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Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_1
The study shows there are various reasons of acid attacks such as marital discord, not bringing enough dowry, drug, alcohol abuse, property or professional dispute etc. Further study can prove why acid attack phenomenon is so prevalent among that particular age group. Not only the victims even most number of perpetrators belongs to 21 years to 30 years age group and the study shows in South – Eastern Region average 50% perpetrators belong to that age group. Hence, it’s very important to establish the reason which provokes that particular age group towards that heinous crime. However, the most popular reason of acid attack is ‘Rejection of Indecent Proposal’ and in South –Eastern Region average 20% acid attack happens due to that single reason and apart from that another most common cause is apparently nothing, because here the victims are simply ‘unintended victims’ and in South – Eastern Region average 20% victims are just those unfortunate people who were at the ‘wrong place at the very wrong time’ and as a result they endured the pain though they were not the target of the perpetrator. That study would analyze various socio-economic factors to understand the gruesome effects of acid attacks and at the same time it will also emphasize on those crucial factors which triggers the incidents of acid attacks. According to study, reason for acid attack could be anything such as rejection of marriage proposal or sexual advances, bearing female child, not bringing enough dowry, mistakes in household chores or any trivial reasons which shows typical patriarchal apathy towards female body and that’s why 85% of acid attack victims are women age from 14 to 35 years and on the contrary almost the same amount of perpetrators are male and most of them are known to women (Venkataraman, 2016). Since different regions of India are affected on absolutely different levels that is why it is absolutely necessary that we discuss the various factors which plays role in acid attack incidents on the other hands it is also important to know whether those factors are at all somehow related to acid attack incidents or not. 1. CONCLUSION: Perhaps acid attack is one that kind of attack which is still quite underrated in spite of its tremendous destructive nature. The impact of acid attack is physical, social, financial and psychological and it can drain the victims and their families completely. The present study shows the constant rise of acid attack in India and how few instrumental factors plays crucial role in acid attack cases. Meanwhile elaborate study also require in psychological profiling of the perpetrators. It shows Eastern Region is more affected then Southern Region and maximum victims are young women while maximum perpetrators are young men. It also revealed most common reason of acid attack is rejection of indecent proposal and here marital status of victims is irrelevant while most acid attack take place in broad daylight often by someone who is known to victim and even a family member as well.
Guyana
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Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_2
Acid Attacks: A Legislative Analysis of Selected Countries Acid attacks are rampant in most South Asian countries (Niaz, 2003), but are particularly prevalent in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India (Goosenkere, 2004; Kalantry & Kestenbaum, 2011; Manderson et. al, 2003; Welsh, 2019). Bangladesh, however, can be viewed as a success story as it saw a decline from 30% to 20% in the instances of attacks. The Times of India reported that acid attacks are often due to dowry, business revenge, or property issues (March 22, 2020). Acid attacks are committed irrespective of caste, professional status, class, urban/rural area, or other categories the victim belongs to. One of the distinguishing characteristics of this crime is that it can be carried out both in public and in private spaces. While the reasons for acid attacks are many, in the majority of cases they are related to gender-based https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol23/iss1/12 132 Hameed and Bhattacharya: Scarred for Life: Thoughts on Legal Perspectives of Acid Attacks violence (Copelon, 2008). Statistics reveal that most of the victims are women or girls, though the attacks sometimes include males and animals too. (ASTI, 2021.) 23, Iss. 1 [2022], Art. 12 Introduction Acid Attacks are a rampant crime that intentionally debilitates an individual at all levels of his/her persona, a malicious crime that can change a person's life forever. Acid attacks are a form of violence (Brown et al, 1986) involving the perpetrator throwing acid or a similarly corrosive substance onto the body of another "with the intention to disfigure, maim, torture, or kill", and these crimes are mostly against women. Research has shown socio-ecological reasons for acid attacks around the world. These include a male-dominated patriarchal mindset in society, inexpensive and effortless availability of acids, domestic violence, peer jealousy, and vengeance (Goswami & Handa, 2020). The Journal of Development Studies, 39(5), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331333129. Vietnam, L. (2014). Acid Throwing: A Cause of Concern in India. Indian Journal of Clinical Practice, 24(10). Welsh, J. (2019). “It was like burning in Hell”: A comparative exploration of acid attack violence (Doctoral dissertation, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). Published by Virtual Commons - Bridgewater State University, 2022 139 The fact that acid attack crimes are rampant is a deeply rooted social phenomena in gender order and gender inequality that dictates that male control over women is justified and so violence in any form is justified (Fredman, 2016; Storkey, E. 2018). Commonly, the motive behind an acid attack is revenge, rejection to a marriage proposal, or a woman refusing a request for sexual activity. Despite controls put in place by the Supreme Court of India, acids are easily obtained. The main causes of acid attacks are the freely available acids in the market. People can procure acids from pharmacies, open-air markets, goldsmith shops, car repair shops, etc. without much effort on their part. It is also used by many individuals as a cleaning agent in their homes. It is thus readily obtainable, inexpensive, and within the scope of ordinary people as well (Goswami & Handa, 2020).
China
1
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Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_3
Acid attack violence occurs in many countries but is particularly prevalent in: Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, and Cambodia. Global statistics suggest that attacks are predominantly perpetrated by men as a result of shame and loss of face or loss of honour. Adding to the complications of accurate and rigorous data collection of acid attacks are that there are unreliable classifications of injuries as being due to either accidental workplace acid burns or to pre-meditated acid attacks at some medical facilities, and because not all cases of acid attacks or threats of acid attacks are reported to authorities, medical agencies or the media. Acid attacks have also been reported in other Asian countries including: Malaysia, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Taipei (LICADHO, Living in the Shadows 18; Comeau and Thampi 7; Forster 6; ASTI, How Common Are Acid Attacks?). Whilst cases have been reported in these countries, the intimate particulars of cases or statistical trends are difficult to surmise. Time and resource limitations on this research and the scope of this thesis, it has been difficult to prove an imperial pattern. Acid attacks are dynamic and relentless, and statistics therefore need constant updating. Most statistical information pertaining to acid attack violence is related to survivors rather than perpetrators. To design and 9 See: LICADHO, Living in the Shadows 18; Comeau and Thampi "The Physical and Psychosocial Needs of Acid Burn Survivors and the Opportunities for Support in Cambodia," Diss. 7; Bhuiyan and Lovely 18; Acid Survivors Trust International (ASTI) How Common Are Acid Attacks? The most significant of these are from women’s rights movements, the NGO community and government. This thesis will also explore the ways in which these three groups explain and address the issue. Acid attack violence is a multi-causal problem, with risk factors such as patriarchal structures and locally specific reasons such as a loss of face or honour and retribution that contribute to the incidence and severity of acid attack violence. in Carney). Some of the causes for acid attacks in all three contexts are: the easy and cheap availability of acid; traditional perceptions of women; changing gender roles; influences from the media; and notions of shame, loss of face and loss of honour, revenge and retribution. However, insofar as authentically addressing these aetiologies, to date, the medicalised, legal and development approaches and interventions have not been 2 successful. Fr) Annales de Chirurgie Plastique Esthétique 49 (2004) 239-254. 5 causes of acid attack violence nor many of the compounded complications survivors contend with. Methodology Acid attack survivors are predominantly women, and as such they experience compounded exclusion, marginalisation and persecution for a number of different reasons. To address the gaps identified in the literature and to make the analysis comprehensive, feminist, public health and anthropological perspectives guide this study. 65 India A general understanding of the underlying precipitating factors for acid attack violence in India remains limited as previous research has been characterised by a predominant focus on the burns suffered by the survivors or the legal interventions sought 21. However, with reference to the adapted socio-ecological model (see Appendix One), two fundamental explanations for acid attack violence in India are loss of honour and jealousy. Thus, this study aims to highlight this paucity, and as noted in the Introduction, the hypotheses for this research study are: 1. That socio-cultural, situational and individual determinants contribute to acid attack violence. 70 2. That motivations and causes for acid attack violence vary from location to location. 3. That shame, loss of face or loss of honour are imperatives that perpetuate attacks and marginalise acid survivors. Developing an understanding of the motivations and aetiology of this form of violence is the focus of this thesis as much of the current discourses and interventions are focused on the victims of these crimes, and do not address or investigate underlying root causes. Drawing on Heise and colleagues adapted socio-ecological model, this thesis will explore factors that contribute to the acid attack violence and will refer to high-profile cases in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India. Possible factors contributing to the escalating level of acid attack violence include: the ready availability of acid; that it is a cheap weapon of choice in comparison to guns, knives or grenades; and that corrupt police officers and weak legal systems ensure that perpetrators often avoid justice (LICADHO, Living in the Shadows 2). Attempting to calculate the frequency of acid attacks and the demographics of acid attack survivors is a difficult task. An extensive multi-country literature review and a qualitative exploration of three recent acid attack cases from Cambodia, Bangladesh and India are also employed. Guiding Principles / Explanations / Hypotheses This study seeks to explore the issue of acid attack violence and to highlight cultural, historical, societal and individual influences that underpin it. I argue that a multi-faceted approach and a heuristic device is needed to understand root causes. Thus, this thesis aims to address this gap. Historically, acid attacks were also widespread in France, the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe from the 18th century onwards (Forster 6). This type of economic or work-place jealousy is a topic that needs to be flagged for further attention. Discussion and Summary This section re-visits the problem of acid attack violence, particularly in relation as to how the socio-ecological model can generate new understandings of this vicious, premeditated crime. Firstly, to recap, acid attack violence is a complex and variant form of violence with many motivations and causes. 3 However, research for this thesis has revealed a dearth of published books, reports and journal articles on the topic of acid attack violence from an individual and socio-cultural perspective. Responding to the paucity of available literature on this specific aspect of acid attack violence, this literature review addresses the gaps in that literature, and in the broader literature related to this study. The rationale for this focus is that some policy decision makers, judges and lawyers, community leaders, journalists, community members and others, nominate acid attack survivors as the cause of acid attack violence, which contributes to their further marginalisation. in Shapiro 137). In order to understand the complex interrelated factors involved in why acid attack violence occurs in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India, this chapter examines the underlying personal, situational, societal and cultural forces behind them.  Address underlying root causes of acid attack violence Develop comprehensive strategies and policies with key stakeholders, communities and NGOs to challenge and address oppressive social problems such as poverty, cultures of shame and honour, history and culture of violence, marital conflict and rigid gender roles. However, client reporting to CASC depict ‘accidents’ as the leading cause of acid attacks. 16 Looking further East, recently forty-six people in Hong Kong suffered burns when an unidentified perpetrator threw two plastic bottles filled with an unspecified acid from a building into a crowded shopping district onto the street below. To date, motivations for this attack remain unclear (The China Post). Chapter Summary Three cases of acid attack violence in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India. The commonalities between all three are similar motivations and causes for throwing acid. The next chapter draws on these cases and literature, and presents an overview of the motivations and causes for acid attack violence. 55 CHAPTER FOUR SPECULATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE AETIOLOGY OF ACID ATTACK VIOLENCE We love and suffer according to cultural imperatives (Luhman qtd. in Shapiro 137). An exploration of the incidence and motivations for acid attack violence by geographical regions is also discussed. The chapter concludes with a snapshot of global and local NGOs working on the issue of acid attack violence.
Greece
2
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Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_4
Acid attack violence occurs in many countries but is particularly prevalent in: Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, and Cambodia. Global statistics suggest that attacks are predominantly perpetrated by men as a result of shame and loss of face or loss of honour. Adding to the complications of accurate and rigorous data collection of acid attacks are that there are unreliable classifications of injuries as being due to either accidental workplace acid burns or to pre-meditated acid attacks at some medical facilities, and because not all cases of acid attacks or threats of acid attacks are reported to authorities, medical agencies or the media. Acid attacks have also been reported in other Asian countries including: Malaysia, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Taipei (LICADHO, Living in the Shadows 18; Comeau and Thampi 7; Forster 6; ASTI, How Common Are Acid Attacks?). Whilst cases have been reported in these countries, the intimate particulars of cases or statistical trends are difficult to surmise. Time and resource limitations on this research and the scope of this thesis, it has been difficult to prove an imperial pattern. Acid attacks are dynamic and relentless, and statistics therefore need constant updating. Most statistical information pertaining to acid attack violence is related to survivors rather than perpetrators. To design and 9 See: LICADHO, Living in the Shadows 18; Comeau and Thampi "The Physical and Psychosocial Needs of Acid Burn Survivors and the Opportunities for Support in Cambodia," Diss. 7; Bhuiyan and Lovely 18; Acid Survivors Trust International (ASTI) How Common Are Acid Attacks? The most significant of these are from women’s rights movements, the NGO community and government. This thesis will also explore the ways in which these three groups explain and address the issue. Acid attack violence is a multi-causal problem, with risk factors such as patriarchal structures and locally specific reasons such as a loss of face or honour and retribution that contribute to the incidence and severity of acid attack violence. in Carney). Some of the causes for acid attacks in all three contexts are: the easy and cheap availability of acid; traditional perceptions of women; changing gender roles; influences from the media; and notions of shame, loss of face and loss of honour, revenge and retribution. However, insofar as authentically addressing these aetiologies, to date, the medicalised, legal and development approaches and interventions have not been 3 successful. Fr) Annales de Chirurgie Plastique Esthétique 49 (2004) 239-254. 6 causes of acid attack violence nor many of the compounded complications survivors contend with. Methodology Acid attack survivors are predominantly women, and as such they experience compounded exclusion, marginalisation and persecution for a number of different reasons. To address the gaps identified in the literature and to make the analysis comprehensive, feminist, public health and anthropological perspectives guide this study. 66 India A general understanding of the underlying precipitating factors for acid attack violence in India remains limited as previous research has been characterised by a predominant focus on the burns suffered by the survivors or the legal interventions sought 21. However, with reference to the adapted socio-ecological model (see Appendix One), two fundamental explanations for acid attack violence in India are loss of honour and jealousy. Thus, this study aims to highlight this paucity, and as noted in the Introduction, the hypotheses for this research study are: 1. That socio-cultural, situational and individual determinants contribute to acid attack violence. 71 2. That motivations and causes for acid attack violence vary from location to location. 3. That shame, loss of face or loss of honour are imperatives that perpetuate attacks and marginalise acid survivors. Developing an understanding of the motivations and aetiology of this form of violence is the focus of this thesis as much of the current discourses and interventions are focused on the victims of these crimes, and do not address or investigate underlying root causes. Drawing on Heise and colleagues adapted socio-ecological model, this thesis will explore factors that contribute to the acid attack violence and will refer to high-profile cases in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India. Possible factors contributing to the escalating level of acid attack violence include: the ready availability of acid; that it is a cheap weapon of choice in comparison to guns, knives or grenades; and that corrupt police officers and weak legal systems ensure that perpetrators often avoid justice (LICADHO, Living in the Shadows 2). Attempting to calculate the frequency of acid attacks and the demographics of acid attack survivors is a difficult task. An extensive multi-country literature review and a qualitative exploration of three recent acid attack cases from Cambodia, Bangladesh and India are also employed. Guiding Principles / Explanations / Hypotheses This study seeks to explore the issue of acid attack violence and to highlight cultural, historical, societal and individual influences that underpin it. I argue that a multi-faceted approach and a heuristic device is needed to understand root causes. Thus, this thesis aims to address this gap. Historically, acid attacks were also widespread in France, the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe from the 18th century onwards (Forster 6). This type of economic or work-place jealousy is a topic that needs to be flagged for further attention. Discussion and Summary This section re-visits the problem of acid attack violence, particularly in relation as to how the socio-ecological model can generate new understandings of this vicious, premeditated crime. Firstly, to recap, acid attack violence is a complex and variant form of violence with many motivations and causes. 3 However, research for this thesis has revealed a dearth of published books, reports and journal articles on the topic of acid attack violence from an individual and socio-cultural perspective. Responding to the paucity of available literature on this specific aspect of acid attack violence, this literature review addresses the gaps in that literature, and in the broader literature related to this study. The rationale for this focus is that some policy decision makers, judges and lawyers, community leaders, journalists, community members and others, nominate acid attack survivors as the cause of acid attack violence, which contributes to their further marginalisation. in Shapiro 137). In order to understand the complex interrelated factors involved in why acid attack violence occurs in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India, this chapter examines the underlying personal, situational, societal and cultural forces behind them.  Address underlying root causes of acid attack violence Develop comprehensive strategies and policies with key stakeholders, communities and NGOs to challenge and address oppressive social problems such as poverty, cultures of shame and honour, history and culture of violence, marital conflict and rigid gender roles. However, client reporting to CASC depict ‘accidents’ as the leading cause of acid attacks. 16 Looking further East, recently forty-six people in Hong Kong suffered burns when an unidentified perpetrator threw two plastic bottles filled with an unspecified acid from a building into a crowded shopping district onto the street below. To date, motivations for this attack remain unclear (The China Post). Chapter Summary Three cases of acid attack violence in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India. The commonalities between all three are similar motivations and causes for throwing acid. The next chapter draws on these cases and literature, and presents an overview of the motivations and causes for acid attack violence. CHAPTER FOUR SPECULATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE AETIOLOGY OF ACID ATTACK VIOLENCE We love and suffer according to cultural imperatives (Luhman qtd. in Shapiro 137). An exploration of the incidence and motivations for acid attack violence by geographical regions is also discussed. The chapter concludes with a snapshot of global and local NGOs working on the issue of acid attack violence.
Benin
3
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Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_5
"According to proposed Scheme drafted by national Commission for women for Relief and Rehabilitation(...TRUNCATED)
China
4
[[2.21875,-0.55859375,1.5,-2.453125,-1.8671875,-5.875,-3.984375,8.375,7.03125,-4.96875,-1.6328125,-5(...TRUNCATED)
Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_6
"“Fate Worse Than Death”: Critical Analysis of Acid Violence … 139 vulnerable to such attacks,(...TRUNCATED)
Cyprus
5
[[0.0615234375,-1.4921875,0.765625,0.3671875,-6.65625,-2.953125,-4.46875,7.0,5.4375,-0.09814453125,-(...TRUNCATED)
Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_7
"Causes of acid attacks include: relationship conflict (35.5%), business and property conflicts (14.(...TRUNCATED)
Armenia
6
[[-0.16015625,-1.6953125,0.890625,-4.75,-4.125,-4.46875,-1.2890625,12.4375,7.21875,-2.1875,0.0722656(...TRUNCATED)
Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_8
"Some of this increase has been attributed to better documentation of cases and also to the fact tha(...TRUNCATED)
Ireland
7
[[2.0625,-0.1845703125,0.216796875,-4.9375,-1.2578125,-5.46875,-4.40625,8.625,5.78125,0.984375,-4.59(...TRUNCATED)
Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_9
"Further an attempt has been taken to give a comparative study of acid attack of various countries i(...TRUNCATED)
Belgium
8
[[1.6875,-0.74609375,1.4921875,-4.59375,-2.3125,-5.40625,-3.265625,7.84375,6.65625,-0.56640625,-3.04(...TRUNCATED)
Why is acid crime prevalent?
1_1_10
"In about 15% of the cases, the motive is unknown. The reasons behind the incidents in the remainin(...TRUNCATED)
Pakistan
9
[[2.28125,-0.9296875,-3.90625,-6.125,-2.859375,-5.21875,-2.4375,10.875,8.3125,-4.5625,-2.21875,-7.21(...TRUNCATED)
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