage in structured debate."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Blasphemy can be a valuable act of expression. It is misleading to try and conflate blasphemous statements with statements that lack intellectual merit, are bigoted or hateful. The proposition side attempt to exclude \u201cdecent and temperate\u201d questioning of religious values from the scope of anti-blasphemy laws, but they fail to recognise that language is a broad, imprecise and malleable tool. Words that may be understood as temperate and even-handed by one speaker may deeply shock another. Even a simple and plainly stated denial of God\u2019s existence was interpreted as tantamount to blasphemy by the early liberal philosopher John Locke. Locke saw acceptance of the core truths of the Christian bible as being a vital indicator of and individual\u2019s trustworthiness and willingness to comply with social norms.  It is easy to envision scenarios in which adherents of certain religions may find any attempt to dispute the historical and philosophical foundations of their faith deeply offensive, no matter how calmly and respectfully the dissenting position is communicated. Discussions of natural selection have become one such battleground. Despite the measures taken by philosophers and scientists to highlight the compatibility between religious faith and scientifically informed ontologies, despite the measured and carefully regulated court cases that have been used to decide this issue, many Christians regard discussion and teaching of evolution as part of natural history threatening and offensive.  Even irreverent humour or mockery can sometimes be used to make valid and useful observations about the structure and values of religions. For example, the act of angering someone by ridiculing their deity, or the tenets of their faith, could make the point that a particular religion is closed-minded or too hidebound. Important aspects of our characters are revealed when we are invited to adopt aggressive or defensive attitudes. It is not for a government to decide whether blasphemous statements contribute to social discourse; it is up to the individuals engaged in that exchange. It is not acceptable, in the absence of an intention to expose a particular group of people to a real risk of physical harm, to allow debate and free speech to be curtailed by the use of legal force.  The meaning of words need not be plain and obvious, either. Implication and allusion play an important role in language. Implied meanings and innuendos have done much to complicate the legal processes used to protect individual reputations against slurs and falsehoods. In a criminal, rather than a civil context, similar principles are likely to make blasphemy prosecutions expensive, unwieldy and inconsistent."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con01b","title":"","text":"As Timothy Garton ash points out in his commentary on principle 7, there is a supervening value at work in any system of law or social values that obliges religions to demonstrate tolerance for one another and for non-believers. More than a mere value, this supervening idea is identified as a \u201chigher good\u201d. We are told that limitations to religion are necessary in order to prevent free speech from becoming a conduit for conflict. Principle 7 appeals to a universal understanding of risk and safety. It asks us to understand that we risk less conflict in society if we tolerate the existence and pronouncements of other religions. This statement contains that corollary principle that people who wish to see free speech remain a legitimate social force, untroubled by conflict and claims to absolute supremacy, should endeavor to ensure that debates on the fundamental elements of any religion- the existence of God, the divinity (or otherwise) of Jesus, the nature of the revelations received by Mohammed- should be conducted in an open, respectful and structured fashion.  Freedom to engage in a nuanced and calm debate on the nature of a religion is not equivalent to a right to mix the sacred with the taboo, with the specific objective of provoking an outraged reaction. It is revealing that the intended audience for- for example- art works such as \u201cpiss Christ\u201d is largely secular and middle class. These are the individuals among whom artists and writers who oppose blasphemy laws wish to encourage debate. But this narrow minded approach does not consider the large numbers of believers who feel shocked and insulted by such images, and who are given the impression that their faith is under attack. If compelled to live in an environment in which unconstrained free speech is given fiat over religious tolerance, religious believers will be less likely to engage in discussions with members of other faiths or non-believers.  Finally, it should be noted that the existence of a state-supervised prosecution process will greatly reduce the possibility that members of a community offended by a blasphemous statement will decide to take action against that statement- be it protest or physical violence- themselves. It also ensures that members of religions that are targeted by blasphemous statements will not feel obliged to become involved in disorganised or violent protest activities."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con02a","title":"","text":"Oppression within religious communities  Blasphemy laws can be used to enforce oppressive and exclusionary practices within religions. The proposition side have gone out of their way to highlight the harm that can be done to religions by actors external to the religious group. However, this analysis does not fit so comfortably with the problems that occur when a member of a religious community wishes to make controversial and divisive statements about their own religion.  Dissenters within a religious group may often face exclusion from their communities and hostility from friends and family. The current law of western liberal democracies ensures that social disapproval does not transform into threats or violent conduct directed at these individuals. In this way, liberal democratic states recognise the right to speak freely without fear of violent or disproportionate repercussions, irrespective of the social and cultural standards enforced by the community that an individual might belong to.  By criminalising blasphemy, proposition run the risk of discouraging religious dissent within religious communities. Heterodox thinkers who want to share their views on their religion with other believers, must now run the dual risks of effective exile from a social environment that they consider to be their home and prosecution by the state. Anti-blasphemy laws would give communities the ability to indirectly harm and intimidate anyone holding controversial opinions, by directing state power- in the form of prosecutors and the police- against them. Further, anti-blasphemy laws might simply discourage free expression of this type, the prospect of prosecution being sufficient to discourage controversial statements and discussions.  Religions- even if based on divine revelation- develop through human debate, thought and discussion. The proposition position would harm the development of religions if it were realised. It would balance the environment of collective discourse within a religion in favour of conservative and reactionary thinkers.  It should also be noted that it is the state which drafts the law and its organs then apply it, deciding which cases will or will not be prosecuted. It might be enforced unevenly by the government, thus favouring certain religions and victimizing others. It could be used to limit the expression of unpopular ideas, which are the ones that need the most protection, as has happened in the past with the work of artists criticizing the social and political mores of the time with previous cases showing their books being banned from libraries or their paintings from art galleries. Take for example the banning of Salman Rushdie\u2019s novel The Satanic Verses in numerous states around the world. (Bald, M. 2006)"}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con01a","title":"","text":"Language and subjectivity  \u201cBlasphemy\u201d is a very subjective term. The cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed referred to above were regarded by many as blasphemy, but to others they were a form of incisive commentary. (Badkhen A. 2006). Side proposition seems content to trigger a prosecution for blasphemy based on ideas of offence that might be confined to only a very small group of religious believers. Indeed, it is extremely difficult to determine how wide spread a sense of offense must be before a comment moves from being insulting to actively blasphemous. Zororastrian, Bahai and Yezidi religious communities exist in vanishingly small numbers in the UK, but members of each of these faiths have been subject to continual historical persecution. Should their experience of victimisation entitle them to more robust protection than the (relatively) large and wealthy Anglican church? Similarly, should the size of these communities mark them out as vulnerable, and deserving of some sort of legal advantage that allow them to more easily access the protection of anti-blasphemy laws?  Religious groups can often become divided over the correct response to attacks and crises. If the guiding principle is what the recipients of a certain type of speech will find offensive, that will vary widely from person to person even within the members of a certain religious group. Legal responses to this conundrum would run the risk of appearing to be arbitrary and failing to properly represent the diversity of views within a religious community. Further opportunities for division and dissatisfaction may also arise during the process of making a complaint and assisting the prosecutors pursuing it. Cases will, necessarily be heard in public and will require participants to repeat the slanderous and controversial statements that caused such offence, possibly spreading them amongst a wider audience. The public nature of court cases may even make them attractive to individuals who wish to draw attention to offensive views linked to particular religions.  This is problematic, because it would fail to provide guidance to citizens with respect to what the law requires of them. Blasphemy prosecutions would offer only the most cursory and indirect forms of redress to alleged victims of blasphemy. Moreover, discussions over the handling of blasphemy prosecutions would likely produce division with religious communities. Many believers might be reluctant to see the blasphemous statements that caused an official offensive reaction repeated in court."}
+{"id":"validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con02b","title":"","text":"While it is true that blasphemy laws could be open to misuse, this is also true of many other laws that are currently overseen by the state. Liberal democratic legal systems operate safeguards to ensure that laws cannot be abused or used for purposes at odds with fundamental democratic freedoms. On the whole the majority of countries around the world are fair and liberal place that maintain strict separation of judicial, legislative and executive competence. Their courts are capable of recognising vexatious claims and ensuring equality-of-arms between the state and defendants through mechanisms such as legal aid.  In totalitarian nations such as those described by the opposition if blasphemy laws did not exist, authoritarian states would simply find different ways in which to censor that which it deems unfit. In China where religious freedom is severely curtailed, free speech remains subject to significant limitations. It is misleading, then, to associate the intrinsic failings of a political system with a law that might attract opportunistic litigants. On the whole blasphemy law in liberal nations would be handled in a fair judicial manner."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro02b","title":"","text":"The need for increased capacity on travelled lines can be addressed in a number of ways. Firstly, highways still can be expanded. Highways are much more versatile than rail services as they enable people to get from a single destination to another without any transfers. Given then that highways can be improved, it makes very little sense to not do so and improve the rail system later when this extra capacity created begins to fill up. [1]  Given that cities have different requirements of transport, it makes more sense to allow transport planning to remain decentralised. For example, California is creating a high speed transport system on its state budget because it has need, assuming that other cities do when their governing structures have not determined that is the case is irresponsible and unneeded. [2]  [1] Mobley, Jack. \u201cA Case Against High-Speed Rail.\u201d Merced Sun Star. 11\/12\/2010   [2] \u201cOn the wrong track: Why high-speed trains are not such a green alternative.\u201d The Guardian. 29\/04\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro02a","title":"","text":"Highspeed Rail is Better than Upgrading Old Infrastructure  rovements to existing rail networks would ultimately fail to be viable as a replacement for highspeed rail. As British Transport Secretary (now reshuffled) Phillip Hammond states, \"Opponents of the project have asked why we cannot simply upgrade our existing infrastructure to deal with this capacity challenge. But no upgrade of existing infrastructure can deliver the huge improvements in journey times and the transformation of our economic geography that a new high speed network would bring. Reliability would also deteriorate as we tried to squeeze ever more capacity out of existing, mixed-use lines. And another major upgrade to the West Coast Main Line would deliver years of disruption and huge economic cost.\" [1] Upgrading infrastructure may be an answer in some places, but not in all. There may not be the existing infrastructure to upgrade. The United States for example just does not have lines that could take both large numbers of passengers and the large amount of freight they already take. Moreover any upgrade of these existing lines would end up with a rail system which is uncompetitive with road and air transport, exactly why rail passenger transport ended in the 1930-50s in the United States despite having been running faster than Amtrak trains do today. [2]  Further, railroad tracks permit a far higher throughput of passengers per hour than a road the same width. A high speed rail needs just a double track railway, with one track for each direction. For the Eurostar the typical capacity is 15 trains per hour and 800 passengers per train (as for the Eurostar sets), which implies a capacity of 12,000 passengers per hour in each direction. By contrast, the Highway Capacity Manual gives a maximum capacity for a single lane of highway of 2,250 passenger cars per hour (excluding trucks or RVs). [3] Assuming an average vehicle occupancy of 1.57 people, [4] a standard twin track railway has a typical capacity 13% greater than a 6-lane highway (3 lanes each way), while requiring only 40% of the land (1.0\/3.0 versus 2.5\/7.5 hectares per kilometer of direct\/indirect land consumption). This means that typical passenger rail carries 2.83 times as many passengers per hour per meter (width) as a road. [5]  [1] Hammond, Phillip. \u201cHigh Speed Rail: the case for.\u201d The Telegraph. 26\/11\/2010   [2] \u201cAsk Trains from November 2008\u201d, Trains, November 2008,   [3] Elefteriadou, Lily, \u201cChapter 8 Highway Capacity\u201d, Handbook of Transport Engineering, 2004,   [4] U.S. Department of Energy, \u201cVehicle Occupancy by Type of Vehicle\u201d, Fact #257: March 3, 2003,   [5] High Speed Rail, Railsystem.net"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro03b","title":"","text":"Whilst rail systems can be environmentally friendly, the higher the speed of a system the more fuel said system consumes. Whilst high speed rail might be useful as a transport system, owing to its high speed nature it does not reduce carbon emissions to a significant extent. Further, high speed rail is of limited popularity and as such it will not get enough drivers off the road to have any significant contribution to the environment. [1]  [1] Staley, Samuel. \u201cThe Pragmatic Case Against High-Speed Rail.\u201d Reason Foundation. 22\/06\/2009"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro01a","title":"","text":"High Speed Rail is Better Than Air Travel  Currently intercity travel within the U.S. tends to favour air travel. This is often due to the large distances between cities within the U.S. which mean that driving is not a viable strategy should there be time constraints on travel. However, air travel has significant constraints as well such as long boarding times. This causes problems for those people who frequently commute and high speed rail is set to solve these problems.  High speed rail provides a large number of significant benefits over air travel in this regard. This is because high speed rail can travel to city centres. Where airports, due to their size and the noise pollution they cause, are limited to the outskirts of a city, trains are not limited in the same way. As such, people can arrive in a much more central area, cutting large amounts of time off their journey.  Secondly, high speed rail has no limits on wireless communication or internet in the same way that air travel does. As such, high speed rail is significantly more useful for anyone who wishes to work on the journey.  Finally, the weather is incredibly problematic for air travel. This is especially true in the U.S. where a number of areas can be subject to unexpected snow or storms. By comparison, High Speed rail remains comparatively unhindered. [1]  [1] \u201cConvenience of High Speed Rail.\u201d US High Speed Rail Association."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro01b","title":"","text":"High Speed rail is unlikely to work in the same way as air travel. Whilst some areas are more convenient, it remains a slower method of transport than air travel and with quoted prices for high speed rail it seems evident that the majority of consumers will simply continue to opt for air travel as it is a significantly faster method of travel to their destination. As such high speed rail will not provide significant extra benefits to consumers. [1]  Further, if the problem with air travel is the location out airports outside of city centres, then that problem is easily solved through the creation of better transportation methods between airports and city centres. With the time saved, a plane ticket that also encompassed a ride to the city centre would still be faster and would probably end up being significantly cheaper than a ticket on high speed rail.  [1] Mobley, Jack. \u201cA Case Against High-Speed Rail.\u201d Merced Sun Star. 11\/12\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro03a","title":"","text":"High Speed Rail is environmentally friendly  Trains are the most sustainable and green form of transportation. Electric high speed rail is the most energy efficient of all trains. This is because trains have significantly high capacity but have very low power requirements in order to work by comparison to the number of passengers that they carry. Although this is to some extent dependant on how the power is generated the Eurostar (where power comes from French nuclear plants) emits only 11g GO2 per passenger kilometre from London to Paris compared to 180g for a car containing 1.2 passengers and 150g for a short haul flight. [1]  A national high speed rail system would be the centrepiece of a sustainable America, and would significantly reduce congestion and America\u2019s dependence on cars and the oil that fuels them. This would result in large cuts to carbon emissions. Any new system could be powered by renewable energy including wind, solar, geothermal, and ocean\/tidal in order to make it even cleaner. High speed rail could be integrated in to a sustainable network including local commuter rail and tramways so providing public transport networks that solve serious mobility, energy, environmental, economic, health, and social problems simultaneously. [2]  [1] Pearce, Fred, \u201cGreenwash: Time for rail to raise its game and cut emissions\u201d, Greenwash guardian.co.uk, 22 January 2009,   [2] \u201cSustainability.\u201d US High Speed Rail Association."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con03b","title":"","text":"The US High Speed Train Association has found a significant number of benefits for high speed rail that mean that it would be beneficial regardless of its success as a business.  Firstly, high speed rail would foster transport oriented development:  \"Transit oriented development (TOD) is the exciting new fast growing trend in creating vibrant, compact, liveable, walkable communities centered around high quality train systems. TODs can be stand-alone communities, or a series of towns strung along a rail line like pearls on a string. TODs are the integration of community design with rail system planning. High speed rail is the backbone of a rail-based transportation system. When combined with regional rail, light rail, metro systems, streetcars and trams, a complete and integrated rail network is achieved enabling easy, fast mobility throughout the system. Coordinating and encouraging compact, mixed-use development around the rail stations completes the system by enabling people to live, work, and play along the system without the need for a car much of the time. Together, these save time, money, energy, and lives.\"  And further, high speed rail would also help businesspeople be more productive:  \"High speed rail delivers fast, efficient transportation so riders can spend less time traveling and more time doing business. High speed rail delivers people quickly to their destinations in city centers. Fast boarding times, no security delays, and no waiting for baggage (or lost bags) adds up to much less time spent getting to and from meetings. Adding to these savings, there's also little or no down time - people can be far more productive and efficient during a trip on a train, than flying or driving, and return to the office sooner with a shorter turn-around time. High speed rail allows people to continue working the entire trip using laptops and cell phones. Flexible meeting space is available on the train. Because of the reliability of trains and the reduced total trip time, an overnight stay is not always required - saving additional time and money. High speed rail offers great flexibility to plan last minute trips, purchase tickets on short notice, and make changes to schedules without huge penalties.\" [1]  And further to all of this high speed rail also frees up existing rail lines for other purposes, such as freight services as well as for commuter services, helping people in the economy to a significant extent. Given that this is true, it seems prudent to subsidise high speed rail even if it is costly as a business. Further, the motor industry already sees incredible subsidies in the U.S. and does not provide nearly as much social benefit as high speed rail is likely to.  [1] \u201cProductivity Gains with High Speed Rail.\u201d US High Speed Rail Association."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con01b","title":"","text":"This is simply untrue. Yes, if a crash occurs it is likely to be significantly more dangerous than a crash at lower speeds, but this is also the case with cars travelling between cities on highways and even more so with aeroplanes. Exactly because a high speed crash can be so catastrophic high speed rail systems have very high safety standards.  The Japanese Shinkansen high speed rail system is famously safe. During 46 years of commercial operations having taken 7 billion passengers there have been no passenger fatalities or injuries due to train accidents such as derailment or collision. [1] It is also not the case that damage to the track will take the rail system out of operation for years. The Tohuko Shinkansen restarted operations only 49 days after the T\u014dhoku Earthquake. [2]  [1] California High-Speed Rail Authority, \u2018Financing and Costs\u2019,   [2] \u201cHow Japan\u2019s Rail Network Survived the Earthquake\u201d, Railwaytechnology.com, 28 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con02a","title":"","text":"High Speed Rail is Not Currently Economically Viable  The economic investment required for a high speed rail system to be implemented in the U.S. is substantial. Currently, the American deficit is at a level that is bad enough that S&P has downgraded the rating on American debt. Given that this is true and that the public spending required for high speed rail is substantial and a situation is caused where the American government would have to increase the flow of money out of its coffers. Even the lowest estimates by the California High-Speed Rail Authority are around $45 billion and it is likely to be much higher. [1] As such the deficit level within the U.S. could stand to increase from a system that would not provide benefit for another five years at least, if it provides benefit at all. At this time, investment in such an area is not needed when the result of such investment could be greater repayments on American bonds that reverse any economic benefits that the system stands to give. [2]  As such, extra spending within the current economic climate needs to show significant long term benefits as well as show at least some signs of being able to immediately help the economy, otherwise there is too great a risk that comes from extra public spending.  [1] California High-Speed Rail Authority, \u2018Financing and Costs\u2019,   [2] \u201cUS loses AAA credit rating after S&P downgrade.\u201d BBC. 06\/08\/2011"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con03a","title":"","text":"High Speed Rail will not be a successful long term business investment.  The issue with high speed rail is that it is a case of a government providing what is essentially a private good. The market that will use high speed rail will be people who wish to commute between cities quickly, generally rich businesspeople. As such, the market for such a product is incredibly niche. Further, the price of high speed rail will still be higher than plane and the journey times between most cities that aren\u2019t very close together already will still be longer. As such, it seems that there is an incredibly small market for such a product. The reason a market for this product does not exist already is that no private company could ever make a profit from the product owing to the low demand among consumers for it. [1]  Therefore, the only way to make the product work would be to ensure that the product is significantly cheaper than the competition. Unfortunately the only way to do this would be through large subsidies for train use, meaning that high speed rail would continue to make a net loss for the U.S. government for years to come.  Further, any benefit in terms of jobs created for people in local communities will be incredibly low, for example with automatic barriers very few staff are needed at stations. Instead for the same amount of money, the government could easily implement policies which placed solar panels in every home, allowing them to generate and export their own power. Whilst this wouldn\u2019t create jobs, it would increase income for people in the area and would likely help the environment to a significantly greater extent. [2]  [1] Staley, Samuel. \u201cThe Pragmatic Case Against High-Speed Rail.\u201d Reason Foundation. 22\/06\/2009   [2] \u201cHigh-Speed Rail and the Case Against Private Infrastructure.\u201d The Atlantic. 16\/07\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con01a","title":"","text":"High Speed Rail is Dangerous  Owing to the extremely high speeds of high speed rail, should there be a problem with the trains the chance of a catastrophic accident is greatly increased. This is because there would be no reaction time for the driver. Further, should there be a derailment the impact of the crash will be significant greater owing to the speed of the train.  Should these accidents occur, the damage to the trains will obviously be catastrophic, but also the damage to the lines themselves will be incredibly significant. Should there be an accident and it is likely that if enough time passes there will be, the entire rail system in the area would require years to be able to regenerate. After the Hatfield Crash in the UK large sections of the whole network were shut down for up to a year. [1]  [1] Pook, Sally and McIlroy, A.J., \u201c\u2019Danger\u2019 rail lines may be closed\u2019, The Telegraph, 21 October 2000,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con02b","title":"","text":"Within an economic climate that is in recession, the best way to avoid recession is to increase public spending. This is because the extra jobs created through public spending stimulate the economy. This is because the spending results in the employment of a number of people who otherwise would have remained unemployed and on a lower wage. As such, these people are more able to consume and more able to spend their money on consumer goods.  In this way, the economy is pushed out of recession as this initial wave of spending means that the people who sold the products to the consumers now have more money themselves to spend elsewhere.  Whilst this is fairly basic Keynesian analysis of the markets, the reason that the spending here is not susceptible to causing inflation and hence negating the effect is that markets take time to adjust to stimuli. The inflation rate will only increase appropriately once the market has reacted to the stimulus. As such, the initial year or two following a stimulus results in a temporary boost to the economy and then results in inflation later. Given that the recession is likely to be over in two years, dealing with inflation in the future is something that the economy can handle in response for a stimulus that might push it out of recession. [1]  [1] \u201cKeynesian Economics.\u201d"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro02b","title":"","text":"It will not give teachers an incentive to improve their teaching. Teaching is a calling, not something you choose for the money. Teachers are what we call 'intrinsically motivated': they want to realize an ideal, in this case, educating and raising responsible citizens. Recasting this ideal into a financial reward system actually demotivates teachers who feel the inherent value of their work now suddenly has become sullied by chiefly monetary rewards, which is why performances pay hasn\u2019t worked in many places. [1]  [1] White, Performance pay for teachers is a terrible idea and here\u2019s why, 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro02a","title":"","text":"It will give teachers an incentive to improve their teaching.  For decades now, teachers have been remunerated based on 'seniority'. This means that they don't have an incentive anymore to improve themselves, no matter how motivated they were at the beginning. Why try to improve yourself if you have nothing to gain from it? Adding a financial reward for exceptional performance will motivate teachers to do their utmost to develop the knowledge and talents of their pupils. [1]  [1] Muralidharan and Sundararaman, \u201cTeacher Incentives in Developing Countries: Experimental Evidence from India\u201d. Podgursky and Springer, \u201cTeacher Performance and Pay\u201d 2007"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro03b","title":"","text":"It will not attract more teachers. As said above, teaching is a calling. Many of the expected new teachers will be motivated solely by the increased pay, not by any intrinsic motivation. Because they are not intrinsically motivated, they will underperform. They might leave again after a year, but in that year they will have taught a class without the requisite skills and inspiration, possibly spoiling the educational experience of an entire class for the rest of their lives."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro01a","title":"","text":"It is fair to reward teachers on the actual results they achieve.  Just as in the private sector, workers should be judged and rewarded on the actual results they achieve. Whether it's through sheer talent or through hard work, some teachers consistently deliver better results than other teachers. Those teachers are more effective and efficient at providing societal value: with the same amount of work-hours they manage to more effectively educate children. It is therefore only just that their pay is differentiated according to the results they achieve."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is unfair to reward extra achievements on top of the base level. To provide societal value from education, the base level of performance in education is already set very high. This means that even teachers who perform at base level are already working very hard to provide the societal value we require. Any difference above that already very high level is likely the result of luck and talent, both on the part of students and teachers themselves. Rewarding fortunate individuals for something they themselves didn't create is unjust and can only make other jealous.  Moreover, many students may enter the school system- at various stages- accompanied by a range of external advantages and disadvantages. A student\u2019s home environment is a major influence on their ability to achieve when in the school environment. Although a teacher\u2019s pastoral role is growing, there is little that they can do to address poor parenting, or to encourage the engaged, stimulating parenting that produces some of the most able pupils."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro04b","title":"","text":"Competition will diminish the quality of education across the board. Teamwork is essential for the effectiveness of schools. Making differences in performance more visible will hamper teamwork because it will create perverse incentives. For instance, teachers who have devised a successful method for teaching a particular subject area will be less likely to share this because sharing it means eroding their 'strategic advantage' in the 'marketplace for teachers'."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro03a","title":"","text":"It will attract more teachers  eaching salaries for years have remained steady or even declined. This made teaching as a job unattractive and so the influx of new, talented teachers halted. Although the effect of fiscal changes on teachers\u2019 pay has been minimal (controlling for the consequences of the financial crisis), high productivity has become central to many private sector pay schemes. As a result, the contrast between non-responsive pay for teachers and high rewards for talented private sector employees has become more pronounced.  With the opportunity to increase income through performance, teacher pay can rise, making it a more attractive profession financially."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro04a","title":"","text":"Competition improves the overall quality of education.  Measuring teachers' performances will create a transparent market for teaching talent. Underperforming teachers will be selected out because they are less in demand, unless they adapt and learn from what their competitors apparently do better. So, the overall quality of the teacher pool will rise and this will increase the quality of education for all students."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con03b","title":"","text":"It will not create uncritical 'learning drone' students. Creative and critical thinking begins with the basics: literacy and numeracy. Even learning to the test will result in literate and numerate students who can then move on to much more critical thinking. We can then define successful criteria that measure general critical thinking skills, like have students write essays or pass oral exams.  Narrowing of the curriculum is a concern in later stages of education, but the growth of a critical approach to humanities subjects has ensured that rote learning has been de-emphasised in these areas. Critical outcomes, nonetheless, remain measurable."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con01b","title":"","text":"Teachers are the single biggest influence on student performance. Even though many factors influence student performance, the teacher is still the most important schooling factor. For example, having an effective versus and ineffective teacher has been shown to be equivalent to a class size reduction of 10-13 students [1] and can make the differences of more than a full year\u2019s learning growth. [2]  [1] Rivkin et al, \u201cTeachers, Schools and Academic Achievement\u201d, 2005  [2] Hanushek, \u201cThe Trade-off between Child Quantity and Quality.\u201d 1992"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con02a","title":"","text":"Teachers will attempt to cheat the system  Cheating is inevitable in any bureaucratic system that holds educational institutions accountable- in any way- for the outcomes of the educational processes that they supervise.  Teachers will have an incentive to cheat the system, for example by altering students' test results or giving them easier tests. [1] On a more 'macro' scale, teachers will have an incentive to only want to teach at 'good' schools with 'advantaged' students who have both the will and the ability, because their chances of a good performance there are higher.  [1] Jacob and Levitt, \u201cPrevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating\u201d, 2003"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con04a","title":"","text":"It is impossible to implement.  Students come from very different backgrounds and have very different skill-sets. This makes the attempt to define a measuring system that covers all cases a bureaucratic nightmare. Even if this succeeds, it is still very difficult to define what a 'good performance' is, because a student's individual performance is determined by many other factors than the teacher and also because an individual student's 'performance' is actually a complex set of attitudes, skills and abilities which are in and of themselves hard to operationalize in a standard test. And even if this succeeds, then the questions is how much of a student's performance is attributable to what specific teacher: oftentimes, at least in high school, students will have many different teachers, making it impossible to gauge what teacher was responsible for what test result.  Finally, it should be noted (per the argument included above) that merit based education does not encourage the dissemination and normalisation of best practice. A merit-based pay scheme is likely to collapse when too many of those who work under it meet its criteria for bonus payments, making it too expensive.  Once merit based pay becomes part of the structure of an institution, it will become hard to attract and retain staff if it is removed. Concurrently, performance at the same level will be expected by the public, although an institution may not be able to afford it. For the reasons stated above, good ideas are unlikely to be shared by teaching staff under a merit-based status quo, for fear that they may be giving away a competitive edge over their colleagues.  It might be better to raise standards in education by investing sustainably in improved training for teachers and improved facilities in schools, rather than creating an unsustainable merit-based reward system."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con03a","title":"","text":"It will create uncritical 'learning drone' students.  Teachers will start 'teaching to the test' to ensure their classes make the grade. Independent, creative, self-reliant thinking will therefore be discouraged as the teacher focuses on getting as high test results for their pupils as they can regardless of whether they really understand the concepts behind what they are doing. If the primary goal of education is to create critical thinking citizens, then merit pay may hinder rather than help achieve that goal."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con01a","title":"","text":"It is unfair to reward teachers for results they can\u2019t influence  The success of a student depends on many factors, like innate talent, the ability for hard work and concentration and socio-economic background. This means that any progress that a student can make is largely outside of a teacher's control. This will result in some teachers being rewarded just because they happen to teach in a good environment to 'advantaged' children whereas other teachers who do a good job in a bad environment to 'disadvantaged' children are just unlucky."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con04b","title":"","text":"It is possible to implement. Testing students is not that difficult. After all, we have been examining students with all kinds of standardized test ever since formal education began. Similarly, we can know what teacher is involved in what result: the biology-teacher is relevant for biology, not French or arithmetic.  The economist Dale Ballou, in his 2001 article \u201cPay for performance in public and private schools\u201d determined that the prevalence of merit-based pay in private schools demonstrates that it can be cost effectively implemented in complex institutional settings [1] .  [1] Ballou, \u201cPay for performance in public and private schools.\u201d 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con02b","title":"","text":"Cheating can be prevented by ensuring that the person giving and grading the test is not the same as the person preparing the students for the test. Likewise, the 'macro'-problem can be prevented by designing good measurement systems. If performance is measured as comparing results of individual students across time, then it doesn't matter whether a student comes from a 'disadvantaged' background. The same goes for innate talent: we can design a measurement that rewards any improvement in significantly less talented children sufficiently high to ensure that teachers are motivated in teaching them."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro02b","title":"","text":"The existence of slums and favelas and their increasing criminality in Latin America cannot be explained by the lack of social subsidies. In fact, quite the opposite is the case: the leftward turn in Latin America with an increase in state subsidies that promised to help poor communities has yet to ease the problems of criminality. Subsidies not only do not help or provide only weak temporary relief, but they are also used to manipulate political opinions and influence the poor particularly around election time. The successful presidential campaigns of Lula da Silva in Brazil, and Hugo Chavez in Venezuela have been run precisely on promises to the poor that for the most part were left unfulfilled. Because government subsidies are not efficient, the large problem of social unrest is not avoided.  Furthermore the poor communities in the suburbs of Paris were already receiving state subsidies for housing and education, but this did not keep them from rioting. Therefore subsidies do not guarantee a reduction in crime."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Poor communities create criminality  The longer suburbs sectioned off for the economically vulnerable are in existence, the more likely they will turn into real slums, creating long lasting problems such as the ones currently experienced in the cities of Latin America. Latin America contains 13 of the 20 countries with the highest intentional homicide rate (Global Burden of Armed Violence, Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development, 2008). Brazil is one of the most criminalized countries of the world with roughly 23.8 homicides per 100,000 residents, muggings, robberies, kidnappings and gang violence (The Economist, \u2018No End of Violence\u2019, 2007). These areas have become a haven for criminals and drug lords, who both have a clear interest in keeping these communities poor so that they can continue to exert their influence on them and use them as a hiding and recruiting ground for illegal activities. Subsidies would help people escape poverty and as a result break the cycle of crime."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro03b","title":"","text":"This kind of idealism and desire to make the world an equal place has already gotten us into quite a bit of trouble, ruining a large part of the world under the rule of communism. The idea that we could solve all the world\u2019s problems through redistribution of wealth through government subsidies is not only na\u00efve but also dangerous. Being committed to new human rights and wanting to offer help to the poor is not the same thing as imposing subsidies. Indeed, in many countries subsidies for particular activities end up favouring well-off landowners and the urban middle classes. Examples include agricultural subsidies in the EU (Financial Programming and Budget, 2011) and the USA, subsidies for power and water in rural India (Press Trust of India, \u2018World Bank asks India to cut \u2018unproductive\u2019 farm subsidy\u2019, 2007), and subsidies for water or Higher Education in much of Latin America. In each case the well-off benefit disproportionately, while the poor end up paying via the tax system and through reduced economic growth (Farmgate: the developmental impact of agricultural subsidies, ukfg.org.uk). It would be much better to price these activities at commercial levels and to develop economic policies aimed at growth and job creation."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Subsidies are the most efficient way for a state to redistribute wealth within its borders.  Poor communities, often concentrated in rural areas or around large cities, carry a large risk for social instability, whether through epidemic illnesses, crime, drug abuse or political and social revolts. Even the most developed countries find it difficult to deal with these communities without paying proper attention to their development. The suburbs of Paris have recently been in the attention of the press for the violent riots led mainly by poor, unemployed, young men from immigrant families who felt abandoned by their own government (BBC News, \u2018Timeline: French Riots\u2019, 2005). France is by no means the only country dealing with such problems, and in order to avoid such high-risk behaviour, the state should be encouraged to create new subsidy schemes that address these communities in particular. For example, employment could be subsidised by paying companies to create new jobs in such deprived areas."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro01b","title":"","text":"While we do not concede that subsidies are the most efficient means of redistributing wealth even if they are then is this redistribution something we want to see? Poor communities should instead be shown how to pull themselves up rather than having subsidies spoon fed to them. Giving those in poor communities the education and means to better themselves is a much more effective long term solution. Redistribution of wealth through subsidies is simply discouraging the poor from working hard towards the betterment of their lives both because the state is already giving them enough to survive and because they know the state will begin taking what they have earned away if they do manage to work their way up."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Rich communities have a disastrous effect on the environment as well. The question of whether development is possible without manipulating nature and the environment is again entirely separate from the question of subsidies. Ultimately, the problem is one of resources and the best distribution and management of those resources, particularly natural resources. Getting people to understand that forests, water and land are essential resources that need to be preserved is what should be done (Hande, \u2018Powering our way out of poverty\u2019, 2009). Subsidies have in fact often created more environmental problems by investing in poorly built infrastructure and housing, and by encouraging people to stay in areas that could otherwise not support them."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Subsidies create a sense of social equality  Subsidies help create the equality and non-discrimination that is essential in the new multi-cultural states of today. With more and more people moving across the globe and the clear realization of inequalities in lifestyles, creating this sense of equality is essential. If we are serious about our commitment to universal human rights, including the right to equal survival chances and opportunities, then we need to consider using subsidies to promote these values. Many of the poorest areas have a disproportionate number of immigrants or ethnic minorities, Seine-Saint-Denis for example has the largest percentage of immigrants in France(Wikipedia, \u2018Demographics of France\u2019) and is one of the poorest department\u2019s(Astier, \u2018French ghettos mobilise for election\u2019, 2007) so these communities are where the state needs to show that it is committed to non-discrimination by helping with subsidies. Without such a commitment to equality, problems like the unrest in the suburbs of Paris, the reaction to the flooding of New Orleans, crimes in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro and South Africa will simply become uncontrollable."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Substandard living conditions have a broad environmental impact  Unless we do something about it we risk seeing our planet destroyed. The destruction of forests for coal or agricultural land, the destruction of farmland through illegal buildings lacking proper infrastructure, water pollution, deserting arable land in the countryside in order to move to the city are all serious environmental problems and their effects are long lasting (Hande, \u2018Powering our way out of poverty\u2019, 2009). Subsidies need to be used to provide incentives for people to act in ways which will preserve the environment for the benefit of all (Hande, \u2018Powering our way out of poverty\u2019, 2009)."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con03b","title":"","text":"The change from an agricultural or rural economy to an urban one does not preclude subsidies as a way of lifting people out of poverty it simply means that subsidies have to be more targeted. As most cities continue to grow and attract more and more people from rural areas, the state needs to find a way to address the problem of urban migration, which is closely linked to the formation of poor communities particularly around cities. Illegal immigration also contributes tremendously to this problem, particularly in areas such as the Mexico-California border. Targeted subsidies can slow the pace of migration, by giving those in the countryside and in poorer countries a better standard of living where they already live."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con01b","title":"","text":"Rather than criticising the inefficiencies of current subsides we should put efforts into improving subsidies so they work efficiently. This is clearly a very complex issue and would involve taking each poor community as individual with different needs. One specific example of where this has been efficient is subsidising housing in poor communities, such as the Gautreaux program in Chicago. This project involved the CHA (Chicago Housing Authority) handing out 7,500 housing vouchers out to residents of deprived communities (thus providing a housing subsidy to those residents). The project was widely considered a success and was supported by the government until its completion in 1998. Longitudinal studies suggested that participants where \u2018pleased to be living in safer neighbourhoods with quality schools and greater job opportunities\u2019, which all occurred as a result of the Gautreaux project (Fisher, Gautreaux Assisted Housing Program, 2005). This project shows that subsidies can be successful if we look and attend to at the particular needs of each poor communities."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con02a","title":"","text":"The risk of creating dependence  Always looking at the state for solutions makes these communities dependent on the government in a world in which the state will continue to gradually lose its power. On an individual level increases in people taking disability benefits over the long term are a good example of dependency, in Australia for example between 1972 and 2004 those receiving the Disability Support Pension rose fivefold well above the increase in the disabled population(Saunders, \u2018Disability Poverty and Living Standards\u2019, 2005, p.2). Putting more pressure on increasingly weaker states is probably not the best idea. While strong social-democratic states such as France might be able to handle it, developing countries or unstable states will never be able to withstand these pressures. We need to look for solutions elsewhere, and we need to accept the fact that there might not be one solution for all. Each community, facing different kinds of problems, will have to be addressed differently. The new rise in the field of corporate social responsibility signifies that corporations are looking to take over some of the responsibilities of the state."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con04a","title":"","text":"Communities should be engineered to be self sufficient  As the introduction and opposition argument 1 explain, subsidising poor communities involves taking money away from wealthy communities. It is unfair to make the wealthy members of a community pay for the benefit of the poorer members, when the poorer members should be putting in the effort to raise and support their own communities. Those who are wealthy have earned their wealth by working hard. If they wish to be subsidizing poor communities they can give to charities that work in poorer areas."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con03a","title":"","text":"Social change  As modern societies are clearly moving away from an agricultural economy to an industrial and post-industrial economy, new demographic challenge arise with high concentrations of people in urban areas where jobs are available. From 2008 more than 50% of the world\u2019s population lives in cities meaning that poverty is now growing faster in urban than rural areas (UNFPA, \u2018Urbanization: A Majority in Cities\u2019, 2007). The solution here is not subsidies, but rather the spreading of jobs across the whole economy, including rural areas, and the re-education of those who need to fill these jobs. These are structural problems that every society will need to address, regardless of how many subsidies the state is providing or not."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con01a","title":"","text":"Government supervised redistribution of wealth is inefficient  Given that in general state taxation and redistribution systems have been under fire for being inefficient, it is doubtful that subsidies, as a particular form of tax redistribution would be more efficient. Not only is a bureaucratic mechanism for creating and distributing subsidies a nightmare, but the effects of such subsidies have often been questioned as well. Fuels subsidies to keep prices down for example might help the poor to heat their homes but they also encourage wasting fuel and not getting the most efficient heating systems so more fuel is used resulting in more need for subsidies (Jakarta Globe, \u2018Subsidies a Costly, Inefficient Crutch\u2019, 2010).  The needs of poor communities, such as the immigrant communities in the suburbs of Paris, as often much larger than the state can provide, and patch solutions are often no solution at all. Subsidies will not be able to solve the problems of unemployment and the concentration of the poor and immigrants in particular areas. Other solutions are required for such problems and oftentimes, the involvement of the private sector has proven to be more efficient. Encouraging a more competitive, dynamic economy by reducing the burdens of taxation and regulation is the best way to provide a route out of poverty, especially if improved educational provision and meritocratic hiring policies are also implemented."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con04b","title":"","text":"Telling poor communities they should help themselves is not the answer; they already want to help themselves. Poverty often occurs in a cycle, meaning that for many it is inescapable. Education in poor areas is often worse, leading to people being less qualified for higher paying jobs, stuck in badly paid work, therefore living in undesirable housing that often has inadequate education, and thus the cycle continues for their children. The only way for people to escape this cycle is with government subsidies. Some would argue that forcing people to live in these conditions while others live in wealth is more immoral than asking the wealthy to help the poor."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con02b","title":"","text":"While getting the private sector involved might indeed be a more effective solution, the reality is that many of these poor communities are groups of outsiders. They often discriminated against by the rest of the population, including decision makers from private business. For example in France employers databases often have the abbreviation BBR or NBBR to indicate if someone is white.(SOS Racisme, \u2018Discrimination, Pr\u00e9sentation\u2019) These communities often find themselves abandoned, and at the mercy of the state. Despite its inefficiencies, the state remains the main organisation capable to reaching out to all different communities, of gathering funds and redistributing them, and of making new investment opportunities in places where the free market would not otherwise have created them. At the risk of some inefficiency, this problem does require solvency, and while ideally things might run otherwise, this is the closest solution to the problem at hand. Governments have also been creative with their subsidies schemes, often getting the private sector involved by providing them with incentives such as tax breaks."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is exactly what makes HS2 a bad scheme. Yes there is overcrowding but the worst overcrowding is on peak services travelling into London \u2013 commuter services \u2013 not on long distance trains. It is notable that the operator that is most over capacity is First Great Western which covers a route \u2013 to Reading and on to Bristol, South Wales and the West country - which will be unaffected by HS2 which goes north."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro02a","title":"","text":"More capacity is needed on Britain\u2019s railways  Capacity on the railways is a big problem in the UK. Due to growth since privatisation Britain\u2019s railways take as many passengers as it is physically possible to do; more than a fifth of rush hour passengers have to stand. [1] Growth is almost certain to continue as the roads too are at capacity and population continues to rise. The result is more railways are needed. Rail freight meanwhile if forecast to double by the 2040s. The West Coast Main Line is a particular bottleneck for freight with 40% of UK freight services using the line; any increase would have to come at the expense of passenger services. [2] Transferring the main rail services to the high speed line would free up the WCML to increased freight and commuter use so HS2 would not just mean an increase in long distance capacity.  [1] BBC News, \u2018London-bound train overcrowding: 100,000 have to stand\u2019, 24 July 2013,   [2] Department for Transport, \u2018The Strategic case for HS2\u2019, gov.uk, October 2013,  , p.50, 54"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro03b","title":"","text":"The UK is densely populated and concentrated in one part of the country so has less need of high speed connections. Other countries having a large number of high speed route miles should not be considered evidence that the UK needs more or that the UK is somehow \u2018behind\u2019 as conditions vary between countries."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro05a","title":"","text":"Faster travel between British cities  The most obvious benefit from high speed rail is that journey times will be less. From London the journey to Birmingham will be reduced from 84 to 49 minutes, Leeds from 132 to 82 and Manchester 128 to 68. [1] While faster journeys provide some economic benefit the are as much a social benefit of making more places accessible by allowing individuals to spend less time traveling and more doing what they want to when they get there.  [1] Hs2, \u2018facts, figures and journey times\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro01a","title":"","text":"Bridging the north south divide  The UK has a north south divide in terms of wealth and income. London and the South East has for the last few decades done much better than the north; while industry and mining in the north has declined financial services in the south have boomed. The result is inequality between regions. High Speed Two will help to solve this inequality by increasing connections between north and south. The government \u201csuggests that HS2 could provide a boost to the Birmingham city region equivalent to between 2.1% and 4.2% of its GDP. For the Manchester city region the figure is 0.8%-1.7%, for the Leeds city region 1.6%\u201d. [1] This is because businesses will be more likely to invest there when there is better infrastructure, companies based in London in particular will be much more likely to see the benefits of investing in, or partnering with businesses in the north when they can easily reach those cities.  [1] Department for Transport, \u2018The Strategic case for HS2\u2019, gov.uk, October 2013,  p.99"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro01b","title":"","text":"This makes the strange assumption that Leeds and Manchester, or even Birmingham is the north. In pure geographic terms they are not even half way up the country from London \u2013 what about Newcastle and Scotland?  The evidence for the possibility of a high speed railway helping to solve regional inequalities is decidedly mixed. Theoretically if one region has comparative advantage then providing it with better transport infrastructure should mean that region simply expanding its market \u2013 in this case London would likely have the comparative advantage so increasing inequality. [1] While this has not happened with all high speed links what will happen is that the regional hubs may grow but it will likely be at the expense of surrounding towns that are not connected and areas further away from the line. The government\u2019s own figures estimate the cost to the North East of Scotland would be \u00a3220million per year. [2]  [1] Puga, Diego, \u2018Agglomeration and cross border infrastructure\u2019, European Investment Bank Papers, vol.13, no.2, 2008, pp.102-24,  p.117  [2] BBC News, \u2018HS2 \u2018losers\u2019 revealed as report shows potential impact\u2019, 19 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro05b","title":"","text":"This is not going to be the case with all cities for example journey times to Scotland could be reached for much less. With using tilting trains on the East Coast and upgrading to 140 mph running the journey time from London to Edinburgh would actually be marginally faster than using HS2. [1] The figures for the journey savings notably exclude the possibility of faster journeys on the existing routes so the savings would not be as big. [2] Because Britain\u2019s big cities are not particularly far apart journey times are already not long by comparison to many countries. Trains from London to the second city of Manchester take just over two hours, because of the much longer distance from Paris to France\u2019s second city even with the TGV the journey time is about the same while from Tokyo to Osaka takes 2hours 25 minutes.  [1] Webb, Jonathan, \u2018East Coast Pendolinos could deliver faster journey times than HS2 for Anglo-Scottish services\u2019, Global Rail News, 2 August 2013,   [2] Millward, David, \u2018HS2 time savings exaggerated critics say\u2019, The Telegraph, 29 October 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro04b","title":"","text":"Estimates and guesstimates. We don\u2019t know exactly how much HS2 will benefit the economy and still won\u2019t even if it is built because we will never know how well the alternative spending of the money would have affected the economy."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro03a","title":"","text":"Britain is behind the rest of Europe on high speed rail  The United Kingdom has been somewhat of a laggard when it comes to high speed rail. In the first half of the century Britain\u2019s railways were the fastest in the world (still holding the world speed record for steam). But since what we would now consider to be high speed started with the launch of the Shinkansen in 1964 the UK has only marginally upgraded its own railways to 125mph. This means the only high speed line the UK has is the link to the channel tunnel which does not serve a large number of internal passengers. The UK therefore has 113km of high speed rail against 1334 in Germany, 1342 in Italy, 2036 in France and 3100 in Spain. Even much smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Belgium have longer high speed lines. [1]  [1]"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro04a","title":"","text":"HS2 would benefit Britain\u2019s economy  Big infrastructure projects often provide a big boost to the economy. HS2 will do this in two ways; the first will be in the economic activity created in building the line and the estimated 3100 jobs staffing the railway. Much more important however are the wider economic benefits. On a cost-benefit basis HS2 is considered to be \u2018high value for money\u2019 because it will have a 1:2.3 cost:benefit ratio. This ration however could be considerably better if ridership keeps increasing for longer or faster than expected. The overall benefit to the economy is estimated at \u00a353 billion. [1]  [1] Department for Transport, \u2018The Strategic case for HS2\u2019, gov.uk, October 2013,  , p.31"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con03b","title":"","text":"The spending for HS2 would not contribute to the deficit as it is investment that will pay back the money over time and will also be creating assets that can in extremis be sold. The high cost by comparison to other high speed networks is almost entirely due to high land prices; this means that any big transport project is going to cost a similar premium."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con01b","title":"","text":"Some of these costs have already been included in the cost:benefit ratio such as the impact of pollution and greenhouse gases. Moreover there have already been changes made to ensure that the high speed line runs in tunnels through areas where the damage would otherwise be significant. More than 50% of the route to Birmingham will be in tunnels or cuttings and much of the remainder will have barriers to prevent noise pollution. [1] Given the number of tunnels it is wrong to consider the railway one long barrier to wildlife. If it is considered a serious problem then solutions would not be immensely costly \u2013 tunnels under the tracks could be constructed for example.  [1] Railway-technology.com, \u2018High Speed 2 (HS2) Railway, United Kingdom\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con02a","title":"","text":"There are other options  There are plenty of other options that don\u2019t have the disadvantages of HS2 (high cost, environmental impacts etc.) but do meet most of the requirements like increased capacity. First because it is capacity on main commuter lines that is mostly needed it makes more sense to lengthen platforms and trains, and if that is not enough raise bridges to allow double deckers on the busiest routes. The government rejected such an option in 2007 due to the cheapest option costing \u00a32.4billion, which seems cheap compared to HS2. [1]  Similarly if the capacity problem is for freight as a chunk of the business case is then reopening the Great Central Railway could be the answer \u2013 most of the track bed still exists. It has been proposed as a useful freight corridor that would help take the load off the West Coast. [2]  Finally terms of faster journey times as already noted there is little need for more speed in the UK but even without HS2 journey times will improve as East Coast and Great Western are to be upgraded to 140mph. And in terms of capacity on intercity rail the better option has been suggested as being lengthening trains and reducing first class \u2013 which has been estimated as having a benefit of \u00a36.06 for every pound invested, 2.5times that of HS2. [3]  [1] Millward, David, \u2018Britons squash plans for double-decker trains\u2019, The Telegraph, 16 September 2007,   [2] \u2018Great Central is the way to go\u2019,   [3] Doward, Jamie, \u2018HS2 not the best value rail option, says government report\u2019, 14 January 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con05a","title":"","text":"Does not easily connect to the continent  Would it not be nice to be able to travel from Edinburgh straight through to Paris without having to stop in London? This was part of the initial dream of the Channel Tunnel with proposals for regional Eurostar services. [1] Unfortunately HS2 will not provide this option. There is a proposed link but it is currently single track and unlikely to be enough even to meet demand for domestic services running around London let alone international services from Birmingham and Manchester. [2] The much more sensible option of not having a terminal station, or at least some through platforms, has been ignored.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Regions \u2018cheated\u2019 over Eurostar\u2019, 27 January 1999,   [2] Railnews, \u2018Rethink urged over 'absurd' HS2-HS1 link\u2019, 1 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con04a","title":"","text":"High speed rail never makes a profit  The UK already knows that it is difficult to make rail services pay their way, currently fares from passengers despite regular criticism of them being too high, only cover 65% of operating costs. [1] High speed rail is no different in this regard; most of China\u2019s high speed lines make a loss [2] indeed the only lines to have made a profit are Tokyo-Osaka and Paris Lyon. [3]  [1] \u2018Rail ridership hits new highs as will regulated rail fares from January 2014\u2019, Rail.co.uk, 19 August 2013,   [2] Wan, Zhang, \u2018High Speed Train Too Expensive\u2019, Chienglish.com, 1 April 2013,   [3] Feigenbaum, Baruch, \u2018High-Speed Rail in Europe and Asia: Lessons for the United States\u2019, Reason Foundation, 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con03a","title":"","text":"HS2 is too costly  HS2 is already looking very costly. California\u2019s San Francisco to Los Angeles High Speed rail is 520 miles at a cost of $68billion (\u00a342bln), [1] HS2 will only be 33miles but is already expected to cost about the same \u00a342.6billion. [2] The cost has already grown and there are regular claims even by respected economics analysts such as the Institute of Economic Affairs that it will eventually rise to \u00a380 billion. [3] Britain is only just recovering from a long recession and does not yet have its deficit under control, can it really afford such an immense cost? The money could be spent on a great many other things, not just upgrades to the existing network but schools and hospitals too.  [1] AP, \u2018No One Knows Where The Money Will Come From For California's $68 Billion High Speed Rail Plan\u2019, Business Insider, 3 April 2012,   [2] Hs2, \u2018Route, Trains & Cost\u2019,   [3] Leftly, Mark, \u2018The wrong side of the tracks: Lobbyists for HS2 rail line funded by the taxpayer\u2019, The Independent, 25 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con05b","title":"","text":"This is not a particularly big problem for the project and could easily be fixed by doubling the track later if there proves to be sufficient demand to justify it."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con01a","title":"","text":"HS2 would damage the England\u2019s green and pleasant land  Railways are supposed to be green \u2013 they produce less greenhouse gas emissions than cars or planes. Yet many of those benefits are sacrificed by the desire for high speed which makes these trains much less environmentally friendly than normal trains due to the extra power necessary to reach such speeds. The impact on the British countryside will be immense. The railway will run through four Wildlife Trust reserves, 10 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), more than 50 ancient woodlands, and HS2 will run through 13 miles of the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The result will be the fragmentation of populations of insects, bats, birds and mammals. The Wildlife Trusts argue \u201cThe very last thing we should be doing is creating new linear barriers to the movement of wildlife.\u201d [1]  [1] The Wildlife Trusts, \u2018HS2\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con04b","title":"","text":"We should not just be considering fares as the be all and end all. Successful rail companies elsewhere don\u2019t tend to make a profit on ticket sales but instead through diversification. Tokyu, one of Japan\u2019s private railways, has revenue of $2.63 billion and profits of $587millio but only a third of the revenue comes from rail fares with real estate bringing in about the same amount and much of the rest from retail. [1] Franchises make this difficult to operate in the UK but HS2 might have tracks\/land\/stations and operating trains integrated so providing an opportunity. Moreover it is wrong to suggest that only a couple of lines have made a profit as this is only a couple of lines have made a profit including the immense construction cost on the loss side of the balance sheet. Most high speed lines at least break even without subsidies after a few years of operation, as has been the case in Taiwan [2] \u2013 which is better than Britain\u2019s other railways.  [1] Jaffe, Eric, \u2018The Secret to Tokyo\u2019s Rail Success\u2019, The Atlantic, 18 May 2012,   [2]"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con02b","title":"","text":"None of the alternatives is a comprehensive solution and particularly not to the capacity problem. What happens once the double decker trains are at capacity? Then you are back to thinking of building new lines. Upgrading existing lines would require 14 years of weekend closures to allow the needed capacity increases. This would be \u201ca patch and mend job that would cause 14 years of gridlock, hellish journeys and rail replacement buses. The three main routes to the north would be crippled and the economy would be damaged.\u201d [1]  The difference between HS1 and the upgrade to the West Coast Main Line should also be mentioned. HS1 was a stand alone line that was on time and on budget, [2] WCML on the other hand was \u00a36 billion over budget, four years late and caused immense amounts of disruption to passengers, what\u2019s worse is the proposed upgrade part of the plan to make the line 140mph capable was abandoned. [3]  [1] Syal, Rajeev, \u2018HS2 alternatives could require 14 years of weekend rail closures\u2019, The Guardian, 28 October 2013,   [2] Major Projects Association, \u2018Delivering High Speed 1: the successes and the lessons\u2019, 7 February 2008,  p.4  [3] All Party Group for Excellence in the Built Environment, \u2018A Better Deal For Public Building\u2019, cic.org.uk, September 2012,  , p.24"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Grey imports limit a company's control over its own products. Many manufacturers\/distributors wish to control their distribution outlets for sound commercial reasons, for example, to protect the image of their brand. This becomes very difficult, possibly impossible, to do if grey imports are allowed, as this circumvents their planned distribution network. It becomes much harder for a manufacturer\/ distributor to track their products where they have been used in a grey importation. This can lessen their effectiveness when they need this information, such as for a safety recall. \"It is unclear whether adequate mechanisms are in place to adequately recall parallel trade medicines. Batch number recording is not consistently applied throughout the supply chain and in practice may make comprehensive product recall difficult, creating a risk to patient safety\". 1  1 Trade and Industry Committee, Eighth Report, 29 June 1999"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro02a","title":"","text":"Allowing grey goods breaks down monopolies and passes on lower prices to consumers.  Allowing grey imports means that manufacturers do not concentrate economic power in a monopolistic way which can be damaging to free trade (even Adam Smith1believed certain monopolies were antithetical to free trade). Banning them is tantamount to granting a licensed monopoly or cartel on a country-by-country basis, which inevitably means higher prices for consumers. As manufacturing has increasingly been relocated into a smaller number of offshore countries, rather than in the country of purchase, it makes sense that other parts of the supply chain should make a similar move so that they too can realise the efficiency benefits of a globalised economy.  1 Smith, Adam, \"An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations\" 1776"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro03b","title":"","text":"It may be impossible to completely stop such imports however the vast majority of shops will not import these items while they are not allowed to. Opening the market up will simply lead to a flood of imports with a resulting effect on native manufacturing."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro01a","title":"","text":"Buyers benefit from grey imports, in the form of greater consumer choice.  Consumers benefit from grey imports. The economics of grey importation drives sourcing to low-cost economies. Even if retailers take some of this benefit as improved profit margins, typically at least some of it will be passed on to consumers in the form of reduced prices. Grey imports also allow consumers to buy products that may not yet be available in their own market, because they have not yet been released, or because in their market the manufacturer feels there is insufficient demand. Thus, grey imports expand consumer choice.  Many films, DVD's and video games are released in one region months before others, and grey imports allow enthusiasts to access their favoured products earlier than they otherwise would1.  1 Bun, Mara and Horrocks, Steve, 'In Support of Parallel Imports of CDs', Australian Consumers' Association, February 1998"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro01b","title":"","text":"Consumers do not really benefit overall from grey imports. Although manufacturers may reduce prices in some (typically, richer) countries, they are at least as likely to raise prices in less developed economies, depriving consumers there of access to international brands and luxury goods, and so depriving them of a real choice and in some cases the full product.1 In addition, they will still have to pay all the taxes and the losses from lack of regulation which have been avoided in some way or lose the services those taxes provide. The loss of revenue from grey imports can mean that production is limited or even halted going forward, even though there is market demand for more products from the manufacturer. The film industry shows this clearly. Manufacturer protections of their products (for example region specific DVD's and PCs) actually increase costs for all consumers.  1 Etherington-Smith, James, '\"Grey\" imports: The black and white of it', mybroadband.co.za, 14 December 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro04b","title":"","text":"Free trade involves a principle of free will. The buyer should be able to decide to whom he wishes to sell and on what terms, and if the seller does not accept those terms then the buyer should be able to refuse to deal with him. Manufacturers can have many good reasons for choosing to price goods at different levels in different countries, such as their wish to build a long-term brand preference by cheaper initial marketing in a developing economy, or their desire to maintain an aura of exclusivity in mature markets through high pricing and confining sales to specialist retailers. Grey imports result in the manufacturer\/ distributor effectively losing some, and often most, control of their pricing and retailing strategy in the importing country. This reduces their capacity to position the brand as they see appropriate. In extremis, a company can be put out of business in one nation by its own operations overseas!"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro03a","title":"","text":"Impossible to Stop.  Governments might as well accept that allowing retailers to sell grey goods has benefits because government will never be able to completely prevent such imports. Government regulation may prevent most retailers from selling grey goods but it won't stop all. For example Tesco in the UK sold cut price Levi jeans for years, and fought Levi Strauss in the courts for four years to try and keep selling them.1 If even the biggest retailers are willing to sell grey goods unless stopped by the courts many smaller ones will be getting through the net. Moreover consumers will simply buy the goods elsewhere, particularly online. The government should instead legalise the import of grey goods so that it can make sure that these imports are of a high standard and do not break any other standards  1 BBC News, 'Tesco defeated in cheap jeans battle', 31 July 2002,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro04a","title":"","text":"The free movement of goods is consistent with the basic principles of free trade  Allowing grey imports is consistent with the basic principles of free trade. (Free trade principles \u2013 WTO1) If a manufacturer\/distributor is selling the same item at different prices in two countries, free market economics suggests that the rational purchaser will purchase in the cheaper of the two, presuming, for example, that the difference will not be wholly swallowed up by transaction and transportation costs or taxes. If this logic holds for a consumer choosing between two jeans shops in his town, it must also hold for a retailer choosing between a jeans manufacturer\u2019s price lists in two countries. Until recently, there was an information asymmetry (rational markets requiring information symmetry), as the manufacturer knew about their differential pricing, but the purchaser did not; information technology has now changed the equation and allowed the market to operate more efficiently. Not only this, but consumers can already buy products from pretty much anywhere in the world, as long as they can pay the postage.  1 World Trade Organisation \"UNDERSTANDING THE WTO: BASICS\", WTO 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con03b","title":"","text":"A free flow in goods is a desirable end in itself. The rational, efficient supply chain of grey imports reflects the ideal of the free market. Moving it from the shadows to a position of legitimacy would make it even more efficient, by reducing the effort currently employed to keep the imports' trail hidden, etc. There is also job creation involved in the distribution network. For example, the logistics and transportation activities involved in grey imports will create new work as the trade grows."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con01b","title":"","text":"Grey imports benefit the importing economy. As some grey imports will be products originally targeted at a foreign market but which turn out to achieve some popularity in the host market, they increase foreign trade. In this way, grey imports act to internationalise consumer tastes and cross-cultural understanding. Through the downward pressure on retail prices, grey imports will also encourage industry to more efficiency, as ultimately factory gate prices will be expected to fall too. This leads to rising living standards in the cheaper economy as prices balance out, as we can see in for example China, with it's recent massive rises in living standards.1  1 Mortishead, Carl, \u2018China\u2019s rising living standard cranks up resource competition\u2019 The Australian, 18 October 2007"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con02a","title":"","text":"Once a good has been sold, manufacturers have no business telling their customers how to use it. This includes selling that good on.  In general we do not accept as moral or socially permissible the idea that the makers of a good can tell their customers where and when they may use that good, who they may give it to, where and when. Car manufacturers do not sell cars on the basis you will only drive to the shops and back, clothes makers do not sell clothes on the basis you will only wear them on Sundays or every full moon. Limiting customer ability to resell items they have paid for in full is irrational and immoral."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con03a","title":"","text":"Grey imports limit a company's control over its own products.  A free flow of goods is not always an automatic good. The extra transport and pollution involved in grey imports alone is a serious argument against it. Grey importers often do not make clear that products sold under the same brand name in different markets are in fact sometimes tailored to suit the local market environment. So, for example, one of the reasons for lower pricing in some products in particular countries is that they do not include all of the same ingredients as a product sold under the same brand name in another country. This can be, for example, because the performance needs (e.g. the climate), regulatory framework, or consumers' willingness to pay in the two countries vary. Accordingly, in the importing country, consumers may end up paying for a familiar brand that is not actually as well designed for their needs as the domestically marketed version. 1 There are many practical problems with grey importation. For example, consumers may not understand usage instructions.  1 Santos, Botchi, 'Why locally sold cars are still better than grey-market options, 26 January 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con01a","title":"","text":"Grey goods come into the country, but money goes out, weakening the economy.  Grey imports damage the importing economy. By reducing the profitability of the manufacturer\/distributor in the importing country, grey imports accordingly often lessen the amount of money that the company can invest in its operations in that country. This is a vicious circle which may reduce demand and so lead to greater inefficiencies in official importation. An acceptance of imports \u2013 especially of unclear provenance \u2013 hastens the demise of the manufacturing base of the importing country.1 The manufacturer will have less reason to support the brand locally through, for example, advertising, as the benefit does not show up in their local results and, in any case, grey imports tends to start focusing consumers\u2019 minds on price rather than the brand identity. This can be detrimental to the advertising and media spend in the importing country, which for a premium consumer goods brand (e.g. perfume, clothing) could represent quite a significant economic benefit.  What is a loss for the economy is also of course a loss for the government. The United States Internal Revenue Service estimated 15% of workers did not pay taxes, a $345billion shortfall from what should have been paid in large part as a result of workers in the grey economy of which there are more than 140,000 in San Diego alone.2  1 Peacock, Louisa, 2010, \u2018Go East, if you want that top job\u2019, The Telegraph, 19 November 2010 ,  2 Calbreath , Dean, \u2018Hidden economy a hidden danger\u2019, Signs On San Diego, 30 May 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con02b","title":"","text":"While we do not see limitations on reselling by customers in general, there are, in fact, a good few occasions where such limitations on reselling and use occur. Books and other media are limited through copyright laws in their ability to be legitimately re-sold, motor insurance is indeed sold at least partly on the basis of what you are going to do with your vehicle."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro02b","title":"","text":"We need to be critical of the cumulative potential of the tax model proposed. Firstly, the theory of the state\u2019s capacity and how it functions in practice differ substantially. The idea of taxation acting to enhance the productive capacity of a nation is based on assumptions that the institutions, human resources, and state-capacity, are already present. This is not always the case in Africa.  Corruption and bad governance are prevalent. Reforms in 1996 to curb corruption in the TRA were reversed due to misunderstanding the nature of corruption amongst tax officials and administration (Fjelstad, 2003). Tax-revenue performance remains comparatively low [1] , there is little reason to simply altering what taxes there are will change this.  Finally, alternative methods can be used to assist rural infrastructure projects, and enable national savings. For example, revising the role of agricultural marketing boards [2] .  [1] See further readings: Gray and Kahn, 2010.  [2] See further readings: Baffes, 2005."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro02a","title":"","text":"Building productive capacity through increasing revenue  Between 2003-2009 the annual growth rate of mobile cellular subscriptions in Tanzania was 44.21%, higher than the average in Africa (Ondiege, 2010). Estimations suggest around 18bn Tsh [1] will be collected a month through the SIM card tax model (Rweyemamu, 2013). In 2012, Tanzania\u2019s total GDP was calculated at ~45tr Tsh [2] - the tax could therefore provide almost 0.5% of GDP in taxes. Such a boost in government taxation will enable projects such as improving rural infrastructure (including potentially mobile phone coverage!) or help reduce the deficit. That one tax can raise so much shows the potential of this kind of taxation.  [1] Equates to ~11.2mn USD (January 2013).  [2] Calculated based on World Bank Data (2013) and exchange rate as per January 2013."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro03b","title":"","text":"The SIM card taxation is an inequitable model for Tanzania\u2019s poor. The tax fee proposed will have detrimental effects to low-income users, whereby the cost exceeds the amount of money they spend on their mobile. For example considering the cost of tax, living, and mobile phone usage, the poor may be placed in a vulnerable position. Evidence suggests 8 million out of 22 million SIM card owners will be affected - with the rural poor feeling the greatest economic burden [1] . The burden of taxation may simply mean the poor can\u2019t afford a phone.  Taxation cannot be promoted without recognising the constraints on household savings and income. Universal benefits are debatable when the initial disposable income is polarised to start - the price tag is not-so-small for some.  [1] See further readings: BBC, 2013; Luhwago, 2013."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro01a","title":"","text":"The importance of mobilising domestic resources  In order to sustain development and growth nations need to build domestic resource mobilisation capacities - through collecting tax and savings. Domestic resource mobilisation enables the transition into a capitalist mode of production - poverty can be targeted and sufficient economies built. Social and economic facilities can be provided. To meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and enhance performance capacity African nation-states need to improve the amount of funding they raise through taxes [1] .  In order for development to be assisted, international donors and intervention needs to focus on encouraging innovative models of taxation such as taxing mobile phones. Such taxes don\u2019t have the track record of failure other taxes have providing a new opportunity to redesign the taxation system. Initiatives such as the mobile phone tax provide a trial for such a new model helping to gain support for future changes.  [1] See: UNCTAD, 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro01b","title":"","text":"Taxation remains a vital component of domestic resource mobilisation however focus needs to be placed on improving Tanzania\u2019s top revenue sources before innovative new models. Although the performance of tax collection has improved - with tax revenues rising by a rate of 15.7% between 1996\/97 and 2007\/08 (AfDB, 2011) taxation does not reach many areas that could be taxed; despite increasing exports of minerals and natural resources,"}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro03a","title":"","text":"A fair tax  The model is for rolling out a tax for all, on a commodity used by all. The cost is small and fair, only applying to individuals who are able to afford to buy and use a working mobile phone. Those who can afford multiple phones will be hit harder so this is a progressive tax.  Arguments suggesting the tax cost is unreasonable fails to look at the politics constructing such a discourse and manipulating what collected tax can do. Motivations for opposition are not necessarily emerging out of concern for individuals\u2019 well-being, but rather have alternative motives. The MOAT (Mobile Operators Association of Tanzania) oppose the tax fearing profit margins may decline; and politicians may use fear over the new tax policy to gain political support for oppositional parties. The opposition of the operators however merely reaffirms that it is a fair tax and those who would support opposition to the measure can be won round through explaining this."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con03b","title":"","text":"The SIM card tax is actually under-ambitious for potential change to be maximised. Nevertheless, the tax initiates a step in the right direction. Firstly, it will ensure reductions are made in tax avoidance. Secondly, the model shows the potential role the private-sector can play in tax collection. Decentralisation, and shifting responsibility, to independent providers means valuable resources can be collected outside of the criticised TRA structure. For example, the Association of Tanzania Employers may be granted greater involvement in enhancing corporate tax collection. Estimations suggest corporate tax exemptions resulted in annual revenue losses of 4% between 2011-2012 (Gaddis, 2013).  The SIM card tax indicates domestic resources can be mobilised by engaging in public-private partnerships. For progressive tax systems, Tanzania needs to utilise private actors."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con01b","title":"","text":"With mobile phones now a crucial commodity for everyday life, the digital revolution will not be stopped by the SIM card tax. The initial reaction to the tax may result in a temporary decline in new subscriptions and SIM card set-up, however, in the long-run subscriptions will continue to rise. Many people are willing to spend large amounts on a new phone; the addition of a tax will not deter them."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con02a","title":"","text":"Taxes cannot be justified while the network is poor  Can taxation be justified when the network remains poor, limited, and temperamental in numerous locations? Network coverage in Tanzania is 2G and geographically concentrated (see MDI, 2013). It must be improved before the government begins to use it as a tax resource. Tanzania\u2019s Right to Information Act recognises that government transparency and public information is a right. Therefore increasing costs on how people access information, and failing to provide good service, neglects individual rights. A right to information is not just a right to information for those who can afford the tax."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con03a","title":"","text":"Quick-fix policies: a failing model of implementation  Tax evasion remains a key concern across Tanzania. There remains a low tax base and high evasion. Imposing a quick-fix solution by taxing mobile phones fails to solve underlying issues. The model is widening the base of taxation, whilst neglecting the issue of tax evasion.  Therefore, to what extent will the model provide future benefits? Domestic resource policies need to ensure the taxation enables state-building and future capacities to impose tax more effectively and equally. The model relied on MOAT to collect taxes monthly, reducing the need for the TRA to construct a functioning tax-collection system or resolve social resistance to taxation. This then is effectively privatising a vital state function."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con01a","title":"","text":"Halting the technological revolution  The tax creates disincentives when we consider the potential losses that will result in the technology sector. The technological revolution in Tanzania will be jeopardised. The growth of mobile phones across Tanzania indicates the emergence of a \u2018network society [1] \u2019 but if the population stops buying mobile phones this will end. Taxing SIM cards may deter individuals from buying mobile devices, due to the additional cost. Further, alternatively if the manufacturers and providers attempt to take the burden of the tax to keep the price of a mobile down then supply will be affected. Currently individuals use multiple service providers to get cheaper phone call rates; however, this would no longer be a sensible option.  Taxing SIM cards will introduce costs to the entrepreneurship and service provision operating through mobiles. Technology holds great benefits within the twenty-first century; imposing taxation acts to exclude access and limit potential job opportunities. Mobiles have taken services to the people [2] - a vital resource for health services and information, aid distribution, banking, and commerce.  [1] See further readings: Castells, 2011.  [2] See Ondiege, 2010 on mobile banking. In Tanzania, where for every 100,000 people there is one bank, mobiles have enabled banking to penetrate across society."}
+{"id":"validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con02b","title":"","text":"The SIM card tax will provide positive knock-on effects for network expansion and improvement. By enforcing tax payment to individual users, mobile phone customers are able to demand better service quality and distribution. The public-sector have the obligation and responsibility to ensure tax can be justified so will encourage the development of the network \u2013 and if necessary use some of the taxes raised to pay for it."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro02b","title":"","text":"Even though this point correctly presents a theoretical possibility, the reality is different. Europe has since come up with an alternative solution that means the need for unanimity does not always mean decision-making can be slowed by a spoiler; the opt-out. Countries can negotiate to opt out of further integration on areas where they believe their national interests are threatened. This then allows all the other states to carry on with integration without risking a veto from the states that do not wish to follow that path. What further corroborates this point is that since Luxembourg accord, nothing similar has ever occurred, and even the compromise allowing for invoking national interests to halt QMV is no longer used. Thus it is irrational to fear \u201cempty chairs\u201d now, when all the states are aware of the possibility of a stalemate, and would, perhaps, never wanted to be held accountable for such situation."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro02a","title":"","text":"Unanimity requirement gives an enormous bargaining leverage to the hands of individual states  Unanimous voting provides states seeking additional gains with a tool to actually achieve their egoistic goals. In order for the whole Union to pass legislation that would be beneficial to all, a single state has power to negotiate further benefits for itself, thus holding up a deal and sometimes making it less beneficial for others. Similar concerns were expressed in the EU Commission White Paper on European Governance as consensus requirement \u201coften holds policy-making hostage to national interest\u201d. [1] What is more, such behavior sets dangerous precedents that nations can put national interests in front of communal, effectively deteriorating the cooperative spirit of the EU and eventually destroying it altogether. As Sieberson claims [2] , such was the case of French objections to the Treaty of Rome regarding the wider use of qualified majority voting in the fields of agriculture and the internal market. In the \u2018empty chair crisis\u2019 France boycotted Council meetings for seven months, until the deal called Luxembourg accord [3] was struck. \u201cThe Luxembourg accord is widely believed to have created a period of stagnation in the Community\u2026 Paul Craig describes this period as \u201cthe prime example of negative intergovernmentalism.\u201d [4] It prevented consolidation of Europe and ensured the EC remained intergovernmental by effectively curtailing qualified majority voting as any state could veto by invoking national interests.  [1] European Governance, A White Paper 2001, Commission of the European Communities, pp. 29, viewed 29 September 2013, <  .  [2] Sieberson, SC 2010, \u2018Inching Toward EU Supranationalism? Qualified Majority Voting and Unanimity Under the Treaty of Lisbon\u2019, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 934, viewed 29 September 2013, <  .  [3] Eurofond 2007, Luxembourg Compromise, viewed 29 September 2013, <  .  [4] Sieberson, SC 2010, \u2018Inching Toward EU Supranationalism? Qualified Majority Voting and Unanimity Under the Treaty of Lisbon\u2019, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 934, viewed 29 September 2013, <  ."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro03b","title":"","text":"This argument is based on the premise that federalization is a great idea. But, is it? It is hard to assess the extent to which federalization of the EU help make it a better union. What is clear, however, is that there are a whole load of questions to be answered before a federal union is attempted. As Cocodia [1] concludes \u201c\u2026if it must be, [it] ought to be a very slow and cautious project which should not be embarked upon unless issues such as group relations, societal culture\/language and trust have been properly addressed.\u201d These group relations and trust require that individual members concerns not be ignored. A sustainable federal union would be able to coexist with a veto because it would mean interests are close enough together that it would almost never be used.  [1] Cocodia, J 2010, \u2018Problems of Integration in a Federal Europe\u2019, Crossroads, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 57-81, viewed 1 October 2013, <  ."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro01a","title":"","text":"The requirement for unanimity is undemocratic  European Union has been based on principles of solidarity and mutual help. This means that sometimes, in order to ensure the \u2018greater good\u2019, one has to forgo a bit of his own self-interest. Because European Union holds together 28 culturally and economically different countries, qualified majority voting is sufficient to ensure that no state will be harmed by the decisions made on the international level. The fact that some states would like to retain their right of veto undermines the basic principles of the EU because no such process, where a single state is able to prevent majority from adopting a measure can be called democratic. It this system the minority, or individual state, can ignore the will of the majority indefinitely. Moreover, Zamora (in Sieberson, 2010) [1] states that \u201cinternational agreement is impossible to obtain when any single participant can block a decision; to achieve unanimous consent\u2026 a decision must be diluted so as to please everyone,\u201d concluding that such result is unsatisfactory and prohibits effective functioning of an international organization, mainly in regards to urgent, practical problems.  [1] Sieberson, SC 2010, \u2018Inching Toward EU Supranationalism? Qualified Majority Voting and Unanimity Under the Treaty of Lisbon\u2019, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 932, viewed 29 September 2013, <  ."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is not completely true. The EU\u2019s very economically successful pre-crisis state suggests that many of the decisions adopted by the EU are not \u201cdiluted to the point of being ineffective\u201d and that in fact, EU works quite well. Although there are stark differences between individual member states they are able to overcome them and work meaningfully as a collective when progress is necessary. States are willing to sacrifice their interests in some areas if they get something in return elsewhere, or believe they will in the future. Therefore even if we accept the assertion that unanimous requirement is undemocratic, in a society with knowledgeable individuals, the veto is only used as a last resort. Thus what happens is that the allegedly \"undemocratic\" process functions as well as democratic process, but on top has an additional check or balance to prevent anything that is found particularly egregious to pass."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro03a","title":"","text":"Disposing of unanimity requirement would make it easier advance the long-needed federalization of the European Union  With Greece as a trigger, the Eurozone and the whole EU have significantly suffered in the last five years as a result of massive and still on-going economic crisis. The Euro currency is, damaged by the vast differences between individual Eurozone members, with respect to their fiscal and monetary policies. While some states (commonly referred to as PIIGS) do have bigger problems with their finances, it is unthinkable for the others to be held responsible when serious issues, such as an inability to pay the debts, arise. Nevertheless, this was the case with Greece, when tens of billions of taxpayers\u2019 money were used to service debts of one irresponsible state. Despite more than 50% of private sector debt being cut down by creditors, the threat of Greece\u2019s default still lingers in the air. Getting rid of the unanimity requirement would make Europe much more able to respond quickly to crises. In the long run it would make negotiations for a federal union much easier, eventually turning it into reality. Achieving political integration and the abandonment of the veto that would come with it would then enable solutions to economic problems benefiting the whole even it unpalatable to some. Such position is also taken by Jacques Attali, a French economist who argues that \u201cthe institutional reform towards a federal Europe is necessary to implement a common fiscal and budgetary system.\u201d [1]  [1] Attali, J 2012, \u2018Attali: A federal Europe is the only crisis exit strategy\u2019, EurActiv, 18 April, viewed 29 September 2013, <  ."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con03b","title":"","text":"Similarly to the first counter-point, it is arguable to what extent it is true marginalization of smaller states when these states comply with terms of agreements. Why do they not seek further steps to avoid being included in such \u201cdisadvantageous\u201d changes, e.g. opt-outs? Also, if the marginalization was truly that apparent it is to be believed that these states would try to, for instance, change the QMV weighting. This has however not happened. Once again, does it not only prove that what is attempted to be satisfied is only selfishness and not common goals aimed towards improving life of the whole EU?"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con01b","title":"","text":"Federalization is a continual and on-going process. It does not happen overnight, and most importantly, it has been happening ever since the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) was founded. Therefore it is incorrect to think that there is anything like \u2018hidden federalization,\u2019 when its driving force are revisions of the common treaties which are agreed upon by all the member states. It is essential to point out that the EU is a democratic union, and member states joined the EU of their own accord. Becoming more federal would not affect this, there are many federal states that are democratic and not artificial such as Germany and the United States. Disposing of the unanimity requirement is not in any way harming the democratic principle of the EU as the changes will still have to be passed by Qualified Majority Vote. Strikingly, for many this is not enough, and other members have to understand that maybe without those who are not willing to move forward, the EU would be better off, what also means making tough decision of partially excluding those \u2018backward\u2019 states from further progress of the European Union. Concluding it in a single sentence, keeping the unanimity requirement intact servers only the egoistical needs of some specific nations."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con02a","title":"","text":"The EU was based on the grounds of solidarity and the unanimity requirements ensures that no state will be repressed for the \u201cgreater good\u201d  While understanding the need to compromise, members of the EU are very different meaning that hardly any important decision made will fit all universally. The unanimity requirement is needed only in few exceptional cases, such as for common foreign and security policy, which is completely understandable, since it is hardly imaginable that a successful union can act internationally as a whole without the consent of all members. Members clearly need to decide between them, as they do now, which areas need unanimity. It will then only be applied to issues where there should be no shortcuts when discussing and making decisions. The unanimity requirement provides states with a guarantee that they will not be left out of the debate and that their voice matters equally, whatever the size and international position of the state. Without this guarantee, it is beyond doubt that trust among the members would be eroded, damaging the union\u2019s unity of purpose."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con03a","title":"","text":"Qualified majority voting (QMV \u2013 an alternative to the unanimity requirement) favors big states and marginalizes the others  QMV in the Council before the accession of Croatia required 74.8% of the votes (258 out of 345). These votes are determined by an equation that takes into account size of population, e.g. Germany has 29 votes while Malta has only 3 votes. Also, a Member State may ask that the qualified majority represents at least 62% of the total population of EU. This system, as Novak puts it, may be potentially oblivious to the needs of smaller states as \u201cthe presidency and the Commission seek the support of big countries as a priority because they thereby achieve a qualified majority more quickly.\u201d Furthermore, Novak continues that sometimes, small countries lack resources and large civil services \u201cwhich seems to lead them pretty mechanically to rely on the Commission\u2019s expertise, or, less often, on that of representatives of big countries.\u201d [1] There we see that substituting unanimity requirement with QMV poses a real danger of marginalizing smaller states through a seemingly \u2018democratic voting procedure\u2019. While it is bad enough to foster such behavior regarding the common EU policies, it is unthinkable that this could happen during negotiations on important treaties (like common EU treaties).  [1] Novak, S 2011, Qualified majority voting from the Single European Act to present day: an unexpected permanence, Notre Europe, viewed 29 September 2013, <  ."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con01a","title":"","text":"Disposing of the unanimity requirements is essentially only hidden federalization of the European Union  With the recent developments in the EU, the potential that some states may leave is a growing concern. People\u2019s opinion towards the EU is becoming increasingly negative (trust towards EU has in 2012, compared to 2007, declined in all the nations except for Belgium). [1] This stems mainly from the fact that the EU is forcefully trying to invade the decision-making process of the sovereign members. Directives and regulations influencing lives within the nations agreed on at the supranational level, often it is felt without a democratic mandate, are not kindly welcomed. Therefore it is to no amazement that taking away the unanimity requirement, which is now used in the most important and controversial changes, would create huge pressure on the national parliaments to oppose such dictatorship. Fisher argues the idea of federal states \u201cshows itself to be an artificial construct which ignores the established realities in Europe.\u201d [2] Leaving would then be considered a feasible option, thus making the federalization completely counter-productive.  [1] Torreblanca, JI, Leonard, M 2013, The Continent-wide Rise of Euroscepticism, European Council on Foreign Relations, viewed 6 October 2013, <  .  [2] Sieberson, SC 2010, \u2018Inching Toward EU Supranationalism? Qualified Majority Voting and Unanimity Under the Treaty of Lisbon\u2019, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 929, viewed 29 September 2013, <  ."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con02b","title":"","text":"Unlike the former Soviet Union, the European Union is no \u2018jail\u2019 and members can, even though such move would be unprecedented, leave the union at any time. It is therefore hard to define \u2018oppressing for greater good\u2019 when we realize that the state tacitly agrees to it by staying in the union, possibly because the membership is still beneficial, even if we consider the \u2018oppression\u2019 in question. In this case then are these \u2018oppressed\u2019 state not just lusting for something more rather than a reasonable concern regarding the national interests? Continuing in this line of thought, is this not the exact opposite of what the members should attempt to do? In cases where a state loses they should recognise that in some cases they will gain and others loose."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro02b","title":"","text":"While African governments may be good at professing to want cooperation and integration the reality on the ground lags behind this considerably. No regional trade block has yet been really successful in creating a free trade area let alone a customs union and protectionism, restrictive trade practices and import bans often remain. [1] The effectiveness and chances of integration through free trade are also greatly reduced by almost all the potential member states having very similar economies that rely on the export of primary goods. This makes specialisation and a concentration on trade within the block difficult without a complete restructuring of countries economies. Moreover free trade requires effective infrastructure, something Africa is lacking. [2] Integration is therefore unlikely to go anywhere and even if it does it may have little effect.  [1] Gumede, William, \u2018Saving Africa\u2019s free trade area from failure\u2019, Pambazika News, Issue 553, 20 October 2011.  [2] Goodridge, R.B., \u2018Chapter 3: Factors Against Regional Economic Integration\u2019, 2006, p.30."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro02a","title":"","text":"There is already some African integration that can be built on.  While African integration has been slow there has been real progress in constructing the building blocks to allow further integration. African countries are already somewhat integrated: for example 14 countries in West and Central Africa use the CFA franc as currency [1] and there are regional blocks in West Africa and East Africa. The existence of these regional free trade areas the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC), Common Market for Eastern and Southern African Countries (COMESA), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) will eventually provide the springboard for further integration throughout the whole of Africa. [2] The latter three of these communities have signed a memorandum of understanding to cooperate on integration and harmonise areas such as trade. [3] More importantly, despite problems with the creation of a single currency, the EU remains a good model for the AU: no one would suggest that the EU is in danger of being disbanded. Though its members might have differences as to its exact structure, that debate is no different than in any other confederation.  [1] Musa, Tansa, \u2018Cameroon, BEAC see no CFA franc devaluation\u2019, Reuters Africa, 28 November 2011.  [2] \u2018Developments in Regional Integration in Africa\u2019, African Economic Outlook, 28 April 2012.  [3] \u2018Memorandum of Understanding on Inter Regional Cooperation and Integration Amongst Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), East African Community (EAC) and Southern African Development Community (SADC)\u2019, 19 January 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Many of Africa\u2019s wars are ethnic conflicts (i.e. Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, the Congo). These conflicts will not be dissipated by simply redrawing \u2013 or attempting to dissolve - national borders. Instead of integration if borders are the problem then Africa needs to be redrawn into smaller states based on ethnicity as in Europe. Secessionist would then movements would disappear, each state could have its own language so facilitating democracy, there would be no more identity politics and each state, though smaller would be stronger. [1] Only when this is done can these states begin continental integration.  [1] Zachary, G. Pascal, \u2018Africa Needs a New Map\u2019, Foreign Policy, 28 April 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro01a","title":"","text":"The AU can bring peace to the continent  Integration can bring peace; just like the European Union has in Europe. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the UN has slowly changed its relationship with regional organizations. It is more willing and through its agenda for peace has been demanding that regional organizations be responsible for peacekeeping, state-building and humanitarian assistance. [1] Part of the reasoning is that these states are more sensitive to local customs, concerns and diplomacy. Already, the African Union has taken on several peacekeeping initiatives; first in Burundi in 2003m and more recently on-going missions in in Darfur, Sudan, since 2004 and in Somalia since 2007. [2] The AU also allows regional economic communities to take a lead in responding threats to peace so allowing action to be taken at the appropriate level. [3]  [1] Department of Peacekeeping Operations, \u2018Cooperation between the United Nations and Regional Organisations\/arrangements in a peacekeeping environment\u2019, United Nations ,March 1999, p.6.  [2] Murithi, Tim, \u2018The African Union\u2019s Foray into Peacekeeping: Lessons from the Hybrid Mission in Darfur\u2019, Journal of Peace, Conflict and Development, Issue 14, July 2009.  [3] Adebajo, Adekeye, \u2018Strengthening Africa\u2019s security architecture\u2019, Utenriksdepartementet."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro01b","title":"","text":"There is too much distrust amongst the AU\u2019s membership already: Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone all accuse each other of backing rebel movements in their respective civil wars. The UN is asking regional organizations to shoulder some of its \"peace and security\" responsibilities out of desperation, as prompted by its failure in Rwanda, not as part of some strategy. In Kosovo, NATO had to intervene because Russia blocked any UN action at the Security Council. There are as yet no other successful examples of regional organizations (i.e. ASEAN, APEC, OAS) getting involved in a military conflict and successfully bringing peace."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Integration will fix the problem of borders  For some commentators, Africa\u2019s biggest problem is that its countries are remnants of colonial empires. In the post-colonial period, borders were drawn between states randomly, creating ethnic tension and geographic dissonance. Qaddafi argued that peace will break out when Africa\u2019s borders disappear. As Saadi Touval argued \u201cThe borders are blamed for the disappearance of a unity which supposed existed in Africa in precolonial times\u2026 The borders are considered to be one of the humiliating legacies of colonialism, which, according to this view, independent Africa ought to abolish\u201d. [1] Though unification is the end goal, the short-term objective is to create an African free trade area with some semblance of regional organization. Most importantly, the AU has abandoned the notion of absolute \"state sovereignty\": it can \"peer review\" the human rights and political situation in any of its members. [2] The EU was established after WWII to assist in the rebuilding of Europe; why can\u2019t the AU do the same in Africa?  [1] Zachary, G. Pascal, \u2018Africa Needs a New Map\u2019, Foreign Policy, 28 April 2010.  [2] \u2018About APRM\u2019 African Peer Review Mechanism, 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con03b","title":"","text":"Africa also has advantages that Europe did not have; there is no cold war dividing the continent into opposing armed camps, there are now many successful examples of developing world countries industrialising to draw on, and organisations like the EU that have forged on ahead have shown up some of the potential problems for Africa to avoid. Kofi Annan has also noted that Europe too started integration with a devastated continent \"That, Excellencies, should be our aim - to rebuild, as Europe did, after a series of devastating wars, uniting across old divisions to build a continent characterized by peace, cooperation, economic progress and the rule of law.\" [1]  Moreover some of Africa\u2019s disadvantages could potentially be turned into advantages if integration is managed correctly. Africa\u2019s lack of industrialisation for example means that member states can choose to specialise in complementary areas as they industrialise.  [1] Annan, Kofi, \u2018Call for Leadership in Africa\u2019, Business Day, 10 July 2001."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con01b","title":"","text":"While it used to be correct that Africa prized sovereignty above everything else, including stability, [1] this is no longer the case. Just by signing up to the African Union states were showing that they were now willing to cede some sovereignty to the organisation as it involved ceding some power to the Pan African Parliament and the African Court of Justice and Human Rights. [2] Some sovereign power is also ceded to the Assembly of the AU, composed of heads of state and government, as while decisions are preferably by consensus it can also be by a two thirds majority, and the decision is still binding on the minority that disagrees. [3] Moreover the protocols establishing all of these bodies anticipate more powers slowly being transferred to them. In particular the Pan African parliament will slowly gain the power to legislate much as the European Parliament does.  [1] Zachary, G. Pascal, \u2018Africa Needs a New Map\u2019, Foreign Policy, 28 April 2010.  [2] Wachura, George Mukundi, \u2018Sovereignty and the \u2018United States of Africa\u2019 Insights from the EU\u2019, ISS Paper 144, June 2007, p.3.  [3] Ibid p.4"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con02a","title":"","text":"African international organisations do not have a history of effectiveness  In its thirty-nine year history, the predecessor of the AU, the OAU is almost universally judged as an abysmal failure. [1] It failed to challenge any major dictator on the continent and stood idle while civil war, ethnic conflict, poverty and disease ravaged ordinary Africans. Idi Amin, the former Ugandan despot, even served as the OAU chairman for a brief spell. Its only success was in preserving the notion of sovereign borders in Africa. The AU suffers many of the old problems of the OAU; particularly its capabilities falling well short of the ambitious rhetoric. The institution still does not have mechanisms to enforce or even encourage compliance so cannot resolve conflicts. When conflicts arise there has been difficulty getting action from the AU due to a preference for consensus and even if there is agreement the Union does not have the capability to intervene. [2]  [1] Amoo, Samuel G., \u2018The OAU and African Conflicts: Past Successes, Present Paralysis and Future Perspectives\u2019, Institute of Conflict Analysis and Resolution George Mason University, May 1992, p.2.  [2] Williams, Paul D., \u2018The African Union\u2019s Conflict Management Capabilities\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, October 2011, p.8, pp.20-22."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con04a","title":"","text":"The role of leaders will prevent success  A pan-African organization must be willing to stand up to African dictators and military rulers, the real cause of bloodshed and poverty on the continent. So far the AU has failed in this mission: Zimbabwe\u2019s Robert Mugabe is a charter member of the AU and the AU has done little to encourage him to relinquish control of his country. It continued this trend by being unwilling to recognise the Libyan rebels until after the capital, Tripoli, had fallen. [1] The conflict in Libya showed that are still happy to support autocrats and unwilling to champion democracy. [2] So long as this is the case the AU will be unable to pool sovereignty in the way the European Union has as these individuals are unwilling to give up power, whether that is in elections or to international organisations.  [1] Adedoja, Tokunbo, and Oyedele, Damilola, \u2018At Last, AU Recognisis Libyan Rebels\u2019, This Day Live, 21 September 2011.  [2] Tostevin, Matthew, \u2018Has the African Union got Libya wrong?\u2019, Reuters, 31 August 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con03a","title":"","text":"The AU faces immense challenges that did not affect Europe  The AU\u2019s model, the EU, is a work-in-progress. Even in Europe, there is some concern that the EU will not hold and the Euro crisis has shown the difficulties in integrating economies. Even if the EU were a perfect model, it was established in a time of peace. In Africa, war still rages in parts of the continent; such as Somalia, Congo, and Mali. And in Europe, unification is broadly supported by international and economic heavyweights: Britain, France and Germany. In Africa, the comparable AU anchors are Nigeria and South Africa, neither of which can guarantee AU commitments by themselves.  Africa also has huge economic concerns that don\u2019t plague Europe: most African countries trade with their former colonial masters rather than each other, Africas trade with itself is on average only 10% of trade, [1] and the standard of living varies widely across the continent (e.g. South Africa\u2019s GDP is ten times that of Nigeria).  Finally it should be remembered that it took the EU forty years to establish a shared currency and a central bank \u2013 which is itself showing the strains created by doing so. How will Africa, home to some of the world\u2019s poorest and most corrupt countries, do it any faster?  [1] Giorgis, Tamrat G., \u2018Exclusive: Pascal Lamy, \u201cAfrica should strengthen trade within itself\u201d, Afronline, 8 Frbruary 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con01a","title":"","text":"Africa prizes sovereignty  In Africa as elsewhere where there has been decolonisation the countries prize their independence. This is entirely understandable, but it makes it unlikely that they will be willing to forgo their sovereignty in the near future. Indeed notwithstanding the goal of integration one of the objectives of the AU is \u2018To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its Member States\u2019. [1] So long as there are internal conflicts and a need for state building then it is correct that this should come first before integration. As UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan has noted, \"no amount of aid or trade will make the difference\" unless war ends on the continent. [2] Moreover the larger nations in Africa; South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya need to be on-board if any real union is to be effective. However sovereignty is more important to these states as they have real influence as independent nations and as a result they are the least enthusiastic about integration. [3]  [1] \u2018African Union in a nutshell\u2019, African Union.  [2] Annan, Kofi, \u2018Call for Leadership in Africa\u2019, Business Day, 10 July 2001.  [3] Soares, Claire, \u2018Ambitious plan for a new Africa: Welcome to the U.S.A (that\u2019s the United States of Africa)\u2019, The Independent, 30 June 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con04b","title":"","text":"First of all Africa is becoming more democratic; in 1983 there were only three democracies in Africa but by 2010 this had increased to 23 and with this comes an increase in accountability and desire both for cooperation with neighbours and for economic liberalisation. [1]  While individuals certainly dominate African politics and often power is more concentrated in their hands than in more mature democracies this can be an advantage. If these leaders do want to move towards a closer union they can potentially do so much faster than countries where many more interest groups need to be taken into account.  [1] \u2018Emerging Africa: How 17 Countries are Leading the Way\u2019, Devprac.org."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbiataucs-con02b","title":"","text":"We should not be tarring the AU with the failures of the OAU. The objectives of the AU are different than that of the OAU. To begin, it is modelled on the European Union, a successful blueprint for building regional institutions and alliances. Second, the AU has already accepted the need for more coercive measures and as a result used sanctions nine times between its foundation and 2011 in response to unconstitutional changes of government. [1] The common electoral standards already call for independent observers before and after any national election so encouraging good governance. And the peace and security council has the authority to send troops to stop crimes against humanity or war crimes. The buzzword at the AU is \"people-centred\" as opposed to the OAU\u2019s focus on state sovereignty.  [1] Williams, Paul D., \u2018The African Union\u2019s Conflict Management Capabilities\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, October 2011, pp.17-18."}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro02b","title":"","text":"These terrorist camps are the responsibility of a few within the Eritrean government, such as Colonel Tewolde Habte Negash, not the many. In other areas, Eritrea has been cooperative with the global war on terror. In 2012 Eritrea provided over flight clearance to the US air force in regional security operations2.  1) Connell,D. \u2018Eritrea\/Ethiopia War Looms\u2019, 2 October 2005  2) Office of the coordinator for counterterrorism \u2018Country Reports on Terrorism 2012 Chapter 2: Africa\u2019 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro02a","title":"","text":"The government has supported terrorist organisations  Accusations have been made against Eritrea claiming that they have supported terrorist groups, particularly those operating in neighbouring countries. Eritrea has been accused of supporting al-Shabaab, an al-Qaeda affiliated terrorist group in Somalia who also operate in Kenya, as well as several other secessionist groups. Training camps have reportedly been established within Eritrea, several of which were attacked by Ethiopia in 20121. The attempts to destabilise East Africa have naturally led to international condemnation, especially from the USA whose \u201cWar on Terror\u201d was contradicted by Eritrea\u2019s action2. This would suggest that Eritrea\u2019s own actions are responsible for their isolation.  1) Smith,D. \u2018Ethiopian raid on Eritrean bases raises fears of renewed conflict\u2019, 16 March 2012  2) BBC, \u2018US sanctions on Eritrea spy chief Negash over al-Shabab\u2019, 6 July 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro03b","title":"","text":"Many states commit human rights abuse but still enjoy inclusivity in the international system. China has been associated with mass human rights abuse1, yet they are still a major actor in international relations. They also have one of the largest economies, a seat on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and positive relations with most of the world. Eritrea\u2019s regional rival, Ethiopia, also enjoys fruitful international relations with many powerful states despite similar human rights abuses. The resettlement of the Lower Omo Valley by Ethiopia is one such example of continued international support despite killings, beatings and forced resettlement2. This demonstrates a double standard which is not necessarily Eritrea\u2019s fault.  1) Human Rights Watch, \u2018World Report 2013: China\u2019, 2013  2) Hurd,W. \u2018Ignoring abuse in Ethiopia: DFID and USAID in the Lower Omo Valley\u2019 July 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro01a","title":"","text":"Eritrea started the 1998 war  Eritrea was responsible for instigating the war against Ethiopia, making it liable for its increased isolation. Eritrea was officially recognised by an international Claims Commission as the initiator of the war1. The state invaded the region of Badme after a long diplomatic dispute over the border issue as they believed the territory was rightfully theirs2. They removed the Ethiopian presence from the state, compromising territorial integrity and incurred a reaction from Ethiopia. This marked Eritrea as the aggressor. An aggressor in a war cannot be seen as a \u2018just\u2019 actor and has therefore contributed to its own seclusion by acting in such a manner.  1) BBC, \u2018Eritrea broke law in border war\u2019, 21 December 2005  2) Briggs,P. \u2018Ethiopia\u2019 pg.30"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro01b","title":"","text":"Ethiopia provoked Eritrea into invading their shared border. The lands were technically Eritrean, as the boundaries commission would later state1. Through these circumstances, Eritrea was not infringing the territorial integrity of Ethiopia. Moreover, some have hypothesised that Ethiopia actually encouraged the war to happen by murdering several Eritrean officials near Badme2. This would create an excuse to make territorial gains, namely to regain access to the Red Sea and the potential trade that accompanied it3.  1) Lauterpacht,E. \u2018Sixteenth report on the work of the commission\u2019 24 February 2005  2) Connell,D. \u2018Eritrea\/Ethiopia War Looms\u2019, 2 October 2005  3) Shah,A. \u2018Conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea\u2019, 20 December 2000"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro04b","title":"","text":"Eritrea has never been fully self-sustainable and still accepts foreign assistance. The beginning of the 21st century has seen Eritrea open up to increasing numbers of foreign Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) providing aid. The country has now become a highly favoured aid recipient1. Even during the Eritrean-Ethiopian war, when most aid agencies were forced out of the country, some were permitted to remain.  1) Smith-Simonsen,C. \u2018The pros and cons of self-reliance: Eritrea\u2019s relations with aid agencies and NGOs\u2019 pg.347"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro03a","title":"","text":"Human Rights Abuse  Eritrean isolation has been exacerbated by their poor human rights record. Claims were presented to the UN of \u2018extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, extended incommunicado detention, torture, indefinite national service, and lack of freedom of expression, assembly, religious belief and movement\u20191. Eritrea\u2019s President, Isaias Afewerki, has been accused of using the threat of invasion as a justification for the highly militarised and brutal nature of his country2. This has attracted international criticism, with a joint statement from 44 countries condemning Eritrea\u2019s infringement of human rights3.  1) The Guardian, \u2018Eritrea\u2019s human rights record comes under fire at United Nations\u2019, 25 October 2013  2) Blair,D. \u2018Eritrea: the African North Korea which thousands will risk anything to escape\u2019 3 October 2013  3) Joint statement of 44 countries, \u2018Human rights Situation in Eritrea\u2019, Human Rights Council, 13 March 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-pro04a","title":"","text":"President Isaias Afewerki has sought self-reliance  Whilst President Afewerki was fighting for Eritrean independence he became a proponent of the self-reliant state, which could sustain its own population with no external assistance. Since independence the President has rejected foreign aid to the country through claims that aid is a method of enslavement to international donors1. Numerous offers of assistance, including the free food distributions of the World Food Programme, have been rejected in favour of the domestic market2. Afewerki claims that as aid decreases, farmers will work harder to ensure that food demand is met. The lack of donors and trading partners has served to weaken Eritrea\u2019s ties of the outside world, making the state responsible for its own isolation.  1) BBC, \u2018Self Reliance could cost Eritrea dear\u2019, 5 July 2006  2) Saunders,E. \u2018Eritrea aspires to be self-reliant, rejecting foreign aid\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 2 October 2007"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-con03b","title":"","text":"Eritrea has acted in violation of international law numerous times through methods such as human rights abuse and deserves the UN\u2019s condemnation. Despite these abuses, the UN still offers aid to the country1, demonstrating its commitment to re-engage with the country. Eritrea, however, has been increasing hostile to the UN over the issue of aid. Having refused assistance from the United Nations World Food Programme and other policies, Eritrea has weakened its links with the institution, isolating itself from the international community.  1) BBC, \u2018Eritrea refuses food aid\u2019, 3 January 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-con01b","title":"","text":"The US has attempted to maintain an equal level of support for both Ethiopia and Eritrea since the EEBC incident. Both states became military allies of the USA and joined the coalition of the willing which invaded Iraq in 20031. The US has also attempted to reach a permanent peace between the two state and has encouraged Eritrea to contribute to regional stability2.  1) Connell,D. \u2018Eritrea\/Ethiopia War Looms\u2019, 2 October 2005  2) Bureau of African Affairs, \u2018U.S. Relations with Eritrea\u201911 February 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-con02a","title":"","text":"Eritrea is surrounded by hostile nations  Eritrea has been forced in to isolation due to unfriendly neighbours. In its short history, Eritrea has been in conflicts with Ethiopia and Djibouti over border issues. Diplomatic ties with Sudan, while having improved recently, have historically been very poor as well. The hostility received from these countries has fostered a \u201cbunker mentality\u201d amongst Eritreans1. The previous and present security threats from their neighbours has ensured an \u2018us against them\u2019 attitude, which is evident in their wider international dealings.  1) Eshetu,S. \u2018Eritrean Leadership\u2019s \u201cBunker Mentality\u201d\u2019, 3 September 1998"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-con03a","title":"","text":"The UN has done little to facilitate improvement  Rather than encouraging Eritrea to become more integrated in the international community, the United Nations has made the state\u2019s situation worse. The UN has enforced sanctions upon the country for links that it claimed to find between Eritrea and al-Shabaab1 which served to weaken ties between Eritrea and the outside world. The intergovernmental organisation (IGO) has also regularly condemned Eritrea for its policies, which Eritrea believes is the result of hostile states ensuring the state is condemned by the international community2.  1) The Guardian, \u2018Eritrea\u2019s human rights record comes under fire at United Nations\u2019, 25 October 2013  2) Ibid"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-con01a","title":"","text":"The US has unfairly supported Ethiopia  The US is responsible for Eritrea\u2019s isolation through its foreign policy. The United States has actively supported Ethiopia, Eritrea\u2019s rival, in regional disputes. In 2002, the USA urged Ethiopia to disregard the Eritrean-Ethiopian Border Commission\u2019s (EEBC) decision which stated that lands occupied by Ethiopia did belong to Eritrea. This was also a violation of their role as a guarantor for the agreement1. Continued support for Ethiopia\u2019s counterterrorism role worsened US-Eritrea relations. Relationships deteriorated to the extent of which that the USA attempted to revoke Eritrea\u2019s membership to the UN in December 2011. The US has therefore been unnecessarily provocative and exclusionary in its foreign policy.  1) Weldemichael,A. \u2018Eritrea: Bringing Eritrea in From the Cold- We Need to UN-Break the U.S.-Ethiopia-Eritrea Triangle\u2019 17 January 2014"}
+{"id":"validation-international-apwhberii-con02b","title":"","text":"Eritrea has been responsible for the majority of this animosity. The country was responsible for aggressively attacking Yemen in 1996. In 2008, Eritrea attacked along the Djibouti-Eritrean border claiming the territory was rightfully theirs1. A theme emerges from these examples, confirmed by President Afewerki of Eritrea when he openly stated he has sought the removal of neighbouring regimes2. The excuse of adopting a siege mentality has also enabled the president to increase his powers and suppress internal dissent3. It is therefore more likely that the government, rather than external players, have contributed to Eritrea\u2019s siege mentality.  1) Mesfin,B. \u2018The Eritrea-Djibouti border dispute\u2019, 15 September 2008  2) Eshetu,S. \u2018Eritrean Leadership\u2019s \u201cBunker Mentality\u201d\u2019, 3 September 1998  3) Blair,D. \u2018Eritrea: the African North Korea which thousands will risk anything to escape\u2019, 3 October 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro02b","title":"","text":"Annan\u2019s peace proposals do not provide cover for Assad; they call for Assad to stop fighting and single out the Syrian government as having to stop troop movements and pull back. Assad would have much more political cover without the proposal providing a benchmark by which to rate Assad\u2019s cooperation."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro02a","title":"","text":"The plan is just political cover for Assad.  The plan is simply being used as political cover by Assad, as long as he is signed up to such an agreement and other countries believe there is a chance that he will implement it the Russians and Chinese will not allow further Security Council action. Both the Russians and Chinese are showing that they are willing to support Assad by vetoing anything hinting at sanctions. [1] Therefore the only thing the Annan plan does is provide more time for Assad to go on killing his own people so that he can remain in power as is shown by his unwillingness to implement any of the plans provisions. [2]  [1] Bennetts, Marc, \u2018Russia Says West\u2019s UN Syria Resolution Supports Rebels\u2019, RIA Novosti, 18 July 2012.  [2] Editorial Board, \u2018Syria\u2019s cover for murder\u2019, Washington Post, 31 March 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro03b","title":"","text":"Ultimately unless one side wins decisively then there will have to be a deal. Both sides will have to shift their positions. There have to be on-going negotiations to be able to facilitate this."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro01a","title":"","text":"The plan has failed.  The plan has clearly failed; its primary goal was to end the violence but a total of at least 13,000 Syrians have been killed since the beginning of the uprising. [1] Around 100 people are killed each day and even Annan himself has conceded the ceasefire is \u2018failing\u2019. [2] Assad clearly believes the Annan plan has failed having told his cabinet \"When one is in a state of war, all our policies and capabilities must be used to secure victory\" [3] this is not the kind of language of someone looking to take part in a peaceful solution. Everything in the plan relies on some kind of ceasefire; that has not happened and without it the rest of the points cannot be implemented. The plan must therefore be abandoned as Susan Rice the US Ambassador to the United Nations stated when creating the monitoring mission \"If there is not a sustained cessation of violence, full freedom of movement for U.N. personnel and rapid meaningful progress on all other aspects of the six-point plan, then we must all conclude that this mission has run its course.\" [4]  [1] Barari, Hassan, \u2018A road map for political solution to Syrian crisis\u2019, Al Arabiya News, 1 July 2012.  [2] Blomfield, Adrian, \u2018Syria: Kofi Annan claims peace plan can be revived\u2019, The Telegraph, 9 July 2012.  [3] \u2018Assad says Syria \u2018in a state of war\u2019, Aljazeera, 27 June 2012.  [4] Lynch, Colum, \u2018Does Washington have the stomach to kill of Kofi Annan\u2019s peace plan?\u2019, Foreign Policy.com, 18 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro01b","title":"","text":"While the plan has not yet brought about a ceasefire this does not provide a good reason not to continue to use the six point plan as the basis to create that ceasefire. Deadlines may pass but that cannot mean we simply abandon the intention to create that ceasefire."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro03a","title":"","text":"The Syrian opposition will never be willing to deal with Assad.  As a follow up to the six point plan on the 1st July in Geneva it was agreed that a transitional government would be set up which \u201ccould include members of the present government and the opposition and other groups and shall be formed on the basis of mutual consent\u201d. [1] Mutual consent however means both sides have a veto; Assad would have to agree and he is not going to agree to a government which he is not involved in. The opposition meanwhile argues \u201cThe country has been destroyed and they want us then to sit with the killer?\u201d [2] With neither side willing to consider sitting down with the other it is difficult to see how Annan\u2019s plan can ever get anywhere no matter how long it is kept on life support.  [1] Action Group for Syria Final Communiqu\u00e9, 20 June 2012.  [2] Lee, Matthew, \u2018Analysis: Plan to end Syrian crisis falls flat\u2019, Associated Press, 2 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-con03b","title":"","text":"Russia has vowed to veto any such western resolution arguing that \"To adopt the resolution would be...direct support for the revolutionary movement\u2026 To pressure just one side means drawing [Syria] into a civil war and interference in the internal affairs of the state.\" [1] Moreover even if such a resolution was to get through the UN Security Council it would have little impact. Sanctions have a poor track record in bringing regimes to the table when they believe they are threatened. Sanctions have not worked against Iran [2] or North Korea, and the sanctions imposed against Libya last year in a similar situation clearly failed as armed intervention was needed. [3]  [1] Bennetts, Marc, \u2018Russia Says West\u2019s UN Syria Resolution Supports Rebels\u2019, RIA Novosti, 18 July 2012.  [2] Sadeghi-Boroujerdi, Eskandar, and Sahmi, Muhammad, \u2018The Sanctions Aren\u2019t Working\u2019, Foreign Policy.com, 5 July 2012.  [3] Farge, Emma, \u2018Special report: In Libyan oil shipment, sanctions prove dumb\u2019, Reuters, 16 May 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-con01b","title":"","text":"There is little point in talks for the sake of talks if they are never going to get anywhere. There are other things that could be done that could help reduce the violence such as creating safe zones in neighbouring countries territories, establishing buffer zones in Syria, and creating an arms quarantine to prevent Russian and Iranian weapons flowing into Syria to help the regime. [1]  [1] Tabler, Andrew J., \u2018Cut Off Assad\u2019s Lifelines\u2019, The Washington Institute, 30 May 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-con02a","title":"","text":"Without the peace plan there will be further conflict.  Kofi Annan believes that peace can only be found together arguing all members of the Security Council \"Either unite to secure your common interests, or divide and surely fail in your own individual way. Without your unity\u2026 nobody can win and everyone will lose in some way.\" Moreover a failure of the peace plan would \u201cturn a humanitarian crisis into a catastrophe.\" [1] Without any prospect of a peaceful solution it is likely that Assad would escalate to using chemical weapons. Nawaf Fares, the Syrian Ambassador to Iraq who has defected, has warned that they would be used if the regime feels cornered. [2] If this were to happen Israel might be compelled to attack to prevent Syrian Chemical weapons being used against it or falling into the hands of terrorists. [3] This in turn would spark off a wider regional war.  [1] Beaumont, Peter, \u2018Failure of Syria peace plan \u2018risks wider regional conflict\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 30 June 2012.  [2] Gardner, Frank, \u2018Syria: Assad regime \u2018ready to use chemical weapons\u2019, BBC News, 17 July 2012.  [3] Fisher, Gabe, \u2018Pentagon reportedly seeking to avert Israel strike on Syrian chemical weapons sites\u2019, The Times of Israel, 19 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-con03a","title":"","text":"Annan\u2019s plan should be enforced.  Western countries such as Britain and France want attention to shift from monitoring to enforcement. William Hague argues the bomb that killed the Syrian defence minister \u201cconfirms the urgent need for a Chapter VII resolution of the UN Security Council on Syria\u2026 All the members of the UN Security Council have a responsibility to put their weight behind the enforcement of Joint Special Envoy Kofi Annan's plan to end the violence.\u201d [1] This enforcement would mean non-military sanctions if the regime does not withdraw troops and heavy weapons from populated areas within 10 days [2] \u2013 as called for in the second point of Annan\u2019s plan.  [1] Hague, William, \u2018Hague: \u2018The situation in Syria is clearly deteriorating\u2019, itvnews, 18 July 2012.  [2] AP, \u2018U.K.\u2019s Hague Urges Support for Peace Plan\u2019, Wall Street Journal, 18 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-con01a","title":"","text":"Annan\u2019s plan is the only proposal on the table.  Both the options currently on the table are continuations of the six point plan. The western states such as the US, France and UK want to give the plan teeth by adding an enforcement mechanism while the Russians own plan simply involved extending the current monitoring mission. [1] There would be no point in starting from scratch on a new plan that would have to rebuild support from world governments and would likely end up at a similar position. Not only is there no plan B but any plan B would have to simply mean more of the same. [2] The Annan plan at least has a starting framework up and running and is talking to all parties.  [1] Lynch, Colum, \u2018Does Washington have the stomach to kill of Kofi Annan\u2019s peace plan?\u2019, Foreign Policy.com, 18 July 2012.  [2] \u2018U.N. chief: \u2018No Plan B\u2019 in Syria\u2019, CNN, 24 May 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-mewhwakapps-con02b","title":"","text":"This maintains the fiction that the current plan is somehow reducing the level of conflict in Syria; it is not, and that is the whole problem. Already the Red Cross has declared the conflict to be a Civil war. [1] The conflict is expanding regardless of the peace plan.  [1] Nebehay, Stephanie, \u2018Exclusive: Read Cross ruling raises questions of Syrian war crimes\u2019, Reuters, 14 July 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro02b","title":"","text":"Sanctions are a proven policy tool and can pressure a regime that is extremely repressive into reforms. Aggressive U.S. engagement and pressure contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Bloc and it can work again. As in the Cold war there are radio stations that are effective at providing news and information about the outside world to Cuba. [1] Sanctions are also, according to Colin Powell, a \u2018moral statement\u2019 of America\u2019s disapproval for the Castro regime. Blaming America for all economic woes didn\u2019t trick ordinary Russians and it won\u2019t trick the Cubans. Now is exactly the time that the United States should be tightening down the screws so that Castro\u2019s successor is forced to make real changes.  [1] 104th Congress, \u2018H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)\u2019, 1996."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro02a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are not working  Sanctions are pointless and counterproductive. They\u2019ve made no political difference in the last 43 years, why would they now? They mean that the US can be blamed for all the failures of the Cuban economy and to justify repressive measures for security, [1] and therefore encourage the retrenchment of both. In times when the Cuban economy is booming, as in 2005 when the economy grew by 8%, the impotence of the sanctions becomes clear. [2] President Bush claimed to want to empower civil society in Cuba but he also argued that the best way to achieve this in China was to trade and spread \u2018American values.\u2019 [3] Cuba\u2019s geographical and cultural proximity makes it very likely to change quickly when they are able to freely interact with the United States through travel and trade. [4] [5]  [1] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005.   [2] Peters, Philip, \u2018U.S. Sanctions against Cuba: A Just War Perspective\u2019, p.392.   [3] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005.   [4] Meet the Press, \u2018John Kerry\u2019,31 August 2004.   [5] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro03b","title":"","text":"The United Nations Resolutions condemning the sanctions have never passed through the Security Council and therefore lack any authority. The Cubans themselves are also violating international agreements in particular the 1928 Inter-American Convention on Asylum and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights by surrounding \u201cembassies in its capital by armed forces to thwart the right of its citizens to seek asylum and systematically denies that right to the Cuban people.\u201d [1]  [1] 104th Congress, \u2018H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)\u2019, 1996."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro05a","title":"","text":"Foreign policy should follow the will of the people  Sanctions are not the will of the American people but of a small minority of embittered Cuban Americans in Florida who are being pandered to due to their importance in elections in a swing state. [1] Congressman Charles Rangel argues that the only success of the sanctions policy has been to \u201cappease the Republican constituency in Florida\u201d. [2] National opinion generally expresses no preference or opposes the ban, in a 2009 CBS poll asking \"Do you think the United States should or should not re-establish diplomatic and trade relations with Cuba?\" 67% said should. [3] Sanctions remaining in place is electioneering government at its worst, domestic interest groups controlling government foreign policy. As Karl Rove has admitted \"When people mention Cuba to me, it makes me think of three things: Florida, Florida, and Florida.\" [4]  [1] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005.   [2] DeYoung, Karen, \u2018Sanctions Against Cuba Are Excessive, GAO Says\u2019, 2007.   [3] Pollingreport.com, \u2018Cuba\u2019.   [4] Rosenthal, Joel H., \u2018The Cuba Wars: Fidel Castro, the United States and the Next Revolution\u2019, 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sanctions harm the Cuban people.  The sanctions cause real and unacceptable harm to the Cuban people. Sanctions deprive Cuba of low cost food that the United States could provide so hitting the poorest yet they do not affect the ruling elite. [1] In the 1990\u2019s Cuba lost $70 billion in trade [2] and $1.2 billion in international loans because of U.S. sanctions. Cuba is too poor a country not to suffer from these losses. The dominance of America in the pharmaceuticals industry, moreover, means that it is actually impossible for Cubans to gain access to many drugs and other medical equipment, including the only curative treatment for some pediatric leukemias. [3] America would be the natural market for most Cuban products, and its refusal to accept goods with even the tiniest Cuban inputs from third nations damages Cuba\u2019s ability to trade with others. Other South American countries have shown their reliance on the types of loans that Cuba is denied in the last few years to keep their economies on track.  [1] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005.   [2] United Nations Secretary General, \u2018Necessity of ending the economic, commercial and financial embargo imposed by the United States of America against Cuba\u2019, United Nations General Assembly, Fifty-seventh session, 26 July 2002,  P.11  [3] Garfield, Richard, \u2018The Impact of the Economic Crisis and the US Embargo on Health in Cuba\u2019, American Journal of Public Health, Vol.87, No. 1, January 1997,  P.18"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro01b","title":"","text":"Sanctions didn\u2019t cause the economic failure in Cuba. The communist political and economic system has been shown to lead to economic collapse all over the world, whether sanctions are in place or not. Centralization, collectivism, state control, bureaucracy, and restrictions on private initiative totalitarian style economic policies are what are to blame for the Cuban people\u2019s economic suffering. [1] Even if sanctions were lifted, lack of private ownership, foreign exchange and tradable commodities would hold Cuba back. The International Trade Commission found a \u2018minimal effect on the Cuban economy\u2019 from sanctions. [2] In fact, it is by using sanctions to pressure Cuba into economic and political reform that the US can best contribute to an economic recovery there.  [1] Peters, Philip, \u2018U.S. Sanctions against Cuba: A Just War Perspective\u2019.   [2] U.S. International Trade Commission, \u2018ITC Releases Report on the Economic Impact of U.S. Sanctions with respect to Cuba\u2019, 2001."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro05b","title":"","text":"The people who care most about the Cuban question thoroughly oppose dropping sanctions. The Mid-Western Republicans who voted to drop the travel ban are no less blinkered than the Cuban Americans who vote to keep it. Opinion on sanctions wavers; the separation of powers is specifically in place to allow the White House to maintain a stable policy on issues of national security rather than responding to every change in public opinion. It would not be right for the United States to change its foreign policy when the population is apathetic and has very little opinion on an issue."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro04b","title":"","text":"Cuba will never make up more than a tiny percentage of America\u2019s trade and it is able to source and sell all the products it needs elsewhere. Even if Cuba was a vital market for American goods it would be worth giving up some economic growth in order to maintain a commitment to the freedom of the Cuban people. As it is, the total Cuban GDP is a drop in the ocean and at this point is almost entirely irrelevant to the United States."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro03a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are illegal  Sanctions on Cuba are illegal and damage America\u2019s International standing. They violate the UN Charter, laws on the freedom of navigation, and repeated United Nations resolutions since 1992 (passed with only the US and Israel in opposition). [1] Furthermore, some parts of the Helms-Burton Act are extra-territorial in their effects on businessmen from third nations and therefore cause significant protest around the world. This makes a mockery of the US claim to be a guardian of International Law, not only in its dealings with Cuba but also in the negotiations over the future of Iraq. America could achieve its goals internationally more easily if it was not marked with evidence of its lack of respect for International Law.  [1] CNN, \u2018U.N. again condemns U.S. embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-pro04a","title":"","text":"Economic benefits of ending sanctions  The United States will also benefit from the opening of trade with Cuba economically. Mid-Western Republicans have all voted to drop the embargo because of the potential for profits in their farming states. Even the modest opening of the embargo in 2000 has increased sales of farm products immensely having gone from nothing [1] to $344 million in 2010. [2] This is a market for American products as well as a local producer. Further, if sanctions end Americans will be able to stop pretending that they prefer Bolivian cigars!  [1] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005.   [2] Reuters, \u2018U.S. food sales to Cuba fall further in 2010\u2019, 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con03b","title":"","text":"There is no reason to believe that yet more years of sanctions will make a difference. Cuba has been defiant in the face of much worse and continued on the same course. The sanctions cannot provide leverage while other states do not have sanctions; Cuba can get anything it requires from elsewhere without recourse to the United States so why would Cuba be willing to ever make concessions before sanctions are dropped. [1]  [1] Reeson, Greg, \u2018Time to Drop Sanctions Against Cuba\u2019, 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con01b","title":"","text":"There are no legitimate grounds for Cuba to be sanctioned as opposed to many other states. There is no evidence that Cuba is a sponsor of terror, and even if it is the U.S. does not place all the restrictions it places on other designated sponsors of terror that it does on Cuba. [1] Cuba has no biological, chemical or nuclear weapons and any allegations about Cuba developing such weapons have never been substantiated. Cuba holds fewer prisoners of conscience than China, Vietnam or Iran and has recently been releasing many of them. [2] To maintain sanctions in order to change the form of government, as the United States claims it does, is totally illegitimate under International Law and, moreover, Cuba is in no sense the only undemocratic country in the world. Cuba has gone so far as to offer to compensate the U.S. citizens whose property was nationalised in 1959. America has never explained the threat posed by Cuba that requires these sanctions.  [1] DeYoung, Karen, \u2018Sanctions Against Cuba Are Excessive, GAO Says\u2019, 2007.   [2] Amnesty International, \u2018Cuba frees prisoners of conscience\u2019, 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con02a","title":"","text":"Protecting human rights  America is attempting to protect the rights of its own citizens and of the Cubans enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [1] Something the Castro who considers democratic pluralism to be \u2018pluralistic garbage\u2019 [2] will never live up to without coercion. Indeed Cuba undermines the guarantees made in its own constitution and invokes sovereignty as a justification for not complying with international rights agreements and further restricting human rights. [3] The USA\u2019s status as a guardian of human rights and an enemy of terror is enhanced by its moral refusal to compromise with a repressive government just off its own shores.  [1] 104th Congress, \u2018H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)\u2019, 1996.   [2] 104th Congress, \u2018H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)\u2019, 1996.   [3] Human Rights Watch, \u2018Impediments to Human Rights in Cuban Law\u2019, 1999."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con04a","title":"","text":"Sanctions are necessary for national security  Sanctions are a better alternative to military action. The most recent set of sanctions were imposed in 1996 in response to two US civilian planes belonging to the group of exiles \u2018brothers of peace\u2019 being shot down by the Cuban Air Force near Cuba. [1] The United States would have been justified in reacting proportionally with some military action but instead reinforced sanctions through the Helms-Burton Act. [2] This shows that the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of support for Cuba in 1991 did not mean an end to the threat posed by Cuba. Cuba has remained communist and the Castro regime has shown it is still willing to antagonize the United States. As Cuba is situated in a strategic location close to the United States the US government cannot be precipitate in removing sanctions at least until Cuba proves it is a good neighbour.  [1] University of Minnesota Human Rights Library, \u2018Armando Alejandre Jr., Carlos Costa, Mario de la Pena y Pablo Morales v. Republica de Cuba\u2019, 1999.   [2] 104th Congress, \u2018H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)\u2019, 1996."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con03a","title":"","text":"Sanctions provide leverage  In 2003 Senator John McCain argued \"freedom for the Cuban people is not yet at hand, and the Castro brothers clearly intend to maintain their grip on power\", [1] and this situation is likely to continue if sanctions are dropped unilaterally and the pressure is taken off Cuba. The United States however might be able to help the Cuban people gain more freedom in return for being willing to reduce and eventually drop sanctions when the Cuban people are free. Barak Obama while supporting improved relations with Cuba and an eventual dropping of sanctions argues that they provide leverage to encourage steps towards democracy. [2]  [1] McCain, John, quoted in AFP, \u2018White House runners: Castro\u2019s exit not enough\u2019, 2008.   [2] Omestad, Thomas, \u2018Cuban Official Rules Out Any Obama Preconditions for Improved Relations\u2019, 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con01a","title":"","text":"Cuba deserves sanctions  Cuba is a repressive regime which operates one party rule, holds political prisoners and stifles opposition and economic freedom through constant harassment. The Cuban administration is on the U.S. list of sponsors of terror, [1] not least because it provides a safe haven to many American fugitives, [2] and has refused to give help with the search for Al-Qaeda suspects. Cuba is known to have a developmental biological weapons \u2018effort\u2019 [3] and is recorded as breaking international sanctions to export dual use technologies to other rogue states. [4] Finally, Cuba has failed to stop drug shipments through its waters [5] and its government profits directly from resources stolen from United States citizens in 1959.  [1] U.S. Department of State, \u2018State Sponsors of Terrorism\u2019.   [2] 104th Congress, \u2018H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)\u2019, 1996.   [3] NTI, \u2018Cuba Profile Biological\u2019, 2009.   [4] Bolton, John, \u2018Beyond the Axis of Evil: Additional Threats from Weapons of Mass Destruction\u2019, 2002.   [5] Adams, Nathan M., \u2018Havana\u2019s Drug-Smuggling Connection\u2019, 1982."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con04b","title":"","text":"The national security rationale for sanctions on Cuba has long since disappeared. The embargo was originally imposed in 1960 when Castro seized US property in Cuba and was tightened in 1962 in response to Cuban alignment to the Soviet Union. These sanctions were in order to neutralize Cuba as a potential threat through it being a proxy of the Soviet Union. Since the Soviet Union has collapsed this is no longer a problem. Instead Cuba is left with no powerful friends and by itself its military power is negligible and is certainly in no position to threaten the world\u2019s preeminent power. [1]  [1] Defense Intelligence Agency, \u2018The Cuban Threat to U.S. National Security\u2019, 1997."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwdsac-con02b","title":"","text":"Opening to trade is the way to human rights rather than cutting of contact. Trade and development encourage communications that help to undermine oppression. [1] Far from engaging in sanctions the United States should be encouraging Cubans to use mobile phones and the internet; technologies that can be vital in undermining authoritarian regimes as shown by the Arab Spring.  [1] Griswold, Daniel, \u2018Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo against Cuba\u2019, 2005."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro02b","title":"","text":"Failing states do not infect a whole region. The contagion theory is hard to apply beyond a small group of countries in West Africa - elsewhere failed states do not tend to drag down their neighbours with them. For example, countries bordering Somalia, such as Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya and Eritrea, are far from perfect but none of them are close to being considered a failed state. In fact, whilst Somalia is seen as the basket case in the region after the failed U.N. intervention in 1992, the percentage of its population that lives on less than $1 a day is in fact less than those of its West African neighbours. [1] Therefore, in most cases the best solution to the problem of failed states is not intervention but for regional groups (e.g. ECOMOG in West Africa, the African Union in Western Sudan, the European Union in Macedonia, Australia in East Timor) to take responsibility for their areas rather than to overburden the USA and UN. In sum, \u2018not all failing states pose true dangers to the peace\u2019 and therefore the U.N.\u2019s responsibility for \u2018international peace and security\u2019 is not a sufficient basis for action to resurrect all failing or failed states\u2019. [2]  [1] Coyne, C. (2006). Reconstructing weak and failed states: Foreign intervention and the Nirvana Fallacy. Retrieved June 24, 2011 from Foreign Policy Analysis, 2006 (Vol. 2, p.343-360) p.351  [2] Ratner, S. R., & Helman, G. B. (2010, June 21). Saving Failed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro02a","title":"","text":"Failing states can infect a whole region  It is in the interests of international stability that failing states are rescued before it is too late. Failed states often infect a whole region, as the collapse of Liberia did in West Africa - a problem known as contagion. Neighbouring states back different factions with arms and squabble over resources, such as the diamonds of Sierra Leone and the mineral wealth of Congo. Internally neighbours are destabilised by floods of refugees and weapons from next door. Their own rebel groups can also easily find shelter to regroup and mount fresh attacks in the lawless country just over their borders. Former U.N. Secretary Boutros-Ghali claimed, as his justification for support for failing states, that the U.N. has a responsibility under its Charter to \u2018maintain international peace and security\u2019 amid fears \u2018the demise of a state is often marked by violence and widespread human rights violations that affect other states\u2019. [1] Intervention prevents this by entailing the establishment of conditions for reconstruction which thereafter provides physical infrastructure, facilities and social services. The ultimate goal therefore of the intervention is to ensure that both the state concerned and the region as a whole require no further military or monetary support. [2]  [1] Ratner, S. R., & Helman, G. B. (2010, June 21). Saving Failed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:   [2] Coyne, C. (2006). Reconstructing weak and failed states: Foreign intervention and the Nirvana Fallacy. Retrieved June 24, 2011 from Foreign Policy Analysis, 2006 (Vol. 2, p.343-360) p.343"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is very limited evidence to support the theory that failed states become havens for terrorists. It is true that there are some Al-Qaeda sympathisers in Somalia, but these seem to be few in number and no greater in threat to the USA and its allies than similar groups in other countries. Nor is Afghanistan a good example of this theory; Osama Bin Laden was invited to take refuge there by an established government - the Taliban - only after they had successfully grabbed power in Afghanistan. Before this, Bin Laden was sheltered in Sudan - not in the war-torn and lawless south, but in the northern part where the government was in firm control. [1] Here the problem was not a failed state, but rather one with an extreme Islamist government. On the other hand, Iran and Syria are both accused of providing bases for terrorists, but neither could be considered a failed state.  [1] Hehir, A. (2007) \u2018The Myth of the Failed State and the War on Terror\u2019, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, Vol. 1\/3, pp. 307-326"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro01a","title":"","text":"States should act to help civilians in failing states to prevent humanitarian crises  States should act to help the people of a failing state, as once it collapses no government services will be provided, including law and order. States should work with the UN in leading attempts at conflict resolution, and should engage in subsequent peacekeeping missions and investment in nation-building initiatives (e.g. funding and organising the reintegration of non-combatants into society, organising elections, building up civil society, creating effective government institutions, etc.). The failure of the UN operation in Somalia in 1990 is telling; the country has not had a functioning central government ever since. [1] Intervention to prevent such outcomes will require both greater willingness to commit funds on the part of the powerful states and a commitment to conflict resolution which has been largely lacking in recent national policy world-wide.  [1] CNN (2011, June 21) Somalia again is at top of failed states list. Retrieved June 23, 2011 from CNN Wire:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro01b","title":"","text":"States should act to protect their own civilians first and foremost, not those in failing states. As such, soldiers should not be sacrificed for the lives of civilians elsewhere; that is not what soldiers enlist for nor does it fit a state\u2019s role as a guarantor of security for its own citizens. Civilians in failing states are the ones that ultimately need to take the responsibility for usurping the incumbent powers in their state. Furthermore, even if it were the case that states should act to prevent failing states, there are means to do this that do not include intervention; charities can provide humanitarian assistance, states can offer mediation services if there is a dispute and diaspora communities can provide finance."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro04b","title":"","text":"The United Nations has demonstrated that it lacks both the organizational ethos and the forces required to effectively prevent the failure of states. The veto power on the Security Council ensures that troops for intervention are only mandated when they suit the interests of the most powerful states. Furthermore, the nature of the UN\u2019s forces, almost always composite forces made up of a number of different states, renders them ineffective once on the ground. The example of Sierra Leone is telling, a ceasefire was only agreed upon three years after the UN entered the state, and as late as 2009, the UN\u2019s own head in the region noted the country is still in a precarious situation, \u2018with ethnic and interreligious conflicts and increasing threats from international crime\u2019. [1] Failure was not prevented, merely put off.  [1] Security Council (2009, September 14). Sierra Leone\u2019s success in transition to stable democracy depends on government providing \u2018peace dividend\u2019, Security Council told. Retrieved June 21 from United Nations:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Failed states are havens for drug-smugglers and terrorists  Failed states also export dangers more widely, as they often provide an opportunity for drug crops such as Opium (Afghanistan) or Coca (parts of Colombia) to be grown, processed and traded without fear of authority, with devastating effects both locally and globally. Desperate people may also take refuge in religious or political extremism, which may in time come to threaten the rest of the world. In so doing, failed states often become havens for terrorists, who can find safety in them to plot against the West, to establish training camps for future terrorists, and to build up finance, weapons and other resources with which to mount campaigns. In what was a key claim that later underpinned the 2002 US National Security Strategy and the U.S. War on Terror, Stephen Walt, a professor of international relations at Harvard University, has described failed states as \u2018breeding grounds of instability, mass migration, and murder\u2019. [1] This can be seen in Somalia, where states in recent years have \u2018begun to fear al Qaeda will take advantage of the lawlessness\u2019. [2] Other fragile states, such as Niger, Congo and Sierra Leone have radioactive and other valuable minerals which could be very dangerous in the hands of determined terrorists. The USA should work with the UN to strengthen governments so that they can more effectively maintain internal order while controlling their borders and tracking resource-flows.  [1] Rotberg, R. I. (2002, July\/August). Failed States in a World of Terror. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Council on Foreign Relations:   [2] Dickinson, E. (2010, December 14). WikiFailed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro04a","title":"","text":"The United Nations has the constitutional power and capability to intervene to prevent failed states  The United Nations, and its resident body, the Security Council, has both the right and the capability to intervene in countries in order to maintain the peace. Peace in this sense represents more than the absence of bloodshed, but also provides the means by which aid organizations can enter a territory and provide the requisite resources to prevent civilian suffering. The United Nations have proven their efficacy in this area, mandating an intervention in the Ivory Coast in 2003 that sought to prevent the exacerbation of tensions between the government and rebel forces. [1] A ceasefire was eventually brokered in 2007 and the failure of the state averted. U.N. forces in Macedonia during the 1990s were also credited with \u2018successfully contributing to the prevention of conflict spill over and having a stabilizing effect in the country\u2019. [2] U.N. interventions to prevent the failure of states can and do work.  [1] BBC News (2003, February 5) UN backs Ivory Coast peacekeepers. Retrieved June 20, 2011 from BBC News:   [2] Kim, J. (1998, July 23). Macedonia: Conflict Spillover Prevention. Retrieved September 9, 2011 from CRS Report for Congress:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con03b","title":"","text":"The cost of intervention is lower than the cost of inactivity. Sometimes, as in Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia, the situation will become so bad that US military intervention is necessary - this is hugely costly compared to funding preventative action through the United Nations. The role of failed states as reservoirs from which refugees, narcotics, terrorism, illegal diamonds, etc. are exported means that the USA already spends many billions of dollars a year in dealing with the mess they create. Finally, there is an opportunity cost of lost trade and investment which applies to the developing world and developed economies alike (e.g. the benefits to the US of trade with oil-rich Angola, Sudan and Congo)."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con01b","title":"","text":"Interventions can, and do, fail, however so long as their intentions are good, they must still be attempted if the effects of failed states are to be prevented. Furthermore, the humanitarian catastrophes linked to failing and failed states: \u2018mass migration, environmental degradation, regional instability; energy insecurity and transnational terrorism\u2019 are not the fault of a failed intervention, but a failed state. [1] The U.S.-led intervention in Somalia in 1992 is a case in point; though the intervention failed and, it could be argued, exacerbated conditions in Somalia, it did not lead to the state\u2019s failure, it merely failed to prevent it. As such, the U.S. cannot be blamed for attempting to stand with Somalis and save their state; that they failed is unfortunate, but the subsequent continuing humanitarian catastrophe is not the fault of intervening forces. So long as there is hope that interventions can prevent failed states, the success rate is above 0%, they should be attempted for the alternative is little better for the civilians concerned.  [1] Patrick, S. (2006) Weak states and global threats: Fact or fiction? Retrieved June 24, 2011 from the Washington Quarterly (29:2, p.27-53) p.27"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con02a","title":"","text":"Failing states should not be provided a safety net  Being willing to step into every fragile state could create a moral hazard. Irresponsible governments will assume that they will be bailed out by the powerful states, like the US, and the UN, who will always intervene to prevent unnecessary and wide-spread suffering. [1] This in itself makes future failures much more likely, as there is no incentive for governments to tackle corruption, crime or the other issues that push states to the brink of failure. [2] There needs to maintain a culpable fear of failure, separate from the regime change and economic reconstructing often enforced by the UN and IMF on failing states.  [1] Kuperman, A. (2006) \u2018Suicidal Rebellions and the Moral Hazard of Humanitarian Intervention\u2019 in T. Crawford and A. Kuperman eds. Gambling on Humanitarian Intervention (London: Routledge).  [2] Rotberg, R. I. (2002, July\/August). Failed States in a World of Terror. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Council on Foreign Relations:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con05a","title":"","text":"Intervention in fragile states is simply a new form of imperialism  It is not for either the USA or the UN to impose a government upon individual countries. Doing so would deny the people of the failed state the right to chart their own future and be absent of the authorisation of the UN Charter, which states the organization is not allowed to intervene \u2018in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state\u2019. [1] Furthermore, if the USA, or any one country, regularly intervened it would create more hostility towards that country, with accusations that it is acting out of a self-interested desire to exploit peoples economically. The personnel of that country could rapidly become a target for attacks. Nor is it desirable to encourage the UN to increase the level of its intervention in the domestic affairs of member states. This might start with weak countries but could rapidly become a habit and encourage the organisation in its ambitions to become a world government.  [1] Ratner, S. R., & Helman, G. B. (2010, June 21). Saving Failed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con04a","title":"","text":"International development is a more effective method of preventing failed states.  The current US approach to international development, in which aid, loans or market access are conditional upon good governance, should be maintained and even extended more widely. Such conditions provide incentives for developing countries to put constructive policies in place and reward those who fight corruption. As past failures show all too clearly, there is no point throwing money at chaotic, lawless and corrupt regimes - it will never reach the people anyway. In any case, humanitarian relief is not conditional and the USA continues to respond with compassion to emergencies anywhere in the world. It should also be noted that special measures to support states identified as at risk of failure could in themselves be harmful. Discussion of intervention will scare off investors and help to bring about economic collapse - becoming self-fulfilling prophecies."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con03a","title":"","text":"The cost of intervention is too high  The cost of intervention is too high. The United Nations has neither the money nor the support of the international community to undertake speculative missions. Already it fails to meet its targets for troops to provide peacekeeping in countries which request its help. The USA already contributes nearly a quarter of the UN's peacekeeping budget and cannot afford more at a time when it is already stretched by major commitments in Iraq and Afghanistan. It is difficult to see where else the necessary funds could come from. The reconstruction of Afghanistan is expected to cost as much as $15 billion over the next ten years, \u2018plus the cost of training a new army and police force\u2019. [1] At a time of financial austerity, American citizens are entitled to ask whether their money is being spent prudently. The lives of intervening soldiers are not pawns, they should not be unnecessarily sent into death-traps like Somalia in 1990. [2]  [1] Rotberg, R. I. (2002, July\/August). Failed States in a World of Terror. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Council on Foreign Relations:   [2] Dickinson, E. (2010, December 14). WikiFailed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con05b","title":"","text":"The questionable foreign policy of previous U.S. administrations should not pre-empt future interventions, either by the United States or other nations genuinely intended to protect civilians in failing states, when mandated by the United Nations. The United Nations has expertise and is widely respected, which will be required considering the international reputation of the USA is now sufficiently damaged that the hostility it generates can undermine the good work it wishes to do. In partnership the USA can provide resources to enable the UN to secure the future stability of many fragile countries, while the UN's involvement can show that these operations are altruistic and pose no imperialist threat. Over time, commitment through the UN to international peace and humanitarian concerns will allow the USA to change the way it is viewed worldwide - an important aspect of the War on Terror. Regarding violations of sovereignty, former U.N. Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali dismisses objections: \u2018the time of absolute and exclusive sovereignty has passed; its theory was never matched by reality\u2019. [1]  [1] Ratner, S. R., & Helman, G. B. (2010, June 21). Saving Failed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con01a","title":"","text":"Interventions can fail and eventually cause more harm than good  Interventions are not a panacea for failing states; they do not ensure the success of either the military offensive or subsequent reconstruction efforts on the ground during the occupation. If the intervention fails to overcome local forces, civilians are powerless to overcome a political hierarchy boosted by military victory and reliant on violence. Furthermore, even if the military offensive is successful, the underlying causes of the failure of the state are still present and may be exacerbated by the presence of an intervening force. As such, intervening forces must be aware that the decision is not simply whether intervention is necessary, but whether it will do more harm than good. Coyne describes this fallacy as the \u2018Nirvana Fallacy\u2019, whereby states assume that the \u2018grass is always greener on the other side\u2019. \u2018It is assumed that the foreign governments can generate, via occupation and reconstruction, an outcome preferable to that which would occur absent of these interventions\u2019. The reality challenges these assumptions, for Minxim Pei calculates just a 26% success rate for U.S.-led reconstruction efforts since the late nineteenth century. [1] If an intervening force can\u2019t be certain, even remotely, of the benefit to the state concerned, it has little justification in deploying and risking the exacerbation of an already-precarious problem.  [1] Coyne, C. (2006). Reconstructing weak and failed states: Foreign intervention and the Nirvana Fallacy. Retrieved June 24, 2011 from Foreign Policy Analysis, 2006 (Vol. 2, p.343-360) p.344"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con04b","title":"","text":"Western aid \u2018cannot reach its intended recipients because of violence, irreconcilable political divisions, or the absence of an economic infrastructure\u2019. [1] There is a need to change the rules for access to US aid programmes (e.g. the Millennium Challenge Account) and trade preferences (e.g. the African Growth and Opportunity Act), and those of international organisations in which the USA is influential (e.g. the World Bank, G8 moves on debt relief). At present these programmes are structured to reward developing countries with particular government policies (e.g. protection of property rights, focus on education, sustainable budgets, anti-corruption measures, etc). Sensible though this seems, it denies international help to those states whose people need it most - those where government is weak or absent. Funding microcredit schemes, education, health and sanitation programmes in the more stable parts of failing states, and providing meaningful trade access could all provide long-term benefits to the USA.  [1] Ratner, S. R., & Helman, G. B. (2010, June 21). Saving Failed States. Retrieved May 16, 2011, from Foreign Policy:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con02b","title":"","text":"Punishment for the actions of irresponsible governments should not be handed down to civilians. The \u2018safety net\u2019 purports to protect civilians by preventing the failure of states; it does not guarantee the protection of those governments responsible for the near-failure. Furthermore, the fear of future failures is much more pronounced when states are left to fail, to export their anarchy to neighbouring states and their contraband to the world. As Rotberg therefore claims, \u2018preventing states from failing, and resuscitating those that do fail, are\u2026strategic and moral imperatives\u2019. [1]  [1] Rotberg, R. I. (2002, July\/August). Failed States in a World of Terror. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Council on Foreign Relations:"}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-pro02b","title":"","text":"The idea that the US and NATO have a moral obligation falls flat when considering that this would put the US and NATO in a position of having a moral obligation to many other third world countries that are struggling and in conflict. Yet, such a broader obligation obviously does not exist, so why should it exist in Afghanistan? The US\/NATO cannot solve Afghanistan's problems, and may actually be doing more harm than good. In so far as a state cannot have a moral obligation to do something impossible, the US and NATO should not have a moral obligation to fulfil the impossible task of stabilizing Afghanistan."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-pro02a","title":"","text":"American and NATO moral responsibility to Afghanistan  The US overthrew the Taliban in the winter of 2001. It has a moral obligation to ensure that when it does leave Afghanistan it does so secure in the knowledge that the country will never again be a launching pad for the world\u2019s deadliest terrorist groups, and that the country is on the way to a measure of stability and prosperity. [1]  Withdrawal before this has been achieved would amount to a terrible betrayal of the Afghan people, some of whose troubles are the result of Western intervention. Millions of refugees have returned and millions of children have the chance to go to school. But the West has failed to protect civilian lives, to bring the development it promised, to wean the economy off its poppy-addiction and to ensure fair elections\u2014and failed even to agree about what it is trying to do in the country. Locally, NATO forces have done fine and heroic work. But too often the best initiatives are dropped when the best commanders end their tours. The Afghan conflict, it is often said, has been not an eight-year war, but eight one-year wars. NATO comes off worse each time. [2]  US and NATO forces should persist in Afghanistan because they can do much better in terms of helping Afghanistan, and because they have a moral obligation to do so. It should be remembered that, for the Afghan people, a return to Taliban rule would condemn their country to brutal governance, international isolation, a paralyzed economy, and the denial of basic human rights to the Afghan people - especially women and girls. The return in force of al Qaeda terrorists who would accompany the core Taliban leadership would cast Afghanistan under the shadow of perpetual violence. [3] The US and NATO have a moral obligation to prevent this, and to not withdraw until the future of Afghanistan is secured.  [1] Bergen, Peter. \"Winning the good war. Why Afghanistan is not Obama's Vietnam\". Washington Monthly. July\/August 2009.   [2] The Economist. \"Obama's war. Why the Afghanistan war deserves more resources, commitment and political will.\". 15 October 2009.   [3] Obama, Barack. \"A New Strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan\". RealClearPolitics. 27 March 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-pro03b","title":"","text":"As the British learned in two wars with Afghanistan in the 1800s and the Soviets learned in their bloodbath of the 1980s, Afghanistan is no country at all. Rather, it's a diverse collection of primitive tribes occupying a harsh landscape pockmarked with tens of thousands of hiding places ideal for guerrilla warfare. The war there is a quagmire and makes Vietnam look like an easy place to conquer. [1] These tribes may consider themselves Afghani but this does not reflect any form of nationalism and does not show any more unity than that someone in Morocco and someone in Saudi Arabia may both consider themselves Arab.  Why should NATO countries continue to risk their troops in this death trap? Without the timetable for withdrawal, there is no end in sight to this war. In recent testimony to the Senate Armed Services Committee, (retired) Lieutenant General David Barno, a former commander in Afghanistan, said the counter-insurgency campaign that he and other experts are advocating could last until at least 2025. [2]  [1] Navarro, Peter. \"Orange Grove: Get out of Afghanistan now\". OC Register. 25 September 2009.   [2] Fenton, Anthony. \"Afghanistan: A Surge Toward Disaster\". Asia Times Online. 18 March 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-pro01a","title":"","text":"The war in Afghanistan is necessary for US and NATO security  The timetable for withdrawal from Afghanistan means withdrawing by the end of 2012, regardless of the security situation, and handing over the conflict against the Taliban and Al Qaida (which will almost certainly still be going on) to a largely Afghan force which is ill-prepared to handle the war on its own. This means that proponents of the timetable withdrawal must support pulling NATO forces out of Afghanistan even if the war is going badly at the end of 2012 and it is clear that the withdrawal will benefit the Taliban and Al Qaeda on the battlefield. \"Afghan forces simply do not currently have the capacity to do the protecting themselves at this point and, given the challenges of building up new institutions in Afghanistan after decades of war, will not necessarily have the ability until by the end of 2012.\u201d US and NATO forces are needed to mentor and partner with Afghans as they build up an army and police force largely from scratch. Withdrawing before this task is completed adds up to a prescription for a drying up of intelligence and a Taliban victory. [1]  If the Taliban were thus to come to power in Afghanistan after the timetabled withdrawal, al-Qaeda would not be far behind. The USA's top nemesis would be able to salvage a victory in the very place from which it launched the 9\/11 attacks eight years ago. Al-Qaeda would have its favourite bases and sanctuaries back, as well as a major propaganda win. [2]  This defeat for the West in Afghanistan would embolden its opponents not just in Pakistan, but all around the world, leaving it open to more attacks. [3]  The West has a security interest in preventing the region from slipping into a maelstrom of conflict. Pakistan, with 170m people and nuclear weapons, is vulnerable to the Taliban\u2019s potent mixture of ethnic-Pushtun nationalism and extremist Islam, as its state power is tenuous. Anarchy in Afghanistan, or a Taliban restoration, would leave it prey to permanent cross-border instability. [4]  Therefore success in Afghanistan is key to the security in Pakistan. The US has even more reasons to care about the security of Pakistan when the India-Pakistan conflict is considered, especially as both sides of this have nuclear weapons. India and Pakistan have come within a hair\u2019s breadth from nuclear conflict twice over Kashmir. If Pakistan were to fall apart, it would potentially leave nuclear weapons and a large military in the hands of extremist Muslim groups, which could lead to a regional war with India. It is a compelling and vital American interest to prevent nuclear conflict in South Asia\u2014which makes \u201cfixing\u201d Afghanistan in some way also a vital American interest, even if this means keeping the troops there past the timetabled withdrawal. [5]  The War on Terror cannot be won if the US and NATO pull out of Afghanistan and rely more simply on offshore military resources. During the 1990s, when the US tried to go after Osama bin Laden without access to nearby bases by using ships based in the Indian Ocean, the two- to four-hour flight times of drones and cruise missiles operating off such ships made prompt action to real-time intelligence impractical. [6]  Since 1979, the US has been involved in a long, complex conflict against Islamic extremism. It has fought this ideology in many ways in many places, and it is uncertain now how this conflict will evolve. However the US should understand that the conflict is unavoidable and that when extremism pushes, it is in the US and NATO'S long-term interests to push back \u2014 and that eventually, if they do so, extremism will wither. [7]  The timetabled withdrawal from Afghanistan could mean withdrawing before this struggle has been won, and handing a base for exporting terrorism to the Taliban and Al Qaeda. Security comes before other state interests, largely because the rights of all citizens depend on their security first, and so the security dimension here is key. Therefore, in order to protect the security of the US and other NATO countries, the timetable for withdrawal from Afghanistan should be abandoned, and the troops should remain there until the job is done.  [1] Bruce Riedel, Bruce and O'Hanlon, Michael. \"Why we can't go small in Afghanistan\". USA Today. September 4, 2009   [2] ibid  [3] The Economist. \"Obama's War\". 15 October 2009.   [4] ibid  [5] Foust, Joshua. \"The Case for Afghanistan: Strategic Considerations\". Registan. 27 August 2009.   [6] Bruce Riedel, Bruce and O'Hanlon, Michael. \"Why we can't go small in Afghanistan\". USA Today. September 4, 2009   [7] Brooks, David. \"The Afghan Imperative\". New York Times. 24 September 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Afghanistan is only of limited value to American and other NATO countries' security, especially in the context of other areas where the resources could be used. Amdrew Bacevich argued in 2009: \"What is it about Afghanistan, possessing next to nothing that the United States requires, that justifies such lavish attention? In Washington, this question goes not only unanswered but unasked. Among Democrats and Republicans alike, with few exceptions, Afghanistan\u2019s importance is simply assumed\u2014much the way fifty years ago otherwise intelligent people simply assumed that the United States had a vital interest in ensuring the survival of South Vietnam. As then, so today, the assumption does not stand up to even casual scrutiny. [...] For those who, despite all this, still hanker to have a go at nation building, why start with Afghanistan? Why not first fix, say, Mexico? In terms of its importance to the United States, our southern neighbour\u2014a major supplier of oil and drugs among other commodities deemed vital to the American way of life\u2014outranks Afghanistan by several orders of magnitude.\" [1]  The sort of fear-mongering about Pakistan, nuclear war and a new 9\/11 is the same sort of scare tactics which were used to justify and perpetuate the war in Vietnam. As Peter Navarro argued, \"During my senior year in high school, in 1966-67, our local congressman came to speak to us soon-to-be-draftees about the necessity of the Vietnam War. His basic pitch was a frothy combination of Red menace, yellow peril, and domino theory. [...] the speech rang as hollow as a beer keg after a frat party. [...] Today, I get the same kind of hollowness in my gut every time I hear President Barack Obama and a gaggle of Democratic and Republican hawks offer eerily similar arguments for the Afghanistan war. Terrorism is the new Red menace. Yellow peril has morphed into radical Islam. Dominoes, perhaps surprisingly, are still dominoes. In fact, sober analysis of the two major arguments in support of the war leads me to the same conclusion as my gut \u2013 let's get the hell out.\" [2]  Moreover the terrorist threat from Afghanistan is low, Zaid Hamid, head of Brass Tacks, a think-tank based in Pakistan, argues: \"Their presence and capacity is greatly exaggerated. It is not possible that the so-called exaggerated threat perception by the West about another 9\/11 attack being waged from Pakistan\u2019s FATA or Afghanistan takes place.\" [3]  [1] Bacevich, Andrew J. \"The War We Can't Win\". Commonweal. 14 August 2009.   [2] Navarro, Peter. \"Orange Grove: Get out of Afghanistan now\". OC Register. 25 September 2009.   [3] Leghari, Faryal. \"Troop Surge in Afghanistan is a Military Fallacy\". Khaleej Times. Spearhead Research. 20 February 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Keeping NATO troops in Afghanistan is necessary for creating a successful Afghan state  Due to the impotence of the Afghan state and its fledgling armed forces, withdrawing by the timetabled date would most likely mean abandoning the project of building a successful Afghan state, a project which can be successful if NATO troops continue to play their vital role in it. It is a myth that Afghanistan is unconquerable or ungovernable. The level of violence in Afghanistan is actually far lower than most Americans believe. In 2008 more than 2,000 Afghan civilians died at the hands of the Taliban or coalition forces (almost 7 per ten thousand). This was too many, but it was also less than a quarter of the deaths in 2008 in Iraq, a country that is both more sparsely populated and often assumed to be easier to govern. Not only are Afghan civilians much safer under American occupation than Iraqis, they are also statistically less likely to be killed in the war than anyone living in the United States during the early 1990s, when the U.S. murder rate peaked at more than 24,000 killings a year (about 10 per ten thousand). [1]  An assertion that deserves a similarly hard look is the argument that nation building in Afghanistan is doomed because the country isn\u2019t a nation-state, but rather a jury-rigged patchwork of competing tribal groupings. In fact, Afghanistan is a much older nation-state than, say, Italy or Germany, both of which were only unified in the late nineteenth century. Modern Afghanistan is considered to have emerged with the first Afghan empire under Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747, and so has been a nation for decades longer than the United States. Accordingly, Afghans have a strong sense of nationhood, and building a state there is possible so long as NATO forces do not abandon the project before it is completed. [2]  A successful Afghan state is in the interests of all NATO countries, for security reasons, and so a compelling reason to abandon the timetable for withdrawal from Afghanistan is that building a successful Afghan state is entirely possible if NATO stays the course and only withdraws once the job is done.  [1] Bergen, Peter. \"Winning the good war. Why Afghanistan is not Obama's Vietnam\". Washington Monthly. July\/August 2009.   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-con01b","title":"","text":"It seems deeply illogical to argue that withdrawing NATO forces, which would essentially allow the Taliban and Al Qaeda to win, could somehow lead to these parties being in a weaker position than if NATO forces remained in the country and continued military options against them. As the necessary consequence of withdrawal by the timetable is a Taliban and Al Qaeda victory, arguments that continuing NATO operations 'help' them should be ignored, as a NATO withdrawal would help them even more by removing the one player who could compete with them on the battlefield."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-con02a","title":"","text":"History suggests the war in Afghanistan cannot be won  History suggests the war in Afghanistan cannot be won: Mohammad Omar, leader of the Taliban, has issued a taunting statement reminding Western leaders that for more than a millennium, would-be conquerors have tried and failed to subdue the mountain fastness known as the 'graveyard of empires' (Alexander the Great in the 4th century B.C., the British in the 1800s, the Soviets from 1979 to 1989): 'The invaders should study the history of Afghanistan. The more the enemy resorts to increasing forces, the more they will face an unequivocal defeat.' [1]  As galling as it is to accept tutelage from one of Osama bin Laden's key enablers, this does seem to be what history teaches. Pouring forces into Afghanistan has always proved counterproductive. The presence of large numbers of foreign troops is the one thing that reliably unites Afghans, if only for long enough to drive the foreigners out. Tom Andrews, National Director of Win Without War, argued in February of 2009: \"The first principle for someone who finds himself in a hole is to stop digging, The US policy 'hole' in Afghanistan is not of the new Administration's making. But it is important for the President to consider if adding new US combat forces in Afghanistan, without a new and comprehensive plan, for US policy there, might be digging an even bigger hole.\" [2]  This argument similarly applies to keeping NATO forces in Afghanistan past the timetabled withdrawal date: it is just digging a deeper hole. Ann Jones added in 2009 to the argument that the war cannot be won by noting the lack of potential for Afghan forces to ever handle their own security or build a meaningful state: \"I went out to the training fields near Kabul where Afghan army recruits are put through their paces, and it was quickly evident just what's getting lost in translation. Our trainers, soldiers from the Illinois National Guard, were masterful... The Afghans were puny by comparison: hundreds of little Davids to the overstuffed American Goliaths training them. Keep in mind: Afghan recruits come from a world of desperate poverty. They are almost uniformly malnourished and underweight. Many are no bigger than I am (1.6 meters and thin) - and some probably not much stronger. Like me, many sag under the weight of a standard-issue flack jacket. [...] American military planners and policymakers already proceed as if, with sufficient training, Afghans can be transformed into scale-model, wind-up American Marines. That is not going to happen. Not now. Not ever. No matter how many of our leaders concur that it must happen - and ever faster.\u201d [3]  Both history and NATO's own experiences in Afghanistan lead to the same conclusion: Afghanistan cannot be conquered, and so the timetable for withdrawal should be kept to.  [1] Robinson, Eugene. \"In Afghanistan, Downsize.\" Real Clear Politics. 22 September 22 2009.  wnsize_98403  [2] Heuvel, Katrina vanden, \u2018Don\u2019t Bleed Resources in Afghanistan\u2019, The Nation, 17 February 2009,   [3] Jones, Ann. \"US wins mind, Afghan hearts are lost\". Asia Times. 22 September 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-con01a","title":"","text":"The continued presence of American and NATO forces benefits the Taliban and Al Qaeda  The on-going NATO mission means continued combat confrontations and an ever-increasing risk to the civilian population of Afghanistan. These sorts of deaths, injuries and destruction of property have so far been demonstrably destructive to the U.S.-led international effort to stabilize Afghanistan and defeat the violent insurgency being waged by the Taliban and other militant groups. [1]  According to a report released last January by the United Nations Assistance Mission to Afghanistan, the 2,118 civilians killed in 2008 was an increase of 40% over 2007. [2]  The continued presence of American troops into ethnic Pashtun areas in the Afghan south only galvanizes local people to back the Taliban in repelling the infidels. [3]  A 2009 study by the Carnegie Endowment concluded that \"the only meaningful way to halt the insurgency's momentum is to start withdrawing troops. The presence of foreign troops is the most important element driving the resurgence of the Taliban.\" [4]  What the timetable for withdrawal acknowledges is that there is no state-building military solution in Afghanistan. Iranian Deputy Foreign Minister Mohammad-Mahdi Akhondzadeh said in April of 2009, \"The presence of foreign forces has not improved things in the country\". [5]  The long-term security interests of the US and NATO would be better served by a military operation centred around targeted strikes against terrorist training camps from offshore or out-of-country special forces or drones, as this removes the aggravating presence of troops on the ground and would lead to fewer civilian casualties. [6]  Looking beyond to the wider world, the NATO mission in Afghanistan has inflamed global Muslim anger and terrorism since its inception, and will continue to do so until it ends. This makes it more difficult for Western and Middle Eastern countries to work together toward mutual objectives, such as peace between Israel and Palestine, a conflict which drives support for terrorism worldwide and helps Al Qaeda recruit. [7]  Al Qaeda has realized all this and aims to drain US resources in Afghanistan. Osama bin Laden made the following statement in 2004: \"All we have to do is send two mujahedeen to the furthest point east to raise a cloth on which is written al-Qaeda, in order to make the [U.S.] generals race there to cause America to suffer human, economic and political losses ... so we are continuing this policy of bleeding America to the point of bankruptcy.\" [8]  Keeping troops in Afghanistan past the withdrawal date would just play into Al Qaeda's plan to trap the US. Therefore the withdrawal date should be adhered to and NATO troops withdrawn from Afghanistan.  [1] Gharib, Ali. \"Inevitable: Obama's Surge in Afghanistan Will Bring a Surge in Civilian Deaths\". IPS News. 18 February 2009.   [2] Fenton, Anthony. \"Afghanistan: A Surge Toward Disaster\". Asia Times Online. 18 March 2009.   [3] Kristof, Nicholas. \"The Afghanistan Abyss\". The New York Times. 5 September 2009.   [4] Dorronsoro, Gilles. \u2018Focus and Exit: An Alternative Strategy for the Afghan War\u2019, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 2009.   [5] Tehran Times. \"Iran says Afghan troop surge will be unhelpful\". Tehran Times. 4 April 2009.   [6] Los Angeles Times. \"U.S. considers sending special ops to Afghanistan\". Los Angeles Times.26 October 2008.   [7] Friends Committee on National Legislation. \"FCNL to Obama: No More Troops to Afghanistan! Invest in Diplomacy & Development\". Friends Committee on National Legislation.23 February 2009.   [8] Ignatius, David. \"Road Map for Afghanistan\". RealClearPolitics. 19 March 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-international-atwhwatw-con02b","title":"","text":"Peter Bergen argues that \"Objections to Obama\u2019s ramp-up in Afghanistan begin with the observation that Afghanistan has long been the \"graveyard of empires\"\u2014as went the disastrous British expedition there in 1842 and the Soviet invasion in 1979, so too the current American occupation is doomed to follow. In fact, any number of empire builders, from Alexander the Great to the Mogul emperor Babur in the sixteenth century to the British in the Second Afghan War three decades after their infamous defeat, have won military victories in Afghanistan. The graveyard of empires metaphor belongs in the graveyard of clich\u00e9s.\" [1]  NATO can succeed in nation-building if it persists in empowering and protecting the Afghan state. It should be remembered that Afghanistan has been a successful, stable nation in the past, and could be so again. Afghanistan\u2019s majestic mountains, verdant valleys, and jasmine-scented gardens may once again draw the tourists that once flocked there. [2]  [1] Bergen, Peter. \"Winning the good war. Why Afghanistan is not Obama's Vietnam\". Washington Monthly. July\/August 2009.   [2] ibid"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro02b","title":"","text":"An ineffective message in this case might well have been worse than no message. Had the West attempted to intervene, either by setting up a no-fly zone or even sending in ground troops, and the killings not stopped, it would have sent a message that Western threats and Western power are a paper tiger.  Worse, if the genocide had reversed itself after Western intervention, the West would have found itself with both the moral and the political responsibility for the violence, and accusations of Western bias and even complicity would spread rapidly."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro02a","title":"","text":"The West has demonstrated that hiding behind China is a viable strategy  Perhaps as damaging as the humanitarian consequences of the failure to intervene is the message it sent to other leaders considering solving their political and ethnic problems in a similar manner to Khartoum.  Rather than deterring them from following in Bashir\u2019s footsteps, the West by doing nothing, gave the impression that Bashir survived not through his own efforts, but because China protected him.  Given the rapid expansion of Chinese influence around in Africa, this makes accepting Chinese investment instead of western investment vastly more attractive because in addition to the economic benefits, it is now perceived as buying Chinese political cover.  In turn, this increasing interest in seeking out Chinese political cover will lead to more states being willing to imitate Bashir in the future, safe the knowledge that they will not be bombed."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro03b","title":"","text":"Past experience in Iraq and Afghanistan indicates that terrorism tends to flourish when states are weak. An Invasion of Sudan, especially if it had led to a collapse of the Sudanese state, would have create a vacuum terrorists could kill, especially when the very invasion would provide the resentment and motivation for thousands of jihadi volunteers to fight the Western \u201ccrusaders\u201d"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro05a","title":"","text":"The conflict has a racial identity  The conflict in Sudan took on racial overtones. The inhabitants of Darfur are largely black, the government forces of Arab descent. Much of their treatment, including kidnapping and slavery, is a legacy of centuries of racist mistreatment and conflict between \u201cwhite\u201d and \u201cdark\u201d Muslims. [1]  As a strong opponent of Racism, the West had a duty to act, given that the conflict was reinforcing negative views in the Arab world against those of darker skin. [2]  [1] Mutua, Makau, \u2018Racism at root of Sudan\u2019s Darfur crisis\u2019, The Christian Science Monitor, 14 July 2004,   [2] Fatah, Tarek, \u2018From Bangladesh to Darfur: Racism among Muslims\u2019,  , 24 April 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro01a","title":"","text":"The Behaviour of the Sudanese government was tantamount to Genocide  The violence that occurred in the Darfur region of Western Sudan since 2003, approached genocide proportions with the death toll estimated between 300,000 and 500,000 out of a population of a little over a million and a half.  Not only was this a human tragedy. It was also a political crisis. The West invested enormous political capital in the idea that genocide, whether deliberate or through governmental negligence, is unacceptable, and George Bush even termed the events in Darfur a genocide in 2007 . [1]  By having called the events a genocide and then failed the West discredited itself, both as a moral force(showing it cared more about SE Europe than it did Africa) and indicated to dictators that they have no reason to fear a Western response in the future.  [1] \u2018Bush blasts Darfur 'genocide'\u2019, MailOnline, 29 May 2007,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro01b","title":"","text":"The events in Darfur were first and foremost a Civil War, even if their consequences included a major humanitarian crisis.  Darfur rose in rebellion against the central government first, and even the local conflict was a civil war, the Abbala tribe from which the janjaweed are drawn has a long history of conflict with settled Darfur tribes, which drove them off their land centuries ago.  That the death toll in these conflicts was raised by the introduction of modern armaments is clear. What is not clear is how Western intervention would have solved either the underlying problems, or created a deterrent. The most likely outcome would have been genocide of the Abbala, as the West already demonstrated in Kosovo that it is unable to protect the \u201cperpetrators\u201d of genocide from its \u201cvictims\u201d even with large military forces present."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro05b","title":"","text":"The Sudanese government has long been integrated, and black Sudanese as well as Arabs serving in the cabinet and Army. The rebellion in Darfur is primarily political and was launched by former supporters of the government. There is no clear evidence it is based on race."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro04b","title":"","text":"There was and continues to be a compelling case for a humanitarian response to the crises, but this does not suggest that military intervention would have solved the situation.  Military intervention and the collapse of the Sudanese state would have quite possibly led to far greater destabilization. Rather than only one group of refugees, it would likely have led to the Abbala fleeing over the border into Chad as well. Potentially this could have meant the development of a situation akin to that in the Democratic Republic of Congo, were the refugees refought the Civil War among themselves."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro03a","title":"","text":"The Sudanese regime has a history of supporting terrorism and other unsavoury groups  The Sudanese government\u2019s unsavoury behaviour goes beyond its actions in Darfur. Its campaign against the southern rebels was replete with atrocities, and it has a long history of supporting terrorism including hosting Osama Bin Ladin in the early 1990s. [1]  While Sudan has been more cooperative in recent years against Al-Quada, it continues to harbour Islamic extremist groups responsible for attacks in Egypt and Saudi Arabia.  Combined with the conflict in Darfur there was a pressing case for regime change, and reason to think Sudan\u2019s neighbours would be open and supportive of the idea as well.  [1] Bhattacharji, Preeti, \u2018State Sponsors: Sudan\u2019, Council on Foreign Relations, 2 April 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro04a","title":"","text":"The Chaos in Darfur is a threat to regional security  Sudan\u2019s internal problems actively destabilized the entire region. More than a million refugees fled Darfur, many travelling to refuge e camps in Chad and Southern Sudan. This in turn has placed stresses on local resources. [1]  Furthermore, the tendency for resistance forces to base themselves in these refugee camps, threatened and continues to threaten to spread the war into these regions, either igniting the north-south Civil War in Sudan, or destabilizing Chad\u2019s government.  [1] Polgreen, Lydia, \u2018Attacks Pushing Darfur Refugees Into Chad\u2019, The New York Times, 11 February 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con03b","title":"","text":"Even if the conflict was inter-tribal, it had been brought to a boil and allowed to turn genocidal by the Sudanese government. It may well be that the conflict would have continued of its own accord without Sudanese intervention, though the continued air support provided consistently by the Sudanese government to the Janjaweed argues against this. [1]  And all interventions are by nature one-sided \u2013 that reconstruction might be difficult is a reason to plan for it, but in and of itself it does not justify allowing thousands to die and for Western opposition to genocide to be left an empty letter.  [1] \u2018Sudan: Government and Militias Conspire in Darfur Killings\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 22 April 2004,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con01b","title":"","text":"Even eliminating the Sudanese Air Force would have had a major impact, as one rebel group argued that the Air Force was responsible for 60% of the attacks launched by Sudanese forces in the region. [1]  Even if a non-Fly zone did not completely eliminate the Sudanese military forces, it would even the playing field and perhaps persuaded the government to sue for peace.  Furthermore, the difficulty of gaining over-flight rights was also an issue with the air war in Kosovo, eventually forcing the use of German bases and carrier launched planes due to Italian reluctance. Such issues can be overcome, and the Sudanese air force poses little threat with its aged inventory.  [1] Polgreen, Lydia, \u2018Attacks Pushing Darfur Refugees Into Chad\u2019, The New York Times, 11 February 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con02a","title":"","text":"Intervention might destabilize the peace deal in the South  The focus on the failure to act in Darfur ignores the real progress that has been achieved in ending decades long violence in Sudan. In 2011 Southern Sudan peacefully voted to secede and all indications are that the process will not be contested by Khartoum.  The United States under George Bush played a key role in the peace accords which ended that part of the Civil War, with Prospect Magazine noting that the President \u201cdeserves much of the credit\u201d for the agreement . [1] While the government in Khartoum has accepted them, it seems likely that if the US were to have participated in a bombing campaign or invasion, that the Sudanese government would have responded by tearing up the accords.  This is especially true as they would have a pressing motive that does not exist in Darfur, namely the Oil reserves that will be leaving the country with the rest of the South. [2]  [1] De Waal, Akex, \u2018Sudan\u2019s chance\u2019, Prospect, 28 August 2005,   [2] \u2018South Sudan says agreement reached with Khartoum on oil fees\u2019, Sudan Tribune, 13 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con04a","title":"","text":"The West should not atagonise the Muslim world  Any intervention by the West in Sudan, following so closely on Iraq and Afghanistan would have been looked upon as a further attack on the Muslim world and therefore act as a recruiting tool for terrorism.  While it is true that the intervention would have been couched in terms of helping oppressed Muslims, so too were the interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan.  An attack, especially if it was air-only, and therefore left Bashir in power in Khartoum might also have strengthened the regime by providing it with religious legitimacy, and might well have as a result inspired volunteers to enlist in order to fight in a jihad to protect it.  The latter would be even more true in the event ground troops were used, in which case volunteers might flood in from around the world to fight the \u201cCrusaders\u201d.  Such an added dimension could not have helped but place the Christian Southern Sudanese in an awkward and very uncomfortable position."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con03a","title":"","text":"The Conflict is an internal inter-tribal conflict \u2013 arming the Darfur tribes would be better  The conflict in Darfur has been largely inter-tribal, and even the Sudanese government, lacking the full resources needed to suppress the opposition itself, has resorted to playing on these differences.  Any Western effort to intervene would have been seen as intervening on one side by virtually all of the locals. The Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit would have seen the West as intervening to support them \u2013 the Abbala and the Janjaweed, as intervening to attack them.  In this context intervention would be seen as a pretext to reverse the sides in the war rather than to end it.  If our sole goal was to push for a settlement, it would have made far more sense to attempt to pay off the Janjaweed to turn on the government forces, and then to arm the Darfur tribes. It would have been cheaper, and prevented the Sudanese from playing the sides off against each other."}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con01a","title":"","text":"Airstrikes would likely be politically ineffective  Military intervention, unless launched against the Sudanese state itself, was very unlikely to have been effective.  While a no-fly zone would have limited the participation of the Sudanese air force in Darfur, the Sudanese air force was and is not vital to the continued genocide, as Sudanese ground forces and the Janjaweed would still be able to operate.  Any air operations would furthermore have required over flight rights from Libya, Egypt, Ethiopia and either Somalia or Eritrea. Libya until Gaddaffi\u2019s overthrow was unlikely to work with the West, and the new government is moving closer to Khartoum . [1] Chad would have feared military retaliation, whereas Revolutionary Egypt is in no condition to make major decisions about anything. Both Ethiopia and Eritrea have human rights concerns of their own.  Avoiding overflights would limit NATO to using carrier based aircraft from the Red Sea that would have had to cross more than a 1000 KM of Sudan to reach the area. This would have made it very difficult to supply a force in Darfur and would have limited operational effectiveness even of the air force.  As for the deployment of ground troops, there are few overland supply routes to the Darfur region, and supplying a military force there would have been next to impossible with the opposition of a still existent Sudanese government.  [1] Newman, Alex, \u2018Libya Rulers Vow \u2018Integration\u2019 with Sudan Terror Regime\u2019, NewAmerican, 26 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con04b","title":"","text":"The United States at least had already stepped on various religiously sensitive toes due to its support of the Christian Southern Sudanese. These groups had support and lobbying in Washington from influential evangelical Christian groups,[1] and President Bush mentioned their religion in his speech celebrating the Peace settlement. [2]  If this failed to produce an upsurge in Islamist sentiment, it is hard to see how helping Muslims who are being slaughtered would have, especially if Western intervention was limited to providing air cover.  [1] Phares, Walid, \u2018The Sudanese Battle for American Opinion\u2019, The Middle East Quarterly, March 1998,   [2] Hamilton, Rebecca, \u2018U.S. Played Key Role in Southern Sudan\u2019s Long Journey to Independence\u2019, the Atlantic, 9 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con02b","title":"","text":"It is unclear whether the Northern government has any desire to go back to war with the South even if an excuse existed. The Foreign Minister denied any such interest in December of 2011, [1] and the fact is that Sudan ended the war because it was costing far more to wage than could possible have been recovered. Furthermore, after 20 years government forces were losing, and it is hard to see how they would do better with a war on two fronts.  Secondly, even if it would destabilize the Peace Agreement, that means in effect that the international community is allowing the South Sudanese to be used as hostages for their \u201cgood behaviour\u201d regarding Darfur. If so, that seems less like a triumph of Diplomacy and more like a bad deal. It would incentivise dictators like Mugabe to attempt to make similar deals, say offering to compensate white farmers in exchange for the West ignoring his treatment of black opponents.  [1] \u2018Sudan\u2019s FM rules out return to war with South Sudan\u2019, Sudan Tribune, 14 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Every country engages in spying against other countries and so are not surprised by the revelations. These countries leaders are obliged to sound like they are outraged but in practice they will already have known such actions occur \u2013 they might be interested to learn the details but little else. Hollande\u2019s own Direction G\u00e9n\u00e9rale de la Securit\u00e9 Ext\u00e9rieure (DGSC) has been described by Bernard Barbier, its former technical director, as \"probably the biggest information centre in Europe after the English\". It uses similar methods to the NSA with systematic collection of emails, sms messages, phone records, social media posts which is then all stored for years. [1] President Obama is right to point out \u201cI guarantee you that in European capitals, there are people who are interested in, if not what I had for breakfast, at least what my talking points might be should I end up meeting with their leaders. That's how intelligence services operate.\u201d [2]  [1] Follorou, Jaques, and Johann\u00e8s, Franck, \u2018Exclusive: French intelligence has its own version of PRISM\u2019, Le Monde, 4 July 2013,   [2] Chu, Henry, \u2018European leaders angered by U.S. spying reports\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 1 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Damages diplomatic relations with allies  Every country needs friends and historically the United States has managed to maintain a large number of close relationships with states around the world; it has alliances with various Asian states such as South Korea and Japan, with many Middle Eastern states, and with almost the whole of Europe. The NSA\u2019s spying has damaged these relationships. French President Hollande said \u201cWe cannot accept this kind of behavior from partners and allies,\u201d [1] while the president of the European Parliament, Martin Schulz complained \u201cthe United States of America treats its closest partners, including Germany for example, but also the European Union as a whole like hostile powers\u201d. There have even been suggestions that this would jeopardise trade talks as warned by the Commissioner Viviane Reding that \u201cif there is any doubt that our partners are bugging the offices of European negotiators, then the future trade talks could be in difficulty\u201d. [2]  [1] Chu, Henry, \u2018European leaders angered by U.S. spying reports\u2019, Los Angeles Times, 1 July 2013,   [2] Hewitt, Gavin, \u2018EU anger at US spy scandal softened by trade talks\u2019, BBC News, 2 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Most other states accept that there is a large degree of self interest in the United States opposing Russian and Chinese proposals for internet governance, finding out that there is some hypocrisy too is unlikely to sway their votes."}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Indiscriminate spying damages trust  Trust is important in international relations. Whenever there is an international agreement each side has to trust that the other side will fulfil its side of the bargain; there is no court to step in and ensure that they do. Trust therefore needs to be built up. A large part of this is simply fulfilling promises that have been made in such treaties but trust can also be about being open with each other. When a country engages in an immense spying operation against another nation it is clearly damaging the trust between those nations. With the United States this is just one in a long line of issues that have undermined trust in the US government; the Iraq war, Guantanamo bay, drone strikes etc. and the continued violations of international law these represent have all undermined trust in the United States internationally. [1]  [1] Dunn, Matthew, \u2018PRISM: An International Relations Disaster?\u2019, Huffington Post, 10 July 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro01b","title":"","text":"It is not so much the spying that damages trust as the revelations that do so. As former CIA director Michael Hayden commented \u201cWho on this planet [now] believes the Americans can keep a secret? This really erodes the kind of corporation that our intelligence service has with other intelligence agencies.\u201d [1] Trust comes from working together and this is just as true in the intelligence sphere as elsewhere. Governments already knew the NSA spies on them, that so much information about the how and when has been revealed will be what is the shock.  [1] Coleman, Michael, \u2018Besides Bruised Egos, Will NSA Spy Leaks Cause Lasting Pain?\u2019, The Washington Diplomat, 30 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro04b","title":"","text":"There is no reason for foreign companies to be worried about NSA surveillance. The companies involved such as Google have denied involvement \u201cwe have not joined any program that would give the U.S. government\u2014or any other government\u2014direct access to our servers. Indeed, the U.S. government does not have direct access or a \u201cback door\u201d to the information stored in our data centers. We had not heard of a program called PRISM until yesterday.\u201d [1] There should be no concern about companies\u2019 data as the NSA is about protecting national security and is not interested in the commercial work of millions of businesses around the world.  [1] Page, Larry, and Drummond, David, \u2018What the \u2026?\u2019, Google Official Blog, 7 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Undermines US position on internet freedom  The United States, along with Europe, has been the key voice arguing for freedom on the internet and in particular that the internet should not be controlled nationally. Russia and China in particular have been advocating for much more control over the internet by states with Russia\u2019s proposal advocating that \u201cMember States shall have equal rights to manage the Internet\u201d and \u201cMember States shall have the sovereign right to establish and implement public policy\u2026 on matters of Internet governance, and to regulate the national Internet segment\u201d. [1] Essentially every state should have the right to censor and surveil their chunk of the internet. With the United States already doing this countries that have previously been wavering may be much more inclined to support these proposals over US objections. [2] The US would stand to lose out as it is currently the country with most control over internet governance.  [1] Russian Federation \u2018Proposals for the work of the conference\u2019, International Telecommunications Union, 17 November 2012,   [2] Dourado, Eli, \u2018So much for America\u2019s internet freedom agenda\u2019, theguardian.com, 7 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Damages US commercial interests  The United States is the preponderant power in internet commerce; most of the big internet companies, the big software companies, even many of the hardware companies are companies that are based in the United States. This both enables US use of these systems for spying as occurred with PRISM because it happens that most web traffic passes through the United States, and makes the United States vulnerable when the world\u2019s consumers think these companies have been betraying their trust. If consumers don\u2019t think US companies can guarantee their data and privacy it should be no surprise that they will consider transferring their business. [1] Cloud computing is particularly affected, among the revelations has been that Microsoft helps the NSA with access to its cloud storage service skydrive. [2] According to a survey by the Cloud Security Alliance 10% of non US responders had cancelled a project with US based providers since the leaks about NSA projects and 56% say they would be less likely to use a US based service. The Information Technology & Innovation Foundation estimates this could cost the US cloud computing industry between $21.5 and $35bln in revenues over the next three years. [3] And this is just one part of the computing and software industries, other areas are likely to be less affected but may well still lose business.  [1] Naughton, John, \u2018Edward Snowden\u2019s not the story. The fate of the Internet is\u2019, The Observer, 28 July 2013,   [2] Greenwald, Glenn et al., \u2018How Microsoft handed the NSA access to encrypted messages\u2019, The Guardian, 12 July 2013,   [3] Taylor, Paul, \u2018Cloud computing industry could lose up to $35bn on NSA disclosures\u2019, FT.com, 5 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-con03b","title":"","text":"While this is clearly a benefit of spying it is not so much of a benefit of the kind of indiscriminate spying such as the PRISM program. Tapping diplomats mobile phones and setting up fake internet cafes is clearly not indiscriminate, far from it this is targeted surveillance."}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-con01b","title":"","text":"No one disputes that some surveillance is necessary, the question is how much. Is the use of bulk catch all surveillance useful? In the case cited it seems not \u2013 this was the monitoring of specific individuals who were already known to US intelligence services; Ayaman al Zawahiri, al Qaeda\u2019s leader and Nasser al Wahishi the head of al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. [1] Normal intelligence methods without the broad based surveillance would have caught the same messages. Monitoring the communications of known terrorist leaders was done long before the internet was on the scene.  [1] Associated Press, \u2018AP sources: Al-Qaida chief\u2019s intercepted m,essage to deputy in Yemen caused embassy closures\u2019, The Washington Post, 5 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-con02a","title":"","text":"Broad web surveillance prevents terrorist attacks  Over the last ten years, and right up to the present day, the most important national security interest of the United States has been preventing terrorism. A fight against terrorism requires a large amount of resources invested in tracking terrorist networks and in finding those who may turn to terrorism. Intelligence gathering cannot just focus on those we already know to be terrorists as people can easily become radicalised while not meeting any individuals already considered to be terrorists. This means that there needs to be a broad brush intelligence gathering operation that finds those who are on the path to terrorism. This is why operations like PRISM and xkeyscore are so important; they allow the United States to find people who are being radicalised by material online or those who are just working out how to launch an attack themselves. The NSA Director Keith Alexander has stated that the surveillance has helped prevent \u201cpotential terrorist events over 50 times since 9\/11.\u201d, with PRISM contributing to 90% of the information on these plots. As only 10 were domestic the surveillance is a benefit to other countries as well as the United States. [1]  [1] Nakashima, Ellen, \u2018Officials: Surveillance programs foiled more than 50 terrorist plots\u2019, The Washington Post, 18 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-con03a","title":"","text":"Allows monitoring of foreign governments  Governments expect to be monitored by other governments and do so themselves as well. Monitoring other governments provides major advantages even when those governments are ostensibly friendly as no government is going to tell even its allies everything there need to be other ways to learn such information. Surveillance can provide advantages in negotiations; it can let you know how far the other side is willing to go. GCHQ for example engaged in intercepting communications by monitoring phones and even setting up fake internet cafes during the G20 meetings in London in 2008. [1]  [1] MacAskill, Ewen et al., \u2018GCHQ intercepted foreign politicians\u2019 communications at G20 summits\u2019, The Guardian, 17 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-con01a","title":"","text":"Surveillance is necessary to protect national security  The primary concern of the state is the protection of its people from foreign powers. This usually means physical protection but this physical protection relies upon knowing what others are doing; where the threats are coming from. That means surveillance. There needs to be monitoring of groups that potentially pose a threat to the state or to its citizens. In a world where terrorism is as much a threat as other states there is a clear need to be watching as many people as possible around the world. Threats such as that to western interests in Yemen at the start of August 2013 demonstrate the need to be watching out for threats as intelligence picked up high level threats to western interests so allowing the United States and others to take pre-emptive action by closing embassies and evacuating personnel. [1]  [1] Hicks, Josh, \u2018Chambliss: Threats \u2018very reminiscent of what we saw pre-9\/11\u2019, The Washington Post, 4 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-gsidfphb-con02b","title":"","text":"Clearly the intelligence efforts on such a scale must provide some return in terms of stopping terrorism or they would not be worth the cost. However it is open to question whether the impact has been nearly as big as had been cited by the intelligence agencies. We clearly don\u2019t know if these terrorists would have been detected through other methods. Additionally in at least one case where the FBI and NSA have stated that electronic surveillance has played a key role it has turned out not to be the case. FBI deputy director Sean Joyce has claimed that an attack on the New York Stock exchange was foiled by electronic surveillance; \u201cWe went up on the electronic surveillance and identified his co-conspirators\u201d yet the emails involved were perfectly ordinary \u2013 the only information gained from the broad brush surveillance was that the plotter was in contact with al Qaeda leaders in Yemen. Something which surely could have been caught the other way around \u2013 by looking at the al Qaeda leaders communications. [1] Other cases such as that of Basaaly Moalin who was convicted of sending $8,500 to support Somali terrorist group al Shabab that have been highlighted by the NSA have similarly not required such broad surveillance. [2]  [1] Ross, Brian et al., \u2018NSA Claim of Thwarted NYSE Plot Contradicted by Court Documents\u2019, ABC News, 19 June 2013,   [2] Nakashima, Ellen, \u2018NSA cites case as success of phone data-collection program\u2019, The Washington Post, 8 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro02b","title":"","text":"If Ceuta and Melilla were to be given to Morocco, then immigration would not halt. The higher standard of living in Spain would still attract immigrants who would face greater perils than restriction of movement and employment. Irregular migrants and refugees already attempt to travel from Morocco to Italy and Malta (the strait of Gibraltar is too well guarded)1 and numbers would only increase if the land route were dismantled. Hundreds of irregular migrants will hide on inadequate boats trying to reach Europe and thousands die every year in the attempt2. One boat which sunk off the Italian island of Lampedusa resulting in more than 300 deaths3. Despite these risks, high risk migration continues which that immigration numbers would continue even without a land border.  1) Peters,K. \u2018Ceuta and Melilla: Europe\u2019s High-Tech African Fortress\u2019, 10 August 2011  2) Herman,M. \u2018From Africa to Europe: A Surprisingly Dangerous Journey for Migrants\u2019, 3 December 2013  3) BBC, \u2018Italy to hold state funeral for shipwreck migrants\u2019, 9 October 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro02a","title":"","text":"Decrease immigration to Spain  The Spanish possession of Ceuta and Melilla has resulted in an influx of illegal immigrants. Due to their positioning and membership to the EU, the two cities are subject to numerous attempts by immigrants to gain access to Europe1. In Melilla this has resulted in a social experiment with dire implications. To discourage illegal immigration, non-Moroccans who illicitly gain access to the country will not be permitted to move on from the city. They are trapped in Melilla without legal rights and generally live in extremely poor conditions with no means of legal work2. If the Spanish relinquished control of the two cities then these then there would be no permeable land border for illegal immigrants to gain access to.  1) Ribas,X. \u2018The Border Fences of Cueta and Melilla. A Landscape for the Future\u2019  2) Davies,N. \u2018Melilla: Europe\u2019s dirty secret\u2019, The Guardian, 17 April 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro03b","title":"","text":"Spain claims that there is a difference between Gibraltar and its own territories. While Gibraltar is an overseas territory, otherwise known as a colony, Ceuta and Melilla are part of Spain and maintain the same semi-autonomous status which other regions in Spain have1. The United Nations maintains a similar view, recognising Gibraltar as an \u2018overseas territory\u2019 which is reviewed annually by the Committee on Decolonisation2.  1) Govan,F. \u2018The battle over Ceuta, Spain\u2019s African Gibraltar\u2019 10 August 2013  2) United Nations General Assembly, \u20182231 (XXI) Question of Gibraltar\u2019, 20 December 1966"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro01a","title":"","text":"The dispute damages Morocco-Spain relations  The dispute over the two cities only serves to harm co-operation between Morocco and Spain. Bilateral disagreements have prevented the resolution of other issues and generally heightened diplomatic tensions between these geographically close countries. When the Prime Minister and King of Spain both visited Morocco to resolve the Perejal crisis and Western Sahara issues, relations periodically improved. However a subsequent visit by the PM and King to Ceuta and Melilla in 2006 and 2007 reversed the progress made due to Moroccan outrage1. If Spain ceded these cities to Morocco then relations would improve, which could lead to increased co-operation on other issues.  1) Arieff,A. \u2018Morocco: Current Issues\u2019 30 June 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro01b","title":"","text":"The disagreements between Morocco and Spain over Ceuta and Melilla have had minimal impact on diplomacy between the two countries, which generally remains positive. Co-operation on counter-terrorism, counternarcotics and illegal immigration all continue to progress in a productive manner1. Joint operations between the two countries\u2019 military forces continue on the strait of Gibraltar and a joint police panel has been proposed2, implying relations are still constructive.  1) Arieff,A. \u2018Morocco: Current Issues\u2019 30 June 2011  2) Benmehdi,H. \u2018Morocco, Spain partner against terrorism\u2019"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro03a","title":"","text":"Spain is being hypocritical  Spain refusing to cede Cueta and Melilla to Morocco is inconsistent with its policy towards Gibraltar. Whilst the Spanish refuse to cede their two cities to Morocco, they expect the British to return the circumstantially similar Gibraltar. Gibraltar is a British overseas territory which is located in southern Spain, taken from the Spanish by an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1704. Spain asserts a claim to this territory as it was once part of its own lands, despite signing the Treaty of Utrecht and relinquishing the land \u2018in perpetuity\u20191. The claim that a state should return exclaves which rightfully belong to the nation which originally owned them is therefore inconsistent with their policy towards Ceuta and Melilla2. If Spain expects to reclaim Gibraltar then they should also expect to relinquish control over Cueta and Melilla.  1) \u2018Treaty of Utrecht\u2019 April 1713  2) Tremlett,G. \u2018A rocky relationship\u2019 14 January 2014"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-con03b","title":"","text":"While they were not a recognised state in the same sense as Spain is, [1] Berbers have lived in Morocco for thousands of years; making Ceuta and Melilla part of their history as well. The presence of the Berbers in Morocco can be traced back 4,000 years, with today\u2019s Berbers maintaining a similar language and customs1. Their association with this territory means that many Berbers see these cities as their land and feel they have a stronger claim to it than Spain.  1) Morris,C. \u2018Who are the Morocco Berbers?\u2019, Journey Beyond Travel, data accessed 21 January 2014  [1] This should not be surprising; our current notion of the state is a Western European invention."}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-con01b","title":"","text":"The wishes of a population are often overlooked by governments when deciding upon territorial sovereignty. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1 the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to the German alliance. The majority of citizens were French, or preferred French to Prussian leadership1. This factor was disregarded however, as it usually is in the redrawing of boundaries. Morocco does not appear to have addressed this argument as they do not deem it relevant against their territorial interests.  Spain has also been hypocritical by its claim to respect the people\u2019s decision on sovereignty, particularly while observing the situation in Catalonia. As of early 2014, the Spanish government has stated it will not allow any form of referendum concerning the independence of the Eastern Spanish state, despite the population\u2019s wishes2.  1) Wikipedia, \u2018Alsace-Lorraine\u2019, date accessed 21 January 2014  2) Vilaweb, \u2018The Spanish Government \u201cwill not allow\u201d and \u201cwill not negotiate\u201d on Catalonia\u2019s self-determination vote\u2019, 13 December 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-con02a","title":"","text":"The cities are a source of revenue for Spain  Ceuta and Melilla are economic assets to Spain; it is in Spain\u2019s interest to maintain them. Spain was particularly damaged by the 2008 economic recession which left many of the richest countries in decline1. With no sign of rapid recovery in the near future, it is within Spain\u2019s interests to hold on to two cities which have strong economies2. The ports of Cueta and Melilla are of particular importance as they provided a large portion of the cities\u2019 income, catering to many luxurious boats. The low tax zones also encourage a lot of financial activity3. Spain\u2019s economic position therefore dictates that they should not cede them.  1) Cala,A. \u2018Why is Morocco Picking a Fight with Spain?\u2019 15 August 2010  2) Sotogrande, \u2018Ceuta and Melilla\u2019, data accessed 20 January 2014  Ibid"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-con03a","title":"","text":"They have been Spanish possessions for centuries  The cities of Ceuta and Melilla have been an integral part of Spain\u2019s territory and to cede them would be a compromise of territorial integrity. The two cities have been part of Spain for almost as long as the country has existed. The marriage of Isabelle I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united two major regions of Spain in 1469. The conquest of Granada finally joined the South of the country with the North in 1492. The capture of Melilla was only five years later, and Ceuta was merged in to the country less than a century afterwards. These cities are an integral part of Spain and should therefore remain Spanish.  1) Snelling,N. \u2018The history of Spain, Spain\u2019s unification and elevation to world power\u2019, Culture Spain, data accessed 21 January 2014"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-con01a","title":"","text":"The citizens do not want to be ceded  Many of those living in Ceuta and Melilla do not want to join Morocco, to cede them would be unjust. Walzer, in his book Just and Unjust Wars, claims that the only people who should decide who has sovereignty over a territory are the population of said land1. If the people associate themselves with Spain, then it is only right that Spain continues to rule over them. This is the case with Ceuta and Mellia, where there is a nearly universal feeling of belonging to Spain2. Morocco and Spain should therefore respect the wishes of the population.  1) Walzer,M. \u2018Just and Unjust wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations'  2) Govan,F. \u2018The battle over Ceuta, Spain\u2019s African Gibraltar\u2019"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aehbssccamm-con02b","title":"","text":"The financial future of the two cities is uncertain. It has cost copious sums of money to protect the border against immigrants who travel from as far as India to reach EU territory. In 2011, \u20ac30 million was spent on fortifying the border fences of Ceuta and Melilla1. Not only was this a financial burden, but it served to worsen relations with Morocco who temporarily halted trade with the cities in 2010, leaving Melilla\u2019s market stalls empty.  The development of the Moroccan \u2018super-port\u2019, known as the Tanger Med project also financially threatens the ports if Ceuta and Melilla2. Built on the straits of Gibraltar, it is designed to intercept shipping traffic which would usually go to Ceuta and Melilla.  1) Peters,K. \u2018Ceuta and Melilla: Europe\u2019s High-Tech African Fortress\u2019, 10 August 2011  2) Arieff,A. \u2018Morocco: Current Issues\u2019, Congressional Research Service, 30 June 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro02b","title":"","text":"The UN\u2019s own failures in the past should be a warning, not a motivation, regarding involvement in a conflict where it has limited power to implement an outcome.  The UN\u2019s goal needs to be the creation of a stable Palestinian state living in peace with Israel. This policy would in reality encourage the exact opposite. While it would do little to help the Palestinians, delegitimizing Israel\u2019s creation would be a tool in the hands of figures in the Arab world and elsewhere whose interests in the region are not in peace with Israel but in its destruction. It seems likely Iran at the very minimum would seize on a claim that Israel\u2019s license to exist has been withdrawn.  In turn, if Israel interpreted the UN\u2019s move as a an attack on its legitimacy as a state, it would be likely to interpret the move as having anti-Semitic overtones, strengthening the hands of those in Israel who see the UN as a stalking horse for anti-Semitism, and thereby reducing the UN\u2019s ability to play a future role in resolving the conflict."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro02a","title":"","text":"Such a move is historically and morally justified  There is significant justification, both for recognition of a Palestinian state and for the UN recognition in particular to carry more weight than it otherwise might.  For one thing, Israel was created by a resolution of the UN General Assembly, and to the extent Israel denies the legitimacy of the UN\u2019s actions and its right to engage in them, it is implicitly questioning the legitimately of its own creation and continued existence, leaving them both a product of \u201cblood and iron.\u201d  Secondly, the UN has a responsibility to help resolve a situation its own failures helped create. By passing a partition plan, and then doing nothing to prevent first its collapse into wholesale war, and then the Jordanian occupation of the Palestinian territories in the West Bank , the UN has a an obligation to the Palestinians. [1]  [1] Palestine Facts, \u2018Jordan Renounced Claims to West Bank, 1988\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro03b","title":"","text":"In the long-run UN action may freeze the negotiations into a discussion of a two-state solution, but UN action is not required to reach this eventuality. Even Avigdor Lieberman on the Far Right accepts that there will be two states, and that has been the basic premise of the Peace Process since 1994.  On the issues which have actually prevented a two state solution from coming to fruition- disputes about borders, armaments, security, and settlements, the UN would accomplish nothing. Furthermore, it might well make both sides intransigent, the Israelis due to perceiving themselves as being backed into a corner internationally, the Palestinians due to the belief they no longer need to make concessions."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro01a","title":"","text":"Independence Matters \u2013 there are real legal and diplomatic consequences to such a move  Going to the UN would transform the legal status of Palestine. While this would not immediate change the physical contours of the conflict \u2013 Israeli incursions, the occupation, the existence of settlements, it would transform the context in which they take place.  For one thing, there would no longer be ambiguity about the status of the West Bank and the settlements on it. [1] The UN would be making clear that in the eyes of international law they would be illegal.  This might not force an immediate withdrawal from the settlements, but it would incentivise the settlers themselves to crave the legal legitimacy of a settlement that could confirm them in possession of their property. After all, who would want to invest as much in land that might have to be abandoned? This in turn might make Israel more likely to make concessions elsewhere, because the Palestinian signatures on an agreement recognizing the legality of settlements would have real value in the future.  Furthermore, while no new physical force would be preventing the Israeli army from engaging in military operations in Gaza or the West Bank, the legal optics of marching in and out of a recognized state would present difficulties.  In addition, one of the great banes of Palestinian existence is that they are stateless. For all practical purposes Palestinians need Israeli permission to travel abroad. A recognized passport would allow them alternative means to travel and work in countries which do recognize Palestine even if those are a minority.  Finally it would put pressure on governments that voted for a Palestinian state to put their money where their mouth is and actually respond to the fact that a legal state is being occupied. Otherwise they might well face popular pressure at home.  [1] MacIntyre, Donald, \u2018The Big Question: What are Israeli settlements, and why are they coming under pressure?\u2019, The Independent, 29 May 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro01b","title":"","text":"The UN proclaiming Palestine an independent state would do no more to advance the cause of peace than the UN proclaiming a Palestinian and a Jewish State in 1948 did. The day after the declaration the Israeli Army would remain, the settlements would still be there, and the Israelis would be determined to prove exactly how little the UN\u2019s actions means to them. As a result it\u2019s likely that military incursions rather than declining would increase. Israel already has a bad reputation, and has long since given up any ambition to be loved by its neighbours in the short-run. On the contrary in some cases it has deliberately fostered a sense of fear, perhaps best illustrated by its non-denial policy regarding its officially non-existent nuclear program , [1] and the Mossad\u2019s efforts to build up a reputation for invincibility as well as the motive for fear of Iranian nuclear weapons. [2]  Bowing to the world community would badly damage Israeli\u2019s deterrence in this respect. The best way of maintaining that fear would be to launch a new series of incursions and settlement expansions in the face of UN protests to demonstrate Israel\u2019s willingness to ignore the UN.  Israel furthermore is unlikely to be threatened by international support for Palestinians. If countries are hostile enough to cut off aid in event of UN recognition, they probably have minimal relations with Israel in the status quo. If anything, the main consequence legally is likely to be for Israel to expel UN agencies and observers which might very well worsen the human rights situation.  [1] Baliga, Sandeep, and Sj\u00f6str\u00f6m, Tomas, \u2018Strategic Ambiguity and Arms Proliferation\u2019, NorthWestern University,   [2] Roth, Ariel Ilan, \u2018The Root of All Fears Why Is Israel So Afraid of Iranian Nukes?\u2019, Foreign Affairs, 24 November 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro04b","title":"","text":"While issues like the \u201cRight of Return\u201d might benefit from an international approach, it\u2019s hard to see why international recognition would make neighbouring states more likely to pay for or allow the settlement of, Palestinian refugees. Furthermore, a \u201csovereign\u201d state may feel less inclined to compromise on its rights, especially if the International Community seems to have just conceded the legitimacy of those claims."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro03a","title":"","text":"The will make that a two-state solution will be the final settlement even if its contours are unclear  The recognition of a Palestinian state by the UN would have de facto effect of freezing out alternative plans for a settlement \u2013 i.e. a one state solution, or some sort of autonomy \u2013 and making clear that the end result, if not necessarily two states on boundaries approximating those of 1967, will none the less be two states in some form.  This is because the Palestinians, once they have gained recognition as a state, are unlikely to ever bargain it away. This in turn removes a number of the fantasies about \u201cautonomy\u201d floating around in Israel, as well as fears about Jews being swamped in a bi-national state.  The issues of dispute will therefore be reduced to those of settling boundaries, setting up trade and customs policies, and deciding on sovereignty over holy places. [1]  [1] Rosenberg, M.J., \u2018Obama Should Support Palestinian Statehood at the United Nations\u2019, HuffPost World, 22 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-pro04a","title":"","text":"A UN move would internationalize the problem, and pave the way for broader for international solutions  One of the major problems with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict up to now is that it has been localized between the Israelis and Palestinians, with outside involvement limited to putting pressure on one side or the other at various times.  The result is that negotiations have become a zero-sum game where concessions from one side have to be extracted from the other. Allowing the Israelis to keep settlements means that the Palestinians must give up land. Allowing a \u201cRight of return\u201d to Palestinians is seen is something Israel alone must carry the burden of, when the vast majority live in other Arab states that perhaps should play a part in any sort of compensation scheme.  Consequently, negotiations have been far more brutal than they otherwise might have been. UN Recognition or at least a debate about it would move the forum of the discussion away from bilateral talks, and into the international sphere. The UN, by acknowledging responsibility for mishandling things on the Palestinian side in 1948, would in effect pave the way to help solve issues like the right of return and the issue of Jewish refugees from Arab states that cannot be resolved satisfactorily on a bilateral basis."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con03b","title":"","text":"Israel\u2019s concerns are not with sovereignty per se, but with the willingness of Palestinians to behave in a legally responsible manner becoming of an international state.  Adopting a policy of seeking legitimacy at the UN and then asserting their rights legally is probably the best Palestinian strategy in this respect, as it makes clear that they wish to move the conflict from one of either violent or nonviolent resistance to one of legal arguments under international law.  Rather than denying Palestine sovereignty Israel instead should be seeking to gain guarantees within treaties that Palestine will not allow any foreign bases on its soil. Russia does not want NATO bases in the former Soviet Union but this does not mean it denies these states sovereignty."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con01b","title":"","text":"The problem of expectations exists on both sides. The Israelis also have an expectation that they can continue the status quo indefinitely, that the Palestinian \u201cproblem\u201d is a containable security issue, especially after the success of the \u201cwall\u201d, and that the international community is all bark.  UN action, especially if the US were to allow it through an abstention rather than a positive vote would indicate that both international and American patience are not infinite and probably have as great an impact on Israel as the recognition would have on the Palestinians."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con02a","title":"","text":"Israel remembers past failures of the international community when it came to Jews and doubts the UN\u2019s Impartiality  Regardless of whether some degree of outside impetus might be of benefit, the UN is a particularly bad actor for pressuring Israel.  For one thing, the UN is not viewed as an impartial entity. Israeli government officials have repeatedly claimed it is biased against them, and the UN has not tried particularly hard to dispel these impressions with its recent conferences at on racism, most prominently at Durban in South Africa, dissolving into denunciations of Zionism and holocaust comparisons. [1]  Reinforcing this is the persistent feeling that the world did nothing for the Jews when they were facing annihilation, which feeds into the narrative that while the international community may talk endlessly about Palestinian rights, they would do little for Israelis if the balance of power ever shifted. When Israeli politicians can state that they know exactly what would happen (a second Holocaust) if Arabs were to ever defeat them they are likely to see this action on the part of the UN reinforcing all of their negative impressions.  This in turn may well produce a siege mentality in which they view themselves as on their own and become unwilling to make any concessions. This would be especially true if the United States were to seem to abandon them by at least abstaining on UN recognition.  [1] Braun, Elihai, \u2018The UN World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Durban, South Africa\u2019, Jewish Virtual Library,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con04a","title":"","text":"Even a successful move for statehood would place the United States in a challenging position, and alienate American opinion which the Palestinians are dependent on  Any UN Recognition of Palestinian statehood would require at the very least US abstention. Even if this were to be achieved, it would only come after the request had placed the United States in a very awkward position.  Vetoing Palestinian statehood at the UN would force the US to alienate world opinion, while abstaining or supporting the Palestinian demand would mean a clash with Israel with all the US domestic costs that entails for any American politician. [1] Barack Obama\u2019s less than stringent support of Israel was seen as contributing to the defeat of his Democratic party in a 2011 special election in a heavily Democratic and heavily Jewish seat in NYC. It is likely a future US President would face worse.  Furthermore, allowing the UN to recognize Palestinian statehood explicitly brings the UN into the Peace Process, undermine the United States\u2019 role as the preeminent outside actor. Even if the United States were to acquiesce in such, it\u2019s hard to see it appreciating the consequences.  Therefore it can be assumed that the Palestinians, in exchange for cosmetic benefits, would likely alienate the United States, which at the end of the day is the only outside actor whose opinions Israel values, and therefore the only outside actor that can genuinely make the creation of a Palestinian state a reality.  [1] Staff, \u2018Did the First President Bush Lose His Job to the Israel Lobby?\u2019, The New York Observer, 17 July 2006,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con03a","title":"","text":"An attempt to build up international support reinforces Israeli fears of a Palestinian state being used as a platform for attacks against them  Among Israel\u2019s prime security concerns about a prospective Palestinian state is that it might become a base for Israel\u2019s other enemies to attack it.  Israel is particularly vulnerable strategically from the West Bank, and the distance between East Jerusalem and Tel Aviv is barely 15 miles. [1]  The great fear therefore is that a legitimately independent Palestinian state might well allow the basing of Iranian weapons on its territory, or provides a base for Israeli Arab dissidents to launch an attack. While there would be little practical change in the ability of Israel to stop foreign forces being allowed into Palestine the Palestinians would be able to claim that they are within their sovereign rights to allow foreign basing rights just as many other countries around the world do.  Repeated efforts to bring in International support, and a focus on legal sovereignty to the exclusion of actual concrete steps to reassure Israel such as disarming Hamas, will only reinforce these concerns on the part of Israel.  [1] Gold, Dore, \u2018Military-Strategic Aspects of West Bank Topography for Israel's Defense\u2019, Defensible Borders for a Lasting Peace, 2005,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con01a","title":"","text":"Such a move will make Palestinian expectations much higher and their position more intransigent  One of the major obstacles to peace has consistently been the unrealistic expectations which have existed on the Palestinian side. From 1994 onwards, the Palestinians have confused the Peace Process with a process by which \u201cwrongs will be righted\u201d and their \u201crightful demands\u201d met, rather than a compromise process of give and take. This has been fed by leaders like Yasser Arafat who have told Palestinians for so long that they will have a state with a capital in Jerusalem, with a right of return, etc. that it has become impossible for them to then go back to their constituents and sell concessions.  The fact is that no viable Peace Deal with satisfy everyone, and Israel has minimum demands of its own \u2013 some settlements will be maintained, millions of Palestinians will not be allowed to settle in Israel proper, and Israel will not allow an armed Palestinian state.  The problem with UN recognition is that while at best marginally improving the Palestinian negotiating position it will dramatically increase popular expectations, making it next to impossible for the Palestinian leadership to take advantage of any gains they achieve vis-\u00e0-vis Israel through recognition. In this sense you may well have a much greater gap between the Palestinian minimum and Israeli maximum than before recognition."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con04b","title":"","text":"One reason why the United States would find a push for UN Recognition of a Palestinian state so awkward is because it has so many other concerns it has to value against the conflict.  Whereas relations with Israel are the dominant issue in Palestinian foreign policy, and a leading one in Israel\u2019s, the US has to maintain its position and interests else ware in the world. This means that the United States has to balance domestic considerations with the need to appeal to world opinion.  It also means that the United States has an interest in a settlement to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Even if the US were inclined to allow the Palestinians to suffer in punishment for bringing up the issue, the dynamics of UN Recognition would raise the price of the continuation of the conflict for the United States.  That is because it would be increase the interest of every other country in the world in the conflict, if for no other reason than rather than an internal affair, there would now be a principle of national sovereignty involved."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ggsurps-con02b","title":"","text":"Israelis have a low opinion of some UN organs, and with a good degree of justification. But they are also remarkably pragmatic. They understand that while they need to protect their own interests, they also need friends, and Israeli voters will turn on their own leaders with a vengeance if they ever think they are jeopardizing the relationship with the United States.  This can be seen in the reaction to the decision of the Bush Administration to freeze loan guarantees to Israel in 1991 due to the repeated refusal of the government of Yitzhak Shamir to halt settlement construction. The result, despite outrage on the American Right and in sectors of Israeli opinion, was the crushing defeat of the Shamir in the 1992 elections by Yitzhak Rabin . [1]  If the US abstains on UN recognition of Palestine, which would be necessary for such recognition to pass, it will send a message to the Israeli public and likely severely impact the next election.  [1] Rosner, Shmuel, \u2018When US doesn\u2019t meddle in Israeli politics, it strengthens the right\u2019, JewishJournal.com, 9 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro02b","title":"","text":"This is exactly why simply giving money to the poor is a bad idea; not everyone who is poor will have a bank account. Indeed those who are the poorest are by far the least likely to have one. In India only 21% of the poor have a bank account. [1]  [1] Glassman, Amanda, and Birdsall, Nancy, \u2018Can India Defeat Poverty\u2019, Foreign Policy, 8 January 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Government money can go directly to bank accounts  Direct cash transfers can obviously be done very simply through simply handing out cash but this is clearly open to corruption. Instead money should be sent directly to the poorest\u2019s bank accounts. In India the proposal is that the payments will be linked to the new biometrics based ID system that assigns a unique number to everyone based upon physical traits [1] (although this is not yet fully implemented) this will reach the whole population including those who currently have no identity papers. [2] This will enable those who get these ID to set up a bank accounts to enable the cash to be transferred to them as it will in effect be giving them with new ID.  [1] Glassman, Amanda, and Birdsall, Nancy, \u2018Can India Defeat Poverty\u2019, Foreign Policy, 8 January 2013  [2] Majumder, Sanjoy, \u2018World\u2019s biggest biometric ID scheme forges ahead\u2019, BBC News, 13 February 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Providing money may in the long term reduce corruption for the reasons outlined but in the short term it may mean more corruption. With India\u2019s program there have been accusations that the government is only enrolling people in districts that support the ruling party. [1]  [1] Thakur, Pradeep, \u2018Why divide india into UID, NPR states?\u2019, The Times Of India, 6 January 2013"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Giving money to the poor is the fairest way of eliminating poverty  One of the reasons why poverty does not get eliminated is that it is governments who provide the subsidies that are intended to do just that. Many countries spend their money for subsidies poorly, for example in Indonesia before fuel subsidies were combined with cash subsidies in 2005 the top income decile received more than five times the amount of fuel subsidy as the bottom decile making the policy highly regressive despite it being politically sold as a subsidy to the poor. [1] No matter the intention such subsidies are clearly not fair. When the government provides lots of different subsidies for different things; fuel, food, housing etc., and especially when some of them are universal, it is clear that it will never be possible to distribute the money fairly on the basis of need.  [1] \u2018Winds of Change East Asia\u2019s sustainable energy future\u2019, The World Bank, May 2010, Pp93-5"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Subsidies are much fairer than providing cash. Subsidies can be directly targeted to provide the things that the poor need rather than letting the poor buy what they want. The government should not be providing money that is then being spent on cigarettes, instead it should be spent on food, heating, or the children\u2019s education. Yes some subsidies are poorly targeted but this simply shows that these subsidies are poorly implemented, not that they cannot be the solution to poverty."}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro04b","title":"","text":"When it comes to the use of cash transfers on a large scale this is so far just wishful thinking; it may work but we don\u2019t yet really know. How can the proposal of all subsidies being changed to cash be compared to a small stipend for sending the children to school?"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Providing money directly is efficient and eliminates corruption  Most methods of attempting to eliminate poverty through state intervention are bureaucratic and inefficient and therefore inevitably are not very helpful. The subsidies India has previously provided to the poor is a case in point. In reference to food subsidies that provide for a 50% subsidy for those below the poverty line a 2010 study by the Asian Development Bank found that in rural areas 73% of recipients were above the poverty line so should not have been receiving the subsidy. [1] Providing money directly into bank accounts on the other hand is efficient as it is transferred electronically and can be set up to transfer without any human intervention. For the same reason it is very difficult to embezzle because it is going straight to a bank account from central government funds without passing through anyone\u2019s hands.  [1] Jha, Shikha, and Ramaswami, Bharat, \u2018How Can Food Subsidies Work Better? Answers from India and the Philippines\u2019, ADB Economics Working Paper Series, No.211, September 2010, p.13"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Providing money directly works.  All the evidence is that providing money directly to those who need it works much better than providing a mishmash of subsidies and credits decided by government. Providing money directly has been working with limited programs around the world, most prominently with Brazil\u2019s Bolsa Familia which has meant millions of children get primary education because of a small cash incentive. [1]  In India the state already spends a huge amount on inefficient poverty reduction programs. If all the money that is spent on these programs was transferred to providing for the direct cash payments equally among the 70million households below the poverty line then it would provide a monthly transfer of 2,140 Rs; more than the poverty line income for rural households. [2]  [1] Economist, \u2018Give the poor money\u2019, 29 July 2010  [2] Kapur, Devesh, et al., \u2018More for the Poor and Less for and by the State: The Case for Direct Cash Transfers\u2019, Economic and Political Weekly, 12 April 2008, p.3"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-con03b","title":"","text":"There are of course some occasions where the individual may use their money unwisely, but if they do then this is their choice. Those who receive aid are as deserving of being free to choose how to use their money as any wage earner. This choice only comes from providing cash rather than subsidies. [1]  [1] Glaeser, Edward, \u2018Cash Is Better Than Food Stamps in Helping Poor\u2019, Bloomberg, 28 February 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-con01b","title":"","text":"Dependency is potentially a problem for any form of transfers with the intention of eliminating poverty while it is slightly different to be dependent on transfers of food the effect is the same. Direct transfers can however be made conditional upon the recipients doing what the government wants them to. In Brazil for example small cash transfers have been made conditional upon parents keeping their children in school. [1] There is little reason the conditions could not include earning some money from other sources if it is suspected that individuals are becoming dependent.  [1] Economist, \u2018Give the poor money\u2019, 29 July 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-con02a","title":"","text":"Money cannot be targeted to meet specific needs  Governments have accepted, in documents like the universal declaration of human rights, that one of their primary roles is to provide a basic standard of living for their citizens. When the state simply hands out some money this responsibility is not fulfilled. The state is simply leaving the poor to fend for themselves with a little extra money. Governments provide subsidies in kind or for specific products and services for a reason; those are the things that are necessities rather than luxuries. If money is transferred directly then the person who is getting the money can use the government\u2019s money on anything. Some may use it on the things the government was providing before but others will spend the money badly on tobacco, alcohol, or drugs. Subsidies however can be targeted at the things that the poor really need. This means the state provides subsidies for food, free or cheap housing and healthcare, fuel for cooking and heating etc."}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-con03a","title":"","text":"It is wrong to assume that the individual always knows best  With subsidies at least the government knows what their money is being spent on. This is not the case with cash; it just gets taken and can be spent on anything. As already mentioned the most obvious examples are where the individual uses the money they are given on drugs or other harmful products not what they need. Yet there are times where individuals may simply not have their own best interests at heart for various reasons, particularly because they know no better. This does not just happen in economic situations but also in public heath. For example development agencies know that cooking on open fires in homes leads to thousands of deaths every year and is costly in terms of fuel. So thousands of clean smokeless stoves have been given out yet they are not being used despite them being cheaper to run and potentially a life saver. [1]  [1] Duflo, Esther, et al., \u2018Up in Smoke: The Influence of Household Behavior on the Long-Run Impact of Improved Cooking Stoves\u2019, MIT Department of Economics Working Paper, No.12-10, 16 April 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-con01a","title":"","text":"Giving out money does not encourage people to take responsibility  The beauty of direct cash transfers is that it simply adds a new income stream but this is also its Achilles heel. Providing direct cash transfers will create dependency upon the transfers and reduce the incentive to be earning money from elsewhere. There are several reasons for this.  First because the transfers from the government will be reliable, unlike much of the income the poorest have, the transfers will become the recipients main form of income. This will mean that there is less incentive to be earning money from other sources, which would often mean hard work, so as a result both harming the individual as they do not earn as much and the economy as they will not be contributing to the economy.  Secondly people will take up less work in order to qualify for the transfers; there is no reason to work more if that is simply going to mean that money you would have got from the government is taken away.  The advantage of in-kind transfers is that they help avoid expectations of long term assistance or the state essentially providing everything. [1] Dependency has happened with food aid in Ethiopia where more than five million people have been receiving food aid since 1984; far from getting better the food security situation has if anything been declining during this time and there could be much better use made of Ethiopia\u2019s own resources; only 6% of the country\u2019s irrigable land is used for agriculture. [2]  [1] Holmes, Rebecca, and Jackson, Adam, \u2018Cash transfers in Sierra Leone: Are they appropriate, affordable or feasible?\u2019, Overseas Development Institute, Project Briefing No.8, January 2008, p.2  [2] Elliesen, Tillmann, \u2018Imported Dependency, Food Aid Weakens Ethiopia\u2019s Selfhelp Capacity\u2019, Development and Cooperation, No.1, January\/February 2002, pp.21-23"}
+{"id":"validation-international-aghwgcprp-con02b","title":"","text":"This is simply creating individual responsibility. A few will spend the money badly but most will realise that they need it for necessities. The whole point of the system is that it is flexible rather than limiting in the way other subsidy systems are. It should be considered that while some may misspend their money as suggested on drugs others may find ways of investing it so that they make more money and pull themselves out of poverty which then saves the government in the long term. Ultimately however it is the government that controls the flow of money; if someone is misspending it they can always halt the transfers."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro02b","title":"","text":"It is true that the founding treaties are long and, in some places, rather difficult documents. It is also true that many EU citizens know little about the EU. It is too simplistic to say that the treaties are the reason for this as the majority of the population are not interested in reading the original documents and will be happy for bureaucrats or the media to highlight relevant parts. So a concise constitution is not the solution to these problems. Whilst the treaties themselves might be intimidating, many pamphlets, books and websites exist that do a fine job in summarising and explaining these documents \u2013 one such site is Europa.eu . [1] The EU also provides many European briefing units across Europe to educate citizens about the EU. The job of providing a simplified and accessible explanation of the EU is already done well without a constitution. If there is still widespread ignorance about the EU then this is unlikely to be solved by the introduction of yet another legal document which will also  [1] Europa.eu, \u2018Basic information on the European Union\u2019"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro02a","title":"","text":"The current treaty-basis for the European Union is enormous, ambiguous and extremely complicated  The current treaty-basis for the European Union is enormous, ambiguous and extremely complicated. The existing treaties regulate multiple levels from the constitutional to detailed market regulations. As a result of this individuals cannot easily read and understand the treaties as a US citizen for example. [1] It is difficult to keep track of each new Treaty that amends the pre-existing treaties. The adoption of a shorter, clearer document will make the EU much more \u2018user friendly.\u2019 The EU currently suffers from the fact that many of its citizens do not know what it is or what it does; EU citizens either do not know where to look for this information or are deterred and intimidated by the size of the Treaty of Rome and the Maastricht Treaty. Having an easily digestible constitution will mean that the EU\u2019s citizens can easily find out what the EU is and what it does.  [1] Gj\u00f8rtler, Peter, \u2018 Lisbon Treaty - the Reform Treaty of the European Union\u2019, grayston & company, November 2009"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro03b","title":"","text":"There is no consensus for a United States of Europe. Most citizens identify themselves more with their nation-states rather than with the EU. [1] Only 28% of Belgians and 5% of Britons consider themselves equally their national identity and European. [2] It is also by no means clear that eroding national identities is a desirable phenomenon. The EU is an organisation in which twenty five nation-states cooperate with each other. Where necessary, these states pool their sovereignty in order to tackle common problems. The EU is thus an instrument used by nation-states to pursue their own interests in a world that makes it increasingly difficult for states to do this in isolation. The EU is a useful instrument of nation-states rather than a challenger to these states for the patriotism and loyalty of their citizens.  [1] Manuel, Paul Christopher, and Royo, Sebasti\u00e1n, \u2018Re-conceptualizing economic relations and political citizenship in the new Iberia of the new Europe\u2019 Suffolk University, 4 May 2001,   [2] Turmo, Ivan and Bradley, Simon, \u2018Poll reveals European mindset among Swiss\u2019, swissinfo.ch, 11 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro01a","title":"","text":"A comprehensive reform of the EU institutional layout is a must  A comprehensive reform of the EU institutional layout is a must given the pressures created by the continuing enlargement process as well as the integration process. The existing EU architecture worked fine for a community of six states, and even for a group of twelve, but it is now desperately out-dated and unsuitable for a Union of 27 or more. For example, the national veto still applies in many areas, meaning one state can block progress even when the other 26 agree. Even when agreement is reached, it is often agonisingly slow and difficult to implement across the whole of the Union, often having to pass through every parliament. As a result EU decision-making has often been criticised as slow, complex and producing too many \u2018lowest common denominator\u2019 solutions, therefore Ireland can bring to a halt a vital treaty like Lisbon [1] and the role of the Presidency and \u2018foreign minister\u2019 is a compromise that does not result in more unified policy. [2] While still leaving the people feeling distant from the EU\u2019s political processes, undermining legitimacy. [3] A Constitutional Treaty is the only comprehensive tool that exists right now in order to allow for this necessary overall reform.  [1] BBC News, \u2018Ireland rejects EU reform treaty\u2019, 13 June 2008,   [2] Bellotti, Sarah M., and Dale, Reginald, \u2018U.S. Media Snubs New EU Leaders\u2019, Center for Strategic & International Studies,   [3] Renda, Andrea, \u2018Policy-Making in the EU; Achievements, Challenges and Proposals for Reform\u2019, Centre for European Policy Studies, 2009, www.ceps.eu\/files\/book\/1854.pdf"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro01b","title":"","text":"While comprehensive EU reform is in theory clearly desirable, in practice the EU has proven not to be ready for such a radical step. Historically, the EU has evolved by taking a series of little steps, as opposed to taking big jumps with big risks- \u201cEurope has always moved forward one step at a time and it should continue to do so\u201d - German Finance Minister Wolfgang Sch\u00e4uble. [1] The EU is now facing a number of different crises \u2013 from the economic crisis that engulfed the Eurozone, to the social crisis that has spread throughout most of the EU members in the form of increasing opposition to migrants and a worrisome rise in nationalist and extremist parties and policies. The recent massacre in Norway (although outside the EU) is an example of this increasing extremism. Such violence \u201cpoints to a dangerous undercurrent of hostility against the left\u2019s platform, which is committed to open borders and multiculturalism.\u201d [2] Any move to have constitutional reform will simply add to these pressures.  [1] Kovacheva, Ralitsa, \u2018Is the EU ready for a new Treaty?\u2019 euinside, 7 September 2011   [2] RT, \u2018Rise of right-wing extremism rattles Europe\u2019, 25 July 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Having a European Constitution would make very little difference to the role of the ECJ. It could still have an activist agenda in terms of interpreting the new constitution. The United States Constitution is one of the shortest in the world yet the United States Supreme Court has felt free to either stick very closely to the text or very liberally interpret it depending on the composition of the court. Accusing judges of \u201cjudicial activism\u201d is often just cover for someone saying that they don\u2019t like the decision. [1] The adoption of a binding constitution will therefore not increase democracy in the European Union. It will tie the hands of democratically elected governments in the member states and force them to an even greater extent to be subordinate to the judges in the ECJ.  [1] Wallace, Chris, \u2018Ted Olson on Debate Over Judicial Activism and Same-Sex Marriage\u2019, Fox News Sunday, 8 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro03a","title":"","text":"A EU constitution will foster a \u201cEuropean identity\u201d  Since the Maastricht Treaty, the citizens of EU member states have possessed parallel citizenship of the EU. However, European citizens do not identify themselves with the EU in the way that citizens of the USA self-identify as American. An important part of the patriotism of Americans is \u2018constitutional patriotism;\u2019 pride in their constitution and civic institutions. The European Union aims to bring about ever closer union between the peoples of Europe. It should foster a shared sense of \u2018European identity\u2019 by adopting a constitution, in which every citizen of the EU can take pride."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-pro04a","title":"","text":"The ECJ has often been accused of over-stepping the legitimate boundaries of  The European Court of Justice (ECJ) has long treated the founding treaties as the constitutional documents of the European Union. Many commentators have noted the efforts of the ECJ to \u201cconstitutionalise\u201d many principles \u2013 such as the direct effect and supremacy of Community law over the domestic laws of member states and the increasing protection of human rights \u2013 The ECJ is often overstepping its bounds when it comes to applying and interpreting the treaties. [1] The ECJ has often been accused of \u201cjudicial activism\u201d in over-stepping the legitimate boundaries of courts in a democracy. By enshrining much of this creative jurisprudence in a democratically ratified constitution, the EU can assert and emphasise its status as a democratic entity, rather than an elite-driven process separate from the citizens of Europe.  [1] Roberts, Linda, \u2018The CARICOM Single Market and Economy and the Caribbean Court of Justice\u2019, Southampton Working Papers in European Law, 2007\/1,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-con03b","title":"","text":"Any constitution need not be a step towards a European superstate or even a federal European state. It may simply be rationalising current treaties and making the EU more accessible with little in the way of real changes to the location of power. None the less such a change would not be all bad as Paavo Lipponen, Prime Minister of Finland argues \u201cThe EU ought to develop into a great power in order that it may function as a fully fledged actor in the world.\u201d [1] The EU as a great power would be more effective in solving conflict and promoting development in other parts of the world, particularly in Africa, parts of Asia and even Latin America as well as providing economic benefits for its own members.  [1] Free Europe, \u2018Building the EU SuperState: what leading EU politicians say about it\u2019, 26 September 2005,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-con01b","title":"","text":"Constitutional \u2018documents\u2019 is exactly the problem. The EU is a very large (as of January 2007, 27 member states) international organisation with a considerable number of competencies and several important institutions. It is important to have one, clear document that precisely defines the different powers of, and relationships between the 27 member states, the European Commission, the European Parliament and the Courts of Justice. But also the relationships between states that may have opted out of some parts of the EU; between those who are in Schengen and those who opted out, between those in the Eurozone and those outside. Complicated federal polities such as the United States, Germany and Switzerland have constitutions which define the limits of central power and the areas in which the states have autonomy; the EU should in this respect be no different."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-con02a","title":"","text":"Adopting a European Constitution and failing to abide by it would be a big and challenging failure  The European Union should be wary of adopting a European Constitution as many states may not be able to abide by its terms. The reason why Greece is in so much financial trouble is its unwillingness to abide by the European Growth and Stability Pact, however others, Germany and France had already broken the pact. [1] Such a failure to abide by the rules with a constitution, something which is meant to be at the heart of the state, would greatly damage European credibility and would practically rule out the possibility of more comprehensive change in the future. Accession countries have shown little interest in the Constitutional Treaty overall, given a series of other more immediate concerns. Therefore a constitution is unneeded in order for the EU to develop, enlarge or prosper. It can only lose if it created a constitution which turned out a disaster.  [1] Aznar, Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda, \u2018Europe must reset the clock on stability and growth\u2019, FT.com, 16 May 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-con03a","title":"","text":"A EU Constitution will lead to a superstate, which is undesirable at the moment  A European constitution is a first step on a slippery slope towards a United States of Europe. Such a European superstate is widely opposed by citizens of all EU members, not least because it would be undemocratic, unaccountable and remote. Many EU citizens already believe this is the case. In Britain polls regularly show that far from wanting deeper integration the country is in favour of leaving the EU. [1] As has already been shown members do not consider themselves \u2018European\u2019 nearly as much as they do their own national identity. [2]  [1] The Democracy Movement Surrey, \u2018The EU - Superstate or Free Trade Partner? We Can Leave.\u2019 2007   [2] Turmo, Ivan and Bradley, Simon, \u2018Poll reveals European mindset among Swiss\u2019, swissinfo.ch, 11 August 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-con01a","title":"","text":"There already are constitutional documents  We already have such constitutional documents \u2013 the Treaty of Rome, the Maastricht Treaty and most importantly the Lisbon treaty from very recently (2009). The powers of, and relationships between the different institutional actors are clearly defined in the existing treaties. Just because the EU has expanded to incorporate new member states does not mean it needs a constitution. The Treaty of Nice was meant to have made the necessary amendments to facilitate enlargement. If it has failed, then we can simply amend the existing treaties again."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ephbesnc-con02b","title":"","text":"A failure of not having a ratified EU constitution will actually represent a more significant blow to the EU\u2019s image abroad and at home. Talk about the decline of the EU is not helping the European economy, or the way in which the EU is perceived. The failure to reform could potentially lead to an actual collapse of the EU as we know it, which would have disastrous effects for the region as well as the world. The failure of the Constitutional Treaty would also result in powerful disillusionment in the countries that have recently entered the EU or are applying to enter. This could significantly slow down further enlargements and put their domestic reform agendas at risk."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro02b","title":"","text":"This was meant to prevent colonies being carved up into irregular pieces not to allow a new colonial master over a territory almost 1400 miles away from the main country as the Chagos Islands are from Mauritius. The reasoning for setting administrative borders at the beginning of the 18th century cannot have any rational bearing on who the islands belong to when those borders are not either clear physical or ethnic boundaries. The borders of Mauritius changed regularly; they originally included the Seychelles until 1903 when they were made a new colony. Two more islands were transferred in 1908 and 1921. [1] Which was the real colonial border?  [1] Sookhoo, Narainduth, \u2018Mauritius independence: Myths and realities!\u2019, Le Mauricien, 3 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro02a","title":"","text":"Uti Possidetis  The borders of states that gain independence are set by the administrative boundaries that the colony had prior to independence. This prevents any gaps in sovereignty, or any attempt by the coloniser to keep a chunk of the territory, and the conflict this would inevitably bring. General Assembly Resolution 1514 made this clear \u201cAny attempt aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national unity and the territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations.\u201d [1] This also means that Mauritius should have control of the Chagos Islands which were, up until 1965, a part of Mauritius.  [1] United Nations General Assembly, \u2018Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples\u2019, un.org, resolution 1514 (XV), 14 December 1960,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro03b","title":"","text":"The islanders do wish the right to self-determination but that does not have to mean they wish the return to Mauritius. Self-determination would mean a referendum in which the islands might chose to remain British, or possibly become independent. [1] It would not mean simply being handed to Mauritius with no regard to the people\u2019s views.  [1] Morrison, Alex, \u2018Chagos Islands\u2019 future lies with UK\u2019, theguardian.com, 25 January 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro01a","title":"","text":"Mauritius is far closer  The UK should not be controlling territory that is almost 5786 miles away from London. The Chagos Islands should be under the sovereignty of an Indian Ocean country like Mauritius that is much better placed to look after the interests of the islands. The age when countries had the right to control territory half a world away on the basis of might makes right are long gone. The Chagos islands, as with other remnants of colonialism, should be handed over to the nearest state with a good claim. In this case Mauritius."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro01b","title":"","text":"If distance is anything to go by then the Chagos Islands should be a part of the Maldives which the islands are 600 miles closer to than they are to Mauritius. [1] Moreover the Maldives are on the same geographical feature as the Chagos islands; the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge. [2] The irregularities of the borders of colonial administration should not determine who rules offshore islands.  [1] Both distances taken from google search.  [2] Whitmarsh, Robert B., \u2018Some aspects of plate tectonics in the Arabian Sea\u2019, deepseadrilling.org, p.527,  Incidentally this would potentially matter if the Chagos islands were uninhabited as the Maldives might have a claim due to territorial contiguity"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro04b","title":"","text":"With the exception of the far greater human rights abuse of the expulsion of the islanders there have been few actual abuses on the Chagos Islands. Mauritius however itself does not have a clean record. The U.S. State Department notes there have been arbitrary arrests, particularly of the opposition parties with the leader of the Militant Socialist Movement having been arrested and interrogated as a result of naming the government a \u201cpaedophile government\u201d for not suspending a teacher accused of raping a student. \u201cOther reported human rights problems included official corruption, violence and discrimination against women, abuse and sexual exploitation of children, discrimination and abuse based on sexual orientation, discrimination against persons living with HIV\/AIDS, restrictions on labor rights, antiunion discrimination, and child labor.\u201d [1]  [1] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, \u2018Mauritius 2012 Human Rights Report\u2019, State Department, 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro03a","title":"","text":"Self determination  The most important principle of the international system since the end of the Second World War has been self determination; the right of nations or peoples to \"freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development\". [1] The UK has staunchly defended the right of self determination in other cases such as the Falkland Islands about which the Foreign Secretary, William Hague has stated \u201cWe have always been clear that we believe in the rights of the Falklands people to determine their own futures and to decide on the path they wish to take. It is only right that, in the twenty-first century, these rights are respected.\u201d [2] The UK has also said it will accept the result of a referendum in Scotland. If areas that are far more important to the UK are allowed their self determination so should the Chagossians.  [1] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, New York, 16 December 1966,   [2] Foreign & Commonwealth Office, \u2018Falkland Islands vote to remain British Overseas Territory\u2019, gov.uk, 12 March 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-pro04a","title":"","text":"A human rights black hole  The Chagos Islands have been excluded from almost every human rights treaty from the Geneva conventions (III\/IV), the Convention against Torture, through to the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Resulting in what Peter Sand calls \u201ca kind of human rights black hole\u201d which has enabled rendition flights to pass through the base. This is possible because the British government claims they have no permanent inhabitants. Sand suggests \u201cthe fiction of the \u201cunpopulated archipelago\u201d, staunchly defended by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office [FCO], will inevitably come back to haunt its authors in the very near future\u201d. [1] With the islands being \u2018uninhabited\u2019 they are not entitled to an Exclusive Economic Zone under the UN Law of the Sea. Britain\u2019s claim to the islands as a whole is also made more tenuous.  [1] Harris, Peter, \u2018Review Article: Not just a military base: Reframing Diego Garcia and the Chagos Islands\u2019, African Affairs, 110\/440, pp.491-99, 2011,  p.496"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-con03b","title":"","text":"The establishment of the MPA is clearly an attempt to strengthen UK control over the islands. A State Department cable leaked by wikileaks states \u201cHe [Colin Roberts, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office's (FCO) Director Overseas Territories] asserted that establishing a marine park would, in effect, put paid to resettlement claims of the archipelago's former residents.\u201d [1]  Moreover the UK, or rather the US occupation, is not good for the environment either. The US base at Diego Garcia has accommodated nuclear-powered submarines opening the potential for radiation leaks as has happened before in Japanese ports. Similarly a large amount of air and sea traffic creates the possibility of oil spills; there have been at least four major spills at Diego Garcia, the one in 1991 involved 160,000 gallons being lost. [2]  [1] Mills, Richard, \u2018HMG floats proposal for marine reserve covering the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory)\u2019, Wikileaks, 15 May 2009,   [2] Carey, Sean, \u2018The UK\u2019s role in Diego Garcia: green fingers or red faces?\u2019, New Statesman, 7 September 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-con01b","title":"","text":"There is no national interest in the Chagos Islands or Diego Garcia. If there were true national interests then Diego Garcia would be a British base not a US one, handing such security over to the US clearly shows that the UK does not have sufficient national interests at stake to maintain a base on the islands themselves. Moreover if it is in the national interests of the United States to have a base there is little reason to assume that the US could not negotiate similar terms from the government of Mauritius as that of the UK to secure those interests."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-con02a","title":"","text":"Chagos islanders don\u2019t all want to belong to Mauritius  Many of the people of the Chagos Islands don\u2019t want to belong to Mauritius. They want the right to return to their homeland, but also that the Chagos Islands should remain British. Allen Vincatassin, a leader of the Diego Garcians in the UK, argues \u201cWe were second-class citizens in Mauritius and if they govern the islands, we will be second-class citizens in our own land\u2026 We are British Indian Ocean Territory citizens, which we are proud to be. We believe we are part of this country. In a normal situation the people would come first but it seems the state of Mauritius comes before the rights of our people.\u201d [1] The islands when resettled could survive very well as a part of the UK just as other territories such as the British Virgin Islands do with administration done locally but sovereignty remaining with the UK.  [1] Morrison, Alex, \u2018Chagos Islands\u2019 future lies with UK\u2019, theguardian.com, 25 January 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-con03a","title":"","text":"Marine protection  The UK government has turned the Chagos islands into a Marine Protected Area. This would cover 544,400km2 around the islands with a no take zone preventing any fishing in the zone. The MPA will protect 60-80,00km2 of reefs and eight endangered or critically endangered species. [1] As the biggest such protected area in the world this will be making a critical contribution to protecting global biodiversity. While the Chagos Island\u2019s seas are almost pristine Mauritius has been overfished with the overfishing further damaging coral suffering from coral bleaching. [2] Mauritius has objected to the establishment of the MPA [3] clearly showing that they wish to engage in exploiting the resources of the islands rather than engaging in marine protection.  [1] Sheppard, Charles, \u2018British Indian Ocean Territory\u2019, UK Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies: 2011 Biodiversity snapshot, 2011,  p.33, 35  [2] Harris, Ed, \u2018Warm seas and overfishing his Mauritius lagoon\u2019, Reuters, 7 June 2007,   [3] \u2018The Republic of Mauritius v. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\u2019, Permanent Court of Arbitration, accessed 29\/1\/2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-con01a","title":"","text":"National interests  It is in British and US national interests that Diego Garcia and the Chagos islands stay under UK control with the UK continuing to allow a US base on the islands. Diego Garcia is clearly strategically located as a base in the middle of the Indian ocean a base that may be useful for action in any direction. The military base has a significant runway, satellite tracking facilities, and is one of only five control bases for the GPS. It has been used in every US military operation in the Middle East since 1973. [1] The island is therefore a necessary base for combatting terrorism and maintaining a US presence in the region. The UK has said that it will keep the islands until it is no longer needed for defence, with the Middle East as unstable as it ever has been now is not the time to be giving up the islands.  [1] Salter, Mark B., and Mutlu, Can E., \u2018Securitisation and Diego Garcia\u2019, Review of International Studies, 2012,  , p.6"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahwrcim-con02b","title":"","text":"If there is concern with the Chagossians becoming \u2018second class citizens\u2019 then this can be addressed in negotiations to return the islands to Mauritius. The British have not in the past been willing to take the views of the islanders into account, there seems to be little reason why they now should just because the UK might now stand to benefit. Regardless a poll of all Chagossians might equally lead to the islands being handed over to Mauritius."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro02b","title":"","text":"The European Parliament may \u2018speak for Europe\u2019 but the Council speaks for the EU\u2019s member states. Privileging the European Parliament at the expense of the Council erodes the intergovernmental nature of EU decision-making. It is important to protect the sovereign powers of the individual member states; this is achieved in the Council, which is comprised of representatives of each national government. This has been particularly the case in the United Kingdom where there have been rows over sovereignty in relatively obscure areas such as prisoners voting rights. [1]  The European Union can only work if national considerations are put above all others. The Council works because the best possible conclusions are reached precisely because compromise between the varying interests is required. Involving the European Parliament would shift the emphasis of the entire EU from being a forum for independent nations to being a decision making body for a large number of states, undermining the sovereignty of domestic parliaments.  [1] Bagehot, \u2018Britain\u2019s mounting fury over sovereignty\u2019, The Economist, 10 February 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Voice of Europe  The European Parliament is the only pan-European, directly elected institution in the EU. As such, only the European Parliament can authentically \u2018speak\u2019 for Europe on any issue. It should consequently be a more privileged institution in the EU decision-making process. As a step in this direction, the Parliament should have equal powers of co-decision with the Council on all legislative matters in the EU. [1]  This would turn the European Parliament from being a mere talking shop to a body which can affect real change by providing a balance to the Council of Ministers. By having a directly elected body making decisions on a par with the indirectly chosen body, better decisions will be made that will benefit all Europeans at once, turning the council from a body that focuses on implementing European policy instead of the council being a means for sovereign governments to negotiate based on partial considerations of what their electorates want.  This would prevent leaders from being able to come up with deals in their famous all night meetings that the public are opposed to. At the moment European governments can afford to make unpopular decisions in Europe confident that the issue will never be high enough up the electorate\u2019s priorities, which is topped by issues such as unemployment, the economy, inflation, healthcare and crime, [2] so they will not be punished for the decision. The European Parliament which is elected on European issues would prevent be much more responsive to their electorate.  [1] Young European Federalists, \u2018Political Platform of JEF-Europe\u2019, XIX. European Congress in Copenhagen 21 October 2007,   [2] TNS Opinion & Social, \u2018Public opinion in the European Union\u2019, Eurobarometer 75 Spring 2011, P.21,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro03b","title":"","text":"The argument that we should increase the European Parliament\u2019s powers in order to increase people\u2019s interest in it is as flawed as it is well-rehearsed. This argument has been used to repeatedly expand the competencies of the Parliament. However, far from becoming more interested in the Parliament, fewer and fewer people at each election have bothered to vote, turnout was a much higher 61.99% in 1979 (although the average is partially reduced by newer members on average having lower turnouts). [1] This argument merely signals the failure of the Parliament as a democratic institution and unhappiness with the increasingly federal European project. Rather than rewarding the EU Parliament for failure, we should consider seriously its abolition.  There is already a democratic check on the Commission \u2013 the Council of Ministers made up of democratically elected national governments. It is the Council that sets the agenda for the Commission to implement. The fact that the Commission acts on the behest of democratically elected bodies makes the Parliament superfluous in its present form.  [1] \u2018European Parliament election turnout 1979 \u2013 2009\u2019, UK Political Info,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro01a","title":"","text":"Democratic Deficit  The European Parliament\u2019s powers need to be expanded because there is a widespread perception that the EU suffers from a democratic deficit: national parliaments have lost much of their power vis a vis national governments through the committee based decision-making in the Council of Ministers. This loss of national parliamentary influence has not been matched by a proportional increase in the power and influence of the European Parliament. To reduce this deficit the European Parliament must be given parity with the Council so that it can provide checks and balances in the system.  This becomes particularly pertinent given other developments such as the creation of the Single Currency, which has imposed monetary policy upon varied economies without the necessary oversight from democratic bodies. In the worst case scenarios that have befallen member states such as Greece and Italy, unelected apolitical governments lead by technocrats Lucas Papademos in Athens and Mario Monti in Rome have been imposed by Brussels upon countries that have failed to toe the line, in this case over keeping their debts down. [1] This has shown the damage that the deficit between policies at a supra-nation level and the lack of truly popular mandate has had. If the European Parliament had a greater say and control over the European Central Bank \u2013 where Germany has been stopping the use of the ability to print Euros and be a lender of last resort to stem the crisis [2] - then difficulties in the euro zone would have been countered with constant reference to a directly elected body representing the interests of all Eurozone Nations rather than action benefiting the interests of only some creating damage to democracy in others.  [1] Editorial \u2018Europe: the rise of the technocracy\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 13 November 2011,   [2] \u2018Schaeuble: Will Block ECB Becoming Lender of Last Resort\u2019, Market News International, 22 November 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro01b","title":"","text":"The democratic deficit is a myth. National governments have a strong democratic mandate from national elections. Therefore, their decisions are already imbued with considerable democratic legitimacy. National governments also rely on national parliaments to enact their legislation at home. As a result it would be extremely foolish of a government to pursue a course of action in the Council which was opposed by national parliamentarians, or which would be unpopular enough to lead to a future electoral defeat at home. Democracy is protected sufficiently by the Council already; there is thus no need to increase the powers of the European Parliament.  The current crisis is also not a good example as the policies that led to the ultimate undermining of democratic mandates in Eurozone nations were supported by the voters in the respective countries. Had those countries voted for more realistic fiscal policies then there would be no need for the drastic measures required to prevent the Eurozone from collapsing. Outside of extraordinary circumstances, the status quo can and does work, with the Council of Ministers being made up of National Governments elected by the people."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Relevance  The levels of turnout in elections for the European Parliament are worryingly low, in 2009 the average EU turnout was 43% and the lowest was in Slovakia with a turnout of only 19.64%. [1] EU citizens clearly feel that the European Parliament is not important enough, does not have enough power over their lives, to justify them voting in European elections. Therefore, we must increase the powers of the European Parliament to increase its relevance to ordinary people. By making it more powerful we create an incentive for people to vote.  People view the EU as being dominated by the Commission, unelected bureaucrats who can change millions of people\u2019s lives with little oversight from elected bodies. This corrodes people\u2019s faith in the European Parliament to make change, thus affecting turnout. If the Parliament had the power to truly influence the commission then it would seem much more relevant, encouraging increased turnout.  [1] \u2018European Parliament election turnout 1979 \u2013 2009\u2019, UK Political Info,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con03b","title":"","text":"It is because the Parliament is not the primary body in the EU that it cannot be truly able to split along the traditional \u2018left-right\u2019 cleavage as is the case many of the member states domestic politics. A consensus had to be acquired for decision-making in the Parliament in order to be on par with the council, which for all its flaws sought to operate in a similar manner. Even though there has been consensus between the two largest groups, it has still been able to effectively scrutinize the Commission with the powers it currently has. Giving more powers to the European Parliament would ensure that this remains the case. Indeed, increasing the importance of the Parliament within the structures of the EU will give greater impetus for consensus between all political groupings, resulting in better decision making."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con01b","title":"","text":"Instead of facilitating greater European federalism, granting the Parliament more powers may actually do much to prevent it. By having a body directly accountable to the people directing the Commission, instead of the indirect Council, there can be greater room for criticism of what the Commission does and advocacy of alternate policies for the Commission. As the Parliament is directly accountable to constituents, the Parliament has a clear stake in representing their interests, which may be preventing \u2018federalism\u2019 which is agreed upon by national governments that make up the Council of Ministers for the sake of expediency. Parliamentary control of the Commission gives people a direct say in how it is run, preventing accusations of \u2018federalism\u2019 in future."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con02a","title":"","text":"What Parliament currently does  Proposition likes to maintain that the European Parliament does not do anything to hold the Commission to account. However, this is not true. The Parliament has the power to reject appointments to the Commission as well as force the entire Commission from their jobs in the event of maladministration (While extremely rare, it has happened in the past such as the rejection of Rocco Buttiglione) [1] . As well as having the power to reject resolutions proposed by the Council and Commission. [2]  The status quo places Parliament in a co-equal position in relation to the Commission and Council, respecting the importance of the role national governments have in dictating Europe-wide policy. If the Parliament is made superior to the Council, then the risk is run of giving it supremacy over the national governments. The status quo can be seen as appropriate as there is a fine balance between the Parliament and Council in dictating matters to the Commission. No change is required.  [1] Gow, David, \u2018MEPs reject anti-gay commission candidate\u2019, The Guardian, 12 October 2004,   [2] European Parliament, \u2018Parliament\u2019s powers and procedures\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con03a","title":"","text":"Ineffectiveness of Parliament  While the Parliament is able to hold the Commission to account in a somewhat limited manner, the institution as a whole is rendered ineffective by its structure. As the parliament is largely elected by Proportional Representation, compromise is required in order to pass resolutions. In most parliaments the two largest groupings would square off against each other and try to dictate policy with the help of smaller groups, thus allowing for varied opinions to come to the fore. Instead in the European Parliament, the Socialist and the Center-Right groupings have dominated proceedings since the first elected Parliament sat in 1979, with the success and failure of resolutions being contingent upon these two groups being able to find compromise, they even share the presidency. [1] This means that once the compromise has been reached, the resolution passes with a large majority and smaller groups such as the Greens and the Liberals are unable to voice opinion on the matter effectively.  This reduces the ability of the Parliament to function effectively as a scrutinizing body, preventing a full discussion of issues with a view to establish as close to a full consensus as possible with as many groups agreeing as possible. The development of a \u2018Grand Coalition\u2019 has hamstrung debate in what Proposition hopes to be the primary body in the European Union. If more powers are awarded to the Parliament in its current form, then policies affecting many millions of people will be decided on account a pre-arranged agreement between two major groupings that tend to share very similar aims with the Commission, not affecting real change in how the European project works.  [1] Taylor, Simon, \u2018Deal on Parliament\u2019s presidency holds firm\u2019, EuropeanVoice.com 11 June 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con01a","title":"","text":"Creeping Federalism  Awarding more powers to the European Parliament would signify a shift in the Parliament \u2013 and by extension \u2013 the European Union\u2019s relationship with its member states. If the Parliament is the body in primary control of the Commission the following harms would be created:  1) The democratically elected national governments that make up the Council of Ministers will be side-lined, creating the precedent of a central European body determining the actions of the Commission, thus effecting European citizens.  2) This creates a situation where sovereign nations end up being tied to one particular policy as dictated by the central Parliament, undermining the sovereignty of National Parliaments and making it difficult for a nation to go against said policy (See the controversy over the Common Fisheries Policy, for instance).  These dual phenomena caused as a result of the Parliament gaining more powers will further centralisation within the European Union, creating what critics would call a \u2018federal superstate.\u2019"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con02b","title":"","text":"Parliament may on paper be able to influence decisions made by the Commission, but a lot of what the Commission does is still heavily influenced by the Council, a body established for national governments to negotiate based on their own partial self-interest. Such negotiations can lead to major anomalies in the European Union such the Parliament having a seat in Strasbourg order to appease France. Moreover the parliament\u2019s powers over the commission are limited, the opposition cites being able to reject the appointment of members of the commission but it can\u2019t reject individuals only the college of commissioners as a whole. [1] By making the Parliament the primary body in the European Union, decisions can be made with the view of fully representing the needs of their constituents rather than having to constantly be careful of the partisan Council. This can result in better decision making on how the Commission and by extension, the European Union should move forward.  [1] European Parliament, \u2018Oversight over the Commission and Council\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro02b","title":"","text":"The wall would also entail a large overall of current border checkpoint protocol. This disrupts the routine of the cartels and makes it harder to smuggle drugs across the border and it will take a while before the figure out the new system."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Cartels can maneuver past checkpoints  The current 650 miles of wall has done nothing to stop the flow of drugs. Cartels heavily study checkpoints and find their weaknesses and exploit them. Checkpoint officers can also be corrupted and\/or ineffective. Most drugs also come through ports of entry, not the border according to the Institute for Policy Studies. Drugs is the biggest danger that comes from the free flow between the borders, yet a wall would not effectively stop the flow of drugs. If it does not stop the bringing of drugs into the US then the wall does not fulfill its purpose."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Preventing terrorism is not the primary goal of the wall, only an added benefit. The primary goals of the wall is to stop the flow of undocumented people and illegal drugs. Any prevention of terrorism is an added benefit to the utility of the wall, however small the added benefit may be."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro01a","title":"","text":"A lot of undocumented workers are already in the US  According to data from Department of homeland security most of the people who are here illegally arrive here legally and then overstay their visa. Over 400,000 people whose Visas expired in 2015 were still living in the country in 2016. That's about the same as the number of people who cross the southern border every year (328,00 - 479,00). The wall would do nothing to the people that are already here."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro01b","title":"","text":"There are still a large number of people that do cross the border every year that would be affected if a wall was constructed. Even if the wall does not stop illegal immigration all together, even stopping some of it does make it effective."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro04b","title":"","text":"The state of the economy does nothing to change the effectiveness of the wall at keeping drugs and people from crossing the US-Mexico border."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Terrorists are not undocumented  80% of terrorists than have been apprehended since 2001 in the US are homegrown. Only one of 154 terrorists in the US since 1975 has been Mexican."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Economic downturn would cause a surge of immigration  People leave Mexico because of poor employment opportunities, the wall would likely hurt the economy of Mexico and create a surge of immigration. Building the wall has a negative effect on natural resources as well as businesses in the area. Also it would discourage investment in Mexico because it would look like a serving of the partnership between the US and Mexico. Any hit to the Mexican economy would likely increase illegal immigration, despite the wall\u2019s construction."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con03b","title":"","text":"This is a large time jump and can be attributed to other exogenous factors, not just the construction of the prototype wall."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con01b","title":"","text":"US is currently enduring a construction labor shortage. So the jobs that would be created would not likely to be filled by American worker and not have a very large effect on the unemployment rate. All the people who want a job in that sector likely already have one due to the shortage. Also border security agents make up a huge portion of the Department of Homeland Security\u2019s budget so this would cause a huge increase in spending."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con02a","title":"","text":"At the very least it slows people down  Navigating past the wall will be a problem that people trying to cross the border or bring drugs through the border will have to face. It will create apprehension from attempting to do so. It will make it harder for these crossings to occur."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con03a","title":"","text":"Prototypes have seen success  A prototype in San Diego has been built and has seen a success. The number of illegal crossings dropped from 560,000 in 1992 to 68000 in 2010 after the prototype had been constructed."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con01a","title":"","text":"Would create US jobs  A building project that large would likely create close to 25000 US jobs. There would also be a large increase in border patrol agents. This would make the wall an effective way to decrease unemployment and create economic opportunity that the Trump administration promised."}
+{"id":"validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con02b","title":"","text":"According to the Department of Homeland Security, people attempting to cross the border is already on the decline, so this wall might already be a mute point."}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro02b","title":"","text":"If this conflict really is zero sum then a lease over the whole of Crimea is a big loss to Ukraine; it is after all losing a whole province in return for some financial assistance. Moreover we have little evidence that it really would mean Russia getting what it wants; Russia continues to deny that it even has military forces in Crimea, \u201cthese were local self-defence forces\u201d, let alone spell out to the world exactly what its objectives are. President Putin says \u201cThis is a humanitarian mission\u201d that \u201ccorresponds with our interests of protecting people who are historically tied to us\u201d. If protection is all that is necessary then a lease should not be necessary. [1]  [1] Siddique, Haroon, \u2018Putin: Yanukovych ousting was \u2018unconstitutional overthrow\u2019\u2019, theguardian.com, 4 March 2014"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro02a","title":"","text":"Russia gets what it wants  There have been many suggested motives for Russia\u2019s sending military forces into Crimea. Providing a lease on Crimea to Russia would provide a solution to most of Russia\u2019s main objectives; the Russians in Crimea are protected, and the Russian hold on its Black Sea base is secure. More importantly the crisis started after the defeat of President Yanukovych and the resulting blow to Russian prestige in what Russia sees as a zero sum game (if one side wins the other automatically loses to the same extent). An invasion or Crimea regained Russian leverage but left Russia with little room to manoeuvre as any climb-down would leave Putin with nothing. [1] A lease gets out of this zero sum problem as both can gain. A lease would enable Russia to make an agreement with the Ukrainian government and recognise that government without having to lose face as any other solution which maintains Ukrainian territorial integrity would.  [1] Crowley, P.J., \u2018Crimea: Putin\u2019s mission accomplished\u2019, BBC News, 3 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro03b","title":"","text":"A lease is not all a financial gain for Ukraine. Any tax revenues from Crimea would be lost as they would instead go to Russia. As would any revenues from natural resources either now in the future; Crimea with its strategic location was intended to be the hub for gas pipelines across the Black sea so Ukraine would be losing transit fees."}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro01a","title":"","text":"A peaceful solution  Agreeing a lease would provide a much needed peaceful solution to the Crimean crisis which would not only solve the immediate crisis but would also prevent future flare ups. Shortly after Russian forces moved into Crimea Prime Minister Arseny Yatseniuk of Ukraine said \u201cThis is not a threat: this is actually the declaration of war to my country\u201d. [1] It has not so far been a shooting war, and no one wants it to escalate. Russia\u2019s UN Ambassador has said \u201cRussia does not want war\u2026 We don\u2019t want any further exacerbation of the situation.\u201d [2] But when there are constant tensions the best way to prevent a potentially unpredictable situation is to provide a solution to the situation. A lease should be considered.  [1] Zinets, Natalia, and De Carboonnel, Alissa, \u2018Ukraine mobilises after Putin\u2019s \u2018declaration of war\u2019\u2019, Reuters, 2 March 2014,   [2] \u2018Ukraine crisis: Russia tells UN it does not want war\u2019, BBC News, 14 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Everyone wants a peaceful solution but that does not mean that a lease is the best solution. Having some form of shared sovereignty \u2013 Ukraine owning the land and Russia having the right to use it and control it requires a great deal of trust. This is especially true if the Ukrainian Black Sea Fleet were to remain based on the peninsula. With potentially overlapping jurisdictions there is a lot of potential cause for trouble."}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro04b","title":"","text":"Leases reflect inequality between those involved in the lease; Panama was much less powerful than the USA so had little choice \u2013 it also needed the money. China was a defeated state; it had just been defeated by Japan and had lost two previous wars to the UK. The treaties were considered to be \u2018unequal treaties\u2019 and those countries that were subjected to them threw them off at the first opportunity."}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Helps Ukraine financially  Ukraine is in a dire financial situation; it has gone to the IMF seeking $15billion to help stabilise the economy with a bailout. [1] The interim finance minister Yuri Kolobov suggests that even this amount will not be enough for the full year with Ukraine needing $34.4billion. [2] Finance was one of the reasons why Ukraine turned to Russia in November 2013; Russia was offering money when the EU was not. The lease agreed for the Black Sea Fleet involves the payment of $90million per year and the renegotiations in 2010 involved giving Ukraine cut price gas as well. [3] A lease for the whole of the peninsular with almost 2 million inhabitants and is close to the size of Belgium would cost a lot more, potentially enough to fill much of that financial hole.  [1] Talley, Ian, \u2018IMF Making \u2018Good Progress\u2019 in Ukraine Bailout\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 13 March 2013,   [2] Schmeller, Johanna, \u2018Crimea crisis further imperils Ukraine\u2019s economy\u2019, Deutsche Welle, 4 March 2013,   [3] Harding, Luke, \u2018Ukraine extends lease for Russia\u2019s Black Sea Fleet, The Guardian, 21 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro04a","title":"","text":"Precedent  While of the core points of sovereignty is that is indivisible this has not stopped the existence of other similar deals happening in the past. Locally the Black Sea Fleet is a good example  There have however been more famous examples in the past; the Panama Canal Zone was leased to the United States from 1903 to 1977 for $250,000 per year (later increased). [1] There are other instances of territory being leased; the clearest example being Hong Kong\u2019s new territories which were leased rent free for 99 years from 1898 after China was defeated by Japan [2] \u2013 at the time there was a general view that if one great power gained then all the others have to as well. That leasing territory is an established practice means that it should be easy to apply to this case.  [1] Lowenfeld, Andreas, \u2018Panama Canal Treaty\u2019, Institute for International Law and Justice,   [2] Welsh, Frank, A History of Hong Kong, 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con03b","title":"","text":"Ukraine would clearly find it difficult to trust Russia however it has several reasons for doing so. The first is that Russia and Ukraine \"for decades had warm and friendly relations\" to which they can return if they sign an agreement. Second Ukraine has little choice; it does not have the military strength to oppose Russia. Finally the United States and other countries could be a part of the agreement providing formal guarantees which would provide much more guarantee of action to help Crimea in the event of a repeat situation in the future."}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con01b","title":"","text":"While legitimising a reward for Russia\u2019s actions may hurt it is far better that the dispute be resolved than it be left to fester. Under the status quo there are concerns that war will break out because the situation is unstable and Russia \u201creserves the right to take people [Russian speakers elsewhere in Ukraine] under its protection\u201d. [1] This is in large part a result of the Russians and Ukrainians not speaking to one and other as the Russians won\u2019t recognise the Ukrainian government. Peace will only come when both sides give some ground no matter who is in the right. Under this deal there will be peace, not further aggression.  [1] MacAskill, Ewen, and Luhn, Alec, \u2018Russia and west on collision course over Ukraine as talks fail in London\u2019, theguardian.com, 14 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con02a","title":"","text":"Does not provide guarantees for the protection of other Russian minorities  Although it is the region in which Russia has acted its interest in Ukraine is not just about Crimea. Foreign Minister Lavrov has made clear \u201cRussia recognises its responsibility for the lives of countrymen and fellow citizens in Ukraine and reserves the right to take people under its protection\u201d. [1] A lease over Crimea will resolve nothing if it does not also resolve other issues between the two countries such as the protection of minorities and Russia\u2019s economic interests.  [1] MacAskill & Luhn, 2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con04a","title":"","text":"The crisis affects more than just Crimea  There is a lot more at stake than just the Crimean peninsula. While suggestions that it may destroy the whole international system are hyperbole the territory becoming part of Russia would be the most major territorial change in Europe since the unification of Germany and breakup of the USSR both of which were peaceful and mutually agreed events. The G7 notes \u201cthe annexation of Crimea could have grave implications for the legal order that protects the unity and sovereignty of all states.\u201d [1] A lease however would be a de facto change of territory, a hand over from Ukraine to Russia. Hong Kong was on a lease from China but during that time it was essentially considered as part of the UK.  [1] G7, 12\/3\/2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con03a","title":"","text":"Why would Ukraine trust a lease when the previous one was violated?  It is hard to see why Ukraine would be willing to sign a lease with Russia when Russia has already proven it will not stick to the terms of its lease. Russia signed agreements in 1997 that recognised Crimea as a part of Ukraine in return for a lease on the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. [1] Under that lease Russia was allowed to keep up to 25,000 troops based in Sevastopol so long as they remain on the base unless. [2] Russia has violated both of these; its troops have clearly moved off the base without Ukrainian permission and it is estimated to have 30,000 soldiers in Crimea. [3] When Russia has violated what would be a similar agreement once why should Ukraine believe it will not happen again next time Russia wishes to extend the lease either physically by incorporating more territory or in terms of duration.  [1] Felgenhauer, T., \u2018Ukraine, Russia, and the Black Sea Fleet Accords\u2019, dtic.mil, 1999,   [2] \u2018Ukraine crisis: Does Russia have a case?\u2019, BBC News, 5 March 2014,   [3] Boyle, Jon, \u2018Ukraine says Russian troops in Crimea have doubles to 30,000\u2019, Reuters,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con01a","title":"","text":"Rewards aggression  The US Secretary of state condemned Russia\u2019s action in Crimea as \"You just don't in the 21st century behave in 19th century fashion by invading another country on completely trumped up pre-text\". [1] Yet it is exactly 19th century thinking that expects that a great power will get away with launching aggressive acts against a weaker neighbour. If the result were to be effectively a hand over of Crimea, and a legal recognition of that status even if it is in the form of a lease Russia would be getting away with this act of aggression and might be tempted to try it again elsewhere. Russia has already got away with one aggressive act when it launched an assault on Georgia in support of separatist regions. Under such circumstances it is better for everyone if Russia is isolated and there is no deal that rewards and legitimises Russia\u2019s acts.  [1] Dunham, Will, \u2018Kerry condemns Russia\u2019s \u2018incredible act of aggression\u2019 in Ukraine\u2019, Reuters, 2 March 2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con04b","title":"","text":"The big advantage of a lease is that it maintains the territorial status quo while giving Russia what it wants. If the concern is about the legal order and sovereignty of states then a lease provides the answer because the actual sovereignty over the territory is not handed over, merely the control over the territory and functions of that territory are."}
+{"id":"validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con02b","title":"","text":"Any deal for a lease would clearly involve negotiation on other concerns that Russia and Ukraine have. Russia would clearly need to renew its guarantees of Ukraine\u2019s territory perhaps with the acceptance that the lease would become null and void if Russia again takes aggressive acts. Ukraine for its part would need to guarantee the rights of minorities; this should not be a problem as both countries are signed up to the Council of Europe\u2019s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. [1]  [1] Council of Europe, \u2018Geographical reach of the FCNM\u2019, coe.int, 24 October 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"The case given is quite different. The parents directly acted to cause harm to their child, inflicting a series of violent beatings over a sustained period. Such a course of action is already illegal and they were rightly convicted and punished. In this instance, a course of action is being avoided with the best interest of the child uppermost in the minds of the parents."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Religious freedom does not allow for the right to harm others  Nobody is questioning the rights of adults to take actions in accordance with their faith, even when these may cause them some personal harm. Their beliefs may well lead them to conclusions that others might consider reckless but that is their concern. However, when those actions impact others in society, it is a matter for social concern and, frequently, the intervention of the law. If that harm is caused to those who cannot resist or who are incapable of responding, intervention is required. The law explicitly includes children in this category. We do not, for example, allow religious practices such as sacrifice or torture in pursuit of a religious end, however religiously convicted the parents might be. The case of Kristy Bamu, murdered by his parents, practitioners of voodoo, in the belief he was a witch, is just one such example [i] .  We expect the legal and medical professions to accord particular protection to children against the actions of others that could harm them including, in extremis, their parents. It is difficult to see what could be a more flagrant example of possible harm than allowing your child to die when an available remedy could save their life.  [i] Sue Reid. \"Britain's voodoo killers: This week a minister warned of a wave of child abuse and killings linked to witchcraft. Alarmist? This investigation suggests otherwise.\" Daily Mail , 17 August 2012."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"We fully accept that children are treated differently in the eyes of the law. However, the very fact that proposition allows for that exceptionalism must require them to acknowledge that the role of the parent is given a status different from any other in society. We acknowledge their right to make decisions in the stead of their child, fully accepting that those decisions have enormous implications. We accept that parents take life and death decisions for their children on a regular basis and we must trust them to do so. Society respects the rights of parents to keep their children safe in no end of perilous situations, and when their judgement is wrong, it is a matter for regret, not legislation."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"The right to live to regret  The primary duty placed on doctors, by society and themselves, is the preservation of life. In pursuing this goal they use not only medicines and scalpels but, first and foremost, their judgement. In many countries practising medics swear an oath to this effect; although these vary greatly in detail, they are well encapsulated by the Declaration of Geneva [i] , the critical clause of which for the purpose of this debate is \u201cThe health of my patient will be my first consideration\u201d.  Asking doctors to take other considerations into account is not only a breach of their professional integrity, it also poses grave risks for society. They are being asked, in this situation, to allow the opinions of a third party take precedence over the wellbeing of their patient. If this were a younger relative with their eye on an inheritance or a distant sibling seeking to settle an old score, the dangers would be all too apparent. In this instance, the motivation may be well-intentioned but it is no more reasonable. Allowing relatives to say \u201cwell, what I think you should do is X\u201d in defiance of medical opinion is fraught with dangers. If a relative decided on behalf of a patient to reject chemotherapy in favour of prayer or expressed their preference for Shamanic rituals rather than medication, why not let them. After all their intent is just as compassionate and their reasoning as solid.  [i] There are several forms of the declaration some of them, including the modern one in most common usage, can be found here ."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Proposition have made a lovely argument, except for one small detail, nobody is suggesting prayer or ritual as a replacement for medical attention. The issue here, as defined by proposition, is whether JW parents should be able to reject blood transfusions on behalf of their child. No more than that; no witchcraft wards or miracle cures. This is just a consideration of whether, given the time for discussion and consideration, the religious views of parents and, usually, their child should be able to say that perspectives other than a strictly medical one should be considered in addressing a complex human situation."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"The status of the child  The protection of children is treated differently from how we address the needs of adults. The very fact that their parents\u2019 consent for procedures is required acknowledges that fact. We further accept that when that consent is questionable - when the parents may not be acting in the best interests of the child - that right may be revoked.  In most instances of such revocation, if the parent is an addict or mentally incapable of a particular decision, such a decision can be determined well in advance. However, in this instance, the status of the parent has not previously been an issue. However, the same principles should surely apply. For example, if a parent has been denied access rights to their child by a court, they would have no standing in making any such decision. If their child is a ward of the court, the same would apply. Society has a general duty to at least keep children alive until they reach the age of majority and remove all possible obstacles to that happening. We do not allow parents to give their children the right to pursue other harmful activities or to take unnecessary risks with their safety; the principle of a presumption of protection would also apply here."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con03b","title":"","text":"Society does intervene in the private sphere to prevent harm. Domestic abuse is simply the most obvious example but parents are also responsible in most societies for ensuring their children receive an education in accordance with the law. If a parent were to deny their children food when it was available, it would be neglect. If they were to deny them shelter and protection when available, it would be neglect or abuse. It is difficult to see how denying them healthcare, when available, would not fall into the same category."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con01b","title":"","text":"We frequently set limits not on religious beliefs but on their practices. The two determinant used there are the possible harm to others and whether the person being harmed can be deemed \u2018capable\u2019 in a legal sense. There can be no doubt that the decision to refuse available medical treatment causes harm, that is beyond dispute. The issue then is whether the person harmed, the child, can be considered capable. Legally they cannot, they cannot enter into a contract, they cannot marry or vote, legally they are not allowed to make many decisions because they are not full members of society until they are adults. It is worth noting that if the child is not deemed competent to make a decision regarding their own healthcare, it is difficult to see how their determination of their own religious choices can be assumed as authoritative. So the child cannot make the decision and the parents actions would cause harm to the child.  In the light of this, the only remaining opinion is that of the doctor."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con02a","title":"","text":"The burden of parental responsibility  Societies recognise the importance of parenting and the enormous responsibilities that go with it. In light of these, the parent is allowed broad discretion in determining how those responsibilities are best exercised. It seems likely that a parent in a situation such as this is likely to undertake a great deal more soul searching and thought than could be expected of an external party. This is a decision that is made in good conscience and, as things stand in most countries, within the law.  Medical experts and others may well have opinions, frequently strongly held, but they are just that \u2013 opinions. The very fact that this issue has come to court, been heard and judges have reached differing decisions demonstrates that this is not an argument against fact. The opinions of parents are often supported by expert and legal authority. The parents can be expected to consider these opinions among many but must be left free to act in what they believe is the best interest of the child."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con03a","title":"","text":"The division between the personal and social spheres  The law is a cumbersome tool to use in matters that relate to family life; this can be seen in the reluctance to legislate too much in this area. In those areas that require massive social interaction and agreement, such as education, there is a need for legislation but even that frequently proves to be controversial and many parents take the opportunity to opt out. This is particularly true in the moral, ethical and religious education of children as it is recognised, both implicitly and explicitly that this is a matter for the family.  How then is this different? That there are repercussions to the decisions individuals make regarding their religious beliefs is beyond question but we still leave them free to make them \u2013 the pacifist may go to prison but cannot be compelled to fight.  The same principle applies here; decisions based on deep religious conviction are a matter for the individual or, in this case, their family. The views of the family are respected in the choice of whether to prolong the life of someone in a permanent vegetative state, regardless of medical opinion about the individual case. Many consider PVS to be \u201cmore dead than dead\u201d. [i] Despite this religious views on the matter, which often compare \u2018pulling the plug\u2019 to assisting suicide, are given a level of respect that cannot be justified by the available medical evidence. Although inverted, approaching the issue of the relationship between faith and death from the opposite angle \u2013 keeping the dead \u2018alive\u2019 rather than allowing the living to die \u2013 the same level of respect for the beliefs involved would seem to apply.  [i] Tune, Lee, \u201cVegetative State Seen as More Dead than the Dead, UMD Study Finds\u201d, University of Maryland, 22 August 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con01a","title":"","text":"Freedom of religious observance  Most cultures respect the right of adults to practice the religious observances of their choosing and to raise their children within that tradition. The prohibition of blood transfusion is a part of the observances of JWs and is worthy of the respect that might be expected of other religiously motivated decisions.  There are other religious observances that have medical implications, for example the rejection of certain vaccines, but society accepts that it is appropriate for parents to inculcate their children with the values in the practical outworking of their faith [i] .  The refusal to accept blood products may seem reckless to outsiders but there is no suggestion that parents take their decision lightly; it would be difficult to conceive of how they would do so. What then is the alternative? Allowing the state to sanction which religions are acceptable or which practices of those religions? Such an act would strike not only at the freedom of religious practice but at the very principle of freedom of conscience more generally. If the state can challenge these views because it does not like the consequences, then why not social or political opinions? This is the first step on a road to tyranny.  [i] Jennifer Steinhauer. New York Times. Public Health Risk Seen as Parents Reject Vaccines. 21 March 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con02b","title":"","text":"Parental responsibility is a duty, not a right. Society trusts parents to act in the interests of their child but does not do so unreservedly. Where those actions lead directly to a provable harm, we consider it either neglect or abuse of the child and the parental privileges are revoked. No matter how earnestly the parent may believe it is in the child\u2019s best interest, they may not send them out to work in injurious conditions, they may not allow or encourage them to engage in sexual conduct, they may not allow them to use armaments or certain drugs before a certain age. Because these things cause harm to the child and that is a breach of the duty of care entrusted to the parent by wider society. The same is true of denying them medical treatment."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro02b","title":"","text":"For intelligence to be effective, the government will need to collect personal information, like bank transactions, emails, phone records, and more, without the citizen in question knowing this. However, democracy works on the assumption that each citizen has a private sphere, separate from the public sphere, of private information, thoughts and opinions, and that the citizen decides who to let into that sphere. Put differently, the citizen has control over when to release private information, and when not. Investigating them without their knowledge means taking away that control, and that is a violation of the right to privacy. Police investigations, on the other hand, are legitimate and not invasive of democracy - the police are generally obliged to inform a citizen when he or she is subject to a criminal investigation, and can generally only investigate a citizen without their knowledge after seeking specific permission from the judiciary, not just by a minister signing off a whole batch of requests as it\u2019s done with domestic intelligence."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Domestic intelligence operates just like the police do.  Domestic intelligence does require the collection of information, but this is not fundamentally different from a standard police investigation. The differences are minor when we have national security at stake. Furthermore, the rights, duties and powers of a domestic intelligence service are carefully restricted by law. For example, under Dutch law, the General Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD) is only allowed to wiretap someone after permission granted by the Minister of Interior Affairs (the UK situation is very similar). [1] Generally speaking, for every surveillance action the domestic intelligence can take, it needs to weigh whether the action satisfies the principles of proportionality and subsidiarity, meaning that the invasiveness of a surveillance method should be proportional to the risk the person poses, and that the method chosen should be the least invasive of all possible methods.  [1] van Voorhout, Jill E.B. Coster, \u2018Intelligence as legal evidence\u2019, Utrecht Law Review, Vol. 2 Issue 2, December 2006,  , p.124"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro03b","title":"","text":"The AIVD example shows exactly that judicial and political control is not enough: the judicial control is control after the fact, so it didn\u2019t prevent the AIVD from listening in to journalists conversations in the first place. Moreover, a regulatory committee judged that the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is supposed to be the a priori control, had given permission too easily, which is to be expected when a Minister faces a lot of requests like this, and has to decide in between the regular work of actually governing. [1] It is the lack of initial oversight which is anti-democratic, citizens expect their government and courts to prevent the intelligence agencies from infringing on privacy not simply demand an apology later when the intelligence agency is found out. How many more cases are there which are not caught?  [1] NIS News Bulletin, \u2018Press Sector Sues State for Eavesdropping Telegraaf Journalists\u2019 9\/07\/2009"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Intelligence is necessary for the safety of the public.  Domestic intelligence is very important to the national security and to the safety of the public. Domestic intelligence is imperative in preventing terrorist attacks on the country when terrorists are as likely to be natives as foreigners, for example the 7\/7 bombers in Britain were all native. [1] In order for a domestic intelligence organization to be effective, its organizational discretion must be limited by establishing clear legislation that is not secret, on the focus, limits, and techniques of domestic intelligence.  When this is in place domestic intelligence is not harmful, nor infringement on democracy \u2013 it is in the people\u2019s best interest. As Professor Dahl notes \u201cIntelligence is about the thousands and thousands of routine, everyday observations and activities\u2026 in many cases these observations, this intelligence, is about routine activities undertaken by ordinary Americans and others who do not intend to cause harm.\u201d This intrusion is necessary in order to catch the few who do intend to do harm. [2]  [1] BBC News, Special Report London Attacks \u2018The bombers\u2019,   [2] Dahl, Eric Domestic Intelligence Today: More Security but Less Liberty?"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Even if it is protecting lives the scale of the intelligence gathering is undemocratic. By allowing interception, widespread tracking of public records, unfair legal treatment, we erase the trust between citizens and the government in return for very occasionally preventing a terrorist attack. As shown by 7\/7 terrorists still get through despite intelligence even when the bombers have already been noticed. [1] When all your library patrons can be seized and all your browsing logs checked just on a claim that they are relevant to intelligence information, as initially happened under the patriot act, too much liberty is being given up in the name of very little extra security. [2]  [1] BBC News, Special Report London Attacks \u2018The bombers\u2019,   [2] Strossen, Nadine, \u2018Safety and Freedom: Common Concerns for Conservatives, Libertarians, and Civil Libertarians\u2019, Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, Vol. 29, No. 1, Fall 2005,  p.78"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro04b","title":"","text":"The military or foreign intelligence or just as able to conduct counterintelligence, because the potential targets for foreign intelligence services are well known. But even if a domestic intelligence service is best placed for counter-intelligence, this is just an argument for limiting their functions to counter-intelligence, where they won\u2019t harm citizen\u2019s privacy as much. The arguments above deal with the other work a domestic intelligence does, and that work is illegitimate."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro03a","title":"","text":"There is sufficient political and judicial control over intelligence service  Even if not every citizen can control exactly what the intelligence service does, there is sufficient political and judicial control. An example of this is a recent case involving the Dutch AIVD, which started wiretapping journalists after they had found a source within the AIVD to leak about the run-up to the Iraq War. The journalists were wiretapped but when the case came to court, the court judged that the AIVD was in error, should stop harassing the journalists, and must delete the files on the journalists immediately. Such cases show that the intelligence agencies, and those involved domestically in particular, have judicial and political oversight to make sure they remain within bounds. [1] Democracy is therefore not threatened as there is democratic oversight.  [1] Webber, Liz, Netherlands: De Telegraaf journalists win suit over secret service phone-taps, World Editors Forum, 27\/07\/2009"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro04a","title":"","text":"Domestic intelligence services are the only organization that is capable of performing counterintelligence  Domestic intelligence services are the only organization that is capable of performing counterintelligence. They have the capacity and the authority to detect foreign spies in the national jurisdiction, and experience with local surveillance and investigation. Part of the job of domestic intelligence is to maintain a network of informers and agents, and this can be used to find and track foreign intelligence services on a mission \u2013 these functions can\u2019t be easily performed by the military or foreign intelligence so an independent domestic intelligence agency is necessary."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con03b","title":"","text":"It is better to have some fear and suspicion in society than letting a terrorist attack which costs lives through. Without a domestic intelligence agency we probably would not even know about the 1600 potential terrorists. Now that many of these plots are known by the intelligence agency they can be prevented."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con01b","title":"","text":"Some citizens don\u2019t just have political differences with the current government, but are fundamentally opposed to the democratic state and are willing to use violence against state and society. Such is the case with Germany\u2019s far-left party where the Federal Administrative Court ruled that the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV) could continue to observe Bodo Ramelow, leader of the Left Party in the eastern state of Thuringia. [1] Or where domestic intellegence agencies are necessary to monitor home grown terrorist organisations like the IRA. To protect itself, society and most importantly, the lives of other citizens, it\u2019s necessary for a government to sometimes want to keep a close eye on some of their own citizens. A democratically elected government has both the authority and the legitimacy to order such surveillance, and can be held accountable for the way in which it uses its powers.  [1] Der Spiegel, \u2018Is Germany's Left Party a Threat to Democracy?\u2019 22\/7\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con02a","title":"","text":"Domestic intelligence agencies cannot be controlled  There are no effective ways of controlling the activities of a domestic intelligence agency. With an information request, an investigated citizen has no way of being sure what the intelligence service in question actually does with the information, once it has gathered it, and whether the service actually upheld the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality as they should, because the methods used are not given out. Also, the intelligence service might promise to delete a file after a court honoured a request, but no one can ever be sure that the intelligence service didn\u2019t make an extra, secret copy."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con03a","title":"","text":"Intelligence agencies inflate threats.  Having domestic intelligence agencies creates suspicion and fear, and ultimately resentment. Domestic intelligence agencies are created in response to war and external threats, for example MI5 was created in the build up to world war one, and Australia\u2019s intelligence service was created in response to the discovery of a soviet spy ring within the Australian government. [1] Having any such service involved in more than simply counter-intelligence against foreign services shows that the government does not trust its own people. The United States has until very recently not had a domestic intelligence exactly because it was considered that the FBI could do everything that was required without creating undue suspicion. Bureaucracies inflate threats so as to gain more resources, MI5 is a good example, it was given more resources than it needed to engage in counterintelligence against Germany so expanded its role to surveillance of elements such as pacifists and organised labour. [2] More recently the head of MI5 announced there were 1600 Britons plotting terror, which may simply be threat inflation, something which not only makes everyone fearful for no reason. [3] An agency which is equally focused on criminal investigation would have much less reason to inflate dangers in order to maintain or increase funding.  [1] Jackson, Brian a. ed., \u2018Considering the Creation of a Domestic Intelligence Agency in the United States\u2019, Rand, 2009,  p.15  [2] Wikipedia, \u2018MI5\u2019,   [3] Kayyem, Juliette, and Posner, Richard A., \u2018Does the United States Need a Domestic Intelligence Agency?\u2019 CFR, 17 November 2006,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con01a","title":"","text":"The government does not have the right to spy on its citizens  The government should not want to spy on its own citizens \u2013 that is the mark of a totalitarian regime. If some citizens disagree with the current government or current form of government, it is their fundamental democratic right to do so, and the government has no right to judge their different political preferences as \u2018dangerous\u2019. Experience shows that elected governments are not always able to control their domestic intelligence services, which may develop their own views of what constitutes subversive behaviour. In the 1970s MI5 kept files upon Labour Party MPs, including ministers in the UK Government. Elsewhere, fragile democracies such as Pakistan and Turkey have seen military coups launched against elected governments with the involvement of the domestic intelligence services which were supposed to be guarding them. In Turkey despite a coup against army leaders in 2008 the domestic intelligence agencies remain very strong and are supported by the national police. [1] Whenever there is a domestic intelligence service it is potentially very powerful due to the information it controls which could be used in support of other groups like the military to undermine or overthrow the government. It is better to keep intelligence focused outward.  [1] Cagaptay, Soner, What's Really Behind Turkey's Coup Arrests? Foreign policy, 25\/02\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con02b","title":"","text":"It is quite possible to put checks on the power of a domestic intelligence agency in order to prevent abuse of authority. An important way, in which individual citizens can actually control the intelligence service, is through lodging an information request at the domestic intelligence service. In a democracy, the service is obliged to share if it has a dossier on that citizen, and if it\u2019s unfounded, can request the deletion of it. Of course, the dossier will not include specific intelligence gathering methods used nor mention sources, but overall, it will provide a good picture of what the intelligence service has been investigating so far."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Atrocities have continued on both sides of the conflict throughout this war. Military threats of intervention have not caused any reduction in hostilities \u2013 they just ramped up tension. There is a very real prospect that an ICC intervention could just fan the flames of the existing warfare; UN weapons inspectors being in the country did not deter the use of chemical weapons, they were used only a few miles from where the inspectors were staying.  Also, the ICC has not been a useful deterrent in other situations, such as Darfur, which while referred to the ICC by the UN Security Council is still an ongoing conflict. [1] One of the few academic studies done on the issue suggests ICC involvement simply damages the prospects of peace by ensuring that an actor who may have been willing at some point to negotiate has to fight on. [2] Combatants are already fearing death \u2013 would the prospect of spending 30 years in a European prison cell really add too much of a deterrent?  [1] Kristof, Nicholas D., \u2018Darfur in 2013 Sounds Awfully Familiar\u2019, The New York Times, 20 July 2013,   [2] Ku, Julian, and Nzelibe, Jide, \u2018Do International Criminal Tribunals Deter or Exacerbate Humanitarian Atrocities?;, Washington University Law Review, Vol.84, No.4, 2006, pp.777-833,  pp.181, 832"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro02a","title":"","text":"The threat of investigation could deter future war crimes, including the use of chemical weapons  The ICC has a high level of soft power in this case. It has the resources to investigate and prosecute, backed up by widespread support from large swathes of the international community. The ICC is part of a growing international norm against war and crimes against humanity. The willingness to prosecute for these crimes \u2013 particularly if it is done consistently \u2013 will build norms where even ruthless leaders realise they can\u2019t get away with such crimes. Pursuing war crimes from the Syrian conflict alone will not be enough but when combined with similar measures elsewhere and the arrests of other leaders such as Charles Taylor, Slobodan Milosevic and Laurent Gbagbo show that even leaders are no longer out of reach of international law. [1]  The ICC could act as an effective deterrent to the use of chemical weapons and other war crimes by threatening to prosecute individuals who commit them.  [1] Grono, Nick, \u2018The deterrent effect of ICC on the commission of international crimes by government leaders\u2019, International Crisis Group, 5 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Even if the ICC brings proceedings, that does not guarantee that individuals, even if captured by forces that oppose them, will be transferred over to the ICC \u2013 the new Libyan government is still holding Saif Gaddafi. [1]  The ICC can also only act when the state is unwilling or unable to provide a trial \u2013 this this is the principle of complementarity. However there is not ICC force that can act to arrest a suspect. This means in effect that it will be down to the forces on the ground which may mean summary justice by those who capture the suspect if they think it won\u2019t get a sufficiently stiff sentence at the ICC \u2013 there is no death penalty.  At any rate, many in Syria would want to see a fully military conclusion to the conflict, rather than any result through the international courts or a political settlement.  [1] Aliriza, Fadil, \u2018Is Libya too scared to put Said Gaddafi on trial?\u2019, The Independent, 16 August 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro01a","title":"","text":"The ICC is there to prosecute war crimes \u2013 there has been evidence of a war crime  The purpose of the ICC is to be the venue for the implementation of international criminal law, a principle that the international community has supported since the creation of the ICTY and ICTR and prior to that. [1] The crimes that the court is to prosecute include genocide \u2013 which is probably not occurring but has been alleged, [2] crimes against humanity and War Crimes [3] \u2013 which have certainly happened the chemical attacks being just one among many examples.  The allegations against the Assad regime are serious \u2013 including the use of chemical weapons, which are specifically mentioned as a war crime under article 8\/1\/b\/xviii the Rome Statute. It would set a terrible precedent for such crimes to not be punished under international criminal law.  [1] \u2018About the Court\u2019, International Criminal Court,   [2] Chulov, Martin, and Mahmood, Mona, \u2018Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to \u2018ethnically cleanse\u2019 Alawite heartland\u2019, The Guardian, 22 July 2013,   [3] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court\u2019, International Criminal Court, 1998,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro01b","title":"","text":"In any conflict, the apportionment of blame for individual crimes committed against civilians to a standard of proof that would be acceptable in a court is extremely difficult, even such a high profile crime as attacks using chemical weapons have been disputed. [1] That is why the ICC typically gets involved after conflicts, rather than during them because it provides the time for thorough investigations, availability of witnesses, and means the investigators will not be at risk.  Whenever the indictment is issued, the conflict would be likely to have finished before the ICC would be able to actually have the defendants in the dock. This therefore would be no help in ending the conflict.  [1] Radia, Krit, \u2018Putin Rejects Syria Chemical Weapons Accusations as \u2018Utter Nonsense\u2019\u2019, ABC News,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Just because a reference to the ICC is possible does not mean it would be effective. It would still require individuals to be captured, and enough evidence to be ascertained in order for a conviction.  Also, Russia has a track record of opposing the reference of the Syria case to the ICC, or any other involvement in the Syria issue. Negotiating with Russia could amount to a fruitless exercise  Also, such a reference could cause problems if a Western military intervention were to take place later, possibly exposing foreign peacekeepers to liability if any incident were to occur."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro03a","title":"","text":"The ICC would prevent show trials  The use of the ICC could work better than domestic show trials in the aftermath of a civil war. Instead of domestic courts, prone to all their biases, an international, unbiased, criminal system could replace the prospect of a Ceausescu-style non-trial followed by summary execution, or some other form of unfair trial which could sow the seeds for problems down the line. Even the trial of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein done while the United States had a lot of influence over the country as a result of its occupation was condemned as having \u201cserious administrative, procedural and substantive legal defects\u201d. [1]  Instead, an ICC trial would allow the full details to be probed, investigated and independently prosecuted without being subject to domestic post-war recriminations.  [1] \u2018Judging Dujail The First Trial before the Iraqi High Tribunal\u2019, Human Rights Watch, 20 November 2006,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro04a","title":"","text":"An ICC referral may be the only UNSC option.  The UN Security Council has so far been undecided over any future action in Syria. China has so far been unconvinced over any action. Russia has supported Assad, selling the Assad regime arms. Russia and China, being permanent members of the UNSC means that they can block any action on this issue that the other permanent members (USA, UK and France) may wish to bring for any form of sanction towards the Assad regime.  While it may not be possible to get Russia to support a military intervention, which is something that they are opposed to [1] , it may be possible to swing Russia round to a position where they abstain on a reference to the ICC [2] . Russia has had a flexible (or, more cynically, hypocritical, view on the ICC before, opposing a Syria reference in February 2013 [3] but supporting one in to the actions of NATO in the Syrian conflict [4] ) position on the ICC, having voted in favour of references to it before. Because the involvement of the ICC would mean investigating both sides it would not be entirely impossible for a diplomatic solution to be reached for Russia to abstain on a reference.  [1] Al Jazeera and agencies, \u2018Russia and Iran warn against attack on Syria\u2019, Al Jazeera, 27 August 2013,   [2] Kaye, David, \u2018Responsibility to Object\u2019, Foreign Policy, 10 January 2013,   [3] Baczynska, Gabriela, \u2018Russia opposes referring Syrians to ICC now: official\u2019, Reuters, 19 February 2013,   [4] \u2018Russia wants ICC to examine NATO bombings\u2019, United Press International, 18 May 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-con03b","title":"","text":"The Syrian Civil war is far larger than any of the conflicts where the truth and reconciliation model has been implemented. The divisions in society will not be healable through a system of truth and reconciliation \u2013 like other atrocities, such as those in Sierra Leone and the Balkans there will need to be a system of criminal trials.  In addition, a South African style truth and reconciliation commission with an amnesty for perpetrators of human rights violations [1] would grant impunity to perpetrators on other sides who have committed some of the gravest atrocities in the 21st century, from cannibalism [2] to the use of chemical weapons. Letting these people remain free would not promote reconciliation it would simply mean Syrians would believe that justice has not been done.  [1] Simpson, G., \u2018A Brief Evaluation of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Some lessons for societies in transition.\u2019, The Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation\u2019, October 1998,   [2] Muir, Jim, \u2018Outrage as Syrian rebel shown \u2018eating soldier\u2019s heart\u2019\u2019, BBC News, 14 May 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-con01b","title":"","text":"The problem with fears of fuelling the conflict further is that the conflict is already almost as large as it can be within the borders of Syria, and has already spilled over in to neighbouring Lebanon, with bombings in Tripoli and Beirut) \u2013 it is a full scale conflict which will be difficult to resolve peacefully as it is, with existing threats of military intervention on the table there is no more possible escalation to fear."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-con02a","title":"","text":"Waste of time \u2013 won\u2019t capture Assad or rebel war criminals.  Even if the situation were to be referred (which would require abstention or support from both Russia and China on the UN Security Council, which itself is unlikely), it would be necessary to capture Assad and other suspects before trying them. This has proven very difficult, for example none of the suspects in the investigation in to the Lords Resistance Army activity in Uganda have been captured [1] \u2013 it is equally likely that they would be killed during any capture attempt as occurred in Libya when Gaddafi was captured and then shot on the spot by the insurgents [2] ; one cannot put a corpse on trial.  [1] Dicker, Richard, and Ebenson, Elizabeth, \u2018ICC Suspects Can Hide \u2013 and That Is the Problem\u2019, Jurist, 24 January 2013,   [2] Kofman, Jeffrey, and Dolak, Keven \u2018Moammar Gadhafi Dead: How Rebels Killed the Dictator\u2019, ABC News, 21 October 2011,  n.b. the video in this article is rather graphic"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-con03a","title":"","text":"Bar to truth and reconciliation  After the conclusion of the war in Syria, there will have to be a period of nation building \u2013 either Assad will have destroyed his enemies and have an alienated nation to deal with, or the Syrian National Congress will have to take effective control over the country.  Syria will need a process of truth and reconciliation [1] - a collective understanding of events that happened on the past, such as that which occurred after the end of Apartheid in South Africa - in order to move forward: this may be hampered by reopening old wounds by prosecuting large numbers of people for offences in the civil war.  [1] For more information see the Debatabase debate \u2018 This House supports the use of truth and reconciliation commissions \u2019"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-con01a","title":"","text":"ICC referal would fuel the conflict further  The Syrian Civil War has already claimed over 100,000 lives, but it could get worse. The Assad regime is infamous for its stockpiling of chemical weapons \u2013 it is one of few states to not sign the Chemical Weapons convention, and is known to have stocks of mustard gas, VX and other weapons of mass destruction. Assad still has chemical weapons to use. An ICC referral could cause the regime to regard itself as in a position with nothing to lose so making it more willing to make use of these weapons against its own people. If there is no hope of a swift decisive victory by either side then by far the best solution to the conflict would be to have a negotiated settlement \u2013 the ICC seeking to prosecute senior figures on either side would make this much harder to arrive at. In South Africa \u2013 in a less volatile situation \u2013 former President Thabo Mbeki has stated \u201cHad there been a threat of a Nuremberg-style trial over members of the apartheid security establishment we would have never undergone peaceful change.\u201d [1]  [1] Ku, Julian, and Nzelibe, Jide, \u2018Do International Criminal Tribunals Deter or Exacerbate Humanitarian Atrocities?;, Washington University Law Review, Vol.84, No.4, 2006, pp.777-833,  p.819"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilppwhb-con02b","title":"","text":"While it is not possible to guarantee the capture of any suspect that has not stopped the ICC attempting to build a case. If any defendants are captured alive, it will not be a waste of time: bearing in mind that the ICC does capture many of the individuals it seeks to put on trial, it is not beyond the bounds of possibility that some or all people indicted after a Syria investigation would be captured."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro02b","title":"","text":"Guantanamo Bay didn't create anti-Americanism in the Islamic world. Al-Qaeda existed and carried out 9\/11 before Guantanamo bay was established, so it is unlikely that closing the detention centre would make any of those who hate the US now reconsider. Furthermore, closing the facility could be seen as a propaganda victory for the US' enemies, and further embolden terrorist organisations."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro02a","title":"","text":"Guantanamo harms the War on Terror:  The existence of Guantanamo Bay is cited by terrorists as a tool of \"the great Satan\" and is seen by Muslims in general as a demonstration of US disregard for their dignity. It is, in turn, an effective tool used by terrorists and Jihadists to bring recruits on-board. The highly unpopular existence of Guantanamo Bay also makes it more risky for intelligence sources to come out and provide useful information that they might otherwise be willing to provide. This is because, for many Muslims, Guant\u00e1namo stands as a confirmation of the low regard in which they believe the United States holds them. [1] Some of this stems from the association of detention at Guantanamo with the specifically anti-Islamic abuses which have reportedly occurred there, such as allegations of having a guard dog carry the Koran in its mouth, guards scrawling obscenities inside Korans, kicking Korans across the floor, urinating on the Koran, ridiculing the Koran, walking on the Koran, and tearing off the cover and throwing the Koran into trash or dirty water. [2] These associations not only make it easier for terrorists to recruit by inciting anti-American sentiments, but also harm the US' ability to argue that the War on Terror is not directed against all Muslims. President Obama announced in 2009 that closing the Guantanamo Bay detention centre would allow the US to reclaim the moral high ground and thus better prosecute the War on Terror. [3] ''  The existence of the detention facility creates a false sense of security and compromises principles of liberty. The US is in a worse position to combat terror abroad when the government makes unprincipled, piecemeal determinations about the cases in which to use preventive detention. [4]  [1] Sengupta, Somini and Masoods, Salman. \"Guantanamo Comes to Define U.S. to Muslims\". New York Times. May 21, 2005.   [2] Cohn, Marjorie. \"Close Guant\u00e1namo Prison\". TruthOut. May 23, 2005. www.archive.truthout.org  [3] Rhee, Foon. \"Obama orders Guantanamo Bay closed, bans torture.\" The Boston Globe. 22 January 2009.   [4] Roth, Kenneth. \"After Guantanamo.\" Foreign Affairs. May\/June 2008.  (Full article requires subscription.)"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is possible to reform treatment at Guantanamo Bay without closing the facility. The conditions in the facility have in fact greatly improved since its establishment and in many ways differ from the public's negative perception of it. [1] But even if in fact these negative reports of the conditions at Guantanamo are true, it is likely that many of those detained at Guantanamo may not be even more anti-American than when they arrived, so releasing them could mean they pose an even greater threat to the US.  [1] Davis, Morris D. \u201cThe Guant\u00e1namo I Know\u201d. New York Times. 26 June 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro01a","title":"","text":"Detainees have the right to trial in US courts:  Prisoners have been detained at Guantanamo for long periods without clear charges being filed and without trial. This is a violation of the international legal principle of habeas corpus. One of the primary problems is that, without clear charges and a presentation of evidence against a suspect, the suspect cannot contest the charges and prove their own innocence. And, as a matter of fact, numerous detainees have been found innocent, but only after excessively long periods without being charged or brought before a court. [1]  Many Guantanamo detainees may have never committed terrorist acts or fought against US forces in Afghanistan at all; they were simply turned over by Northern Alliance and Pakistani warlords for bounties of up to $25,000. For almost seven years they have been held without a fair hearing or opportunity to demonstrate those facts. Courts who reviewed the cases of 23 detainees to see if there was reasonable evidence for their continued detention found no credible basis for detaining 22 of them. [2] Other detainees were captured in places where, at the time of their arrest, there was no armed conflict involving US forces. The case of the six men of Algerian origin detained in Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 2001 is a well-known and well-documented example. [3]  Therefore the only way to resolve these issues is to try all the detainees at Guantanamo Bay in US courts, and release any against whom charges cannot be brought. Former US Secretary of Defense Colin Powell has endorsed this reasoning, arguing that \"I would get rid of Guantanamo and the military commission system and use established procedures in federal law[...]It's a more equitable way, and more understandable in constitutional terms,\" [4] US courts are fully capable of dealing with terrorist trials, as shown by the fact that they have rendered 145 convictions in terror-related cases in the past. [5] Convictions in US courts would probably be seen internationally as having more legitimacy than those obtained through the current system of military tribunals, which is often viewed as rigged against the defendants. [6] Only by allowing full due process in American courts can the rights of the detainees be uaranteed and their guilt or innocence truly established.  [1] New York Times Opinion. \"The President's Prison\". New York Times. March 25, 2007.   [2] Wilner, Thomas J. \"We Don't Need Guantanamo Bay\". Wall Street Journal. 22 December 2008.   [3] United Nations Economic and Social Council. \"Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. Civil and Political Rights. Situation of detainees at Guant\u00e1namo Bay\". United Nations Economic and Social Council. February 15, 2006.  [4] Reuters. \"Colin Powell says Guantanamo should be closed\". Reuters. 10 June 2007.   [5] Wilner, Thomas J. \"We Don't Need Guantanamo Bay\". Wall Street Journal. 22 December 2008.   [6] Wilner, Thomas J. \"We Don't Need Guantanamo Bay\". Wall Street Journal. 22 December 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro01b","title":"","text":"Reforms can always be made to the legal process at Guantanamo, and so this is not a reason to close the facility or to try the detainees in US courts. Moreover, much of the credible and reliable evidence that justifies the continued detention cannot be admitted in US courts for legal reasons, such as the fact that those captured in Afghanistan and elsewhere were not read their Miranda rights on their arrest. Other cases involve evidence that is insufficient for trial but still sufficient to determine that release is an unacceptable security risk. [1] Furthermore, If transferred to U.S. courts, some of the detainees might be freed because of the aggressive interrogation techniques used against them. Mohammed al-Qahtani, the alleged \"20th hijacker\" in the Sept. 11 plot, was interrogated so severely at Guantanamo Bay that Bush administration officials said he was tortured and did not refer his case for prosecution. [2]  [1] Wall Street Journal. \"Obama and Guantanamo\". Wall Street Journal. 22 January 2009.   [2] Fox News. \"Families Outraged by Obama Call to Suspend Guantanamo War Crimes Trials\". Fox News. January 21, 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro03a","title":"","text":"Conditions at Guantanamo are unjust and unacceptable:  UN Reports indicate that the treatment of detainees since their arrests, and the conditions of their confinement, have had profound effects on the mental health of many of them. The treatment and conditions include the capture and transfer of detainees to an undisclosed overseas location, sensory deprivation and other abusive treatment during transfer; detention in cages without proper sanitation and exposure to extreme temperatures; minimal exercise and hygiene; systematic use of coercive interrogation techniques; long periods of solitary confinement; cultural and religious harassment; denial of or severely delayed communication with family; and the uncertainty generated by the indeterminate nature of confinement and denial of access to independent tribunals. These conditions have led in some instances to serious mental illness, over 350 acts of self-harm in 2003 alone, individual and mass suicide attempts and widespread, prolonged hunger strikes. The severe mental health consequences are likely to be long term in many cases, creating health burdens on detainees and their families for years to come. [1] Such conditions are clearly not acceptable to a nation such as the US which prides itself on its justice system and respect for human rights. The detention centre must be closed to the US can end its association with such practices.  [1] United Nations Economic and Social Council. \"Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. Civil and Political Rights. Situation of detainees at Guant\u00e1namo Bay\". United Nations Economic and Social Council. February 15, 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con03b","title":"","text":"The fact that the majority of detainees may be guilty of terror-related crimes or attacks doesn't justify the continued detention of those who were clearly detained under mistaken information, and who will only be cleared through trial in a civilian court. Otherwise justice will never be truly served at Guantanamo Bay."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con01b","title":"","text":"After years of detention and separation from the battle field and terrorist networks, many Guantanamo detainees have no more value to US intelligence gathering efforts and national security, and so this is not a reason to continue their detention. Moreover, there are tens of thousands of anti-American terrorists around the world. Releasing a handful of the 250 detainees that are actually terrorists but that can't be tried in the US would be a drop in the bucket for terrorism and the war on terror."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con02a","title":"","text":"Guantanamo deters terrorists:  Guantanamo Bay and the threat of detention helps deter terrorists. This coupled with the lack of a trial adds to the fear of the place and thus denounces terrorism. What is a deterrent and why is it necessary? A deterrent is something which persuades someone not to act in a certain way. Similar to the accumulation of nuclear missiles actually deterring a war between large nations, a deterrent can be created around something deemed morally wrong (a prison which may\/may not breech human rights) and yet help the greatest number of people and is, thus, justifiable. The whole basis of terrorism is formed upon an ideology and stems from indoctrination. If there is a seed of doubt then it is likely that the person in question will not commit acts of terror."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con03a","title":"","text":"Sufficient justice and due process exists at Guantanamo:  The US Constitution does not extend to alien unlawful enemy combatants. They are entitled to protections under Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions, which ensures they are afforded 'all the judicial guarantees which are recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples.' US Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens, in the Hamdan decision that rejected an earlier plan for military commissions, observed that Article 75 of the Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions defines the judicial guarantees recognized as indispensable. A comparison of Article 75 and the Military Commissions Act of 2006 shows military commissions provide the fundamental guarantees. [1]  Moreover, enemy combatants at Guantanamo Bay are afforded a form of habeas corpus (ie. charging the imprisoned with a specific crime), as each detainee accused receives a copy of the charges in his native language. [2] Claims that most of the prisoners are unconnected with terror organisations are not supported by the intelligence evidence that exists. US Defense officials have stated that 95% of detainees are connected to al Qaeda, the Taliban or their associates, and more than 70% have had a role in attacks on U.S. or coalition forces. [3] Military boards perform yearly reviews for continued detention, and prisoners are assigned court advocates. [4] In 2008, the Supreme Court ruled that Guantanamo Bay inmates have the right to appeal their cases to US federal courts. [5]  Therefore complaints that sufficient justice and due process does not exist at Guantanamo bay are unfounded. Trying the most dangerous terrorists at Guantanamo in civilian courts will just give them a forum in which to grandstand.  [1] Davis, Morris D. \u201cThe Guant\u00e1namo I Know\u201d. New York Times. 26 June 2007.   [2] Davis, Morris D. \u201cThe Guant\u00e1namo I Know\u201d. New York Times. 26 June 2007.   [3] Reuters. \u201cPentagon urges Congress to keep Guantanamo open\u201d. Reuters. 9 May 2007.   [4] Washington Post. \"Close Guantanamo?\" Washington Post. 22 June 2006.   [5] Greenhouse, Linda. \"Justices, 5-4, Back Detainee Appeals for Guantanamo.\" New York Times. 13 June 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con01a","title":"","text":"Closing Guantanamo would harm US national security:  The current operations of Guantanamo Bay are aiding the War on Terror, and closing the facility would harm the US' security situation. Putting an important section of a terrorist group such as Al-Qaeda in prison obviously stops the coordination and the indoctrination of younger members. This makes it harder for terrorist groups to operate effectively. The presumption is that during that time the USA will have gathered adequate intelligence and information upon which to destroy the group and the war on terror is that little bit nearer to ending. Former US Vice President Dick Cheney has stated that, intelligence-wise, \"Guantanamo has been very, very valuable [in the war on terror.\" [1]  Moreover, if released many Guantanamo detainees will likely return to terrorism. [5] Many of those that have been already released from Guantanamo done just that. The Washington Post reported in 2005 that at least 10 of the 202 detainees released from Guantanamo were later captured or killed while fighting U.S. and coalition forces in Afghanistan and Pakistan. This is a relatively high number, given the fact that only a small percentage of those that returned to terrorism would later be caught or killed. One former detainee went on to become the deputy leader of Al Qaeda\u2019s Yemeni branch, for example. [2] The Bush administration detained these enemy combatants because of their high likelihood to commit future crimes or their past history. The most dangerous detainees include the perpetrators of 9\/11, the American embassy bombings of 1998, the USS Cole bombing of 2000, and the Bali bombings of 2002. [6]  Finally, trying detainees in US courts presents a catch-22: in some cases, the evidence required to build a case for trial would compromise the same intelligence sources that make information-gathering possible [4] . During the trial of Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman (the \u201cblind sheik\u201d) and members of his terror cell for the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center, prosecutors turned over a list of 200 unindicted conspirators to the defense - as the civilian criminal justice system required them to do. Within 10 days, the list made its way to downtown Khartoum, and Osama bin Laden knew that the U.S. government was on his trail. By giving this information to the defense in that terrorism case, the U.S. courts gave al Qaeda valuable information about which of its agents had been uncovered. [3] Therefore the Guantanamo Bay detention centre should not be closed as this would harm the War on Terror and US national security.  [1] Reuters. \u201cDon't close Guantanamo until terror war ends: Cheney\u201d. Reuters. 15 December 2008.   [2] Worth, Robert F. \u201cFreed by the U.S., Saudi Becomes a Qaeda Chief\u201d. New York Times. 22 January 2009.   [3] The Washington Times Editorial. \u201cObama and Gitmo\u201d. The Washington Times. 12 November 2008.   [4] The Chicago Tribune. \"Beyond Guantanamo.\" The Chicago Tribune. 22 January 2009.   [5] Cornyn, John. \"Sen. Cornyn: Closing Guantanamo Could Make America Less Safe.\" Texas Insider. 23 January 2009.   [6] Joscelyn, Thomas. \"Clear and Present Danger.\" The Weekly Standard. 1 December 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con02b","title":"","text":"The \"deterrent effect\" of Guantanamo on terrorists cannot be confirmed. This is mainly due to the fact that terrorists' feelings or fears in regards to the Guantanamo Bay prison cannot be statistically gathered. Similarly, the terrorists posing a threat to the safety of Western Nations are typically so ideologically fanatical and assured that their path is the righteous one, that there is nothing that would persuade them otherwise, including the risk of imprisonment at Guantanamo. These are often people who are willing to die for their cause."}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro02b","title":"","text":"The reasons for different categories is for escape risk \u2013 escape being the antithesis of a utilitarian purpose of prison, that of incapacitation. Those who are unlikely to seek to escape \u2013 prisoners serving short sentences or near the end of their sentence so have little reason to risk having their sentence extended \u2013 are those kept in more comfortable conditions. The measure in Connecticut meanwhile is a last minute political fudge, and one brought in solely to appease those who demand irrational justice policies such as retributivism."}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Differences in treatment are already accepted  Differences between different categories of prisoner are already accepted in the criminal justice system \u2013 prisoners are generally kept in different conditions due to factors such as escape risk and other factors. For example the UK has open prisons which offer the freedom to move around within the prison and the system is aimed at reintegration so freedoms like alcohol are allowed, as are home visits. [1]  Once it is accepted that not all prisons and not all prisoners are treated the same then a difference in treatment based on the crime committed makes sense. If that is the case, it could be calibrated that those serving certain sentences for certain offences should be held in certain conditions \u2013 for example, in Connecticut (a state that has abolished the Death Penalty so LWOP is the greatest penalty imposed) those serving life without parole are now denied contact visits and are given no more than two hours of recreation per day [2] .  [1] James, Erwin, \u2018Why life in an open prison is no holiday camp\u2019, The Guardian, 13 January 2011,   [2] Blecker, p.230"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro03b","title":"","text":"Prison itself is already a deterrent. Harsher prison conditions do not prevent recidivism, and could actually make convicts more likely to reoffend when released. Chen and Shapiro estimate that if all inmates were housed in above minimum security facilities there would be \u201can increase in the crimes committed by former convicts of approximately 82 per 100,000 Americans\u201d \u2013 this would be higher than the reduction of 58 crimes per 100,000 found by Katz et al. as a result of deterring those outside prison [1] .  [1] Chen, M. Keith, and Shapiro, Jesse M., \u2018Do Harsher Prision Conditions Reduce Recidivism? A Discontinuity-based Approach\u2019, American Law and Economics Review, Vol.9, No.1, 2007"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro01a","title":"","text":"Punishment is good  Retributive theories of justice accept that the reason why a criminal justice exists is to punish offenders \u2013 society declaring its rejection of crime by inflicting deliberately unpleasant punishments. Prisons do not reflect this \u2013 a prisoner is a prisoner, and prison officers generally do not care about what offence they are convicted of. Their motivation for doing this being to make the prison easier to administrate. [1]  \u201cThe past counts\u201d. If we are making prisoners stay in prison we should make them feel as if they are being punished. This means deprivation of more than just the liberty to move from the prison but also of other luxuries.  [1] Blecker, p.103"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro01b","title":"","text":"This is all based on the vengeance-fuelled concept of \u201cretributive justice\u201d. This is not a model of thinking that has much merit. Imprisonment in the criminal justice works by deterring individuals from crime (prison always will be a deterrent), and incapacitating criminals, making them unable to commit crimes due to the fact they are in prison. The intent of prison is to prevent crime, not to impose harsh conditions of punishment.  Imprisonment with legitimate utilitarian goals is acceptable. Simply inflicting conditions on people for no practical reason is mere sadism."}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Harsher conditions are a deterrent  Worse prison conditions for particular offences would act as a deterrent. If people, in prisons generally and in society as a whole, see that those who are convicted of particularly bad crimes will be deterred from committing those worse crimes.  If prison is simply a holding place that prevents people inside from committing crime then it is failing in creating deterrence; criminals sometimes feel it is better to commit a crime when released in order to get back into prison. [1] Katz, Levitt, and Shustorovich using death rates show how harsh prison conditions are likely to mean lower crime rates overall \u2013 though a doubling of the death rate only reduces the crime rate by a few percentage points. [2]  [1] Blecker, p.68  [2] Katz, Lawrence et al., \u2018Prison Conditions, Capital Punishment, and Deterrence\u2019, American Law and Economics Review, Vol.5, No.2, 2003  , p.340"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con03b","title":"","text":"Punishment is irrational, but it is a legitimate desire for a justice system to meter out retribution to those convicted of serious crimes. Punishment does not have to have a beneficial impact on public safety to make it the right thing to do. The desire for victims for retribution is legitimate; they should not have to see a criminal who abused them live a cushy life in prison \u2013 at their expense."}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con01b","title":"","text":"The fact that the prison system is not designed to be punitive doesn\u2019t mean it shouldn\u2019t be. Retributive justice demands that criminals are punished. Prison should do that, and it should fit the crime, by having more than one category of punishment based on the offence. It is understandable that prison services themselves do not consider their task to be to punish; they claim that is done by the judge or jury that hands out the sentence. This however in effect means that no one takes responsibility for punishing those who have done wrong. Instead each stage of the criminal justice system becomes solely an attempt to prevent future crime without consideration to past victims."}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con02a","title":"","text":"A tiered system already exists  To some extent, prisoners will be categorized according to the offences they have committed. For example, those convicted of offences like armed robbery and many murders will start of at a higher level on the security system, which will mean restrictions in terms of activities, prison work and association with other prisoners.  A person convicted of a sex offence against children, or anything else particularly notorious, would be likely to be placed in some sort of protective custody. In the UK, this is done under Rule 45 of the Prison Rules [1] .  [1] England and Wales prison rules, available from  , rule 45"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con03a","title":"","text":"Harsh punishment is counterproductive  Punishment for its own sake achieves nothing practical. When putting people in prison we need to look to the future, not to the past. However, harsher prison conditions can act in a way that makes individuals more likely to reoffend [1] . This is because those who have suffered harsh conditions do not become prepared for life outside; they do not learn the necessary skills that would bring them a job when released. Harsher prison conditions also breed mental health problems; isolation in supermax prisons has been observed to cause anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, and self mutilation \u2013 one study has found isolation in a secure housing unit caused 88% of prisoners to suffer from irrational anger and 91% anxiety. [2] It is notable that the opposite is also the case the Bast\u00f8y prison in Norway, derided by some for its supposedly \u201csoft\u201d conditions, has a reoffending rate less than a quarter of that of the European average [3] .  [1] Chen, 2007  [2] Haney, Craig, \u2018Mental Health Issues in Long-Term Solitary and \u201cSupermax\u201d Confinement\u2019, Crime & Delinquency, Vol.49, No.1, January 2003,  , pp.133-4  [3] James, Erwin, \u2018Bastoy: The Norwegian prision that works\u2019, The Guardian, 4 September 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con01a","title":"","text":"Punishment is not purpose of prison  Prison itself already has punishment value: the loss of liberty and exclusion from society. However, punishment is not the purpose of prison. This is accepted in the US, where state prison systems do not claim punishment is a goal: see California [1] , New York [2] and Nevada (\u201cProtect the public by confining convicted felons according to the law, while keeping staff and inmates safe.\u201c) [3] . Similarly, the UK\u2019s Ministry of Justice does not list \u201cpunishment\u201d as a priority of HM Prison Service [4] . Instead the aim is to prevent crime by holding prisoners, and to rehabilitate criminals so that when they are released they are able to reintegrate into society without reoffending.  [1] California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation, \u2018Vision, Mission, Values, and Goals\u2019, CA.gov, accessed 6\/2\/2014   [2] Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, \u2018The Departmental Mission\u2019, NY.gov, accessed 6\/2\/2014,   [3] Nevada Department of Corrections, \u2018Mission Statement\u2019, NV.gov, accessed 6\/2\/2014   [4] HM Prison Service, \u2018About HM Prison Service\u2019, justice.gov.uk, accessed 6\/2\/2014,"}
+{"id":"validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con02b","title":"","text":"That system is based on security risk, not the actual offence per se. There is no extra punitive value attached to the offence in terms of prison conditions for the pure reason of the offence.  The reason why those inmates are kept separate is for their own safety (capital punishment should not be meted out by other prisoners!), not based on any ideal of punishment."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Deterrence only works if the court actually prosecutes people; however, its crippling inefficiency renders its deterrent effect nonexistent.  To date, the ICC has yet to actually punish anyone. The lack of hard power and enforcement mechanisms makes it impossible for the ICC to be effective. Tribunals like the ICTY were effective because of US support, military backing, and financial power; the ICC lacks this type of sway and is destined to fail. (See more in the opposition point #2). If the court does not actually punish people, there is little to no deterrent effect, since it poses no credible threat to criminals.1  1 Goldsmith, Jack. \"The Self-Defeating International Criminal Court.\" The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 70 No. 1, Winter 2003, 89-104."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro02a","title":"","text":"If supported, the ICC will set a precedent and deter leaders from committing crimes against humanity.  The ICC demonstrates that there is an existing legal court that will hold individuals accountable should they decide to commit grave crimes. The mere existence of the court and the possibility of prosecution (even if not 100%) is beneficial in terms of deterring future atrocities. No leader wants to lose power, and an ICC warrant limits the movement and liberties of leaders. This is empirically true \u2013 in Uganda, high-ranking officials of the Lord\u2019s Resistance Army specifically cited potential prosecution by the ICC as a reason they put down their arms. LRA officials like Joseph Kony have to spend valuable time on evading the ICC that would otherwise be used to perpetuate crimes, showing that there are still marginal benefits even if leaders themselves are not always apprehended. [i]  [i] Scheffer, David and John Hutson. \u201cStrategy for U.S. Engagement with the International Criminal Court.\u201d Century Foundation, 2008.  . Accessed 14 August 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro03b","title":"","text":"Pursuance by the ICC doesn't actually result in punishment of the leader; empirically, it has actually strengthened criminals' power after criticizing them.  Nations, such as African nations like Chad, have painted the actions of the ICC as signs of Western imperialism and domination. Sudan's Bashir, accused of genocide and other crimes against humanity, used the ICC's arrest warrant against him as a sign of heroism and created a rally-around-the-flag effect, further strengthening his regime. Moreover, the ICC's work encourages leaders to cling to their power rather than give it and face prosecution, making punishment even more difficult. At worst, the ICC is actually counterproductive when it comes to punishing leaders and giving them retribution; at best, it is simply an ineffective court.1  1 \"The International Criminal Court: Why Africa Still Needs it.\" The Economist, 3 June 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro05a","title":"","text":"Efforts to strengthen the ICC will promote global cooperation, norms against crimes, and international stability.  There is a growing global consensus that crimes against humanity need to be punished, as demonstrated by the tribunals to address the crimes of Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The question is no longer whether we should set up an international court but rather how to best do it, and the ICC gives the international community a framework within which to work to establish a strong courts.1 Rejection of the ICC has become a symbol of rejection of international norms, and countries that have refused to ratify the Rome Statute in the name of national interest, such as the United States, have been seen as imperialist, isolationist, and against global efforts to tackle important issues.  1 Prakash, K. P. \"International Criminal Court: A Review.\" Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No. 40, October 5-11, 2002, pp. 4113-4115.  2Carter, Ralph G. \"Leadership at Risk: The Perils of Unilateralism.\" Political Science and Politics, Vol. 36 No. 1, January 2003, 17-22"}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro01a","title":"","text":"The ICC is the best way to prosecute serious crimes because of its permanence; individual tribunals are not enough.  The ICC is uniquely beneficial because of its intention to be a permanent force that will always hold people accountable, instead of slowly reacting to crimes after-the-fact. It is intended to be universal and apply to every situation without mandating the creation of a new tribunal every time something happens, and may be even more effective than tribunals at responding to crimes. Even though tribunals such as the ones for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda may have worked, they were \"necessarily limited in scope\" and cannot be applied on a large scale, which is what is needed.1 Additionally, those tribunals were relatively ineffective, as they took two years to set up, and relying on establishing new tribunals every single time wastes precious time. Doing so would also let smaller but still serious crimes slip under the radar, as they would not warrant the creation of a new tribunal, but may still count as a crime against humanity.2  1 Kirsch, Philippe. \"The International Criminal Court: Current Issues and Perspectives.\" Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 64 No. 1, Winter 2001, 3-11.  2 Marler, Melissa K. \"The International Criminal Court: Assessing the Jurisdictional Loopholes in the Rome Statute.\" Duke Law Journal, Vol. 49 No. 3, December 1999, 825-853."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro01b","title":"","text":"Individual tribunals are actually better at addressing the specific situation.  The idea of \"universal jurisdiction\" becomes dangerous when it is regarded as a blanket solution. For example, after the Spanish Civil War, post-Franco Spain decided to avoid trials for the sake of national reconciliation that enabled it to become a peaceful democracy. Setting a precedent of universal jurisdiction for punishment unnecessarily precludes better reactions more tailored to the specific scenario.1 (See opposition argument #3 for elaboration).  1 Kissinger, Henry. \"The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction.\" Foreign Affairs, July\/August 2001, Accessed 14 August 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro05b","title":"","text":"Promoting the ICC will only further split the global community by allowing the court to become a political tool.  The US Department of State published a report explaining that one of the reasons it opposes ratification of the Rome Statute is because it would complicate military cooperation with allies, who would be obligated to hand over US nationals even without US permission if a warrant were issued for their arrest. This would strain international relations. Additionally, this would decrease global stability by discouraging the US from conducting missions abroad that are key to political stability in numerous areas; US peacekeepers are currently in about 100 nations.1 (See the last opposition argument for more information)  1 Grossman, Mark (Under Secretary for Political Affairs). Remarks to the Center for Strategic and International Studies. Washington, DC, 6 May 2002, US Department of State."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro04b","title":"","text":"The ICC actually fails to account for the individual nature of crimes and is not the best solution for a \"globalizing world\" because it promotes retribution at the expense of peace.  Sometimes, amnesty and reconciliation are better than pursuing retribution and punishment. Even if the ICC does punish people, it may be doing so at the expense of the overall protection of human rights \u2013 emphasizing prosecution potentially detracts from goals like democratic reconstruction and conflict resolution. For example, the South African Truth and Reconciliation Committee was widely considered successful because it promoted peace even while giving amnesty to many criminals. Ultimately, it accounted for victims, allowed for open dialogue, and laid the foundation for South Africa to transition to a stable situation. The ICC\u2019s focus on arrest and punishment precludes these types of solutions. [i]  [i] Mayerfeld, Jamie. \u201cWho Shall be Judge? The United States, the International Criminal Court, and the Global Enforcement of Human Rights.\u201d Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 25 No. 1, February 2003, 93-129."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro03a","title":"","text":"The ICC will prosecute leaders who commit the most severe crimes and give them their due.  The only way to ensure that leaders get what they deserve is to establish a free-standing, independent court that holds people accountable. The ICC acts as a permanent international court (as opposed to tribunals set up by a specific group of nations).1 By issuing arrest warrants for leaders who would otherwise continue their actions without any blame, the ICC attempts to punish them. The goal is to ensure that no individual gets away with committing terrible crimes. Additionally, the court gives victims a role in the process, has the power to give them reparations, and ensures they see criminals brought to justice.2The court has not punished anyone yet because it is still considerably young, but has proceedings going on currently.  1 Carroll, James. \"The International Criminal Court.\" Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 54 No. 1, Autumn 2000, 21-23.  2Duffy, Helen. \"Toward Eradicating Impunity: The Establishment of an International Criminal Court.\" Social Justice, Vol. 26 No. 4, Winter 1999, 115-124."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro04a","title":"","text":"The ICC is the most suited towards the rising nature of crimes in a globalizing world.  In today's world, crimes are no longer confined to single nations and affect the world due to the effects of globalization. An international court is necessary as a global solution to problems that often involve multiple actors; a permanent international court accounts for all parties involved.1 For example the Lord's Resistance Army has been mostly active in Uganda but has often hidden from the Ugandan military by crossing into Southern Sudan or the Democratic Republic of Congo. Because it is not limited to a specific territory, the ICC has truly global jurisdiction and therefore is most appropriate given the recent rise of international crimes. Joining the ICC would also encourage nations to recognize that crimes are no longer confined to specific borders and that the notion of territoriality provides a dangerously limited view of the scope of crimes today; ratifying the Rome Statute would force nations to recognize that domestic and international law inevitably interact.2 The domestic-foreign distinction has allowed states to ignore or commit certain atrocities in the name of national interest.  1 Ferencz, Benjamin B. \"A Nuremberg Prosecutor's Response to Henry Kissinger's Essay 'The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction.'\" Published by Derechos Human Rights, 27 September 2002. Accessed 14 August 2011.  2 Ralph, Jason. \"International Society, the International Criminal Court and American Foreign Policy.\" Review of International Studies, Vol. 31 No. 1, January 2005, 27-44."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con03b","title":"","text":"The ICC has jurisdiction to defy unwilling governments and is still a step towards global enforcement of rights, even if it does not completely solve the problem.  The ICC can have jurisdiction over criminals whose states refuse to prosecute them (provided certain conditions are met), meaning that they can issue warrants for those who come from or lead countries that will not comply with the ICC. Moreover, the ICC centralizes prosecution efforts under one court, making possible prosecution much more efficient and likely and increasing whatever original chance there was of prosecuting the leader.  Even if the ICC does have trouble fully enforcing its decisions, it is still a step towards the idea of \"collective enforcement,\" which entails states agreeing upon and following international norms by incorporating them into domestic law and promoting their enforcement. Ratification of the Rome Statute represents a commitment by national governments to assist the ICC with prosecution efforts.1  1 Mayerfeld, Jamie. \"Who Shall be Judge? The United States, the International Criminal Court, and the Global Enforcement of Human Rights.\" Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 25 No. 1, February 2003, 93-129."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con01b","title":"","text":"To date, the ICC has empirically only issued warrants against leaders that nations have almost universally agreed upon committed heinous crimes. The existence of the ICC would only deter actions that are so atrocious, they would be comparable to the ones committed by those the ICC is currently pursuing. Countries that refuse to prosecute its own individuals should submit to the court to ensure that there is a baseline standard for rights protection, even in times of war. Otherwise, these crimes go unexposed and unpunished \u2013 for example, there has been very little discussion about certain US actions because certain presidential administrations have been adamant about prioritizing national interest over global standards of rights. US attacks on a pharmaceutical plant in Sudan, US invasion of Panama in 1989, US choice of targets in Afghanistan in 2001, and other actions have been left unexamined because of the lack of a third party with the consent to regulate international action; the ICC could solve this. [i]  [i] Forsythe, David P. \u201cU.S. Action Empirically Goes Domestically Unchecked.\u201d The United States and International Criminal Justice, Vol. 24 No. 4, November 2002, 985."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con02a","title":"","text":"The ICC does not have enough checks on prosecutorial powers, inviting prosecutorial abuse.  The issues the ICC deals with are inherently subjective, as there is clear disagreement about what counts as a war crime or what the exact definition of genocide is. This leaves dangerous room for the prosecutor to simply decide what he thinks counts as a crime under the statute. Under the Rome Statute, the prosecutor has the power to both initiate an investigation based on reasonable evidence (of which there are no clear standards for outlined in the Rome Statute) and refuse to follow up on an investigation in the name of \"justice.\" There are no clear higher checks on the prosecutor, putting too much power in the hands of one single individual. Additionally, there is very limited judicial review, as the pre-trial chamber is composed of 1 or 3 judges, and the prosecutor is able to find a judge who is sympathetic to his views.1  1 Rubin, Alfred P. \"The International Criminal Court: Possibilities for Prosecutorial Abuse.\" Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 64 No. 1, Winter 2001, 153-165."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con05a","title":"","text":"The ICC infringes upon national sovereignty by inherently implying that there is a higher court nations must answer to.  The ICC forces nations to accept that there is a binding power that overrides national law, undermining the government. John Bolton, former US ambassador to the United Nations, explains: \"The ICC's failing stems from its purported authority to operate outside (and on a plane superior to) the U.S. Constitution, and thereby to inhibit the full constitutional autonomy of all three branches of the U.S. government, and indeed, of all states party to the statute. ICC advocates rarely assert publicly that this result is central to their stated goals, but it must be for the court and prosecutor to be completely effective.\"1 More specifically, Article 12 of the Rome Statute entails that the ICC's jurisdiction applies to all individuals, even of states that have not ratified the treaty. Governments cannot unconditionally bind its citizens to laws that are inflexible and contrary to the idea of sovereignty.2  1 Bolton, John. \"The Risks and Weaknesses of the International Criminal Court from America's Perspective.\" Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 64 No. 1, Winter 2001, 167-180."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con04a","title":"","text":"The ICC is not democratic in nature and is likely to be used as a political tool by powerful nations.  Parts of the Rome Statue, such as the clauses relating to the Security Council, make it seem like a tool that will be used by the politically powerful. The Security Council has the power to refer cases to the prosecutor. Article 16 of the Rome Statute declares that the Security Council may postpone investigation and prosecution for 12 months if it decides, and may infinitely renew this delay, giving it final say on what gets tried and what doesn't. The ICC is not a truly independent judiciary and gives certain nations more power than others, making it an unfair and unjust court that does not treat its members equally.1  1 Teitelbaum, Alejandro. \"Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Critique.\" Social Justice, Vol. 26 No. 4, Winter 1999, 107-114."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con03a","title":"","text":"The ICC has no real enforcement mechanism and cannot be a force for good if it has no way of ensuring prosecution.  The court has no obvious enforcement mechanism, as it ultimately relies on states to take action in finding and turning over criminals. Although it can issue search warrants and declare that governments are not doing enough to prosecute criminals, that does not translate into real-world change that gets closer to punishing criminals. There is no reason for nations to submit to a court with no enforcement mechanism while simultaneously exposing themselves to a variety of risks as outlined in other arguments.1 For example, Chad is a party of the ICC but welcomed Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in July 2010. Although Chad was technically obligated to arrest him, there was no arrest made and Chad's president Idriss Deby welcomed Bashir with open arms, clearly demonstrating the ICC's lack of enforcement powers.2  1 Nanda, Ved P. \"The Establishment of a Permanent International Criminal Court: Challenges Ahead.\" Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 20 No. 2, May 1998, 413-428.  2 Reuters. \"Bashir Returns to Sudan After Defying ICC in Chad.\" 24 July 2010. Accessed 14 August 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con05b","title":"","text":"The ICC does not infringe upon national sovereignty because it only has jurisdiction if the national justice system is either ineffective or unable to prosecute the criminal.  National courts still have the responsibility and ability to prosecute their own criminals, and the ICC is only meant to be used as a last resort in case these national measures fail; there is no contradiction between the two.1 Sovereignty only exists if the state has internal control, and the ICC will only have jurisdiction in cases where the national justice system has proven that for some reason, it will not prosecute the criminal.  1 Nanda, Ved P. \"The Establishment of a Permanent International Criminal Court: Challenges Ahead.\" Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 20 No. 2, May 1998, 413-428."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con01a","title":"","text":"The ICC interferes with national operations (both military and humanitarian) because of how loosely the Rome Statue can be interpreted.  A large issue with the ICC is that it subjects member states to definitions that can be interpreted in a number of ways. For example, University of Chicago law professor Jack Goldsmith explains that the ICC has jurisdiction over \u201ca military strike that causes incidental civilian injury (or damage to civilian objects) \u2018clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated.\u2019 Such proportionality judgments are almost always contested.\u201d [i]  First, nations have a first and foremost obligation to protect their own citizens, but states\u2019 ability to fulfill this duty would be hindered by the threat of ICC prosecution. Certain nations face asymmetrical warfare \u2013 for example, the US routinely fights combatants who use innocent human shields, soldiers disguised as civilians, hostage-takers, etc. When put in context, the US has had to take certain actions that would constitute war crimes in order to fulfill its overarching obligation to its own people; strict compliance with the ICC\u2019s standards would deny countries\u2019 abilities to protect their own people. [ii]  Second, the fear of prosecution by the ICC would discourage humanitarian missions, decreasing the protection of rights globally. A study noted that the United States, a nation that sends hundreds of thousands of troops on peacekeeping missions, could have been held responsible for war crimes or crimes of aggression for its interventions in places like Bosnia and Sudan. [iii]  [i] Goldsmith, Jack. \u201cThe Self-Defeating International Criminal Court.\u201d The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 70 No. 1, Winter 2003, 89-104.  [ii] Schmitt, Michael. \u201cAsymmetrical Warfare and International Humanitarian Law.\u201d The Air Force Law Review, 2008.  [iii] Redman, Lauren Fielder. \u201cUnited States Implementation of the International Criminal Court: Toward the Federalism of Free Nations.\u201d Journal of Transnational Law and Policy, Fall 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con04b","title":"","text":"The ICC is an independent court with enough checks that only pursues the most heinous criminals.  The ICC was designed to pursue the \"future Pol Pots, Saddam Husseins, and Milosevics who terrorize civilians on a massive scale.\" The fear of politically motivated prosecutions has yet to come true; the current warrants have been issued for only the gravest violators of rights on a widespread scale. Even if the Security Council has certain extra controls, the court is still ultimately fair in its actual procedure with its prosecutor, judges, etc.1 Additionally, there are numerous checks in the Rome Statute, as outlined in the first proposition counterargument.  1 Kirsch, Philippe. \"The International Criminal Court: Current Issues and Perspectives.\" Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 64 No. 1, Winter 2001, 3-11."}
+{"id":"validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con02b","title":"","text":"There are numerous checks that limit the power of the prosecutor and regulate the ICC's operations.  There are numerous checks outlined in the Rome Statute that limit the power of the prosecutor, eliminating any concerns of abuse. For example, Article 7 clearly defines what a crime against humanity is, and other types of crimes are extensively defined in the statute. Second, the ICC is allowed to step in only if the national government fails to prosecute criminals, meaning that it will never have to step in and exercise its power as long as countries are doing their jobs domestically, checking its jurisdiction. Third, there are multiple chambers that check each other; for example, the pre-trial chamber makes sure that the prosecutor has enough evidence before proceeding. Fourth, there are 18 judges from differing impartial backgrounds, ultimately making the ICC objective. Other checks can be found upon closer examination of the Rome Statute.1 Moreover, empirically, the prosecutor has not excessively punished any leader, so claims of abuse have yet to show true in the real world. Trials have been dismissed on the grounds of not having sufficient evidence, etc., so the ICC does not have unlimited power.  1 United Nations. \"Rome Statue of the International Criminal Court.\" 2002. Accessed 14 August 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro02b","title":"","text":"Not only is intelligence often badly flawed, internment simply doesn't work as a strategy to combat terrorism 1. Instead it is counter-productive, because it makes martyrs of the individuals and groups who are being detained. The experience of Northern Ireland was that internment acted as a \"recruiting sergeant\" for the IRA, radicalising many detainees without previous terrorist contacts, and rallying supporters to their cause in response to the perceived injustice. Similar responses can be seen to Guantanamo Bay today in the Muslim world. Moreover, the confidence of ordinary citizens in their governments is undermined by such harsh measures, reducing their support for the overall \"war effort\". Indeed, if we compromise aspects of our free and open societies in response to pressure, then the terrorists who hate our values are winning.  1. Nossel, S. (2005, June 12). 10 Reasons to Close Guantanamo. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Democracy Arsenal ."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro02a","title":"","text":"The protection of intelligence sources is more important than trying suspects.  At a time when our society is under threat, it is more important to protect our intelligence sources than it is to try and punish individual terrorists. Even when strong proof exists, charging and trying terror suspects in open court would require governments to reveal their intelligence sources. This would risk the identification of their spies in foreign countries and within dangerous organisations. Not only might this lead to the murder of brave agents, it would also shut off crucial intelligence channels that could warn us of future attacks 1. For example, the head of police in Northern Ireland has admitted \u2018if people were not confident their identities would be protected they would not come forward\u2019 2. In a deal with the devil, the intelligence procured is more important and saves more lives than the violation of one\u2019s right to a fair trial. Even if special arrangements were made to present intelligence evidence in court, hostile organisations would be able to work out how much or little western intelligence services know about them, and the manner in which they operate. In these circumstances, detention without public trial is the only safe option.  1 The Washington Times. (2008, November 12). Editorial: Obama and Gitmo. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from The Washington Times:  2 BBC News (2007, September 11). Informants being put off"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro03b","title":"","text":"Governments clearly have powers to protect citizens from harm, but there is a limit to that extension of power. It is a limit that does not include the undermining of the very values the state is built upon, restricted executive power. Captured enemy combatants are not comparable to those captured during World War II, for the former were arrested for the perceived threat they caused, whilst the latter were captured and interned for a tangible, real threat 1. Soldiers are implicitly guilty when captured, enemy combatants who have yet to commit a crime can reasonably claim their innocence and deserve a fair trial. Furthermore, there is little evidence to suggest that internment without trial is a means to protection; the period of internment only stirs up sentiment that can be directed against the captors once eventually released. It may be the case that the safest way of protecting civilians is in fact to offer suspects a fair trial and, if found innocent, rendered back to where they were found. The existence of a strong, impartial legal framework would have infinite benefits for the moral standing of the state in the eyes of potential adversaries.  1 Davis, F. (2004, August) Internment Without Trial: The Lessons from the United States, Northern Ireland and Israel. Retrieved June 23, 2011 from:"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro01a","title":"","text":"Tribunals are adequate replacements that maintain respect for detainees' rights.  The denial of normal legal processes does not automatically confer the absence of legal processes altogether. Though a normal public trial is not possible for security reasons, detainees' rights are still respected during the internment process. Safeguards are built into the internment process so that each case can be considered fairly, with the suspect represented before a proper tribunal and given a right to appeal to a higher authority. At Guantanamo Bay, President G. W. Bush introduced military tribunals made up of five U.S. armed force officers and presided over by qualified military judges to handle the legal ambiguities of suspects held in the facility 1 . The accused still have the presumption of innocence and proof of guilt has to be beyond that of a reasonable doubt 2. If such a trial is provided (often to standards of evidence and procedure higher than in normal courts in many countries around the world) and a sentence properly passed, then this is not internment as it has been practised in the past.  1. The Telegraph. (2007, March 16). Q&A: US Military Tribunals at Guantanamo Bay. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from The Telegraph  2.Ibid"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro01b","title":"","text":"Tribunals do not respect detainees\u2019 rights, but in fact require the undermining of those rights. Regardless of the procedures with which internment is dressed up by embarrassed authorities, it is open to abuse because trials are secret with the executive essentially scrutinising itself. Often there is not a free choice of lawyer to represent the suspect (detainees before US Military Commissions can only choose lawyers approved by the executive). Trials are held in secret with crucial evidence frequently withheld from the accused and his defence team, or given anonymously with no opportunity to examine witnesses properly. Appeals are typically to the executive (which chose to prosecute them), rather than to an independent judicial body. In such circumstances prejudice and convenience are likely to prevent justice being done."}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro03a","title":"","text":"Governments must have powers to protect citizens from harm.  Governments must have powers to protect their citizens against threats to the life of the nation. This is not merely to directly protect citizens from political violence, but also because political violence \u2018handicaps the process of reconstruction\u2019 1 in nation-building efforts. Everyone would recognise that rules that are applied in peacetime may not be appropriate during wartime. Captured enemy combatants, for example, should not expect to be tried individually in civilian courts; it is essential however that they be held securely until they no longer pose a threat or an appropriate legal process can be established to assess their case. The war on terror is in this respect a war like earlier, more conventional conflicts whereby captured combatants are held until the conclusion of conflicts. No-one captured on D-Day expected to be granted a trial in a civilian court to establish their guilt. Just because our enemies do not wear uniforms or conform to a normal military structure (some indeed may even hold the citizenship of the state they are fighting against), does not make them any less of a threat to our society.  1 Davis, F. (2004, August) Internment Without Trial: The Lessons from the United States, Northern Ireland and Israel. Retrieved June 23, 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con03b","title":"","text":"The war on terror is not like past, conventional conflicts but that does not prevent its classification as an armed conflict; soldiers are still dying in fire-fights, territory is still being fought over and the threat to homeland security is very real and visceral. According to the Bush administration, the war on terror represents a new \u2018paradigm of war\u2019, whereby the civilians directly engaged in hostilities, \u2018enemy combatants\u2019, are not permitted to enjoy the privileges of international humanitarian law. Prisoner of war status is \u2018reserved (for) members of the armed forces of a party to an international armed conflict\u2026who must distinguish themselves from the civilian population in order to be entitled to POW status upon capture\u2019 1. Regarding the ICCPR, it has a specific derogation clause that states \u2018in times of public emergency\u2019, the states may excuse themselves from the strict provisions of the covenant. This would, in the context of threats to the safety of civilians, permit states to intern without trial enemy combatants.  1. International Committee of Red Cross, 2005"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con01b","title":"","text":"Internment without trial does not justify the bad behaviour of other states, for it is justifiable under norms of international law. For example, the measures taken by the UK government to detain foreign nationals identified by intelligence as a serious threat to Britain are justified by conflicting priorities. In normal circumstances such people would be deported to their home countries, but asylum rules prevent the forced deportation of people to countries which might persecute them. Those detained in the UK are in fact free to leave if they can find a country to take them 1. Those who cannot are in effect choosing to remain in detention here. Rather than removing completely the government's power to deport foreign nationals who pose a threat, this is the best solution from a human rights point of view.  1 Kelly, D. (2010, February 20). UK Border Agency response on 'migrant detainees'. Retrieved May 12, 2011 from Immigration Matters"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con02a","title":"","text":"Internment without trial exacerbates the antagonism of enemies and subsequent risk to civilians.  To intern without trial, for prolonged periods, the believed enemies of a state is to offer them and their supporters added reason to be antagonistic. In Northern Ireland, \u201cviolence soared following the introduction of internment and the British government imposed \u2018direct rule\u2019\u201d 1. Moreover, Guantanamo Bay, the central symbol of the growth of executive power in United States\u2019 war on terror, has been described by Dennis Blair, Director of National Intelligence, as \u2018a rallying cry for terrorist recruitment and harmful to our national security\u2019 2. Armando Spataro, a senior Italian prosecutor, has remarked \u2018Muslims around the world are asking why there is so little international opposition to the U.S. policy of internment without trial. The collateral damage of Guantanamo is incalculable\u2019 3. It appears difficult to argue that the extension of executive power in the war on terror has had any effect on the security of innocent civilians other than increasing their risk of harm.  1 Davis, F. (2004, August) Internment Without Trial: The Lessons from the United States, Northern Ireland and Israel. Retrieved June 23, 2011 from:  2 Rhee, F. (2009, January 22). Obama orders Guantanamo Bay closed, bans torture. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Boston:  3 Greening, K. J. (2007, February 12). 8 Reasons to Close Guantanamo Now. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from In These Times:  improve this  To intern without trial, for prolonged periods, the believed enemies of a state is to offer them and their supporters added reason to be antagonistic. In Northern Ireland, \u201cviolence soared following the introduction of internment and the British government imposed \u2018direct rule\u2019\u201d 1. Moreover, Guantanamo Bay, the central symbol of the growth of executive power in United States\u2019 war on terror, has been described by Dennis Blair, Director of National Intelligence, as \u2018a rallying cry for terrorist recruitment and harmful to our national security\u2019 2. Armando Spataro, a senior Italian prosecutor, has remarked \u2018Muslims around the world are asking why there is so little international opposition to the U.S. policy of internment without trial. The collateral damage of Guantanamo is incalculable\u2019 3. It appears difficult to argue that the extension of executive power in the war on terror has had any effect on the security of innocent civilians other than increasing their risk of harm.  1 Davis, F. (2004, August) Internment Without Trial: The Lessons from the United States, Northern Ireland and Israel. Retrieved June 23, 2011 from:  2 Rhee, F. (2009, January 22). Obama orders Guantanamo Bay closed, bans torture. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Boston:  3 Greening, K. J. (2007, February 12). 8 Reasons to Close Guantanamo Now. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from In These Times:"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con05a","title":"","text":"Internment without trial undermines democratic values.  Rights are needed to protect the few as well as the many, otherwise there would be no need for them in a democracy. Indefinite detention and lack of a normal public trial undermine the key values of habeas corpus and the presumption of innocence. The Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution enshrines the principle that \u2018no person shall be deprived of his liberty without due process\u20191. As such, suspects should be tried if there is evidence, deported if they are foreign nationals, but most importantly released if a proper case cannot be made against them. Internment in Northern Ireland was also said to be aimed only at a tiny minority, but thousands passed through the Long Kesh detention camp in the four years it operated. Similarly, the internment of Japanese-Americans from 1942 onwards led to a belief in the post-war environment that they were \u2018radically predisposed to acts of disloyalty\u20191 undermining the democratic values of inclusion and multi-culturalism that the US particularly likes to attribute to itself.  1 Davis, F. (2004, August) Internment Without Trial: The Lessons from the United States, Northern Ireland and Israel. Retrieved June 23, 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con04a","title":"","text":"Internment without trial fails to make society safer.  Giving the government the power to detain suspects without due process of law will not in fact make society any safer. The proposition's arguments rely upon the accuracy of secret intelligence, which supposedly identifies individuals planning terrorist acts, but which cannot be revealed in open court. Past examples suggest that such intelligence is often deeply flawed. For example, when internment was introduced in Northern Ireland in 1971 over 100 of the 340 original detainees were released within two days when it was realised much of the Special Branch intelligence that had been used to identify them was incorrect 1. Recent intelligence failures in the campaign against Al-Qaeda point to the difficulties western intelligence services have in penetrating and understanding non-white groups, while intelligence on Iraq's weapons programmes was also clearly flawed. So not only will many of the wrong people be unjustly locked up, many dangerous ones will be left at liberty.  1 West, C. (2002, January 2). Internment: methods of interrogation. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from BBC News:"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con03a","title":"","text":"The war on terror is not an armed conflict, and therefore internment without trial is illegal.  The war on terror is not like past, conventional conflicts, and the government should not be able to take wartime powers simply on its own declaration. The terrorist attacks of September 11 2001 were horrific, but they did not threaten the entire life of the American nation - the economy has rebounded surprisingly quickly and no one believes that even a successful attack on the White House or Congress would have ended American democracy. Separate from warfare therefore, interment without trial is clearly illegal \u2013 as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states, \u2018everyone has the right to liberty and security of the person. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention\u20191. If it can be agreed upon that human rights are universal, internment without trial outside of the protocols on warfare is illegal. Furthermore, the war on terror is not winnable - there is no likely endpoint at which we will be able to declare an enemy to have been defeated and so allow detained \"enemy combatants\" to go home - so these harsh but supposedly temporary wartime measures will become the norm.  1. Davis, 2004. p4"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con05b","title":"","text":"Internment without trial does not undermine either democracy or its values. Tough measures are aimed only at very few suspects; only 11 are currently detained in Britain, only a few hundred at Guantanamo Bay. Exceptional circumstances call for special measures, but these are so limited in scope that they do not threaten our democratic values. Similarly, until the cessation of hostilities, the suspension of habeus corpus for \u2018enemy combatants\u2019 is not unlike the holding of prisoners of war until an armistice, whereby it is not legally necessary to provide recourse to judicial process. As Dick Cheney notes, \u2018in previous wars we\u2019ve always exercised the right to capture the enemy and then hold them until the end of the conflict. The same principle ought to apply here\u2019 1.  1. Trott, B. (2008, December 15). Don't Close Guantanamo until terror war ends: Cheney. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Reuters:"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con01a","title":"","text":"Internment without trial encourages the bad behaviour of other states.  Compromising our usual high standards of human rights encourages bad behaviour by other countries. Governments with less concern for rights are reassured by the apparent failure of liberal democracy to address a terrorist threat, and feel justified in tightening up their own measures against individuals and groups perceived as a threat. Western governments, meanwhile, lose their moral ability to criticise abuses elsewhere. Overall, the cause of freedom suffers everywhere. This can be seen clearly in the actions of governments around the world since September 11 2001, where existing repressive measures have been justified in new ways as part of the war on terror, or new ones introduced in apparent response to it. India, for example, has been using repressive measures in Kashmir for twenty years, however it still exploited the war on terror as a pretext for international support for its latest crackdowns 1.  1. Shingavi, S. (2010, July 14). India's new crackdown in Kashmir. Retrieved July 14, 2011, from CETRI:"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con04b","title":"","text":"It is essential to reach an appropriate balance of rights and freedoms. Everyone recognises the importance of protecting rights and liberties, but this cannot be done at any cost. There is a wider duty on politicians to protect society from harm, and their voters will rightly hold them to account if they fail in this responsibility. As the UK's Home Secretary, David Blunkett has written: \"How best to protect ourselves effectively while maintaining the maximum freedoms is one of the biggest issues facing all democratic governments in the aftermath of September 11\u2026 I am willing to take whatever critics may throw at me, as long as history does not judge that our Labour government failed to do its best to protect us against those who would destroy our lives and our democracy.1\"  1. Blunkett, D. (2001, November 20). This is not internment. Retrieved May 12, 2011, from Guardian:"}
+{"id":"validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con02b","title":"","text":"The period of internment, however long, does not serve to exacerbate antagonisms inherent in adversaries. If anything, the period of reflection acts as a punitive measure designed to force the suspect to weigh up his choices and potentially disavow his beliefs. If innocent, they may develop antagonisms towards their captors, but that does not automatically place them in the throes of their suspected associates. Furthermore, even if this were true, the antagonism held towards their captors would not be permitted to lead to further violence for they would be interned until the conclusion of the war."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro02b","title":"","text":"When homework does take up time in class it is helpful for learning. And when it does not then it does not harm the classwork. Homework aids classwork by providing a space for those who have not finished the work to catch up and by helping us to remember what we did in class."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Homework takes up class time  Homework does not only take up time doing the homework at home but also takes up time in class. First there is the time that the teacher takes when explaining the task. Then more time is taken going through the homework when it is done and marked. This time could be better spent engaging with the class to find out what they do and don\u2019t understand. The answer to this is to have more time in class rather than boring homework."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro03b","title":"","text":"Teachers will need to mark and go through work whether it is classwork or homework. It is better that the teacher should spend their time in class teaching so leaving practising the methods taught to homework."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro01a","title":"","text":"When out of school we should have time to ourselves  Time is valuable. We all need some time to ourselves. School already takes up a lot of time and it is necessary to have time which does not involve concentrating on learning. Education is not the only important activity in everyone\u2019s day; physical activity, play, and time with family are just as important as all teach life skills just in different ways. The internet makes it possible to be learning at home, there are even many computer games that help with learning. Homework clashes with these other activities. It can damage family relationships as it means parents have to try and make their children do their homework."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro01b","title":"","text":"We should expect to get a certain amount of homework per day and build other activities around the homework. Homework can be a useful part of time with family as it provides a chance for parents and other relatives to take part in schooling."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro04b","title":"","text":"Whether homework puts us off learning will always depend on what the homework we are given is. Tasks that involve no interaction, or are not engaging will discourage learning. But homework could also mean reading an interesting book, having to find something out, create something, or doing a task with family. Homework can be as varied as classwork and just as interesting."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro03a","title":"","text":"Homework wastes teachers time  We are not the only ones who take a lot of time on homework, our teachers do as well. The teacher needs to design the homework, explain it, mark each piece individually, and tell everyone what they got right and wrong. If all this is not done then the homework loses its value as we need to be told individually what our mistakes are to be able to learn from homework. Teachers could as easily use the classwork to find out who knows what they are doing and who are making mistakes and it would save them time."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro04a","title":"","text":"Homework puts students off learning  Especially if we get too much homework it can take the enjoyment out of learning. No matter how engaging the teacher is in class homework will almost certainly be stressful, boring and tiring. It is simply much harder to make homework engaging and interesting as it is often done on our own. We know that there is no direct link between how much homework is set and grades. Studies done on this come to different conclusions so teachers should only set homework when they are sure it is needed. When we only get homework occasionally we will consider that piece more important and a better use of time."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con03b","title":"","text":"Teachers should not set classwork expecting that the class will have to finish that classwork as homework. Students who are falling behind should receive more attention from the teacher during class to make sure that all the members of the class can move at the same speed."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con01b","title":"","text":"Most homework is simply fulfilling a task that has already been explained so not truly teaching you to work on your own. Working on your own means setting your own targets, and working out how to overcome obstacles."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con02a","title":"","text":"Doing our homework means we are taking responsibility for ourselves  We are the ones who gain from learning so we should take responsibility for some of our own learning. We can take responsibility by doing homework. When we don\u2019t do our homework we are the ones who suffer; we don\u2019t get good marks and don\u2019t learn as much. We also lose out in other ways as taking responsibility means learning how to manage our time and how to do the things that are most important first rather than the things we most enjoy like playing. Homework then does not waste time; it is part of managing it."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con04a","title":"","text":"Homework makes sure we remember what we have learnt  One way we learn is by repetition, another is by doing things, when doing homework we learn in both of these ways. When we are taught a method at school, such as how to do a type of sum, then we need to practice using that method to make sure we know how to so that we can remember it. If we just learn the method and don\u2019t practice it we will soon forget how we do it."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con03a","title":"","text":"Homework is needed to finish classwork.  We should think of homework as being a continuation of our classwork. Not everyone in the class works at the same rate so it is necessary for teachers to give anyone who is falling behind the chance to catch up. If this was done in class those who are faster would have nothing to do during this time, which would be a real waste of time. Homework then allows those who are behind to take as long as they need to catch up with the rest of the class."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con01a","title":"","text":"Homework teaches us to learn on our own  The main aim of education is to prepare us for the rest of lives. Homework is teaching us a key skill that we will need in the future. When we do homework we are learning to work on our own, the discipline to get the work done without the teacher\u2019s prompting, and when we come up against difficulties we learn how to overcome them without our teacher\u2019s help. Millions of people work for themselves (self-employed), or work from home, they are using exactly the same skills doing homework teaches us. This is not a waste of time."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con04b","title":"","text":"We don\u2019t spend all of class time learning new methods so there should be time in class to practice any new method that is taught. Once some repetition has been done in class how much more do we really need at home? If we have not successfully learnt the method in the class then we will be simply repeating the mistake."}
+{"id":"validation-education-egpsthwtj-con02b","title":"","text":"The same kind of responsibility is given to us no matter the kind of work. When given classwork we are responsible for completing it rather than playing around. The only difference at home is that it is our parents telling us to work not our teachers."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro02b","title":"","text":"We recognise that not everyone should do every subject, but for practical reasons we have to ask them to give it a try up to a certain level. Apart from anything else, this is the most reliable way to tell whether or not the subject is right for them \u2013 how can you know that if you haven\u2019t ever tried it? There are many different ways to set this level, and we feel that the current standard is the minimum which will give children a realistic idea of what the subject is like."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Some people find maths hard  It is a fundamental principle of education that different people think in different ways. One notable application of this is the theory of different learning styles, and it also makes people have a preference for certain subjects. [1] Many people find maths hard, 37% of teens think it is the most difficult subject, for a variety of reasons \u2013 it simply isn\u2019t suited to all minds. [2]  Another fundamental principle is that all children are equal, in the sense that we should support them equally in helping them find the right opportunities. It follows that we should teach them something useful and relevant to their personality and preferences. But whatever that may turn out to be, it will not be maths, and maths would just waste their time.  It makes sense to teach arithmetic to even these people, but there is no need to make them study further.  [1] Cherry, Kendra, \u2018VARK Learning Styles\u2019, About.com,  accessed 12 June 2013  [2] Saad, Lydia, \u2018Math Problematic for U.S. Teens\u2019, Gallup, 17 May 2005,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is undeniable that education is a trade-off between different subjects. However, we contend that maths is one which we want to protect. It is a fundamental subject which is of use in many others, as well as teaching children how to think about problems. (Debating lessons are a great idea, but should replace something else, like Art.)  Teaching maths as part of science just wastes time, as all different science subjects need the same maths. All this will do is add to the burden on teachers, as they will have to coordinate with each other to make sure the class has covered the right maths for that point in the course. Moreover, this will never be as effective as having a whole class for maths."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Maths is not engaging for students  Maths is one of the least engaging subjects taught at school. Subjects like chemistry are full of flashes, fires and experiments which help people see what they\u2019re being taught in front of them. History starts with telling stories, and even though that\u2019s not what the subject is really about, it offers a window into it. By contrast, maths has almost nothing similar. Asking children to use trigonometry to find the height of a tree does not fool them \u2013 all they see is another triangle. Some people enjoy it, but many do not.  Forcing people through maths classes which they find boring and irrelevant will only put them off maths; a recent study found that motivation was the most important factor for improving maths grades. [1] This in turn makes their children less likely to study maths, and causes a cycle in which a large section of the population have as little to do with maths as they can. [2]  It would be much better to not make these people study maths. True, they would end up not knowing any more than the bare essentials, but this is better than making them hate it.  [1] Ghose, Tia, \u2018Like Math? Thank Your Motivation, Not IQ\u2019, Scientific American, 28 December 2012,   [2] Kreutzer, Laura, \u2018Our Child Hates Math. Is It Our Fault?\u2019, The Wall Street Journal, 14 April 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro01b","title":"","text":"There are several problems with using \u201cengagement\u201d as a way to measure whether or not a subject should be taught. Firstly, there is no way to tell whether students are bored because the subject is boring, whether they\u2019re bored because they are lazy, or whether it is simply how it is taught. If we always taught children what they wanted to be doing, every warm, summer afternoon would be PE. That won\u2019t give them the best education.  Secondly, we disagree with the final line. The point of the education system is not to entertain people, it\u2019s to educate them. We do this by exposing them to different subjects enough for them to have a real idea what they\u2019re about. Only this way will they be able to figure out whether or not they like it.  Finally, maths, more than any other subject, requires you to be really good at the boring and tedious bits (like algebra) before you can even begin the more interesting bits (like Number Theory and Multivariable Analysis). Measuring maths (or indeed any other subject) for how much \u201cfun\u201d it is does not give a fair representation of how useful or important it is."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro03a","title":"","text":"If we don\u2019t teach maths we can teach other things instead  Schools are constantly pressed for time, money and staff. It is simply not possible to teach everything to everyone. This means that all of education is a balancing act. We try and isolate the most important parts of a subject and teach children what they need to know, but first, we have to isolate which subjects are important. So, for example, we teach History rather than Philosophy and Physics rather than Astronomy. Everything we teach therefore comes at the expense of not teaching something else and there are already some countries that choose other priorities; France for example prioritises Philosophy. [1]  Taking time away from maths has two advantages. Firstly, means we can teach other subjects instead, which will be more useful, such as dedicated classes on writing (or debating). Secondly, we can spend longer on those subjects which we already teach, making them better. As a bonus, we could even use this time to extend science lessons to include whatever maths is necessary, meaning we don\u2019t lose out at all.  [1] Schofield, Hugh, \u2018Why does France insist school pupils master philosophy?\u2019, BBC News, 3 June 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con03b","title":"","text":"Children should not be given power over their education, but it doesn\u2019t follow that their opinions are of no consequence. We should very much care what they do and don\u2019t enjoy. Firstly, if they don\u2019t enjoy their schooling they won\u2019t put any effort into it and will not actually learn anything. Secondly, if they feel we are making them do things they don\u2019t want to do we will lose the ability to give them sensible suggestions.  We might think they ought to learn maths, but forcing them to do it will cause more harm than good."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con01b","title":"","text":"Many children find science interesting, 12% consider it their favourite subject, and will choose it when given an option. [1] These children will be happy to take maths lessons even if they\u2019re not compulsory. The only ones who won\u2019t take them will be the ones who have no interest in science in any case, for whom there is no benefit for doing maths.  It\u2019s also worth pointing out that this argument seeks to match the educational system to the desires of companies. We feel this is wrong: it should be designed with the interests of the children in mind. That means giving them the opportunity to choose maths and science, but not necessarily forcing it on them.  [1] Kiefer, Heather Mason, \u2018Math = Teens\u2019 Favorite School Subject\u2019, Gallup, 15 June 2004,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con02a","title":"","text":"Maths teaches a kind of logic which is useful for other things  Most subjects are taught not just for the knowledge itself, but for the skills the subject requires. Schools don\u2019t teach English Literature because they want children to know a few poems. They teach it to encourage children to think about how people\u2019s perceptions have changed over time, how two authors can see the same thing differently, and the way choices of language can reveal the answers. Similarly, maths lessons show you a way of looking at a problem: what am I being asked? What information am I given? Is this similar to other problems I already know? Do those methods apply here? This is a general technique which is valuable for students to learn.  Looking at education this way makes it clear that, in fact, almost no subjects are studied for themselves. We use them as vehicles to teach children certain things. That being the case, whether maths is \u201cpractical\u201d or \u201cinteresting\u201d makes no difference: we should teach it anyway."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con03a","title":"","text":"Children should not be the arbiters of the education system  To avoid teaching maths to children just because they don\u2019t like the subject would be to shape the education system around adolescent whims. But children are not best placed to put a value on their education. They don\u2019t know what knowledge is required for life and what skills are required for a career. They are likely to choose arbitrarily, influenced perhaps by which teachers are most strict, which subject they happen to be good at and what mood they\u2019re in. It is for this reason that we don\u2019t recognise children as being fully capable of making decisions about their education. Consequences of this include a government-fixed curriculum.  Adults know the value of maths: one poll in America found that 34% of people named it as the most valuable subject they had studied at school. [1] We think children should be learning maths, and it follows that they will have to do it, like it or not.  [1] Robison, Jennifer, \u2018Math Tops List of Most Valuable Subjects\u2019, Gallup, 21 January 2003,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con01a","title":"","text":"Maths is an important subject  Every single science subject relies on maths. The whole of physics consists of using maths to model the world. At a basic level, this means drawing diagrams of forces, and at an advanced level it means writing down the gauge group which describes electroweak interaction, but it\u2019s all maths. Even subjects like psychology, which are not normally seen as mathematical, would be lost without advanced statistics to decide whether a result is significant or not. Maths is as important to science as reading is to subjects like history and politics.  Making maths optional will mean some students don\u2019t bother doing it. These children will find that science is closed to them. If we want to have a strong science sector \u2013 in both industry and research \u2013 as governments keep claiming we do [1] it is important to make sure we have people who are qualified. That means giving children the educational background required for them to pursue science should they wish to: maths.  [1] Osborne, George, \u2018Achieving strong and sustainable economic growth\u2019, Gov.uk, 24 April 2013,   Xinhua, \u2018Premier Wen says science, technology key to China\u2019s economic development\u2019, Xinhuanet, 27 December 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con02b","title":"","text":"At the very least, for this argument to be true you would have to rewrite the syllabus to focus on problem-solving rather than knowledge. But even then, there is no compelling reason for having this particular way of teaching skills, and little reason why other subjects should not be teaching the same kinds of questions. Given that it is hard, not related to the real world and generally unpopular, we should drop it. Instead, design other classes, with \u201cbeing engaging\u201d specifically in mind. This will do a better job."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Parents have a right to act on behalf of their children. It is the right of parents to make decisions on behalf of their children. It is not the role of the state to intervene in the raising of a child except in exceptional circumstances and the opposition do not accept that raising a child religiously constitutes exceptional circumstances. It is not the role of the state, therefore, to intervene by banning faith schools simply to ensure that children are not educated too religiously."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro02a","title":"","text":"State has a responsibility to protect and educate its citizens.  The state should not allow the education of a child to be polluted by what is tantamount to brainwashing. Amartya Sen argues \u201cUnder this system, young children are placed in the domain of singular affiliations well before they have the ability to reason about different systems of identification that may compete for their attention.\u201d [1] Instead they have to learn about all religions to encourage tolerance.  It is totally acceptable for children to have religious education outside of school and to brought to places of worship but school is a place of education and they should be given an education that is not tainted by trying to ensure that they grow up with a certain attitude towards their religion. [2]  [1] Jeffries, Stuart, \u201cTo abolish only non-Christian faith schools would be taken as an affront. The answer is that they all have to go\u201d, The Guardian, 28 July 2006,   [2] MacMullen, Ian. \u201cFaith in Schools?: Autonomy, Citizenship and Religious Education in the Liberal State.\u201d Princeton University Press. 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Faith schools create a sense of community. This entire argument is based upon the fact that faith schools create a close sense of community within the school themselves. The opposition does not accept that this is harm and firmly believes that anything that creates a close sense of community is a force for good as it creates more accountability for actions within the community and a better support system in the case of anything going wrong. [1]  [1] \u201cThe Churches and Collective Worship in Schools.\u201d The Catholic Education Service. 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro05a","title":"","text":"Creates animosity towards religious groups  Faith schools continuously perform better than normal schools. This creates a feeling amongst parents and children of wanting to be included in these faith schools. They are, however, excluded on the basis of their religion. This will create feelings of unfair exclusion, which will lead to animosity towards the religion running the school and, by extension, people of that religion. [1] As a result of this 64% of people in the UK believe that there should be no state funding for faith schools. [2]  It would be easy to convert faith schools to normal schools.  The majority of faith schools are already tied closely to the state education system making it easy to convert them into normal schools which are not faith based. Much of the curriculum is the same or very similar so the change would not be difficult for teachers. In England for example there 6783 faith schools that are also state schools and 47 that are academies. [1] These schools would simply change to having the same systems as any other school and admission would become open to all.  [1] Department of Education, \u201cMaintained faith schools\u201d, 12 January 2011,   [1] MacMullen, Ian. \u201cFaith in Schools?: Autonomy, Citizenship and Religious Education in the Liberal State.\u201d Princeton University Press. 2007.  [2] ICM, \u2018Guardian Opinion Poll Fieldwork August 12th-14th 2005\u2019, ICM\/The Guardian, 2005, pp21"}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Undermines separation of religion and the state.  Since education is something that the state is obligated to provide, any organisation that provides education is a representative of the state, even in private education. If religious groups are allowed to run schools then this means they are acting on behalf of the state, which undermines the separation of religion and the state, which the proposition believes is inherently harmful and undermining to the concept of democracy. [1] Even the Archbishop of Canterbury believes having greater separation of church and state would be beneficial arguing \"I think that the notion of the monarch as supreme governor has outlived its usefulness.\u201d [2] This separation has to include the education of children.  [1] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press. 1992.  [2] Butt, Riazat, \u2018Church and state could separate in UK, says Archbishop of Canterbury\u2019, The Guardian, 17 December 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro01b","title":"","text":"Running a school is not equivalent to running the country. The opposition does not accept that faith schools undermine the separation of religion and state. The religious groups running the school do not, as a result of running the school, have an opportunity to decide on the national curriculum or, for that matter, any other aspect of running the country. The idea that faith schools undermine democracy is ridiculous and unfounded."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro05b","title":"","text":"To be encouraged not banned. The idea of closing down schools because they are performing better than other schools seems ridiculous. Rather than banning faith schools so all schools are on an even, but lower, playing field, a logical course of action would be to try and determine exactly what it was about faith schools that made them perform so well and attempt to emulate that in ordinary schools to improve their performance.  It may be possible to convert the schools but they would loose their ethos. Without these schools religious ethos their standards would slip and the students would be worse off."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro04b","title":"","text":"Insulting to religion. This legislation is not simply a message to organised religion telling them that they are not a higher authority than the state; it is a message saying that the state does not believe they are capable of running schools. This serves only to worsen the state\u2019s already fractured relationship with organised religion and cause severe problems in dealing with large religious groups, who undeniably have a lot of power and influence."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Faith schools are inherently divisive.  At the age at which children are sent to faith schools, they are too young to have decided their religion for themselves, and so, their parents must have decided it for them. The proposition accepts that parents have a right to decide a child\u2019s religion on its behalf but this means that faith schools end up segregating children based on the faith that they inherit. School should be about bringing children together not segregating them. In the UK the government allows faith schools to ask for confirmation of attendance at a relevant place of worship [1] which is inherently discriminatory and divisive. Proposition believes that separating children based on what families they are born into creates communities which find it difficult to associate with people from outside their community and therefore cause massive divisions in society based on what religion people were born into. [2]  [1] Directgov, \u201cApplying for a school place: admissions criteria\u201d, direct.gov.uk,   [2] \u201cThe Churches and Collective Worship in Schools.\u201d The Catholic Education Service. 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro04a","title":"","text":"Shows that religion is not a higher authority than the state.  When the government allows religion to act on its behalf, it confuses the role of the state and the role of religious groups. As it stands, religious groups do not appear to be truly answerable to the state and, therefore, it is unclear whether they or the government are the higher authority. [1] For example in the UK faith schools set their own admission standards and increasingly have control over their curriculum, which in other state funded schools is set by the government, as well as they are being converted to academies. [2] This legislation would make it completely clear that the state is the ultimate authority.  [1] Dawkins, Richard. \u201cFaith School Menace.\u201d Channel 4. 2010.  [2] Paton, Graeme, \u2018Faith schools 'get more freedom over curriculum and admissions'\u2019, The Telegraph, 7 May 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con03b","title":"","text":"Shows submission to religion. As explained above, the proposition believes that allowing organised religion to act on behalf of the state indicates that organised religions have as much authority as the state. It is important that religious people recognise that they are answerable to the state before they are answerable to religion. Showing that religion is below the state, therefore, is actually a positive step."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con01b","title":"","text":"This is not the government\u2019s responsibility. The government does not have a responsibility to educate a child within the exact parameters that their parents dictate. If this were true, then each individual set of parents would be allowed to pick and choose what parts of the national curriculum they wished their child to learn."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con02a","title":"","text":"Relationship with organised religion.  Passing this legislation with be sending a signal to the religious groups that are running faith schools that we do not think they are capable of running schools. The state\u2019s relationship with organised religion is already a fractured one. This legislation would cause a lot of tension between the government and religious communities within the country, as well as between the state and states which hold religion more highly. [1]  [1] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press. 1992."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con05a","title":"","text":"Faith schools can be necessary for a religious upbringing.  Sometimes faith schools are necessary for children to get a full picture of the religion that they have been born into, particularly religions, like Islam, that are based mainly in societies unlike our own and far away from our countries. In these cases, banning faith schools is tantamount to preventing parents from bringing their children up in the faith they want them brought up in. The opposition believes that this legislation is, therefore, equivalent to depriving people of religion. [1]  [1] Glenn, Charles L. \u201cThe Ambiguous Embrace: Government and Faith-based Schools and Social Agencies.\u201d Princeton University Press. 2002."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con04a","title":"","text":"Faith schools perform better than ordinary schools.  Faith schools consistently perform better than ordinary schools. According to Ofsted, the UK schools inspectors, 73% of Catholic secondary Faith schools are good or outstanding, compared with 60% of English schools nationally. At primary level, 74% of Catholic schools are rated outstanding or good, compared with 66% nationally. [1] This shows that the religious aspect of their education must have some positive impact on the children who are educated there. Banning faith schools, therefore, would be condemning many children to a poorer standard of education than necessary. The opposition believes that it is the government\u2019s role to provide the best it can for its citizens and banning faith schools would, therefore, be the opposite of this. [2]  [1] Butt, Riazat, \u201cGove defends faith schools\u201d, The Guardian, 17 February 2011,   [2] Glenn, Charles L. \u201cThe Ambiguous Embrace: Government and Faith-based Schools and Social Agencies.\u201d Princeton University Press. 2002."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con03a","title":"","text":"Relationship with religious people.  This legislation would send a message of no confidence in religion and would be tantamount to the government condemning religion. It is wrong for government to suggest that faith schools are divisive as \u201cthe average grade awarded by Ofsted to secondary-level faith schools for promoting community cohesion was \"substantially and significantly\" better than the average grade awarded to community schools.\u201d [1] This will lead to religious people feeling undermined and insulted by their government who would be attacking their faith with no justification based upon the performance of the schools.  [1] Pritchard, John, \u201cChurch of England schools must serve the whole community\u201d, guardian.co.uk, 5th May 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con05b","title":"","text":"This is not the government\u2019s responsibility. The government has a responsibility to educate and to allow its people to practise whatever religion they wish to. The government does not have a responsibility to facilitate the practise of a religion where it would cause harms to its people in other ways. Since it is outlined in the main proposition case that it would cause harms in other ways, this is over and above the responsibility of the government."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con01a","title":"","text":"Parents have a right to ensure their child is brought up with the values they consider important.  Parents send their children to school so that they can be properly educated. For many parents, this education includes proper moral codes and values. Sending their child to a faith school that they know will adhere to the moral codes and values of that particular faith is one of the only ways that they can guarantee their child will be brought up with the values they consider important. [1] It is this that in part makes the schools popular as Ed Balls, then UK education secretary recognises \"One thing we've learnt as a government is that having a distinct ethos, strong leadership, a commitment to promoting opportunity for all, those are the kind of schools where parents want to send their children.\u201d [2]  [1] Mott-Thornton, Kevin. \u201cCommon Faith: Education, Spirituality and the State.\u201d Ashgate Pub. Ltd. 1998.  [2] BBC News, \u201cFaith schools set for expansion\u201d, 10 September 2007,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con04b","title":"","text":"Creates animosity towards religious groups. The fact that faith schools perform better than ordinary schools is an advantage only for the children who are lucky enough to attend. This causes feelings of resentment on the part of parents and children who were not of the correct faith and were, therefore, forced to go to a more poorly performing school. This resentment grows into a general feeling of animosity towards the religious group running the school and to religion in general. The proposition believes this is far more harmful in the long run than a minor reduction in quality of education for a small number of children."}
+{"id":"validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con02b","title":"","text":"Shows submission to organised religion. The proposition believes that by maintaining faith schools the government is allowing organised religion to act on its behalf. This not only undermines the separation of religion and the state but also indicates that organised religion has as much authority as the state. The proposition believes this is inherently harmful and that indicating that organised religion has less authority than the state would be a positive move."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro02b","title":"","text":"Students are going to forget information whether they are out of school for three weeks or ten. Therefore, teachers will be performing four beginning of the year reviews instead of just one. In addition, students often switch off mentally at the end of term in anticipation of the vacations, which will mean more teaching time wasted. Even if students end up learning more during summer months, they are likely to end up no better educated at the end of the year."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro02a","title":"","text":"Reduce \u201csummer learning loss\u201d.  During long summer holidays, students completely put aside learning and forget all about their studies for up to three months. In this time, they inevitably forget quite a lot of what they have learned. Teachers then have to spend the first weeks of the new academic year bringing them back up to speed. By eliminating the long summer break and replacing it with year-round learning punctuated by shorter vacation times, this problem would be much reduced. [1]  [1] Davey, Martin, \u201cThe Case For Year-Round Schooling\u201d, Toronto Star, July 14th 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro06a","title":"","text":"Importance of education to national economic performance.  A nation\u2019s most important resource is its human capital, and in the modern world it is vital to have a skilled, educated workforce in order to remain competitive. Many nations have already adopted year-round schooling. By following their example, we will be giving our young people an important advantage in the employment market and thereby improving the country\u2019s economic prospects. [1]  [1] US National Educational Commission on Time and Learning, \u201cReport: Prisoners of Time\u201d, April 1994."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro07b","title":"","text":"Year-round schooling will probably mean increased administrative costs, as well as ensuring that overheads such as catering, heating and security have to be paid year-round rather than for just part of the year, as at present. [1]  Education funding in many countries has been under pressure for many years, and most schools have explored all sorts of ways of maximising the effective use of their resources and facilities. The best solution to strains on resources is to make more money available to schools, not to stretch them ever thinner.  [1] Richmond, Emily. \u201cYear Round School Could Face Calendar Shift\u201d, Las Vegas Sun, 16th March 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro03b","title":"","text":"Year-round schooling does nothing to help the issue of boredom. Many \u201cproblem children\u201d are more bored in school than outside it; others are often absent from school altogether. There is no hard evidence that social problems such as crime and drug use go up significantly during breaks in the school year."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro05a","title":"","text":"Reducing inequality.  Evidence suggests that children from lower-income families tend to \u201cfall behind\u201d further during long summer vacations. These children are less likely to read books, pursue additional studies or take part in useful extracurricular activities compared to their peers from wealthier families. [1] This has a knock-on effect on their academic achievement, and once they have fallen behind it is very difficult for them to catch up. (This is the logic behind government-funded programs such as Head Start in the US or Sure Start in the UK) [2]  Year-round schooling would remove this important driver of inequality, give students a level playing field on which to learn, and help create a more meritocratic society.  [1] Johnson, Alex, \u201cYear-round school gains ground around U.S.\u201d, MSNBC.com, 27th October 2010.   [2] \u201cEarly Head Start Benefits Children and Families\u201d, US Department of Health and Human Services, April 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro01a","title":"","text":"Improves student achievement.  Studies show that students in year-round schooling tend to get perform better on many assessment metrics than those who do not [1] . Schools operating a year-round calendar do not have to cram so much course content into a 9 month schedule, but can space out learning better. This allows teaching to proceed at a more logical pace, helping students learn better. Furthermore, by giving students frequent short breaks (instead of two or three long ones), pupils are refreshed and ready to learn when school resumes.  [1] Palmer, Elisabeth A. and Bemis, Amy E., \u201cYear-Round Education\u201d, University of Minnesota College of Education, 24th October 2000."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro07a","title":"","text":"More efficient use of school resources and premises.  Year-round schooling often goes hand in hand with multi-tracking, where different groups of students at the same school are on different schedules. This has the advantage of allowing school rooms, facilities and other resources to be used more efficiently, thus providing a better education without putting even more strain on government budgets. [1]  [1] \u201cYear Round Education Program Guide\u201d, California Department of Education, 25th July 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro01b","title":"","text":"In actual fact, the evidence on year-round schooling is inconclusive, with other studies suggesting that there is no educational benefit from holding classes year-round [1] .  Indeed, you could argue that some students prefer to concentrate the bulk of their learning into a shorter time frame and leave time for a long summer break to take their minds off school for a while.  [1] Ohio State University, \u201c Year-round Schools Don't Boost Learning, Study Finds\u201d. Science Daily, August 14th 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro05b","title":"","text":"It is certainly true that children from disadvantaged families do not do as well as their luckier peers, but it is not clear why changing the pattern of school attendance will change this. The overall proportion of the year spent away from school will not change, so there is no reason to believe that year-round schooling will benefit students whose homes and families do not provide a positive learning environment [1] .  [1] Newland, Christopher, \u201cLetter to Auburn School Board\u201d, 20th October 1998."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro06b","title":"","text":"This argument is based on the assumption that year-round schooling delivers academic benefits to students. However, as we will see in Opposition argument 6, there is very little evidence for this. Without concrete evidence that this massive change will deliver real improvements in national educational performance, it will merely divert attention from more pressing problems in our school systems."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro04b","title":"","text":"Again, there is nothing intrinsic to year-round schooling that makes it easier for families with several children. A single mother who struggles with young children will not be any better off having to take care of their children every six weeks instead of six months.  Year-round schooling is unlikely to be applied in exactly the same way in different schools, and different classes or groups of students may well be on different timetables \u2013 thus, parents may find themselves having to take care of children almost year-round rather than having time off, as at present."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro03a","title":"","text":"Reduce social problems from disaffected, bored youth.  The structure of the school year is often one of the few fixed points in young people\u2019s lives. For many children, particularly those from poorer families, long summer holidays don\u2019t mean summer camps and foreign holidays, but day after day sitting in front of the TV or hanging around in their neighbourhood. All the evidence suggests that boredom is a major factor behind social problems like drug use, youth crime and antisocial behaviour. [1]  Year-round schooling would not get rid of problems like these, of course, but it might help to reduce the level of such behaviour by giving young people something to do.  [1] \u201cYouths bored in school holidays\u201d, BBC News, 11th July 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro04a","title":"","text":"Year-round learning can help reduce the burden on parents.  For many parents, particularly those with more than one child, summer vacations can be a stressful and difficult time. Without the structure provided by school attendance, children become bored easily and parents struggle to cope.  This is especially true for mothers who may be bringing up children without a father present, or those who wish to continue or resume their careers after the first few years of motherhood; trying to combine a full-time job with the rigours of motherhood is hard but trying to do so during a three month school holiday is almost impossible. Year-round schooling makes such a work-life balance easier for young parents and allows women to return to the workplace on their own terms. [1]  [1] Schulte, Brigid, \u201cThe Case For Year-Round School\u201d, Washington Post, June 7th 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-con03b","title":"","text":"Year-round schooling would necessitate a change in the way extra-curricular activities are structured, not a reduction in such hobbies. Shorter breaks of two or three weeks are more than sufficient for most extra-curricular activities and by spreading them throughout the year, instead of ring-fencing them into a couple of summer months, their beneficial impact might well be greater.  If year-round schooling reduces the necessity to send students for extra tuition, as is common in some countries, then this should be considered a positive benefit of the change, not a problem. Families whose children are being educated year-round will have less reason to spend their hard-earned money on expensive and often unnecessary private classes."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-con01b","title":"","text":"Year-round schooling doesn\u2019t place extra burdens on students; the whole point is that it reduces the stress and strain of school life by allowing learning to take place at a gentler pace that is dictated more by the needs of students than the timetable. Holidays of two or three weeks are plenty of time to recharge the batteries for another few weeks of school. Children will be better off mentally and psychologically if year-round schooling is introduced."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-con02a","title":"","text":"Imposes extra costs on education system.  Many schools are simply not set up for year-round use. In particular, most schools are not air-conditioned and often use older, poorly-ventilated buildings and classrooms. In many parts of the world, opening schools during summer would either involve expensive retrofitting and renovation, or sweltering hot classrooms with distracted children. There would also be increased overheads and costs associated with year-round catering, security, heating and administration. [1]  [1] Richmond, Emily. \u201cYear Round School Could Face Calendar Shift\u201d, Las Vegas Sun, 16th March 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-con03a","title":"","text":"Damaging to extra-curricular activities.  A lot of extra-curricular activities take place during summer holidays. Summer camps, trips abroad - even debating competitions. Summer holidays are a sensible time to hold such activities, partly due to the weather but also because different regions or school boards often have different vacation schedules and summer is the only time when students are all likely to have free time. Year-round schooling would reduce the opportunities for such activities.  Some families use long holidays to arrange extra tuition in certain subjects, either as remedial education or to give their children an advantage [1] . Year-round schooling would make it harder for families who wish to exercise this choice, too.  [1] \u201cSummer School\u201d, US Education Commission of the States, 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-con01a","title":"","text":"Places unfair burden on students.  Many children don\u2019t enjoy school. Even those who do still look forward to summer holidays as a time when they can relax and stop worrying about work for a while. And for some students, school life is difficult in other ways \u2013 social awkwardness or bullying being a common problem. Taking away summer holidays would mean that students have to work hard year-round, and short small breaks don\u2019t offer the chance to relax as a proper summer holiday does. For those who dislike school, year-round schooling would mean year-round stress and unhappiness. [1]  [1] \u201cAcademic Performance Top Cause Of Teen Stress\u201d, Associated Press, 23rd August 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-education-sthwiyrs-con02b","title":"","text":"Year-round schooling will increase costs in some areas but more than offset these with efficiency savings in other areas (see argument 7, above). It makes no sense for buildings to sit idle for a third of the year.  As for the argument about air-conditioning, this is only an issue in some countries round the world; in many others it would not be an issue."}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro02b","title":"","text":"Journalist Jeremy Shere describes the problems with most methods of nuclear storage:  \"There have been a few other interesting ideas \u2013such as burying nuclear waste beneath the ocean floor. Scientists have also thought about putting waste in really deep holes, burying it in polar ice sheets, and stashing it beneath uninhabited islands. [...] But there are problems with each of these ideas. For example, it would be difficult to monitor nuclear waste under the ocean floor. Waste buried deep in the earth, meanwhile, might contaminate ground water. And as ice sheets continue to melt, it\u2019s hard to say how long nuclear waste would remain buried, or where it would end up if it floated away. Plans to store waste produced in the United States in Yucca Mountain, in Utah, have been put on hold. So for now almost all nuclear waste is kept above ground in special containers at a few hundred different sites around the country.\u201d1  The point with underground nuclear storage is that geological conditions are often very different between states and regions; this would often mean that in some states underground nuclear storage would be completely inappropriate because it could leak due to geological changes. Further, underground nuclear storage as mentioned in the first opposition counter-argument, actively encourages a state to become reliant on nuclear power.  Shere, Jeremy. \u201cWhat Is The Best Way To Dispose Of Nuclear Waste?\u201d Moment of Science. 23\/03\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro02a","title":"","text":"Underground nuclear storage is safer than any available alternative  Underground nuclear waste storage means that nuclear waste is stored at least 300m underground.  The harm of a leak 300m underground is significantly limited, if the area has been chosen correctly then there should be no water sources nearby to contaminate. If this is the case, then a leak\u2019s harm would be limited to the layers of sediment nearby which would be unaffected by radiation. By comparison a leak outside might lead to animals nearby suffering from contamination. Further nuclear waste might reach water sources should there be a leak above ground, if it is raining heavily when the leak happens for example.  Further, the other options available, such as above ground storage present a potentially greater danger, should something go wrong. This is because it is much easier for nuclear waste to leak radiation into the air. This is problematic because even a hint of radiation may well cause people to panic owing to the damaging and heavily publicised consequences of previous nuclear safety crises. As such, underground storage is safer both directly and indirectly.1  As well as this, underground storage also prevents nuclear waste or nuclear radiation from reaching other states and as such, results in greater safety across borders.2  Further, storing all nuclear waste underground means that countries can concentrate their research and training efforts on responding to subterranean containment failures. Focus and specialisation of this type is much more likely to avert a serious release of nuclear material from an underground facility than the broad and general approach that will be fostered by diverse and distinct above-ground storage solutions.  \u201cFukushima is a triumph for nuclear power.\u201d The Register. 20\/02\/2010   \u201cEU Debates Permanent Storage For Nuclear Waste.\u201d 04\/11\/2010 AboutMyPlanet."}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro01a","title":"","text":"Storing nuclear waste underground is necessary - there are no better option available  Even states without nuclear waste programs tend to generate radioactive waste. For example, research and medicine both use nuclear material and nuclear technology. Technologies such as Medical imaging equipment are dependent and the use of radioactive elements. This means that all states produce levels of nuclear waste that need to be dealt with.  Moreover, many non-nuclear states are accelerating their programmes of research and investment into nuclear technologies. With the exception of Germany, there is an increasing consensus among developed nations that nuclear power is the only viable method of meeting rising domestic demand for energy in the absence of reliable and efficient renewable forms of power generation.  The alternatives to putting nuclear waste in underground storage tend to be based around the reuse of nuclear waste in nuclear power stations. Whilst this is viable in some areas, in countries which lack the technology to be able to do this and in countries which don\u2019t need to rely on nuclear power, this option becomes irrelevant. Further, even this process results in the creation of some nuclear waste, so in countries with the technology to implement such a solution, the disposal of the remaining nuclear waste is still an issue.  As such, underground nuclear storage is a necessary method that should be used to dispose of nuclear waste. 1  1. \u201cThe EU\u2019s deep underground storage plan.\u201d 03\/11\/2010. World Nuclear News."}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro01b","title":"","text":"Underground nuclear storage is not the only way to store nuclear material. Economically speaking, it is more expensive, but likely much safer to store nuclear waste above ground in facilities that can be easily monitored and dealt with. Unlike in underground storage facilities, should something go wrong above ground, it can be responded to quickly and efficiently and it is likely that problems will be detected earlier as well.  Further, widely implementing underground nuclear storage would also encourage states to be more cavalier with their nuclear energy policies. Specifically, whilst nuclear energy generation may result in zero carbon emissions, the mining and milling of uranium that initially starts the process is environmentally damaging.1  ISN Security Watch. \u201cEurope\u2019s Nuclear Waste Storage Problems.\u201d Oilprice.com 01\/06\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-con03b","title":"","text":"Integral Fast Reactors are not a solution for the short term. There are currently no Integral Fast Reactors in commercial operation and the research reactor that was to be constructed by the United States was canceled in 1994. Any attempt to use IFRs to recycle all of the world\u2019s nuclear waste would be very expensive and would not be an immediate solution \u2013 the waste would need to be stored somewhere while it waits to be used by the new reactors."}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-con01b","title":"","text":"The economic costs of underground storage are high. However, given that nuclear power is necessary to avoid what would likely be a very significant amount of economic harm, specifically from global warming. For example, it has been projected that not doing anything to address climate change would result in an overall increase in temperate of 5 degrees Celsius which would lead to economic costs in the order of $74 trillion. This means that the need for nuclear waste storage is inevitable.1  As such, whilst underground storage does cost more than alternate options, it is as mentioned within the proposition case the safest and most reliable method of nuclear waste storage. As such, proposition is willing to take the harm of extra cost in order to prevent harm to people\u2019s health and well being.  Ackerman, Frank. Stanton, Elizabeth. \u201cClimate Change \u2013the Costs of Inaction.\u201d Friend of the Earth. 11\/10\/2006"}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-con02a","title":"","text":"Nuclear waste can be put to beneficial uses  France is the largest nuclear energy producer in the world. It generates 80% of its electricity from nuclear power. 1 It is very important to note, therefore, that it does not rely on underground nuclear waste storage. Instead, it relies on above ground, on-site storage. This kind of storage combined with heavy reprocessing and recycling of nuclear waste, makes underground storage unnecessary. 2  As such it seems logical that in most western liberal democracies that are able to reach the same level of technological progress as France, it makes more sense to store nuclear waste above ground. Above ground, checks and balances can be put into place that allow the maintenance of these nuclear storage facilities to be monitored more closely. Furthermore, reprocessing and recycling leads to less wasted Uranium overall. This is important as Uranium, whilst being plentiful in the earth, is often difficult to mine and mill. As such, savings here often significantly benefit things such as the environment and lower the economic cost of the entire operation.  Palfreman, Jon. \u201cWhy the French Like Nuclear Energy.\u201d PBS.   BBC News, \u2018France nuclear power funding gets 1bn euro boost\u2019, 27 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-con03a","title":"","text":"Nuclear waste can be used in other forms of power generation  There are new kinds of nuclear reactor such as \u2018Integral Fast Reactors\u2019, which can be powered by the waste from normal nuclear reactors (or from uranium the same as any other nuclear reactor). This means that the waste from other reactors or dismantled nuclear weapons could be used to power these new reactors. The Integral Fast Reactor extends the ability to produce energy roughly by a factor of 100. This would therefore be a very long term energy source.1  The waste at the end of the process is not nearly as much of a problem, as it is from current reactors. Because the IFR recycles the waste hundreds of times there is very much less waste remaining and what there is has a much shorter half-life, only tens of years rather than thousands. This makes storage for the remainder much more feasible, as there would be much less space required.2  Till, Charles, \u2018Nuclear Reaction Why DO Americans Fear Nuclear Power\u2019, PBS,   Monbiot, George, \u2018We need to talk about Sellafield, and a nuclear solution that ticks all our boxes\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 5 December 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-con01a","title":"","text":"Underground nuclear storage is excessively expensive  Underground nuclear storage is expensive. This is because the deep geological repositories needed to deal with such waste are difficult to construct. This is because said repositories need to be 300m underground and also need failsafe systems so that they can be sealed off should there be a leak. For smaller countries, implementing this idea is almost completely impossible.  Further, the maintenance of the facilities also requires a lot of long term investment as the structural integrity of the facilities must consistently be monitored and maintained so that if there is a leak, the relevant authorities can be informed quickly and efficiently.  This is seen with the Yucca mountain waste repository site which has cost billions of dollars since the 1990s and was eventually halted due to public fears about nuclear safety.1  ISN Security Watch. \u201cEurope\u2019s Nuclear Waste Storage Problems.\u201d Oilprice.com 01\/06\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-education-uehwsnwu-con02b","title":"","text":"Side proposition supports the reuse of nuclear waste; however, it also believes that the remaining nuclear waste left by the process should be stored underground.  This is because, the nuclear waste created from such a recycling process ends up being more concentrated and dangerous radioactively than normal nuclear waste. As such, storage above ground is incredibly dangerous if there is a leak. By comparison, storing the waste underground leaves 300m of sediment between the waste and the air. As such, the chances of the waste reaching a water source or causing panic are reduced as detailed in the proposition substantive. Further, even if there is a leak, the facilities can often be sealed off to prevent this from happening.1  \u201cNuclear Waste Faces uncertain future in Europe.\u201d The Nuclear N Former. 2\/11\/2010"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro02b","title":"","text":"Sexual identity is confusing in any situation. It becomes even more confusing when one is exposed to sex education and the broad spectrum of sexual preference and practice before one is emotionally equipped to understand and appreciate it. Understanding one\u2019s sexual identity is an exploration that must be pursued at one\u2019s own pace, not at the rate mandated from the state or school. Children mature physically and emotionally at very different rates and mandatory sex education which offers the information and the emotional guidance at the same rate to everyone is not well tailored to the different development rates. [1]  [1] Measor et al, Young People\u2019s Views on Sex Education, 2000"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro02a","title":"","text":"A safe framework for understanding sexuality and sexual identity are essential to human existence  Sex and sexual identity is fundamental part of human life. Sexual desire, for both procreation and recreation, forms one of the core human drives that shapes behaviour. [1] Young people want to explore their own, and one another\u2019s, bodies from quite an early age, long before they would be likely to settle down and get married. Sex for almost everyone in Western countries is not something exclusive to marriage, and most people have multiple sexual partners in their lifetimes. In order to face this reality, young people must be armed with the knowledge of what sexual intercourse entails and the pleasures and the risks inherent in it. [2] Sexual identity itself can be very confusing, especially for young homosexual or transgender people who may not understand their sexuality. A safe, objective environment in which the objective physical facts and the emotional aspects of sexual involvement and activity is provided is essential to facilitate young people to come to grips with sexual identity as it is essential for full development as a person.  [1] Weeks, Sexual Politics and Society, 1981. Mort, Dangerous Sexualities, 1987  [2] Blake, Teenage Sex, 2003"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro03b","title":"","text":"Parents know their children better than anyone. They know what s\/he is like, and in what environment s\/he will grow up and often live. The state is not infallible and its decisions are not purely objective. When children are not adequately mature for sex education, parents must have the ability to make the decision on their behalf to withhold information that could be potentially damaging to their future development. As to homophobic or bigoted families, such views are considered to be socially acceptable insofar as people have the right to express such views. This does not, however, give parents license to abuse their children if they have alternative sexual preferences. Sex education is not necessary to ensure against abuse, that is the purview of law enforcement."}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sex education provides \u201cImmunization\u201d against sexually transmitted diseases and prevents unwanted pregnancy  It was said at the beginning of the HIV\/AIDS epidemic that the only vaccination against the virus was knowledge. Knowledge about what is out there is essential to guarding the self. There are a several of ways in which this knowledge is essential; finding out about the risks of sex is just one, having accurate information about the pleasures as well as the risks is another. [1] Knowledge also prevents misinformation.  Young people must be informed about sex, how it works and what the risks associated with it are, and how to access the risks and the pleasures. When sex is not talked about and kept behind closed doors, young people are forced often to grope around in the dark, so to speak. This can result in unwanted pregnancies, and even STDs, some of which can be permanent, a threat to fertility or even life threatening. IT leaves young people confused. [2] The state thus owes an obligation to its citizens to prepare them adequately for their interactions in society, including those of a sexual nature.  A mandatory sex education regime serves as a defence against misinformation about sex. Religious organizations, most notably in the United States, promote abstinence by lying about the effectiveness of contraception and about the transmission of STDs. [3] When such activity is not countered by a scientific explanation of sex and sexual practices a culture of ignorance develops that can have serious negative social and health effects on those who are misinformed. An example of the benefits of sex education is highlighted in the case of the United States. In primarily liberal states where sex education is mandatory, young people are statistically more likely to be sexually active. At the same time in states where sex education is banned or deliberately misleading, teen pregnancy rates are much higher. [4] Clearly the trade-off between high promiscuity rates on the one hand and much higher rates of teen pregnancy and STDs on the other stands in the favour of sex education.  Young people live now in a society which is very sexualised [5] it has been described as a carnal jungle. Adults need to offer guidance about negotiating a way through the messages about sex which proliferate in the mass media and consumer culture. [6] Underlying this discussion is controversy about what sex education should be. Sex education has become a shorthand term for the broader subject of personal relationships , sexual health and education about sexuality [7] it is clear that views about what sex education should be and what it should contain has changed significantly over time. [8]  High quality sex education should not only contain factual information about the physiological issues of sexual development and reproduction. It should also offer safe spaces for young people to consider the social and emotional aspects of sexuality and the social and peer pressures that arise in youth cultures.  [1] Sex Education Forum, Teaching about contraception, 1997  [2] Trudell, Doing Sex Education, 1993  [3] Mombiot, Joy of Sex Education, 2004  [4] NPR et al, Sex Education in America, 2004  [5] Roberts, Too young to unwrap a condom, 2998  [6] Sachs et al, How adolescents see the media, 1991. Moore and Rosenthal, Sex roles, 1990. Jackson, Childhood Sexuality, 1982.  [7] Mayock et al, Relationships and Sexual Education in the Context of Social, Personal and Health Education, 2007, P.20  [8] Reiss, What are the aims of school sex education, 1990"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro01b","title":"","text":"Sex education is not necessary to protect children from disease and unwanted pregnancy. Young people can be informed of the dangers of sex without sex education. Besides, if enough people are versed extensively in sex education they should provide sufficient herd immunity that the minority who object on ethical grounds can abstain from sex education without negatively effecting the overall amount of safe sexual practices in a society."}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro04b","title":"","text":"Sex education does not benefit conservative communities as sex education is not simply a provider of information. Rather, it entails at best an acknowledgement that kids will have sex regardless of what they are told, and at worst a positive endorsement of sexual activity. It is a shameful abrogation of responsibility on the part of adults to essentially allow children to make bad decisions. Sex education encourages students to make a choice, meaning more will make the wrong one. [1] Teaching children about sex will necessarily make them more prone to experimentation, and will likely cause them to view their peers in school in a sexualized context, leading to less focus in the classroom on study, and more on sex. Conservative and religious households have every reason to fear such developments.  [1] Pogany, Sex Smart, 1998"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro03a","title":"","text":"Parents cannot be guaranteed to provide a suitable amount of sex education  Parents have a great deal of responsibility in raising children, but they are unsuited to teaching about sexuality as the resulting education will not be consistent, be biased and in some cases may not be carried out at all. Parents tend to view their children as less sexualized; they want them to be innocent. Thus it is often the case that parents seek to shield their children from the realities of sex, and themselves from the young person\u2019s developing sexuality maintaining their innocence through enforced ignorance. This tends to be particularly harmful to young women, as culturally boys are often expected to be more sexually active than girls, and such activity is usually considered appropriate for boys, while not so for girls. A double standard undoubtedly continues to exist. [1] It is in the interest of the state, however, to produce well-rounded individuals who can interact with society effectively on all levels, including the sexual level. When parents do not provide adequate sex education, it is the state that is forced to pick up the tab to pay for STD treatment and teen mothers. People dropping out of school due to pregnancy, and individuals who are unable to work due to debilitating venereal disease impose a steep cost on society. It is thus the state\u2019s duty to provide what parents often cannot for the sake of society as a whole. [2]  Leaving sex education in the hands of parents has the further negative impact of normalizing incorrect or bigoted views regarding sexuality. Homophobic families, for example, will not be able to provide the necessary information to homosexual children, who will suffer not only from lack of education, but also from a lack of sexual self-worth. [3] Mandatory sex education can right the wrongs of such misinformation and bias.  [1] Lees, Sugar and Spice, 1993  [2] Ciardullo, Moving towards a new paradigm, 2007  [3] Galliano, Sex Education Will Help Gay Children, 2009"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-pro04a","title":"","text":"Even religious and conservative communities will benefit from mandatory sex education  sexual activity and lewd behavior, as religious groups fear, because everything in life is already sexualized. One need only watch a typical perfume ad on television to know that sexuality inculcates popular culture already. Sex education would not lift the scales from the eyes of children entirely; they already have some idea of what is going on. The danger is when they know something about sex, but not enough to be safe. That is why mandatory sex education is essential to people\u2019s wellbeing.  The research evidence from across the world is clear that sex education holds back the age of first intercourse and most certainly does not foster early promiscuity. [3] The abstinence programmes that have been developed in the united states in particular have been spectacularly unsuccessful in reducing rates of sexual exploration and STD and unwanted pregnancy rates. [4] Research has made it clear which kinds of sex education are most effective. [5]  [1] Reiss and Mabud, Sex education and Religion, 1998  [2] Blake, Teenage Sex, 2003  [3] Boethius, Swedish sex education and its results, 1984. Swedish National Board of Education, Sex Education in Swedish Schools, 1986.  [4] Oakley et al, Sexual health education interventions for young people, 1995  [5] Kirby et al, School Based Programmes to reduce sexual risk taking behaviour, 1992"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con03b","title":"","text":"While certainly there should always be room for self-exploration in sexuality, a set mandatory curriculum is essential to understanding the basics of sex and offering opportunity to consider the emotional and social aspects of it in the cultures of young people. [1] It is unfortunate that some students may feel unprepared to undergo sex education, but the value of the information outweighs any potential discomfort. Certainly there is nothing so scarring about the nature of sex that someone who is a bit immature cannot handle with some effort. We need also to have some confidence in the abilities and sensitivities of our teaching professionals to be able to respond with effective sensitivity to the different needs of their students in the classroom situation. This means that we need properly trained teachers to be delivering sex education and teachers themselves have asked for this to be the case.  The research evidence does make it clear that young people are at varying stages of maturity when they are at the same chronological age. Young men may lag behind young women and act with considerable immaturity in sex education lessons. [2] The effective answer to this may be to offer single sex lessons in sex education rather than removing the opportunity for sex education from all young people.  [1] Thomson, Unholy Alliances, 1993  [2] Measor et al. Young People\u2019s Views on Sex Education, 2000"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con01b","title":"","text":"Parents do not always know best, particularly when it comes to sex education. Parents cannot be trusted to instruct children effectively in sex education because they themselves are often uneducated in the matter and have personal biases regarding the subject. [1] Often they will not understand the finer points of contraception and STDs, things that have each changed substantially in the past few decades, with things like the morning after pill becoming readily available in many countries, and diseases like Chlamydia much more prevalent in populations than they were in past generations. [2] Parents\u2019 ignorance may thus misinform children to their detriment. The parent may not understand their child best preventing their children from ever developing a meaningful understanding of their sexuality. Such is the problem for gay children raised in homes that say being gay is sinful and unnatural. [3] With the only authority figure on the subject he knows telling him he is defective, a gay child is left to suffer and wallow in self-loathing.  [1] Farrell, My mother said\u2026, 1978. Frankham, Not under my roof, 1992. Measor et al, Young People\u2019s Views on Sex Education, 2000.  [2] Blake, Teenage Sex, 2003  [3] Galliano, Sex Education Will Help Gay Children, 2009"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con02a","title":"","text":"Sex education damages the education system  Sex education damages the education system by confusing the children and by alienating some parents. When children receive mixed signals from home and at school they can suffer real confusion. When parents tell their children that the teacher is wrong about sex, it causes the student to raise his mental defences toward the school thereafter and become less engaged in the process of education. [1] Children will be told by their parents, and will thus come to believe, that the school is promoting a liberal view that is fundamentally contrary to their own. For example, a Muslim girl will find schooling a horrific and alienating experience if she is forced to attend a sex education class that conflicts with her faith as this will be clashing with what she has been taught at home. This will alienate the parents of these children who hold the view that discussion of sex in such a framework is morally repugnant.  [1] Pogany, Sex Smart, 1998"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con04a","title":"","text":"The state has had no historical role in sex education to no ill effect, so should it develop one now.  Sexuality should not be within the purview of the state. The state maintains order and security and provides essential services. Sex education does not fall within its responsibility. Sexuality is for many people deeply personal and should be respected as such; young people should be allowed to explore their sexuality independently and with the guidance of family, not under the watching eye of the state. [1] Sex education programs reduce sexuality to biology and fail to adequately address the emotional elements of sexuality in a way that is not seen as a joke by often-immature students. Inevitably teachers\u2019 personal opinions on sexuality will bleed into their teaching, as will that of the state officials that set the teaching standards for the subject. In this way there is always a normative judgment in sex education that will be seen as the state mandating certain sexual behaviour and practice. This fundamentally attacks the rights of individuals to develop their mode of sexual expression independent of the nanny state\u2019s instruction and can irrevocably harm peoples\u2019 sexual identity.  [1] Lord, Condom Nation, 2009"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con03a","title":"","text":"Sexual development is a process of gradual discovery and cannot be effectively taught in a classroom  Having a one size fits all sex education system cannot effectively deal differences within classes. Sexual experience is a gradual process and cannot be meaningfully taught in the structured environment of the classroom. People must discover much about their own sexuality, through experimentation and self-exploration. By trying to impose a strict curriculum that explains sexual processes and practices along set guidelines, much of the opportunity for self-discovery is lost. Furthermore, when people are forced to conform to the set sex education program, they cannot move at their own pace. This is particularly harmful to people who are physically or emotionally less mature than their fellow students and who would be better served if they were allowed to pursue sexual knowledge at their own pace. When other students are involved in the classroom, there is necessarily a degree of peer pressure, which places a further strain on the later bloomers of the class to conform and experiment sexually before they are ready. [1] Another example is the case of gay and gender dimorphic students who will be left isolated within the class, even singled out as different, in a way that may not be conducive toward the promotion of understanding and acceptance. Teachers cannot cater their lessons to every single student, and thus students with less conventional sexual preferences and identities are left without meaningful engagement in the classroom.  [1] Pogany, Sex Smart, 1998"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con01a","title":"","text":"Parents should have the final choice in sex education for their children  Parents are the ones who are responsible for their children and they know what is best for their own. Parents are the people who best know their children; they live with them, feed them, understand them, and know how and when is best to broach the topic of sex with their children. Parents are in a very real way the shapers of children\u2019s psyche and development, so their input on a central moral and physical issue such as this must be respected. It is a myth that somehow parents lacks the capacity to deal with an issue like sex. Rather, they are the best suited to it. The fact is that children generally listen to their parents, or at least consider seriously what they are told by them. Furthermore, parents are more capable than teachers, in light of their intimate relationship with their children, to discuss the emotional aspects of sex and relationships, topics that would become jokes in the classroom and the subject of ribald humour. [1] It is better to leave sex education in the hands of parents who can apply the delicate touch.  [1] Pogany, Sex Smart, 1998. Measor et al. Young People\u2019s Views on Sex Education, 2000. Woodcock et al., All these contraceptives, videos and that\u2026, 1992. Kehily and Nayak, Lads and Laughter, 1997."}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con04b","title":"","text":"This argument is based on a particular view of the state and its role in society.it is a view of the state which is particularly innocent of and which fails to acknowledge the range of cultural messages relating to society and sexuality [1] which are broadcast hegemonically although not entirely openly by the state. [2] The state does have a role in sex education. It has taken an ever more holistic view of young citizens, and this is reflected in schools whose remit stretches not just to the academic education of students, but to the preparation of young people for the full spectrum of activities and responsibilities they will face in adult life. Sexual interaction is a fundamental part of that life. Schools have evolved far beyond the provision of skill in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and this should be reflected in such programs as sex education. The state does not in mandating sex education make any normative judgment regarding sexual practices, but rather provides the necessary information and the space to consider the emotional and social issues involved to make informed choices about sex.  [1] Plummer, Sexual Cultures, Communities, Values and Intimacy, 1996  [2] Foucault, Studies in governmentality, 1979. Throughgood, Sex Education as Social Control, 1992"}
+{"id":"validation-education-shwmsems-con02b","title":"","text":"A disagreement over sex education will not alienate someone, whether child or parent, from the entire education system. Students can differentiate between contentious aspects of education like sex education and the general education over which parents, teachers, and state do not disagree. Both parents and teachers will be able to explain the reasons for the difference in teaching in cases where the student is taught different things at home and in school. Saying that just because one issue is contentious all of education is ruined is merely alarmist."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro02b","title":"","text":"States should not be overly concerned with size as a measure of strength since this is merely increasing the area that needs defending. Instead they should be concerned with having common sense of identity that encourages cooperation. Russia, Nigeria and India are examples of large federated states which suffer from internal insurgencies caused by political grievances.1 The Democratic Republic of the Congo is an excellent example of a large federated state which has proven incapable of defending its borders.2 It may be the case a common identity is better formed in independent nation states. Smaller states like Monaco and Singapore continue to exist with relative security in contrast. 1 AlertNet, 2011, 'Bin Laden death weakens Russia insurgency- official,' The Washington Post, 2006, 'Grievances Fuel Insurgency, Says Nigeria Media 'Inside the Maoist insurgency in India's Jharkand state', BBC News  2 BBC , 2010, 'Inside the Maoist insurgency in India's Jharkand State"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro02a","title":"","text":"Federal states are better able to protect their citizens.  Federal states allow local decision making to suit local needs due to their tiered decision making structures. This ensures that citizens are able to determine how they should live their lives without infringing upon the rights of citizens in other federal units who may have different opinions. However on security matters which affect the entire federal state, citizens are better protected because the federal units are stronger together than apart. A federal state also creates a common sense of purpose than can dissuade conflict between the federal units. A good historical example of this behaviour was the agreement of the Swiss Cantons to come together to collectively protect and enrich themselves from outside threats in 1848.1 1 History of Switzerland, 'Switzerland's History,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro03b","title":"","text":"It is true that there are few states which include homogenous national groups. However, there are some (Iceland and Japan for example) but there are many states which are predominantly a single \"nation.\" And given that proposition has accepted that nations are constructed, it is possible for people to opt-into nationhood. Thus autonomous nation states can exist where groups of people agree to live with common cultural and political values. Therefore, it is not futile to attempt to accommodate a common set of political values within a state. Indeed, it is necessary to have some kind of common history, culture, practices or ethnicity often to bind groups together.1 1 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010, 'Federalism,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro01a","title":"","text":"Federal states are economically stronger  Federal states are able to remove trade barriers between members which would otherwise exist if there were independent states (such as difficulties in moving goods due to borders). This increases internal trade and economic growth and encourages investors.1 Federal units are able to share resources and concentrate on producing what they are best at (called comparative advantage) at a better economy of scale. Even in cases of agreed free trade areas between states, there is no overarching authority to ensure timely compliance to agreements.2Finally, larger economic units are more able to influence international trade regimes.3 1 EU Business, 2007, 'EU Single Market- benefits,' Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, 2007, 'Guide to Benefits of the EU,' 2 BBC , 2011, 'US and Mexico end cross-border trucking dispute 3 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010, 'Federalism"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro01b","title":"","text":"Free trade areas are able to operate quite successfully even if they lack an overarching authority and full integration of currencies, such as NAFTA.1 Economic homogenisation is not necessarily a good thing. Common currencies are best deployed in Optimal Currency Area, which are areas with sufficiently similar economies that a common currency can successfully function. Problems exist where there is a lack of political capital between nations in a federation or when there are logistical barriers (such as the different languages within the EU or the differing strength of public finances).2 There is no reason why federal states are required for comparative advantage to exist, though economies of scale could be less. 1 Office of the United States Trade Representative, 2004, 'NAFTA: A Decade of Success,' . 2 Wikipedia , 2011, 'Optimal Currency Are"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro04b","title":"","text":"In most cases parts of federated states remain in similar economic positions relative to other sections. California and Texas are regularly the most economically successful US states. Rather than receive economic benefit, they have federal taxes transferred to the weakest performing states in the Union. A similar argument is apparent with the German bailouts in the 2010-11 Eurozone financial crisis.1 1 The Economist, 2011, 'America's Fiscal Union: Greek Americans,' The Economist, 2011, 'German business and politics: Goodbye to Berlin,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro03a","title":"","text":"Nationally homogenous states are rare and most states have local differences  It is not clear what the logical end point for splitting countries over political differences would be. Since each individual has a unique set of preferences, or at least there are large numbers of groups of people with different preferences, the state must aggregate preferences at some point. It makes more sense for the state to aggregate preferences in such a way that creates effective states that can meet their (aggregate) goals rather than attempting to find \"pure\" nation states. Furthermore, nations are often scattered in areas which do not provide a clear location for a state. An example of this is Eastern Europe or Africa where ethnic groups and tribes regularly cross state boundaries and exist as unconnected pockets.1 It would be impossible to create states to cater to these groups. 1 Guardian, 2007, 'Biafran Lessons,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro04a","title":"","text":"Being a federal state helps large states deal with divergent economic performance  Federal states tend to be larger and have different economic cycles. This allows the overall state to cope with different economic cycles by using fiscal transfers (tax) between wealthier states and poorer states to fund government programmes.1 So for example if Mississippi and New Mexico were paying for all their services themselves from their own taxes they would have debts of over 500% of GDP,2however at the beginning of the Republic it was the Southern States who were the richest due to their cotton wealth. 1 Euro Economics, 'Example: Fiscal Transfer 2 The Economist, 2011, 'America's Fiscal Union: Greek Americans,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con03b","title":"","text":"Often decisions are forced on states by powerful neighbours. Examples include the South African policy of dumping crops in neighbouring states, Russia's brief war with Georgia and the United States' treatment of Latin America.1 Under the proposition they at least have the ability to influence and challenge decisions that are being made.2 There are also the comparative benefits of being within the federal state, detailed in the Proposition section. 1 'A Good neighbour? South Africa forcing GM maize onto African markets and policy makersACB Briefing Paper p. 14 'The Russia-Georgia war, three years onThe Economist 'Bullying Latin AmericaQuarterly Americas 2 'FederalismSection 3.1, Stanford"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con01b","title":"","text":"The comparative situation is that of a resource rich region being surrounded by aggressive neighbours which desire its resources. Weak states are usually incapable of defending their borders and thus fall victim to invasion and occupation (such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo).1 Long term control by a federal state is preferable to repeated violence and conflict as outside forces move in and out of the region. Moreover, being part of a federal state ensures that there is only one party attempting to control the region rather than multiple competing governments which are likely to bring long term violence. Finally, there is the other side to the opposition's case. By being part of a federal state, there is international pressure for members of that resource rich federal unit to have something in return and for their state to adequately look after them. 1 Consultancy Africa Intelligence, 2010, 'Security Situation in the DRC: A case of a weak state leaning on the UN,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con02a","title":"","text":"Independent States can suit their populations.  Firstly, Federal states involve compromise between different parties in order to reach proposals which can be acceptable to all members of the federation. This often means that states are forced to compromise on important issues. An example of this is Abortion in the USA.1 Often, in order to protect minorities, voting is skewed towards smaller federal units (for example the US Senate with two Senators per state, regardless of population). This does not fulfil the principles of equal democratic representation. Such an issue exists to far less a degree in independent states, which can be more homogenous in preferences and more reflective of local needs.2 Moreover, given that it is unlikely that any state has chosen the appropriate position of compromise, all federal units will end up with a policy which is sub-optimal for them. Secondly, Federal arrangements tend to be complex, inhibiting transparency as vested interests at different levels of government defend their spheres.2 1 USA Today, 2010, 'Abortion deal helps ensure enough votes for health care,' 2 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010, 'Federalism,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con04a","title":"","text":"Federal States often have persistent losers.  Within federal states, some federal units are often persistently weaker within the state that others and thus have to repeatedly accommodate (this links to the argument above).1 In countries such as Nigeria, resource rich parts of the country are consistently used by the rest of the country as a source of wealth with insufficient investment in return.2 1 Centre for European Economic Research, 2011, 'Poor States, Rich Federal Government- Winners and Losers of the Emissions Trading Scheme,' Houseofnames.com, 'German Unification,' 2 Tai Ejibunu, Hassan. 'Nigeria's Niger Delta Crisis: Root Causes of Peacelessness.' European University Center for Peace Studies Research Papers. 07. 2007."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con03a","title":"","text":"Federal governments often extend their powers and usurp local authority, especially if one or more federal units are disproportionately powerful.  The proposition arguments repeatedly rely on the federal state being limited in strength enough to allow local differences and choices. However, historically, federal states have moved to extend their control from the centre often with the justification of necessity. Both the USA and Russia are examples of this trend.1 In the USA, debates about overstretch of federal control are numerous and time consuming. This argument is especially likely if one or a group of federal units are significantly stronger than the other unit, for example the Kingdom of Prussia in the 1871 German Union. In this case, Prussia was able to use its financial strength and size to eventually dominate the Union and control the other federal units.2 1 Garratt , Thomas and Rhine, Russell. 'On the Size and Growth of Government.' Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review. 88 (1). 2006. World Savvy, 2008, 'Centralization of Power in Modern Russia,' 2 Houseofnames.com, 'German Unification,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con01a","title":"","text":"It is harder to deal with internal repression than the invasion of another sovereign state.  Federal states offer convenient guises for the exploitation of resource rich areas or areas of strategic importance. The Niger Delta is used by the Nigerian government to provide oil wealth that is insufficiently invested in the Delta leading to insurgencies1. The Nigerian government is able to remove international pressure to reform by allying itself with UN principles of non-intervention in sovereign states which is only rarely overridden in cases of serious, systemic and widespread human rights abuses when 'all peaceful means have failed'.2 In reality, this gives government's considerable leeway to commit abuses within their own territory. If the Niger Delta were a separate country, there would be much more political capital to ensure it was appropriately treated and a stronger legal basis to hold Nigeria to account. 1 Tai Ejibunu, Hassan. 'Nigeria's Niger Delta Crisis: Root Causes of Peacelessness.' European University Center for Peace Studies Research Papers. 07. 2007. 2 United Nations, 'An Agenda for Peace: Preventative Diplomacy, peacemaking and peace-making,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con04b","title":"","text":"This point ignores the fact that weak federal units would make weak states unable to protect their interests anyway. Mississippi would have very little global influence if it were not in the USA. Within the USA it gains the benefit of collective bargaining. Weaker federal units together are more powerful than apart and have the protection of more powerful units in global diplomacy."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con02b","title":"","text":"Compromise is not necessarily a bad thing; it prevents federal units from selecting extreme policies which could harm minority groups.1Moreover, the devolved power structure of federal states means that the decisions which have to be collective are normally in areas of collective interest, for example defence, where there is a \"whole\" which should have preference over individual federal units. Whilst different levels of federal arrangements will have different interests, this reflects their different functions and prevents any one function from being overridden completely. Finally, this argument ignores the comparative which includes the benefits of federation to the constituent units 1 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010, 'Federalism,'"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro02b","title":"","text":"People are not stupid. They will not vote for someone who is using the powers of the executive to enrich himself. Rather, leaders will only be able to stay in power so long as they do what the people want. If leaders are maintaining their power by other means, such as institutionalized corruption and force, it is not because there are no term limits on the leader, but rather because of other fundamental problems of government in those states, in such cases as with Chavez the executive will have enough power simply to override the imposed term limits. [1]  [1] Shifter, Michael. 2011. \u201cIf Hugo Goes\u201d, ForeignPolicy.com, 28th June 2011, Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro02a","title":"","text":"The longer a single leader remains in power, the more entrenched his grip becomes, and the more likely he is to use his office to his personal advantage.  Power has a strong tendency to corrupt; it is highly intoxicating. For this reason, it should not be left in the hands of one person for too long. When a leader is firmly entrenched, he may seek to enrich himself at the expense of the public. He may seek to shower benefices on family and allies in order to maintain and strengthen his powerful position. Without term limits the executive runs the risk of becoming a personal fief, rather than the office of first servant of the people, as it should be. This is seen particularly in parts of the developing world where leaders use state funds to generate electoral support from key groups and to maintain the loyalty of essential supporters. A current example of this is in Venezuela where Hugo Chavez has been able to monopolize power to the point where it is unclear who his successor would be should he die suddenly. [1] Term limits serve to limit the ability of individuals to enact self-aggrandizing policies and to retain power indefinitely. [2] Instead, by maintaining term limits, leaders have only a limited time in power, which tends to shift their focus toward genuinely benefiting the public.  [1] Shifter, Michael. 2011. \u201cIf Hugo Goes\u201d, ForeignPolicy.com, 28th June 2011, Available:   [2] Green, Eric. 2007. \u201cTerm Limits Help Prevent Dictatorships\u201d. America.gov. Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro03b","title":"","text":"Voters will choose the leader they think will do the best job, if this is the incumbent then that is democracy. Election machines and lobby groups may be able to help an incumbent somewhat, but at the end of the day the leader must be able to convince the people that he has done a good job and is still suitable to lead. As to the issue of countries like Zimbabwe, if the people want to keep electing a revolutionary hero, that is their choice. The overruling of election results, as occurred in the most recent Zimbabwean election, however, is not democratic and thus unacceptable for a mature state. Mugabe\u2019s ability to flaunt the will of the people was not due to a lack of term limits, however, but on an inadequate separation of powers inherent in the system. [1] Adding term limits to that system, and indeed any system, will do little to redress imbalances between branches of government. The case of Vladimir Putin is similarly instructive, despite stepping down after his second term, he thereafter took the office of Prime Minister and maintained effective power. Term limits are no barrier to those determined and popular enough to hang on to power.  [1] Jones, Charles and Bruce MacLaury. 1994. The Presidency in a Separated System. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro01a","title":"","text":"The executive branch of government, having no countervailing voices to the leader s\u2019 within it, must be checked by limiting tenancy in office.  Term limits are a necessary check on executive power to prevent an over mighty executive. Whereas the legislature and judiciary are composed of many competing views, with members of various parties and outlooks represented, the executive of a country speaks with a single voice. In legislatures, party leaders are not the sole sources of power, with factions and alternative nexuses of influence forming throughout that branch of government. [1] Executive power, on the other hand, rests solely in the hands of the leader, usually a president. The leader has full power over the policies of the executive branch of government. Cabinets, which form part of the executive in practice, are usually directly answerable to the leader, and ministers can be dismissed if they are uncooperative or dispute the leader\u2019s policies. Even in parliamentary systems, leaders with a majority and a strong party whip can command the same powers as a strong president, if not more. It is thus necessary to have a check on the highly individual power that is the executive. Term limits are the best such check. Term limits allow leaders to enact their policies over a set time period and then usher them out of office. [2] This is essential, because too much power in the hands of a single individual for too long can upset the balance of power in a country and shift power in favour of the executive, thus damaging the protections to society that checks provide. This is exactly what happened in the United Kingdom under Tony Blair where from the start cabinet government virtually disappeared Former Cabinet Secretary Lord Butler said \u201cIn the eight months I was cabinet secretary when Tony Blair was prime minister, the only decision the cabinet took was about the Millennium Dome,\u201d [3] and power continued to be ever more centralized in response to terrorism.  [1] Jones, Charles and Bruce MacLaury. 1994. The Presidency in a Separated System. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.  [2] Chan, Sewell. 2008. \u201cDebating the Pros and Cons of Term Limits\u201d. New York Times. Available:   [3] Press Association. 2007. \u201cBlair cabinet \u2018took one decision in eight months\u2019\u201d, guardian.co.uk, 29th May 2007, Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro01b","title":"","text":"Leaders may have a single view and be the sole centre of power in the executive branch, but that does not mean the leader\u2019s remaining in office will somehow shift power away from the other branches. The separation of powers is constitutionally protected in most countries, and leaders\u2019 powers will be circumscribed by these whether term-limited or not. In the example of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown while Blair was centralizing power in Number 10 Brown at the Treasury always had an independent voice and enough power to prevent the prime minister getting his way on domestic policy."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro04b","title":"","text":"A leader who is term-limited suffers from the effects of being a lame duck. A final term leader will not be able to command the same degree of leverage as one who can potentially serve another term. Furthermore, as to lobby-group support, a leader on the way out who cannot seek another term has an incentive to favour groups and firms that will place him on their boards, a potentially highly lucrative retirement package for leaders, paid for often at the expense of the public."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Term limits check the power of incumbency as an election-winning tool and allow new and energetic leaders and ideas to flourish.  Incumbency provides a huge election advantage. Leaders and politicians generally, almost always win re-election. Such has been the case in the United States, for example, where presidents are almost always re-elected for a second term. Leaders are re-elected because they have better name recognition both with the electorate and with lobby groups. People have a tendency to vote for those who they recognize, and firms tend to support past winners who will likely continue to benefit their interests. This problem has become particularly serious in developing world in which revolutionary leaders from the original independence movements are still politically active. These leaders often command huge followings and mass loyalty, which they use to maintain power in spite of poor decisions and corruption in many cases. Such has been the case in Zimbabwe with Robert Mugabe winning presidential elections in spite of mass corruption and mismanagement. [1] Only recently have the people finally voted against him, but it was too late, as his power had become too entrenched to unseat him. The uphill battle that will always exist to unseat incumbents makes term limits necessary. Countries need new ideas and new leaders to enact them. Old leaders using election machines to retain power do their country a disservice. Power is best used when it changes hands over time in order allow for dynamic new solutions to be mooted in a changing world.  [1] Meredith, Martin. 2003. Mugabe: Power and Plunder in Zimbabwe. Oxford: Oxford University Press."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro04a","title":"","text":"Freeing the executive from re-election concerns can help focus attention on the public interest  A focus of a leader who is looking toward the next election is on getting votes. It is often the case that hard decisions need to be made by leaders, but it is difficult for them to do so when they are concerned with being re-elected. A leader has an incentive to put tough decisions off if he can retain power by doing so. When constrained by term limits, leaders must make the most of their limited time in office, resulting in greater prioritization of difficult decisions and reform. [1] Furthermore, the need to constantly fight elections places leaders in the pocket of lobby-groups and election supporters to a greater degree, as they will always need to go back to them for support, and thus cannot make decisions that are in the national interest alone. While there will always be some of this behaviour, it is curtailed by term limits, as leaders in their final term will not be beholden to as many special interests as they cannot run again.  Furthermore, leaders who develop strong party structures can influence the choice of their successor, ensuring that they have a legacy. In this way term limits encourage the development of party-based systems, rather than personality based systems of government.  [1] Chan, Sewell. 2008. \u201cDebating the Pros and Cons of Term Limits\u201d. New York Times. Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con03b","title":"","text":"While some continuity is desirable in leadership, it is not worth the costs of allowing a single individual to retain so much power for so long. If there are crises to face or long-term legislative agendas to push forward, the leader may still offer insight and support out of office and may back a candidate to succeed him who will continue his policies. The boons of continuity can thus be maintained without the risks of despotism and corruption that too long held office encourages."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con01b","title":"","text":"Term limits protect democracy. While people may not be able to vote for a leader again who has reached his limit of service, they can still vote for a continuation of his policies by voting for his chosen successor or for his political party\u2019s candidate. Limiting individual leaders to specified terms, however, prevents them from becoming too powerful and damaging the democratic system of checks and balances."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con02a","title":"","text":"Term limits on leaders unbalances power in favour of non-limited legislators and the judiciary.  When one branch is in constant flux and another retains the ability to maintain a degree of continuity, the power balance is naturally unequal. An executive who can continuously seek re-election is better equalized with the other branches. Fear that a leader somehow will be able to override the checks instituted by the constitution and laws of a state are entirely unfounded. A third-term president in the United States, for example, is no more innately powerful than a second-term one. [1] He can no more change the constitution, or take power from the other branches of government than he could previously. In cases where leaders have wrested power from the other branches and become dictators, as in Zimbabwe, the cause of the problem is not a lack of term limits, but rather a lack of adequate separation of powers in government. Term limits do not stop tyranny, as a would-be dictator can easily enough remove term limits by fiat. The solution to dictatorship is the establishment of robust democratic institutions and a genuine separation of powers. Furthermore, a strong leader may be necessary to counter the potential tyranny of a dominant legislature as much as the reverse. Removing term limits ensures balance among the power centres of government.  [1] Koenig, Robert. 1995. The Chief Executive. Florence: Wadsworth Publishing."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con04a","title":"","text":"The incentive for corruption and self-enrichment in office is increased by term limits.  With term limits, a leader will, after he enters his final permitted term of office, not have to face the electorate again, meaning he can do whatever wants, to an extent. This encourages corruption and self-enrichment on the part of leaders in their final term of office when they do not need to face the people to answer for poor management. There is likewise less incentive to follow through on election promises to supporters, since their withdrawing support can have little tangible impact on a lame duck. Furthermore, lame duck leaders can devote time to buddying up to businesses and organizations in order to get appointments to lucrative board seats after they leave office. This has often been the case in Western democracies, where former heads of state and government find themselves being offered highly profitable positions upon their retirement. [1] Imposing term limits necessarily increases this sort of behaviour, as leaders look more toward their retirement during their final years of office, rather than to the interests of the people.  [1] Wynne, Michael. 2004. \u201cPolitics, Markets, Health and Democracy\u201d. University of Wolongong. Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con03a","title":"","text":"A strong, consistent executive may be desirable in many cases.  Continuity and experience in leadership has real value. Experienced hands can be best for navigating the often-treacherous waters of politics, and such experience is especially necessary in the executive. Furthermore, the prospect of future tenure gives incumbent leaders the leverage to get things done. When there are no term limits, lame duck leaders are generally eliminated. The status quo undermines the ability of last-term leaders to act effectively, since members of the other branches of government, and the public, know they are on the way out and thus lack the same ability to enact policy. [1] Eliminating term limits allows leaders to make the most of every term they serve to enact policy. It also allows leaders to focus on long-term projects that might take more than the time allotted to them by their term limits. When considering the ascension of new leaders, it is necessary to consider that they will always take some time acclimating themselves to their new office, time that is thus not put to efficient use in governing. Constant changing of leadership brought about by term limits serves only to exacerbate this problem. In other words, leadership is like anything else\u2014one gets better with experience. Additionally, lobbyists and powerful legislators will more easily exploit amateurish newcomers to leadership. Naivet\u00e9 on the part of new leaders who are unused to the system will leave them vulnerable and exploitable. Continuity in leadership is especially important in times of crisis. For example, the United States needed the continuity and strength of Franklin Roosevelt during Great Depression, and later during World War II. Americans were willing to break with the tradition of presidents serving only two terms of office for the sake of that leadership. [2] Clearly, it is better to have a tried and tested leader in times of struggle than a potentially disastrous, untested newcomer.  [1] Green, Eric. 2007. \u201cTerm Limits Help Prevent Dictatorships\u201d. America.gov. Available:   [2] Jones, Charles and Bruce MacLaury. 1994. The Presidency in a Separated System. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con01a","title":"","text":"Term limits are undemocratic and suggest, falsely, that voters cannot make intelligent decisions about their leaders on their own.  Term limits are grossly undemocratic. If a leader is popular and desired by the people to continue to lead them, then it should be their choice to re-elect him. The instituting of term limits assumes voters cannot act intelligently without proper guidance. This is an insult to the intelligence of voters. The electorate will see whether a leader is doing a good job and will vote accordingly. Preventing a potentially popular candidate from standing for re-election simply removes the right to make important political decisions from the electorate. The reason some countries have overpowered presidents and executives is not due to a lack of term limits, but because of a system designed to suppress opposition. Term limits are not a concern when considering why countries have corrupt and authoritarian leaders. [1] In such countries or where the leader is very popular the leader will be able to overturn the term limits anyway rendering them redundant. This occurred in Venezuela in 2009 when Chavez the Venezuelan President won a referendum to end term limits. [2] The people, if they have the freedom to choose who should lead them, should have the freedom to choose incumbents, and to do so indefinitely if that is what the popular will demands.  [1] Meredith, Martin. 2003. Mugabe: Power and Plunder in Zimbabwe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  [2] Voice of America, 2009. \u201cChavez Celebrates End to Venezuela Term Limits\u201d, 16th February, 2009, Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con04b","title":"","text":"A leader who has to constantly concern himself with re-election is likely to be far more beholden to special interest groups and lobbyists than one who is term-limited. While a term-limited leader may suffer to a degree from lame duck status, the need to continuously seek electoral support is far more damaging to the ability to do what is right for the nation. Leaders who are not term-limited will spend more time doing what is popular than what is necessary. It is far better to have a leader who has only a limited time to enact the policies he envisions, so that he actively seeks to implement his vision.  Furthermore, reducing the incentive to pander to self-interest groups in one\u2019s final term can be achieved through offering good retirement benefits to ex-leaders, including international jobs. [1]  [1] Ginsburg, Tom, James Melton and Zachary Elkins. 2011. \u201cOn the Evasion of Executive Term Limits.\u201d William and Mary Law Review. Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con02b","title":"","text":"The executive, at least in Presidential and Parliamentary systems of government, already has the extra power of being an individual wielding the entire power of the branch of government. There are always competing power groups within legislatures, so it can never run the risk of becoming tyrannical in the same way the executive can. Term limits are an essential check on the huge individual power that the executive bestows on leaders."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro02b","title":"","text":"Margaret Thatcher in the UK, and Madeleine Albright and Condoleeza Rice in the US are high ranking female politicians who mostly deal in traditionally 'male' topics. Not all female politicians will represent women's views or needs. Indeed, sometimes they are bad advocates for women. For example, Nadine Dorries proposed a bill in Parliament for teaching abstinence to girls in school, but excluded teaching boys; this is a clear bias and suggests that boys can get away with being irresponsible."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro02a","title":"","text":"Women must gain positions in Parliament quickly as they would raise awareness about 'less important' issues such as family and employment rights  Whilst is it possible for men to speak on women's issues, some topics of debate (e.g. on family issues or equality in the workplace) are still seen as less important than economics or foreign policy. Creating more female MPs would encourage more debates about social policy, and so do more to produce constructive legislation of relevance to real people's lives. For example, Harriet Harman is the first MP to seriously confront the gaps in the treatment of women and other minorities in the workplace1. This was previously seen as a 'soft' issue unworthy of parliamentary attention; she was more in touch with women's (and, of course, many men's) priorities and acted upon them. If we want our political system to be in touch with the priorities of everyone, we must to act to increase women's representation.  1 'Harman pushes discrimination plan', BBC, 26th June 2008"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro03b","title":"","text":"Representative democracy is there to represent the interests of every sector of the population, which may be done without MPs visibly being strictly representative. To ensure parliament exactly reflects society's demographic makeup is impossible. Besides, how can we be sure that by increasing numbers of women, women's views will be any better represented?1 By allowing political parties to fix these election shortlists, it may prevent constituencies from voting for the candidate they feel best represents their views. True, legislation plays a role in the formation of attitude but any legislation that seeks to restrict a people freedom of choice is an affront to the very pillar of democracy where freedom of choice is a must.  1 'All-women shortlists: a route to equality?' by Mediocre Dave, Dreaming Genius, 9th June 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro01a","title":"","text":"Female role models are needed urgently to raise aspirations among young women and change parliamentary practices  At present there is a vicious circle whereby women see no point in standing for politics because it is viewed as a male-dominated institution. Positive discrimination is the only way to encourage women to stand. Only if one generation is pushed towards politics can there be role models for potential future women MPs to follow; for that reason it need not be a permanent measure, just one that gets the ball rolling1. It has been proven by a study at the University of Toronto, Canada, that women need inspirational female role models more than men; they need it to be demonstrated that it is possible to overcome barrier2 . Positive discrimination would provide this evidence and support. This measure would simply allow women to overcome the institutional sexism in the selection committees of the established political parties, which has for so long prevented a representative number of women from becoming candidates, and would encourage other women to try and emulate that. It's about changing stereotypes and perception (particularly of the concept 'leadership', which we automatically think of as a male trait1). This will help achieve true progress in the future.  1 'Increasing the numbers of female MPs', Thinking and Doing, 14th May 2010  2 'Women need female role models', Research Digest, 16th March 2006"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro01b","title":"","text":"A true role model has to be admired. Encouraging more women to stand for election should not be about 'making up numbers': women are extremely capable of becoming elected without help from male party leaders. Shirley Chisholm, in a famous speech on gender equality to Congress in Washington, U.S., on 21st May 1969, aired a similar sentiment: \"women need no protection that men do not need. What we need are laws to protect working people, to guarantee them fair pay, safe working conditions, protection against sickness and layoffs and provision for dignified, comfortable retirement. Men and women need these things equally. That one sex need protection more than the other is a male supremacist myth as ridiculous and unworthy of respect as the white supremacist myth that society is trying to cure itself of at this time\"1. Apportioning a quota of seats for women or all-women shortlists will be a patronising implication that women cannot succeed off the back of their own merits, and that men are innately superior. This does not create inspirational role models.  1 Full transcript of speech, 'Equal Rights for Women' by Shirley Chisholm:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro03a","title":"","text":"Parliament must be representative of our society and that requires a substantial increase in the number of women which only positive discrimination can achieve  In a 'representative' democracy it is vital that every part of the population be accurately and proportionately represented. The present lack of female voices in parliaments across the world symbolises the continuing patriarchal societal bias. Women are over half of the population, yet less than 20% of the House of Commons is made up of women. As of 2011, there are only 72 women (constituting 16.6% of all Representatives) serving in the House of Representatives in the US. In order to truly have a representative government, numbers must be increased to fairly mirror numbers in society. All women shortlists and other artificial means are a quick and effective way of doing this. Even David Cameron, a traditional opponent to positive discrimination for women, when asked whether a meritocracy was more desirable, said \"It doesn't work\"; \"we tried that for years and the rate of change was too slow. If you just open the door and say 'you're welcome, come in,' and all they see is a wave of white [male] faces, it's not very welcoming\"1.Indeed, a recent report by the Hansard Society2 said that the numbers of women in UK Parliament could fall unless positive action is taken3. Sarah Childs, launching the report, said that \"unless all parties use equality guarantees, such as all-women shortlists, it is most unlikely that they will select women in vacant seats\" 3. Compulsion is necessary to begin to achieve parity of representation4. The Labour party used all-women shortlists in the 1990's and many well-known female MPs were elected this way. Positive action is vital for reasons of justice and fairness.  1 'David Cameron: I will impose all-women shortlists' by Rosa Prince, The Telegraph, 18th February 2010  2 The Hansard Society  3 'All-women shortlists a must, says report' by Oliver King, The Guardian, 15th November 2005  4 'Call for all-women shortlists' by David Bentley, The Independent, 11th January 2010"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con03b","title":"","text":"All-women shortlists were declared legal in 2001 after a debate, and there has not been an issue about its legality since then1. Judges have ruled that quotas and other forms of positive discrimination are not in breach of any human rights or democratic law, and thus should be used. Positive discrimination compensates women for the many years that they were excluded and placed in the political wilderness. There is an unavoidable discrimination at work in the electoral systems worldwide, and if another type of discrimination is temporarily necessarily to combat it then it must be used. A true 'meritocracy' only works when candidates are starting from equal positions. Dame Ann Begg MP has said that positive discrimination is absolutely crucial for ensuring the best candidates apply: \"If under-represented groups are not encouraged to apply, you cannot get the best person for the job. Women, for example, are less likely to put themselves forward as MPs\"2. Nobody is saying that positive discrimination is without its problems, but in this circumstance the end must justify the means.  1 'Election bill will make all-women shortlists legal' by Marie Woolf, The Independent, 18th October 2001  2 'Positive discrimination crucial for democracy, says disabled MP' by Alev Sen, The Beaver, 15th March 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con01b","title":"","text":"MPs will still be freely chosen representatives. Constituents can vote for any of the candidates on the ballot; if they disagree with a party's use of quotas or all-women shortlists they can cast their vote elsewhere. The emphasis, as always in voting, will be on the party. It does not limit their freedom of suffrage at all: we still vote for the candidate we feel will best represent our interests."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con02a","title":"","text":"Artificial increases in numbers of women are not necessary, as there are other, less intrusive, alternatives to increase visibility of women in politics  Positive discrimination is an extremely heavy-handed way of increasing the numbers of women in parliament. Women should of course have the same opportunities for participation in politics (and other male-dominated institutions should as business) as men; but they should not have more; Ann Widdecombe has argued that female campaigners, such as the Suffragettes, \"wanted equal opportunities not special privileges\"1. Many believe that other empowerment programs, such as education, would be much more effective for creating equal opportunities and create less controversy which could end up being counter-productive for the cause. Statistically, 1 billion people in the world are illiterate; two thirds of them are women2. Education is the most crucial tool to give women the same opportunities of men, particularly in developing countries. That will insure that women too are participating in the governance of their countries.  It is also important to note that the situation is improving across the world on its own. Canada elected a record 76 candidates in the 2011 election, up from 69 the previous election3. Nordic countries average around 40% women candidates, which is about the ideal given that competency must be taken into account and 50-50 is unlikely4. Even in Iraqi elections, all political parties had to submit lists of candidates where every third person was a woman; this guarantees at least 25% of all elected delegates are women4. The numbers of women in power are also increasing: 20 countries currently have a female leader5, and to that list must be added Thailand who recently elected Yingluck Shinawatra as prime minister6. With this rate of change, equality will be achieved fairly quickly and the controversy and heavy-handedness of positive discrimination is not necessary. It may even be detrimental to the cause.  1 'All women shortlists', Wikipedia  2 'Women and Literacy', SIL International  3 'Record number of women elected' by Meagan Fitzpatrick, CBC News, 3rd May 2011  4 'Women's representation worldwide', Fairvote  5 'Female World Leaders Currently in Power'  6 'Thailand: Yingluck Shinawatra wins key election', BBC, 3rd July 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con04a","title":"","text":"THIS HOUSE WOULD INTRODUCE POSITIVE DISCRIMINATION TO PUT MORE WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT Women are vastly underrepresented in democratic legislatures across the world. Until 20 years ago women had never been more than 5% of MPs in UK Parliament1. Even today wom  How is this different to being elected because of the particular party you represent? Certainly Margaret Thatcher was not helped as a woman, but she was elected to represent Finchley, in Middlesex, which is a traditionally Conservative constituency; it was inevitable that she would be elected because she stood in a Tory 'safe seat'. Thatcher was thus elected not through her own individual merit or competence, but rather because she represented the party who always won there. It must also be noted that quotas and all-women shortlists do not necessarily mean that the best person is unavailable. Jacqui Smith, the first female Home Secretary, was elected on an all-women shortlist1. She would not have been appointed to the Labour government's cabinet if she had not been an outstanding politician; the all-woman shortlist not only did not prevent constituents from being represented by a capable MP, but in fact gave her a higher chance of being elected, which was to the benefit of all of us.  1 'All women shortlists' by Richard Kelly and Isobel White, House of Commons Library, 21st October 2009"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con03a","title":"","text":"Positive discrimination for women is discrimination  Merely glossing 'positive' discrimination does not hide the fact that it is still discrimination. The Labour Party's policy in the 1990s of discriminating in favour of women in selecting candidates for parliament was rightly found to be in breach of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 as it disadvantages potential male candidates1. The law may have been changed, but the principle of the objection remains and all-women shortlists are only legal until 20152which demonstrates a level of uncertainty and reservation about its true legality. Equality is enough to compensate for past unfairness. MPs should be the best on offer, and the one chosen freely by constituents, otherwise this is not democracy. All-Women shortlists seem to, in some ways, detract from the purpose of having elections if candidate lists are restricted.  1 'All women shortlists', Wikipedia  2 'Election bill will make all-women shortlists legal' by Marie Woolf, The Independent, 18th October 2001"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con01a","title":"","text":"All-women shortlists or quotas restrict a constituent's freedom of choice  Article 21 of the Human Rights Act, clauses 1 and 3, state that \"everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives and the will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedure\". Candidates on all-women shortlists would not be freely chosen by constituents but imposed upon them. Some constituencies would have all-women shortlists, and some wouldn't, and this would be completely arbitrary; people's choice of candidate would vary immensely according to where they live, and this is undemocratic. By allocating a specific number of seats to women in parliament parties would be infringing this universal law which will impact upon the fundamental human rights of the voters."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con04b","title":"","text":"If people feel that a woman has been appointed simply for her gender rather than for her talents, then this will damage rather than enhance the status of female MPs1: they will, many argue, become simply \"token women\"2. Many leading female MPs oppose all-women shortlists on a matter of principle. Ann Widdecombe claims they are \"an insult to women\": she said, \"Neither Margaret Thatcher nor I needed this kind of help to get into Parliament\"3. At a different time, Ann Widdecombe has said: \"The concept of merit is going out of the window. I don't care whether an MP is male or female, black or white, rich or poor, old or young. What matters is the merit they bring. We really cannot have targets for particular categories. It's frankly insulting because it suggests women and ethnic minorities cannot get there on their own merit\"4. Whether it is true that a lesser-able candidate gets an easier ride in on all-women shortlists, the fact remains that people will perceive that as having been the case. This may result in their views being taken less seriously than MPs elected in an open ballot, and this is not democratic. It is far better than women fight their way in and are respected once they are in parliament.  1 'Women-only shortlists are a patronising stunt"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pggsghwip-con02b","title":"","text":"Other options will not have a large enough or fast enough impact on the state of politics. Most women have found that \"Even where women have indicated willingness and self-confidence to stand for public office, their efforts had been thwarted by male dominated and administrative structures\"1. Certainly women must be empowered through education and other such indirect methods, but that is not enough alone to increase female MPs. Shortlists and quotas are a necessary step to raise the profile of women in politics, and would only be needed up until the point where their representation is equal without this. Education is a crucial part of a long-term strategy, but we also need short term impetus. Positive discrimination gives women a temporary platform from where they can make a difference for generations to come.  1 'Director calls for affirmative action for women into leadership positions', Modern Ghana, 19th December 2006"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro02b","title":"","text":"Countries can develop their nuclear-related technologies without the need to direct efforts to the construction of extremely dangerous, miniature nuclear weapons. Rather, if superior technology is desired, the resources exist in Western countries to do most research without even touching nuclear materials, being able to do much of the research by means of computer. Dominance in nuclear engineering does not require the creation of such weapons. It is better to direct research toward peaceful applications of nuclear technology."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro02a","title":"","text":"Designing and constructing tactical nuclear weapons allow a state's scientists to maintain a competitive position in nuclear technology.  Research and development into tactical nuclear weapons are essential for countries to maintain their technological edge in the field of nuclear science. The United States has long enjoyed technological dominance in the field of nuclear weaponry. However, in recent years China and Russia have begun to pour effort into developing ever-smaller nuclear weapons for tactical deployment. If the United States and the other nuclear powers wish to maintain their position within the nuclear tech order, they must begin investing further in development of similar miniaturized nuclear devices. Research into the design and construction of mini-nukes provides a number of benefits beyond the tactical flexibility conferred by such weapons. First, developing mini-nukes puts designers and scientists in the West on the same intellectual page as those seeking to devise nuclear weapons suitable for use in terrorist attacks, such as so-called suitcase-nukes1. By learning how to build such weapons scientists will be able to devise means of counteracting them should an enemy attempt to employ them in an attack. Furthermore, the miniaturization of nuclear weapons has applications in other nuclear technologies such as in the design and manufacture of smaller nuclear power facilities. Military technology always finds an outlet in civilian use. Such was case with Cold War technological endeavors, such as the Space Race, which yielded everything from superior computer processors to ballpoint pens. Clearly, the public will in many ways reap the boons arising from the development of smaller tactical nuclear weapons. 1 Jervis, Robert. 2001. \"Weapons Without Purpose? Nuclear Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era\". Foreign Affairs."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro03b","title":"","text":"All rogue states that might attack the United States or other Western countries would likely be unable to withstand a conventional military attack from one of them. For this reason, any retaliation to a crude nuclear attack from a rogue state would more likely, and more justifiably, incur retaliation by conventional military force. With its massive conventional bombs, air and sea dominance, and tactical superiority, the United States, for example would be better served by responding to nuclear aggression with overwhelming conventional firepower. Rather than validating nuclear retaliation, and thus opening the door to similar responses in the future, it is better to respond to such situations with conventional power."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro05a","title":"","text":"All countries have an inherent right to self-defense even when they lack the capacity to do so with conventional weapons.  States, as the building blocks of international society, have an inviolable right to self-defense, and this right extends to the possession of miniature, tactical nuclear weapons. Often states lack the capacity to defend themselves with conventional weapons. This is particularly true of small and poor states. Even wealthy, small states are susceptible to foreign attack, since their wealth cannot make up for their lack of manpower. When armed with tactical nuclear weapons, all states become equal in terms of capacity to do harm to one another. If a large state attempts to intimidate, or even invade a smaller neighbor, it will be unable to effectively cow it, since the small state will have the power to severely damage, or even destroy, the would-be invader's military capacity with a few well-placed miniature nuclear missiles [1]. An example of this is the 2008 invasion of Georgia by Russian troops, which would likely never have occurred had Georgia possessed an arsenal of tactical nuclear weapons, as Russia would have thought twice when considering that its large tank formations could be wiped out by a single well-placed tactical warhead. Clearly, nuclear weapons serve in many ways to equalize states irrespective of size, allowing them to more effectively defend themselves.  [1] The Economist. 2011. \u201cA Rivalry that Threatens the World\u201d. The Economist. Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro01a","title":"","text":"Countries need to design nuclear devices to adapt with changing defensive technology.  There are a number of technological developments that have made the use of conventional weapons ineffective in combating certain threats. For example, some bunkers are buried so deeply underground that conventional bombs cannot penetrate them. Weapons such as the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP), currently in development in the United States, would be able to penetrate such bunkers, while leaving no more surface damage than a conventional bomb1. Deployment of a weapon such as the RNEP might prove necessary in order to stop proliferation of nuclear weapons in rogue states, as for example, Iran has built extremely tough bunkers for the purpose of nuclear testing and storage of weapons of mass destruction. Blocking the development of necessary tactical nuclear technologies actually raises the chances of these dangerous states obtaining nuclear weapons. Another instance of tactical nuclear devices proving useful is in the destruction of clandestine biological and chemical weapons factories. Were such facilities destroyed by conventional bombing, some of the materials being manufactured could easily leak into neighbouring population areas, leading to increased casualties. Clearly, in light of these defense innovations, tactical nuclear weapons are an essential addition to a nuclear power's arsenal. 1 Reynolds, Paul. 2003. \"Mini-Nukes on US Agenda\". BBC News."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro01b","title":"","text":"Conventional weapons are perfectly capable of dealing with the issues and conflicts for which tactical nuclear weapons are designed, and are less risky to employ. The predictions by the United States government that the RNEP would produce little fallout, for example, appear unfounded. On the contrary, the weapon would likely scatter deadly nuclear fallout for miles around a target site, causing terrible destruction and collateral damage1. Furthermore, developments in conventional weapons can serve the same purposes, if with slightly greater difficulty. New super bunker-buster bombs are in development in the United States that do not carry a nuclear payload, and fuel-air bombs can, with their wide incendiary range, destroy factories and incinerate any hazardous materials quite effectively. New nuclear weapons are not necessary for the tactical concerns of the future. 1 Union of Concerned Scientists. 2005. \"Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator\"."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro05b","title":"","text":"While states should of course have the right to defend themselves, this does not extend to the possession and use of tactical nuclear weapons. Just as biological and chemical weapons are banned by international treaty, so too has the international community generally acknowledged that nuclear proliferation is negative, which is why so many treaties are dedicated to non-proliferation [1]. It is a tragedy that nuclear weapons exist, even more so that a few countries are still seeking to develop them. It is better to fight this movement, to keep nuclear weapons in as few hands as possible so as to prevent their development, testing, and use by rogue states, terrorists, and other dangers to international security. This is all the more true of tactical nuclear weapons, whose smaller size and destructive capacity make them not only easier for terrorists to acquire, but also to be used, and thus to instigate a rapid escalation to full-scale nuclear war.  [1] Shah, Anup. 2009. \u201cNuclear Weapons\u201d. Global Issues. Available:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro04b","title":"","text":"The unwillingness of the United States and Russia to give up tactical nuclear weapons shows some of the hypocrisy running through the New START. The treaty should make an effort to eliminate nuclear weapons completely, not just some. Furthermore, tactical nuclear weapons are more dangerous than their larger strategic counterparts because they are much smaller, and thus lend themselves to actually be used, which raises serious risks of escalation."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro03a","title":"","text":"Tactical nuclear warheads are more serviceable for use in intimidation and retaliation toward enemies, as they are considerably less catastrophically destructive than those of current nuclear arsenals.  For deterrence to function, rogue states and other international actors with nuclear capabilities, such as North Korea, must believe that their would-be target will retaliate in kind if attacked, tactical nuclear weapons provide a middle option. Given that these rogue states would likely only have access to low-yield nuclear weapons, it is unlikely that they would be able to launch a nuclear attack capable of more than damaging a Western city. Furthermore, the relative difficulty of developing deliverable nuclear weapons means that rogue nations are increasingly looking toward the acquisition and development of alternative weapons of mass destruction, such as chemical, biological, and radiological weapons. Were the United States, or another nuclear power, to be attacked by any of these weapons, it is unlikely that it, or the international community would consider the deployment of a strategic nuclear strike in retaliation to be justified. The response would certainly be disproportionately large, as strategic nuclear missiles can easily level cities, even with the smallest possible payload. This means that in order to maintain effective deterrence, nuclear powers must shift from the paradigm laid out by the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction to a \"flexible response\" doctrine, in which countries deploy arsenals of much smaller, tactical nuclear weapons that their enemies honestly believe they will use if provoked. By equipping themselves with a range of weapons, so as to be able to scale responses appropriately, nuclear-armed countries are far likelier to deter potential aggressors in future 1. Pakistan's military serves as an example of such tactical nuclear capability ready for action; its army is armed with an arsenal of mini-nukes that can be used to destroy whole tank formations, with little radioactive fallout dispersing beyond the battlefield. These weapons serve to redress the balance between Pakistani and Indian conventional military capacity. As Pakistan is woefully outnumbered and outgunned in conventional weapons, its tactical nuclear arsenal can deliver devastating damage to massed Indian army formations, preventing any potential invasion2. Clearly, tactical nuclear weapons are useful weapons in a country arsenal, preparing it to be more flexible in its application of nuclear force. 1 Reynolds, Paul. 2003. \"Mini-Nukes on US Agenda\". BBC News. 2 The Economist. 2011. \"A Rivalry that Threatens the World\". The Economist."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro04a","title":"","text":"The feeling of security generated by possession of tactical nuclear weapons will give states the political will to decommission standing nuclear arsenals.  Development and deployment of tactical nuclear weapons can be viewed as a suitable replacement for the thousands of strategic nuclear missiles and launchers being decommissioned as part of the recently ratified New START between Russia and the United States, which represents a major step toward non-proliferation of strategic nuclear weapons. The treaty exempts tactical nuclear weapons by omitting them from the language of the treaty, including as yet undeveloped miniature warheads, as both the United States and Russia have come to see the possession and deployment of tactical nuclear weapons as key to their national security. Replacing large numbers of strategic nuclear weapons with a smaller quantity of lower capacity tactical weapons marks a major movement away from proliferation of potentially world-destroying weaponry. Furthermore, the movement from proliferation of unusable strategic weapons to tactically viable, smaller nuclear weapons can be used as a means of allaying the fears of citizens in the United States, Russia, and other countries pursuing policies of non-proliferation that their countries nuclear defenses are not only still viable, but more practicable."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con03b","title":"","text":"Safeguards can be put in place to ensure that power over nuclear weapons is not devolved too far. Central control of launch codes, for example, can allow dispersed deployment and tactical control, without compromising the overall strategic security of the weapons. Furthermore, in the case of Pakistan, it seems more likely that its deployment of tactical nuclear weapons will simply serve as an additional deterrent to potential Indian incursions into the country. It is Pakistan's right to defend itself by whatever means available to it, tactical nuclear weapons included."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con01b","title":"","text":"Much of the technology of tactical nuclear weapons is still in the early stages of development. While many of the weapons, such as the RNEP, cannot yet be applied in the field, their eventual development could open the door to a broad range of strategic considerations. For that reason, it is imperative that work in this field continue, to guarantee that states can have the best defenses available to them and the greatest tactical flexibility in the event of conflict."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con02a","title":"","text":"Moving nuclear diplomacy away from the fear of Mutually Assured Destruction undermines world stability.  Tactical nuclear weapons undermine the overarching structure of deterrence in nuclear diplomacy. Nuclear weapons create stability, as described in the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Countries with nuclear weapons have no incentive to engage in open military conflict with one another; all recognize that they will suffer destruction if they choose the path of war1. If countries have nuclear weapons, fighting simply becomes too costly. This serves to defuse conflicts, and reduce the likelihood of the outbreak of war. When states have nuclear weapons they cannot fight, making the world a more peaceful place. Furthermore, armed with a nuclear deterrent, all states become equal in terms of ability to do harm to one another 2. If a large state attempts to intimidate or to invade a smaller neighbor, it will be unable to effectively subdue it, since the small state will have the power to seriously injure, or even destroy, the would-be invader with a few well-placed nuclear missiles3. The dynamics created by MAD are entirely lost when miniaturized, tactical nuclear weapons are brought into the equation. By considering nuclear weapons to no longer fit into the rigid framework of MAD, which ensures that they are not used except in response to existential threats, their use becomes more likely and more accepted as a strategic tool. For example, the 2002 United States Nuclear Posture Review recommends the integration of nuclear weapons into the broader strategic framework of the military and defense department. Such reconsideration can only make the use of nuclear weapons more likely4. Clearly, the development of tactical nuclear weapons will only destabilize world relations, not offer greater security. 1 Waltz, Kenneth. 1981. \"The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better\". Adelphi Papers 171. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies. 2 Jervis, Robert. 2001. \"Weapons Without Purpose? Nuclear Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era\". Foreign Affairs. 3 Mearsheimer, John. 1993. \"The Case for a Ukrainian Nuclear Deterrent\". ForeignAffairs. 4 Arkin, William. 2002. \"Secret Plan Outlines the Unthinkable\". Los Angeles Times."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con04a","title":"","text":"The development of tactical nuclear weapons by one state would lead to a new global arms race.  When one state develops a new military technology that could potentially tip the strategic balance in its favor, other countries are quick to take notice and to attempt to develop the technology themselves. During the Cold War, the nuclear arms race between the United States and Soviet Union reached a fever pitch, with both states spending vast quantities of money and resources to build newer, deadlier, and ever more plentiful nuclear arsenals. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, however, the nuclear arms race has been at low ebb. Recent moves by the United States, as well as Russia and China, to develop newer, smaller nuclear weapons, as well as to open discussion of tactical application of such weapons outside the paradigm of MAD, however, threaten to bring the nuclear arms race into the 21st century1. If nuclear weapons begin to permeate the tactical decisions of states, from use in bunker-busting to destroying armor formations, they will cease to hold the special power of fear that has kept them from ever being employed in combat since World War II. A race to develop easier to use, less accountable weapons, while eroding the taboo against their use, spells a recipe for disaster. 1 Jervis, Robert. 2001. \"Weapons Without Purpose? Nuclear Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era\". Foreign Affairs."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con03a","title":"","text":"The way tactical nuclear weapons need to be deployed control of their use is devolved to field commanders, vastly increasing the probability that in the event of conflict they would be used.  Tactical nuclear weapons are much smaller than their strategic counterparts, and are designed to be deployed in higher numbers and nearer the enemy. This reality has a number of very negative consequences when considering the likelihood of nuclear war. First, control over tactical nuclear weapons is necessarily devolved to field commanders, since they control both the warheads and delivery systems for the weapons deployed near the enemy. This necessarily increases the likelihood of trigger-happy commanders using nuclear weapons, and little practical means of stopping them. Second, because of their deployment positions, should an enemy make an incursion into a country's territory, its tactical nuclear weapons batteries could risk capture by the invader. This generates a \"use them or lose them\" problem, and when coupled with the fact that the weapons are under the direct control of individual field commanders, the weapons might well be used. The result would likely be rapid escalation of hostilities, and possibly full-scale nuclear war. In Pakistan, for example, tactical nuclear weapons have been deployed and war games practiced for the eventuality of an Indian invasion (The Economist, 2011). The risks of war and of nuclear holocaust are only raised by tactical nuclear weapons. 1 The Economist. 2011. \"A Rivalry that Threatens the World\". The Economist."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con01a","title":"","text":"Tactical nuclear weapons are very expensive to design and build, yet will likely have no new strategic value.  Countries have spent many billions of dollars developing tactical nuclear weapons in recent decades in the hope of maintaining their positions as nuclear powers with access to a whole range of terrifying weapons. However, little real applicability exists for most of these weapons. Weapons such as the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP), being developed in the United States at enormous cost, is designed to burrow deep underground to destroy enemy bunkers, yet it is as yet unusable, since the weapon cannot as yet burrow even a tenth of the distance underground necessary to prevent considerable radioactive fallout in the area surrounding the blast site1. In fact, many scientists say the weapon is a chimera and will never be capable of doing what it is meant to without risking huge collateral damage. Furthermore, it is unlikely that many states would consider the use of nuclear weapons appropriate, regardless of size. This international taboo should be considered a positive step toward peace, and not be tampered with by overzealous governments seeking strategic advantage. Overall, tactical nuclear weapons will likely prove to be little more than expensive dust-gatherer in most cases.  1 Union of Concerned Scientists. 2005. \"Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator\"."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con04b","title":"","text":"There is no real risk of a new global arms race arising from the development of tactical nuclear weapons. No country is suggesting, nor would ever likely suggest, a relaxing of controls on the use of nuclear weapons. Tactical nuclear weapons are simply more advanced, more discriminating nuclear weapons. They would not be used except in the utmost extremity, as with all nuclear weapons. While tactical nuclear weapons may find greater applicability in the field, it does not mean they would result in a new arms race."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con02b","title":"","text":"MAD is not an effective means of maintaining world security. It relies upon states being too afraid to ever attack one another with nuclear weapons, but the risk of one doing so remains, irrespective of the doctrine. It has too many inherent risks and raises the very real chance, as weapons amass and proliferate, of their being used1. At the same time, should a nuclear weapon be used by a rogue state against another country, that country must have some means of retaliation. The problem is that the weapon likely to be used in such an attack will be crude and incapable of doing the sort of damage that a refined nuclear weapon of the Western nuclear powers could. This makes the question of what constitutes a proportional response difficult to answer. Should North Korea, for example, ever be able to attack the United States or its allies with nuclear weapons, its crude missiles will warrant a response, but quite possibly not a strategic nuclear missile-sized response. For this reason, the development of smaller, more versatile nuclear weapons makes these strategic considerations easier to manage, and allows for a range of responses left unavailable by the current blunt instrument of strategic nuclear missiles. 1 Sagan, Scott D. 1993. The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons. Princeton: Princeton University Press."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro02b","title":"","text":"The rules under which an individual citizen operate are different from those of corporations and should remain that way. Corporations and individuals are two completely different entities and they represent different interests. While an individual accounts for her interests, a company represents a large number of people. In addition, difference in the size of individual and corporate campaign contributions is usually quite significant.  Despite increasing number of individual contributions, the donations from large interest groups, such as corporations, often exceeds sums from individuals as in 2000 and 2001- by $176 million and &171 million respectively. Empirical evidence suggests that large sums from corporations almost never buys votes but access to policy-makers at key moments of policymaking after campaigns which has serious implications on the levels of corruption. [1] While individuals often contribute as an act of democratic participation, the interest groups donate money in campaigns as investment. Therefore, the rules regulating them should be different.Reforms like the BCRA that limit donations from corporations and unions enable individual contributions and minimizes the role and influence of interest groups.  [1] Franz, Michael. \"The Interest Group Response to Campaign Finance Reform.\" Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011, 2011. 66-83. P.70"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro02a","title":"","text":"In regards to free speech, corporations should have the same rights as individuals if they are spending money on the campaigns.  When a corporation and an individual are both trying to achieve the same goal, they should be able to do so in the same way. It would be unfair if the campaign finance reform limits the amount that an individual could contribute, but not that of a corporation when it is apparent that corporations are contributing considerably larger amounts than individuals as seen in the case of the pharmaceutical industry. Corporations need to have the same rights and limitations on campaign contributions and economic freedom.  This was why the US Supreme Court ruled that the federal ban on spending by corporations was unconstitutional under the First Amendment Act in 2010. This led to the Super PACs because they represent an association of people and have the right to freedom of speech and political preference. Reforms, such as Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) may have been successful in curtailing interest groups role as investors in campaigns, they failed when it comes to candidate advocacy as a result of super PACs. Such regulations that limit large-scale political spending from interest groups serves to limit speech crucial to political groups without a broad base of support or political entrepreneurs like Swift Boat Veterans for Truth that got its message aired when the national media was ignoring the issue. Moreover, bans on corporate contributions did not prevent alternative ways for candidate advocacy, such as the private satellite radio station of the National Rifle Association or the movies made by the Citizens United [1] These alternative ways could undermine the principle of fair and transparent campaigns more than the lack of such limit on spending from individuals and corporations and their political expression.  [1] Smith, Bradley. \"The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform.\" Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011. 46-62. P.58-9"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro03b","title":"","text":"Even under the most radical proposals for reform, loopholes will exist and enable candidates to spend more or reach their audiences through alternative means. This was precisely the kind of development which led reformers to want to close the soft-money loophole. As with the tax system, the more elaborate the regulation, the more obscure and distorting the ways that are adopted to get around it.  There is actually a higher turnover in public office than some critics of the present campaign finance systems would like to admit. Retirements, scandals, and careful allocation of party resources make turnover possible under a variety of scenarios. Turnover also has significant negative effects, as critics of term limits have pointed-out. The more often new officeholders begin their jobs the steeper the \"learning curve\" for a new Congress or other legislative body becomes.  Moreover, the effect for challengers could be different. Finance limitations benefit the most popular candidates who already have a large base of support. Political minorities, newcomers, and outcasts will find it difficult to reach enough people to raise the money they need through many small contributions. The financial limitations further limit the possibilities for such campaigns in the future."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro05a","title":"","text":"Anonymity increases the distortive effects of money in American politics.  Allowing anonymity of contribution to \u201cIssue Ads\u201d and to Super PACs only amplifies the corrosive effect money has on American politics.  Without knowing where the funding for particular \u201cIssue Ads\u201d come from, the intentions of contributors can be obfuscated and issues can be easily branded into political palatable campaigns by allowing contributors to keep themselves and their agendas hidden [1] . Using names such as the \u201cAmerica Future Fund\u201d [2] and the \u201cCoalition of American Seniors\u201d [3] political allegiances and agendas are hidden from view, removing a much needed critical evaluation of those who contribute and what their ends are. Further to this, the anonymity of Super PACs make it easy for foreign contributors, who are banned by US law from contributing to campaigns, to secretly contribute to campaigns, helping to skew American democracy by giving undue political influence to foreign corporations and their interests [4] .  Anonymity of Super PACs allows people to obfuscate their intentions and turn campaigns into opaque propaganda, removing the capacity for proper democracy and political debate.  [1] \"Campaign Finance: Ignore that $800,000 behind the curtain.\" Economist 04 Oct 2010, n. pag. Web. 30 Nov. 2011.   [2] ibid  [3] \"ibid  [4] Parnell, Sean. \"A campaign finance 'reform' twofer from Think Progress.\" Campaign Freedom. Center for Competitive Politics, 05 Oct 2010. Web. 29 Nov. 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro01a","title":"","text":"Neither individuals nor corporations should be permitted to make unlimited contributions  Currently, Super PACs are organizations that can receive unlimited contributions, which encourages the belief that the amount of money contributed is directly correlated to the amount of influence the donor could have. By permitting individuals or corporations to make unlimited contributions, the current legislation undermines the democratic character of the elective process. Political figures related to the sponsored Super PACs have an incentive to satisfy the needs of those who contribute huge amounts of funding towards their campaign rather than meet the needs of the average citizen. This is not the way that democracy should be; it must represent the viewpoint and needs of the majority of the population, not just the small fraction of it that is wealthy enough to effectively pay for policies they want. Furthermore, caps on contributions to Super PACs will bring competition in elections back into the mainstream and when more citizens contribute to politicians, they will be more engaged in politics. [1]  For example, the pass of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) eliminated soft money for parties and attempted to handle the elections contributions through PACs. With the elimination of soft money for parties, the role of interest groups investment decreased in the 1990s. [2] Obama\u2019s campaign in 2008 raised 114.1 million or 34% of his general election fund from small contributions. His unprecedented small donor fundraising success can be interpreted as increased credibility and public visibility for Obama and through this the benefit of mobilizing lots of small donations. In 2008, Obama used online communications and social networking tools to reach and mobilise more people. In effect of this approach, he not only inspired an unprecedented number of young and retired people to get involved in the campaign, but also achieved the highest rate of small contributions. [3]  [1] Malbin, Michael, Anthony Corrado, Thomas Mann, and Norman Ornstein. \"Reform in an Age of NEtworked Campaigns.\" Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. By Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011. 84-106. Print.  [2] Franz, Michael. \"The Interest Group Response to Campaign Finance Reform.\" Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011, 2011. 66-83.  [3] Malbin, 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro01b","title":"","text":"To limit the ability of any person or a group, to influence a democratic political process is rather undemocratic and discriminatory. Groups should to be able to express their voice, and attempt to influence politics. Any form of limitation of that is an infringement of their rights as citizens in a democratic country.  Limiting contributions could equally be used to achieve a partisan advantage. The Tillman Act banning corporate contributions to campaigns in 1907 is a good example. It was sponsored by the South Carolina senator Tillman who wanted to embarrass President Roosevelt for his heavily reliance on corporate funding in his 1904 election campaign. Tillman often bragged about his role in vote frauds; thus, revealing his bill was less about public good and more to gain partisan advantage. [1] This was repeated a couple of times since, despite the numerous regulatory bills that have been passed. According to Smith\u2019s research, the effect of campaign-finance regulations has been to help people who passed them and to strengthen special interest, rather than to cleanse American politics of the influence of self-interested factions. Money is the means by which those who lack talents or other resources with direct political value are able to participate in politics beyond voting. This reform favour people and corporations skilled and able to afford political advertising over those skilled in other building homes or other fields with no media influence.  Thus, the reform undermines efforts for equal access to the political arena by restricting campaign contributions.  Data analysis of the last three elections also shows that campaign \u2013finance regulations are of little value. Many scholars, such as Stephen Ansolabehere, James Snyder, and John de Figueiredo, believe that it is not the contributions that corrupt politicians, therefore, limiting contributions will not tackle the problem of corruption. Legislators\u2019 votes usually depend on own beliefs and preferences of their voters and their parties and contributions have no detectable effects on legislative behaviour. [2] The past two elections at which Obama won over better known and funded leaders like Hillary Clinton and Romney who did not lack funds shows that support for ideology was more important than funds.  [1] Smith, Bradley. \"The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform.\" Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011. 46-62. P.52  [2] Smith, 2011, P.54"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro05b","title":"","text":"Releasing the names of individual people who have contributed to a campaign will in no way indicate what interests were at play in creating a particular political campaign ad or strategy. Moreover, this is at best an argument against propagandizing political ads, not one for releasing the names of people who financially donated to that ad.  The campaign finance reform failed to achieve political equality and does not affect wealthy donors or prominent candidates. Often, the most authentic grassroots candidates and campaigns are burdened by such regulations. In 2000, Mac Warren ran for Congress in Texas and spent just $40, 000, half of his money. 2 pieces of the literature failed to contain the required notice that the literature was paid for by the committee and his campaign was fined by $1,000. [1]  [1] Smith, Bradley. \"The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform.\" Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011. 46-62. P.59"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro04b","title":"","text":"Even the most radical campaign finance reform proposals have yet to eliminate corporate or union contributions. Short of such bans, the potential for large organizations to swamp the donations of individual voters still exists. Additionally, limitations on the voice of unions, businesses and special interest groups are another form of potential infringement on the rights of free speech and assembly. Who is to say that a union member\u2019s contribution to their organization\u2019s political action committee is not significant speech comparable to the individual gesture they make when they donate to a candidate themselves? It is reasonable that union members or shareholders choose to trust their leaders to use their money in order to best advance their interests."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro03a","title":"","text":"Further reforms would create a level playing field  A further reform limiting super PACs would have the effect of leveling the playing field for candidates. Candidates with enormous leadership potential but small wallets have failed due to the lack of resources. Under a reformed campaign finance system, it will be more difficult for well-financed candidates to win purely because of the money they have. Incumbent candidates have a unique advantage over challengers in the present system because of their direct connections to important sources of money.  Campaign finance reform will make elections more competitive and thus enhance higher turnover or \"fresh blood\" in politics. This is essential for challenging old orthodoxies and bringing in new ideas. It will also make it easier for members of ethnic minorities and the working class to seek office - such groups are disproportionately deterred from candidacy by the current need to raise large sums of money.  Quantitative analysis of elections involving incumbents from twenty-five states across three election cycles indicate that more stringent campaign finance laws increase the likelihood of new challengers to the current incumbent. [1] Financing laws limiting fundraising increase the likelihood of minority-party and independent challengers and produce higher rate of election competition. As a result challengers feel they have better chances against the incumbents.  [1] Hamm, Keith E., and Hogan, Robert E., \u201cCampaign Finance Laws and Candidacy Decisions in State Legislative Elections\u201d, Campaign Finance: The Problems and Consequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright. New York: International Debate Education Association, 2011, 2011. 171-191."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro04a","title":"","text":"Stopping super PACs would place an emphasis on actual issues rather than politicians selling themselves.  Campaign finance reform gives the individual donor a voice more comparable to other donors\u2019 interests. At present, the enormous amount of money channeled into campaigns by large corporations, unions, and special interest groups through PACs overwhelm the smaller, limited contributions of individual donors. Reforming the super PACs and limiting these large group donations would increase the significance of donations by individual voters, likely increasing the responsiveness of candidates to voters\/donors and so increasing their accountability to their electorate. Additionally, the increased significance of individual contributions encourages voter participation and activism."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con03b","title":"","text":"It is exactly because certain organizations have particular interests that it is important to reveal when they fund Issue Ads or campaign initiatives [1] . People hold these biases and views of organizations like the National Rifle Association for a reason. If the involvement of this organisation invokes suspicion in a conscientious voter, then that voter has the right to be alerted about that suspicion.  [1] McIntire, Mike. \"The Secret Sponsors.\" New York Times 02 Oct 2010, n. pag. Web. 30 Nov. 2011."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con01b","title":"","text":"In the context of sponsoring a campaign figure, there should be no differentiation between corporations and individuals. The incentives to fund a candidate and the political outcomes that result from corporatist and individual contributions are the same, therefore, legally treated as such. The idea that the government may restrict the speech of some elements of our society in order to enhance the relative voice of others is against the First Amendment."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con02a","title":"","text":"Further campaign finance reform is simply unrealistic and too ambitious.  It is simply unfeasible for this policy to work effectively. There are two key issues that arise to prevent this policy from having any positive impact.  Firstly, when dealing with the general public actually knowing who is contributing, the vast majority of these contributions, whether from a corporation or an individual, are contributed under the names of individuals. The first problem with this is that thousands of names of individuals cannot fit into a commercial advertisement. There would have to be a list created which is made public, but, unfortunately, the vast majority of people will not seek this list out and so will not become any more informed about who is behind the advertisement.  The second problem is that even if the public did find the list, individual names do not hold any weight or indication of the types of interests that are backing campaigns and advertisements. \u201cJohn Smith\u201d and \u201cJoe Jones\u201d will not indicate to a normal person that this advertisement was funded by an oil company even if these people are the oil company\u2019s CEO and Managing Director.  Secondly, corporations and large businesses that want to avoid detection will simply donate the money under an individual\u2019s name or donate \u2018in the name\u2019 of multiple employees of the company in quantities small enough not to raise any suspicion as they already do with current campaign donations to stay under funding caps. There are already instances, such as ASG in 2012, where CEOs pressurise their employees into making donations, [1] if they are no longer able to spend as much as they wish themselves they will be much more likely to use their employees.  Therefore, this policy does nothing to help the American political situation.  [1] Volsky, Igot, \u201cCEO Asks Employees To Help Company \u2018And Yourself\u2019 By Donating $2,500 To Romney\u201d, Think Progress, 20 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con03a","title":"","text":"Anonymity Ensures that Campaigning Rises above Identity Attacks.  Certain political groups are politically disenfranchised because of perceptions about them that exist of in the society. Some groups are considered as being political enemies by their counterparts from more powerful opposing political parties and therefore, they cannot engage meaningfully in the political discourse without being dismissed at the get-go.  Allowing anonymity in Issue Ads allows people and groups to fund political speech and support certain policies and political discussions without having social perceptions of their membership to certain groups taint their political activity. This is especially important in America where membership to certain groups is considered to coincide with political allegiance like in the case of the National Rifle Association and the Republican Party. 39% of people say that they would be less likely to support a candidate if they were supported by the NRA so it is clear that the NRA can best support a campaign anonymously. [1]  Anonymity will enfranchise certain forms of political activity by individuals and associations which otherwise would have been dismissed by voters. Therefore, allowing anonymity allows for less partisan policy discussion.  [1] Jensen, Tom, \u201cAmericans consider NRA endorsement to be a negative\u201d, Public Policy Polling, 5 February 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con01a","title":"","text":"Corporations are fundamentally different than individuals and have the right to influence politics differently.  The rules under which an individual citizen operate are different from those of corporations and should remain that way. Corporations and individuals are two completely different entities and they represent different interests. While an individual accounts for her interests, a company represents a large number of people and may not fully represent the views of any of them. Thus many big companies while favoring one party or the other actually give to both parties, Honeywell International for example to July 2012 had given more than $2.2million with 63% going to the Republicans and the rest to the Democrats. [1] These companies clearly then bet on both sides, presumably however their senior staff are actually supporting one or the other.  Empirical evidence suggests that large sums from corporation almost never buys votes but access to policy-makers at key moments of policymaking after campaigns which has serious implications on the levels of corruption. While individuals often contribute as an act of democratic participation, the interest groups donate money in campaigns as investment. Therefore, the rules regulating them should be different. Reforms like the BCRA that limit donations from corporations and unions enable individual contributions and minimize the role and influence of interest groups.  [1] McIntyre, Douglas A., and Hess, Alexander E. M., \u201c10 Companies Making the Biggest Political Donations: 24\/7 Wall St.\u201d, Huffington Post, 2 July 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con02b","title":"","text":"Although it may not be immediately apparent to the average TV-watcher who is funding these campaigns, the importance of releasing the names of funders is to allow investigative journalists to conduct research on these names and draw together any conclusions the public may need to know about who is funding candidates. This also applies to other techniques that corporations may employ to get around publicity. Nevertheless, there is a much better chance that the dots will be connected for the public if the names of donors are released."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro02b","title":"","text":"Airport profiling is a violation of individual rights because it targets and harms certain groups more than others. Muslims and ethnic minorities will be especially harmed by security profiling as it will predominantly be members of these groups who are detained at departure gates and subjected to extra scrutiny. This will make them feel like second-class citizens; they will believe that the government presumes them to be terrorists, even when they are innocent.  Consequently, Arab, Asian and African Muslims, and migrants from majority Muslim states will benefit much less from security profiling than whites and non-Muslims do. If the proposition is correct and profiling is successful these groups may benefit from being safer when flying, however many more of them will also suffer far more and more detailed checks in order to be able to fly. Individual rights suffer when a particular person or group is subject to unwarranted discrimination; something which profiling, particularly if it had an ethnic component would bring. The government violates individual rights here by treating and benefitting its citizens unequally on the grounds of race and religion."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro02a","title":"","text":"Profiling is consistent with individual rights:  Profiling is not about demonizing people or violating their rights. As Mark Farmer argues: \"It still amazes me how words can be so quickly demonized, so the very mention of the word causes irrational outrage. \u201cProfile\u201d doesn\u2019t mean baseless discrimination against a certain nationality or race \u2014 in this case, it means judging people at airports by set of criteria which raise a red flag.\" [1]  Profiling, by making security more effective, would in fact better safeguard everyone\u2019s rights. Khalid Mahmood, a Muslim Labour MP for Birmingham, argues: \"I think most people would rather be profiled than blown up. It wouldn't be victimisation of an entire community. I think people will understand that it is only through something like profiling that there will be some kind of safety. If people want to fly safely we have to take measures to stop things like the Christmas Day plot. Profiling may have to be the price we have to pay. The fact is the majority of people who have carried out or planned these terror attacks have been Muslims.\u201d [2]  The state has a duty to protect its citizens by ensuring that its security apparatus is effective and adaptable, even if this means running afoul of political correctness and the rights of those individuals affected. According to Michael Reagan, president of The Reagan Legacy Foundation: \"Political correctness killed innocent people at Fort Hood, an Army base in Texas, when Maj. Nidal Malik Hasan gunned down 13 people and wounded many others despite the fact that his fellow officers were aware of his attachment to radical Islamism and all that it implied. It is the same political correctness that is stopping us today from doing what we truly need to be doing at airports and other public places: profiling all passengers.\" [3] As long as there is a net benefit to everyone of increased security, then individual rights are actually better protected, as everyone who travels has a greater chance of not being blown up.  The state should accord a higher priority- when balancing the competing rights claims of citizens- to policies and powers that protect individuals from terrorist attacks than to protecting citizens from the transient feelings of victimisation and isolation that result from profiling. The harm that results from failing to uphold the former is much, much greater than the harm that would attach to the later.  Therefore the state should protect the individual rights of its citizens by ensuring that they are protected first \u2013by instituting security profiling at airports.  [1] Reagan, Michael. \"Profiling is answer for U.S. airport security.\" Athens Banner-Herald. 27 November 2010.   [2] Sawer, Patrick. \u201cMuslim MP: security profiling at airports is \u2018price we have to pay\u2019\u201d. The Telegraph. 2 January 2010.   [3] Reagan, Michael. \"Profiling is answer for U.S. airport security.\" Athens Banner-Herald. 27 November 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro03b","title":"","text":"Broad screening at airports does make travellers safer. As Bruce Schneier, a security technologist, argues: \"As counterintuitive as it may seem, we\u2019re all more secure when we randomly select people for secondary screening \u2014 even if it means occasionally screening wheelchair-bound grandmothers and innocent looking children.\" [1] This is because otherwise terrorists can observe what profiles our security forces are using, by seeing who is stopped and checked more closely, and thus adapt themselves to not be caught by them. It is not beyond the realm of possibility that al-Qaeda could recruit children or the elderly to be its suicide bombers, and hence random checks are essential in order to allow us to have some chance of catching these terrorists,. If we simply resort to profiling, we will always be one step behind the terrorists and will have no chance of catching any of their operatives who fall outside the profiles.  [1] Schneier, Bruce. \"Profiling Makes Us Less Safe\". New York Times, Room for Debate. 4 January 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro01a","title":"","text":"Profiling is effective and necessary:  It is an unavoidable fact that most terrorists today fit into certain demographics and categories, and so it is worth creating profiles of these categories and investigating more thoroughly anyone who fits into these profiles, as they are far more likely to be potential terrorists. As Asra Q. Nomani argued in 2010: \"As an American Muslim, I\u2019ve come to recognize, sadly, that there is one common denominator defining those who\u2019ve got their eyes trained on U.S. targets: MANY of them are Muslim\u2014like the Somali-born teenager arrested Friday night for a reported plot to detonate a car bomb at a packed Christmas tree-lighting ceremony in downtown Portland, Oregon. We have to talk about the taboo topic of profiling because terrorism experts are increasingly recognizing that religious ideology makes terrorist organizations and terrorists more likely to commit heinous crimes against civilians, such as blowing an airliner out of the sky. Certainly, it\u2019s not an easy or comfortable conversation but it\u2019s one, I believe, we must have.\" [1]  This resolution would not require the targeting of all Muslims, but rather those who meet further profile characteristics. As Dr Shaaz Mahboob, of British Muslims for Secular Democracy, said in 2010: \"We have seen that certain types of people who fit a certain profile \u2013 young men of a particular ethnic background \u2013 have been engaged in terror activities, and targeting this sort of passenger would give people a greater sense of security. Profiling has to be backed by this type of statistical and intelligence-based evidence. There would be no point in stopping Muslim grandmothers.\" [2] Profiles would be compiled and acted on using a range of information, not just details of passengers\u2019 ethic and racial backgrounds. Information about passengers is already voluntarily provided so this information can be used to eliminate the 60-70% of passengers who are of negligible risk.. State-of-the art screening technologies could then be applied to the remaining pool of passengers, for which less information is known. As a consequence, these individuals may be subjected to the highest level of security screening, and in some cases, prevented from flying. [3]  Philip Baum, editor of Aviation Security International, argues: \"I have been an ardent supporter of passenger profiling for many years. It is the only solution that addresses the problems of the past as well as those of the future. The problem is the word \u201cprofiling\u201d itself, as it conjures up negative connotations. A traveler\u2019s appearance, behavior, itinerary and passport are factors to consider in effective profiling. Effective profiling is based on the analysis of the appearance and behavior of a passenger and an inspection of the traveler\u2019s itinerary and passport; it does not and should not be based on race, religion, nationality or color of skin. We need an intelligent approach to aviation security that deploys common sense to the security checkpoint. We require highly trained, streetwise, individuals who can make risk assessments of passengers as they arrive at the airport and determine which technology should be used for screening.\" [4]  Intelligent, well designed and responsive profiling systems study passenger\u2019s behavior in-situ in addition to their background and appearance. Police officers and security camera operators can be trained to recognize signs of nervous or apprehensive behavior that passengers might exhibit. Brigitte Gabriel, founder and president of ACT! for America, said in December of 2009: \"We're not talking only about profiling Muslims. We need to take a lesson from the Israelis. When you go through security checkpoints in Tel Aviv airport, you have very highly trained screeners. Someone who is about to carry on a terrorist attack acts nervous, acts suspicious [under such scrutiny].\" [5] Profiling would probably have picked up on would-be Christmas Day bomber Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, who notably paid for his ticket in cash, did not have any checked luggage, had booked a one-way ticket to the United States, and claimed he was coming to a religious ceremony. [6] Together, these actions are extremely suspicious and it would have been correct, justified and indeed prudent for airport security to have investigated him on the basis that he met the profile of a possible terrorist. It was only later luck which meant that he was caught instead of succeeding in his attack, all on the basis of the absence of security profiling \u2013 fully eight years after the 9\/11 attacks.  Passenger profiling has a record of success in Israel. As Thomas Sowell, senior fellow at the Hoover Institution, argues: \"No country has better airport security than Israel \u2013 and no country needs it more, since Israel is the most hated target of Islamic extremist terrorists. Yet, somehow, Israeli airport security people don't have to strip passengers naked electronically or have strangers feeling their private parts. Does anyone seriously believe that we have better airport security than Israel? Is our security record better than theirs? 'Security' may be the excuse being offered for the outrageous things being done to American air travelers, but the heavy-handed arrogance and contempt for ordinary people that is the hallmark of this [G. W. Bush] administration in other areas is all too apparent in these new and invasive airport procedures. [...] What do the Israeli airport security people do that American airport security does not do? They profile. They question some individuals for more than half an hour, open up all their luggage and spread the contents on the counter - and they let others go through with scarcely a word. And it works.\u201d [7] Therefore until such security resources are used appropriately, we will never achieve a secure air transportation system, and terrorism and its awful human consequences will remain a constant threat and fear.  [1] Nomani, Asra Q. \"Airport Security: Let's Profile Muslims\". The Daily Beast. 29 November 2010.   [2] Sawer, Patrick. \u201cMuslim MP: security profiling at airports is \u2018price we have to pay\u2019\u201d. The Telegraph. 2 January 2010.   [3] Jacobson, Sheldon H. \"The Right Kind of Profiling\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [4] Baum, Philip . \"Common Sense Profiling Works.\" New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [5] Groening, Chad. \u201cU.S. airport security - 'profiling' a must\u201d. OneNewsNow. 31 December 2009.   [6] Groening, Chad. \u201cU.S. airport security - 'profiling' a must\u201d. OneNewsNow. 31 December 2009.   [7] Sowell, Thomas. \"Profiling at airports works for Israel\". The Columbus Dispatch. 24 November 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro01b","title":"","text":"If terrorists were really unintelligent and unimaginative enough to be beaten by such a blunt tool as security profiling, we would have been able to stop them long ago and would not have the difficult security situation we do now. Rather, if we introduce invasive security profiling similar to the procedures used in Israeli airports, terrorists will simply adapt their methods in order to circumvent it. Terrorists will recruit from different, non-profiled groups. They will alter their dress and train their operatives to act differently.  With respect to American air transportation, al-Qaeda already appears to be changing its tactics in response to the stricter screening and checking processes introduced by the Department for Homeland Security: since 9\/11, two attempted attacks on US aviation involved a non-Arab Nigerian and a Briton with the last name of \u201cReid.\u201d [1]  Terrorists can adapt in countless ways which will render security profiling not only useless but also counter-productive. Innocent men and women who fit the profiles designed by the security services are subjected to further scrutiny when passing through airports. In American airports, they are frequently removed from queues by TSA officials, segregated from other passengers and exposed to close contact body searches. Prima facie, these individuals will understand that they have been singled out because of their race or religion. This does nothing to address or rebut religious radicals\u2019 attempts to portray America as inherently racist and imperialist, and its foreign policy as arbitrary and cynical. The resolution may serve to alienate migrant communities that could otherwise provide valuable intelligence to the security services. Members of these communities will be less likely to voice their concerns if they feel that the authorities will use the information they provide to justify further summary searches and interrogations of air passengers.  Moreover, an Israeli-style profiling system would simply not be scalable to the volume of passengers passing through major airports in America or other countries larger than Israel. As Mark Thompson argues: \"I think it\u2019s pretty clear that the reason a \u201cprofiling\u201d system would not work and indeed has not been attempted in the US is that it\u2019s not scalable. Israel has one major airport, which by US standards would only be \u201cmid-sized.\u201d Yet look at the security line at that airport, which is more befitting of Newark or Atlanta than it is of Pittsburgh or St. Louis. A good profiling system is labour-intensive in a way that our system simply does not have the capacity to implement, and would unacceptably undermine the numerous sectors of our economy that rely heavily on air transportation. And this says nothing of the direct economic costs of appropriately training and paying security officers charged with conducting the profiling. Nor, as the article above suggests, does it say anything about eliminating the bureaucratic infighting and secrecy amongst American intelligence agencies in a manner that would allow tens of thousands of airport security personnel access to the intelligence necessary to adequately do their jobs.\" [2]  [1] Thompson, Mark. \"Profiling, Political Correctness, and Airport Security.\" The League of Ordinary Gentleman. 29 November 2010.   [2] Thompson, Mark. \"Profiling, Political Correctness, and Airport Security.\" The League of Ordinary Gentleman. 29 November 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro03a","title":"","text":"Profiling is preferable to the alternatives:  Expanding the use of profiling will help to restrict the use of invasive security monitoring strategies such as body scanners and intimate, full contact pat-downs. Body-scanning and patting-down all travelers, including older disabled men and women, is an excessive, expensive and humiliating approach to passenger safety.  Many civil rights groups in addition to consumer\u2019s rights organizations and air-travel business analysts feel very strongly that invasive security procedures violates passengers\u2019 privacy. Profiling those individuals that are a real potential threat is a good way to avoid these problems. As Thomas Sowell argues, proponents of invasive pat-downs and body scanners \u201cwould rather have scanners look under the clothes of nuns than to detain a Jihadist imam for questioning.\" [1]  Alternatives to profiling are far more invasive and likely to be more offensive to Muslims than profiling would be. With broad screening of all travelers for example there is likely to be less security as security resources are directs onto people who are not a threat so offending everybody rather than just a tiny minority. For each search of a passenger who a profiler would regard as highly unlikely to engage in violent activity in plane or an airport , there is a near-negligible impact on security attention and resources. However, when this impact is accumulated over the millions of passengers who fly each year, the effect does indeed become measurable. In essence, by spending billions of dollars on scrutinizing the wrong people, security forces are depleting a reserve of resources that could be spent in screening passengers who are materially more likely to constitute a threat. [2]  Broad screening also creates long lines of people awaiting security at airports. Not only does blanket screening reduce the efficiency of airport operations, impacting on the profits of airlines and the businesses that contract with them, security queues themselves could become targets for terrorists, for example through suicide bombings designed to kill an airplane\u2019s worth of passengers before they even get through security. By definition, pat-downs and body scanners cannot prevent such a threat (indeed they add to them by creating long lines), but profiling can, by picking up on suspicious individuals from the moment they enter the airport, or even from when they book their tickets. [3] Profiling also rightly shifts the security focus from cargo to people. Better knowing who is flying allows security forces to know which cargo (luggage) they do need to or do not need to investigate for explosives or drugs, instead of having to search all or do (ineffective) random checks. [4] Therefore security profiling is preferable to the alternatives of body scans and invasive pat-downs, both in terms of security efficacy and also in terms of sensitivity to travelers.  [1] Sowell, Thomas. \"Profiling at airports works for Israel\". The Columbus Dispatch. 24 November 2010.   [2] Jacobson, Sheldon H. \"The Right Kind of Profiling\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [3] Baum, Philip . \"Common Sense Profiling Works.\" New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [4] Sela, Rafi. \"Multilayered Security\". New York Times, Room for Debate. 4 January 4 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-con03b","title":"","text":"Terrorists have asserted justifications for their acts long before the idea of security profiling was even suggested. For example, Osama Bin Laden justified the 9\/11 attacks on the grounds of the presence of US troops in Saudi Arabia, US support for Israel, and sanctions against Iraq. [1] Airport security profiling will make no significant difference to terrorist grievances against the west, but could well make a significant difference to the efficacy of security. Most Muslims will continue to cooperate with Western security forces, as their interests are the same: preventing terrorism and bombings helps protect their lives and livelihoods as well. Even if the policy is disliked their cooperation will continue, as there is simply no workable alternative (short of becoming terrorists themselves, which is something which the vast, vast majority of Muslims find abhorrent and would never even consider).  [1] Plotz, David. \u201cWhat does Osama Bin Laden want?\u201d. Slate. 14 September 2001."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-con01b","title":"","text":"More screening of travellers who display suspicious behaviour does not mean no or insufficient security surrounding travellers who do not. Security profiling would simply me a part of the security operation. What it does mean is individuals who buy one-way tickets with cash and no luggage will be more closely investigated. Yes terrorists may adapt to this, but this will make it harder for them to operate (as their operatives have to act identically to normal passengers or face exposure) and increase the chances that a \u2018slip-up\u2019 of theirs will actually be noticed and investigated by airport security. Moreover it is not so easy for terrorist organisations to find \u2018clean\u2019 operatives: the process of radicalization and terrorist training is bound to bring such individuals to the attention of police or security forces at some point, meaning most such individuals will be identified as potential terrorists and observed accordingly. Security profiling could actually aid this process."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-con02a","title":"","text":"Profiling is racist:  Profiling in many ways would simply result in institutionalized racism, as Mark German argues: \u201cracial profiling is wrong, un-American and unconstitutional. It is institutionalized racism.\u201d [1] Mark Thompson adds: \u201cSo it\u2019s not 'political correctness' (aka the Equal Protection clause of the 14th Amendment) that is standing in the way of replacing full-body scans with a strong and effective profiling system: its reality. All that 'political correctness' is preventing is the implementation of an equally (and likely even more) ineffective piece of security theater in which we single out one minority group for intensive screening while giving a pass to everyone else. This would certainly annoy fewer people, but it wouldn\u2019t make us safer and its sole benefits would be accomplished by treating an entire minority group as second-class citizens.\" [2]  In any legal system which claims to give its citizens equal rights or equal protection of the law, security profiling is unacceptable. Profiling will target certain groups more than others. Even innocent members of these groups are made to feel like second-class citizens, and that the government suspects them of being terrorists without evidence \u2013 simply because of who they are. These individuals will be very visibly reminded of this every time they are segregated out at airport security, while they watch other non-suspects (who will be predominantly white and Christian, or at least non-Muslim) not being subject to the same scrutiny. The non-suspects will see this as well, and this may re-enforce any notions they have that all Muslims are potential terrorists and thus are suspect. Therefore because security profiling harms certain groups of citizens in unacceptable ways, it should not be instituted.  [1] German, Michael. \"Wrong and Unworkable\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [2] Thompson, Mark. \"Profiling, Political Correctness, and Airport Security.\" The League of Ordinary Gentleman. 29 November 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-con03a","title":"","text":"Profiling will increase terrorism not combat it:  Profiling alienates groups needed in the fight against terrorism. Treating all Muslims as suspects, or being perceived as such, undermines efforts to gain intelligence on terrorists. Profiling the very communities we need information from to catch terrorists would be counter-productive as they would be less inclined to come forward. Umar Abdul-Muttallab\u2019s father for example gave us such information to prevent the Dec. 25 terror plot. [1] Even if security profiling did make airport security more effective as supporters claim (although it would not) without personal intelligence and assistance the security situation will be far worse than it is now.. Normal security screening does not alienate these groups in the same way, as it is applied to everyone (and so they do not feel singled out) and it can be applied in culturally sensitive ways (for example, ensuring that pat-downs of Muslim women are always carried out only by female security officers). [2]  Profiling also gives terrorists a justification for their acts. As Michael German argues: \"when we abandon our principles, we not only betray our values, we also run the risk of undermining international and community support for counterterrorism efforts by providing an injustice for terrorists to exploit as a way of justifying further acts of terrorism.\" [3] In general profiling contributes to an environment of fear and insecurity, in which some communities feel victimized and others feel under constant threat, leading to even more tensions and an increased risk of violence on either side. Ibrahim Hooper of the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) said in December of 2009 after the Christmas Day Bomber incident: \"While everyone supports robust airline security measures, racial and religious profiling are in fact counterproductive and can lead to a climate of insecurity and fear.\" [4] True success in preventing terrorism will require the active co-operation of Muslim communities, both at home and abroad, in identifying and isolating terrorist suspects and training groups. This cannot be achieved if it is perceived that the West regards all Muslims as terrorist suspects. The distinction which almost all Muslims currently see between themselves and the violent jihadis of the terrorist networks should be fostered, rather than sending the opposite message by implying we cannot tell the difference, or even that we believe there is no difference between them. For this reason, instituting security profiling at airports would be counter-productive, and thus should not be done.  [1] Al-Marayati, Salam. \"Get the Intelligence Right\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [2] Schneier, Bruce. \"Profiling Makes Us Less Safe\". New York Times, Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [3] German, Michael. \"Wrong and Unworkable\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [4] Groening, Chad. \u201cU.S. airport security - 'profiling' a must\u201d. OneNewsNow. 31 December 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-con01a","title":"","text":"Profiling is ineffective at increasing security:  Terrorists simply do not conform to a neat profile. Many suspects linked to past terrorist attacks that have been apprehended or identified come from within the United States and European Union countries. Profiling does not help against individuals with names and ethnic backgrounds like Richard Reid, Jose Padilla, David Headley and Michael Finton. [1] Many terrorists have been European, Asian, African, Hispanic, and Middle Eastern, male and female, young and old. A significant number of domestic and aspiring terrorists have been found to be \u201cclean skins\u201d \u2013 individuals with no prior link to known fundamentalists, who have radicalised themselves by seeking out terror related materials on the internet.  Umar Farouk Abdul Mutallab was Nigerian. Richard Reid, the shoe bomber, was British with a Jamaican father. Germaine Lindsay, one of the 7\/7 London bombers, was Afro-Caribbean. Dirty bomb suspect Jose Padilla was Hispanic-American. The 2002 Bali terrorists were Indonesian. Timothy McVeigh was a white American, as was the Unabomber. The Chechen terrorists who blew up two Russian planes in 2004 were female. Palestinian terrorists routinely recruit 'clean' suicide bombers, and have used unsuspecting Westerners as bomb carriers. [2]  Racial profiling is a shortcut based on bias rather than evidence. Unfortunately there is no such thing as a \u201cterrorist profile.\u201d There was in 2005a Belgian woman who became a suicide bomber in Iraq, would profiling have picked her up? [3] It is sometimes suggested to target Muslims, reasoning that some are bound to be \u201cradicalized.\u201d But Islam is a global religion. Which characteristics should the security services look at to determine whether someone is a Muslim? Name? Appearance? In 2000 63% of Arab Americans were Christian and only just under a quarter were Muslim. [4]  Inevitably only certain groups will be profiled, this then leaves open the possibility that terrorist organisations will simply recruit from other ones, as Michael German (a former FBI agent) argues: \u201cRacial profiling is also unworkable. Once aware of national profiling, terrorists will simply use people from \u201cnon-profiled\u201d countries or origins, like FBI most-wanted Qaeda suspect Adam Gadahn, an American. What will we do? Keep adding more countries to the list of 14 until we\u2019ve covered the whole globe?\" [5]  Terrorists can easily out manoeuvre profiling systems. Profiling creates two paths through airport security: one with less scrutiny and one with more. Terrorists will then want to take the path with less scrutiny. Once a terrorist group works out the profile they will be able to get through airport security with the minimum level of screening every time. [6] Massoud Shadjareh (the chairman of the Islamic Human Rights Commission,) argues: \" What's to stop them dressing up as orthodox Jews in order to evade profiling-based searches?\" [7] Moreover, the model of security practices, including profiling, in Israel is not applicable to other Western nations, such as the United States. Terrorists that threaten Israel are from well organised local groups, and from a particular group. America on the other hand faces groups from around the world. [8] This makes profiling far more efficacious in Israel and much less so in the United States, for example.  [1] Al-Marayati, Salam. \"Get the Intelligence Right\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [2] Schneier, Bruce. \"Profiling Makes Us Less Safe\". New York Times, Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [3] German, Michael. \"Wrong and Unworkable\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [4] World Directory of Minorities, \u2018Arab and other Middle Eastern Americans\u2019,   [5] German, Michael. \"Wrong and Unworkable\". New York Times Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [6] Schneier, Bruce. \"Profiling Makes Us Less Safe\". New York Times, Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.   [7] Sawer, Patrick. \u201cMuslim MP: security profiling at airports is \u2018price we have to pay\u2019\u201d. The Telegraph. 2 January 2010.   [8] Thompson, Mark. \"Profiling, Political Correctness, and Airport Security.\" The League of Ordinary Gentleman. 29 November 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-tsihsspa-con02b","title":"","text":"As conservative columnist Deroy Murdock put it: \u201cWe are not arguing that the TSA should send anyone named Mohammad to be waterboarded somewhere between the first-class lounge and the Pizza Hut.\u201d [1] There is simply no reason why security profiling necessarily has to be, or be perceived as, racist or targeted against certain groups. The vast majority of Muslim travellers do not display the kinds of suspicious behaviour which profiling will largely be based on, there will be no reason for them to seem nervous, and so will not be negatively impacted: indeed they will benefit by not being forced to submit to invasive pat-downs or body scans. They will similarly benefit from being safer in the air, as security profiling will improve the efficacy of airport security and decrease the chances of a terrorist attack which would kill Muslim and non-Muslim passengers alike. If profiling does end up resulting in more of a particular ethnic group being checked then this will not be because the profiling is racist but because these people are acting suspicious \u2013 at very most the ethnic profile would be one among many factors for deciding who should submit to greater security.  [1] Nomani, Asra Q. \"Airport Security: Let's Profile Muslims\". The Daily Beast. 29 November 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro02b","title":"","text":"The distribution of the vote is more important than the percentages for each candidate. The entire point of having the electoral college is to that it can act as a check on the majority vote is to ensure that the candidate who is best suited and had the broadest amount of support wins the presidency. If it was simply determined by popular vote than certain regions of the country would have a greater influence on the outcome of who won. The electoral college acts as a counterbalance to that."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro02a","title":"","text":"The electoral college violates the democratic principle that the winner should be the candidate receiving the most votes.  In 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and probably 1960, the candidate receiving the most votes for president lost the election [1] .  This occurs because all but two states award all their electoral votes to the candidate winning a plurality in the state; because all states receive two electoral votes corresponding to their two US senators; because the number of House seats (which serve as the basis of the remaining electoral votes) often poorly match the population of the state; because states cast electoral votes no matter how many people actually vote; and because the size of the House is arbitrary.  [1] Factcheck.org, \u2018Presidents Winning Without Popular Vote\u2019, Annenberg Public Policy Center, 24 March 2008,"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro03b","title":"","text":"No one defends this aspect of the electoral college. It is indefensible.  However, it is important to note that the election has never come to the House of Representatives choosing the president. It is merely a plan of last resort to ensure that there is a president."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro05a","title":"","text":"The electoral college weakens incentives for voting and party building.  There is no incentive for candidates to mobilize voters in states they are sure to win \u2013 or sure to lose, and voters have little incentive to vote in noncompetitive states where their vote is likely not to matter.  Some states like Texas just have a fairly predictable voting record- they have voted republican 9 out of the last 10 presidential elections. Democratic presidential candidates do not spend much time in Texas for that reason. [1]  [1] \u201cTexas\u201d 270 to Win."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro01a","title":"","text":"The electoral college violates the democratic principle of equality in voting  Under the electoral college, all votes do not count equally. Voters in some states have more say in selecting the president than voters in other states.  For example, California has 55 electoral college votes, while Delaware only get 3 votes. There is not equality in that, every state should be equal, California for voting purposes is no more important that Delaware. [1]  [1] Electoral Map. Wikipedia. [Online] Available at:"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro01b","title":"","text":"The US is not a pure democracy. The electoral college is one of the checks on majority rule. It is not violating the principle of equality of voting, because it gives every state a proportional voice based on their population.  The states that have more of a say also have a larger population of voters, therefore it is proportional. California has the largest population for any state, and therefore gets the largest number of votes in the electoral college."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro05b","title":"","text":"This argument is suggestion that there is simply a strategy behind elections- which is true for every election. The electoral college framework does make a candidate have to acquire a number of states, in order to win, and while there may be some states that it is not the best use of time and resources to campaign as hard in.  But this does require candidates have a broad base of support in order to win the presidency."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro04b","title":"","text":"The propositions argument is not only a logical fallacy, but also discourages democracy.  It is illogical to argue that because Ralph Nader got a few votes in New Hampshire and Florida that if he was not on ballot they would have voted for Al Gore instead.  Furthermore, the American electoral framework is comprised almost exclusively of a two party system, and any candidate who runs on a third party ballot needs to be given extra support just to have any chance at all of even securing just a few votes."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro03a","title":"","text":"If no candidate receives a majority of the electoral vote, the House of Representatives chooses the president, with each state receiving one vote.  This provision allows the 7 smallest states with a population of about 4.9 million to outvote the 6 largest states with a population of 119 million. [1] This is blatently unfair.  [1] Congress, XII - Manner of Choosing a President and Vice-President, 27 July 1804,"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro04a","title":"","text":"The electoral college allows small third parties to tip the balance in a state and distort the preferences of the voters.  In 2000, Ralph Nader siphoned a few votes from Al Gore in New Hampshire and Florida, costing Gore victories and thus the election. Nevertheless, Gore was the preferred choice of voters in a match up with George W. Bush. [1]  [1] Archives.gov, \u2018Historical Election Results\u2019, \u2018Electoral College Box Scores 1789-1996\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con03b","title":"","text":"The electoral college encourages third parties.  Under the electoral college, a third party with regional support can win something: a state. The winner take all aspect of direct election of the president with no runoff discourages third parties because they have to come in first to win anything."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con01b","title":"","text":"There is no such thing as a small state interest. States do not embody coherent, unified interests, nor do they require protection. The Constitution places many constraints on the actions of simple majorities, and the Senate provides extraordinary representation to small states. Moreover, candidates ignore most small states in their campaigns."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con02a","title":"","text":"The electoral college is an essential bulwark of federalism.  The electoral college emphasizing the role of states, and abolishing it would weaken federalism. This system reinforces the division and sharing of powers between the states and the national government. Without it the national government would have much greater power over the state governments, and the voice of the people would be quieter. The electoral college is essential to preserving the power of individuals through their state.  Additionally, the Electoral College helps reinforce stable institutions that are essential for maintaining a political regime and preserving a free society. [1]  [1] England, Trent. \u201cWhat is \u2018National Popular Vote\u2019?\u201d Save Our States."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con05a","title":"","text":"The electoral college forces candidates to win broad coalitions across the country, encouraging national harmony.  In direct election of the president, candidates might appeal to clusters of voters, whose votes could be aggregated across states and regions, perhaps representing only one strata of society."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con04a","title":"","text":"Casting votes by state forces candidates to be attentive to local interests, which they would otherwise ignore in a national campaign.  The electoral college is helping promote democracy through implementing a mechanism that make candidates pay attention to local issues, and actually do what they are elected to do- serve the interests of their constituents.  A presidential candidate is of course going to focus on a more national level interest, but in order to visit and campaign across the country, the candidate must be at least aware of the issues that of particular interest to the local area."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con03a","title":"","text":"The electoral college inhibits the emergence of third parties and thus acts as a bulwark against extremist candidates.  The founding fathers had a reason to fear the emergence of extremist parties. A modern day example is with Rwanda. When they gained a multiparty democracy, without checks on majority rule, it allowed for extremist parties to enter politics and made possible the use of public resources to manipulate the population which set the necessary precondition of ethnic hatred that enabled the genocide to occur [1] .  [1] Mamdani, M., 2001. When Victims Become Killers. Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press. p209"}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con05b","title":"","text":"Candidates ignore large areas of the country in their campaigns. Moreover, George W. Bush lost most major demographic groups in winning election in 2000 under the electoral college."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con01a","title":"","text":"The electoral college prevents a tyranny of the majority.  The interests of states, especially small states, would be lost in a majoritarian national campaign. The electoral college forces candidates to be attentive to state interests.  When the founding fathers created the electoral college it was with the many purposes in mind, but the tyranny of the masses is the most appropriate in mind here. It is important to remember the timeframe that the US was created in, there was not a very high literacy rate, and it would become very easy without a check on majority rule for someone to manipulate the population when entering power [1] .  [1] United States of America, 1787. The Constitution of the United States. [Online] Available at:  [Accessed 27 April 2012]."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con04b","title":"","text":"Candidates do not focus on local interests because of the electoral college. The evidence is overwhelming. Candidates do not campaign in most states, nor do they run advertisements in them. Instead, the electoral college provides incentives to focus on competitive states, especially large competitive states. Moreover, candidates do not focus on local interests in the states they do visit.  We do not need a presidency responsive to parochial interests in a system that is already prone to gridlock and which offers minority interests extraordinary access to policymakers and opportunities to thwart policies they oppose."}
+{"id":"validation-politics-gvhwauec-con02b","title":"","text":"The electoral college is not a federal principle. Federalism was not mentioned at the Constitutional Convention in relation to the electoral college. The electoral college does not enhance the power or sovereignty of states. Federalism is based on representation in Congress and the Constitution\u2019s allocation of powers to the states, not on the electoral college."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro02b","title":"","text":"Politicians are not true stand-ins. They represent the interests of the people on a policy basis not on the basis of their personal lives. Trying to divine personalities in politicians inevitably results in misallocation of the limited resources of time and energy people can generally spend informing themselves about candidates. Rather, the focus of voters should be drawn to the issues, which is where true policy comes from. Of course temperament and actions in one\u2019s private life may be an indicator to how the politician will react but their ideology and policy positions are likely to be a much more certain indicator. Focus on private lives only obscures the truth of policies and reduces the quality of representation as a result."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro02a","title":"","text":"Citizens have a right to know who is being elected to represent them  Beyond the discussion of the balancing of the right to privacy, it is important to understand the nature of representatives as stand-ins for the citizens who elect them. In other words, politicians are surrogates. Their duty is to represent the people in public life across all issues and policies. [1] Yet it is impossible to ascertain the desires of the citizens on all issues in the course of an election campaign. Even harder is to understand political decision-making in a context that had not existed at the time of the election. For example, if a war was to begin suddenly in a country that had not expected any conflict and had not elected representatives on the basis of how they stood on fighting this war. But that is exactly why politicians are elected as much for who they are as what their avowed policy aims are. We elect politicians who we believe will act best under such changing conditions; the \u20183 am phone call\u2019, how a candidate will react in a crisis, is often a major issue in U.S. Presidential elections and temperament is often the only way to judge this. [2] Mitt Romney as candidate in the 2012 election was widely considered to have lost out to Obama on this measure. [3] Understanding the personal lives of politicians allows voters to elect one who best represents them in the sense of being able to act in their place in a changing world. Thus it is critical for the good electoral decision-making that the right to privacy of politicians be infringed.  [1] Hughs, J. \u201cDoes the Public Really Have the Right to Know About Politicians\u2019 Private Lives\u201d. University of Phoenix Online. 27 June 2011,   [2] Fallows, James, \u201cMitt Romney Drops His 3 a.m. Phone Call\u201d, the Atlantic, 12 September 2012,   [3] Drum, Kevin, \u201cObama Wins the 3 a.m. Phone Call Test\u201d, Mother Jones, 14 October 2012,"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro03b","title":"","text":"All intense scrutiny will do is make fewer people be willing to enter politics. This does not mean the most capable will stay, only those with a higher tolerance for media intrusion, and those with a talent for concealment and spin. The result is not better governance, because the pool of potential leaders is reduced by the added pressures of losing all hope of privacy. Loss of the right privacy means worse governance."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro01a","title":"","text":"The right to privacy is not absolute and is sacrificed in standing for public office  A right such as that to privacy is not absolute. Rights are general statements of principle that are then caveated and curtailed in the interests of society. When an individual seeks elevation to public office, he or she must accept that the role is a special one in society. As the representative of the people, the politician is more than just the holder of a job appointed by the people, but is the elected servant, whose duty is to lead. Leadership includes leading by example as well as simply directing policy. It is a strange relationship, and it is one that demands the utmost confidence in the holder. But confidence can only be developed through increased scrutiny and transparency. This means understanding the private life of the politician, since it so often informs their public life. Thus, when citizens place their political power in the hands of an elected representative, they gain the reciprocal right over that representative to have his or her life and character laid bare for their approval. This is the only way true representativeness may be achieved."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro01b","title":"","text":"Even if one concedes that such rights are not entirely sacrosanct, it is important to recognise that rights should apply universally and should still be defended. The right to privacy is also important, and must include politicians who, while fulfilling an important societal role, are not so special as to merit significant curtailment of rights. So long as politicians do their duty by representing the interests of those that elected them in a legislative framework, they are fulfilling their end of the covenant with the people, leaving no room for any nebulous additional right of citizens over politicians. They are elected to do a job not for their life."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro04b","title":"","text":"The power structures that command people are best challenged through attention to policy and shaping the discourse in a positive manner. Attention to private lives is simply salacious and does nothing to actually forward the cause of groups outside the elite. In fact, focus on the foibles of the few serves only to confuse and misdirect public sentiment away from where it might do the most good in the furtherance of change. If anything deserves intense scrutiny it is the power structures themselves, such as Oxbridge in the United Kingdom, not on the individuals who are mere products of it."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro03a","title":"","text":"Heavy scrutiny forces politicians to dedicate themselves fully to their public service  When politicians see themselves constantly under the lens of public scrutiny, they are essentially forced to dedicate themselves wholesale to their duties as representatives. They are disincentivized in the extreme to pursue any transgressive or hypocritical activities behind closed doors, resulting in more energy dedicated to legislating, and less to lining their pockets or chasing interns, since the added risk of being discovered increases the cost of trying to conceal their foibles. [1] Having a culture of scrutiny of politicians private lives will mean those who most see their work as a public service and so will be dedicated to it will be the ones who seek to become politicians. Dominique Strauss-Kahn\u2019s lurid sex life has thrown light on the sexual misconduct rife in French politics and has actually sparked a major effort to reform the system and a change to a more demanding culture towards politicians. [2] Politicians are human, after all, and susceptible to the base human urges that power unchecked is wont to accommodate. A powerful probe into politicians\u2019 private lives can only serve the cause of better governance.  [1] Hughs, J. \u201cDoes the Public Really Have the Right to Know About Politicians\u2019 Private Lives\u201d. University of Phoenix Online. 27 June 2011,   [2] Clifford, C. and Vandoorne, S. \u201cScandals Put a Spotlight on France\u2019s Hidden Sexism, Privacy Laws\u201d. CNN. 3 June 2011,"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro04a","title":"","text":"Heavy scrutiny serves to challenge existing power structures  The power structures that command peoples\u2019 lives are often difficult to identify. While there are usually multiple candidates to choose from at election time, in many polities they all tend to come out from small-based elite. Oxford and Cambridge, for example, serve as the incubators of power in the United Kingdom. They hold vastly disproportionate sway in composition of Parliament and other political posts, and tend to dominate the front benches of all the parties. What media scrutiny, particularly with the advent of new media, has served to be is a massive check on entrenched elites. They challenge them in their lofty offices and strike at their very hearts when they behave in ways inappropriate or hypocritical. [1] This scrutiny is often one of the only pure democratic powers available to ordinary people, even in a liberal democracy.  [1] Thompson, J. 2011. \u201cShifting Boundaries of Public and Private Life\u201d. Theory Culture Society 28(4): 49-70."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con03b","title":"","text":"Even if the media occasionally distracts from more pressing issues, it does not make the issues attending politicians\u2019 private lives entirely unimportant. The media can be admonished, as it was in the case of Lewinski, to stop getting overly fixated. As society\u2019s watchdog, the media owes a duty to the people to provide as much information as possible, including information about their representatives\u2019 private lives. Without that information they would never be able to adequately gauge who might best represent their interests."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con01b","title":"","text":"Even if privacy is a fundamental human right, it is certainly not an absolute one. When the authorities have probable cause they can search the property, residence, and computers of suspects in pursuit of greater societal justice. Politicians are not simply doing a job for the electorate they are in a special position as the effective embodiment of the people\u2019s will, and as a result the powers they wield, which is far vaster than that of any private agent, demands a higher level of scrutiny into their backgrounds, which means looking into their private lives. This is exactly the same as outside politics; the more senior and powerful the job the more rigorous the checking of the qualifications and background of the candidate must be."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con02a","title":"","text":"Fixating on personal lives results in infringing the rights of more than just the politicians themselves  Politicians, like all people, are not islands. They have loved ones and families. When a citizen chooses to offer him or herself up as a candidate for office he or she takes on many responsibilities. However, the politician\u2019s family can never be considered to have wholly consented to the arrangement, even if they support them in the election. They are in many ways innocent bystanders, yet when politicians are treated as having no freedom of privacy, their families too are stripped of that right unjustly. [1] Thus, the right to privacy is worth protecting for politicians even if it could be shown that they had no real personal right to such respect. Rights exist in part to protect innocent parties, and the families of politicians are innocent, and would undoubtedly be prime victims of limitless media intervention. The recent ads produced by the National Rifle Association that target President Obama\u2019s daughters and their security detail has dragged girls who did not choose to be the president\u2019s daughters into the spotlight. [2] Additionally, the fear of scrutiny of family might well have a serious chilling effect on anyone who might seek public office, resulting in a worse candidate pool, harming everyone.  [1] Privacy International. \u201cPrivacy as a Political Right\u201d. Index on Censorship 2010 39(1): 58-68.   [2] AFP, \u201cWhite House slams NRA ad targeting Obama daughters\u201d, Google News, 16 January 2013,"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con04a","title":"","text":"The focus of politics and politicians should be on policy  Delving into the private lives of politicians does nothing to improve citizens\u2019 understanding of who represents them except to show that a certain politician may have issues in his or her private life that is unsavoury, or slightly hypocritical. But that focus on hypocrisy is itself legislatively meaningless. If voters select a representative who then votes in accordance with their wishes, then he is doing his duty, irrespective of how he lives his own life. Thus when Newt Gingrich, for example, as Speaker of the House sought to increase federal recognitions and incentives towards stable, monogamous relationships, while at the same time leading an extramarital affair of his own, he was not acting in bad faith with the voters who backed him, but doing their will, which is the duty of a politician at base. [1] Furthermore, when personal lives are open to attack, candidates can focus their energies on denigrating their opponents instead of addressing the issues that matter. The result is worse elections, as voters are unable to distinguish candidates effectively on the basis of policy, but are rather pushed to make decisions on the basis of personal lives, which results in decision-making that is less thoroughly in their interest.  [1] Kurtz, K. \u201cLegislatures and Citizens: Communication Between Representatives and their Constituents\u201d. National Conference of State Legislatures. December 1997,"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con03a","title":"","text":"The private lives of politicians are a harmful distraction for the media  When the lives of politicians are fair game, they necessarily become a major target for journalists. Salacious gossip sells much better than more complicated stories about policy, so they are given pride of place. The result is the media wasting time and resources on pursuing stories that are ultimately generally useless in divining policy and progress in a society. The media is society\u2019s watchdog, and its duty is to protect the people from untruths in policy and to shield them from wicked decisions. Focusing on the personal lives does nothing to serve the actual material interests of the people. Thus when the media reports on the private lives of politicians over the more meaty issues of the day, it abrogates its most fundamental duty to its citizens. The best example of this occurring is certainly the Lewinski affair in America. While it was deeply unfortunate that the president would use his power to solicit the sexual favours of an intern, the near maniacal fixation with which the media attended the story served to halt the process of government for many months. Bill Clinton spent much of his time and energy obfuscating and apologising for his private life, while the Congress dithered over who could be the most righteous in their opposition to the president. [1] The result was one of the most farcical standstills in the history of American governance. Absent the media reporting on this story and delving into the lives of those involved, America might well have been able to focus on the things that mattered.  [1] Gitlin, T. \u201cThe Clinton-Lewinsky Obsession: How the Press Made a Scandal of Itself\u201d. The Washington Monthly. December 1998,"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con01a","title":"","text":"All individuals have a legitimate right to privacy  Privacy is a fundamental human right that is universal, a right that should be defended for all citizens, including those who govern us. [1] What people get up to in their private lives is by and large their own business. People generally speaking have a basic respect for privacy. While some people may think their politicians owe them a special duty and thus have to give up certain privileges like privacy, the covenant between citizen and representative cannot be justified on such stringent grounds. A politician is effectively an employee of his constituents and the citizens of the polity. If this was justification for scrutiny into the private lives of elected officials then why should it not also be justification for intrusion into the private lives of unelected civil servants? Both these groups are doing a job for the public, but undertraining this job does not give the public the authority to intrude into their privacy beyond questions about whether they are qualified for the job. The duty of an elected politician is not so special as to demand an abrogation of his or her ability to enjoy a private life. If a right is to have meaning, it must apply to everyone with a semblance of equality. Making politicians fair game for reporters only serves to undermine the rights all citizens enjoy.  [1] Privacy International. \u201cPrivacy as a Political Right\u201d. Index on Censorship 2010 39(1): 58-68."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con04b","title":"","text":"Politicians are not merely elected to enact policies as stated but to act as a surrogate for the views and values of the voters who elect them. That is why politicians are expected, and are considered legitimate in doing so, to legislate on issues not necessarily discussed on the campaign trail. It is the scrutiny of private lives that allows the public to know how a politician will represent their views with regards to questions that are not asked in the election. That is why it is essential to understand the private life and character of the representative. With regard to political attacks, voters are trusted to select leaders, and can reasonably be expected to make decisions in their genuine interests. Thus they can be expected to discern policy from the campaigns effectively only in the case of access to the candidates\u2019 private lives will they now have additional information to make an even better decision."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con02b","title":"","text":"While it is no doubt unfortunate that the innocent family members of politicians might feel unpleasant scrutiny, it remains essential to the promulgation of political accountability. Furthermore, it is valuable that citizens understand who their leaders are, and what kind of people they are, which necessitates knowing what kind of people they associate with in their private lives. Obviously, not all personal associations, such as biological family, may be chosen, but all the same those relationships can reveal much valuable information about the politician\u2019s character. All of this is part of the trade-off politicians must accept if good, accountable government is to be achieved and maintained."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro02b","title":"","text":"Our political situation is not as dire as this point makes it seem; it is easy to manipulate statistics between voting and reality televisions by discounting the fact that many people who vote in television shows vote multiple times \u2013 often as many as ten [1] . Young people are not completely detached from the political or the non-electronic world. Many are passionate about politics and exercising their right to vote [2] . Low voter turnout is a general trend across the nation, and if young people are failing to vote then this too reflects disillusionment with government. For example, many young people who voted for the Liberal Democrats in the UK recently were shocked when he expressly went against his promise to prevent tuition fee rises [3] . Political disillusionment among young people is also a problem in the USA [4] and Europe [5] . It is the state of politics itself, rather than the literal process of voting, which deters people from full political participation.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro02a","title":"","text":"Modernisation  In modern, developed countries, many people spend both work and leisure time on the internet or using electronic devices [1] [2] [3] [4] . Our traditional voting systems, with polling stations and paper slips, is out of line with how many of the population now live their lives. When we see an overwhelming number of people \u2013 especially young people [5] \u2013 voting for reality television programmes such as The X Factor [6] , it demonstrates a valuable method of engagement which the political system is missing out on. This had led to sources such as the BBC darkly questioning \u2018Is Big Brother really more popular than election?\u2019 [7] , indicating that while the overall number of votes in the 2005 general election in the UK outweighed those cast for Big Brother and Fame Academy, the proportion of votes by young voters (18-34) could be understood to show more engagement with these television shows than with the general election [8] . In any case, it is clear that we should bring our voting systems up to date in order to engage young people and the wider population.  [1] In the UK:  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2] In Europe:  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3] In Asia:  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4] In the USA:  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [6]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [7]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [8]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro03b","title":"","text":"Voting machines are far from reliable in this instance. Experts have expressed concern that \u2018hackers, software bugs . . . or power outages could intentionally or accidentally erase or alter voting data\u2019 recorded by the machines [1] . In this case, while the machines may be politically impartial, they are still subject to potential human corruption alongside the opportunity for technical faults and breakdowns. Electronic vote-counting machine errors led to almost 2 million ballots being disqualified in the 2000 USA election [2] . Electronic voting systems need a lot more work before we should even consider using them; they certainly do not solve any problems currently raised by manual counting.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  ,, accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro05a","title":"","text":"Remote electronic voting can be conducted very safely.  Our online security is improving every day; people feel safe enough to trust their most important details, such as bank details, to the internet [1] \u2013 why not their vote? Secure software and encryption protocols have allowed online markets to flourish, with companies such as PayPal inspiring a sense of security among their customers [2] . Any software for remote electronic voting could be scrutinised well in advance. It also removes the potential for identity fraud, which is a problem with current postal voting systems [3] . Each voter could be given a unique password, if necessary alongside something like a special swipe card, ensuring that everybody who is entitled to vote gets a single vote. Given that in many jurisdictions, traditional polling stations do not require voters to provide ID [4] , it would arguably be a security improvement on the current situation.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro01a","title":"","text":"Electronic voting can make the franchise more accessible  In many Western democracies, voter turnout has been falling while voter apathy appears to be rising. In the UK, voter turnout fell sharply between 1997-2000, and the last general election in 2010 saw only 65% of potential voters cast a vote [1] . In the USA, the federal election of 2010 saw only 37.8% of potential voters cast their vote [2] . Voter turnouts across Europe follow this trend [3] . When so few people participate in the key act of democracy \u2013 voting for the political leader of the country \u2013 it begins to raise worrying questions about the legitimacy of that democracy in the first place. If electronic or internet voting was introduced as an option alongside more traditional polling methods, it would expands the accessibility of the voting system in general. Internet or electronic voting would be a strategic practical measure. It would make voting convenient for busy modern citizens because it minimalises the amount of effort each individual has to contribute \u2013 namely, they do not have to travel to the polling stations [4] . As such, it removes physical restrictions on the voting process and becomes more universally accessible. This would prevent people from being unable to vote because they are \u2018too busy\u2019 [5] \u2013 whether this is simply because their local polling station is too far away for them to commute to, or to fit in alongside their other daily responsibilities based at work or home [6] [7] .  [1]  , accessed 22\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 22\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 22\/08\/11.  [4]  , accessed 25\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 22\/08\/11  [6] In the USA:  , accessed 22\/08\/11  [7] In the UK:  , accessed 22\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro01b","title":"","text":"Voter apathy cannot be solely attributed to having to walk to your local polling station. It can also be attributed to general disillusionment with the campaigning political parties, and the idea that none of them will perform well in government [1] . Political parties which focus more strongly on national rather than constituency campaigning can also inspire voter apathy [2] . The problems behind voter apathy are far greater than can be solved by trying to change the practical aspect of voting; it is the fact that voters often feel neglected by their government which is a far greater concern [3] .  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro05b","title":"","text":"The most \u2018secure\u2019 of websites have been recently hacked. For example, Paypal was hacked by Lulzsec in response to the Wikileaks scandal [1] . Lulzsec also hacked the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) [2] , supposedly the source of all their national intelligence and top secret information. If anything, recent events have shown us that the internet is an unstable medium for people to conduct personal or professional affairs; we certainly should not allow our voting systems to become even more vulnerable to this kind of attack. A better way to prevent identity fraud would be the simple measure of now requiring polling stations to ask for ID, rather than going to the extreme of online voting.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro04b","title":"","text":"The elderly far more frequently find electronic voting to be a hindrance rather than a help. Those who are partially sighted are unable to see the position on the text blocks on the screen; small controls such as buttons or touch screens create problems; and some cognitively impaired people may find it difficult to remember a PIN number which is used to authenticate the vote [1] . A simple paper ballot is a far more commonly-recognised and straightforward method. In terms of cost, the electronic voting machines or voting programmes would certainly cost a great deal to implement and run [2] . Ultimately, the great risk that electronic voting machines or systems will lose votes [3] outweighs the cost argument: you cannot put a price on a crucial process at the core of every democratic state.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro03a","title":"","text":"Efficiency  Because it would not require manual counting and tallying, remote electronic voting would allow the results to be known much faster [1] , and would also eliminate the potential for human error, which is a common problem with the current system [2] . For example, in the Wisconsin Supreme Court election of 2011, a clerk discovered around 14,000 unrecorded votes which had been missed by human error \u2013 and actually changed the outcome of the election [3] . The clerk is now being questioned regarding her party allegiances under suspicion that she was trying to turn the election into a victory for her favoured candidate [4] \u2013 yet another potential for abuse under the current system. Machines, of course, are impartial concerning party allegiances and so eliminate the potential for individual corruption.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro04a","title":"","text":"Electronic voting will create a more cost effective franchise  Electronic voting would also save a great deal of money which is currently spent on employing counters and renting venues to be used as polling stations. For example the UK general election in 2005 cost over \u00a380 million to organise [1] , Canada\u2019s 2008 election cost around $300 million [2] , and the USA presidential election of 2008 was estimated to cost up to $5.3 billion [3] . Electronic voting also brings the opportunity to increase access to those who currently find it difficult to register their votes; for example, electronic voting could be conducted in a minority language for those who find English difficult [4] . In the past, trials of this have been shown to improve voter turnout among minority groups [5] . Electronic voting could also benefit the elderly, as many find it difficult to use the lever-operated ballots currently in use. [6] Using electronic voting ensures that no groups are left out of an essentially democratic process.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [6]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con03b","title":"","text":"It is impossible to tackle potential problems in party politics without an input from the electorate. Young people may have the opinion that politics itself is inaccessible, but this will never change if they refuse or fail to vote. A democratic government can only ever be truly representative when everybody casts their vote. At least this mechanism is an attempt to reach those young people \u2013 and in cases where they say they do not know enough about politics, to try a different medium of teaching. Ultimately, those who have no intention of voting will continue to refuse. However, this is at least a step towards educating and enabling those who do wish to vote, but perhaps do not currently feel well-equipped enough to do so."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con01b","title":"","text":"Our understanding of online security is improving every day; people feel safe enough to trust their most important details, such as bank details, to the internet [1] \u2013 why not their vote? Secure software and encryption protocols have allowed online markets to flourish, with companies such as PayPal inspiring a sense of security among their customers [2] . Any software for remote electronic voting could be scrutinised well in advance. It also removes the potential for identity fraud, which is a problem with current postal voting systems [3] . Each voter could be given a unique password, if necessary alongside something like a special swipe card, ensuring that everybody who is entitled to vote gets a single vote. Given that in many jurisdictions, traditional polling stations do not require voters to provide ID [4] , it would arguably be a security improvement on the current situation.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con02a","title":"","text":"Electronic voting may harm the principle of democratic accountability  The numerous faults experienced in trials and small-scale use of electronic voting [1] [2] shows that this system is not yet ready for wide use in elections, and gives no indication that it ever will be. The argument that they can provide a faster vote-count is negated by the fact that in many cases they aren\u2019t counting all the votes, but instead missing some out [3] . If the results cannot be trusted, there is no merit in implementing an electronic vote. Furthermore, this motion neglects those who do not have access to electronic systems or the internet; they may end up being disenfranchised if voting went online. This is particularly pertinent for senior citizens who lack the skills to \u2018find, retrieve and evaluate\u2019 information found electronically [4] . It is also a disadvantage for those who with a limited income and education, who are \u2018most likely to not use the internet or even understand how to use a computer\u2019 [5] . 37% of low-income households do not regularly use the internet [6] ; this motion would create a two-tier system where already under-represented groups are allowed to fall behind the rest of society. Even public libraries and state-provided resources are suffering cuts under the economic depression [7] , which further reduces access for those from poorer backgrounds. This allows real issues of discrimination and alienation to rise.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [6]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [7]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con05a","title":"","text":"Engagement with democracy  If voting were conducted electronically, we would have no guarantee that an individual\u2019s vote was privately and freely made. Instead, voting becomes open to manipulation where the head of the household, or another figure, may cast votes for others to try and ensure their preferred outcome. Indeed, under the status quo there are still instances of organised corruption where votes are sold or bullied out of people [1] [2] , despite the fact that this was the exact reason that the secret ballot was originally introduced [3] . Electronic voting would just take corruption further out of our hands by hiding it from public view; this would be detrimental to democratic process.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2] www.parliament.uk\/briefing-papers\/SN03667.pdf , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con04a","title":"","text":"Democratisation  If it worked, online voting could allow more use of direct democracy methods. However, direct democracy is not in itself a better system, and still contains many dangers. Snap online polls could easily express an opinion which has not been properly thought through; the current voting system is more likely to result in considered voting as citizens have to make the effort to get to the polling stations in the first place. Furthermore, a low turnout or insecure systems could allow motivated minorities to use frequent online ballots in order to impose their will on the majority. The very ease of online voting could actually result in worse policy than under the status quo."}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con03a","title":"","text":"Voter apathy  The need to travel to a polling station might be a minor consideration, but growing disillusionment with the political system in general is a far bigger cause of voter apathy. Young people in particular believe that their vote will not make a difference [1] , or are confused over politician\u2019s aims [2] and intentions. Others do not believe that a change in government necessarily means a change in real life situations [3] , or state that they do not feel as if they know enough about politics to make a decision [4] . Some have even stated that they are embarrassed and patronised by politicians\u2019 eagerness over using the internet to \u2018harness\u2019 the votes of young people [5] . Using the internet to portray party policies does not necessarily tackle the problems with the policies themselves. It is politics more generally, rather than the practical system of voting, which is seen as inaccessible.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [5]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con05b","title":"","text":"At what stage do we deem that an individual has considered their vote enough to cast it? Would we stop less-educated people from voting at all in case they hadn\u2019t fully considered it? This argument goes completely against any democratic principle which values everybody\u2019s vote as equal, and denounces the idea that one person\u2019s vote is worth more than another\u2019s. Even if a low turnout means that a minority can impact more on society, this is still legitimate \u2013 as long as everybody has the opportunity to vote. If the majority choose not to voice their concerns in online elections, then they lose the right to complain about the outcome. Many general or presidential elections have had a low turnout [1] [2] , but we still see them as legitimate. If we did not, nobody would ever be elected and progress could never occur.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con01a","title":"","text":"Electronic voting is vulnerable to fraud and subversion  No networked commuter system is immune to attack or subversion. By their very nature, electronic voting systems must be inter connected and in continuous communication with one another. As a consequence, the devices and methods used to gather votes can also serve as access points to the larger network of vote gathering and counting systems. The most \u2018secure\u2019 of websites have been recently hacked. For example, Paypal was hacked by Lulzsec in response to the Wikileaks scandal [1] . Lulzsec also hacked the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) [2] , supposedly the source of all their national intelligence and top secret information. If anything, recent events have shown us that the internet is an unstable medium for people to conduct personal or professional affairs; we certainly should not allow our voting systems to become even more vulnerable to this kind of attack. A better way to prevent identity fraud would be the simple measure of now requiring polling stations to ask for ID, rather than going to the extreme of online voting.  [1]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2]  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con02b","title":"","text":"Computer literacy is constantly on the rise [1] [2] . In state-run secondary schools, children are provided with information and technology classes which helps to bridge any existing divide [3] , and there are discussions about extending these lessons to primary schools. Easily-accessible community classes are also available to seniors [4] [5] . Moreover, given the opportunity to save money through electronic voting rather than having to pay for polling station venues, manual vote counters and so on, this money could easily be redirected to provide computer lessons for those from disadvantaged backgrounds, or to funnel into state libraries and public computer resources. This mechanism is a much more efficient way of making sure that everybody is able to participate.  [1] Children in the UK:  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [2] In the USA:   [3]  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [4] Across the USA:  , accessed 24\/08\/11  [5] In the UK:  , accessed 24\/08\/11"}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro02b","title":"","text":"Separation of Church and State would do exactly the opposite; it would create animosity towards other cultures. This separation would be seen by many people, including extremist groups, as pandering to non-Christian religions and cultures in an attempt to show a greater level of acceptance.  This would result in people blaming non-Christian religious groups and cultures for the changes and giving ammunition to extremist groups who wish to incite racism. Rather than benefitting immigrants and people who follow non-Christian religions, this would actively harm them. [1]  [1] Iannaccone, Laurence R. \u201cReligious extremism: Origins and consequences\u201d Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20. 1996."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro02a","title":"","text":"Separation would show acceptance of other religions.  It is important to note that it is not religion in general which has this special access to the state in the UK but the Church of England specifically. This means that the state is showing favouritism to the Church of England over other religions by allowing it a far greater contribution to the running of the state. Therefore, separating the church and the state would put all of the religions in the country on an even level of contribution, which is none, and in the process show acceptance of these other religions. [1]  This is especially important as the number of people who identify as following religions other than Christianity in the UK has doubled in the last 20 years. [2] Additionally, many people identify more with their religion than with any country and so this move would help show acceptance of those cultures by the British state.  [1] Hannan, Daniel. \u201cThe Conservative Case for Disestablishing the Church.\u201d The Telegraph. 2008.  [2] Lee, Lucy, \u201cReligion.\u201d In Curtice, John et al. eds., British Social Attitudes Survey 2009. p.180."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro03b","title":"","text":"There are little to no barriers to non-religious people contributing to the state. In present day UK, there are no issues with non-religious people being or feeling unable to contribute to the state. It is far from a necessity to be part of a religious group, or to even be religious, in order to be part of, or contribute it any way, to the government. [1]  The idea, therefore, that it is important to make non-religious people feel as if their contributions are more valued, or that the separation of the church and state would achieve this, is ridiculous.  [1] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press. 1992."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro01a","title":"","text":"The church\u2019s involvement undermines the role of the state.  The role of the state is to protect its people and to create the conditions for its people\u2019s prosperity. The Church does not share these objectives. The Church\u2019s objectives are, instead, to either convert as many people as possible to its own religion, and to \u2018save souls\u2019 brining people into its own perceived afterlife. [1] The Anglican church itself considers its mission to be \u201ctransformation - transforming individual lives, transforming communities and transforming the world.\u201d \u201cthat calling is carried out at the national level of the Church of England in evangelism, development of parish congregations\u201d. [2] Such a mission is inherently aimed solely at benefiting those within the church or those who can be converted not society as a whole.  The current confusion of state and Church, therefore, is likely to cloud the state\u2019s judgement and limit the state\u2019s ability to provide the maximum possible prosperity and security for its people.  [1] Weller, Paul. \u201cTime for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State & Society.\u201d T&T Clark Int\u2019l. 2005.  [2] Church of England, \u2018Mission\u2019."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro01b","title":"","text":"The Church does not have enough of an involvement in UK politics for the objectives of the Church of England to have any impact upon how the country is run. The UK government is still run in an entirely democratic way. While the Church is consulted in certain decisions and bishop have seats in the House of Lords, final decisions are still taken democratically by the government.  There is in no way enough involvement by the church in the state for it to actually undermine the role of the state. [1]  [1] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press. 1992."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro04b","title":"","text":"Separating Church and State would not increase Britain\u2019s moral high ground. No one would mistake the UK for a theocracy and as a result no one will consider that a full separation of Church and State is necessary for the UK to be able to condemn states where religion has too much influence over policy. In just the same way that democracies can criticise other democracies so a state that has a state religion is capable of outspoken criticism of other states where religion has an influence."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro03a","title":"","text":"Separation would show non-religious people that their contributions to the state are valued.  In the last 25 years, the number of people in the UK who identify as non-religious has gone up from 31% to 50% of the population, while people in the UK who identify as religious has gone down by the same amount. [1] Clearly then, there are growing numbers of non-religious people in the UK and falling numbers of religious people.  Separating the church and the state would highlight that one does not have to be part of a certain religion to contribute to the state. With the non-religious now making up half the population it no longer makes sense for one denomination of Christianity to have such an official connection to the state.  [1] Lee, Lucy, \u201cReligion.\u201d In Curtice, John et al. eds., British Social Attitudes Survey 2009. p.173."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro04a","title":"","text":"International signalling.  As a government, the UK aims to promote democracy in the international community while reducing the number of countries adhering to other forms of government that do not listen to their people. This includes opposition to theocracies, where the country is run by a religious group according to religious doctrines, particularly in the case of Iran.  It is difficult for the UK to legitimately condemn such a governmental system while the Church of England has such a heavy role in the running of its own government. Although these are not on the same level, it can still be perceived as hypocrisy by the international community and the separation of church and state would greatly benefit the UK\u2019s ability to condemn these states."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con03b","title":"","text":"The government is not going to suddenly stop listening to the views of religious minorities in the country and will keep listening to the views of the Church of England. It will simply stop the government being prejudicial towards the Church of England compared to any other religion or belief. Currently what we see is the Church of England having privileges that other religious groups do not have. Religious groups and people do not see this as a representation of the involvement of religion in general in the government, they see this as the involvement of the Church of England in the government. The separation of the church and the state, therefore, will actually be inclusive to religious people who do not identify as Church of England. [1]  [1] Hannan, Daniel. \u201cThe Conservative Case for Disestablishing the Church.\u201d The Telegraph. 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con01b","title":"","text":"The existence and operation of the Church of England can be considered part of the UK\u2019s national identity but its involvement in running the country cannot. English culture would remain the same regardless of the position of the Church of England in relation to the governance of the country. Culture and identity are not things that can disappear as a result of a change in the country\u2019s constitutional setup."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con02a","title":"","text":"Separation would create animosity towards immigrants and non-Christians.  Currently, we already see problems in the UK with extremist groups blaming immigrants and non-Christian religious groups for pretty much everything from unemployment among whites to a lack of patriotism. Completely separating the church and the state could be seen as a move made due to political correctness and\/or to try not to offend immigrants or those from non-Christian religious backgrounds.  This would be providing ammunition to extremist groups, as well as inspiring people who do not share these views to sympathise with them. This would be extremely harmful to the groups who are perceived as responsible for this change. [1]  [1] Iannaccone, Laurence R. \u201cReligious extremism: Origins and consequences\u201d Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20. 1996."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con04a","title":"","text":"Minimal practical effect.  As it stands, the Church of England\u2019s involvement in the state actually has little effect on it. Decisions are taken by the Prime Minister and his\/her government rather than by religious officials and indeed the Church of England can often be a vehicle for the government\u2019s views rather than the Church having an influence on government. As Bishop of Rochester Nazir-Ali states \u2018The church is seen simply as the religious aspect of society, there to endorse any change which politicians deem fit to impose upon the public.\u2019 [1] Therefore, separating the church and the state will make little difference in terms of the way the state is actually run but may result in a reduction of the influence of the government on some of the population. [2]  [1] Liddle, Rod, \u2018The C of E has forgotten its purpose. Why, exactly, does it exist?\u2019, The Spectator, 7 April 2009.  [2] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press. 1992."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con03a","title":"","text":"Disestablishment sidelines all religious people.  Rather than other religious groups seeing the removal of the Church of England\u2019s involvement of the state as them all being put on a level playing field, it is more likely to be seen as a total removal of religion from the government. [1] Bishop John Pritchard of Oxford argues that Anglican Bishops can be seen as acting as community leaders for all faiths and are respected as such, as a result they often support other religion\u2019s such as Pritchard himself arguing a mosque in Oxford should be allowed to issue the call to prayer. [2]  This separation of church and state, therefore, will be seen as a declaration by the government that religious groups have nothing to contribute to the operation of the state. Since nearly 50% of people in the UK identify as religious [3] this is likely to cause a feeling of being undervalued amongst a huge part of society.  [1] Gay, Kathlyn. \u201cChurch and State.\u201d Millbrook Press. 1992.  [2] Bardsley, Fran, \u2018Bishop backs mosque\u2019s call to prayer\u2019, The Oxford Times, 11 January 2008.  [3] Lee, Lucy, \u201cReligion.\u201d In Curtice, John et al. eds., British Social Attitudes Survey 2009. p.173."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con01a","title":"","text":"Separating Church and State in England would be harmful to national identity.  The reason the Church of England has the involvement that it does in the state is because it is important part of the UK\u2019s cultural heritage. Completely separating the Church of England from the state would be perceived to many people as severely damaging to British national identity. As a national church the Church of England has been at the heart of the country\u2019s political and cultural life since the sixteenth century, religion helped make Britain the country it is today. [1] A separation would be the country turning its back on this history and its own culture.  [1] MacCulloch, Diarmaid, \u2018How God Made the English\u2019, BBC, 2012"}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con04b","title":"","text":"That the separation will have little practical effect is just as much an argument for separation as against it. If there will be little change as a result then why should we stick with the status quo? The practical effect of the change may not be immense but the symbolism of the act would be much greater."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con02b","title":"","text":"Separation would be inclusive to immigrants and non-Christians. People will not be disillusioned by the separation of church and state at all, it is even less likely that they will look for a scapegoat upon whom to pin the blame. The Church of England routinely condemns racist and extremist attitudes and separation will not change this. [1]  [1] The Church of England, \u2018Countering Racist Politics\u2019."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro02b","title":"","text":"Legislation already exists in most countries where this issue is in dispute \u2013 including the UK where the NOP poll was conducted \u2013 have the option to opt out of working on a Sunday [i] . In addition there is an entire body of case law in the USA where various states have upheld the rights of individual workers not to work on a Sunday should they so choose [ii] .  The contention that a shared day of rest is beneficial to the community simply ignores the fact that for many those leisure activities require others to be working. For example eating out, going to bars or shopping routinely feature as among peoples\u2019 favourite pastimes [iii] .  [i] ACAS Guidance on Sunday Working  [ii] Estate of Thornton v. Calder, Inc. (1985) and others  [iii] \u201cStatistical Abstract of the United States 2009\u201d. Landmark Research."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro02a","title":"","text":"A shared day when there is no commercial activity encourages family life and recreation  There is extensive evidence that reserving one day for communal recreation has benefits in areas as diverse as community cohesion and the reduction of childhood obesity. The Colombian initiative, Ciclovia, which closes some streets altogether on a Sunday has demonstrated impressive results in these areas in the thirty years it has been established. [i]  An NOP consumer poll in 2005 showed that 85% of respondents in the UK suggested that they would rather have a shared day off for community, family and recreational activities than see shopping hours extended on a Sunday.  Representatives of those employed in the retail sector routinely condemn the impact that Sunday trading has on the family lives of those required to work [ii] .  [i] Hernandez, Javier C., \u2018Car-Free Streets, a Colombian Export, Inspire Debate\u2019, The New York Times, 24 June 2008  [ii] \u201cUSDAW lobbyists say extending Sunday shopping hours would be \u2018bad news\u2019 for shopworkers\u2019 families\u201d USDAW Press Release. 9 May 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro03b","title":"","text":"For many marginalised workers the opportunity to work what many would consider antisocial hours is their only chance of employment. Legislating to enforce leisure time removes a valuable opportunity for earning.  There are entire micro-economies based around this reality and it is unsurprising that marginalised individuals, families and communities operate within these sectors.  As a result their leisure time is also shared. It is worth noting that were members of these groups excluded from the opportunity to earn would considerably diminish their capacity to enjoy any leisure time at all."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro01a","title":"","text":"Peoples\u2019 rights to freedom of worship would be undermined if they were compelled to work on a Sunday  The right to freedom of religious practice and association is acknowledged by most countries and is enshrined in Article 18 of UN Declaration of Human Rights [i] . In those countries that can, on the basis of their history be deemed to be Christian nations it makes sense to recognise this fact by acknowledging Sunday, the Sabbath which was made for all mankind, [ii] as a day free for worship or leisure as the individual sees fit.  Equally Article 24 of the same Declaration maintains the right to reasonable leisure time. It seems only practical for governments to recognise the confluence of these two principles by reserving the same day.  [i] The United Nations Declaration of Universal Human Rights.  [ii] New International Version, Mark 2:27, 2011"}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro01b","title":"","text":"Compelling individuals to take their leisure time on one particular day undermines the entire nature of that right. The whole principle of leisure is that it should not be forced or required, it is that time when the individual is not bound to comply with the dictates of any authority \u2013 be that an employer, the state or a religion.  Leisure should be time taken at the convenience \u2013 and to the benefit \u2013 of the individual. If the individual choses to use that time for religious observance that is their right but the presumption that a day of religious observance is the best day to take is unfair to the many who do not share those views."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro03a","title":"","text":"Compelling employers to close for a day is the only way to ensure that marginalised groups are not forced to work a seven day week  Unions consistently argue that vulnerable workers \u2013 migrants, part-time workers, the young and other groups \u2013 are simply unable to choose their leisure time at their own preference. It is unlikely that all members of a family all of whom are in such employment would be likely to have leisure time to share.  It is simply a democratic principle that the right to an active family life and access to shared leisure should not be the preserve of the wealthy.  This divide can only be met by enforcing a day shared by all members of society."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con03b","title":"","text":"Opposition is making an excellent argument for ensuring that workers should be remunerated at a level to support a reasonable level of existence but does not speak to the issue of keeping Sundays as a day of rest.  Indeed it is possible to take the issue further and suggest that the understanding that everybody has the right to leisure time would require payment at such a level that would allow that time to be enjoyed.  A work-life balance should not be defined purely in terms of time spent active and time spent idle. Rather, it must speak as much to time spent earning and time spent spending and relaxing."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con01b","title":"","text":"Exactly the same group that Opposition identify are also those least likely to have any leisure time at all. They are also least likely to have leisure at a time when they can share it with their families and communities.  Sunday is already the day when most people are likely to be away from work all enshrining it in legislation would achieve is expanding what is already the case for the majority to those who do not currently benefit from a shared day of rest."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con02a","title":"","text":"It is prejudicial to other religions to give Sunday a significance not ascribed to the holy days of other traditions  It is already difficult enough for members of minority religions to have time for their own religious celebrations. It seems unlikely that employers would be likely to respect the rights of other religious groups to celebrate their own days of rest if employers were already compelled to recognise Sundays as a compulsory day of rest.  Equally, for the state to identify one particular day as the \u2018religious\u2019 day worthy of commemoration would be a statement that one particular religious persuasion was in some way superior to others."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con03a","title":"","text":"It is simply unfair to force low-paid workers to lose a day\u2019s work if they do not choose to do so  Many people work long hours not out of greed or obsession but out of simple necessity. To deny people the right to work when they need to is unfair and, potentially, financially crippling. In an ideal world everybody would have a good work-life balance but that is not the reality faced by millions of workers, even in developed economies.  Obliging workers to lose a day\u2019s pay when that may impoverish then and their families is unlikely to enhance their family life, their level of relaxation, their spiritual experience or their access to leisure services."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con01a","title":"","text":"People should be allowed to take their leisure at their own convenience and not on the basis of religious decree  It is unfair to compel people to take their leisure at a time that is not of their convenience. Workers who have to work a certain number of hours per week just to cover their costs should not be obliged to take their leisure time at a time when they cannot access services such as shops and banks.  For those with no religious conviction there is no particular benefit for Sunday being their day of leisure. Instead a more fluid relationship between work and leisure ensures that those with the least available free time can take it to their greatest convenience."}
+{"id":"validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con02b","title":"","text":"Different cultures have varying traditions of rest. Approaches towards the number of days of vacations taken each year, the length of the working day, which annual festivals should be treated as public holidays, siestas, work levels during Ramadan and so on are all taken on the basis of the culture and history of that particular country. As a result it is not unreasonable for a country with a Christian background to identify Sunday as their designated day of rest.  The work ethic of any country relates to their history as is reflected in the festivals that are given significance. Observation of Christmas or Eid or Cheoseok has little to do with the personal values of the individuals concerned but rather the historical norms of that society."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro02b","title":"","text":"Realistically speaking, music is not even property - for property to really be property, it needs to be tangible (something physical you can touch). [1] If it is tangible, it is easier to keep you from using it, whereas when it is intangible, I can\u2019t. What if you hear a song on the radio which stays in your head all day long because you liked it so much? In economic terms, we call such a good \u201cnon-excludable\u201d. [2]  Private property is both a rival good (see above), and excludable. The above shows that music is neither, even though we happen to call it \u201cintellectual property\u201d. That means that music can\u2019t be private property, and copying it can\u2019t really be theft in any normal sense of the word (see above). In addition, the moral right of the artist to be known as the author of a piece of music is also not broken by downloading. People usually sort the music on mp3-players by musician\u2019s name, which means that we\u2019re always recognizing that a certain artist made a certain song.  [1] Law.jrank.org, \u2018Theft \u2013 Larceny\u2019,   [2] Blakeley, Nic et al., \u2018Non-excludability\u2019, in The Economics of Knowledge: What Makes Ideas Special for Economic Growth, New Zealand Policy Perspective Paper 05\/05, November 2005,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro02a","title":"","text":"A legal transaction is the only way to achieve free exchange of value  Because the artist made the music, it is their property, in this case \u201cintellectual property\u201d. Property means that the owner\/artist has the right to ask something from you in exchange for you gaining access to the music. This may be money. It may also be the requirement that you clearly recognize the artist\u2019s moral right to always be mentioned as the creator of that music. This is called the \u201cfree exchange of value\u201d, and this is the most fundamental relationship in our free market economy.  Whatever the artist chooses as payment through a legal transaction, it is his\/her basic right to ask this of you. The only way to make sure that he\/she can actually exercise that right is by making sure you only take music from the artist through a legal transaction, i.e. with their permission. Only then can we be sure that the desired free exchange of value has taken place"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro03b","title":"","text":"It\u2019s true that musicians have to eat, too, but it\u2019s not true that downloading cuts their income. Most of the money spent on music goes to record companies, not to artists, from each retail CD sold the artist only gets between 3 and 10%. [1] Those record companies have been keeping musicians on a leash for decades, paying them less than they could. They paid them enough to make sure they would remain fulltime musicians, but not so much that they didn\u2019t bother to create new albums. So if downloading music files means record companies miss out on some income, we shouldn\u2019t feel bad about it.  [1] Information is Beautiful, \u2018How Much Do Music Artists Earn Online?\u2019, 13 April 2010,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro01a","title":"","text":"Theft is an assumption of property rights  Theft is taking something from someone who is the rightful owner without their permission. It doesn\u2019t matter if the rightful owner keeps an original version or not. If you are downloading music from an unofficial source, you are stealing it: you can start listening to that song, without the permission of the original owner. The only way you can get the right to listen to that song is via a legal transaction from which the rights owner can make a profit"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro01b","title":"","text":"Theft always involves a thief taking something away for themselves with the result that the original owner can\u2019t use it anymore. For example, if I steal your bike, you can\u2019t use it anymore. And this is exactly why theft is wrong: you had something which you wanted to use, and now you can\u2019t anymore, simply because I took it.  That\u2019s why downloading music is not theft because it is a form of copying. You download a copy from an original, but the first owner still has the original on his or her computer, and can still enjoy it. In more complicated terms: music files are \u201cnon-rival\u201d goods, meaning that my use of the good does not diminish your future use of it. [1]  [1] Investopedia, \u2018Rival Good\u2019,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro03a","title":"","text":"Musicians have to eat  Apart from the moral reason, there is also a simple societal reason why it is wrong to download music without permission. The reason is that musicians have to eat, too. Suppose you are an up-and-coming young musician thinking about what to do with your future. You can either become a full time musician or take up a job. If you become a fulltime musician, you\u2019ll be doing what you love. But at the same time, everyone will be downloading all your music for free, simply because they can. This means that music won\u2019t be a good, stable source of income for you, and this means you\u2019d rather take up a job. Since you\u2019re not working on your music every day, your talent will be underdeveloped, and the little pieces of music you do write, for example in the weekend, are not as good as they could have been. So, downloading music without permission will lead to fewer good musicians. That\u2019s not only bad for the musicians, but also for us: we\u2019ll have less good music to listen to."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con03b","title":"","text":"It is a mistake to think that when you\u2019re downloading, there isn\u2019t someone else making a huge profit. Torrent sites and other \u201cpirate\u201d sites gain huge amounts of income from the advertisements on their site. This means that they profit from material which is not theirs. Why should they profit from material they have gotten unfairly and without permission?"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con01b","title":"","text":"Downloading does not fall under the so-called \u201cprivate copy exception\u201d. The private copy exception only covered those rare cases when you took the effort to make a copy from a lawful source (perhaps putting a song you owned on CD on to a cassette so you could listen to it in your car). With the internet, the situation changed hugely. Firstly, copying became a lot easier. Secondly, the home copy-exception applies to when you borrow an album from a friend - someone you know. Online, you\u2019re downloading from anyone, anywhere who happens to have the song you want. Thirdly, when you start downloading using peer-to-peer software, you will usually also start uploading at the same time. It\u2019s the nature of p2p-technology that you both distribute and consume. So, you\u2019re not just making a copy for yourself, you will also be distributing the same song, and that distribution is in any case wrong. These changes together mean that the three step-test is not met, so downloading does not fall under the private copy exception and is therefore illegal."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con02a","title":"","text":"Downloading is morally right  Even when downloading is illegal, it still is right from a moral viewpoint. The reason is that by downloading, you\u2019re not hurting the artists, but the record companies. And these record companies have engaged in unfair practices towards consumers for decades. They asked \u20ac20 euros for a CD, when a blank CD only costs about 5 cents. They still engage in unfair practices, for example via DRM. DRM stands for Digital Rights Management, and it means that companies limit how and when you can listen to a song. For example, you can buy a song and listen to it on your MP-3 player, but if you want to play it on your laptop, you have to buy the same song again. Moreover, record companies have sued individual consumers for huge fines for downloading just a few songs. Most recently one ordinary woman was fined $1.92 million dollars, which just doesn\u2019t add up to the \u201cdamage\u201d these individuals are supposed to have done. [1] That\u2019s unfair, and because it\u2019s unfair, we are justified in download without permission.  [1] Kravets, David, \u2018Feds Support $1.92 Million RIAA File Sharing Verdict\u2019, Wired.com, 14 August 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con03a","title":"","text":"Downloaders spend more on music  Downloading songs could mean more income for musicians. Concerts (plus merchandise like T-shirts) are becoming a bigger source of income. But suppose a new musician comes to town. How am I supposed to know if I want to go to their concert if I don\u2019t know their music? Previously, I wouldn\u2019t have gone since I didn\u2019t want to spend money on first buying their album and then buying the ticket. Now, I can quickly check out their music by downloading some songs to see if I like it, and then go to their concert. I save money on the albums, and will go more to concerts. Indeed a study by Demos has shown that people who illegally download music spend \u00a330 more on music per year than those who do not. [1]  [1] Demos, \u2018Illegal downloaders are one of music industry\u2019s biggest customers\u2019, 1 November 2009,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con01a","title":"","text":"There is a private copy exception  Downloading music without permission is allowed under the \u201cprivate copy exception\u201d. Practically, the exception meant that you were allowed to copy, but not distribute any music. Downloading music from a torrentsite or newsgroup is essentially the same. People who download music do it purely for their own enjoyment and use. They have no intention to resell the songs and make a profit from it. So, if it was legal to make a copy for personal use before the internet was invented, why then should it suddenly be different afterwards? Indeed while the private copy exception is not universal it is allowed under the Information Society Directive within the EU. [1] And when it comes to peer-to-peer software, you can turn off the option to upload automatically. This allows you to only download, but at a slower speed.  [1] European Parliament, Article 6\/4, \u2018Directive 2001\/29\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society\u2019, Official Journal, L 167 , 22 June 2001, pp. 10 \u2013 19,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con02b","title":"","text":"Record companies have been blamed for unfair practices, like DRM, \u201cmilking\u201d artists (see opposition argument 3), or suing individual downloaders for unfair damages. But record companies also have a very positive role to play: they scout every day for new talent, and offer training and production studios for up-and-coming musicians. Moreover, they provide valuable marketing services, making sure that new artists get heard instead of drowning in the vast sea of information that is the internet. Consider this, how do you even know which song to download? A large part of that is because record companies get the music out there, on to radio stations, all over MySpace, on MTV, so that you get to hear it for the first time. Those are things a musician is not trained to do and very often does not want to do, which is why it is good to have record companies [1] .  [1] Hole, Max, \u2018The future for record companies\u2019, ifpi, June 2007,"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro02b","title":"","text":"People have enough means to protect their careers  Whistleblowers shouldn\u2019t be protected by internet anonymity, but by legal measures, making it illegal to fire people for whistleblowing, and by building a corporate culture that actually \u2018prevents whistleblowing by encouraging it\u2019. [1]  In the case of job applications, social networking sites like Facebook might not be anonymous, but lack of anonymity isn\u2019t equal to full publicity. This is why, after criticism, Facebook has increased the visibility and usability of its privacy controls, which means that users themselves have more control over who is allowed to view their pictures and who is allowed to read their newsfeed. [2] If an employer still discovers someone\u2019s fraternity party pictures with just a simple google search, then really the \u2018victims\u2019 themselves should take part of the blame by deciding to publish these pictures for all to themselves.  Moreover, when employers take a peek at someone\u2019s Facebook-profile, they might be looking for something different contrary to expectations: a lot of party pictures may be associated with the personality trait of extroversion, which many employers actually consider a good not a bad thing. [3]  [1] Lilanthi Ravishankar, \u2018Encouraging Internal Whistleblowing in Organizations\u2019, 2003. Published online for the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, URL:   [2] The Guardian, \u2018Facebook to improve privacy controls over public visibility\u2019, December 12, 2012. URL:   [3] Forbes, \u2018What employers are thinking when they look at your profile page\u2019, June 3, 2012. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro02a","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity allows people to speak the truth without fearing harm to their careers  People might do things online that can have negative consequences for their career. Think of \u2018whistleblowers\u2019 for example: whistleblowers are employees of a company that have direct and first-hand knowledge of their employer doing something illegal or immoral. If they speak out about it publicly, they might lose their job and therefore their sole source of income. Allowing them to speak out anonymously enables them to invite public scrutiny to their employer without fear of getting fired. [1]  Or think of employers using social media in the job application process. Some people during adolescence (or in their student years) might \u2018misbehave\u2019 \u2013 where misbehaving can be something as relatively harmless as drinking a bit too much, then doing something silly and then having pictures of that end up on Facebook. Because Facebook doesn\u2019t allow anonymity, this means future employers can easily trace someone\u2019s adolescent shenanigans to a person they are currently considering to hire. Around 37% of companies admit to doing this and take what they find into account when hiring. [2]  [1] IEEE Spectrum, \u2018The Whistle Blower\u2019s Dilemma\u2019, april 2004. URL:   [2] Webpronews, \u2018Employers Are Still Patrolling Facebook, And Your Drunk Stripper Photos Are Why You\u2019re Not Hired\u2019. April 18, 2012. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro03b","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity can actually make online non-heteronormative communities less safe  Internet anonymity allows people to \u2018catfish\u2019: to create a completely different online identity with the specific purpose of engaging in emotional\/romantic relationships. In the case of non-heteronormative identities, a malicious \u2018catfisher\u2019 could construct an identity to lure someone into a trap. [1]  But even without malicious intent, catfishing can have negative effects on non-heteronormative communities. Take the example of the \u2018Gay Girl from Damascus\u2019, a blog written by a male student from the University of Edinburgh pretending to be a lesbian girl called Amina Arraf in Syria: by faking he inadvertently reaffirmed a heteronormative pattern that marginalized identities can\u2019t speak for themselves. [2] Moreover, some marginalized identities might see the chance to pretend to be heteronormative: the MTV show \u2018Catfish\u2019 sometimes shows gay men or women pretending to be of the other sex, to be able to maintain a fake, heteronormative relationship. Obviously, they do this because for them this feels like the only way to reach out and connect \u2013 but it nonetheless is a fake identity, and the backlash after they\u2019re found out doesn\u2019t help the public perception of non-heteronormative communities at all. [3]  [1] Real Clear Politics, \u2018The Problem with Online Anonymity\u2019, March 13, 2012. URL:   [2] NPR. \u2018White privilege and \u2018Gay Girl in Damascus\u2019, June 15, 2011. URL:   [3] Daily Mail, \u2018'Catfishing:' The phenomenon of Internet scammers who fabricate online identities and entire social circles to trick people into romantic relationships\u2019, January 17, 2013. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro01a","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity enables citizens to exercise their right to free speech  Citizens have a right to speak their mind without government interference \u2013 which is why in the offline world people also have a right to speak anonymously. [1] Internet anonymity guarantees that people can actually exercise their right to free speech: anonymity takes away the fear of potential political consequences.  The reason why governments are cracking down on internet anonymity is exactly this: they don\u2019t like being criticized. For example, China recently introduced a bill requiring \u2018real name registration\u2019 of every Chinese internet user, thus hampering free communication and the airing of political dissident opinions. [2]  Conversely, internet anonymity has helped in the Arab Uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia: people used anonymising software like TOR to come online and communicate, organize and criticize freely without fear of political repercussions. [3]  [1] Electronic Frontier Foundation, \u2018Anonymity\u2019. URL:   [2] Human Rights Watch, \u2018China: Renewed Restrictions Send Online Chill\u2019, January 4, 2013. URL:   [3] University for Peace, \u2018Tor, Anonymity, and the Arab Spring: An Interview with Jacob Appelbaum\u2019, August 1, 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro01b","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity isn\u2019t necessary to exercise citizen\u2019s right to free speech  Even when we accept the theoretical principle of free speech, the past years have shown that internet anonymity is not necessary for citizens to exercise their right to free speech.  First, look at \u2018access to the internet\u2019 as a prime factor, regardless of whether it\u2019s anonymous or not: In the case of the Arab spring, the causes of the unrest were increased oppression and a declining economic climate. [1] Internet access wasn\u2019t that much of an enabling factor in the Arab Spring: the countries that saw the highest mobilization of citizens (Egypt, Libya, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen) actually rank lowest in internet penetration of all Arab countries. [2]  Secondly, let\u2019s look at anonymity on the internet, provided that access is given: Again, the Arab Spring shows that anonymity isn\u2019t a decisive factor at all. In Egypt and Tunisia, Facebook was a main vehicle to organize protests, [3] yet Facebook doesn\u2019t allow anonymity \u2013 up to the extent that Julian Assange, founder of WikiLeaks called Facebook \u2018the most appalling spying machine that has ever been invented\u2019. [4] All this shows that internet anonymity isn\u2019t as crucial a factor in fostering political dissidence as its proponents like to believe.  [1] Foreign Common Wealth Office, \u2018The Causes of the Arab Spring\u2019. URL:   [2] Yale Global, \u2018Three Myths About the Arab Uprisings\u2019, July 24, 2012. URL:   [3] The National, \u2018Facebook and Twitter key to Arab Spring uprisings: report\u2019, June 6, 2011 URL:   [4] Cnet, \u2018Assange: Facebook is an appaling spy machine\u2019, May 3, 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro03a","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity allows people to experiment and construct with new social identities  People can use the internet to experiment with and construct new identities. Think for example of people who don\u2019t have a heteronormative lifestyle (where heterosexuality is considered the norm\/default lifestyle): in their own communities they could be condemned, despised and even prosecuted, but because of internet anonymity, they can safely join an online community without fear of social repercussions. [1]  Or think of people who through certain life-experiences needed to invent a new identity, for example someone who was addicted to drugs but now has come clean and is ready to build a new life \u2013 with an \u2018authentic\u2019 profile, this person will continuously be confronted with his or her previous identity. [2]  One solution would then be to require social networking sites like Facebook to drop the \u2018real-name requirement\u2019, which is something that the regional German data protection agency ULD has been arguing for in court. [3]  [1] TechPresident, \u2018In the Middle East, Marginalized LGBT Youth Find Supportive Communities Online\u2019, September 6, 2012. URL:   [2] The Guardian, \u2018Online identity: is authenticity or anonymity more important?\u2019, URL:   [3] The Verge, \u2018Facebook wins legal battle to force Europeans to use real names online\u2019, February 15, 2013. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con03b","title":"","text":"Banning internet anonymity wouldn\u2019t decrease cyberbullying and trolling  Cyberbullying is bad, but internet anonymity isn\u2019t the cause of rising suicides - cyberbullying is a circumstantial factor that triggers deeper, underlying problems in its victims. [1] Actually, banning internet anonymity can increase cyberbullying: when World of Warcraft announced their intentions to ban anonymity, female gamers voiced concerns of being forced to reveal their gender to other players, thus generating unwanted attention. [2]  As to the problem of trolling causing discussions under newspaper-articles and forums to go \u2018bad\u2019: this isn\u2019t necessarily the case. A mediating factor could be the exact system in place for placing comments: comment systems like Disqus allow people to comment anonymously but still be judged for the quality of their contribution to the discussion. [3] If organizations care about the quality of their online discussions, they will implement systems like this by themselves and wouldn\u2019t need any government regulation.  [1] ScienceNew, \u2018Cyberbullying Does Not 'Cause' Teen Suicide\u2019, October 20, 2012. URL:   [2] The Independent, \u2018Rhodri Marsden: Online anonymity lets us behave badly\u2019, July 14, 2010. URL:   [3] Silicon Valley Watcher, \u2018Disqus: The Importance Of Trolls And Anonymity In Comments\u2019, February 22, 2013. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con01b","title":"","text":"Banning internet anonymity doesn\u2019t decrease illegal activities  Full traceability across the entire internet is difficult to implement: it would require a centralized worldwide agency certifying who has access to the internet \u2013 we don\u2019t even have this for physical passports. But even if activities would be traceable to an IP-address, it doesn\u2019t stop online illegal activities: criminals can remain anonymous by setting up anonymity servers, which allows them to rout their information through anonymous servers, even when their IP-addresses are known. [1] Even worse, malicious hackers can even recruit other people\u2019s computers into engaging in illegal activities, for example in recruiting innocent people\u2019s computers for collecting and distributing child pornography. [2]  [1] Bruce Schneier, \u2018Schneier on security. Anonymity and the internet\u2019, blogpost February 3, 2010. URL:   [2] Huffington Post, \u2018Internet Virus Frames Users for Child Porn\u2019, September 11, 2009. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con02a","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity leads to spam  Internet anonymity is a boon for spammers: even though spamming (sending unsolicited mass-emails) is illegal in many countries, the ability to send emails anonymously, either through altering the \u2018sent-from\u2019 address in the email or by opening and immediately closing an email address, enables spammers to keep on spamming. [1] Even if spam-fighters do find an email address and domain name from which spam is sent, then privacy protections still make it almost impossible to find out who exactly owns the domain name. [2] By restricting email traffic so that it can only be sent through official email-servers, we can ensure traceability of email senders and thereby increase the likelihood of catching spammers \u2013 which is what South-Korea, the world\u2019s second largest generator of spam emails, recently proposed under the \u2018Block 25\u2019 proposal. [3]  [1] Spam Reader, \u2018Why is it so difficult to catch a spammer?\u2019, March 6, 2013. URL:   [2] Spam Resource, \u2018Is Online Anonymity a Bad Thing?\u2019, March 2, 2010. URL:   [3] BBC News, \u2018Email spam 'Block 25' crackdown readied in South Korea\u2019, 14 november 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con03a","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity increases cyberbullying and trolling  In normal social life, people restrain themselves in what they say to others. When anonymously online, people behave differently: whatever they say and do can be said and done without consequence, because it isn\u2019t traceable to them as persons, or, as comic artist John Gabriel is often paraphrased 'Normal Person + Anonymity + Audience = Idiot\u2019. [1]  The consequences of this behaviour are ugly or downright harmful. Massive Multiplayer Online Roleplaying Games (MMPORGs) like World of Warcraft face a constant atmosphere of verbal abuse created by their players. And there\u2019s worse than simple trolling like this: anonymity increases the effects bullying. For example, where schoolchildren originally were bullied in schools by bullies whose faces they knew, with online anonymity the bullying goes on anonymously online and invades every aspect of the victims\u2019 lives \u2013 aggravating their suffering so much that in some cases they actually commit suicide, as for example did Canadian teenager Amanda Todd. [2]  That\u2019s why organizations maintaining online communities, whether they be social networking sites like Facebook, MMORPGs like World of Warcraft and newspaper sites like The Guardian should (legally) be required to (publicly) verify the person behind an account or take it offline if it remains anonymous, as New York senators recently proposed. [3]  [1] The Independent, \u2018Rhodri Marsden: Online anonymity lets us behave badly\u2019, July 14, 2010. URL:   [2] Huffington Post, \u2018Amanda Todd: Bullied Canadian Teen Commits Suicide After Prolonged Battle Online And In School\u2019, October 11, 2012. URL:   [3] Wired, \u2018New York Legislation Would Ban Anonymous Online Speech\u2019, May 22, 2012. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con01a","title":"","text":"Internet anonymity allows internet users to engage in illegal activities  The internet is being used for illegal activities. Examples of these are trading and trafficking in child pornography, drug trading and planning and coordinating terrorist activities. [1] Anonymity makes it easier for these criminals as they can engage in their activities with less fear of being caught. [2]  By regulating internet anonymity, we can combat illegal activities better, because a key resource for criminals has been diminished. This is exactly why Eugene Kaspersky, founder of antivirus firm Kasperksy Labs, called for an \u2018internet passport\u2019 for every internet user, allowing everyone to be identified as persons. [3]  [1] UNODC, Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes, 2012. PDF can be downloaded here:   [2] Interpol, \u2018Cybercrime\u2019. URL:   UNICRI, \u2018Terrorism and the internet\u2019. URL:  2013  [3] Zdnet,\u2019Microsoft OneCare was good enough\u2019, October 16, 2009. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con02b","title":"","text":"Regulating the internet doesn\u2019t stop spamming  Restricting internet traffic by blocking ports doesn\u2019t reduce spam at all: spam networks will be able to find another means of sending mass-emails within hours, if not seconds. [1]  But there\u2019s another consequence of regulating internet traffic this way: it makes internet traffic and email slower and more cumbersome, hampering small businesses and companies working mostly through online channels. It thus hinders the smooth functioning of the economy and hampers innovation. [2]  [1] Zdnet, \u2018South Korea to block port 25 as anti-spam countermeasure\u2019, November 15, 2011. URL:   [2] BBC News, \u2018Email spam 'Block 25' crackdown readied in South Korea\u2019, 14 november 2011. URL:"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro02b","title":"","text":"Mobile phones may help us keep in touch over long distances which is useful. However some doctors are concerned that keeping in touch by mobile phone comes at the cost of less face to face talking. When communicating by text message we are losing many parts of communication such as facial expression"}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Mobile phones enable us to keep in touch  Mobile communication is very useful and its main use is not to keep us safe but to make life easier. It is clearly useful that we can phone to ask to be picked up rather than always having to set a meeting time in advance. It is equally useful that a mobile phone can tell us if it is likely to rain, or if the train is late. We don\u2019t need this information, but it certainly is helpful, and it is just as helpful for children as for adults."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro03b","title":"","text":"These are certainly good things but we don\u2019t need mobile phones for them. For example most people already have access to the internet. It is also not a good reason for why everyone should have one. If it is being used for learning phones can be used by more than one person."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro01a","title":"","text":"Mobile phones make sure that we are safe  Mobile phones mean we are never out of contact with our friends, parents, guardians, or if necessary our school. They provide a way we can quickly contact someone if we are in trouble or are lost. Mobiles are most clearly helpful if caught in a large scale disaster such as a flood or earthquake as we can tell rescuers where we are. But they are also helpful for every day security. With a mobile phone parents know where we are and can be quickly contacted if we feel unsafe somewhere."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro01b","title":"","text":"Phones are certainly a useful tool in helping to keep in contact so can be useful if you get into trouble. But they don\u2019t always help because they don\u2019t always keep us in contact. There are many reasons why a mobile may be useless. There may be no signal. Or the phone may have been turned off. Or the battery may have run low. If any of these things happen then it adds to parents worries as they can\u2019t get in contact when they expected to be able to."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro04b","title":"","text":"Increased independence for children is not always a good thing. Children should be supervised by adults and mobile phones are no substitute for this. Mobiles simply provide us with another means of communication with the outside world over which parents has little control. This is particularly relevant when the phone has internet access which is not restricted."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro03a","title":"","text":"Mobile phones help us to learn  Having a mobile phone helps us to learn in a lot of different ways. First we learn about technology; about how to use the mobile phone. Second most phones today have apps (programs) to enable learning using the phone, or else through the internet. Phones can access online courses and lessons which can be provided in fun ways and can in some cases instantly tell you if you have the right answer. It may even sometimes be possible to do homework on a phone and send it to your teacher. Even without the internet phones can be used to provide short assignments, or to provide reminders to study."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro04a","title":"","text":"Mobile phones lead to increased independence  Mobile phones bring us increased independence. Being able to use a mobile phone is clearly a basic skill to allow children to be independent. It means that they are not dependent on an adult being with them for parents to know where they are. The main reason for parents being unwilling to let children out on their own is fear for their safety. This is a fear that mobiles help prevent. This increased independence has other benefits, such as teaching us to be responsible for ourselves."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con03b","title":"","text":"No research has shown health risks. The advice is only because we do not yet know the long term results. As studies continue for longer this final worry will also be ended."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con01b","title":"","text":"Mobiles are not always a distraction. Research has shown that when allowed the use of mobile phones in school children do get better results. This is because it can increase motivation to work. For example, phones can be used to set reminders to do homework."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con02a","title":"","text":"We should not be encouraging interest in material things  Mobile phones are a part of a desire to keep up with fashion and friends. We all want the biggest and the best. Mobile phone companies know this and regularly bring out flashy new models that are immediately the one everyone must have. The more children have mobiles the more are caught up in this fashion. Our compulsion to want new things all the time is not good for us. Mobile phones, as with many other electronics, are damaging to the environment. Since we buy them and often dispose of the phone only a couple of years later they pile up in gigantic rubbish dumps. Mobile phones are clearly a luxury not something that everyone should have, and we certainly should not keep buying new ones."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con04a","title":"","text":"Mobile phones are expensive  Mobile phones are expensive. First there is the cost of buying the phone. Then there are all the charges for using it. Often there are more charges for downloading apps and other extras. Sometimes we go over the limits of our call time or data allowance and are charged extra. Finally there may be extra costs when the phone needs to be replaced or upgraded. The average cell phone bill in the United States is $70 for a month but it can sometimes be much higher. Clearly not every child can afford their own mobile and often parents cant either."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con03a","title":"","text":"There are possible safety concerns  When mobile phones first came out there was a lot of worry about the possible effect on children\u2019s health. We now know there is little risk. But the advice from health experts is still that children should avoid too much use of mobiles. Experts still worry that the use of mobiles could be linked with behavioural problems in children, this can mean problems such as being disruptive or having difficulty sleeping."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con01a","title":"","text":"Mobile phones distracting  Mobile phones can easily distract us. They can be a particular problem in schools where they discourage us and those around us from working. Using a mobile phone while doing a piece of work will reduce your concentration making it more likely you will make mistakes. Mobile phones, like video games, are also a distraction from doing other things. We don\u2019t just use phones for communication but also for games. Most young people spend well over an hour on their mobiles. As a result there is much less time for other activities."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con04b","title":"","text":"The expense clearly depends on the kind of phone and how much it is used. Parents clearly have control over these costs; they decide on the deal that their child is on. The parents can then make sure there is little chance of their children running up large bills."}
+{"id":"validation-science-cpecshmpj-con02b","title":"","text":"Something being a luxury does not mean it is not something everyone should have. The effect on the planet is minimal and can be reduced if we recycle any phones that we are going to throw away. It would certainly best for the planet if we did not keep buying upgrades but this is not necessary for every child to have a mobile phone."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro02b","title":"","text":"First off, it is quite possible the gender ratio imbalance is not as large in China as it is thought to be because many families do not register their female children in order to circumnavigate the one-child policy.  Proposition thinks that trafficking will decrease under their policy. We would argue that it would increase or at the very least not decrease. These atrocities take root when a society finds more value in women as economic objects than as people. The cash transfer scheme does little to increase women\u2019s value as people but explicitly and dramatically increases their value as economic objects. This plan does not reduce or create any disincentive for exploitation of women or girls, but it does guarantee a revenue stream from doing so  In some traditional cultures, women are used as tender to settle debts, through forced marriages, or worse. Presumably the cash transfers are to the families, not the girls themselves. This reinforces the powerlessness of women relative to their families and only reinforces their families' potential gain from economic exploitation. With the addition of cash, there would be an increased incentive reason to exploit this renewable resource. We on side Opp feel that this behaviour is dehumanizing and deplorable and the risk of increased objectification and exploitation is, by itself, sufficient reason to side with the Opposition. A higher female birth rate is not a good in of itself if these women are likely to be mistreated worse than the current female population as it is not only life we value but quality of life and it is surely unethical to set policies that will increase the number of people being born into lives of discrimination."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro02a","title":"","text":"The policy will help alleviate the social problems arising from the imbalance  A balanced gender ratio allows that every man has a woman to marry \u2013 theoretically of course as not every individual wants to marry and not every individual is heterosexual. The majority of men and women do want to get married. In China, men face such competition to find a wife that they spend several years living in horrific conditions in order to save up enough money to have a property with which to present a prospective wife. Without a property these men will never find a wife. These men clearly have a desperate desire to find a woman. [1] There are 3 problems with this situation. 1) The dissatisfaction men experience when they strongly desire to marry but cannot is an unhappy thing and surely lowers their quality of life. By 2020 there will be 24 million Chinese men of marrying age with no wives. It has even been suggested that this dissatisfaction is contributing to a rising crime rate in China. [2] 2) Because men are so desperate they will take any woman they can get. The dating agency industry has grown massively in China and parents even gather in town squares to advertise their daughters, rejecting or accepting candidates based only on whether or not they have a property and a good job. This means couples are less likely to be compatible and, though divorce is not as popular in China as in the west, couples are more likely to be unhappily married. Divorce has increased a huge amount as the gender imbalance has increased. [3] 3) Those men who do not find wives often look to prostitution or possibly women trafficked into the country for companionship and sex. 42 000 women were rescued from kidnappers in China between 2001 and 2003. There are clear harms to the women involved in such activities and to women\u2019s rights as a whole when this occurs. There are harms to society as a whole when this occurs in the name of HIV and other STDs. [4] 4) The prevalence of prostitution and trafficking as well as the focus on male wealth when it comes to dating and marriage placed women in a position where they are seen only as a financial asset or commodity to be sold, bought or traded. Placing women in this position will have psychological harms such as lowered self-esteem and more tangible harms when society treats them with less respect and women\u2019s rights cease to develop in a positive direction.  [1] Gladstone, Alex and Well, Greg. \u201cMaterial girls lose good men.\u201d Shanghai Daily. 2011.   [2] Sughrue, Karen. \u201cChina: Too Many Men.\u201d CBS News. 2009.   [3] \u201cMore women opt to end unhappy marriages.\u201d China Daily. 2002.   [4] Raymond, Janice. \u201cHealth Effects of Prostitution.\u201d The Coalition Against Trafficking of Women. 1999."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro03b","title":"","text":"We agree that a policy to ban abortion is not conducive to the encouragement of women\u2019s rights. We would argue, however, that more rigorous policing of prenatal gender determination could be effective. For example, an amnesty could be issued for handing in of illegally used ultrasound devices, possibly even with a financial reward for turning these in. Further investigation could be made into rumours of places where one might access prenatal gender determination. It may be difficult but all crime detection is difficult but we do it because it is important.  Propaganda has been known to change age old ideas. It is an extremely powerful force. China has shown the power of propaganda through its censorship of the internet, protectionist policies in the film industry and control of print and radio media which help ensure that the Communist party stays in power. Of course, propaganda can also be used to create positive effects. What\u2019s important to note about propaganda is that it takes time. Propaganda in South Africa which aims to encourage the use of condoms and greater HIV awareness is only now beginning to work after ten years of running such campaigns. New infections in the teenage age group (the age group most exposed to HIV awareness particularly through schools) have decreased. [1] There is no reason why this cannot be a very effective tool in changing people\u2019s mindsets about gender.  Furthermore, some of the changes in society will happen naturally as countries like China and India develop. As more women are educated and get jobs, people will start to realise women\u2019s value and women will probably have more influence in the decision of whether or not to go through with a pregnancy. It is a historical trend that nations offer more freedoms and they become more economically developed. [2] Wealth leads to liberalisation and greater exposure to western ideals.  [1] \u201cHIV\/AIDS in South Africa.\u201d Wikipedia.   [2] Mosseau, Michael, Hegre, Havard and Oneal, John. \u201cHow the Wealth of Nations Conditions the Liberal Peace.\u201d European Journal of International Relations. Vol. 9 (2). P277-314. 2003. \u201cHIV\/AIDS in South Africa.\u201d Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro01a","title":"","text":"Gender equality  Men and women deserve to enjoy equal rights. In China and India women do not enjoy equal rights. By encouraging couples to produce girls we contribute to the resolution of two problems. Female children are likely to be treated poorly in comparison their brothers. They may be given smaller quantities of food, less education etc. It is not only the physical differences in the upbringing of boys and girls that are noteworthy but also the emotional. Particularly in families without sons, daughters are led to experience guilt and a sense of inferiority because their parents are disappointed in their gender. These girls will grow up in a home without gender equality and therefore will come to accept a smaller share of family wealth as an adult and be unfit psychologically to denounce male dominance. The girls are likely to later perpetuate gender inequality amongst their own children. [1] By making it beneficial for parents to have female children, we make parents less likely to make their daughters feel guilty and inferior for their gender. Furthermore, educational grants will allow girls access to education \u2013 which is both intrinsically valuable and valuable in that it will allow the possible financial independence and the confidence to denounce male domination. Similarly, men will receive a message that it is more praiseworthy to produce a son. In essence, allowing selective abortions to take place without taking action against this practise is allowing gender inequality to stagnate in the popular wisdom. It is important to take a stance especially in a country like China where government ideology heavily effects the people.  [1] Gupta, Monica. \u201cSelective Discrimination against Female Children in Rural Punjab, India.\u201d Population and Development Review. Vol.13, No.1, (Mar.1987), p77."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro01b","title":"","text":"The shortage of women in China has a positive effect on gender equality because there is a shortage of women and men therefore have to compete for romantic attention. Women can afford to be picky. \u201cMany Chinese women place high value on a husband with money and stability. In a now famous moment from a Chinese dating show, a female contestant rejected a suitor with the iconic line, \"I would rather cry in the back of a BMW than laugh on the back of a bicycle.\" [1] One gentleman said, If you're poor, nobody will go with you.\" [2] This places women in a position of power.  Furthermore, simply increasing the number of female babies alive will not alter the gender dynamics because the preference for male children can be attributed to age old beliefs that men continue the family name and provide financial protection for their parents in their old age as well as to the dowry system in India. [3]  The following is mentioned in the People\u2019s Daily Online regarding the traditional and cultural reasons for the gender ratio disparity: \u201cDemographer Wang Guangzhou at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences said that China\u2019s strong preference for male children, coupled with the lack of social welfare, lay at the heart of the problem. \u2018Traditional values will still prevail in some rural areas, where having male heirs is important for ensuring that the family bloodline is preserved,\u2019 Wang said. \u2018Furthermore, many Chinese families rely on their children to look after the elderly since a solid social welfare system is still unavailable for much of the population.\u2019\u201d [4]  For more argumentation as to why a discriminatory policy in favour of women will not address gender inequality see the opposition ineffectiveness argument.  [1] Adshade, Marina. \u201cThe Dating Surplus for Chinese Women.\u201d 2010.   [2] Sughrue, Karen. \u201cChina: Too Many Men.\u201d CBS News. 2009.   [3] Pande, Rohini and Malhotra, Anju. \u201cSon Preference and Daughter Neglect in India: What happens to living girls?\u201d International Center for Research on Women. 2006.   [4] \u201cChina faces growing gender imbalance.\u201d BBC News."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro04b","title":"","text":"We do not disagree that abortion is a generally undesirable thing. Even those who believe that abortion is ethical feel it would be preferable not to have an unwanted pregnancy in the first place. It may be very distressing for mothers if they have not made an autonomous choice to go through with the abortion but the proposition is wrong to assume that they have not. Cultural biases towards male children are often internalised by women. It makes sense that both mothers and fathers would be concerned about who will care for them in old age \u2013 not just men. Men and women from the same socio-economic and cultural background are also likely to have similar ethical views and therefore are unlikely to disagree on their ethical standpoint on abortion. Therefore, it is not the case that women suffer because they are forced or coerced into abortions.  Furthermore, this is not a problem exclusive to gender selective abortion. Whilst there is a greater prevalence of abortions of female babies, there are a lot of abortions of male babies as well. Assuming that abortion does cause women a lot of distress, this harm will not be removed by encouraging parents to have girls because they will continue to abort male foetuses. The solution for this problem is to educate people about alternative methods of contraception so that unwanted pregnancies do not occur and also to empower women in their marital relationships by encouraging them to have their own income and so on. This can be better targeted by self-help women\u2019s groups and the like."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro03a","title":"","text":"Ineffectiveness of alternatives  One possible alternative to our possibly is to better police prenatal sex determination. This is highly unfeasible. In 1982 the Chinese government distributed masses of small, light ultrasound devices to ensure that women who\u2019d already had one child were either sterilized or continuing to wear their intrauterine device. Women started using these devices for prenatal sex determination and therefore \u201cmore than 8 million girls were aborted in the first 20 years of the one-child policy.\u201d In China prenatal sex determination is illegal and, though ultrasounds are allowed in certain cases for medical reasons so long as they are on security camera, doctors who reveal the gender of the child can no longer work as doctors. The masses of distributed ultrasound devices, however, are the basis for a large and successful black market.  A second possible approach is propaganda. \u201cThe government has launched a campaign to convince parents that having daughters is a good thing: propaganda street banners preach that preferring boys over girls is old thinking.\u201d This too has been unsuccessful. Posters and the like are unlikely to change age-old traditional ways of thinking. [1]  Abortions are still free and legal right up to the ninth month, even as the boy-girl imbalance grows. A third possible approach to the problem could be to ban abortions altogether. This is unlikely to be effective as, with such high demand, a black market for abortion is sure to spring up. Even if it is effective, it may drive parents to commit infanticide instead. It also seems an unfair policy. We promote women\u2019s rights and women\u2019s choice and it seems wrong to prevent women who have, for example, been raped from aborting a child that they had no choice in conceiving and will possible resent.  Therefore, there are seemingly no satisfactory alternatives.  [1] Sughrue, Karen. \u201cChina: Too Many Men.\u201d CBS News. 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro04a","title":"","text":"Abortion  It is estimated that around 10 million female foetuses were aborted in the past 20 years in India. [1] These abortions were motivated by cultural and financial reasons discussed above e.g. dowry, parents fear that daughters can\u2019t care for them in old age, need to continue male lineage. Regardless of what one believes about the ethics of abortion, abortion causes a lot of emotional distress to women. In some cases this is because the woman has formed an emotional attachment to her unborn child. In some cases it may be because the woman has an ethical disagreement with abortion but is unable to refuse the abortion. Women are especially unlikely to have this kind of decision making power in the very countries where men are valued more highly than women and husbands tend to have power over their wives. Our policy changes the incentives that families have to get an abortion. Whereas a female child was one a costly liability, our policy now makes having female children less of a liability, if not a financial asset. This means that fewer women will have to undergo abortions.  [1] Boseley, Sarah. \u201c10 million girl foetuses aborted in India.\u201d The Guardian. 2006."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con03b","title":"","text":"Whilst the Indian government may have policies that empower women, they do not currently have programs that encourage more female children to be born. Thus, there is a reason to fund both of these independent programmes. This is an investment in creating a socially stable society in the long-run. The benefits of educating women have been seen in other nations. As women become more educated they gain more freedoms as they are better equipped to fight for them and their achievements make it hard for men to argue that they are inferior. This is a long term effect, however, that will not reap the mentioned benefits for some years though it is very important. Extra educational subsidies cna easily be run alongside other policies simply by being well organised and communicative. Again, opposition\u2019s argument applies only to India while there are not educational programmes of this nature in other nations mentioned. Secondly, the pension programme we are proposing directly and immediately deals with the problem by saying to parents \u2018Have a female baby and we will support you through old age so you don\u2019t have to worry that the girl won\u2019t do it\u2019."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con01b","title":"","text":"Our policy provides far more than these existing programmes (which are, we could mention, exclusive to India). By offering parents of females an annual lifelong pension we remove the fear that their female children will not support them in their old age. This will certainly encourage parents whose primary goal in reproducing is to be financially secure in old age to have girls. Giving parents preferential employment and housing benefits would certainly be an effective incentive as 42% of the Indian population lives below the bread line. [1] There are NGOs around the world concerned with women\u2019s rights who will help to fund these initiatives and the UN has existing women\u2019s rights projects in China. [2]  This policy is necessary to ensure that women are born in the first place so that there is a larger united group working towards gender equality within these nations. Furthermore men will not be disgruntled at all because the money that government is supposedly spending on women is in fact going into the pockets of these parents. Whereas tax money might go to roads in parts of the country one might never use or to help people poorer that the taxpayer, this policy places money directly in the pocket of any taxpayer who has a female child. It is very unlikely that men will hate their daughters for bringing in money and for not requiring costly education \u2013 if government offers to pay for female education.  [1] \u201cPoverty in India.\u201d Wikipedia.   [2] \u201cUnited Nations Development Programme.\u201d"}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con02a","title":"","text":"Commodifying women.  Surely providing a financial incentive for families to produce women causes women to be likened to a product that needs to be manufactured. Families will continue to have a social stigma against female children and they will be viewed simply as a financial asset. This is not only bad for women in general in the country but for babies that are only alive because they provide income. These children are unlikely to be loved and cared for as a male child might be and it is cruel to encourage them to be brought into the world to live life in such a condition.  Furthermore, the commoditisation of money can only serve to worsen the problem of trafficking mentioned earlier by the proposition."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con05a","title":"","text":"Autonomy (Please note that this argument cannot be run in conjunction with argument four as they are contradictory)  42% of the Indian population is under the international poverty line and it is they that contribute the most to imbalanced sex ratio due to economic concerns. [1] Offering a financial incentive for people to produce female children will undermine the autonomy of parents. In order for there to be autonomy, the individual needs to be able to make a rational, unforced decision. When someone is extremely impoverished, as many people are in developing economies like those of China and India, financial incentives are an offer that cannot be refused. Proposition would have you believe that we offer the parents an autonomous choice between having a female child and receiving money or not having the child and not receiving money. Of course they will take the money! Poverty removes the possibility of choice. In this way, poor parents are being forced to have female children to ensure their own survival and the survival of their already existing family.  Why is this problematic? Firstly, we believe choice is intrinsically valuable because the freedom to make choices is recognition of our fundamental humanity and individuality. If we cannot determine our own futures we are slaves. We value choice so much that we sometimes allow it when it risks causing wider social problems. For example, we allow people to smoke or eat unhealthily even though this may cost the health system a lot of money.  Secondly, people have the most empirical information about themselves and are therefore able to make the best choices for themselves. For example, a family may know that they do not have the space in their home or the time to raise another child. They may know that a boy will be better able to support the family financially later on because he will be more likely to get a job and in some cases this may even override the financial benefits offered by government. These are all important considerations that only individual families are able to take into account. A government is unable to know each family\u2019s individual situation and therefore is not well suited to make this decision in place of the family.  [1] Poverty in India.\u201d Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con04a","title":"","text":"Financial incentives do not break down cultural bias  The reason why there is a bias towards male children in India is cultural. When women get married in India they become a part of their husband\u2019s family and a dowry must be paid. As one Hindu saying goes, \"Raising a daughter is like watering your neighbours\u2019 garden.\" In order to change the gender ratio imbalance in India, therefore, it is important to deal with the underlying prejudices in society, not merely throw money at the problem. There are similar cultural prejudices in other countries with gender disparities. In China there is concern that female children cannot continue the family name as lineage is something male.  A good case study of a place where financial incentives have not altered the social climate regarding reproduction is Germany. Germany Kindergeld policy is particularly generous, giving 184\u20ac\/month for 1 child and 558\u20ac\/month for 3 until the children are at least 18 (regardless of gender). This is very similar to the Proposition plan but the birth rate has declined. In German culture there is a bias towards having fewer children and instead pursuing career but this cultural bias was not overcome by financial incentives.  The Germany Ministry of Statistics reported that the birthrate in 1970, 5 years before Kindergeld began, the birthrate per woman was 2.0. In 2005, despite ever increasing Kindergeld, the rate had dropped to 1.35. This trend is mirrored across all other European nations. [1] Of incredible significance is that the decline in birth rates is relatively even across all socioeconomic groups in Germany, indicating that even people with a low or no income do not have children for the sole purpose of receiving more money.  In order for the gender ratio to be rebalanced we need to do more than just offer money to parents who produce girls.  Governments often set blanket policies without coming to grips with the problems on the ground. It is likely that the problem is slightly different in different parts of China and that it has a far more intricate, psychological nature than proposition supposes. Cultural biases are taught to children from birth through everything language to observations of how their parents behave and these biases are internalised at a very young age. It is difficult to see how years of immersion in a culture can be overturned in adulthood by nothing more than the offer of money. There are probably more detailed reasons why male children are greater financial assets that government is not aware of. Perhaps in certain communities the prevalent industry requires strong male workers or refuses to employ females and this financial incentive will override the incentive proposed in propositions argument. In short, a blanket government policy will be unable to deal with the intricacies of the problem and a financial incentive may simply be the wrong approach.  [1] \u201cChild Benefit Germany.\u201d Wikipedia."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con03a","title":"","text":"The proposition policy will interfere with current government policies  Prop's plan is not only redundant with some current government programs but is also wasteful of worthwhile government funds. For example, the plan pays for the education of young girls up through the high school level. This is targeting a problem that has been addressed with significant success. Currently, the rates for primary school enrolment among young girls and young boys are 94% and 97% respectively in 2007. This is a drastic change from the year 2000 when it was 77% and 94%, a 17% disparity. [1] Additional policies in the same area are inefficient and the additional bureaucracy risks disrupting this positive trend.  There are currently at least 27 ministries in the Indian government (account for almost 5% of total budget expenditure) that are allocated to providing programs for female empowerment, and of these most are taking a targeted approach that identifies actual needs within communities. [2] [2] Side Prop does not tell us how their plan will be different than any of these existing plans.  At best, Prop's plan is likely to be redundant when combined with existing policy and therefore a waste of money. At worst, it will work against established, valuable programs and actively cause harm.  More importantly, the fact that girls are attending schools in these numbers and yet a sex-ratio imbalance exists and has in fact worsened proves that better education for women does not solve or improve the problem of sex selective abortion. Therefore, prop\u2019s policy of providing education grants is redundant.  [1] World Bank, \u2018Adjusted net enrolment rate. Primary\u2019, data.worldbank.org,   [2] Ministry of Women and Child Development, \u2018Gender Budgeting in India,"}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con05b","title":"","text":"It is ridiculous to say that a decision based on a financial incentive is not an autonomous decision. We allow poor people to make the decision to take on a job or sell items that they own even though these decisions are incentivised by money. We still regard these decisions as autonomous. Furthermore we do believe that families make careful considerations when they decide whether or not to have children. This is evidenced by the fact that families make the decision to abort female but not male children. Parents obviously consider the choice to have a child and we do not think that this will change when there is a government based financial incentive. This is especially the case because the reason that parents currently DO NOT have female children is for financial reasons. As you mentioned, male children tend to be more able to financially support their parents in their old age in these countries. Surely then a financial incentive is exactly the right kind to provide for these parents since it is financial incentives that are causing them not to produce females in the first place. If the opposition is concerned with financial incentives for the poor then they should be concerned with the status quo.  Furthermore, though governments may not know individual situations, they do know more about the widespread societal consequences of gender ratio imbalance and the long term predictions if these conditions continue to exist. They are also more likely to be concerned with the greater good of society whilst families make selfish decisions. Many of these families make decisions not based on rational reasoning or informed, educated plans but on cultural and social wisdom that may not produce the best decision. The bias towards men is cultural \u2018wisdom\u2019 of this nature.  Lastly, we\u2019d like to thank the opposition for showing just how effective our policy will be at encouraging families to produce girls"}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con01a","title":"","text":"Ineffectiveness  The policy will be ineffective in two ways. Firstly it will not even achieve the goal of a balanced gender ratio but secondly, even if it did, it will not reduce the divide between men and women and make women a more valued part of society.  1. How does this plan offer advantages to the families of girls in excess of what is already available? The Indian parliament's most recent budget includes several programs designed to increase the resources, specifically including medical and educational resources, available to women and children. Programs exist to provide education to women [1] . Most importantly where do these financial incentives come from? India is currently committed to cut budget deficits especially since \u201cGeneral government debt now stands at 82% of GDP.\u201d [1]  2. The plan proposed by Prop will simply exacerbate resentment of women by men who see taxpayer funds preferentially directed towards women. Men will take this resentment out on the women in their lives.. It\u2019s possible that in some cases, female children will be more valued for the money they bring in from the government than for their own personhood. We understand that some extent of financial or social benefits is necessary to redress historical oppression, but whenever possible, governments should seek to end gender-inequality by utilizing gender-neutral policies rather than picking sides. Widespread economic development will reduce the need for poorer families to select the sex of their children based on who can bring in the most income and therefore the gender ratio will begin to balance out without implementing discriminatory policies that create anger.  A perfect example of how discriminatory policies in the name of redress can create social divides is affirmative action in South Africa. Post-apartheid has an policy name Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) according to which companies gain benefits and status by fulfilling a certain race quota amongst their employees. South African universities accept black students with lower marks than white students in order to try to rebalance the demographics of the university. This means it is increasingly difficult for white people in South Africa to find jobs. Many white people feel resentful towards the beneficiaries of BEE and there is very aggressive debate at universities between white and black students as to whether racially based admissions policies are fair. If anything these policies have divided South Africans. [2] A discriminatory race policy in China and India will have much the same effect and therefore will not achieve its aims of addressing gender inequalities.  [1] Prasad, Eswar. \u201cTime to tackle India\u2019s Budget Deficit.\u201d The Wall Street Journal. 2010.   [2] Mayer, Mark. \u201cSouth Africans Continue to Seek Greener Pastures.\u201d Sharenet Marketviews. 2008."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con04b","title":"","text":"The German example is incomparable to the countries we are discussing.  It\u2019s most likely the case that the policy in Germany did not work because the population is too wealthy to be motivated by a financial incentive. Germany is a developed country with GDP per capita 40,874 US dollar and a \u201cluxury\u201d state welfare system. High education, no financial worries about the life after retirement and the fact that women pursue careers all contribute to a low birth rate. India, on the other hand is a developing country with only GDP per capita 2,941 US dollar and poor state welfare system. Moreover, 42 percent of the Indian population is under the international poverty line. Hence a financial incentive is far more effective in these Asian nations. Unlike in India, Europeans tend to regard children not as investments but as an opportunity for emotional fulfilment. They are unlikely therefore to make a decision about child rearing based on financial reasons.  Furthermore, the sense of community culture that exists in Asian nations (for example the practise of age-old traditions and the lack of cultural westernisation) is not present in Germany and so the example does not take into consideration the strength of culture in effecting decisions.  Lastly, we would argue that you cannot compare a programme which encourages people to have children at all to a programme that encourages people to have female rather than male children. The incentives of the parents are different and the goals of the policies are different.  We would argue that this policy is far better suited to India than it is to Germany and that the comparison does not hold."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con02b","title":"","text":"Encouraging families to have female children at least gives people a reason to value females at all, even if this is merely a financial value. In the current scenario women are not valuable in any sense. They are valued so little that their lives are ended without a flinch when they are only infants."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro02b","title":"","text":"Western nations are not as powerful as they would like to think. Their \u201csoft power\u201d cannot propagate norms as effectively as they would like to think. The dominance of Western countries in institutions does not put them in a place of great influence, but rather puts them in a place to be accused of imperialism and exploitation. The West\u2019s preaching to the rest of the world is not seen as constructive or admirable advice by the rest of the world, but rather is viewed as \u201cmoral arrogance\u201d and cultural imperialism. It is highly unlikely that most places will change their laws because someone tells them that they do not agree with them, especially when those laws are rooted in a deeper moral or religious obligation.  Moreover, with the hypocritical nature of this particular policy due to countries like the USA not respected homosexual rights either, it is very easy to dismiss this policy as the West simply being hypocritical and telling the developing world to \u201cdo as I say, not as I do\u201d and thus is easy to dismiss it as unimportant."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro02a","title":"","text":"This policy of asylum pressures governments to reform discriminatory laws  This will help change practices of sexuality-discrimination in nations across the world.  One of the most effective ways to engage the international community on swift action to protect certain rights is to make a clear, bold statement against a particular type of behaviour. By acting to not just condemn a certain behaviour, but actively circumvent states\u2019 ability to carry out such a behaviour, the international community sends a message of the unacceptability of such practices.  Moreover, and more importantly, regardless of if the countries are persuaded into agreeing with the international community on the issues of LGBT rights, this action will still change state behaviour. This will happen for two reasons:  Fear of sanction and condemnation. Most countries in the world are heavily interdependent and specifically dependent on the West. Falling out of popularity with Western countries and their populations is a particularly risky situation for most countries. An action such as this signals seriousness of the international community on the issue of sexual orientation equality and can be used as an influential tool to convince leaders to liberalize sexual orientation laws.  Loss of internal support. One of the biggest losses a leader can have in terms of democratic support and the avoidance of violent unrest is being seen as impotent and weak. When the international community effectively sets up a system of immunity to your country\u2019s laws and is more powerful is protecting people and helping people avoid the laws of your country than you are in implementing them, you lose face and integrity in the eyes of your constituents. This can make leaders look weak and incapable of administering justice and fulfilling the needs of society. Furthermore, it makes leaders seem weak and subservient to the rest of the world, removing perceived legitimacy. This loss of legitimacy and support is a major consideration for state leaders. As such, a declaration of an asylum policy for sexual orientation can persuade leaders into changing their anti-homosexuality laws to avoid asylum being granted to people from their country to save face and continue to look strong and decisive as a leader and avoid the damage such a policy would do to their rhetoric of strong leadership.  The best example of this is that due to strong and vocal condemnation of the Bahati Bill in Uganda which would have imposed the death penalty for the crime of homosexuality, the Cabinet Committee rejected the bill [1] .  Therefore, this policy is instrumental in changing state behaviour towards sexual orientation and making the first steps towards acceptance and ending discrimination.  [1] Muhumuza, Rodney. \"Uganda: Cabinet Committee Rejects Bahati Bill.\" allAfrica.com 08 May 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro03b","title":"","text":"As explained in counterargument two, it is highly unlikely that countries will craft policy based on the preaching of the West.  Moreover, it becomes increasingly unlikely that countries will be receptive to discussions on liberalization of their policies on sexual orientation when the West outright condemns their views as immoral and abhorrent and takes active steps to stop them from enforcing what they see as their moral laws on their populations."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro01a","title":"","text":"The LGBT community fulfills the basic principles and purposes of asylum  The LGBT community fulfills the most basic principles and purposes of the concept of asylum.  Asylum was created as a direct protection of Article 14 of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) 1948 [1] which states that \u201cEveryone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.\u201d [2] This article was created in order to protect the third article of the declaration \u201cEveryone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.\u201d [3] This concept of asylum was created to develop a separate category of migration that would allow its applicants to breach normal immigration protocol and application procedures [4] on the basis that these people were in immediate danger and that without creating a specific bypass for them, they would endure great harm or death. The point of asylum as a specific and emergency measure and, indeed a moral necessity, was two-fold:  1) The immediate nature of the threat\/danger to their person  2) That this threat was persecutory in nature  What is important to note is that \u201cpersecution\u201d is fundamentally different than prosecution. The difference lay in the acceptability and justice of the punishment someone may or will endure. Persecution is a term used for a punishment that is unjust or morally abhorrent. Asylum has emerged as a category of protection we grant to people who we believe that we are morally obligated to help, because if we do not, they will receive a punishment they do not deserve and will severely harmed for something they deserve no harm for.  We, the proposition, believe that both of these criteria are filled by those fleeing persecution for sexual orientation and thus we are morally-obligated to grant them asylum. First, it is clear that they are facing immediate danger. Whether it is death penalties in places like Uganda [5] or vigilante justice against homosexuals such as the murder of David Kato [6] . In places like Uganda, local tabloids often publishes \u201cGay Lists\u201d of individuals they believe are gay so that the community can track them down and kill them for their sexual orientation, which is how and why David Kato was murdered [7] . It is clear that whether by the state or by their neighbour, there is a clear and immediate danger to many LGBT people across the world.  The second criteria of the unacceptability of this persecution is also clear. We as Western Liberal democracies have in recent years become increasingly accepting of the LGBT community with the granting of gay marriage, application of anti-discrimination laws and even allowing of gay-adoption in many countries. The sexual orientation of an individual is in no indicative of one\u2019s worth as a human being in the eyes of the Western Liberal Democracy and can never possible be a death sentence. It is inconceivable for us to consider sexual orientation a reason to not allow a person to raise a child, never mind view it as an acceptable reason for death.  [1] United Nations. Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.  [2] United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948.  [3] United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948.  [4] United Nations. Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.  [5] Dougherty, Jill. \"U.S. State Department condemns 'odious' Ugandan anti-gay bill.\" CNN International. 12 May 2011.  [6] \"Uganda gay activist Kasha Jacqueline Nabagesera hailed.\" BBC News. 04 May 2011, Print.  [7] \"Uganda gay activist Kasha Jacqueline Nabagesera hailed.\" BBC News. 04 May 2011, Print."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro01b","title":"","text":"There has yet to be an international consensus forged around LGBT rights and state treatment of sexual orientation.  Many countries around the world are not secular Western Liberal Democracies and operate on a completely different moral standard than the West does. Many religions, and in fact state religions, do not recognize homosexuality as a legitimate lifestyle and specifically see it as a sin and a crime against the religious authority they uphold. It is not the West\u2019s role to tell the rest of the world what their morality should be.  There is not even consensus amongst Western Liberal Democracies on this issue. The United States of America still does not recognize homosexuals as deserving of equal rights to heterosexuals and many states do not allow gay marriage or gay adoption as a result [1] . The west cannot circumvent the laws of other countries when they themselves do not even hold themselves to the legal and moral standard they would like to impose on others.  [1] Law, Jeffrey R., and Justin H. Phillips. \"Gay Rights in the States: Public Opinion and Policy Responsiveness.\" American Political Science Review. 103.3 (2009): Print."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro03a","title":"","text":"This policy of asylum helps manufacture global consensus on the protection of the LGBT community  Global consensus on progressive rights for the LGBT community will be aided through this policy.  One of the most powerful weapons in the international community\u2019s arsenal is the soft power of condemnation. One of the most important things the international community can do is use its weight and influence to advocate protection of vulnerable peoples and promote moral and social causes. The West with its immense wealth and importance in international institutions such as the United Nations have a lot of power when it comes to influencing discriminatory policies in other nations. Granting asylum to people on the basis of sexual orientation sends a clear message to the international community that it is not okay to discriminate on the grounds of sexual orientation and that the West not only strongly disapproves of this behaviour, but that, more importantly, they will take active steps to counter-act your discriminatory policies. This has immense impact on pressuring governments to change their policies.  What is important to note here is that there is a gradual normative consensus that is manufactured under this system. Through the use of soft power, the policies of nations are slowly but surely moderated and a global consensus is created. Not only can this policy influence current state behaviour, but that the influence and change that creates becomes part of a larger global move towards universal acceptance of the norm and the diffusion of that idea throughout all strata of society.  This is important in two ways:  Creating a discourse centred on a universal consensus against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Therefore making discourse be dominated by agreement with this principle and thus creating a dialogue that creates an accepting atmosphere through disseminating the norm of acceptance throughout the international community and global society.  This is important is forging international legal protections for the rights of the LGBT community. International law arrives from a consensus of opinion around a particular issue and its need to be legislated on. Making sexual orientation grounds for asylum creates the framework that explicitly states that legislative international protection is necessary for these groups. This policy therefore begins that process in and of itself. However, more importantly, the reduction of opposition and trend of nations removing discriminatory laws against sexual orientation consolidates this statement of legislative need and furthers the cause for international protection.  Making sexual orientation a category for asylum not only saves lives, but also sends a strong and influential message that helps craft policy in nations who use discrimination as a tool of oppression against the LGBT community. This begins the foundations of global consensus on equality for all sexual orientations and a lasting solution to the issue of discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con03b","title":"","text":"As explained in counterargument two, the rationale behind this form of discrimination is nonnegotiable and absolutist due to its religious\/moral nature. Consensus-building will not happen in the near future on this issue and even if the potentiality of social acceptance of the LGBT community was in the not-so-distant future, this does not offer any protection to those in danger now, nor remove our obligation to their protection from discrimination and unjust punishment."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con01b","title":"","text":"Insofar as asylum exists, there is therefore a situation where the opposition would consider it okay to impede on sovereignty for a purpose of protection of individuals. The question is therefore about not if sovereignty can be infringed upon, but rather if this situation fits the criteria to do so.  The banning of homosexuality is not a legitimate point of view to impose on society through legislation. It is discriminatory to do so as sexual orientation is not a choice, it is a natural occurrence like race, gender, ethnicity etc. An individual has no control over their sexual orientation and therefore any legislation on it is discriminatory and unjust. This means that no one should have to follow that law, and more importantly, should not face punishment for it, as punishment in this situation is simply just the application of discrimination.  This is the \u201clast resort\u201d as the opposition would put it. When the state- the only people in the protection to use coercive force to protect individuals in society from harm and persecution. When the state refuses to protect individuals from vigilantism in society, or, in many cases, are the ones actively endangering them, external intervention is the only feasible protection."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con02a","title":"","text":"This policy breaks down important inter-governmental dialogue on LGBT rights  This policy damages international discourse and progress in LGBT rights.  This policy makes it very unlikely that governments will be willing or receptive to discussions on liberalization of their LGBT laws and policies. Discourse and compromise only happens when both sides of the debate accept the validity of the other person holding the view that they do. If the West outright rejects the views of other nations as \u201cimmoral\u201d or \u201cunacceptable\u201d these nations are unlikely to want to engage with the West on these issues as they feel that their opinions will not be respected or be treated fairly or equally. You effectively remove these countries from the negotiating table when you do this. This can be illustrated by countries deemed \u201cbackwards\u201d or \u201cimmoral\u201d such as Iran and North Korea, who become more isolationist the more they are categorized as and rejected for being \u201cevil\u201d or \u201cunacceptable.\u201d Construction engagement does not begin with the rejection of the other viewpoint\u2019s right to be on the negotiating table.  Moreover, you create an antagonistic relationship between the West and those nations with anti-homosexual laws that hinders further discussion on the issue. By dealing with LGBT treatment in this manner, you effectively brand all acceptance of homosexuality as \u201cWestern\u201d. This makes the concept of acceptance for the LGBT community nearly mutually-exclusive with religiously conservative nations or nations who have a historical and national narrative that dislikes the West and the concept of imperialism."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con04a","title":"","text":"Asylum is not the best way of dealing with discrimination against LGBT people.  The vast majority of LGBT people who are discriminated or harassed on the grounds of their sexual orientation will never have a chance to claim asylum. Poor people from Africa or India may never be able to afford transport to countries that are more accepting of their lifestyle, and even if they could afford it they may not have the knowledge that they could go elsewhere.  As such any policy of asylum for LGBT people who are being discriminated against is never going to be a good solution. And indeed could even be considered to itself be discriminating against those who will never have the opportunity.  Instead countries who would want to consider sexual orientation grounds for asylum should be putting their energies into preventing the discrimination in the first place. As in the UN Declaration of Human Rights \u201cAll are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination\u201d, [1] all should mean all.  Pressure could be put on countries where the asylum seekers would be coming from in many ways. Diplomatic pressure could be applied and countries denied access to some international organisation. In the case of countries where aid is given the aid could be stopped unless laws are changed, for example in 2009 the UK gave Uganda \u00a370 million in aid, [2] this money should translate into some leverage. Alternatively if the country does not receive aid it could have some form of sanctions against it or trade ties reduced.  [1] United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations, 1948.  [2] Annie Kelly and Liz Ford, \u2018Aid to Uganda: How the UK government is supporting the country\u2019, guardian.co.uk, 30 January 2009."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con03a","title":"","text":"This policy undermines the grassroots movements that are necessary for full and sustained protection of the LGBT community  Lasting change to anti-homosexual attitudes will only happen from the ground-up. This hinders the ability of governments to engineer more accepting attitudes toward the LGBT community.  Even if you could get countries to discuss their policies and liberalize them through this policy, this will not actually change the reality for the LGBT on the ground. Nations where anti-homosexuality laws are in place have large swathes of support for these laws as they represent and enforce the morality of the vast majority of their populace. Simply removing anti-homosexuality laws does not protect homosexuals in their home countries. Simply not being pursued by the government does not mean the government is willing or able to protect individuals from society. Moreover, it makes it nearly impossible for the government of that country to try to liberalize and engineer a more LGBT-friendly attitude in their country if they have submitted to Western pressures. Populations feel abandoned by their governments when they no longer reflect or uphold their wishes and what they view as their moral obligations. The government loses its credibility on LGBT issues if it abandons its anti-homosexual platform and thus cannot moderate or attempt to liberalize such views in the future. This simply leads to people taking \u201cjustice\u201d against homosexuals into their own hands, making danger to homosexuals less centralized, more unpredictable and much less targeted.  A perfect example of this is in Uganda where the government\u2019s \u201cfailure\u201d to implement a death penalty for homosexuality led to tabloid papers producing \u201cGay Lists\u201d that included people suspected of homosexuality [1] . The importance of this is two-fold. First, it shows that vigilante justice will replace the state justice and thus bring no net benefit to the LGBT community. Second, and more importantly, it means that the violence against LGBT individuals is no longer done by a centralized, controlled state authority, which removes all pretence of due-process and most importantly, makes violence against homosexuality become violence against suspicion of homosexuality. Thus, making it an even more dangerous place for everyone who could associate or in any way identify with what are viewed as \u201ccommon traits\u201d of the LGBT community.  [1] \"Gay Rights in Developing Countries: A Well-Locked Closet.\" The Economist. 27 May 2010."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con01a","title":"","text":"This policy is an illegitimate breach of national sovereignty  Asylum is a concept reserved for the direst cases of political persecution of individuals. It was created as a last resort protection mechanism for people being unlawfully or unjustly pursued by their home country when no other form of protection will work to guarantee the safety of these individuals. The reason it is such a last resort option is because it is effectively intervening within the sovereignty of a state and removing its monopoly on violence and coercive force within that state and administering a parallel system of justice.  No nation has the right to infringe on the sovereignty of another nation without just cause. The moral viewpoints of a nation and its peoples are not what can be considered \u2018just cause.\u2019 It is a religious and moral viewpoint to believe that homosexuality should be prosecuted and it is the obligation of any individual living in a state to abide by the laws of the state that they live in. It is not within the rights of other countries to decide if the domestic laws of another country are in line with their views nor is it legitimate for them to violate sovereignty on this basis.  If an individual wishes to break the laws of their society on moral grounds, they have knowingly and intentionally violated the law. Just as people who think any other law unjust and thus breaks it, the LGBT community is in no way less culpable for the breach of law nor is any state any more justified in allowing them to evade punishment."}
+{"id":"validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con02b","title":"","text":"International discourse on this issue has not been working.  When society is the one persecuting the LGBT community, the governments have plausible deniability in the matter and thus can skirt their responsibility in negotiations. This means that all talk and \u201cdialogue\u201d is meaningless as the government\u2019s can claim a lack of responsibility or agree to protection for the LGBT community, but then not offer it because they are \u201cunable\u201d to.  Many times discrimination against sexual orientation is a religious one, and when it is not, it is a moral one. These views are not reconcilable with alternative moral claims as they are absolutist forms of thought. They are not negotiable or a matters of opinion; they are simply right. This will never lead to consensus-building through friendly dialogue.  Even if the leaders of these countries have made laws against certain forms of sexual orientation on a calculated political level, it will be because of the religious\/moral views of the citizens within their country. This is important because, given the option of disagreeing with an international community that has no power over them or angering their domestic constituents that either keeps them in power through democratic support or the avoidance of violent unrest, leaders will pick the former. Thus, international consensus-building is bound to fail  These people need protection now. Regardless of any international dialogue about the future, real people are in real danger now. The reason asylum was created was to protect individuals in immediate danger when no immediate solution to the persecution is in sight. This is a perfect fit for the criteria of asylum."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro02b","title":"","text":"Whilst it is important for people to remember the terrible troubles people have surviving in very poor countries, we must also remember that direct sponsorship is perhaps not the best way to help people out of poverty - there are a lot of downsides [7]. Would it not be better to hear of how an entire community was improved rather than just a single child or family? Ultimately you can\u2019t force people to give to charity, and at times like these when even in wealthy countries people have trouble getting enough money it must be expected that charitable giving will drop."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro02a","title":"","text":"Child sponsorship brings about greater understanding between people from different countries and cultures.  Personal letters, charity reports, photographs and even visits help to build a bridge between the developed and developing world[5]. More and more people are able to talk to each other around the world, and it is important that less fortunate people in poor countries are connected to the rest of us and have the opportunity to communicate with us. Sponsorship creates a personal connection - the children get to learn about their sponsors and the sponsors get to learn how their money helps people. This continued attention to the positive effects of sponsorship is really important to help poorer countries, especially at a time when worldwide economics are in trouble and charities are most at risk from begin forgotten [6]."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro03b","title":"","text":"The problem once with this form of giving is that it only provides for a single child, not an entire community - this is why many organisations refuse to offer single child adoption, and instead spend the money they receive on developing poor places for everyone that lives there [10]. By sponsoring a child rather than giving the money directly to a cause or organisation you add a layer of uncertainty to the process \u2013 you can't be sure exactly how your money is being spent, or if it really is being used to help all aspects of life. Some organisations only work through missionaries and churches [11]. Although giving to a single child may produce more tangible and immediate results, the work done by large charity organisations is likely to have more important long term benefits to many more people."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro01a","title":"","text":"Sponsorship is better than other kinds of charity because it is a long term commitment.  Over the years $30 a month, or perhaps even more, adds up to thousands of dollars\u2019 worth of aid spending - this is different to other forms of charity because the main focus here is on \u201clong-term changes\"[2]. Unlike a one-off donation, this method of giving ensures that poor people get support for a long time without costing people too much in one go. It also ensures that people keep giving to these needy causes, and makes people realise that they can afford to make a difference."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro01b","title":"","text":"The long term nature of sponsorship implies that it does not fix the problems that cause poverty. Instead, many argue it can create dependency[3], meaning that the child and family will come to rely on their sponsor. This may discourage them from using their own efforts to escape poverty. For example, even if leaving their village to find work elsewhere could be best for them, they may stay where they are to keep receiving the sponsorship money and other benefits. By linking a single child to a single wealthy (rich) person it also creates a situation in which it is easy for the child to compare their own lives with those of their sponsors. This could make them unhappy or even jealous [4]. In the end it is still possible to help children through charitable giving, but sponsorship schemes create a more complicated relationship that could sometimes go wrong."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro04b","title":"","text":"People should not need this kind of \u201cfeel good factor\u201d in order to give to charity \u2013 it is very selfish. People all over the world need help from richer people, and instead of helping just one they have the ability to help many. By focusing in on one single example, people may also get a very narrow view of life in poorer countries \u2013 they may feel that the developing world can't look after itself and as a result won't support very important changes to things like government that could actually help the people more than their sponsorship. The \u201cpersonal connection\u201d is also sometimes made up by the charity organisations, who translate and edit letters sent between the rich and poor to make sure they do not get too emotionally attached to one another [13]."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro03a","title":"","text":"Sponsorship also contributes to all aspects of life.  This includes drinking water, food, education, medical care, shelter and sanitation - often charitable donations are more specific (they only provide for one of these aspects of life). By putting children at the heart of charity programs it is hoped that a stronger foundation will be made for the future - the young people who are helped today can maintain a better lifestyle in the future [8]. Giving all this to an individual child also produces more tangible results than giving to a vast organisation, whose work is can often over-ambitious and more open to corruption [9]."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro04a","title":"","text":"Sponsorship is a good way of getting people who otherwise wouldn't give to charity to donate their money.  Unlike most other forms of charity, sponsorship creates a direct link between the person giving money and the person receiving it. People are able to see the ways in which their money is helping others, and this makes them feel good about it \u2013 as World Vision International says - \u201cYou get to see and feel the difference your support makes\" [12]. Although this is probably not the best reason for people to give their money to those in need, practically speaking (in the real world) it is one of the most effective (it works very well) in encouraging people to give."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con03b","title":"","text":"In an ideal world it would be easy to say that charities should not try to change the religions and cultures of poor people, but given the dire nature of the situation for the poorest people in the world, surely we do not have the luxury to argue over what ideas should or should not be given to these people. Is it not better that they survive as Christians rather than die from hunger and disease? Religion provides the incentive many people need to think about giving money to charity. We must also consider that only a minority of organisations seek to change the people they help in this way \u2013 there is a lot of choice out there for people who don't want to impose cultural change [21] so this does not work as an argument against the idea of child sponsorship as a whole."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con01b","title":"","text":"Stories about ridiculous administration costs are not only rare but are often untrue. For example, in the case of one of the largest sponsorship organisations - World Vision - \u201cOf the funds given in 2010, 81.1 per cent went directly into programs that help children, 13.9 per cent went to fundraising services, 5.0 per cent was allocated to administration\". Charities are not out to rip people off, their aim is to give money to people who need it most. There are always going to be some administration costs in any organisations, and even if those charities who offer child sponsorships have higher costs than others, the positive long term effects of this giving are far more important. Often it may be a choice between giving a sponsorship and not giving anything at all - helping some people is surely better than helping no-one at all."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con02a","title":"","text":"We need to address the causes of poverty rather than treat the symptoms (outward signs).  There are better ways to help people. Helping single children, or even villages, treats the symptoms of poverty - it makes life better for a small minority. It does little to address the actual causes of poverty such as war, unclean water, bad government, HIV\/AIDS, unfair world trade rules, etc. As these statistics show the problems of poverty and disease are truly massive in scale, and even if many thousands are helped by sponsorship schemes, many millions more are still left with nothing. If we really want to help lift people out of poverty for good, we should give to charities which focus on these bigger development issues - for example Christian Aid believes that \u201cit is better to help whole communities through our partner organisations rather than sponsor individuals\" [16]. We should also join campaigns to make rich world governments do more to help the developing world by increasing spending on aid [17], forgiving debt, and making the global trade rules fairer for developing countries."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con03a","title":"","text":"Sponsorship is often more about the intentions of the donors rather than the needs of poor children.  Some schemes have a clear cultural and religious motive \u2013 a desire to give aid in such a way that it will affect and even impose (force) foreign ideas onto a vulnerable (weaker) society. Any organisation that has such a clear overlap between their own ideas of faith [19] and the practical side of helping people is ultimately imposing its ideas onto people without giving them any choice in the matter. Families may even come to think that they have to show belief in order to keep receiving sponsorship. For example, sponsored children may be encouraged to send cards at Christmas, even if they are not Christians. At the end of the day this comes down to a very serious question of choice \u2013 many would argue that by offering aid with the intention of turning children into adult Christians [20], organisations like \u201cCompassion\u201d are effectively manipulating charity into part of a conversion campaign."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con01a","title":"","text":"Sponsorship is an inefficient way of giving to charity.  Sponsoring a child is a costly way to do good. More of the money given is taken up with administration (organising) compared to other ways of helping poor people, and although the cost of this administration varies greatly but often as much as 20% of the money donated does not reach the people who need it, and some of that loss is through high executive salaries. [14] For example, keeping track of each child and family needs time from an aid worker, who has to be paid. Organising and sending letters, photographs, school reports, etc. to the donor takes time and money. Translating letters and reports between both donor and child can be particularly costly. Giving the same amount of money to an aid charity would do much more for poor people."}
+{"id":"validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con02b","title":"","text":"Many of the organisations that run child sponsorship schemes are dedicated to improving all of these aspects of life \u2013 indeed the way in which these schemes focus on the improvement of a specific area or community make it perhaps a more complete way of giving money to the poor. Charities can hardly be expected to incite political change or cure deadly diseases instead of helping those who are sick. More than eight million children around the world are sponsored by Western sponsors [18] - giving this large number of children the basis for a good future and the possibility of them learning enough to get themselves and their future families out of poverty is surely a good enough reason to encourage the sponsoring of children to build for a better future alongside other charity projects."}