json/Second Temple/Philo/On Husbandry/English/merged.json

{
    "title": "On Husbandry",
    "language": "en",
    "versionTitle": "merged",
    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/On_Husbandry",
    "text": {
        "Introduction": [
            "ON HUSBANDRY (DE AGRICULTURA) ANALYTICAL INTRODUCTION",
            "GEN 9:20 F. quoted at the beginning of <i>De Agricultura</i> is the text of this and the two following treatises. The part of it dealt with in the one before us is the words, “And Noah began to be a husbandman” or “gardener.”",
            "Having pointed out that this connotes scientific gardening, Philo describes scientific gardening in the literal sense (1–7), and then goes on to soul-gardening. This ministers to the Mind. Its aim is the fruit of virtue, and it is only for the sake of this that it occupies itself first with rudimentary subjects. What is harmful it prunes away. What is not fruit-bearing it uses for fencing. It deals in this way with mere theorizing, forensic speech, dialectics, and geometry, which all sharpen the intellect without improving the character (8–16). Soul-gardening sets out its programme (17 ff.). As such a soul-gardener righteous Noah is contrasted with Cain, who is a mere “worker of the earth” in the service of Pleasure (21–25).",
            "There must surely be other pairs of opposites similar to this of the scientific tiller and the mere worker of the soil. Yes; there is the shepherd and the rearer of cattle. The organs of the body are the cattle of each one of us. A careless Mind is unfit to guard them; it will not check excess, or exercise needful discipline. These things a shepherd will do. So honourable is his calling that poets call kings “shepherds,” and Moses gives this title to the wise, the real kings. Jacob was a shepherd. So was Moses; and he prays God not to leave Israel unshepherded, <i>i.e</i>. to save it from mob-rule, despotism and licence. Well may each of us make his prayer our own on behalf of our inner flock. God, the Shepherd and King of the Universe, with His Word and Firstborn Son as viceroy, is extolled in the Psalm “The Lord shepherds me.” Only by the One Shepherd can the flock be kept together. This is our sure hope, and our sole need. So all who were taught by God made the shepherd’s science their study, and their pride; like Joseph’s brethren who, though bidden by him to tell Pharaoh that they were “rearers of cattle,” answered that they were “shepherds,” shepherding, <i>i.e</i>. the faculties of the soul; for Pharaoh, with royal and Egyptian arrogance, would have looked down on keepers of literal goats and sheep. The fatherland of these soul-shepherds is Heaven, and (as they told the King) they were but “sojourners” in Egypt, the land of the body and the passions (26–66).",
            "We find in the Law a third pair of opposites. A sharp distinction is to be drawn between a “horseman” and a “rider.” The mere “rider” is at the horse’s mercy; the horseman is in control like the man at the helm. The horses of the soul are high spirit and desire, and their rider the Mind that hates virtue and loves the passions. Israel’s “Song by the Sea” celebrates the disaster that befalls the “four-footed throng of passions and vices.” It is clear that Moses’ words about horses are symbolic, for so great a soldier as he must have known the value of cavalry. Again, though literal racehorse breeding is a poor business, those who ply it have the excuse that the spectators of a race catch the fine spirit of the horses; whereas the figurative trainer, who sets an unqualified jockey on the back of vice and passion, is without excuse (67–92).",
            "A glance at the prayer of Moses in Gen. 49:17 f. will shew how different the “horseman” is from the “rider.” To understand that prayer we must note that “Dan” means “judgement,” and that the “dragon,” which he <i>is</i> or <i>has</i>, is Moses’ serpent of brass. (Of course neither Moses’ serpent nor Eve’s can be literal. Serpents do not talk, tempt, or heal.) So Moses prays that Dan (or his serpent) may be on the road ready to assail Pleasure, and “bite the horse’s heel,” <i>i.e</i>. attack and overturn the supports which hold up Passion (94–106).",
            "Here we come upon a piece of interpretation very characteristic of Philo. The biting of Passion’s heel brings about the <i>horseman’s fall</i>. So far from being daunted by this, our author positively revels in it. It is a fall which implies victory, not defeat. For, should Mind ever find itself mounted on Passion, the only course is to jump or fall off. Yes, if you cannot escape from fighting in a bad cause, court defeat. Nay, do not stop there. Press forward to crown the victor. The crown at which you are aiming is not won in contests of pitiless savagery, or for fleetness of foot, in which puny animals surpass men, but in the holy contest, the only true “Olympic” games, the entrants for which, though weaker in body, are strongest in soul (108–119).",
            "Having noted the difference between the members of each of these three pairs of opposites, suggested to him by the word γεωργός in his text, Philo turns to the word ἤρξατο, “began” (124).",
            "“Beginning is half the whole.” Yes, if we go on to the end. But good beginnings are often marred by failure to make proper distinctions. For instance, one says that “God is the Author of all things,” whereas he should say “of good things only.” Again, we are very scrupulous about rejecting priests or victims on the ground of physical blemish. We ought to be equally scrupulous to separate the profane from the sacred in our thoughts of God. And again Memory, of which the ruminating camel is a figure, is a fine thing, but the camel’s undivided hoof makes him unclean, and that reminds us that Memory must reject the bad and retain the good; for practical purposes, not for sophistical hair-splitting. Sophists are swine; they divide <i>ad nauseam</i>, but for perfection we must con over and take in (125–146).",
            "Sections 147 to 156 shew that the conditions of exemption from military service laid down in Deut. 20:5 and 7 cannot be literally meant. In 157 ff. the acquired possessions which exempt a man are interpreted as faculties which must be enjoyed and fully realized, before he who has acquired them is trained and fit for the warfare with the sophists.",
            "Right ending must crown good beginning. We miss perfection unless we own that that to which we have attained is due to the loving wisdom of God. And wilful refusal to acknowledge God as the Giver of success is far worse than involuntary failure.",
            "“All this about start and goal has been suggested,” Philo tells us, “by the statement that Noah <i>began</i> to be a husbandman or gardener.”"
        ],
        "": [
            [
                "[1] “And Noah began to be a husbandman, and he planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine, and became drunken within his house” (Gen. 9:20 f.).",
                "Most men, not knowing the nature of things, necessarily go wrong also in giving them names. For things which are well considered and subjected as it were to dissection have appropriate designations attached to them in consequence; while others having been presented in a confused state receive names that are not thoroughly accurate.",
                "[2] Moses, being abundantly equipped with the knowledge that has to do with things, is in the habit of using names that are perfectly apt and expressive. We shall find the assurance just given made good in many parts of the Lawgiving, and not least in the section before us in which the righteous Noah is introduced as a husbandman.",
                "[3] Would not anyone who answers questions off-hand think that husbandry and working on the soil were the same things, although in reality they not only are not the same things, but are ideas utterly at variance with each other and mutually repugnant?",
                "[4] For a man is able even without knowledge to labour at the care of the soil, but a husbandman is guaranteed to be no unprofessional, but a skilled worker by his very name, which he has gained from the science of husbandry, the science whose title he bears.",
                "[5] In addition to this there is the further point to be considered, that the worker on the soil is as a rule a wage-earner, and as such has but one end in view, his wages, and cares nothing at all about doing his work well; whereas the husbandman would be willing not only to put into the undertaking much of his private property, but to spend a further amount drawn from his domestic budget, to do the farm good and to escape being blamed by those who have seen it. For, regardless of gain from any other source, he desires only to see the crops which he has grown yielding plentifully year by year and to take up their produce.",
                "[6] Such a man will be anxious to bring under cultivation the trees that were before wild, to improve by careful treatment those already under cultivation, to check by pruning those that are over-luxuriant owing to excess of nourishment, to give more scope to those which have been curtailed and kept back, splicing on new growths to stem or branch; when trees of good kinds throw out abundant tendrils, he will like to train them under ground in shallow trenches; and to improve such as yield poor crops by inserting grafts into the stem near the roots and joining them with it so that they grow together as one. The same thing happens, I may remark, in the case of men, when adopted sons become by reason of their native good qualities congenial to those who by birth are aliens from them, and so become firmly fitted into the family.",
                "[7] To return to our subject. The husbandman will pull up by the roots and throw away quantities of trees on which the shoots that should bear fruit have lost their fertility, and so, because they have been planted near them, have done great harm to those that are bearing fruit. The science, then, that has to do with growths that spring out of the earth is of the kind I have described. Let us consider in its turn soul-husbandry."
            ],
            [
                "[8] First, then, it makes it its aim to sow or plant nothing that has no produce, but all that is fitted for cultivation and fruit-bearing, and likely to yield yearly tributes to man, its prince; for him did nature appoint to be ruler of all trees as well as of the living creatures besides himself that are mortal.",
                "[9] But who else could the man that is in each of us be save the mind, whose place it is to reap the benefits derived from all that has been sown or planted? But seeing that for babes milk is food, but for grown men wheaten bread, there must also be soul-nourishment, such as is milk-like suited to the time of childhood, in the shape of the preliminary stages of school-learning, and such as is adapted to grown men in the shape of instructions leading the way through wisdom and temperance and all virtue. For these when sown and planted in the mind will produce most beneficial fruits, namely fair and praiseworthy conduct.",
                "[10] By means of this husbandry whatever trees of passions or vices have sprung up and grown tall, bearing mischief-dealing fruits, are cut down and cleared away, no minute portion even being allowed to survive, as the germ of new growths of sins to spring up later on.",
                "[11] And should there be any trees capable of bearing neither wholesome nor harmful fruits, these it will cut down indeed, but not allow them to be made away with, but assign them to a use for which they are suited, setting them as pales and stakes to surround an encampment or to fence in a city in place of a wall."
            ],
            [
                "[12] For he says, “Every tree whose fruit is not edible thou shalt cut down and shalt make into a palisade to resist the city, which shall make war against thee” (Deut. 20:20). The Scripture uses these trees to represent the purely intellectual activities which deal with theory alone.",
                "[13] Among these we must place medical science dissociated from practical measures such as lead to the recovery of the sick; the kind of oratory practised by the hired advocate, that is concerned not to find out the rights of the case, but to influence the hearers by falsehood; and over and above these we must include all the modes of reaching conclusions by argumentative and rigidly deductive processes, that contribute nothing to the improvement of character, but whet the mind, compelling it to pay keen attention to each problem as it presents itself; and enabling it to draw clear distinctions, and to make the special character of the matter in hand stand out in bold relief against the background of the features which it has in common with others.",
                "[14] Accordingly, they tell us that the men of old likened philosophic discussion with its threefold division to a field, comparing that part which deals with nature to trees and plants; that which deals with morality to fruits and crops, for the sake of which the plants exist; that part which has to do with logic to a fence enclosing it.",
                "[15] For even as the wall built round it serves to protect the fruit and the plants that grow in the field, keeping off those who would like mischievously to make their way in with a view to plunder; in the same way the logical part of philosophy is, so to speak, a strong barrier guarding those other two parts, the ethical and the physical.",
                "[16] For when it disentangles ambiguous expressions capable of two meanings, and exposes the fallacies created by tricks of argument, and using perfectly clear and unmistakable language and adducing proofs which admit of no doubt destroys plausible falsehood, that greatest snare and pest of the soul, it makes the mind like smoothed wax ready to receive the impressions made by the science that explores existence and that which aims at building character, impressions free from flaw and aught that is not genuine."
            ],
            [
                "[17] These, then, are the offers held out by soul-husbandry in its inaugural proclamation: “The trees of folly and licentiousness, of injustice and cowardice I will wholly cut down; I will moreover extirpate the plants of pleasure and desire, of anger and wrath and of like passions, even though they be grown up to heaven; I will burn up their very roots, letting the rush of fire pursue them even to the depths of the earth, that no part or trace or shadow of them whatever be left behind.",
                "[18] These I will destroy, but I will plant for souls in their childhood suckers whose fruit shall feed them. These suckers are the learning to write easily and read fluently; the diligent search of what wise poets have written; geometry and the practice of rhetorical composition; and the whole of the education embraced in school-learning. For souls at the stage of youths and of those now growing into men I will provide the better and more perfect thing suited to their age, the plant of sound sense, that of courage, that of temperance, that of justice, that of all virtue.",
                "[19] If, again, some tree among those that belong to what is called wild wood does not bear edible fruit, but can be a fence and protection of such fruit, this tree also will I keep in store, not for its own sake, but because it is adapted to do service to another that is indispensable and most useful.”"
            ],
            [
                "[20] It is for this reason that Moses, the all-wise, ascribes to the righteous man soul-husbandry as a science in keeping with him and rightly pertaining to him, saying “Noah began to be a husbandman,” whereas to the unrighteous man he ascribes that working of the ground which is without scientific knowledge and carries very heavy loads.",
                "[21] For he says, “Cain was one working the ground” (Gen. 4:2), and, a little later, when he is discovered to have incurred the pollution of fratricide, it is said: “Cursed art thou from the ground, which hath opened her mouth to receive thy brother’s blood from thy hand, with which thou shalt work the ground, and it shall not yield its strength to give it thee” (Gen. 4:12 f.).",
                "[22] How, I ask, could anyone shew more clearly than in this manner that the lawgiver considers the bad man a worker of the soil and not an husbandman? We must not, however, suppose that what is here spoken of is either a man able to work with hands and feet and the other powers of the body, or that it is soil on hill or plain. No, the subject dealt with is the faculties of each one of us; for the soul of the bad man has no other interest than his earthy body, and all the body’s pleasures.",
                "[23] At all events the majority of mankind traversing all the quarters of the earth and finding their way to its utmost bounds, and crossing its oceans, and seeking what is hidden in far-reaching creeks of the sea, and leaving no part of the whole world unexplored, are always and everywhere procuring the means of increasing pleasure.",
                "[24] For even as fishermen let down nets, sometimes very long, taking in a large extent of sea, in order that they may enclose within the toils as many fish as possible imprisoned as though by a wall: in just the same fashion the larger part of mankind stretching what the poets call, I think, “all-capturing nets,” not only over every part of the sea but over the whole realm of water, earth and air, ensnares from all quarters things of all sorts to satisfy and indulge Pleasure.",
                "[25] They dig into the ground and cross the seas and do all works incidental to war or peace to provide lavish materials for Pleasure as for a queen. These people have not learned the secrets of soul-husbandry, which sows and plants the virtues and reaps as their fruit a happy life. They have made the objects dear to the flesh their business, and these they pursue methodically. With all earnestness they seek to make their own that composition of clay, that moulded statue, that house so close to the soul, which it never lays aside but carries as a corpse from birth to death, ah! how sore a burden!"
            ],
            [
                "[26] We have stated how working of the soil differs from husbandry and a worker of the soil from an husbandman. But we must consider whether there are not other cases like those which have been mentioned, in which the difference between the things signified is obscured by their passing under the same name. There are two such instances which we have found by careful search, and concerning which we will say, if we can, what ought to be said.",
                "[27] For example, then, as in the case of “husbandman” and “soil-worker,” by resorting to allegory we found a wide difference in meaning to underly apparent identity, so shall we find it to be with “shepherd” and “cattle-rearer.” For the lawgiver speaks in some places of “cattle-rearing,” in others of “shepherding,”",
                "[28] and people who have not acquired real accuracy will perhaps suppose that these are synonymous descriptions of the same pursuit, whereas they denote different things when words are rendered in the light of their deeper meaning.",
                "[29] For though it is customary to apply to those who have charge of animals both names, calling them “cattle-rearers” and “shepherds” indiscriminately, yet we may not do so when we are speaking of the reasoning faculty to which the flock of the soul has been entrusted: for this ruler of a flock is called a “cattle-rearer” when he is a bad ruler, but, when a good and sterling one, he receives the name of “shepherd.” How this is, we will at once shew."
            ],
            [
                "[30] Nature has produced each one of us with “cattle” as part of our being. The living soul puts forth, as it were, from one root two shoots, one of which has been left whole and undivided and is called “Mind,” while the other by a sixfold division is made into seven growths, five those of the senses and (two) of two other organs, that of utterance and that of generation.",
                "[31] All this herd being irrational is compared to cattle, and by nature’s law a herd cannot do without a governor. Now when a man at once without experience in ruling and possessed of wealth rises up and constitutes himself a ruler, he becomes the author of a multitude of evils to his charges.",
                "[32] For he on his part supplies provender lavishly, and the animals gorging themselves beyond measure wax wanton from abundance of food, wantonness being the true offspring of excess, and in their wantonness they become frolicsome and refuse to be controlled, and getting separated in scattered groups they break up the compact array of the flock.",
                "[33] The erstwhile ruler, forsaken by his subjects, is shewn to be a raw hand, and runs after them anxious if possible to get hold of some animal and bring it under control again. Finding that he cannot do this, he weeps and groans, cursing his own rashness, and blaming himself for what has happened.",
                "[34] Precisely in this way does that other herd, our senses, act; whenever the mind gets lazy and careless, they gorge themselves insatiably with the lavish food brought in by the objects of sense, shake off restraint, and get unruly, going at random where they have no business to go. The eyes wide open to all things visible, even those which it is not right to look upon, meet with disaster. The ears welcome all sounds and are never satisfied; they are athirst all the time for particulars about other people’s business, in some cases for topics for vulgar jesting, and go far and wide on these errands."
            ],
            [
                "[35] From what other quarter can we suppose that the theatres all over the world are filled every day with countless myriads? Those whom spectacles and musical performances have made their slaves, allowing ears and eyes to wander about unbridled; taken up with flute-players and harpers and the whole range of unmanly and effeminate music; delighting in dancers and other actors, because they put themselves into indelicate positions and make indelicate movements; ever organizing a warfare as mimic as that on the stage without a thought for their own betterment or for that of the commonweal, but overthrowing (the poor wretches!), by means of eyes and ears their own life itself.",
                "[36] Others there are more miserable and ill-starred than these, who have let loose their appetite like an animal which had been tied up. Thus left at large it at once makes for all kinds of enjoyment of eatables and drinkables, takes its pick of what has already been served up, and develops a ceaseless and insatiable craving for what is not on the table. So, even if the receptacles of the belly have been completely filled, taste still empty and still swelling and panting goes about looking everywhere to see whether haply there are any leavings that have been overlooked and let pass, that like an all-devouring fire it may pick up this as well.",
                "[37] Gluttony is naturally followed by her attendant, sexual indulgence, bringing on extraordinary madness, fierce desire and most grievous frenzy. For when men have been loaded up with overeating and strong drink and heavy intoxication, they are no longer able to control themselves, but in haste to indulge their lusts they carry on their revels and beset doors until they have drained off the great vehemence of their passion and find it possible to be still.",
                "[38] This is apparently the reason why Nature placed the organs of sexual lust where she did, assuming that they do not like hunger, but are roused to their special activities when fulness of food leads the way."
            ],
            [
                "[39] So we must give the name of cattle-rearers to those who permit these creatures to gorge themselves wholesale with all that they crave after. The title of shepherds we must give on the other hand to such as supply them with the necessaries of life only and nothing more, pruning and cutting off all excessive and hurtful luxuriance, a thing which does no less harm than straitness and dearth. “Shepherds” too are those who exercise much forethought that the flock may not contract disease as the result of negligence and laziness, praying too that there may be no occurrence of such plagues as are wont to come as a visitation which cannot be guarded against.",
                "[40] No less do they make it their aim that the flock may not be broken up and scattered about. Fear is the corrector of those who never obey reason. This they hold over them, and have recourse to constant punishment, a mild form in the case of those whose rebellion is capable of being cured, but very severe in the case of those whose wrongdoings defy curative treatment. For that which is apparently much to be deprecated is a very great boon to people who act senselessly, just as physic is to people in bad bodily health."
            ],
            [
                "[41] These are the practices and ways of shepherds, who prefer what is distasteful but beneficial to what is pleasant but hurtful. So full of dignity and benefit has the shepherd’s task been held to be, that poets are wont to give to kings the title of “shepherds of peoples,” a title which the lawgiver bestows on the wise. They are the only real kings, and he shews them to us ruling, as a shepherd does his flock, over the irrational tendency common to all mankind.",
                "[42] This is why he ascribed to Jacob, who was perfected as the result of discipline, the shepherd’s lore. For Jacob tends the sheep of Laban (Gen. 30:36), that is to say, of the soul of the foolish one which considers nothing good but sensible objects that meet the eye, and which is deceived and enslaved by colours and shadows; for the meaning of “Laban” is “whitening.”",
                "[43] He ascribes the same profession to Moses, the all-wise; for he also is appointed shepherd of a mind that welcomes conceit in preference to truth, and approves seeming in preference to being. For “Jethro” or “Iothor” means “uneven,” and self-conceit is an uneven and adventitious thing that comes in to beguile a fixed and steady life. It is a quality whose way is to introduce principles of right varying city by city; of one kind in this city, of another kind in that; not the same rule of right in all. The ordinances of nature that apply to all alike and are immovable it has never seen even in a dream. What we are told is that “Moses was shepherding the sheep of Jethro the priest of Midian” (Exod. 3:1).",
                "[44] This same Moses prays that the whole multitude of the soul-folk may not be left as an untended flock, but may be given a good shepherd, leading them forth away from the snares of folly and injustice and all wickedness, and leading them in to imbibe all that discipline and virtue in its other forms would teach them. For he says, “Let the Lord, the God of the spirits and of all flesh, appoint a man over this congregation;” then, after adding a few words, he continues, “And the congregation of the Lord shall not be as sheep that have no shepherd” (Numb. 27:16 f.)."
            ],
            [
                "[45] Is it not well to pray that the flock linked to each one of us by a common birth and a common growth may not be left without a ruler and guide? So might mob-rule, the very worst of bad constitutions, the counterfeit of democracy, which is the best of them, infect us, while we spend our days in ceaseless experience of disorders, tumults and intestine broils.",
                "[46] Anarchy, however, the mother of mob-rule, is not our only danger. We have to dread also the uprising of some aspirant to sovereign power, forcibly setting law at naught. For a tyrant is a natural enemy. In cities this enemy is man; to body and soul and all the interests of each of these, it is an utterly savage mind, that has turned our inner citadel into a fortress from which to assail us.",
                "[47] Nor is it only from these tyrannies that we derive no benefit. We gain nothing from the rule and governance of men who are too good and gentle. For kindness is a quality open to contempt, and injurious to both sides, both rulers and subjects. The former, owing to the slight esteem in which they are held by those placed under their authority, are powerless to set right anything that is wrong either with individual citizens or with the commonwealth. In some instances they are actually compelled to abdicate. Their subjects, as the result of habitual contempt for their rulers, have come to disregard their moral suasion, and undeterred by fear, have, at the cost of incurring a great evil, made the acquisition of stubbornness.",
                "[48] These, therefore, we must regard as differing in no respect from cattle, nor their rulers from cattle-rearers. The latter induce them to luxuriate in abundance of material comforts; the former, powerless to bear the overfeeding, wax wanton. But our mind ought to rule as a goat-herd, or a cow-herd, or a shepherd, or, to use a general term, as a herdsman, as one who chooses both for himself and the creatures he tends what is advantageous in preference to what is agreeable."
            ],
            [
                "[49] That which brings it about that the different parts of the soul are not left to drift with no one to watch over them, is, we may say, mainly, nay solely, God’s care and oversight. It secures for the soul the benefit of a blameless and perfectly good shepherd. When He has been set over it there is no possibility of the union of the mind’s parts being dissolved. For, having been brought under one and the same direction, it will evidently have to look only to the guidance of a single chief. For to be compelled to give heed to many authorities is a very heavy burden.",
                "[50] Indeed, so good a thing is shepherding that it is justly ascribed not to kings only and wise men and perfectly cleansed souls but also to God the All-Sovereign. The authority for this ascription is not any ordinary one but a prophet, whom we do well to trust. This is the way in which the Psalmist speaks: “The Lord shepherds me and nothing shall be lacking to me” (Ps. 23:1).",
                "[51] It well befits every lover of God to rehearse this Psalm. But for the Universe it is a still more fitting theme. For land and water and air and fire, and all plants and animals which are in these, whether mortal or divine, yea and the sky, and the circuits of sun and moon, and the revolutions and rhythmic movements of the other heavenly bodies, are like some flock under the hand of God its King and Shepherd. This hallowed flock He leads in accordance with right and law, setting over it His true Word and Firstborn Son Who shall take upon Him its government like some viceroy of a great king; for it is said in a certain place: “Behold I AM, I send My Angel before thy face to guard thee in the way” (Exod. 23:20).",
                "[52] Let therefore even the whole universe, that greatest and most perfect flock of the God who IS, say, “The Lord shepherds me, and nothing shall fail me.”",
                "[53] Let each individual person too utter this same cry, not with the voice that glides forth over tongue and lips, not reaching beyond a short space of air, but with the voice of the understanding that has wide scope and lays hold on the ends of the universe. For it cannot be that there should be any lack of a fitting portion, when God rules, whose wont it is to bestow good in fullness and perfection on all that is."
            ],
            [
                "[54] Magnificent is the call to holiness sounded by the psalm just quoted; for the man is poor and incomplete in very deed, who, while seeming to have all things else, chafes at the sovereignty of One; whereas the soul that is shepherded of God, having the one and only thing on which all depend, is naturally exempt from want of other things, for it worships no blind wealth, but a wealth that sees and that with vision surpassingly keen.",
                "[55] An intense and unquenchable love for this wealth was entertained by all who belonged to its school, and this made them laugh cattle-rearing to scorn and spend labour on the lore of shepherding. The history of Joseph affords proof of this.",
                "[56] Joseph, always having as the object of his thought and aim the rule of life based on the body and on the surmises of vain imagination‚ does not know how to govern and direct irrational natures. To offices such as this which are subject to no higher control older men are generally called; but he is always a young man, even if he have attained the old age that comes on us by mere lapse of time. Being accustomed to feed and fatten irrational natures instead of ruling them, he imagines that he will be able to win the lovers of virtue also to change over to his side in order that, devoting themselves to irrational and soulless creatures, they may no longer be able to find time for the pursuits of a rational soul. For he says,",
                "[57] “If that Mind, whose realm is the body, inquire what your work is, tell him in reply, We are cattle-rearers” (Gen. 46:33 f.). On hearing this they are vexed, as we might expect, that, being rulers, they are to admit that they occupy the position of subjects;",
                "[58] for those, who prepare food for the senses by means of the lavish abundance of sensible objects, become slaves of those whom they feed, compelled day by day, like household servants to mistresses, to render the appointed due; whereas the place of rulers is held by those who exercise authority over the senses, and check their excessive impulse to greed.",
                "[59] At first his brethren, though far from pleased at hearing what was said to them, will hold their peace, deeming it superfluous trouble to set forth to those who will not learn the difference between cattle-feeding and shepherding; but afterwards when the contest regarding these matters is upon them, they will engage in it with all their might, and, until they have carried the day, they will never relax their efforts to make manifest the free and noble and truly princely character that pertains to their nature. When the king asks them “What is your work?” they answer “We are shepherds, as were our fathers” (Gen. 47:3)."
            ],
            [
                "[60] Aye indeed! Does it not seem as though they were more proud of being shepherds than is the king, who is talking to them, of all his sovereign power? They proclaim that not they only but their fathers also deliberately chose this course of life as worthy of entire and enthusiastic devotion.",
                "[61] And yet, if the care of literal goats or sheep was what was meant, they would perhaps, in their shrinking from disgrace, have been actually ashamed to own what they were; for such pursuits are held mean and inglorious in the eyes of those who have compassed that importance, wholly devoid of wisdom, that comes with prosperity, and most of all in the eyes of monarchs.",
                "[62] The spirit of the Egyptians too is by nature arrogant even beyond that of other men, whenever a feeble breath only of good fortune has blown over it, and this arrogance makes them treat the aims in life and the ambitions of more common people as matter for rude jesting and loud ridicule.",
                "[63] But seeing that the subject propounded for consideration is that of the rational and irrational faculties in the soul, those will have ground for boasting who are convinced that they are able by employing the rational faculties as their allies to get the better of those which are irrational.",
                "[64] If, however, some malignant and contentious person find fault with them and say, “How is it, then, that, devoting your labour to the science of shepherding, and professing to bestow the care of leaders on the flock that lives and grows with your life and growth, you conceived the idea of coming to anchor in Egypt, the land of the body and the passions, instead of voyaging to some different port?”—we may confidently say to him “We came to sojourn (Gen. 47:4)—not to settle there”;",
                "[65] for in reality a wise man’s soul ever finds heaven to be his fatherland and earth a foreign country, and regards as his own the dwelling-place of wisdom, and that of the body as outlandish, and looks on himself as a stranger and sojourner in it.",
                "[66] Accordingly when Mind, the ruler of the flock, taking the flock of the soul in hand with the law of Nature as his instructor shews it the way with vigorous leadership, he renders it well worthy of praise and approval, even as he subjects it to blame if he disregard Nature’s law and behave slackly and carelessly. With good reason, then, will the one take on him the name of king and be hailed “shepherd ‚” but the other that of a sort of cook or baker and be entitled “cattle-feeder,” serving up rich fare as a feast for beasts who make a habit of gluttony."
            ],
            [
                "[67] I have taken some pains to shew in what way a husbandman differs from a worker on the soil, and a shepherd from a feeder of cattle. There is a third head akin to those that have been dealt with, and of it we will now speak. For the lawgiver holds that a horseman differs greatly from a rider, not only when each is a man seated on a neighing animal but when each is a process of reasoning. Well then, he who being without skill in horsemanship is on a horse’s back is naturally called a rider.",
                "[68] He has given himself over to an irrational and capricious beast, the consequence being that, wherever the creature goes, thither he must of absolute necessity be carried, and that the animal, not having caught sight in time of an opening in the ground or of some deep trench, is hurled headlong owing to the violence of his pace, and his rider is borne to destruction with him.",
                "[69] The horseman, on the other hand, when he is about to mount, puts the bit in the horse’s mouth and then as he leaps on its back, seizes hold of its mane, and, though seeming to be borne along, himself in actual fact leads, as a pilot does, the creature that is carrying him. For the pilot also, while seeming to be led by the ship which he is steering, in reality leads it, and convoys it to the ports which he is anxious to reach.",
                "[70] When the horse goes ahead in obedience to the rein, the horseman strokes him as though he were praising him, but when he gets too impetuous and exceeds the suitable pace, he uses force and pulls back his head strongly, so as to lessen his speed. If he goes on being refractory, he grips the bit and pulls his whole neck round the other way, so that he is forced to stop.",
                "[71] To counter rearings and constant unruliness there are whips and spurs ready at hand and all the other contrivances with which breakers-in of colts are provided for punishing them. There is nothing to wonder at in all this, for when the horseman gets on the horse’s back, skill in horsemanship gets up with him, so that there are really two, a seated man on the horse and an expert, and they will naturally get the better of a single animal who is not only underneath them but is incapable of acquiring skill."
            ],
            [
                "[72] Passing then from the neighing animals and those that ride upon them, search, if you please, your own soul; for you will find among its constituent parts both horses and one who wields the reins and one who is mounted, all just as in the outside world.",
                "[73] Desire and high spirit are horses, the one male, the other female. For this reason the one prances and wants to be free and at large and has a high neck, as you might expect of a male. The other is mean and slavish, up to sly tricks, keeps her nose in the manger and empties it in no time, for she is a female. The Mind is alike mounted man and wielder of the reins; a wielder of the reins, when he mounts accompanied by good sense, a mere mounted man when folly is his companion.",
                "[74] The foolish man, since he has never learnt, cannot keep hold of the reins. They slip from his hand and drop on the ground; and straightway the animals are out of control, and their course becomes erratic and disorderly.",
                "[75] The fool behind them does not take hold of anything to steady him, but tumbles out barking knee and hands and face, and loudly bewails, poor miserable fellow, his own misfortune. Many a time his feet catch in the board, and he hangs suspended turned over back-downwards, and as he is dragged along in the very wheel tracks he gets head and neck and both shoulders battered and crushed, and in the end, tossed after this fashion in every direction and knocking up against everything that comes in his way, he undergoes a most pitiable death.",
                "[76] For him such is the end that results, but the vehicle lifting itself up and making violent springs, when it reaches the ground in its rebound, too easily becomes a wreck, so that it is quite beyond being mended and made strong again. The horses, released from all that kept them in, become distracted and maddened and never stop tearing along until they trip and fall, or are swept down some steep precipice and perish."
            ],
            [
                "[77] It is to be expected that the entire vehicle of the soul with all who are on it should come to ruin in this manner, if it has gone wrong in the matter of the driving. It is a gain that such horses and those who drive them without skill should be destroyed, that the products of virtue may be exalted; for when folly has a fall, wisdom is bound to rise up.",
                "[78] This is why Moses in his “hortatory discourse” says: “If thou shalt go out to war against thine enemies and see horse and rider and much people, thou shalt not be afraid, because the Lord thy God is with thee” (Deuŧ. 20:1). For high spirit and craving lust and all passions generally, and the whole array of reasoning faculties seated upon each of them as upon horses, even though they be held to have at their disposal resistless might, may be disregarded by those who have the power of the Great King acting always and everywhere as their shield and champion.",
                "[79] There is a divine army consisting of the virtues who fight on behalf of souls that love God, whom it befits when they see the adversary vanquished, to sing to God, gloriously triumphant and giver of victory, a hymn of beauty and wholly befitting Him. And two choirs, one from the quarters of the men, one from those of the women, with answering note and voice shall raise harmonious chant.",
                "[80] The choir of the men shall have Moses for its leader, that is Mind in its perfection, that of the women shall be led by Miriam, that is sense-perception made pure and clean (Exod. 15:1, 20). For it is right with both mind and sense to render hymns and sing blessings to the Godhead without delay, and tunefully to strike each of our instruments, that of mind and that of sense perception, in thanksgiving and honour paid to the only Saviour.",
                "[81] So we find the Song by the seashore sung by all that are men, with no blind understanding but with keenest vision, with Moses as their leader; it is sung also by the women who in the true sense are the best, having been enrolled as members of Virtue’s commonwealth, with Miriam to start their song."
            ],
            [
                "[82] The same hymn is sung by both choirs, and it has a most noteworthy refrain, the recurrence of which is strikingly beautiful. It is this: “Let us sing unto the Lord, for gloriously hath He been glorified; horse and rider He threw into the sea” (Exod. 15:1, 21).",
                "[83] No one who looks into the matter could find a more perfect victory than one in which that most doughty array of passions and vices, four-footed, restless, boastful beyond measure, has been defeated. So it is, for vices are four in kind and passions equal to these in number. It is a victory, moreover, in which their rider has been thrown and dispatched, even virtue-hating and passion-loving mind, whose delight was in pleasures and cravings, acts of injustice and rascality, as well as in exploits of plundering and overreaching and all that stable.",
                "[84] Right well therefore does the lawgiver in his Charges give directions not to appoint a horse-rearer to be a ruler, regarding as unsuited for such high authority any man who resembles an unbridled and unruly horse, and, in his wild excitement over pleasures, lusts and amours, knows no restraint. These are the lawgiver’s words, “Thou mayest not appoint over thyself a foreigner, because he is not thy brother; for the reason that he shall not multiply to himself horses, nor turn the people back into Egypt” (Deut. 17:15 f.).",
                "[85] According, therefore, to Moses, that most holy man, a rearer of horses is by nature unfit to hold rule; and yet it might be urged that strength in cavalry is a great asset to a king, and not a whit less important than infantry and the naval force; nay, in many cases of greater service than these. These arms are especially important when it is requisite that the offensive should be instantaneous and vigorously pressed; when the state of affairs does not admit of delay, but is in the highest degree critical; so that those who are behindhand would fairly be considered not so much to have been slow to gain the advantage as to have failed for good and all, since the other side has been too quick for them, and gone by them like a cloud."
            ],
            [
                "[86] We would say in answer to these criticisms, “My good sirs, the lawgiver is not curtailing any ruler’s garrison, nor is he incapacitating the army which he has collected by cutting off the more effective part of the force, the cavalry. He is trying his best to improve it, that by an increase, both in strength and numbers, those who are fighting side by side may most easily overcome their enemies.",
                "[87] For who was so capable as he, in virtue of abundant acquaintance with these matters, to marshal an army by phalanxes and draw it up in order of battle and to appoint captains and corps-commanders and the other leaders of larger or smaller bodies of men, or to impart to those who would make a right use of it all that has been found out in the way of tactics and strategy?",
                "[88] But the fact is that he is not talking in this passage about a cavalry force, which a sovereign has to organize for the overthrow of an unfriendly power and for the safety of his friends. He is speaking about that irrational and unmeasured and unruly movement in the soul to check which is in her interest, lest some day it turn back all her people to Egypt, the country of the body, and forcibly render it a lover of pleasure and passion rather than of God and virtue. For he who acquires a multitude of horses cannot fail, as the lawgiver himself said, to take the road to Egypt.",
                "[89] For when the soul is swaying and tossing like a vessel, now to the side of the mind now to that of body, owing to the violence of the passions and misdeeds that rage against her, and the billows rising mountains high sweep over her, then in all likelihood the mind becomes waterlogged and sinks; and the bottom to which it sinks is nothing else than the body, of which Egypt is the figure."
            ],
            [
                "[90] Never then give your mind to this kind of horse-rearing. Blameworthy indeed are those also who make a business of it in its literal form. To be sure they are so. With them irrational beasts are of greater value than human beings. From their mansions there continually come troops of well-fed horses leading the way, while of the human beings that come behind these not one can get out of them a contribution to supply his need, or a gift to provide him with some spare cash.",
                "[91] Nevertheless the wrong done by these people is less heinous. For they contend that by training racehorses they both add lustre to the sacred race meetings, and to the national festivals which are held universally; that they not only give the spectators pleasure and provide them with the enjoyment of the sight, but promote the cultivation and study of noble aims; for men (they say) who behold in animals the desire to carry off the victory, find themselves filled, by reason of their love of honour and enthusiasm for excellence, with an urgency and readiness beyond words, and so readily submit to exertions in such contests as properly belong to them, and will not desist till they achieve their object.",
                "[92] While these people find arguments in favour of their ill-doing, those who sin without excuse are those who take Mind, that rider who is a tyro in the science of horsemanship, and put him on the back of four-footed vice and passion.",
                "[93] If, however, you have been taught the art of driving, and having become fairly familiar with it by persistent practice, have come to the conclusion that you can now manage horses, mount and hold on to the reins. By this means you will escape two disasters. If the horses rear you will not fall off, get badly hurt, and incur the ridicule of malicious spectators; nor, if enemies make a rush at you from in front or from behind, will you be caught; you will be too quick for those who come from behind and outstrip their pursuit; and you will make light of the frontal attack owing to your knowing the trick of backing without risk."
            ],
            [
                "[94] Does not Moses, then, when celebrating the destruction of the riders, naturally pray for complete salvation for the horsemen? For these are able by applying bit and bridle to the irrational faculties to curb the excessive violence of their movement. We must say, then, what his prayer is: “Let Dan,” he says, “be a serpent on the road, seated upon the track, biting the heel of the horse; and the horseman shall fall backwards, waiting for the salvation of the Lord” (Gen. 49:17 f.).",
                "[95] What he intimates by the prayer, we must point out. “Dan” means “judgement” or “sifting.” The faculty, then, which tests and investigates and determines and, in a manner, judges all the soul’s concerns, he likened to a serpent. This is a creature tortuous in its movements, of great intelligence, ready to shew fight, and most capable of defending itself against wrongful aggression. He did not liken the faculty to the serpent that played the friend and gave advice to “Life”—whom in our own language we call “Eve”—but to the serpent made by Moses out of material brass. When those who had been bittten by the venomous serpents looked upon this one, though at the point of death, they are said to have lived on and in no case to have died (Numb. 21:8)."
            ],
            [
                "[96] Told in this way, these things are like prodigies and marvels, one serpent emitting a human voice and using quibbling arguments to an utterly guileless character, and cheating a woman with seductive plausibilities; and another proving the author of complete deliverance to those who beheld it.",
                "[97] But when we interpret words by the meanings that lie beneath the surface, all that is mythical is removed out of our way, and the real sense becomes as clear as daylight. Well then, we say that the woman is Life depending on the senses and material substance of our bodies; that her serpent is pleasure, a crawling thing with many a twist, powerless to raise itself upright, always prone, creeping after the good things of earth alone, making for the hiding-places afforded to it by the body, making its lair in each of the senses as in cavities or dug-outs, giving advice to a human being, athirst for the blood of anything better than itself, delighting to cause death by poisonous and painless bites. We say that the serpent of Moses is the disposition quite contrary to pleasure, even steadfast endurance, which explains why it is represented as being made of very strong material like brass.",
                "[98] He, then, who has looked with fixed gaze on the form of patient endurance, even though he should perchance have been previously bitten by the wiles of pleasure, cannot but live; for, whereas pleasure menaces the soul with inevitable death, self-control holds out to it health and safety for life; and self-mastery, that averter of ills, is an antidote to licentiousness.",
                "[99] And the thing that is beautiful and noble, which assuredly brings health and salvation, is dear to every wise man. So when Moses prays, either that there may be for Dan, or that Dan himself may be, a serpent (for the words may be taken either way), he prays for a serpent corresponding to the one made by him, but not like Eve’s; for prayer is an asking for good things.",
                "[100] And we know that endurance is of a good kind that brings immortality, a perfect good, while pleasure is of an evil kind that inflicts the greatest penalty, even death. Wherefore it says, “Let Dan become a serpent” not elsewhere than “on the road.”",
                "[101] For lack of self-control, and gluttony, and all else that issues from the womb of those immoderate and insatiate pleasures that ever conceive by the abundance of external comforts, never allow the soul to go along the straight course by the highway, but compel it to fall into pits and clefts, until they have utterly destroyed it. But only the practice of endurance and temperance and other virtue secures for the soul a safe journey where there is no slippery object under foot upon which the soul must stumble and be laid low. Most fitly therefore did he say that temperance keeps to the right road, since the opposite condition, that of licentiousness, finds no road at all."
            ],
            [
                "[102] The sense suggested by the words “sitting on the track” is, I am convinced, something of this kind. By “track” is meant the road for horses and carriages trodden both by men and by beasts of burden. They say that pleasure is very like this road;",
                "[103] for almost from birth to late old age this road is traversed and used as a promenade and a place of recreation in which to spend leisure hours not by men only but by every other kind of living creatures. For there is no single thing that does not yield to the enticement of pleasure, and get caught and dragged along in her entangling nets, through which it is difficult to slip and make your escape.",
                "[104] But the roads of sound-sense and self-mastery and of the other virtues, if not untrodden, are at all events unworn; for scanty is the number of those that tread them, that have genuinely devoted themselves to the pursuit of wisdom, and entered into no other association than that with the beautiful and noble, and have renounced everything else whatever.",
                "[105] To continue. There “lies in ambush,” and that not once only, everyone into whom a zeal and care for endurance enters, in order that making his onslaught from his lurking-place he may block the way of familiar pleasure, the fountain of ever-flowing ills, and rid the domain of the soul of her.",
                "[106] Then, as he goes straight on to say, he will as a matter of course “bite the horse’s heel”; for it is characteristic of endurance and self-mastery to disturb and upset the means by which vaunting vice and passion, keen and swift and unruly, make their approach."
            ],
            [
                "[107] Eve’s serpent is represented by the lawgiver as thirsting for man’s blood, for he says in the curses pronounced on it, “He shall lie in wait for thy head, and thou shalt lie in wait for his heel” (Gen. 3:15); whereas Dan’s serpent, of which we are now speaking, is represented as biting, not a man’s, but a horse’s heel.",
                "[108] For Eve’s serpent, being, as was shewn before, a symbol of pleasure, attacks a man, namely, the reasoning faculty in each of us; for the delightful experience of abounding pleasure is the ruin of the understanding;",
                "[109] whereas the serpent of Dan, being a figure of endurance, a most sturdy virtue, will be found to bite a horse, the symbol of passion and wickedness, inasmuch as temperance makes the overthrow and destruction of these its aim. When these have been bitten and brought to their knees, “the horseman,” he says, “shall fall.”",
                "[110] What he conveys by a figure is this. He regards it as no worthy object of ambition for our mind to ride on any of the progeny of passion or wickedness, but, should it ever be forced to mount one of them, he considers that it is best for it to make haste to jump down and tumble off; for such falls bring the noblest victories. This explains what was meant by one of the ancients when challenged to a reviling match. He said that he would never come forward for such a contest, for in it the victor is worse than the vanquished."
            ],
            [
                "[111] Do you then also, my friend, never come forward for a rivalry in badness, nor contend for the first place in this, but, best of all, if possible make haste to run away, but if in any case, under the pressure of strength greater than your own, you are compelled to engage in the contest, do not hesitate to be defeated;",
                "[112] for then you, the defeated combatant, will have won a grand victory, and those who have won will be suffering defeat. And do not allow either the herald to announce or the judge to crown the enemy as victor, but come forward yourself and present the prizes and the palm, and crown him (“by your leave, sir”), and bind the headband round his head, and do you yourself make with loud and strong voice this announcement: “In the contest that was proposed in lust and anger and licentiousness, in folly also and injustice, O ye spectators and stewards of the sports, I have been vanquished, and this man is the victor, and has proved himself so vastly superior, that even we, his antagonists, who might have been expected to grudge him his victory, feel no envy.”",
                "[113] Yield, then, to others the prizes in these unholy contests, but bind upon your own head the wreaths won in the holy ones. And count not those to be holy contests which the states hold in their triennial Festivals, and have built for them theatres to hold many myriads of men; for in these prizes are carried away either by the man who has out-wrestled someone and laid him on his back or on his face upon the ground, or by the man who can box or combine boxing with wrestling, and who stops short at no act of outrage or unfairness."
            ],
            [
                "[114] Some give a sharp, strong edge to an iron-bound thong, and fasten it round both hands and lacerate the heads and faces of their opponents, and, when they succeed in planting their blows, batter the rest of their bodies, and then claim prizes and garlands for their pitiless savagery.",
                "[115] As for the other contests, of sprinters or of those who enter for the five exercises, what sensible person would not laugh at them, at their having practised to jump as far as possible, and getting the several distances measured, and making swiftness of foot a matter of rivalry? And yet not only one of the larger animals, a gazelle or a stag, but a dog or hare, among the smaller ones, will, without hurrying much, outstrip them when running full pelt and without taking breath.",
                "[116] Of these contests, in sober truth, none is sacred, and even if all men testify to that effect, they cannot escape being convicted of false witness by themselves. For it was the admirers of these things who passed the laws against overbearing persons, and fixed the punishments to be awarded to acts of outrage, and allotted judges to investigate the several cases. How, then, are these two things compatible?",
                "[117] How can the very same persons be indignant at outrages committed in private and have affixed to them inexorable penalties, and at the same time have by law awarded garlands and public announcements and other honours to those who have done so publicly and at State festivals and in theatres?",
                "[118] For if two things, contrary the one to the other, have been determined against one person or one action, one or other must of necessity be right and the other wrong; for it is out of the question that they should both be right or both wrong. Which then, rightly, would you praise? Would you not approve the punishment of those who are guilty of unprovoked violence and wrong? In that case you would censure, as a matter of course, the opposite treatment of them, the shewing honour to them."
            ],
            [
                "[119] And, since nothing sacred is censurable, but wholly of good report, it follows that the Olympic contest is the only one that can rightly be called sacred; not the one which the inhabitants of Elis hold, but the contest for the winning of the virtues which are divine and really Olympian. For this contest those who are very weaklings in their bodies but stalwarts in their souls all enter, and proceed to strip and rub dust over them and do everything that skill and strength enables them to do, omitting nothing that can help them to victory.",
                "[120] So these athletes prevail over their opponents, but they are also competing among themselves for the highest place. For they do not all win the victory in the same way, though all deserve honour for overthrowing and bringing down most troublesome and doughty opponents.",
                "[121] Most worthy of admiration is the one who excels among these, and, as he receives the first prizes, no one can grudge them to him. Nor let those be downcast who have been held worthy of the second or third prize. For these, like the first, are prizes offered with a view to the acquisition of virtue, and those who cannot reach the topmost virtues are gainers by the acquisition of the less lofty ones, and theirs is actually, as is often said, a more secure gain since it escapes the envy which ever attaches itself to preeminence.",
                "[122] There is, then, a very instructive purpose in the words, “the horseman shall fall,” namely, that if a man fall off from evil things, he may get up supporting himself upon good things and be set upright. Another point full of teaching is his speaking of falling not forwards, but backwards, since to be behindhand in vice and passion is always most to our advantage;",
                "[123] for we ought to be beforehand when doing noble deeds, but on the contrary to be tardy about doing base deeds: we should go to meet the former, but be late for the latter, and fall short of them by the greatest possible distance; for he, whose happiness it is to be late for sinful deeds and passion’s promptings, abides in freedom from soul-sickness. You see, it says that he is “waiting for the salvation that comes from God.” He looks out for it, to the end that he may run as far to meet right-doing as he was late for wrongdoing."
            ],
            [
                "[124] All that is pertinent to horseman and rider, cattle-rearer and shepherd, as well as to soil-worker and husbandman, has now been said, and the differences between the members of each pair have been stated with such minuteness as was possible. It is time to turn to what comes afterwards.",
                "[125] Well, the lawgiver represents the aspirant to virtue as not possessing in its completeness the science of soul-husbandry, but as having done no more than spend some labour on the elements of that science; for he says, “Noah began to be an husbandman.” Now “a beginning is half of the whole,” or “begun is half done,” as was said by the men of old, as being halfway towards the end, whereas if the end be not added as well, the very making of a beginning has many a time done many people much harm.",
                "[126] It has, as we all know, happened before now that even people far from guiltless, as their mind kept turning about in perpetual change, have hit upon an idea of something wholesome, but have got no good from it; for it is possible that ere they have come to the end, a strong current of contrary tendencies has swept over them like a flood, and that wholesome idea has come to nothing."
            ],
            [
                "[127] Was it not owing to this, that, when Cain imagined that he had presented faultless sacrifices, a divine intimation was made to him not to be confident that his offering had met with God’s favour; for that the conditions of his sacrifice had not been holy and perfect? The divine message is this: “〈All is〉 not 〈well〉, if thou offerest rightly, but dost not rightly distinguish” (Gen. 4:7).",
                "[128] So the honour paid to God is a right act, but the failure to divide is not right. What this means, let us see. There are some whose definition of reverence is that it consists in saying that all things were made by God, both beautiful things and their opposites.",
                "[129] We would say to these, one part of your opinion is praiseworthy, the other part on the contrary is faulty. It is praiseworthy that you regard with wonder and reverence that which is alone worthy of honour; on the other hand, you are to blame for doing so without clear-cut distinctions. You ought never to have mixed and confused the matter by representing Him as Author of all things indiscriminately, but to have drawn a sharp line and owned Him Author of the good things only.",
                "[130] It is a senseless thing to be scrupulous about priests being free from bodily defect or deformity and about animals for sacrifice being exempt from the very slightest blemish, and to appoint inspectors (called by some “flaw-spiers”) on purpose to provide that the victims may be brought to the altar free from flaw or imperfections; and at the same time to suffer the ideas about God in their several souls to be in confusion, with no distinctions made between true and false by the application to them of the rule and standard of right principles."
            ],
            [
                "[131] Do you not see that the Law says that the camel is an unclean animal, because, though it chews the cud, it does not part the hoof (Lev. 11:4)? And yet, if we fix our eyes on the literal way of regarding the matter, I do not know what principle there is in the reason given for the camel’s uncleanness; but, if we look to the way suggested by latent meanings there is a most vital principle.",
                "[132] For as the animal that chews the cud renders digestible the food taken in before as it rises again to the surface, so the soul of the keen learner, when it has by listening taken in this and that proposition, does not hand them over to forgetfulness, but in stillness all alone goes over them one by one quite quietly, and so succeeds in recalling them all to memory.",
                "[133] Not all memory, however, is a good thing, but that which is brought to bear upon good things only, for it would be a thing most noxious that evil should be unforgettable. That is why, if perfection is to be attained, it is necessary to divide the hoof, in order that, the faculty of memory being cut in twain, language as it flows through the mouth, for which Nature wrought lips as twin boundaries, may separate the beneficial and the injurious forms of memory.",
                "[134] But neither does dividing the hoof by itself apart from chewing the cud appear to have anything advantageous on its own account. For what use is there in dissecting the natures of things, beginning from the beginning and going on to the minutest particles, and yet failing to reach the absolute end, and finding before you defying division those parts which are happily named by some “atoms” or “partless”? ",
                "[135] For such a course is clear proof of sagacity and nicety of precision whetted to keenest edge of shrewdness; but it is of no advantage towards promoting nobility of character and a blameless passage through life."
            ],
            [
                "[136] See how true this is. Day after day the swarm of sophists to be found everywhere wears out the ears of any audience they happen to have with disquisitions on minutiae, unravelling phrases that are ambiguous and can bear two meanings and distinguishing among circumstances such as it is well to bear in mind—and they are set on bearing in mind a vast number. Do not some of them divide the letters of written speech into consonants and vowels? And do not some of them break up language into its three ultimate parts, noun, verb, conjunction?",
                "[137] Do not musicians divide their own science into rhythm, metre, tune; and the tune or melody into the chromatic, harmonic and diatonic form, and into intervals of a fourth, a fifth or an octave, and into melodies with united or disjoined tetrachords?",
                "[138] Do not geometricians put all lines under two main heads, the straight line and the curve? Do not other experts place everything in the principal categories that their several sciences suggest, categories that start with the elements of the science and go on until they have dealt with their last and highest achievements?",
                "[139] With their company let the whole choir of philosophers chime in, harping on their wonted themes, how that of existences some are bodies, some incorporeal; and of bodies, some lifeless, some having life; some rational, some irrational, some mortal, some divine; and of mortal beings, some male, some female; a distinction which applies to man;",
                "[140] and of things incorporeal again, some complete, some incomplete; and of those that are complete, some questions and inquiries, imprecations and adjurations, not to mention all the other particular differences, all of which are set forth in the elementary handbooks which deal with them. Again, there are what dialecticians are accustomed to call propositions.",
                "[141] Of these, some are simple, some not so; and of the non-simple, some hypothetical, some inferential, some 〈indicating〉 more or less, some moreover disjunctive; and suchlike distinctions. They distinguish further things true, false, and doubtful; possible and impossible; conclusive and inconclusive; soluble and insoluble; and all kindred antitheses. Again, applying to incorporeal things which are incomplete there are the subdivisions into “predicates” and “complements” and still more minute refinements."
            ],
            [
                "[142] And if the mind putting a still finer edge upon itself dissect the natures of things, as a surgeon does men’s bodies, he will effect nothing that is of advantage for the acquiring of virtue. It is true that, by reason of his power to distinguish and discriminate in each case, he will “divide the hoof,” but he will not “chew the cud” so as to have at his service beneficial nourishment with its wholesome reminders, smoothing out the roughness that had accrued to the soul as the result of errors, and producing an easy and truly smooth movement.",
                "[143] And so multitudes of those who are called sophists, after winning the admiration of city after city, and after drawing wellnigh the whole world to honour them for their hair-splitting and their clever inventiveness, have with all their might worn their life out, and brought it to premature old age, by the indulgence of their passions, differing not at all from neglected nobodies and the most worthless of mankind.",
                "[144] Excellently, therefore, does the lawgiver compare the race of sophists who live in this way to swine. Such men are at home in a mode of life not bright and luminous but thick and muddy and in all that is most ugly.",
                "[145] For he says that the pig is unclean, because, though it divide the hoof, it does not chew the cud (Lev. 11:7). He pronounces the camel unclean for the opposite reason, because though chewing the cud he does not divide the hoof. But such animals as do both are, as we might expect, set down as clean, since they have escaped the unnatural development in each of the directions named. For indeed distinguishing without memory and without conning and going over of the things that are best is an incomplete good (as is memory without distinguishing between good things and their opposites), but the meeting and partnership of both in combination is a good most complete and perfect."
            ],
            [
                "[146] Now even men of ill will cower before perfection of soul, and, when they can no longer resist it, genuine peace prevails. But men that have attained to a wisdom half-wrought or, to change the figure, half-baked, are too feeble to stand up against massed bodies of sins that have been long in training and have become increasingly formidable.",
                "[147] This is why, when in time of war the lawgiver is mustering the army, he does not summon all the youth, even though it be filled with the utmost zeal and shew readiness that requires no spurring to repel the enemy, but bids them depart and stay at home, that as the result of constant practice they may acquire overpowering strength and skill, such as shall enable them one day to win a decisive victory.",
                "[148] The command is given through the marshals or secretaries of the army, when war is near and already at the very doors. What they are to say is this: “Who is the man that has built a new house and has not hanselled it? Let him go and turn back to his house, lest he be killed in the war and another man hansel it. And who is there that has planted a vineyard and not been made joyous by its fruits? Let him go his way and turn back to his house, lest he die in the war and another have joy from it. And to whom has a wife been promised, whom he has not taken? Let him go his way and turn back to his house, lest he die in the war and another take her” (Deut. 20:5–7)."
            ],
            [
                "[149] “For what reason,” I should be inclined to say, “my good friend, do you not think fit to assign these more than others to the conflict of the war, who have secured for themselves wives and houses and vineyards and other possessions in lavish abundance? They will bear very lightly, be they ever so heavy, the dangers incurred to keep them safe; while those who have none of the ties mentioned, having nothing vital at stake, will for the most part be sluggish and slack.",
                "[150] Or, again, is the fact that they have derived no enjoyment from any of their acquisitions a good reason for depriving them of the possibility of doing so in the future? For what advantage from their possessions remains to the vanquished?",
                "“Nay but,” I think you urge, “<i>they</i> will not be prisoners.”",
                "On the contrary, they will at once incur the fate of non-combatants. For enemies vigorously carrying on operations of war are quite sure to become masters of men sitting at home at their ease, not merely without bloodshed but without a struggle.",
                "[151] “Nay,” you urge again, “the large forces on their side will gladly undertake to fight for these as well.”",
                "In the first place, I reply, it is monstrous to rely on the efforts or good fortune of others, especially when there is the menace hanging over both individual citizens and the city itself of spoliation and deportation and enslavement, and that when they are able to do their part in bearing the burdens of war and are hindered from doing so neither by illness nor by old age nor by any other misfortune. It behoves these people to snatch up their weapons and taking their place in the front ranks to hold their shields over their comrades fighting with a courage that courts danger."
            ],
            [
                "[152] In the next place, they would have given proof not only of treachery but of utter insensibility, if, while the others are to be fighting in their defence, they are to be about their private business; and while the others are to be willing to stand the hazard of the conflict for their safety, they are not to take the trouble to fight for their own; and, while the others in their desire for victory are gladly to put up with short rations and sleeping in the field and the other hardships of body and soul, they spend their time in decking their houses with stuccoes and trumperies, poor soulless display; or getting in the fruit of their orchards and celebrating the vintage festival; or now for the first time consummating their marriage with the maidens betrothed to them long before, as though this were an ideal season for weddings.",
                "[153] ’Tis good to look after walls, to collect rents, to attend banquets, to get tipsy, to indulge in sexual intercourse, for the aged and as the saying is, decayed dames, to be escorted to the bridal chamber, but they are works of peace, and monstrous things to do when war is in full course.",
                "[154] Has not a father, has not a brother, has no blood-relation, no member of the clan of these men enlisted? Has cowardice made their whole family its lair? Nay, there surely are a host of their kinsfolk at the front. Would not, then, those, who live in ease and luxury while these are imperilling their lives, far surpass in cruelty any savage beasts you can name?",
                "[155] “It is hard,” you are thinking, “that other people without doing any work should get the benefit of our labours.”",
                "Pray, which is harder, that enemies should come into the property while we are still alive, or that friends and kinsfolk should do so when we are dead? Nay, ’tis silly even to compare things so wide apart.",
                "[156] Again, it is probable not only that all that belongs to those who did not join up should become the property of the victorious enemy, but that they themselves should so become; while to those who are dying for the common salvation, even supposing that they had in former days derived no benefit from the family property, a happy ending comes as they reflect that the property is falling to the heirs to whom it was their prayer that it should fall."
            ],
            [
                "[157] The letter of the Law perhaps suggests all these considerations and more than these. But that no malicious critic may too daringly give rein to his inventive talent, we will leave the letter, and make one or two remarks about the inner meaning of the Law. Firstly, it considers that a man ought to concern himself not only with the acquisition of good things, but with the enjoyment of what he has acquired, and that happiness results from the practice of perfect excellence seeing that such excellence secures a life sound and complete in every way. Secondly, what the Law means is that a man’s main consideration is not house or vineyard or the wife already betrothed to him; how he is to take to wife her whom he has wooed and won; how the planter of the vineyard is to cull and crush its fruit, and then drink large draughts of the intoxicating beverage and make his heart glad; or how the man that has built the house is to occupy it; but that the faculties of a man’s soul are a man’s main consideration. Through these he can make a beginning, make progress, and reach perfection in praiseworthy doings.",
                "[158] Beginnings are seen in a wooer, for, just as he who is wooing a woman has wedlock still in futurity not being already a husband, in the same way the well-constituted man looks forward to one day marrying Discipline, a highborn and pure maiden, but for the present he is her wooer. Progress is seen in the work of the husbandman, for, as it is the planter’s care that the trees should grow, so is it the earnest student’s care to bring it about that the principles of sound sense shall receive the utmost development. Perfection is to be seen in the building of a house, which is receiving its finishing touches, but has not yet become quite compact and firmly settled."
            ],
            [
                "[159] It befits all these, the beginners, those making progress, and those who have reached perfection, to live without contention, refusing to engage in the war waged by the sophists, with their unceasing practice of quarrelsomeness and disturbance to the adulteration of the truth: for the truth is dear to peace, and peace has no liking for them.",
                "[160] If our friends <i>do</i> come into this conflict, mere unprofessionals engaging trained and seasoned fighters, they will undoubtedly get the worst of it; the beginner because he lacks experience, the man who is progressing, because he is incomplete, the man who has reached completeness, because he is still unpractised in virtue. It is requisite, just as it is that plaster should become firm and fixed and acquire solidity, so too that the souls of those that have been perfected should become more firmly settled, strengthened by constant practice and continual exercise.",
                "[161] Those who do not enjoy these advantages have the name among the philosophers of wise men unconscious of their wisdom. For they say that it is out of the question that those who have sped as far as the edge of wisdom and have just come for the first time into contact with its borders should be conscious of their own perfecting, that both things cannot come about at the same time, the arrival at the goal and the apprehension of the arrival, but that ignorance must form a border-land between the two, not that ignorance which is far removed from knowledge, but that which is close at hand and hard by her door.",
                "[162] It will, then, be the business of him who fully apprehends and understands the subject and thoroughly knows his own powers, to go to war with the strife-loving band of sophists; for there is ground for expecting that such an one will be the conqueror. But for him whose eyes are still covered by the darkness of ignorance, the light of knowledge not being strong enough as yet to shine out, it is safe to stay at home, that is, not to come forward for the contest about matters which he has not fully apprehended, but to keep still and be quiet.",
                "[163] But he who has been carried away by presumption, not knowing his opponents’ grips and throws, before he can be an agent will quickly be a victim and experience the death of knowledge, which is a far more woeful death than that which severs soul and body.",
                "[164] This is bound to befall those who are cheated by sophistries; for they fail to find the way to refute these, and owing to their having regarded false statements as true and given them credence, they die so far as the life of knowledge is concerned. Their experience is the same as that of those who are taken in by flatterers: for in their case, too, the true and healthy friendship of the soul is thrust out and overturned by the friendship that is essentially unwholesome."
            ],
            [
                "[165] We must therefore advise those, who are beginning to learn, to decline such contests, owing to their lack of knowledge; those who are making progress, owing to their not being perfect; and those who have just attained perfection, because they are to some extent unconscious of their perfectness.",
                "[166] As for those who disregard this bidding, it says of each of them, another man shall live in his house, shall become owner of his vineyard, shall marry his betrothed. This is equivalent to saying, “the faculties mentioned of keenness to learn, of improvement, of becoming perfect, shall indeed never fail, but they associate with one man at one time, with another man at another time, going about and not tenanting the same souls always and changing from soul to soul.",
                "[167] In this the faculties resemble seals; for these too, when they have stamped the wax, unaffected by the impressions they have made, after engraving an image on it remain as they were, and if the impression on the wax gets blurred and effaced, other wax will be substituted for it. So do not imagine, good sirs, that the faculties decay when you do. They are immortal, and ready to welcome ten thousand others in preference to you to the fame gained from them. These are all whom they perceive not to have shunned their converse as you did, owing to your foolhardiness, but to draw near and pay great heed to safety.",
                "[168] If any man be a lover of virtue, let him pray that all fair things may not only be implanted in him, but may shew themselves upon the surface of his soul, as do the exquisite proportions of beauty in a statue and a perfect portrait. Let him consider that there are myriads waiting to follow him, on whom in his stead Nature will bestow all the boons of which we have been thinking, the gift of quickness to learn, that of making progress, that of attaining perfection. Is it not better that, instead of leaving it to them, he should himself shine out and be a retentive steward of God’s gracious gifts, and that he should not, by gratuitously offering an opportunity forplunder, supply ruthless foes with booty lying ready to their hand?"
            ],
            [
                "[169] Little advantage, therefore, is there in a beginning to which a right ending has not set its seal. Quite frequently persons who had attained perfection have been accounted imperfect owing to their fancying that their improvement was due to their own zeal and not to the directing care of God. Owing to this fancy they were lifted up and greatly exalted, and so came to be borne down from lofty regions into the lowest abyss and so lost to sight: for we read,",
                "[170] “If thou shalt build a new house, then shalt thou also make a parapet round thy roof, and so thou shalt not cause death in thy house, if the faller from it falls” (Deut. 22:8).",
                "[171] For there is no fall so grievous as to slip and fall away from rendering honour to God, through ascribing the victory to oneself instead of to Him, and so being the perpetrator of the murder of one’s kin. For he that fails to honour That which IS slays his own soul, so that the edifice of instruction ceases to be of use to him. Instruction has obtained the nature that never grows old, and for this reason her house is called “new.” For whereas other things decay by lapse of time, she, however far she advances, retains the bloom of youth and is in her prime all along, radiant with unfailing loveliness, and renewing her freshness by her unceasing diligence.",
                "[172] Moreover in his Exhortations the lawgiver charges those who have obtained large possession of good things not to inscribe themselves in their hearts as authors of their wealth, but “to remember God Who giveth strength to acquire power” (Deut. 8:18).",
                "[173] This remembrance, then, was in his eyes the goal of prosperity, the putting forth of power the beginning: the consequence of this being that those who forget the end of their acquisitions cannot any longer derive real benefit from their beginning. The disasters which befall these men are self-chosen, the outcome of selfishness. They cannot bear to acknowledge as the Author of the good things which they enjoy the God Who brings to perfection the gifts which He loves to bestow."
            ],
            [
                "[174] But there are others who, with every stitch of piety’s canvas spread, have used every effort to make a quick voyage, and to come to anchor in her harbours, and then, when they were no distance away, but on the very point of coming to land, a violent head-wind has suddenly burst upon them, and driven the vessel straight back, stripping her of much of the gear on which her seaworthiness depended.",
                "[175] No one would find fault with these men for being still at sea; for the delay was contrary to their wish and befell them when they were making all speed. Who, then, resembles these men? Who but he who vowed what is called the great Vow? For he says: “If someone die suddenly beside him, the head of his vow shall forthwith be defiled, and he shall shave it.” Then, after a few more words, he adds, “The former days shall be void, because the head of his vow was defiled” (Numb. 6:9, 12).",
                "[176] The involuntary nature of the soul’s failure is evidenced by both of the words which he uses, “sudden” and “forthwith,” for whereas in the case of deliberate sins time is required for planning where and when and how the thing is to be done, unintentional sins swoop upon us suddenly, without thought, and if we may so say, in no time.",
                "[177] For it is difficult for the runners, as we may call them, after starting on the way to piety, to finish the whole course without stumbling, and without stopping to draw breath; for every man born meets ten thousand obstacles.",
                "[178] The first need then, which is the one and only thing that is “well-doing,” is never to put hand to any deliberate wrong-doing, and to have strength to thrust from us the countless host of voluntary offences; the second not to fall into many involuntary offences, nor to continue long in the practice of them.",
                "[179] Right well did he say that the days of the involuntary failure were void (ἀλόγους) not only because to sin is void of reason (ἄλογον) but also because it is impossible to render an account (λόγον) of involuntary sins. Accordingly, when people inquire after the motives for things that have been done, we often say that we neither know nor are able to tell them: for that when they were being done we were not taken into confidence, nay, that they arrived without our knowing it.",
                "[180] ’Tis a rare event then if God shall vouchsafe to a man to run life’s course from beginning to end without slackening or slipping, and to avoid each kind of transgressions, voluntary and involuntary, by flying past them, in the vehement rush of matchless speed.",
                "[181] These remarks on beginning and end have been made apropos of Noah the righteous man who, after making himself master of the elements of the science of husbandry, had not the strength to reach its final stages, for it is said that “he began to be a husbandman,” not that he reached the furthest limits of full knowledge. What is said about his work as a planter let us tell at another time."
            ]
        ],
        "Appendix": [
            "APPENDIX TO DE AGRICULTURA",
            "§ 13. <i>But contribute nothing to the improvement of character</i>. The ὅσα implies that some parts of dialectic and mathematics do contribute something. With regard to dialectic, this is explained in the sequel. With regard to “geometry,” apart from its use as a προπαίδευμα, Philo would probably have held that, as it included arithmetic, the lore of sacred numbers gave it a higher and spiritual value. This appears very markedly in the disquisition on Four in this treatise.",
            "§ 14. <i>With its threefold division</i>. This fundamental Stoic doctrine is given in Diog. Laert. vii. 40, with the same illustration as here. Another comparison given there and elsewhere is to the egg-shell, the white and the yolk. See <i>Leg. All</i>. i. 57 and note.",
            "§ 41. <i>They are the only real kings</i>. For this well-known Stoic paradox see <i>S.V.F.</i> iii. 617 ff.; <i>cf. De Sobr. 57</i>.",
            "§ 43. <i>Uneven</i>. This word perhaps gives the idea better than “superfluous.” περίσσος is the regular name for “odd” numbers, <i>i.e</i>. those which are something over and above the right or even numbers (ἄρτιος). Other passages in which Jethro is described (<i>De Ebr.</i> 37 and <i>De Mut.</i> 103) were referred to in the note on <i>De Sacr.</i> 50, where, however, the translation “worldling” was perhaps too loose.",
            "§ 73. οἰκόσιτος. Here and in <i>De Plant.</i> 104 Philo uses this word in a disparaging way, which does not appear in the examples quoted from other authors. Usually it means “living at his own expense.” There is, however, an approach to it in Lucian, <i>Somn</i>. 1, where it is applied to a youth who is not yet earning his own living.",
            "§ 80. <i>Sense-perception made pure and clean</i>. In <i>Leg. All</i>. ii. 66 and iii. 103, Miriam stood for rebellious sense.",
            "§ 81. <i>So we find</i>. Here γοῦν as often introduces the scriptural story on which the allegory is founded, the main point of which is the concluding words “horse and rider he threw into the sea.” But there is also an allusion to the opening words, “Then sang Moses and <i>the sons of Israel</i>,” which, as usual, he interprets as “those who see.” The contrast, however, between “all the men” or “all that are men,” and “<i>the best</i> women” is curious, for in Ex. 15:20 <i>all</i> the women sing the song. Perhaps Philo’s memory of the passage misled him.",
            "§ 94. <i>For these are able</i>, etc. There seems to be an illogicality in the sequel. The prayer which follows is not as we should expect, that the horseman should be able to control the horse, but that he should fall off. The best one can make of it is that, though it is meritorious to control passion, complete safety lies in getting rid of it.",
            "§§ 95 ff. The parable of Dan has already been worked out in <i>Leg. All</i>. ii. 94 ff. The principal difference is that there the way (which as here is distinguished from the track) is the soul itself, instead of the road on which the soul travels.",
            "§ 114. <i>An iron-bound thong</i>. The use in boxing of the <i>caestus</i> or leathern thong loaded with lead or iron is best known from the description in <i>Aen</i>. v. 405 ff. Mr. Whitaker’s ingenious suggestion of σιδηροῦν τροπόν for σιδήρου τρόπον (“like iron”) may perhaps be questioned on the ground that τροπός is the thong used for fastening the oar to the thole. But it may have been used more generally, and if so gives an excellent sense. The construction of the ordinary reading is not quite clear.—F. H. C.",
            "§ 119. <i>The Olympic contest</i>, etc. Perhaps rather “the only Olympic contest which can be rightly called sacred is” etc. Philo plays on Ὀλυμπιακός (derived from Olympia) and Ὀλύμπιος (from Olympus).",
            "§§ 128, 129. The view that God causes good only is often insisted on by Philo, <i>e.g.</i> <i>De Op.</i> 75, and <i>De Plant.</i> 53. The thought is Platonic; see <i>Timaeus</i>, 29, 30 and 40, 41, <i>Rep</i>. 379 B, C, and elsewhere.",
            "§ 132. ὑπαναπλέουσαν. Mangey’s conjecture of ἐπαναπολῆ· σαν has some support from <i>De Post.</i> 149 ἐκ τῆς ἐπαναπολήσεως καὶ ὥσπερ ἐπιλεάνσεως τῆς πρῶτον καταβληθείσης τροφῆς. <i>Cf</i>. also ἀναπολῶν, <i>Spec. Leg.</i> iv. 107. On the other hand we have ὑπαναπλεῖ, <i>De Mut.</i> 100.",
            "§ 134. <i>For what use is there … “partless”?</i> The translation assumes that διαίρεσις is futile, because we ultimately arrive at a closed door. If we read ἀδιαίρετα, it is futile, because we <i>never</i> arrive at a point where division ceases. In this case Philo adopts the doctrine of the infinite divisibility of matter, which was generally held though not without controversy (see Reid on Cic. <i>Acad</i>. i. 27). The same sense might perhaps be obtained by retaining διαιρετά, and taking it as “never finding before you (as a result of your division) separate parts which are called atoms.” It should be noted that this philosophical evidence of the futility of διαίρεσις is merely subsidiary. The true reason, <i>i.e</i>. its moral uselessness, if unaccompanied by meditation, is given in 135.",
            "§§ 140, 141. The grammatical and logical terms of the Stoics, here given, are nearly all stated (generally under the same names) by Diog. Laert. vii. 64–76, with examples which explain their meaning clearly. These are here given for the cases in which explanation is needed (Hicks’s translation is used throughout).",
            "Complete (τέλεια, D.L. αὐτοτελῆ)— “Socrates writes.” / Incomplete (ἀτελῆ, D.L. ἐλλιπῆ)— “Writes,” for we ask “who writes?”",
            "Questions (ἐρωτήματα)— “Is it day?” / Inquiries (πύσματα)— “Where does he live?” which cannot be answered, like the question, by a nod.",
            "Simple propositions (ἀξιώματα ἁπλᾶ)— “It is day.” / Non-simple (οὐχ ἁπλᾶ)— “If it is day, it is light.”",
            "Hypothetical (συνημμένα, as subdivision of the οὐχ ἁπλᾶ)—. “If it is day, it is light.” / Inferential (παρασυνημμένα)— “Since it is day, it is light.”",
            "Indicating more or less (τὰ διασαφοῦντα τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον). “It is rather daytime than night,” or / Disjunctive (διεζευγμένα)— “Either it is day or it is night.”",
            "Predicate (κατηγόρημα) was defined as “what is said of something”; in other words, “a thing associated with one or more subjects”; or “a defective expression which has to be joined on to a nominative case in order to yield a judgement” (ἀξίωμα).",
            "Complements (συμβάματα). The words in D.L. which deal with this are corrupt. Apparently the term means a verb requiring a nominative subject, and therefore is identical with κατηγορήματα, according to the third definition given above. It is opposed to παρασυμβάματα, where the verb is impersonal and the real subject is in another case, as μεταμέλει μοι, “it repents me”=“I repent.”",
            "§ 142. <i>Smooth movement</i>. An Epicurean term (<i>cf</i>. note on <i>De Post.</i> 79), introduced here by Philo for a play on λειανούσῃ, and qualified by τῷ ὄντι to show that he uses it in a higher sense than the Epicureans.",
            "§ 145. Heinemann proposed in preference to Wendland’s suggestion καὶ γὰρ διαίρεσις ἄνευ μνήμης καὶ μελέτη ἅνευ διεξόδου τῶν ἀρίστων. No doubt μελέτη may be taken as the equivalent of μνήμη, but διέξοδος can hardly be equivalent to διαίρεσις. Perhaps the following adaptation of Wendland’s might be read: καὶ γὰρ διαίρεσις ἄνευ μνήμης καὶ μελέτης καὶ διεξόδου τῶν ἀρίστων ἀγαθὸν ἀτελές, &lt;ὡσαύτως δὲ μνήμη ἄνευ διαιρέσεως ἀτελές&gt;, in which the repetition of ἀτελές may have misled the scribe.",
            "§ 160. <i>Solidity</i>. The term πῆξις is Stoic, see <i>S. V.F.</i> iii. 510. The life of ὁ προκόπτων only becomes really happy ὅταν αἱ μέσαι πράξεις … πῆξιν τινὰ λάβωσι.",
            "§ 161. <i>Unconscious of their wisdom</i>. διαλεληθότες again is a Stoic term, though used rather of the fully wise, who do not yet realize their conversion, than, as here, of the man advancing to perfection; see <i>S.V.F.</i> iii. 539, 540."
        ]
    },
    "versions": [
        [
            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1930",
            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
        ]
    ],
    "heTitle": "על עבודת האדמה",
    "categories": [
        "Second Temple",
        "Philo"
    ],
    "schema": {
        "heTitle": "על עבודת האדמה",
        "enTitle": "On Husbandry",
        "key": "On Husbandry",
        "nodes": [
            {
                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
                "enTitle": "Introduction"
            },
            {
                "heTitle": "",
                "enTitle": ""
            },
            {
                "heTitle": "הערות",
                "enTitle": "Appendix"
            }
        ]
    }
}