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[ "The West Indies Federation, also known as the West Indies, the Federation of the West Indies or the West Indian Federation, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. Various islands in the Caribbean that were part of the British Empire, including Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Jamaica, and those on the Leeward and Windward Islands, came together to form the Federation, with its capital in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago", ". The expressed intention of the Federation was to create a political unit that would become independent from Britain as a single state — possibly similar to Canada, the Federation of Australia, or the Central African Federation. Before that could happen, the Federation collapsed due to internal political conflicts over how it would be governed or function viably. The formation of a West Indian Federation was encouraged by the United Kingdom, but also requested by West Indian nationalists.", "The territories that would have become part of the Federation eventually became the nine contemporary sovereign states of Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago; with Anguilla, Montserrat, the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands becoming British overseas territories. British Guiana and British Honduras held observer status within the West Indies Federation.", "Population and geography", "The total population of the West Indies Federation was between 3 and 4 million people, with the majority being of black West African descent. Minorities included Indians from the Indian subcontinent (called East Indians), Europeans, Chinese, Arabs, and Caribs. There was also a large population of mixed descent (mainly mulattos, but also Afro-Indian, Euro-Indian and mixed-Chinese)", ". In terms of religion, most of the population was Protestant, with significant numbers of Catholics and some Hindus and Muslims (both almost exclusively from the East Indian population).", "The West Indies Federation (or just West Indies) consisted of around 24 main inhabited islands and approximately 220–230 minor offshore islands, islets and cays (some inhabited, some uninhabited). The largest island was Jamaica, located in the far northwest of the Federation. To the southeast lay the second largest island, Trinidad, followed by Barbados (in terms of population), located at the eastern extremity of the Federation.", "The Federation spanned all the island groupings in the Caribbean:\nThe Greater Antilles: Jamaica and the Cayman Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands\nThe Lesser Antilles:\nBarbados, east of the Windward Islands\nLeeward Islands: Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, and Montserrat\nWindward Islands: Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada\nTrinidad and Tobago", "At its widest (west to east), from the Cayman Islands to Barbados it spanned some (and across approximately 22 degrees of longitude) and from the Turks and Caicos Islands in the north, to the Icacos Point, Trinidad in the south it extended (and across 12 degrees of latitude). However, most of the area along either of these distances was taken up by open water (with the exception of some of the other islands lying in between)", ". By comparison Great Britain stretches across nearly 10 degrees of latitude and Spain extends across almost 20 degrees of longitude. Even though the West Indies was spread across such a vast area, most of its provinces were mostly contiguous and clustered fairly close together in the Eastern Caribbean, with the obvious exceptions of Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, and Turks and Caicos Islands.", "Most of the islands have mountainous interiors surrounded by narrow coastal plains. The exceptions were Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands (which are all fairly flat), and Trinidad (which has a large mountain range in the north and a small central mountain range in the interior of the otherwise flat island)", ". The narrow coastal plains as well as historical trade is the main reason why almost all of the major settlements (cities and towns) of the Federation were located on the coast. Chief towns included Kingston, Port of Spain, Chaguaramas, Bridgetown, Spanish Town, Montego Bay, San Fernando, Mandeville, Castries, Roseau, St. George's, Kingstown, St. John's, and Basseterre.", "The climate in all the islands is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although inland regions in the larger islands have more temperate climates. Regions falling within the rain shadows (southern coasts of Jamaica and Trinidad and eastern coasts of the Lesser Antilles) are relatively drier. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first six months of the year, and the rainy season (also known as the hurricane season) in the second half of the year", ". Many of the islands fall within the traditional hurricane belt, with the exception of Trinidad (although it occasionally experiences low latitude hurricanes) and thus are at risk from potential wind and flood damage.", "Britain classified the Federation as being part of its \"Caribbean and North Atlantic Territories\" region which was shared alongside other possessions such as Bermuda.\n\nThe Federation today is geographically considered to be part of the North American continent as all of its islands are in and around the Caribbean, even though Trinidad is located just offshore from South America and lies on the same continental shelf. See Transcontinental countries.\n\nProvinces", "Several historically \"West Indian\" British colonies opted not to join the Federation for various reasons. The Bahamas and Bermuda believed that their future lay with association with North America, and the British Virgin Islands similarly looked to a possible future association with the United States Virgin Islands", ". British Honduras was involved in a territorial dispute with Guatemala and saw the West Indies Federation as being too weak to defend British Honduras against its neighbour, instead looking to the UK for potential military assistance against Guatemala. British Guiana opted not to join when the Federation was formed due to its own ongoing political and internal struggles for independence from the UK, which had started in the 1950s", ". At issue was its newly formed political party with socialist leanings, at the height of the Cold War. It had hoped to join the Federation once these issues were resolved.", "British Honduras and British Guiana did participate in the Federation to a certain extent as observers. The Bahamas participated in the 1960 West Indies Federation Games, with a future prime minister of the Bahamas, Perry Christie, as an athlete. Guyana would ultimately express interest in a very loose re-attempted Caribbean Federation around 1971.\n\nGovernment and legal status", "The Federation was an internally self-governing, federal state made up of ten provinces, all British colonial possessions. The federation was created by the United Kingdom in 1958 from most of the British West Indies. Britain intended that the Federation would shortly become a fully independent state, thus simultaneously satisfying the demands for independence from all the colonies in the region", ". However, significant political divisions among the former colonies persisted, and the Federation never achieved full sovereignty.", "The legal basis for the federation was the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, and the date of formation—3 January 1958—was set by an Order in Council proclaimed in 1957.", "As with all British colonies of the period, Queen Elizabeth II was the head of state, and The Crown was vested with the legislative authority for matters concerning executive affairs, defence and the financing of the Federation. Her representative, The 1st Baron Hailes, was given the title of Governor-General rather than that of Governor more typical for a British colony", ". The title may have reflected the federal nature of the state, or indicated the expectations that the Federation would soon become independent. The Governor-General also had the full power by the British Government to veto any laws passed by the Federation.", "The Federal Parliament of the West Indies Federation was bicameral, consisting of a nominated Senate and a popularly elected House of Representatives. The Senate consisted of nineteen members. These members were appointed by the Governor General, after consulting the respective territorial governments. Two members represented each unit (with only one from Montserrat)", ". Two members represented each unit (with only one from Montserrat). The House of Representatives had 45 total elected members – Jamaica had seventeen seats, Trinidad and Tobago ten seats, Barbados five seats, Montserrat one seat, and the remaining islands two seats each.", "However the government (executive) would be a Council of State, not a Cabinet. It would be presided over by the Governor-General and consist of the Prime Minister and ten other officials.\n\nThe West Indies Federation did not have independent sources of revenue (relying instead on a mandatory levy on the islands), and did not establish any agreements on a customs union, free trade and free movement.", "Federal Supreme Court", "There was also a Federal Supreme Court consisting of a Chief Justice and three (later five) other Justices", ". The Federal Supreme Court itself was the successor to the West Indian Court of Appeal (established in 1919) and had jurisdiction over the same territories (Barbados, British Guiana, the Leeward Islands (including the British Virgin Islands), Trinidad & Tobago and the Windward Islands) in addition to Jamaica and its dependencies, except for British Honduras, as the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, which empowered the Privy Council to establish it", ", as the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, which empowered the Privy Council to establish it, also repealed the enactment which allowed for appeals from the British Honduras Supreme Court to the Privy Council or the Supreme Court of Jamaica, namely the British Honduras (Court of Appeal) Act 1881", ". (The arrangement for appeals to the Supreme Court of Jamaica had generally ceased in 1911 anyway.)", "Sir Stanley Eugene Gomes, Chief Justice of Trinidad and Tobago, was appointed Chief Justice of the Federation in August 1961.", "Proposed and de facto capital", "Three member states were proposed as hosts for the capital city of the federation: Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago. Earlier in the federal negotiations the general opinion had been that the capital should be one of the smaller islands so that the capital would be in a neutral position to the larger territories and it would be able to inject some buoyancy into one of the (then) poorer economies", ". To this end, Grenada was tentatively selected as the member state to host the capital but this was abandoned after protests from some of the parties involved, and at the London Conference the smaller islands were ruled out for consideration. Within Trinidad and Tobago the first proposed site was Chaguaramas, a few miles west of Port of Spain, but the site was part of a United States naval base. In practice, Port of Spain served as the de facto federal capital for the duration of the federation's existence", ".", "Elections", "In preparation for the first federal elections, two Federation-wide parties were organised as confederations of local political parties. Both were organised by Jamaican politicians: the West Indies Federal Labour Party by Norman Manley, and the Democratic Labour Party by Alexander Bustamante. In broad terms, the WIFLP consisted of the urban-based parties throughout the Federation, while the DLP consisted of the rural-based parties", ". A small third party, the Federal Democratic Party was founded in November 1957 by a group of Trinidadians, although it did not win any seats.", "The platforms for the two major national parties were similar in many respects. Both advocated maintaining and strengthening ties with the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada (countries with which the islands had strong cultural and economic links); encouraging and expanding tourism; working to bring British Guiana and British Honduras into the Federation and to obtain loans, financial aid, and technical assistance. Despite these similarities, there were differences", ". Despite these similarities, there were differences. The WIFLP had advocated the encouragement of agriculture while the DLP had promised a climate favourable to both private industry and labour, development of human and economic resources. The WIFLP promised to encourage the Bahamas (in addition to British Guiana and British Honduras) to join the Federation, whereas the DLP did not", ". The WIFLP also campaigned to establish a central bank for the extension of credit resources and advocated a democratic socialist society and full internal self-government for all the unit territories, whilst avoiding the issues of freedom of movement and a customs union. The DLP said nothing about full internal self-government, attacked socialism, wished to avoid high taxation (via loans and technical aid) and emphasized West Indian unity, freedom of worship and speech, and encouragement of trade unions.", "Federal elections were held on 25 March 1958. The WIFLP won the election, winning 26 seats while the DLP carried 19 seats. The bulk of the WIFLP seats came from the smaller islands while the DLP carried the majority in Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago. The DLP won 11 of the Jamaican seats and 6 of the Trinidadian seats", ". The DLP won 11 of the Jamaican seats and 6 of the Trinidadian seats. In appointing the Senate, Governor General Lord Hailes realized that only the St Vincent island government was DLP controlled and as a result the Senate was going to be disproportionately pro WIFLP. In a controversial decision, he contacted the opposition DLP groups in Jamaica and Trinidad, and appointed one DLP senator from each of those islands. Thus the Senate consisted of a total of 15 WIFLP members and 4 DLP members.", "WIFLP leader Sir Grantley Adams of Barbados became Prime Minister. The selection of Adams as the Prime Minister was indicative of the problems the Federation would face. The expected leader of the WIFLP was Norman Manley, Premier of Jamaica, and the next logical choice was Dr Eric Williams, Premier of Trinidad and Tobago. However, neither had contested the Federal elections, preferring to remain in control of their respective island power bases", ". This suggested that the leaders of the two most important provinces did not see the Federation as viable. Similarly, Alexander Bustamante, the Jamaican founder of the DLP, also declined to contest the Federal election, leaving the party leadership to the Trinidadian Ashford Sinanan. The absence of the leading Jamaican politicians from any role at the federal level was to undermine the Federation's unity.", "Other members of the Council of State included:\nDeputy Prime Minister and Minister of Trade and Industry: Carl La Corbiniere (St Lucia)\nMinister of Finance: Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw (St Kitts)\nMinister of Communications and Works: Wilfred Andrew Rose (Trinidad and Tobago)\nMinister of Natural Resources and Agriculture: Frank Ricketts (Jamaica)\nMinister of Labour and Social Affairs: Phyllis Byam Shand Allfrey (Dominica)", "Minister of Labour and Social Affairs: Phyllis Byam Shand Allfrey (Dominica)\nMinisters without Portfolio: Novelle Richards (Antigua), Victor Vaughn (Barbados), Allan Byfield (Jamaica), James Liburd (St Kitts), and James Luc Charles (St Lucia)", "Government services\nThe Federation also had a number of units deemed to be common services for the entire federation, these were:\nThe Federal Shipping Service\nThe Federal Supreme Court\nThe University College of the West Indies\nThe West Indies Meteorological Service\nWest India Regiment", "Federal problems\nThe politics of the embryonic Federation were wrecked by struggles between the federal government and the provincial governments, and between the two largest provinces (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago) and the smaller provinces.", "The West Indies Federation had an unusually weak federal structure. For instance, its provinces were not contained in a single customs union. Thus, each province functioned as a separate economy, complete with tariffs, largely because the smaller provinces were afraid of being overwhelmed by the large islands' economies. Also, complete freedom of movement within the Federation was not implemented, as the larger provinces were worried about mass migration from the smaller islands.", "Jamaica, the largest member of the West Indies Federation, opposed plans to establish a customs union and to increase the ability of the federal government to levy taxes.", "Adom Getachew writes that relations between minority groups, such as the descendants of East Indians (which were a large share of the populations of Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana), and the majority population of Afro-West Indians were a source of tension in the West Indies Federation. For example, Guyana rejected the West Indies Federation in part because it lacked sufficient protections for ethnic minorities.", "There were tensions between those who wanted a strong federal state (capable of undertaking major economic development projects and redistribution) and those who wanted a federal structure that gave each member substantial autonomy. Eric Williams was a strong advocate for a strong federal state. Critics in Jamaica were opposed to any redistributive schemes that would primarily lead to Jamaica providing grants to the smaller islands", ". There were also some concerns about unequal development and its impact on areas with less competitive industries which wanted protectionist measures within the federation.", "In addition, the federal government could not take its component states to task. The initial federal budget was quite small, limiting the federal government's ability to use its financial largess as a carrot. It was dependent upon grants from the United Kingdom and from its member states. The provincial budgets of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago were both larger than the federal budget. This led to repeated requests for those states to provide greater financing to the federal government", ". These requests were not well received, as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago together already contributed 85 percent of the federal revenue, in roughly equal portions.", "Furthermore, the office of the Prime Minister was a weak one. Unlike other Westminster systems with Prime Ministers, the West Indian Federation's PM could not dissolve Parliament.\n\nRelationship with Canada", "Relationship with Canada\n\nThe Federation maintained a particularly close relationship with Canada, which had a similar past as a federation of several former British colonies. In the early years, several Caribbean leaders suggested that the West Indies Federation should investigate the possibility of becoming a Canadian province.", "Despite the breakdown in talks, in May 1961, Canada presented the West Indies Federation with two of the region's most important gifts: two merchant ships, named The Federal Palm and The Federal Maple. These two vessels visited every island in the federation twice monthly, providing a crucial sea-link between the islands.", "Dissolution", "Many reasons have been put forward to explain the demise of the federation", ". These include the lack of local popular support, competing insular nationalism, the weakness of the federal government, prohibitions on federal taxation and freedom of movement, inadequacies in the Federal constitution, fundamental changes made to the constitution very early in its existence, political feuds between the influential leaders, the decision of the three most influential politicians not to contest Federal elections, friction between these leaders and the Federal government", ", friction between these leaders and the Federal government, the overwhelming concentration of population and resources in the two largest units, geographic and cultural distance between the units, the lack of a history of common administration, and the impact of the period of self-government that followed the promotion from Crown Colony system", ".", "However, the immediate catalyst for the dissolution of the Federation was Jamaican discontent. By 1961, there were a number of reasons for Jamaica's dissatisfaction with the state of affairs:", "Jamaica's share of the seats in the federal parliament was smaller than its share of the total population of the Federation.\nIt was believed that the smaller islands would be a drain on Jamaica's wealth – the financial rewards of the island's bauxite were beginning to roll in.\nJamaica was somewhat isolated in distance from the other islands.\nInter-island rivalry.\nMany Jamaicans were upset that Kingston had not been chosen as the federal capital.", "The most important reason for Jamaican dissatisfaction was the Federation's continuing colonial status. Jamaica had joined the Federation because its leaders had believed that the West Indies would quickly be granted independence. Nearly three years after the formation of the Federation, this had not occurred; meanwhile, smaller British colonies, like Cyprus and Sierra Leone, had gained independence. Thus, many Jamaicans believed that the island could and should seek independence in its own right.", "There were also problems with the Federation's proposed capital in Chaguaramas, at that time still in the hands of the United States (having leased it as a naval base from the United Kingdom during World War II). Many of the Caribbean provincial leaders wanted Chaguaramas to be the Federation's capital. Provincial leaders such as Norman Manley of Jamaica and Eric Williams pushed for handing over of Chaguaramas to the Federation from the US", ". However the US and the UK disagreed and the Federation's Prime Minister Grantley Adams stopped the provincial leaders from obtaining Chaguaramas. For many Jamaicans it appeared that the Federation would then just hamper their development and movement towards independence.", "As a result, the Bustamante-led Jamaica Labour Party (the local component of the West Indian DLP) successfully forced Manley to hold a referendum in September 1961 on political secession from the Federation. The result was 54% in favour of leaving the Federation, despite the opposition of Manley, the province's Chief Minister at the time. Manley himself lost the subsequent island elections in April 1962, and Bustamante became the first Prime Minister of an independent Jamaica on 6 August 1962.", "After Jamaica left, there was an attempt to salvage a new federation from the wreckage of the old. Much depended on Premier Williams of Trinidad and Tobago, who had stated previously that he wanted a \"strong federation\". Premier Vere Bird of Antigua responded that his province would only be in a federation with Trinidad as an equal partner, not as \"a little Tobago\". He did indicate that a strong federation was acceptable provided that no attempt was made to create a unitary state.", "Negotiations on this new federation began in September 1961; however, they indicated that Trinidad would have to provide 75 to 80 percent of the new Federation's revenue. Also, even though Trinidad would now represent 60 percent of the new Federation's population, the proposals under consideration would give it less than half of the seats in parliament.", "By November, Williams indicated that he was now in favour of the idea of a unitary state. Failing that, he resolved to take Trinidad and Tobago into independence. In this, he was buoyed by his re-election as Trinidadian leader on 4 December 1961. Later that December, Premier Errol Barrow of Barbados met with Williams, but failed to persuade him to keep Trinidad in the Federation.", "On January 14, 1962, the People's National Movement (the Williams-led Trinidad component of the WIFLP) passed a resolution rejecting any further involvement with the Federation. Williams himself stated that \"one from ten leaves nought\"—in other words, without Jamaica, no Federation was possible. Trinidad and Tobago became independent on August 31, 1962.", "Without Trinidad and Jamaica, the remaining \"Little Eight\" attempted to salvage some form of a West Indian Federation, this time centred on Barbados. However, these negotiations ultimately proved fruitless. Without its two largest states, the Federation was doomed to financial insolvency. Barbados now refused to shoulder the financial burden, and Antigua and Grenada began toying with the idea of merging with Jamaica and Trinidad, respectively.\n\nUK/West Indies Associated States (WIAS)", "UK/West Indies Associated States (WIAS) \n\nThe West Indies Federation was legally dissolved with the Parliament of the United Kingdom's West Indies Act 1962. The remaining \"Little Eight\" provinces once again became separate colonies supervised directly from London, most of which became independent later on, as follows:\nBarbados – 1966\nGrenada – 1974\nDominica – 1978\nSaint Lucia – 1979\nSt Vincent and the Grenadines – 1979\nAntigua and Barbuda – 1981\nSaint Kitts and Nevis – 1983", "Montserrat remains an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. The Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands had been separated from Jamaica upon the latter's independence in 1962; Anguilla was separated from Saint Kitts and Nevis in 1980. All three remain UK territories as well.", "Legacy\nThe federation's currency was the West Indies dollar (though Jamaica continued to use the pound), which was later succeeded by the East Caribbean dollar, the Barbadian dollar, and the Trinidad and Tobago dollar. Successor organisations included the West Indies Associated States and CARICOM.", "The Federal Supreme Court would also be succeed by a British Caribbean Court of Appeal (1962–1966) and then a West Indies Associated States Supreme Court (Court of Appeal and High Court) (1967–1980) and ultimately by an Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal and Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court in 1981 for the OECS", ". More recently a Caribbean Court of Justice has been established which would also fulfil the role of the original Supreme Court if all CSME members accede to the court's appellate jurisdiction (currently Barbados, Belize and Guyana do so).", "Some see the West Indies cricket team as a legacy of the Federation, although the side was actually organised thirty years prior to the birth of the federation.", "Another lasting regional fixture, officially created before the Federation, is the University of the West Indies. During the Federation, the university pursued a policy of regional expansion beyond the main Jamaica campus. Two other campuses were established: one in Trinidad and Tobago, established in 1960, and one in Barbados, established a short time after the Federation dissolved in 1963", ". Since 2004, the West Indies Federal Archives Centre has been located on the university's Cave Hill campus in Barbados.", "Music\nDuring that period, many calypsos made reference to the Federation of the West Indies, first expressing hope, then frustration as the process collapsed.", "Stamps", "During the Federation's existence, each member continued to issue its own postage stamps as before; but on 22 April 1958, each of the members (except for the Cayman Islands) issued a set of three commemorative stamps. All of these stamps used a common design depicting a map of the Caribbean and a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, with an inscription reading \"THE WEST INDIES / FEDERATION 1958\" at the top and the name of the member state at the bottom", ". These stamps are quite common in both mint and used condition.", "Prior attempts at federation\nThe Federation of the West Indies was not the first attempt at a British Caribbean federation. The history of the previous attempts at federations and unions, in part, explains the failure of the 1958 Federation.", "The initial federal attempts never went so far as to try to encompass all of the British West Indies (BWI), but were more regional in scope. The historical regional groupings included the British Leeward Islands, British Windward Islands and Jamaica with its nearby former dependencies. See: History of the British West Indies.", "See also\nGovernor-General of the West Indies Federation\nPrime Minister of the West Indies Federation\n1961 Jamaican Federation of the West Indies membership referendum\nHistory of the Caribbean\nCanada-Caribbean relations\nCARICOM\nCricket in the West Indies\nFederation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland - another contemporaneous attempt at federation\nEast African Federation - a current attempt at federation\nDissolution of the Netherlands Antilles (2010)\n\nFootnotes", "References\n Carmichael, Dr. Trevor A. 2001. Passport to the Heart: Reflections on Canada Caribbean Relations. Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston 6, Jamaica. The book's Forward passage, synopsis\n \n Fraser, Cary. 1994. Ambivalent anti-colonialism : the United States and the genesis of West Indian independence, 1940–1964. Greenwood Press\n Ghany, Dr Hamid 1996. Kamal: a Lifetime of Politics Religion and Culture Multimedia Production Centre, University of the West Indies.", "Gonsalves, Ralph E. 1994. History and the Future: A Caribbean Perspective. Quik-Print, Kingstown, St. Vincent.\n Hoyes, F. A. 1963. The Rise of West Indian Democracy: The Life and Times of Sir Grantley Adams. Advocate Press.\n Hurwitz, Samuel J. “The Federation of the West Indies: A Study in Nationalisms.” Journal of British Studies, 6#1 1966, pp. 139–168. online\n Mahabir, Dr Winston 1978 In and Out of Politics Inprint Caribbean.", "Mahabir, Dr Winston 1978 In and Out of Politics Inprint Caribbean.\n Mordecai, John, Sir. 1968. Federation of the West Indies Evanston, Northwestern University Press\n Wickham, P. W. 1997 \"Factors in the Integration and Disintegration of the Caribbean\" published as part of Issues in the Government and Politics of the West Indies, edited by J. G. LaGuerre, Multimedia Production Centre, University of the West Indies.", "Williams, Eric. 1964. British Historians and the West Indies. P.N.M. Publishing Company, Port of Spain.\n \n Nelson, Renee A. (4 July 2020). \"The West Indian Press and Public: Concepts of Regionalism and Federation, 1944–1946\". Journal of Caribbean History. 54 (1): 82–105.", "External links\n \n The British Monarch's website – On the Caribbean region\n West Indies Federal Archives Centre, at the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill Campus)\n Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat, The West Indies Federation\n The British Hansard Digitisation Project, British Parliament -- The Caribbean Federation Act 1956\n The British Government's Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) -- West Indies Act 1962 (c.19) -- UK Statute Law Database (SLD)", "Why 'Federation' really fell apart – Sunday, October 22, 2006: Trinidad and Tobago Express", "British West Indies\nHistory of the Caribbean\nIsland countries\nFormer British colonies and protectorates in the Americas\nFormer colonies in North America\nFormer countries in the Caribbean\nFormer confederations\nPolitics of the Caribbean\nProposed provinces and territories of Canada\nSeparatism in the United Kingdom\n1950s establishments in the Caribbean\n1958 establishments in North America\n1962 disestablishments in North America\n1958 establishments in the British Empire", "1962 disestablishments in North America\n1958 establishments in the British Empire\n1962 disestablishments in the British Empire\n20th-century disestablishments in the Caribbean\nStates and territories established in 1958\nStates and territories disestablished in 1962" ]

[ "The Taj Mahal (; ) is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the right bank of the river Yamuna in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was commissioned in 1631 by the fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan () to house the tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses the tomb of Shah Jahan himself. The tomb is the centrepiece of a complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall.", "Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643, but work continued on other phases of the project for another 10 years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million, which in would be approximately  billion. The construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahori, the emperor's court architect", ". Various types of symbolism have been employed in the Taj to reflect natural beauty and divinity.", "The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being \"the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage\". It is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and a symbol of India's rich history. The Taj Mahal attracts 7-8 million visitors a year, and in 2007 it was declared a winner of the New 7 Wonders of the World (2000–2007) initiative.", "Etymology \nAbdul Hamid Lahori, in his book from 1636 Padshahnama, refers to the Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara (Perso-Arabic: , rawdah-i munawwarah), meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb.\nThe current name for the Taj Mahal is of Urdu origin, and believed to be derived from Arabic and Persian, with the words tāj mahall meaning \"crown\" (tāj) \"palace\" (mahall). The name \"Taj\" came from the corruption of the second syllable of \"Mumtaz\".", "Inspiration", "The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died on 17 June that year, while giving birth to their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction started in 1632, and the mausoleum was completed in 1648, while the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. The imperial court documenting Shah Jahan's grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrates the love story held as the inspiration for the Taj Mahal", ". According to contemporary historians Muhammad Amin Qazvini, Abdul Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh, he did not show the same level of affection to others as he had shown her while she was alive. He avoided royal affairs for a week due to his grief, along with giving up listening to music and dressing lavishly for two years. Shah Jahan was enamored by the beauty of the land at the south side of Agra on which a mansion belonging to Raja Jai Singh I stood", ". This place was chosen for the construction of Mumtaz's tomb by Shah Jahan and Jai Singh agreed to donate it to the emperor.", "Architecture and design", "The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Indo-Islamic and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb which inspired the Charbagh gardens and hasht-behesht (architecture) plan of the site, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi", ". While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.", "Tomb \n\nThe tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Indo-Islamic in origin.", "The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building", ". Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.", "The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical \"drum\" it sits on, which is approximately high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height", ". The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. The dome is slightly asymmetrical. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome", ". The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.", "The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.", "The minarets, which are each more than tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minaretsa traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb", ". The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.", "Exterior decorations \nThe exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.", "Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that Amanat Khan chose the passages.", "The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads \"O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you.\" The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of \"Amanat Khan\" upon him as a reward for his \"dazzling virtuosity\". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, \"Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi\"", ". Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.", "Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles", ". White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.", "On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.", "Interior decoration", "The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about high and are topped by a \"false\" interior dome decorated with a sun motif", ". Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali a grill lattice cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners", ". The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in little detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.", "Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of . Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz", ". Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him", ". On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.", "The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include: O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious...", "... . The Tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads: He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri.", "Garden", "The complex is set around a large square charbagh or Mughal garden.\nThe garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four-quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the centre of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north–south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The elevated marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the \"Tank of Abundance\" promised to Muhammad.", "Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees labelled according to common and scientific names and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden", ".' In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.", "Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the centre. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or \"Moonlight Garden\" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise", ". Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India, and assumed management of the Taj Mahal", ". They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.", "Outlying buildings", "The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era", ". The garden-facing inner sides of the wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers like the Music House, which is now used as a museum.", "The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It uses bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.", "At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse", ". Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi", ". The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.", "Construction", "The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharaja Jai Singh I with a large palace in the centre of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at above the riverbank level. In the tomb area, piles were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb", ". Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen expected it to take years to dismantle.", "The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. Some 22,000 labourers, painters, embroidery artists and stonecutters were used. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from the Punjab region, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia", ". In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stone were inlaid into the white marble.", "According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A 15-kilometre (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of 20 or 30 oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into the desired position", ". An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into the desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.", "The plinth and tomb took some 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on \"completion\". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643 while work on the outlying buildings continued for years", ". Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost at the time has been estimated to be about 32 million, which is around 52.8 billion ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.", "Symbolism \nDue to the global attention that it has received and the millions of visitors it attracts, the Taj Mahal has become a prominent image that is associated with India, and in this way has become a symbol of India itself.", "Along with being a renowned symbol of love, the Taj Mahal is also a symbol of Shah Jahan's wealth and power, and the fact that the empire had prospered under his rule. Bilateral symmetry dominated by a central axis has been used by rulers as a symbol of a ruling force that brings balance and harmony, and Shah Jahan applied that concept in the making of the Taj Mahal", ". Additionally, the plan is aligned in the cardinal north–south direction and the corners have been placed so that when seen from the centre of the plan, the sun can be seen rising and setting on the north and south corners on the summer and winter solstices respectively. This makes the Taj a symbolic horizon.", "The planning and structure of the Taj Mahal, from the building itself to the gardens and beyond, is symbolic of Mumtaz Mahal's mansion in the garden of Paradise. The concept of Gardens of Paradise is extended into the building of the mausoleum as well. Colorful vines and flowers decorate the interior, and are filled in with semi-precious stones using a technique called pietra dura, or as the Mughals called it, parchin kari", ". The building appears to slightly change colour depending on the time of day and the weather. The sky has not only been incorporated in the design through the reflecting pools but also through the surface of the building itself. This is another way to imply the presence of Allah at the site.", "According to Ebba Koch, art historian and international expert in the understanding and interpretation of Mughal architecture and the Taj Mahal, the planning of the entire compound of the Taj symbolises earthly life and the afterlife, a subset of the symbolisation of the divine. The plan has been split into twoone half is the white marble mausoleum itself and the gardens, and the other half is the red sandstone side meant for worldly markets", ". Only the mausoleum is white so as to represent the enlightenment, spirituality and faith of Mumtaz Mahal. According to the world-traveler Eleanor Roosevelt, the white symbolised the purity of real love. Koch has deciphered that symbolic of Islamic teachings, the plan of the worldly side is a mirror image of the otherworldly side, and the grand gate in the middle represents the transition between the two worlds.", "The Taj is also seen as a feminine architectural form, and is thought to embody Mumtaz Mahal herself.", "Later days", "Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at the nearby Agra Fort from where he could see the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal. They took away the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph; they also took the gold and silver screen", ". Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoilation.", "By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time, the garden was remodelled with European-style lawns that are still in place today.\n\nThreats", "Threats \n\nIn 1942, the government erected scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffolding was again erected to mislead bomber pilots.", "More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of the Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow-brown. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the \"Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ)\", a area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.", "Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around per year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water", ". It has been pointed out by politicians, however, that the minarets are designed to tilt slightly outwards to prevent them from crashing on top of the tomb in the event of an earthquake. In 2011, it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within five years.", "Small minarets located at two of the outlying buildings were reported as damaged by a storm on 11 April 2018. On 31 May 2020 another fierce thunderstorm caused some damage to the complex.\n\nTourism", "The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, which had increased to about 7–8 million in 2014. A three-tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and more expensive ones for foreigners. , the fee for Indian citizens was 50, for citizens of SAARC and BIMSTEC countries, it was 540 and for other foreign tourists, it was 1,100", ". Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking areas or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor centre. In 2019, to address overtourism, the site instituted fines for visitors who stayed longer than three hours.", "The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was initially constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workers. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.", "The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 hours on weekdays, except on Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00 hours. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan.", "Foreign dignitaries often visit the Taj Mahal on trips to India. Notable figures who have travelled to the site include Dwight Eisenhower, Jacqueline Kennedy, Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George Harrison, Vladimir Putin, Princess Diana, Donald Trump, Justin Trudeau, Prince Charles, Queen Elizabeth, and Prince Philip.\n\nMyths", "Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665", ". It was suggested that his son Aurangzeb overthrew Shah Jahan before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in the Mehtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discoloured white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Mehtab Bagh", ". A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.", "No concrete evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings", ". Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.", "Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.", "Several myths, none of which are supported by the archaeological record, have appeared asserting that people other than Shah Jahan and the original architects were responsible for the construction of the Taj Mahal. For instance, in 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005, a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court", ". In 2005, a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who claimed that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmal Dev in 1196.", "Another such unsupported theory is that the Taj Mahal was designed by an Italian, Geronimo Vereneo, held sway for a brief period after it was first promoted by Henry George Keene in 1879 who went by a translation of a Spanish work Itinerario, (The Travels of Fray Sebastian Manrique, 1629–1643). Another theory that a Frenchman, Austin of Bordeaux designed the Taj was promoted by William Henry Sleeman based on the work of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier", ". These ideas were revived by Father Hosten and discussed again by E.B. Havell and served as the basis for subsequent theories and controversies.", "As of 2017, several court cases about Taj Mahal being a Hindu temple have been inspired by P. N. Oak's theory. In August 2017, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) stated there was no evidence to suggest the monument ever housed a temple. Bharatiya Janata Party's Vinay Katiyar in 2017 claimed that the 17th century monument was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan after destroying a Hindu temple called \"Tejo Mahalaya\" and it housed a Shiva linga", ". This claim had also been made by another BJP member Laxmikant Bajpai in 2014. The BJP government's Union Minister of Culture Mahesh Sharma stated in November 2015 during a session of the parliament, that there was no evidence that it was a temple. The theories about Taj Mahal being a Shiva temple started circulating when Oak released his 1989 book Taj Mahal: The True Story. He claimed it was built in 1155 AD and not in the 17th century, as stated by the ASI.", "Gallery\n\nSee also \n\n Architecture of India\n Bibi Ka Maqbara, a similar building in the Deccan, Aurangabad\n Fatehpur Sikri, a nearby city and World Heritage Site\n Islamic architecture\n Indo-Islamic architecture\n Inside, a 1968 new-age music album recorded in the building\n List of tallest domes\n List of tallest structures built before the 20th century\n New 7 Wonders of the World\n Taj Mahal replicas and derivatives\n Wonders of the World\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nGeneral sources", "References\n\nCitations\n\nGeneral sources \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Havell, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture: Its Psychology, Structure and History, John Murray.\n\nExternal links \n\n of the Taj Mahal\n Description of the Taj Mahal at the Archaeological Survey of India\n Profile of the Taj Mahal at UNESCO", "1654 establishments in the Mughal Empire\nArticles containing video clips\nBuildings and structures completed in 1654\nBuildings and structures in Agra\nDomes\nMarble buildings\nMausoleums in Uttar Pradesh\nMughal tombs\nMughal gardens in India\nPersian gardens in India\nTombs in India\nTourism in India\nTourism in Uttar Pradesh\nTourist attractions in Agra\nWorld Heritage Sites in India" ]

[ "Rebecca \"Becky\" Sharp, later describing herself as Rebecca, Lady Crawley, is the main protagonist of William Makepeace Thackeray's 1847–48 novel Vanity Fair. She is presented as a cynical social climber who uses her charms to fascinate and seduce upper-class men. This is in contrast with the clinging, dependent Amelia Sedley, her friend from school. Becky then uses Amelia as a stepping stone to gain social position", ". Becky then uses Amelia as a stepping stone to gain social position. Sharp functions as a picara—a picaresque heroine—by being a social outsider who is able to expose the manners of the upper gentry to ridicule.", "The book—and Sharp's career—begins in a traditional manner of Victorian fiction, that of a young orphan (Sharp) with no source of income who has to make her own way in the world. Thackeray twisted the Victorian tradition, however, and quickly turned her into a young woman who knew what she wanted from life—fine clothes, money and a social position—and knew how to get them", ". The route was to be by marriage, and the novel follows Sharp's efforts at snaring a wealthy, but simple, husband, and being outdone by fate in her attempt. Eventually, she achieves her aims, but her husband catches her with a member of the aristocracy", ". Eventually, she achieves her aims, but her husband catches her with a member of the aristocracy. Finding herself in Brussels during the Waterloo campaign, as the mistress of a British general, she in no way shares in the alarm felt by other Britons; to the contrary, she soberly makes a contingency plan—should the French win, she would strive to attach herself to one of Napoleon's marshals.", "It is probable that Thackeray based the Becky Sharp character on real women. A number of historical figures have been proposed, and it is generally considered that Sharp is a composite of them. Sharp has been portrayed on stage and in films and television many times, and has been the subject of much scholarly debate on issues ranging from 19th-century social history, Victorian fashions, female psychology and gendered fiction.\n\nContext", "Context\n\nRebecca Sharp—generally known as Becky—is the main character in Thackeray's satirical novel, Vanity Fair: A Novel without a Hero, which was published incrementally between 1847 and 1848. Thackeray wished to counter the prevailing belief in society that it was impossible for women to create a fashionable self-image.", "Set in high regency society at the time of the Waterloo Campaign—in which three of the main male characters go to fight—the book is a \"vast satirical panorama of materialist society\" and an early work of the realist school. A comedic and semi-historical novel, Vanity Fair brought its author immediate renown on its 1847 publication.", "According to 19th-century literary norms, the book's heroine should have been the upper-class Amelia Sedley; Thackeray, though, ensures that she is outshone by the lower-class Becky Sharp throughout. Sedley is a \"dull and colourless foil\"; she has all the positive traits that Sharp lacks, yet these bring her none of the benefits that Sharp experiences. Structurally, Amelia and Becky are joint-main characters, but as John P", ". Structurally, Amelia and Becky are joint-main characters, but as John P. Frazee points out, readers instinctively identify the latter as the sole protagonist due to her energy and forcefulness, while Amelia's colourlessness pushes her into the background.", "Sharp is shown to be continually on the lookout for a wealthy but simple husband who will indulge her while turning a blind eye to her associations. The book traces hers and Amelia's respective paths in life, from the finishing school where they first meet, through their marriages, to their respective middle age.", "Synopsis", "The story is framed as a puppet show taking place at an 1814 London fair and is narrated by a highly unreliable master of ceremonies who repeats gossip at second or third hand. Vanity Fair tells the story of Rebecca (\"Becky\") Sharp, the orphaned daughter of an English art teacher and a French dancer. She is a strong-willed, cunning, and moneyless young woman determined to make her way in society", ". She is a strong-willed, cunning, and moneyless young woman determined to make her way in society. After leaving school, Becky stays with Amelia (\"Emmy\") Sedley, the good-natured and ingenuous daughter of a wealthy London family.", "At Amelia's house, Becky meets the dashing and self-obsessed Captain George Osborne — actually engaged to Amelia — and Amelia's brother Joseph (\"Jos\") Sedley, a clumsy and vainglorious but rich civil servant home from the East India Company. Hoping to marry Sedley, the richest young man she has met, Becky entices him, but she fails. Osborne's friend, Captain William Dobbin, loves Amelia, but, putting her happiness first, does not attempt to compete with Osborne", ". Sharp goes into service with the crude and profligate baronet Sir Pitt Crawley, as governess to his daughters; she soon gains his favour. Sir Pitt's wife dies and he proposes to Becky. By then, though, she has married his son, Rawdon, which she soon regrets.", "News arrives that Napoleon has escaped from Elba, and the stock market crashes, bankrupting Amelia's father. George's rich father forbids George to marry Amelia, because she is now poor. Dobbin persuades George to marry Amelia; George is disinherited. George, Dobbin and Rawdon are despatched to Brussels for the campaign. Osborne, tiring of Amelia, grows attracted to Becky.", "At the Duchess of Richmond's ball in Brussels, Becky embarrasses Amelia by making snide remarks about the quality of the latter's frock; meanwhile, the army receives marching orders to Waterloo. The battle can be heard from Brussels, but Becky is indifferent to the result, making plans for whoever wins (for example, if Napoleon wins, she decides, she intends to become the mistress of one of his marshals). Osborne is killed, while Dobbin and Rawdon survive", ". Osborne is killed, while Dobbin and Rawdon survive. Amelia lives in genteel poverty caring for their son.", "Becky also has a son, to whom she is cold and distant, being far more interested in first Paris and then London society where she meets the wealthy Marquis of Steyne, by whom she is eventually presented at court to the Prince Regent. She charms Steyne at a game of \"acting charades\" where she plays the roles of Clytemnestra and Philomela. This point is the peak of Becky's social success, but Rawdon is arrested for debt, possibly at Becky's connivance", ". Steyne had given Becky money, jewels, and other gifts, but she makes no effort to free her husband.", "When Rawdon is released, he finds Becky entertaining Steyne, whom Rawdon beats up, assuming the two to be having an affair. Steyne is indignant, having assumed the £1,000 he had just given Becky was part of an arrangement with her husband. Rawdon finds Becky's hidden bank records and leaves her, expecting Steyne to challenge him to a duel. Instead, Steyne arranges for Rawdon to be made Governor of Coventry Island, a pest-ridden location", ". Instead, Steyne arranges for Rawdon to be made Governor of Coventry Island, a pest-ridden location. Becky, having lost both husband and credibility, leaves England and wanders the continent, leaving her son in care.", "Amelia, Jos, George and Dobbin go to the fictional Pumpernickel (based on Weimar, Germany), where they find Becky destitute. She lives among card sharps and con artists, drinking heavily and gambling. Becky enchants Jos Sedley all over again, and Amelia is persuaded to let Becky join them. Becky decides that Amelia should marry Dobbin, notwithstanding that Dobbin is Becky's nemesis, the only person to ever see through her before it is too late", ". Amelia and Dobbin return to England, while Becky and Jos stay in France. Jos dies in suspicious circumstances — likely poisoned — shortly after signing much of his wealth to Becky, giving her an income. She returns to England and lives as a demi-mondaine. Her former associates refuse to have anything to do with her.", "Character \nFor much of the book, due to her lower-class origins, Sharp is not treated as a social equal to her associates, who are at least middle if not upper class. She is \"notoriously immoral\" — indeed, according to one commentator, she is the \"embodiment of moral transgression\"—with a \"ruthless determination ... but unfailing good temper\". Her energy repeatedly creates a \"whirlwind\" around her.", "Sharp \"manages to cheat, steal and lie without getting caught by the agents of social, moral and economic order who pursue her\", which she does by creating for herself a new set of circumstances each time. This makes her \"dangerous\", in contemporary eyes, says Montz, and Sharp plays many such discrete roles throughout the book. However, each time she reinvents herself in order to overcome the next adversity, her previous reputation always catches up with her. Jennifer Hedgecock has commented that:", "Origins, appearance and personality", "Born in Soho, Becky Sharp is the daughter of an impoverished English artist and a French \"opera girl\" — possibly a prostitute — and is thus half-French herself. To the English in the novel, her English ancestry is invisible; to them, she is wholly a Frenchwoman", ". She appears to have loved her father: Thackeray tells how, as a girl, she would sit with him \"and [hear] the talk of many of his wild companions — often but ill-suited for a girl to hear\", and when he dies Sharp misses both his companionship and the freedom that she had living with him.", "Sharp is a \"flamboyant coquette\" with bright green eyes. She is waif-like and attractive although not necessarily beautiful. A picara, she has talents for, and enjoyment of, acting, and is an excellent mimic. She has been described as \"ever-adaptable\" with a will to live and a vitality. However, she is also a duplicitous trickster, — \"an outlaw, female insubordination personified\", says Marion Meade — with an aggressive streak in her, who, however, never loses her femininity", ". She also has, says the Narrator, \"wit, cleverness and flippancy\", and a gift for \"fun and mimicry\".", "Sharp is, says Harold Bloom, \"famously a bad woman, selfish and endlessly designing, rarely bothered by a concern for truth, morals, or the good of the community.\" E. M. Forster describes Sharp as being \"on the make\"; for example, when she first sees Amelia's brother Jos, who is a revenue collector for the East India Company in Calcutta, she immediately asks Amelia whether he is very rich, because, \"they say all Indian Nabobs are enormously rich\".", "She is obsessed by money; unlike Amelia, who thinks that £2,000 () will last her a lifetime, Sharp thinks that nothing less than £5,000 () a year would be sufficient. Sharp's selfishness is even more highlighted when her husband is preparing to leave on the Waterloo campaign; she is more concerned that he has protected her income in case he is killed than over the risk to his life. Her subsequent attempt at appearing sorrowful at his departure is unrealistic to both her husband and the reader", ". The only time she cries for real is when she learns she could have married Sir Pitt Crawley, rather than, as she did, his son, whose fortunes were far less prosperous. \"Her financial gains are always achieved through the exploitation of the affections of others\", wrote Ulrich Knoepflmacher; Sharp understood, very early on, that sentiment is a profitable commodity and one to be used and disposed of when circumstances demanded it.", "Sharp knows what an English lady should look like, and her impersonation is impeccable: \"dressed in white, with bare shoulders as white as snow—the picture of youth, unprotected innocence and humble virgin simplicity\". She understands the power that a fashionable appearance brings; \"and revels in it\", says Montz; thus she deliberately stages tableaux and parlour games in order to take centre stage, and as an excuse to dress even more flamboyantly", ". Her English companions consider her obsession with fashionable clothes the product of her French blood. Clothes, though, for Sharp, are an essential tool; they enable her to blend in with her upper-class associates. Sharp's \"desire for fashion and worldliness\" is in tune with the snobbish affectations—which she emulates—and hypocrisies of English society, which she identifies immediately", ". She is, however, sufficiently socially adaptable as to be able to blend in with the Bohemians she later meets in Germany.", "Career", "Educated at Miss Pinkerton's Academy, Sharp was an orphan. With no parents to guide her, either towards a good marriage or a career, she set out on her own to take what she could get from life. Her opening scene has her leaving the academy in a coach and throwing her copy of Johnson's Dictionary — given her by Miss Pinkerton — out of the window as she goes. As a penniless young lady of marriageable age alone in the world, hers is a traditional Burneyean entrance to the adult world", ". She starts on her career with the degenerate English gentry, and moves in with Sir Pitt Crawley as governess to his daughters.", "Sharp is dissatisfied, seeing herself as capable of far greater things: \"in her imagination ... the princess de jure is only the governess de facto\". She ends up in a more equal relationship with Crawley, who was described by Roger B. Henkle as \"rascally, wenching, brawling ... drinks to all hours with Horrocks the Butler and smells of the stables\".", "She makes herself indispensable to the soon-to-be-widowed Sir Pitt as his amanuensis, by doing his accounts and other paperwork. Partly due to this reliance on her, he proposes marriage after his second wife dies. She soon, however, realises the limitations of Crawley's position, and moves out when invited to London by Crawley's rich half-sister.", "She successfully insinuates herself into the British ruling class with almost nobody noticing", ". When she first meets Mr Sedley, she tells him her story, of her penniless orphanhood and he gives her gifts; the only character who ever sees through her now well-to-do English facade is Dobbin, who says to himself, \"what a humbug that woman is!\" Sharp's debut is at the Duchess of Richmond's ball, held on 15 June 1815 in Brussels, which celebrates the Duke of Wellington's army on the eve of the Battle of Quatre Bras against the exiled Napoleon who has returned to France and raised an army", ". However, she had no means of transport to the ball, and eventually only manages to travel by simpering to the owner of the only carriage available and flattering him over \"the courage he does not possess\". The ball is a perfect opportunity for Sharp to dress up in her finest, offset against the glamour of a military campaign and the presence of an entire officer corp", ". Compared to Amelia Sedley — whose own appearance there is described as being an abject failure — Sharp's \"debut was, on the contrary, very brilliant. She arrived very late. Her face was radiant; her dress perfection\". In Brussels, everyone is panicking due to the proximity of Napoleon's army and the unexpected arrival of the French King, Louis XVIII of France into Brussels exile, yet Sharp's main interest is in humiliating Amelia at the ball over her — in Sharp's eyes — poor quality gown.", "Soon after, Jos wants to propose to Sharp, but he loses his nerve and subsequently disappears — escaping back to Calcutta — and by the time he eventually does propose, comments Knoepflmacher, \"both Becky Sharp and our attitude toward her have moved on\". Meanwhile, for Sharp, \"he has become her last straw, not her first\". Rawdon and Sharp have wed and have a son, also named Rawdon, but his role in her life is more in the manner of being a prop for Sharp to demonstrate her marital bliss", ". She makes her sitting room a salon — with \"ice and coffee ... the best there is in London — where she can be surrounded by admirers, among whom she ranks men of a \"small but elite crowd\". It is no surprise, suggests Frazee, that Sharp eventually meets the King — who had been regent, now George IV— and in his \"high presence Mrs Rawdon passed her examination, and as it were, took her degree in reputation\" from him: the King, suggests Thackeray, had created the very conditions which allowed Sharp to flourish", ".", "Sharp's marriage to Rawdon Crawley is a major step up the social ladder, although, comments Bloom, this \"ladder was a magic one and could withdraw itself at will\". When her husband is arrested and held for a £100 debt, she writes to him from bed, insisting that she is doing everything in her power to release her \"pauvre prisonnier\". When he finally returns, finding her with Lord Steyne, he complains that she has not left him even £100 to take with him", ". Sharp was not sleeping with Steyne; rather, she reckoned that she needed what she calls a \"moral sheepdog\", and that that was to be Steyne. Rawdon was mistaken: she was further ingratiating herself with Steyne as a stepping-stone to reaching the pinnacle of English society.", "Sharp finishes her days self-styling herself the Lady Crawley, a demi-mondaine living in penury in Curzon Street. Lisa Jadwin has described the book as ending \"on a note of malignant irresolution\". Sharp's fate is, to some degree ambiguous, and it is possible that Thackeray pastiches the classic Victorian novel's denouement in which the heroine makes a \"death-in-life renunciation of worldly pleasures\"—or the guise of one. Ulrich Knoepflmacher summarised Becky's experience:", "Love life\nAmelia Sedley's husband, George Osborne, wants to seduce Sharp: he too fails to see through Sharp's projected image, \"blinded by Becky's constructed self\". Sharp has sexual adventures, but Thackeray never makes the connection between Sharp's sexual relationships and rise in social status explicit.", "For Becky Sharp, sexuality and femininity are primarily tools with which to improve her social and financial position in both the short- and long-term. She is unmotivated, says Claudia Nelson, \"by either heart or libido\". Sharp herself comments, early in the book that \"she never had been a girl ... she had been a woman since she was eight years old.\" Any capacity for love she does possess is narcissistic, and similarly, she puts her financial and social advancement before motherhood.\n\nReception\n\nCritical", "Mid-Victorian literature was still somewhat orientated towards \"young ladies' literature\" where the readership was morally sensitive. Thackeray took a degree of risk in presenting a character such as Sharp, says Michael Schmidt, but he remained within boundaries, and whilst he was satirical, he broke no taboos. Sharp, then, was a new phenomenon in Victorian fiction, which until Vanity Fair knew only of insipid heroines bound by convention or Smollett-esque grotesques", ". Amelia herself was one of the former, but Sharp was an original creation. Sharp has been called a \"love to hate her and hate to love her\" character, and this was radically different from previous representations of young women in literature. Thackeray has been described as \"radical\" in making his heroine(s) not only female, but also one of them conventionally wicked in character yet sympathetic to the audience.", "Sharp's way of intruding her life into that of others has led to comparisons by one scholar to other Victorian literary characters. Both Joseph Conrad's Mr Vladmir in The Secret Agent, and in a comic rather than serious setting, Trollope's Mr Slope in Barchester Towers, play similar roles. In a modern sense what made her dangerous to contemporary eyes was her ambition; women did not, in nineteenth-century England, climb the social ladder—at least, not in an obvious manner.", "That Sharp survives, and at times, thrives, despite her moral ambiguity indicates that Thackeray believed society was no longer able to cure wrongdoing. Sharp was, according to Hughes, \"a measure of how debased society had come\". Sharp's machinations can only work within the world of Vanity Fair — and Victorian society more broadly — because vanity and artificiality make it susceptible to her", ". Another plot device favoured by Victorian writers was that of children playing adult roles in society, and vice versa, and Sharp's comment that she had not been a girl since she was eight years' old has led to her being identified as one such \"child-woman\".", "Vanity Fair was the first major novel to have a governess, whether a heroine or an anti-heroine, as its main character. They had always been in the background, but Sharp was the first time a governess' ambitions to break out of her limited society were placed centre stage", ". Sharp's orphan status reflected a common theme in writers of the period; as Kathryn Hughes notes, for Emily Morton from Amy Herbert, Charlotte Brontë's eponymous character from Jane Eyre, and Jane Fairfax from Emma, their positions as orphans are central to the books' subsequent plots. Similarly central are their roles as governesses, but whereas for Emily and the two Janes it symbolised class distinctions and the gap between the governess and her employers, for Sharp it was a means of role reversal.", "Unlike Jane Eyre, Sharp is aware of the ways of the world from a very young age. Henkle suggests that Sharp, with her carefree and radical approach to social barriers, is symbolic of the change that Victorian society was undergoing in the mid-19th century. There was greater fluidity than ever before as a result of the massively increased wealth among the middle class as a result of the Industrial Revolution, and this fluidity allowed the courtesan to flourish in the Regency era.", "The events portrayed in Vanity Fair are described by narration, but the narrator is uninterested in Sharp's thoughts, only her actions. For example, when she goes to bed wondering whether Jos will call on her the next morning, the very next sentence informs us that he did. What Sharp thought, in the meantime, is deemed irrelevant to the reader's enjoyment and understanding of the novel", ". However, although the Narrator repeatedly draws attention to Sharp's immoralities, he does recognise that her behaviour reflects the hypocrisy of the world — \"that has, perhaps, no particular objection to vice, but an insuperable repugnance to hearing vice called by its proper name\"", ". Writes Montz, \"Becky Sharp is artificial because she chooses to be so: the reader never sees any sign that there is a real Becky beneath the facade of the performer, the flirtatious lover, the good wife, the social climber, the capricious friend\". Such women as Sharp, writes Frazee, contributed \"nearly as much to the pungent flavour of the period as did the regent himself\".", "Margaret Atwood has praised Sharp as a character, writing how she \"makes no pretensions to goodness. She is wicked, she enjoys being wicked, and she does it out of vanity and her own profit, tricking and deluding English society in the process\". She compares Sharp to Edith Wharton's Undine Spragg in The Custom of the Country: both live on their wits \"and use men as ambulatory bank accounts\", although the latter did not have the spirit or sense of humour that Sharp is portrayed with", ". More personally, suggests Henkle, to Thackeray himself she represented the power of the artist and the writer, in how she overcomes obstacles to achieve her aims. Her entire career, says F. M. Salter, is \"one supreme irony\", and Patricia Marks suggests that Becky, although a rounded character, remains \"nothing without her finery\", and compared with her, the other characters appear \"tattered\".", "Commentator Heather L. Braun describes Becky at the end of the novel as akin to a Rhine maiden, a Clytemnestra: \"she has become 'an apparition' that 'glides' rather than walks into a room; her hair 'floats' around her pale face, framing a 'ghastly expression' that elicits fear and trembling in those who look upon her\". Braun compares Becky's wanderings around Europe to the toils of Circe.", "Popular", "Thackeray personally disapproved of Sharp's behaviour, and contemporaries would have understood how, from Sharp's actions, she was a bad woman. However, their judgement would be based as much on actual expectations of real social morality as on what they read in Thackeray's pages. More, that they thought she was bad need not have meant they were necessarily unsympathetic", ". More, that they thought she was bad need not have meant they were necessarily unsympathetic. Thackeray himself compared Sharp's career as \"resembling the slitherings of a mermaid\", and Bloom says that she is enough of a character to make her fundamentally likeable, to the extent that \"any reader who does not like Becky is almost certainly not very likeable herself or himself\". Poet Dorothy Parker—herself orphaned at age nine—\"strongly identified\" with Sharp, and effectively treated her as a role model", ". Meade, in her biography of Parker, says Sharp became Parker's alter ego, and that it was from her that Parker learnt \"the rules of the game\".", "To Eva M. Dadlez, Sharp is a character to be admired, particularly for her intelligence — which is more acute than any of the other characters (aside from Dobbin, who sees through her) — her overcoming a difficult childhood, and ultimately \"her talent to survive disasters\". She notes that Sharp looks better when the general unprincipled foolishness of the rest of the cast is taken into account.", "Thackeray's character made a strong impression on contemporaries. Elizabeth Browning's protagonist of Aurora Leigh (1856), Marian Erle, is a similar character to Sharp. In 1872 The Spectator reviewed Anthony Trollope's The Eustace Diamonds and made an unfavourable comparison between Trollope's main female lead, Lady Eustace, and Becky Sharp", ". The reviewer wrote how \"we had supposed that in Lady Eustace we were to have Mr Trollope's equivalent for Thackeray's Becky Sharp, but we hardly think that we have got it; or if we have, Mr Trollope's equivalent for Thackeray's Becky Sharp is but a poor one.\" Henry James called Sharp an \"epic governess\" of literature. In 1848, writing in The Spectator, R. S. Rintoul wrote", "In the 21st century, Sharp's character has been used in diverse ways. For example, it has been the subject of a book on business ethics, and a work of fiction by Sarra Manning transposes her life and adventures onto a contemporary woman.", "Real-life models", "Oscar Wilde said that he asked a female friend of Thackeray's whether Sharp had any real-life basis. She said that although the character was strictly fictional, her general character had been suggested to Thackeray by a governess in Kensington Square, who was a lady's companion to a wealthy but irascible elderly woman", ". In an unpublished 1911 essay, novelist Charles Reade used the accepted image of Sharp to illustrate Madame du Barry's assertion that the most foolish woman can trick a man, by using against him the education that he has paid for. Says Reade, had she known of Thackeray's creation, du Barry would have asserted \"the wisest of the sex is a Becky Sharp\"", ". It has in turn been suggested that du Barry was a direct model for Thackeray's Sharp, with both women being \"careless beauties cursed with ambition beyond reason, who venture into activities beyond morals\". Another possible model for Sharp from the same era suggested Andrew Lang, maybe Jeanne de Valois, notorious for her involvement in the affair of the Diamond Necklace", ". Like de Valois, Sharp had a childhood of financial hardship, and Sharp's later boast of how she was related to the French noble family of de Montmorency could have been based on de Valois' own claims to have French royal blood in her veins.", "Gordon Ray suggested that the character of Sharp had no single source; rather, it was the combination of aspects of different women that Thackeray had observed and read about. Other possible models for the Sharp character have been suggested as Mary Anne Clarke and Harriette Wilson, two of the most well known English courtesans of the Regency era", ". Clarke was originally Mistress of the Regent's brother, the Duke of York, and in 1809 had been at the centre of a scandal in which she acknowledged selling officers' commissions with the duke's knowledge, who—being Commander-in-chief—subsequently resigned. Clarke attempted to publish her memoirs on the matter; they were suppressed, but she received a £10,000 payment and an annuity from the King", ". Harriette Wilson—described by Walter Scott as having \"lived with half the gay world at hack and manger\"—also published her memoirs. She too had profited from her liaisons with important society men, and had become mistress to the Earl of Craven at the age of 15; her memoirs went through over 30 editions in their year of publication", ". Says Frazee, \"these two most celebrated courtesans of the Regency provided Thackeray with material which, when added to that he acquired from first-hand knowledge of women like Becky and from his reading of fiction\" enabled him to create a realistic Regency courtesan in Sharp.", "Dramatic portrayals \n\nIn 1899, Langdon Mitchell's production of Vanity Fair toured the United States with Minnie Maddern Fiske as Sharp, a role Fiske received critical praise for. The following year his production was plagiarised by Gertrude Coghlan's Delcher & Hennessy theatre company, with herself in the lead role, until Mitchell sued.", "The first film version of Vanity Fair was released in 1915. This was a silent movie directed by Charles Brabin and also starring Fiske in the main role. Another silent version, directed by Walter Courtney Rowden and starring Kyrie Bellew, was made and released in Britain seven years later. The following year saw another silent production released by Samuel Goldwyn; this was directed by Hugo Ballin and starred his wife, Mabel, as Sharp. The film is now considered lost.", "The first spoken-word release was Chester M. Franklin's 1932 film of Vanity Fair, with Sharp played by Myrna Loy; her marriage scene was filmed in Boston's Louisburg Square, representing Russell Square in London. Three years later Miriam Hopkins played Sharp in Rouben Mamoulian's production, which was the first feature film to use three-strip Technicolor. Hopkins was nominated for an Academy Award for her portrayal", ". Hopkins was nominated for an Academy Award for her portrayal. Reese Witherspoon played Sharp in Mira Nair's 2004 film based on the novel; Rotten Tomatoes criticized the film's version of the character, writing \"A more likable Becky Sharp makes for a less interesting movie.\"", "Vanity Fair has also been produced numerous times for television. It was first serialised by the BBC in 1956, and starred Joyce Redman. The second BBC version in 1967, starred Susan Hampshire. This was followed twenty years later, also by the BBC at the Pebble Mill studios, with Eve Matheson as Sharp. Andrew Davies wrote the screenplay of a BBC television drama of Vanity Fair which was screened in 1998; Natasha Little played Becky Sharp", ". Little won the Best Actress in a Drama Series category in the following year's Biarritz International Television Festival as well as a BAFTA nomination for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her portrayal of Sharp. Olivia Cooke played Sharp in a 2018 television series, screened on ITV over seven episodes.", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\nThackeray's Vanity Fair at Wikisource\n\nCharacters in British novels of the 19th century\nFemale characters in literature\nFictional governesses\nLiterary characters introduced in 1847\nOrphan characters in literature\nArticles containing video clips" ]

[ "Stellar dynamics is the branch of astrophysics which describes in a statistical way the collective motions of stars subject to their mutual gravity. The essential difference from celestial mechanics is that the number of body", "Typical galaxies have upwards of millions of macroscopic gravitating bodies and countless number of neutrinos and perhaps other dark microscopic bodies. Also each star contributes more or less equally to the total gravitational field, whereas in celestial mechanics the pull of a massive body dominates any satellite orbits.", "Connection with fluid dynamics \nStellar dynamics also has connections to the field of plasma physics. The two fields underwent significant development during a similar time period in the early 20th century, and both borrow mathematical formalism originally developed in the field of fluid mechanics.", "In accretion disks and stellar surfaces, the dense plasma or gas particles collide very frequently, and collisions result in equipartition and perhaps viscosity under magnetic field. We see various sizes for accretion disks and stellar atmosphere, both made of enormous number of microscopic particle mass, \n\n at stellar surfaces,\n around Sun-like stars or km-sized stellar black holes, \n around million solar mass black holes (about AU-sized) in centres of galaxies.", "The system crossing time scale is long in stellar dynamics, where it is handy to note that\n\nThe long timescale means that, unlike gas particles in accretion disks, stars in galaxy disks very rarely see a collision in their stellar lifetime. However, galaxies collide occasionally in galaxy clusters, and stars have close encounters occasionally in star clusters.", "As a rule of thumb, the typical scales concerned (see the Upper Portion of P.C.Budassi's Logarithmic Map of the Universe) are \n for M13 Star Cluster, \n for M31 Disk Galaxy, \n for neutrinos in the Bullet Clusters, which is a merging system of N = 1000 galaxies.", "Connection with Kepler problem and 3-body problem \nAt a superficial level, all of stellar dynamics might be formulated as an N-body problem\nby Newton's second law, where the equation of motion (EOM) for internal interactions of an isolated stellar system of N members can be written down as,\n\nHere in the N-body system, any individual member, is influenced by the gravitational potentials of the remaining members.", "In practice, except for in the highest performance computer simulations, it is not feasible to calculate rigorously the future of a large N system this way. Also this EOM gives very little intuition. Historically, the methods utilised in stellar dynamics originated from the fields of both classical mechanics and statistical mechanics. In essence, the fundamental problem of stellar dynamics is the N-body problem, where the N members refer to the members of a given stellar system", ". Given the large number of objects in a stellar system, stellar dynamics can address both the global, statistical properties of many orbits as well as the specific data on the positions and velocities of individual orbits.", "Concept of a gravitational potential field", "Stellar dynamics involves determining the gravitational potential of a substantial number of stars. The stars can be modeled as point masses whose orbits are determined by the combined interactions with each other. Typically, these point masses represent stars in a variety of clusters or galaxies, such as a Galaxy cluster, or a Globular cluster", ". Without getting a system's gravitational potential by adding all of the point-mass potentials in the system at every second, stellar dynamicists develop potential models that can accurately model the system while remaining computationally inexpensive. The gravitational potential, , of a system is related to the acceleration and the gravitational field, by:", "whereas the potential is related to a (smoothened) mass density, , via the Poisson's equation in the integral form \n\nor the more common differential form\n\nAn example of the Poisson Equation and escape speed in a uniform sphere \n\nConsider an analytically smooth spherical potential", "Consider an analytically smooth spherical potential\n\nwhere takes the meaning of the speed to \"escape to the edge\" , and is the speed to \"escape from the edge to infinity\". The gravity is like the restoring force of harmonic oscillator inside the sphere, and Keplerian outside as described by the Heaviside functions.\n\nWe can fix the normalisation by computing the corresponding density using the spherical Poisson Equation\n\nwhere the enclosed mass", "where the enclosed mass \n\nHence the potential model corresponds to a uniform sphere of radius , total mass with", "Key concepts \nWhile both the equations of motion and Poisson Equation can also take on non-spherical forms, depending on the coordinate system and the symmetry of the physical system, the essence is the same:", "The motions of stars in a galaxy or in a globular cluster are principally determined by the average distribution of the other, distant stars. The infrequent stellar encounters involve processes such as relaxation, mass segregation, tidal forces, and dynamical friction that influence the trajectories of the system's members.", "Relativistic Approximations \n\nThere are three related approximations made in the Newtonian EOM and Poisson Equation above.\n\nSR and GR \nFirstly above equations neglect relativistic corrections, which are of order of \n as typical stellar 3-dimensional speed, km/s, is much below the speed of light.\n\nEddington Limit \nSecondly non-gravitational force is typically negligible in stellar systems. For example, in the vicinity of a typical star the ratio of radiation-to-gravity force on a hydrogen atom or ion,", "hence radiation force is negligible in general, except perhaps around a luminous O-type star of mass , or around a black hole accreting gas at the Eddington limit so that its luminosity-to-mass ratio is defined by .\n\nLoss cone \nThirdly a star can be swallowed if coming within a few Schwarzschild radii of the black hole. This radius of Loss is given by", "The loss cone can be visualised by considering infalling particles aiming to the black hole within a small solid angle (a cone in velocity). \nThese particle with small have small angular momentum per unit mass Their small angular momentum (due to ) does not make a high enough barrier near to force the particle to turn around.\n\nThe effective potential \n is always positive infinity in Newtonian gravity. However, in GR, it \nnosedives to minus infinity near if", "Sparing a rigorous GR treatment, one can verify this by computing the last stable circular orbit, where the effective potential is at an inflection point using an approximate classical potential of a Schwarzschild black hole\n\nTidal disruption radius \n\nA star can be tidally torn by a heavier black hole when coming within the so-called Hill's radius of the black hole, inside which a star's surface gravity yields to the tidal force from the black hole, i.e.,", "For typical black holes of the destruction radius where 0.001pc is the stellar spacing in the densest stellar systems (e.g., the nuclear star cluster in the Milky Way centre). Hence (main sequence) stars are generally too compact internally and too far apart spaced to be disrupted by even the strongest black hole tides in galaxy or cluster environment.", "Radius of sphere of influence \nA particle of mass with a relative speed V will be deflected when entering the (much larger) cross section of a black hole. This so-called sphere of influence is loosely defined by, up to a Q-like fudge factor , \n\nhence for a Sun-like star we have,", "hence for a Sun-like star we have, \n\ni.e., stars will neither be tidally disrupted nor physically hit/swallowed in a typical encounter with the black hole thanks to the high surface escape speed from any solar mass star, comparable to the internal speed between galaxies in the Bullet Cluster of galaxies, and greater than the typical internal speed inside all star clusters and in galaxies.", "Connections between star loss cone and gravitational gas accretion physics \nFirst consider a heavy black hole of mass is moving through a dissipational gas of (rescaled) thermal sound speed and density , then every gas particle of mass m will likely transfer its relative momentum to the BH when coming within a cross-section of radius", "In a time scale that the black hole loses half of its streaming velocity, its mass may double by Bondi accretion, a process of capturing most of gas particles that enter its sphere of influence , dissipate kinetic energy by gas collisions and fall in the black hole. The gas capture rate is", "where the polytropic index is the sound speed in units of velocity dispersion squared, and the rescaled sound speed allows us to match the Bondi spherical accretion rate, for the adiabatic gas , compared to of the isothermal case .", "Coming back to star tidal disruption and star capture by a (moving) black hole, setting , we could summarise the BH's growth rate from gas and stars, \n with, \n \nbecause the black hole consumes a fractional/most part of star/gas particles passing its sphere of influence.\n\nGravitational dynamical friction \nConsider the case that a heavy black hole of mass moves relative to a background of stars in random motion in \na cluster of total mass with a mean number density within a typical size .", "Intuition says that gravity causes the light bodies to accelerate and gain momentum and kinetic energy (see slingshot effect). By conservation of energy and momentum, we may conclude that the heavier body will be slowed by an amount to compensate. Since there is a loss of momentum and kinetic energy for the body under consideration, the effect is called dynamical friction.", "After certain time of relaxations the heavy black hole's kinetic energy should be in equal partition with the less-massive background objects. The slow-down of the black hole can be described as\n\nwhere is called a dynamical friction time.\n\nDynamical friction time vs Crossing time in a virialised system \nConsider a Mach-1 BH, which travels initially at the sound speed , hence its Bondi radius satisfies", "where \nthe sound speed is \nwith the prefactor fixed by the fact that for a uniform spherical cluster of the mass density , half of a circular period is the time for \"sound\" to make a oneway crossing in its longest dimension, i.e., \n\nIt is customary to call the \"half-diameter\" crossing time the dynamical time scale.", "It is customary to call the \"half-diameter\" crossing time the dynamical time scale.\n\nAssume the BH stops after traveling a length of with its momentum deposited to stars in its path over crossings, then \nthe number of stars deflected by the BH's Bondi cross section per \"diameter\" crossing time is\n\nMore generally, the Equation of Motion of the BH at a general velocity in the potential of a sea of stars can be written as", "and the Coulomb logarithm modifying factor discounts friction on a supersonic moving BH with mass . As a rule of thumb, it takes about a sound crossing time to \"sink\" subsonic BHs, from the edge to the centre without overshooting, if they weigh more than 1/8th of the total cluster mass. Lighter and faster holes can stay afloat much longer.\n\nMore rigorous formulation of dynamical friction", "More rigorous formulation of dynamical friction \n\nThe full Chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula for the change in velocity of the object involves integrating over the phase space density of the field of matter and is far from transparent.\n\nIt reads as\n\nwhere \n\nis the number of particles in an infinitesimal cylindrical volume of length and a cross-section within the black hole's sphere of influence.", "Like the \"Couloumb logarithm\" factors in the contribution of distant background particles, here the factor also \nfactors in the probability of finding a background slower-than-BH particle to contribute to the drag. The more particles are overtaken by the BH, the more particles drag the BH, and the greater is . Also the bigger the system, the greater is .", "A background of elementary (gas or dark) particles can also induce dynamical friction, which scales with the mass density of the surrounding medium, ; the lower particle mass m is compensated by the higher number density n. The more massive the object, the more matter will be pulled into the wake.\n\nSumming up the gravitational drag of both collisional gas and collisionless stars, we have", "Summing up the gravitational drag of both collisional gas and collisionless stars, we have \n\nHere the \"lagging-behind\" fraction for gas and for stars are given by \n \nwhere we have further assumed that the BH starts to move from time ; the gas is isothermal with sound speed ; the background stars have of (mass) density in a Maxwell distribution of momentum with a Gaussian distribution velocity spread (called velocity dispersion, typically ).", "Interestingly, the dependence suggests that dynamical friction is from the gravitational pull of by the wake, which is induced by the gravitational focusing of the massive body in its two-body encounters with background objects.", "We see the force is also proportional to the inverse square of the velocity at the high end, hence the fractional rate of energy loss drops rapidly at high velocities.\nDynamical friction is, therefore, unimportant for objects that move relativistically, such as photons. This can be rationalized by realizing that the faster the object moves through the media, the less time there is for a wake to build up behind it. Friction tends to be the highest at the sound barrier, where .", "Gravitational encounters and relaxation", "Stars in a stellar system will influence each other's trajectories due to strong and weak gravitational encounters. An encounter between two stars is defined to be strong/weak if their mutual potential energy at the closest passage is comparable/minuscule to their initial kinetic energy. Strong encounters are rare, and they are typically only considered important in dense stellar systems, e.g., a passing star can be sling-shot out by binary stars in the core of a globular cluster", ".g., a passing star can be sling-shot out by binary stars in the core of a globular cluster. This means that two stars need to come within a separation,", "where we used the Virial Theorem, \"mutual potential energy balances twice kinetic energy on average\", i.e., \"the pairwise potential energy per star balances with twice kinetic energy associated with the sound speed in three directions\", \n\nwhere the factor is the number of handshakes between a pair of stars without double-counting, the mean pair separation is only about 40\\% of the radius of the uniform sphere.\nNote also the similarity of the", "Mean free path \nThe mean free path of strong encounters in a typically stellar system is then\n\ni.e., it takes about radius crossings for a typical star to come within a cross-section to be deflected from its path completely. Hence the mean free time of a strong encounter is much longer than the crossing time .", "Weak encounters \nWeak encounters have a more profound effect on the evolution of a stellar system over the course of many passages. The effects of gravitational encounters can be studied with the concept of relaxation time. A simple example illustrating relaxation is two-body relaxation, where a star's orbit is altered due to the gravitational interaction with another star.", "Initially, the subject star travels along an orbit with initial velocity, , that is perpendicular to the impact parameter, the distance of closest approach, to the field star whose gravitational field will affect the original orbit. Using Newton's laws, the change in the subject star's velocity, , is approximately equal to the acceleration at the impact parameter, multiplied by the time duration of the acceleration.", "The relaxation time can be thought as the time it takes for to equal , or the time it takes for the small deviations in velocity to equal the star's initial velocity. The number of \"half-diameter\" crossings for an average star to relax in a stellar system of objects is approximately \n\nfrom a more rigorous calculation than the above mean free time estimates for strong deflection.", "The answer makes sense because there is no relaxation for a single body or 2-body system. A better approximation of the ratio of timescales is , hence the relaxation time for 3-body, 4-body, 5-body, 7-body, 10-body, ..., 42-body, 72-body, 140-body, 210-body, 550-body are about 16, 8, 6, 4, 3, ..., 3, 4, 6, 8, 16 crossings. There is no relaxation for an isolated binary, and the relaxation is the fastest for a 16-body system; it takes about 2.5 crossings for orbits to scatter each other", ".5 crossings for orbits to scatter each other. A system with have much smoother potential, typically takes weak encounters to build a strong deflection to change orbital energy significantly.", "Relation between friction and relaxation \nClearly that the dynamical friction of a black hole is much faster than the relaxation time by roughly a factor , but these two are very similar for a cluster of black holes, \n\nFor a star cluster or galaxy cluster with, say, , we have . Hence encounters of members in these stellar or galaxy clusters are significant during the typical 10 Gyr lifetime.", "On the other hand, typical galaxy with, say, stars, would have a crossing time and their relaxation time is much longer than the age of the Universe. This justifies modelling galaxy potentials with mathematically smooth functions, neglecting two-body encounters throughout the lifetime of typical galaxies. And inside such a typical galaxy the dynamical friction and accretion on stellar black holes over a 10-Gyr Hubble time change the black hole's velocity and mass by only an insignificant fraction", "if the black hole makes up less than 0.1% of the total galaxy mass . Especially when , we see that a typical star never experiences an encounter, hence stays on its orbit in a smooth galaxy potential.", "The dynamical friction or relaxation time identifies collisionless vs. collisional particle systems. Dynamics on timescales much less than the relaxation time is effectively collisionless because typical star will deviate from its initial orbit size by a tiny fraction . They are also identified as systems where subject stars interact with a smooth gravitational potential as opposed to the sum of point-mass potentials", ". The accumulated effects of two-body relaxation in a galaxy can lead to what is known as mass segregation, where more massive stars gather near the center of clusters, while the less massive ones are pushed towards the outer parts of the cluster.", "A Spherical-Cow Summary of Continuity Eq. in Collisional and Collisionless Processes \n\nHaving gone through the details of the rather complex interactions of particles in a gravitational system, it is always helpful to zoom out and extract some generic theme, at an affordable price of rigour, so carry on with a lighter load.", "First important concept is \"gravity balancing motion\" near the perturber and for the background as a whole \n \nby consistently omitting all factors of unity , , etc for clarity, approximating the combined mass and", "being ambiguous whether the geometry of the system is a thin/thick gas/stellar disk or a (non)-uniform stellar/dark sphere with or without a boundary, and about the subtle distinctions among the kinetic energies from the local Circular rotation speed , radial infall speed , globally isotropic or anisotropic random motion in one or three directions, or the (non)-uniform isotropic Sound speed to emphasize of the logic behind the order of magnitude of the friction time scale.", "Second we can recap very loosely summarise the various processes so far of collisional and collisionless gas/star or dark matter by Spherical cow style Continuity Equation on any generic quantity Q of the system:", "where the sign is generally negative except for the (accreting) mass M, and the Mean free path or the friction time can be due to direct molecular viscosity from a physical collision Cross section, or due to gravitational scattering (bending/focusing/Sling shot) of particles; generally the influenced area is the greatest of the competing processes of Bondi accretion, Tidal disruption, and Loss cone capture,", "E.g., in case Q is the perturber's mass , then we can estimate the Dynamical friction time via the (gas/star) Accretion rate \n \nwhere we have applied the relations motion-balancing-gravity.\n\nIn the limit the perturber is just 1 of the N background particle, , this friction time is identified with the (gravitational) Relaxation time. Again all Coulomb logarithm etc are suppressed without changing the estimations from these qualitative equations.", "For the rest of Stellar dynamics, we will consistently work on precise calculations through primarily Worked Examples, by neglecting gravitational friction and relaxation of the perturber, working in the limit as approximated true in most galaxies on the 14Gyrs Hubble time scale, even though this is sometimes violated for some clusters of stars or clusters of galaxies.of the cluster.", "A concise 1-page summary of some main equations in Stellar dynamics and Accretion disc physics are shown here, where one attempts to be more rigorous on the qualitative equations above.", "Connections to statistical mechanics and plasma physics", "The statistical nature of stellar dynamics originates from the application of the kinetic theory of gases to stellar systems by physicists such as James Jeans in the early 20th century. The Jeans equations, which describe the time evolution of a system of stars in a gravitational field, are analogous to Euler's equations for an ideal fluid, and were derived from the collisionless Boltzmann equation", ". This was originally developed by Ludwig Boltzmann to describe the non-equilibrium behavior of a thermodynamic system. Similarly to statistical mechanics, stellar dynamics make use of distribution functions that encapsulate the information of a stellar system in a probabilistic manner. The single particle phase-space distribution function, , is defined in a way such that", "where represents the probability of finding a given star with position around a differential volume and velocity around a differential velocity space volume . The distribution function is normalized (sometimes) such that integrating it over all positions and velocities will equal N, the total number of bodies of the system", ". For collisional systems, Liouville's theorem is applied to study the microstate of a stellar system, and is also commonly used to study the different statistical ensembles of statistical mechanics.", "Convention and notation in case of a thermal distribution \nIn most of stellar dynamics literature, it is convenient to adopt the convention that the particle mass is unity in solar mass unit , hence a particle's momentum and velocity are identical, i.e.,\n\nFor example, the thermal velocity distribution of air molecules (of typically 15 times the proton mass per molecule) in a room of constant temperature would have a Maxwell distribution\n\nwhere the energy per unit mass where", "where the energy per unit mass where \n\nand is the width of the velocity Maxwell distribution, identical in each direction and everywhere in the room, and the normalisation constant (assume the chemical potential such that the Fermi-Dirac distribution reduces to a Maxwell velocity distribution) is fixed by the constant gas number density at the floor level, where", "The CBE \nIn plasma physics, the collisionless Boltzmann equation is referred to as the Vlasov equation, which is used to study the time evolution of a plasma's distribution function.\n\nThe Boltzmann equation is often written more generally with the Liouville operator as", "The Boltzmann equation is often written more generally with the Liouville operator as\n\nwhere is the gravitational force and is the Maxwell (equipartition) distribution (to fit the same density, same mean and rms velocity as ). The equation means the non-Gaussianity will decay on a (relaxation) time scale of , and the system will ultimately relaxes to a Maxwell (equipartition) distribution.", "Whereas Jeans applied the collisionless Boltzmann equation, along with Poisson's equation, to a system of stars interacting via the long range force of gravity, Anatoly Vlasov applied Boltzmann's equation with Maxwell's equations to a system of particles interacting via the Coulomb Force. Both approaches separate themselves from the kinetic theory of gases by introducing long-range forces to study the long term evolution of a many particle system", ". In addition to the Vlasov equation, the concept of Landau damping in plasmas was applied to gravitational systems by Donald Lynden-Bell to describe the effects of damping in spherical stellar systems.", "A nice property of f(t,x,v) is that many other dynamical quantities can be formed by its moments, e.g., the total mass, local density, pressure, and mean velocity. Applying the collisionless Boltzmann equation, these moments are then related by various forms of continuity equations, of which most notable are the Jeans equations and Virial theorem.", "Probability-weighted moments and hydrostatic equilibrium \nJeans computed the weighted velocity of the Boltzmann Equation after integrating over velocity space and obtain the Momentum (Jeans) Eqs. of a opulation (e.g., gas, stars, dark matter):", "The general version of Jeans equation, involving (3 x 3) velocity moments is cumbersome. \nIt only becomes useful or solvable if we could drop some of these moments, epecially drop the off-diagonal cross terms for systems of high symmetry, and also drop net rotation or net inflow speed everywhere.", "The isotropic version is also called \nHydrostatic equilibrium equation where balancing pressure gradient with gravity; the isotropic version works for axisymmetric disks as well, after replacing the derivative dr with vertical coordinate dz. It means that we could measure the gravity (of dark matter) by observing the gradients of the velocity dispersion and the number density of stars.\n\nApplications and examples", "Stellar dynamics is primarily used to study the mass distributions within stellar systems and galaxies. Early examples of applying stellar dynamics to clusters include Albert Einstein's 1921 paper applying the virial theorem to spherical star clusters and Fritz Zwicky's 1933 paper applying the virial theorem specifically to the Coma Cluster, which was one of the original harbingers of the idea of dark matter in the universe", ". The Jeans equations have been used to understand different observational data of stellar motions in the Milky Way galaxy. For example, Jan Oort utilized the Jeans equations to determine the average matter density in the vicinity of the solar neighborhood, whereas the concept of asymmetric drift came from studying the Jeans equations in cylindrical coordinates.", "Stellar dynamics also provides insight into the structure of galaxy formation and evolution. Dynamical models and observations are used to study the triaxial structure of elliptical galaxies and suggest that prominent spiral galaxies are created from galaxy mergers. Stellar dynamical models are also used to study the evolution of active galactic nuclei and their black holes, as well as to estimate the mass distribution of dark matter in galaxies.\n\nA unified thick disk potential", "A unified thick disk potential \n\nConsider an oblate potential in cylindrical coordinates \n\nwhere are (positive) vertical and radial length scales. \nDespite its complexity, we can easily see some limiting properties of the model.\n\nFirst we can see the total mass of the system is because \n\nwhen we take the large radii limit \n, so that", "when we take the large radii limit \n, so that \n\nWe can also show that some special cases of this unified potential become the potential of the Kuzmin razor-thin disk, that of the Point mass , and that of a uniform-Needle mass distribution:\n\nA worked example of gravity vector field in a thick disk \n\nFirst consider the vertical gravity at the boundary,", "First consider the vertical gravity at the boundary, \n\nNote that both the potential and the vertical gravity are continuous across the boundaries, hence no razor disk at the boundaries.\nThanks to the fact that at the boundary, is continuous. Apply Gauss's theorem by integrating the vertical force over the entire disk upper and lower boundaries, we have \n\nconfirming that takes the meaning of the total disk mass.", "confirming that takes the meaning of the total disk mass.\n\nThe vertical gravity drops with at large radii, which is enhanced over the vertical gravity of a point mass due to the self-gravity of the thick disk.\n\nDensity of a thick disk from Poisson Equation \n\nInsert in the cylindrical Poisson eq. \n\nwhich drops with radius, and is zero beyond and uniform along the z-direction within the boundary.\n\nSurface density and mass of a thick disk", "Surface density and mass of a thick disk \n\nIntegrating over the entire thick disc of uniform thickness , we find the surface density and the total mass as \n\nThis confirms that the absence of extra razor thin discs at the boundaries. In the limit, , this thick disc potential reduces to that of a razor-thin Kuzmin disk, for which we can verify .\n\nOscillation frequencies in a thick disk \n\nTo find the vertical and radial oscillation frequencies, we do a Taylor expansion of potential around the midplane.", "and we find the circular speed and the vertical and radial epicycle frequencies to be given by\n\nInterestingly the rotation curve is solid-body-like near the centre , and is Keplerian far away.\n\nAt large radii three frequencies satisfy \n.\nE.g., in the case that and , the oscillations forms a resonance.\n\nIn the case that , the density is zero everywhere except uniform needle between along the z-axis.", "In the case that , the density is zero everywhere except uniform needle between along the z-axis.\n\nIf we further require , then we recover a well-known property for closed ellipse orbits in point mass potential,\n\nA worked example for neutrinos in galaxies \n\nFor example, the phase space distribution function of non-relativistic neutrinos of mass m anywhere will not exceed the maximum value set by", "where the Fermi-Dirac statistics says there are at most 6 flavours of neutrinos within a volume and a velocity volume .\n\nLet's approximate the distribution is at maximum, i.e., \n\nwhere such that , respectively, is the potential energy of at the centre or the edge of the gravitational bound system. The corresponding neutrino mass density, assume spherical, would be\n\nwhich reduces to\n\nTake the simple case , and estimate the density at the centre with an escape speed , we have", "Take the simple case , and estimate the density at the centre with an escape speed , we have\n\nClearly eV-scale neutrinos with is too light to make up the 100–10000 over-density in galaxies with escape velocity , while \nneutrinos in clusters with could make up times cosmic background density.", "By the way the freeze-out cosmic neutrinos in your room have a non-thermal random momentum , and do not follow a Maxwell distribution, and are not in thermal equilibrium with the air molecules because of the extremely low cross-section of neutrino-baryon interactions.\n\nA Recap on Harmonic Motions in Uniform Sphere Potential \n\nConsider building a steady state model of the fore-mentioned uniform sphere of density and potential \n\nwhere is the speed to escape to the edge .", "First a recap on motion \"inside\" the uniform sphere potential.\nInside this constant density core region, individual stars go on resonant harmonic oscillations of angular frequency with", "Loosely speaking our goal is to put stars on a weighted distribution of orbits with various energies , i.e., the phase space density or distribution function, such that their overall stellar number density reproduces the constant core, hence their collective \"steady-state\" potential. Once this is reached, we call the system is a self-consistent equilibrium.", "Example on Jeans theorem and CBE on Uniform Sphere Potential \n\nGenerally for a time-independent system, Jeans theorem predicts that is an implicit function of the position and velocity through a functional dependence on \"constants of motion\".\n\nFor the uniform sphere, a solution for the Boltzmann Equation, written in spherical coordinates and its velocity components is", "where is a normalisation constant, which has the dimension of (mass) density. And we define a (positive enthalpy-like dimension ) Quantity \n\nClearly anti-clockwise rotating stars with are excluded.\n\nIt is easy to see in spherical coordinates that\n\nInsert the potential and these definitions of the orbital energy E and angular momentum J and its z-component Jz along every stellar orbit, we have\n which implies , and between zero and .", "To verify the above being constants of motion in our spherical potential, we note\n\n for any \"steady state\" potential.\n\n which reduces to around the z-axis of any axisymmetric potential, where .\n\nLikewise the x and y components of the angular momentum are also conserved for a spherical potential. Hence .\n\nSo for any time-independent spherical potential (including our uniform sphere model), \nthe orbital energy E and angular momentum J and its z-component Jz along every stellar orbit satisfy", "Hence using the chain rule, we have\n\ni.e., , so that CBE is satisfied, i.e., our \n\nis a solution to the Collisionless Boltzmann Equation for our static spherical potential.\n\nA worked example on moments of distribution functions in a uniform spherical cluster", "We can find out various moments of the above distribution function, reformatted as with the help of three Heaviside functions, \n \nonce we input the expression for the earlier potential inside , or even better the speed to \"escape from r to the edge\" of a uniform sphere \nClearly the factor in the DF (distribution function) is well-defined only if , which implies a narrow range on radius and excludes high velocity particles, e.g., , from the distribution function (DF, i.e., phase space density).", "In fact, the positivity carves the () left-half of an ellipsoid in the velocity space (\"velocity ellipsoid\"), \n\nwhere is rescaled by the function or respectively.", "where is rescaled by the function or respectively.\n\nThe velocity ellipsoid (in this case) has rotational symmetry around the r axis or axis. It is more squashed (in this case) away from the radial direction, hence more tangentially anisotropic because everywhere , except at the origin, where the ellipsoid looks isotropic. Now we compute the moments of the phase space.\n \nE.g., the resulting density (moment) is", "is indeed a spherical (angle-independent) and uniform (radius-independent) density inside the edge, where the normalisation constant .\n\nThe streaming velocity is computed as the weighted mean of the velocity vector\n\nwhere the global average (indicated by the overline bar) of flow implies uniform pattern of flat azimuthal rotation, but zero net streaming everywhere in the meridional plane.\n\nIncidentally, the angular momentum global average of this flat-rotation sphere is", "Incidentally, the angular momentum global average of this flat-rotation sphere is \n\nNote global average of centre of mass does not change, so due to global momentum conservation in each rectangular direction , and this does not contradict the global non-zero rotation.\n\nLikewise thanks to the symmetry of , we have\n, , everywhere}.\n\nLikewise the rms velocity in the rotation direction is computed by a weighted mean as follows, E.g.,\n\nHere\n\nLikewise\n\nSo the pressure tensor or dispersion tensor is", "Here\n\nLikewise\n\nSo the pressure tensor or dispersion tensor is\n\nwith zero off-diagonal terms because of the symmetric velocity distribution. \nNote while there is no Dark Matter in producing the previous flat rotation curve, \nthe price is shown by the reduction factor in the random velocity spread in the azimuthal direction. Among the diagonal dispersion tensor moments, is the biggest among the three at all radii, and only near the edge between .", "The larger tangential kinetic energy than that of radial motion seen in the diagonal dispersions is often phrased by an anisotropy parameter\n\na positive anisotropy would have meant that radial motion dominated, and a negative anisotropy means that tangential motion dominates (as in this uniform sphere).\n\nA worked example of Virial Theorem \n\nTwice kinetic energy per unit mass of the above uniform sphere is\n\nwhich balances the potential energy per unit mass of the uniform sphere, inside which .", "which balances the potential energy per unit mass of the uniform sphere, inside which .\n\nThe average Virial per unit mass can be computed from averaging its local value , which yields\n\nas required by the Virial Theorem. For this self-gravitating sphere, we can also verify that the virial per unit mass equals the averages of half of the potential", "Hence we have verified the validity of Virial Theorem for a uniform sphere under self-gravity, i.e., the gravity due to the mass density of the stars is also the gravity that stars move in self-consistently; no additional dark matter halo contributes to its potential, for example.\n\nA worked example of Jeans Equation in a uniform sphere", "A worked example of Jeans Equation in a uniform sphere \n\nJeans Equation is a relation on how the pressure gradient of a system should be balancing the potential gradient for an equilibrium galaxy. In our uniform sphere, the potential gradient or gravity is\n\nThe radial pressure gradient\n\nThe reason for the discrepancy is partly due to centrifugal force\n\nand partly due to anisotropic pressure\n\nso at the very centre, \nbut the two balance at radius , and then \nreverse to at the very edge.", "so at the very centre, \nbut the two balance at radius , and then \nreverse to at the very edge.\n\nNow we can verify that", "Here the 1st line above is essentially the Jeans equation in the r-direction, which reduces to the 2nd line, the Jeans equation in an anisotropic (aka ) rotational (aka ) axisymmetric ( ) sphere (aka ) after much coordinate manipulations of the dispersion tensor; similar equation of motion can be obtained for the two tangential direction, e.g", ".g., , which are useful in modelling ocean currents on the rotating earth surface or angular momentum transfer in accretion disks, where the frictional term is important.", "The fact that the l.h.s. means that \nthe force is balanced on the r.h.s. for this uniform (aka ) spherical model of a galaxy (cluster) to stay in a steady state (aka time-independent equilibrium everywhere) statically (aka with zero flow everywhere). Note systems like accretion disk can have a steady net radial inflow everywhere at all time.", "A worked example of Jeans equation in a thick disk \n\nConsider again the thick disk potential in the above example. \nIf the density is that of a gas fluid, then the pressure would be zero at the boundary . To find the peak of the pressure, we note that \n\nSo the fluid temperature per unit mass, i.e., the 1-dimensional velocity dispersion squared would be \n\nAlong the rotational z-axis,", "Along the rotational z-axis, \n\nwhich is clearly the highest at the centre and zero at the boundaries . Both the pressure and the dispersion peak at the midplane . In fact the hottest and densest point is the centre, where\n\nA recap on worked examples on Jeans Eq., Virial and Phase space density \n\nHaving looking at the a few applications of Poisson Eq. and Phase space density and especially the Jeans equation, we can extract a general theme, again using the Spherical cow approach.", "Jeans equation links gravity with pressure gradient, it is a generalisation of the Eq. of Motion for single particles. While Jeans equation can be solved in disk systems, the most user-friendly version of the Jeans eq. is the spherical anisotropic version for a static frictionless system , hence the local velocity speed \n everywhere for each of the three directions .", "everywhere for each of the three directions .\nOne can project the phase space into these moments, which is easily if in a highly spherical system, which admits conservations of energy and angular momentum J. The boundary of the system sets the integration range of the velocity bound in the system.", "In summary, in the spherical Jeans eq., \n\nwhich matches the expectation from the Virial theorem , \nor in other words, the kinetic energy of an equilibrium equals the average kinetic energy on circular orbits with purely transverse motion.\n\nSee also\n\nStellar classification\nBoltzmann equation\nDynamical friction\nJeans equations\nMass segregation (astronomy)\nN-body problem\nVirial theorem\nStellar kinematics\nPoisson's equation\nVector calculus\nAccretion disk\nRelaxation (physics)", "Further reading\n Dynamics and Evolution of Galactic Nuclei, D. Merritt (2013). Princeton University Press.\n Galactic Dynamics, J. Binney and S. Tremaine (2008). Princeton University Press.\n Gravitational N-Body Simulations: Tools and Algorithms, S. Aarseth (2003). Cambridge University Press.\n Principles of Stellar Dynamics, S. Chandrasekhar (1960). Dover.\n\nReferences\n\n \nGravity\nDynamics" ]

[ "Adaptive reuse refers to the process of reusing an existing building for a purpose other than which it was originally built or designed for. It is also known as recycling and conversion. Adaptive reuse is an effective strategy for optimizing the operational and commercial performance of built assets. Adaptive reuse of buildings can be an attractive alternative to new construction in terms of sustainability and a circular economy", ". It has prevented thousands of buildings' demolition and has allowed them to become critical components of urban regeneration. Not every old building can qualify for adaptive reuse. Architects, developers, builders and entrepreneurs who wish to become involved in rejuvenating and reconstructing a building must first make sure that the finished product will serve the need of the market, that it will be completely useful for its new purpose, and that it will be competitively priced.", "Definition \nAdaptive Reuse is defined as the aesthetic process that adapts buildings for new uses while retaining their historic features. Using an adaptive reuse model can prolong a building's life, from cradle-to-grave, by retaining all or most of the building system, including the structure, the shell and even the interior materials. This type of revitalization is not restricted to buildings of historic significance and can be a strategy adopted in case of obsolete buildings.", "Some urban planners see adaptive reuse as an effective way of reducing urban sprawl and environmental impact. Revitalizing the existing built fabric by finding a new use or purpose for obsolete buildings can be a wonderful resource to a community by \"keeping neighborhoods occupied and vital\".", "According to Yung and Chan, \"adaptive reuse is a new kind of maintainable rebirth of city, as it covers the building’s lifetime and evades destruction waste, encourages recycles of the embodied dynamism and also delivers substantial social and economic profits to the world\".", "Benefits and Challenges of Adaptive Reuse", "Benefits: Typically categorised under economic, social, cultural and historical, and environmental benefits", ". The most significant benefits of adaptive reuse of existing buildings include increased economic opportunities, urban regeneration, preserved cultural and historical heritage values, reduced landfill demolition waste, increased energy efficiency, extended building usefulness, and cost-effectiveness, enhanced property value, improved life quality, reduced carbon emissions, and lesser energy consumption.", "Challenges: Typically categorised under building regulatory requirements and governance, financial, management, and complexities and uncertainties challenges", ". The most significant challenges of adaptive reuse of existing buildings include structural integrity issues, compliance with building code regulations, government anti-adaptive reuse policies, lack of awareness, high maintenance cost, uncertainties surrounding existing building information, lack of incentives, and lack of decision-making tools and stakeholder participation.", "Adaptive Reuse and Built Heritage Preservation", "A majority of historical buildings provide physical links and the progression of cultural evidence to the past. In a fast-growing urbanizing world, these heritage values viewed as public goods could aid the significance of a town's cultural heritage and unique competitiveness. Heritage preservation charters mandate that when historical buildings with heritage values are being redeveloped, their architectural and heritage character should be maintained and conserved for sustainability", ". Accordingly, this mandate on heritage preservation has led to the scheduling of several heritage buildings into district plans, thereby protecting them from unsympathetic alterations or demolition through regulations. Built heritage conservation through adaptive reuse could therefore be used to promote sustainable historical and cultural development of urban areas. Parameters to prioritise historical buildings for adaptive reuse and the characterisation of adaptive reuse stakeholders are also noted.", "Adaptive Reuse and Urban Regeneration", "The reuse of older vacant buildings for other purposes forms a very important aspect of any urban regeneration scheme. The adaptation process implies selecting relevant novel technologies and design concepts that will support the older buildings to adjust successfully to contemporary requirements without destroying the existing urban form", ". Adopting the adaptive reuse approach for the redevelopment of older vacant buildings provides added benefits to the regeneration of an urban area in a sustainable way, through transforming these buildings into usable and accessible units. The adaptive reuse strategy would also enable the local authority and owners of older vacant buildings in urban areas to minimize their economic, social and environmental costs, in a quest for a continued urban expansion and development.", "Adaptive Reuse and Climate Change \nThe current climate change reality requires integrating the global sustainability challenge of conserving natural resources for future generations with improving resilience and adaptive capacity within the built environment. The adaptive reuse of existing buildings can be adopted to facilitate climate change mitigation progressively. explored the applicability of the adaptive reuse concept as a sustainable tool for climate change mitigation.", "Adaptive Reuse Stakeholders", "In an adaptive reuse decision-making setting, there is usually an occurrence of conflicting beliefs, opinions, interests, and resources among relevant stakeholders. Knowing who these stakeholders are and why, through a collaborative approach, will allow stakeholders with diverse interests regarding adaptive reuse to come together and participate either directly or indirectly in any stage of the decision-making process", ". There are four typical categories of stakeholders involved in an adaptive reuse decision-making process: i) investors; ii) producers; iii) regulators; and iv) users.", "Adaptive Reuse Decision-Making Framework and Validation \nIdentification of Parameters: identified parameters for the development of a performance-based framework, to prioritise the most suitable historical building options for adaptive reuse intervention from a list of underutilised buildings.\n\nFramework Validation: balanced the diverse interests of all stakeholders in the adaptive reuse decision-making process.", "Advantages of adaptive reuse \nAccording to Zaitzevsky and Bunnell, old buildings physically link us to our past and become a part of our cultural heritage; they should be preserved because of their \"architectural beauty\" and the \"character and scale they add to the built environment\". Retention and rehabilitation of existing buildings also reduces the consumption of building materials, resources, energy and water needed for new construction.", "Cost savings on building material: Adaptive reuse involves the refurbishment of existing building members, which is labor-intensive process and relies less on purchasing and installing many new building materials. Cost of building materials has risen sharply over the past few decades, while the cost of labor has increased only marginally compared to that of building materials. Therefore, it is economically viable to renovate and reuse an existing building.", "Cost savings on demolition: Demolition costs can run as high as 5% to 10% of the total cost of new construction. This expense is often overlooked by many building owners. Some urban areas have strict building safety regulations and may not allow the usage of a swinging ball and other more efficient demolition techniques. Under these circumstances, buildings must be demolished piece by piece, which can be quite expensive and time-consuming.", "Saves time; faster than brand new construction: The total time required to renovate an existing building is generally less than the time required to construct a comparable amount of floor space in an entirely new building. A major advantage of renovating an existing building is that a refurbished portion of the building becomes suitable for occupancy before completion of the whole project", ". This provides as a huge advantage for private developers as it keeps the cash inflow during while the rest of the project undergoes construction.", "Tax advantages: Tax provisions in several states and municipalities across the United States, provide incentives for rehabilitating historic structures.", "Availability of Federal, State and local funds: The United States' National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 established matching grants-in-aid, obtained through state historic preservation offices, that can be used for the acquisition and restoration of properties listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Similarly, community development block grants provided to municipalities by the U.S", ". Similarly, community development block grants provided to municipalities by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development are a major source of funds for neighborhood preservation projects.", "Decreased public and social costs: As these heritage settlements have been getting crowded in the past decades, people have been looking for farther lands for development. This rapid urbanization and urban sprawl cause several harms to our planet and the society. Lack of adaptive reuse of existing built assets, on a societal level, has caused disturbance due to dislocation of residents, economic decline and disruption of community life, eventually leading to abandoned and obsolete neighborhoods.", "Conserves energy: Old buildings represent an investment of energy and labor made at a time when costs were significantly lower. Demolition of these buildings requires new expenditures of energy to generate new building materials and to assemble them on a cleared site. Additionally, modern building systems have high life-cycle costs and operational energy costs associated with them whereas traditional masonry and stone buildings are more climate responsive", ". An environmental benefit of reusing built assets is identified to be the retention of the original buildings \"embodied energy\". According to Schultmann and Sunke, \"new buildings have much higher embodied energy than those that are adaptively reused\". Reddy and Jagadish support this statement by saying that \"the reuse of building materials can provide substantial savings in embodied energy that would otherwise be wasted\".", "Factors affecting adaptive reuse\nBuilding owners, architects, developers and other stakeholders undergo an in-depth process of decision making before determining whether a building should be conserved and remodeled for a different use or just demolished for the land it sits on, then develop a new building on that land. These decisions are governed by the following criteria:", "Economic considerations", "The decision to reuse or demolish built assets is driven by economic considerations such as development costs, project costs, investment returns and market. The economic costs differ from project to project and some professionals go as far as to assert that \"new build is always more economical\" and \"renovation is universally more expensive\"[1] due to their own involvement with adaptive reuse projects", ". Others claim that the return on investment is enhanced when using an older building because of the savings involved. One Canadian developer claims that reusing buildings generally represents a saving of between 10 and 12%[2] over building new. In terms of profitability, there are also assertions that adaptive reuse projects often have an uncertainty to their profitably that newer developments lack. When looking for funding to build, these considerations must be addressed.", "Capital investment", "In a survey conducted by Bullen and Love, it was observed that building owners and operators were most concerned about a multitude of financial considerations, while deciding whether to reuse their built assets. These include development and construction costs, marketing and maintenance costs. Most adaptive reuse projects depend on their economic feasibility determined by the building's existing physical configuration and condition", ". According to Bullen and Love, the adaptive reuse decision making was fundamentally driven by a \"desire for short-term profits\". However, most of the survey respondents were rarely concerned about the sustainability and environmental concerns associated with adaptive reuse decision making. Nevertheless, many of these developers were aware of the positive impact that building reuse and sustainability can have on their corporate image.", "Building owners are concerned with the life expectancy of built assets, their energy and environmental performance and the high operating costs which may appear due to poor mechanical equipment, services, building materials and construction. Developers saw a thorough potential in saving groundwork and excavation costs by using an adaptive reuse model for their property", ". Additionally, they thought that \"in Central Business District locations, built assets are an attractive investment option for reuse projects, as premium prices and rents can be obtained for an office space\". Best rents can be obtained only when these remodeled buildings hold \"high-quality finishes\" and have high Energy Star rating appliances", ". Building owners also considered the commercial performance of buildings in terms of \"tenant needs, investment returns, maintenance, repair costs, operational costs, productivity levels, employee retention rates, aesthetics of building and its market value\".", "Building stakeholders often marketed their reused built assets centered around \"epoch and utility\" and \"character and ambiance\". Some end users were more attracted to modern architecture while others were more into the adaptive reuse style. This varying perception of a building's form, function and style depended on the occupant age group.", "Asset condition", "Sometimes, built assets cannot be considered suitable for adaptive reuse, simply because of the nature of their built form or the condition that they are in. For example, one cannot make the most out of a highly compartmentalized, single use building such as a prison. Mid 1900s low-rise apartments that have low floor area ratios (FAR) and which may be in some of the cities' prime locations cannot be considered profitable for adaptive reuse", ". In such scenarios, it would be more profitable for the developers to demolish and replace the existing building with a high-rise that has more space to sell. Often, when building owners cannot find an obvious use for a building, it is left to degenerate and decay and eventually collapse. This may pose as a threat to the safety of the neighborhood", ". This may pose as a threat to the safety of the neighborhood. Decaying buildings may even be subject to vandalism and become spaces for anti-social activities and may have a negative impact on the value of the properties in their vicinity.", "Bullen and Love's survey respondents thought that \"the benefits of reusing their existing facility could include avoiding the disruption of relocation, reducing maintenance and running costs\". A reuse project should not compromise on satisfying user needs. The survey respondents suggested that a cost vs benefits analysis is essential to determine the return on investment of an adaptive reuse project", ". The most important governing factors of adaptive reuse decision making with respect to asset condition were observed to be the building's structural integrity, its residual service life, its spatial layout, its location and the ease of retrofitting or installing new building components to the existing built form", ". According to Bullen and Love, the buildings of the 1960s and 1970s in Perth were badly constructed, used ineffective thermal insulation materials and details and have low suitability for adaptive reuse. On the other hand, the built form of the 1980s was deemed to be engineered to specifications and could accommodate an adaptive reuse model.", "The survey respondents expressed several concerns and risks that could arise during and after the adaptive reuse of a building which included finding tenants, the threat of building not meeting the demand of the end users, lack of structural stability and structure and material decay during the reconstruction phase of the project.", "Regulations", "In Bullen and Love's survey, many respondents thought that there was not enough support and incentives from the government for carrying out adaptive reuse of built assets. They felt that there is limited flexibility in the building codes, limited plot ratio bonuses and an overall \"lack of encouragement\" by state and local governments to implement innovative adaptive reuse designs", ". Suggested solutions from some survey respondents include establishing a mandate to only lease buildings that have undergone adaptive reuse with a high Energy Star rating", ". Some of the architects thought that there was a high dependency and credit given to energy and green building rating systems such as the \"Green Star Environment Rating System\" but not enough credit was given to the improvements carried out during adaptive reuse and its sustainable outcomes such as the recycling of building materials, reduced energy and water consumption and reduced environmental impacts like global warming potential, lake eutrophication potential and ozone layer depletion", ". One architect thought that \"undertaking exemplar adaptive reuse demonstration projects for industry professionals to assess and emulate would display a commitment to sustainability and urban regeneration\". However, this solution has several harmful implications and forcing an adaptive reuse directive on to the industry and its clients was deemed to be heavy handed and could be counterproductive", ". The existing building codes and regulations for fire safety and building access to disabled make it difficult to work around the adaptive reuse of old constructed buildings.", "Social considerations \nIn this civilized world, buildings have become the core of a society. Cities and communities grow organically around important buildings followed by the commercial development of those neighborhoods. These buildings and the development around them soon become the heart of a community upon which people's life depends. Therefore, regular maintenance and reuse of existing structures can help communities avoid the trauma caused by dilapidation, abandonment and clearance.", "As these heritage settlements have been getting crowded in the past decades, people have been looking for farther lands for development. This rapid urbanization and urban sprawl cause several harms to our planet and the society. Lack of adaptive reuse of existing built assets, on a societal level, has caused disturbance due to dislocation of residents, economic decline and disruption of community life, eventually leading to abandoned and obsolete neighborhoods.", "Old buildings are often found in fully developed neighborhoods where public amenities like sewers, water lines, roads, etc. have already been established. Adaptive reuse means that the stakeholders of the built asset are relieving governments and municipalities off the load of having to supply these public amenities on distant plots.", "In a survey conducted by researcher Sheila Conejos, several architects, developers and building stakeholders were asked about their opinion on the social implications of adaptive reuse of existing buildings. It was observed that most respondents thought that adaptive reuse is important to the society because old buildings are critical to the image and history of a society. They agreed that historical buildings add to the aesthetics of a townscape and should be preserved and reused.", "Environmental considerations", "Buildings consume high amounts of energy during their life-cycle. New construction requires new building materials and other resources which possess high embodied energy (throughout their extraction, manufacture, transportation, packaging and assembly phases). Additionally, they also cause high environmental damage such as global warming, eutrophication, ocean acidification, ozone layer depletion, carbon emission which in turn harms human health and quality of life", ". From this standpoint, there are several environmental benefits associated with building recycling or adaptive reuse.", "Water efficiency", "Water is an important component in building construction. Water is needed at every stage of a building's life, from building material extraction to manufacture, on-site construction processes such as concrete mixing, cleaning, etc., operational phase in the form of plumbing for human use and landscaping and fire safety, and at the end of its life for recycling building materials or disposing them. Selecting adaptive reuse over brand new construction can help relieve the planet of such water loads.", "Energy conservation", "Just as water is needed in every stage of a building's life, so is energy. This energy is conventionally obtained from non-renewable sources and causes high carbon emission. Minimizing fossil fuel depletion and carbon emission can be huge contributing factors to reducing global warming and mitigating climate change", ". Choosing to demolish an existing built asset and then constructing a brand-new building in its place can lead to high energy requirement for the demolition, building material waste management, new material procurement, construction and operation. On the other hand, sustainably retrofitting an existing built asset only requires a fraction of this energy. It is important to keep in mind that many of the old building may not have the best of operational energy use efficiency", ". Therefore, to achieve a successful adaptive reuse project, the designers must keep the building's energy use intensity at utmost importance.", "Materials and resources", "Building materials are generally procured from the Earth's strata or are end products of processed natural components. These resources are limited. Irresponsible extraction of natural compounds for building material manufacture can deplete these natural compounds from the earth. Moreover, extraction can cause harm to the natural habitat and biodiversity of the region where materials are extracted", ". Therefore, a project that uses minimum new building material and uses more of recycled materials is a more sustainable and responsible choice for a building material.", "Adaptive reuse potential", "According to Chusid's \"urban ore\" concept, existing buildings that are fast approaching dilapidation or disuse are a \"mine of raw materials for new projects\". Shen and Langston built upon this idea and said that \"an even more effective solution than raw material recovery is adaptive reuse\". They studied that \"a huge focus on economic factors alone has led to the destruction of buildings well short of their physical lives\"", ". Shen and Langston developed an integrated model for the assessment of adaptive reuse potential by comparing case studies of one urban and one non-urban setting. The basis of this model lies in that \"opportunity rises and falls within the confines of a negative exponential decay function linked to a building’s physical life expectancy\". According to their study, a building reaches its maximum potential for adaptive reuse at a point when the building's age and its useful life merge or meet", ". At this point, the building's adaptive reuse potential is either an upward curve or a downward curve which can determine whether the potential is high, medium or low.", "The adaptive reuse potential calculator establishes a \"predicted useful life\" of a building by considering a series of physical, economic, functional, technological, social, legal and political characteristics. These characteristics are used to derive an \"annual obsolescence rate\" and \"environmental obsolescence\". These outcomes are necessary to determine an optimum point at which adaptive reuse intervention should occur.", "Obsolescence is advanced as a suitable concept to objectively reduce the expected physical life of a building to its expected useful life. A discounting philosophy is adopted, whereby the annual obsolescence rate across all criteria is the \"discount rate\" that performs this transformation. An algorithm based on a standard decay (negative exponential) curve produces an index of reuse potential (known as the ARP score) and is expressed as a percentage", ". This decay curve in buildings can be used to establish an ARP score, which is expressed in percentage. Cities can rank their existing buildings as per their adaptive reuse potential and this data can be used by government authorities at any point in time. An adaptive reuse score of 50% or above is considered high. A low ARP score is anything below 20%. Anything between that range is considered moderate", ". A low ARP score is anything below 20%. Anything between that range is considered moderate. Shen and Langston devised this concept of ARP as \"rising from zero to its maximum score at the point of its useful life, and then falling back to zero as it approaches physical life\". When the \"current building age\" is identified to be close to or end of its useful life, is the right time for builders to commence redesign.", "Methodology of adaptive reuse \nBuildings have a high impact on the environment, the economy and our society. Adaptive reuse has several benefits to mitigate those high impacts. Adaptive reuse projects are, in many ways, different from conventional new construction projects and must be planned and managed differently.", "Building condition assessment", "Before starting an adaptive reuse project and even considering refurbishment, it is important that the condition of the existing building is thoroughly assessed. A condition assessment primarily inspects a building's structural integrity, roofing, masonry, plaster, wood-work, tiling and the mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems. The in-depth inspection of buildings can be expensive", ". The in-depth inspection of buildings can be expensive. Nevertheless, building condition assessment is critical to the success of an adaptive reuse project and must not be avoided at any cost because this expense is insignificant relative to the injury or loss of life that a building failure might cause", ". One logical reason, as explained by the American Society of Civil Engineers, is that even a very well constructed building could undergo serious deterioration and eventually failure, if proper maintenance is not performed in the operational phase of the building. For example, in the year 1984, the New York City Passenger Ship Terminal went through a thorough inspection and was identified with extreme corrosion in its exterior steel columns (100% of web loss and 40% of flange loss)", ". This condition posed a threat to the public safety and had to undergo immediate restriction of live load in spite of additional bracing of critical bents. Such inspections conclude with the preparation of a detailed report summarizing the findings of the investigation. The direct inspection of the structural system is required to a certain degree which is decided by the judgement of an experienced civil engineer.", "Survey of neighborhoods", "After identifying the stability and soundness of a building, it is important to survey the neighborhood to find the potential use and function of the adaptive reuse project for that segment of the market or region that the building owners wish to attract. In many cases, an adaptive reuse project might help stabilize a neighborhood which may be otherwise decaying or be at a threat of vandalism. This upward trend may create lucrative rent opportunities for building owners and dwellers of the neighborhood", ". This survey can be in the form of a physical inspection of the neighborhood and/or a detailed study of the zoning map of that region. Pedestrian activity, presence of sidewalks, street lights, benches and public parks and the presence of well-occupied shops and buildings can tell us a lot about neighborhoods", ". After the neighborhood has been established to be stable and safe and free of any infringing decay, the next step is to determine what amenities it has to offer in terms of roadways, public transportation, shopping and eating, hospitals, schools and libraries and so on.", "Financial considerations", "As discussed previously, adaptive reuse projects have the potential to work in phases or parts. A major advantage of renovating an existing building is that a refurbished portion of the building becomes suitable for occupancy before completion of the whole project. This provides as a huge advantage for private developers as it keeps the cash inflow during while the rest of the project undergoes construction", ". Keeping in mind the conclusions from structural and architectural survey, neighborhood survey and marketing survey, a budget is prepared. Building owners or developers can approach any of the financing sources such as insurance companies, foundations and funds, savings banks, building loan societies, endowment funds, Real Estate Investment Trusts, etc.", "Architect’s contract", "In most adaptive reuse projects, it is the architect who is the leader with the imagination of how an abandoned warehouse can become an office building or an abandoned hospital a condominium. Since the architect has a deep involvement in the success of a project, he must perform his work under a clearly defined contract. Under this contract, the architect and the owner are under the obligation of the contract and must abide by it", ". Progress of design, site visits and evaluation are some of the basic actions that the architect performs under this contract. There are different types of contracts, ranging from a fixed fee contract, percentage of construction cost contract and fee plus expenses contract. All stakeholders may collectively decide on the most suitable type of contract for the project.", "Detailed study of structure \nBefore the architect and engineer begin the final designing for the building, they make a thorough structural, mechanical and architectural survey of the existing building.", "Foundation and basement", "The architect and engineer may look for signs of cracking of masonry wall or the settling of basement floors or upper floors which direct them to a problem in the foundation. These signs can also be detected from window sills and cornices. Appropriate survey instruments such as plumb bobs and spirit levels are recommended for use instead of a naked eye inspection. If the problem seems too severe, a test boring may reveal the cause of the problem", ". If the problem seems too severe, a test boring may reveal the cause of the problem. Additionally, the building code should be examined for fireproofing requirements.", "Structural system", "Analyzing the structural strength requires expertise and is one of the most crucial in terms of occupant safety. On-site inspection along with a study of existing floor plans can help engineers determine the structural stability. In some case, when the building drawings may not be available, engineers may have to scrape off the plaster to reveal the underlying structure. Wooden members of the structural system should be especially checked for rot or termite infestation", ". Iron or steel must be checked for corrosion and loose bearings or bolting. Additional future dead and live loads must be kept in mind while designing with the structural strength of the existing building.", "Floor system \nThe floor system in old buildings is usually strong enough to satisfy present codes. If not, additional supporting members may be necessary. The floor and ceiling height should be able to accommodate additional stairways, vertical plumbing, electrical and HVAC. In some cases, an elevator may have to be installed.", "Exterior walls \nThe building envelope should be examined thoroughly for cracks, watertightness (infiltration or leaks) and mortar joints. It is important to examine these exterior walls for future fenestration and air conditioning ducts.\n\nMechanical and electrical equipment \nBuildings undergoing adaptive reuse often lack modern and energy efficient MEP systems and appliances.", "Heating: Determining the capacity of the heating plant for the new building use and occupancy. Existing heating systems involving boilers and burners and metal piping could be salvaged for recycling.\n\nVentilation: Office and commercial buildings require ventilation. Toilets and kitchens also need ventilation. The floor height must be able to accommodate fan equipment. If the existing building consists some duct work, it should be tested for obstructions, deterioration and air leakage.", "Air conditioning: Air conditioning ducting and equipment can be expensive and demand a lot of ceiling space. These economical implications must be considered for the new use of the building before deciding the installation of an air conditioning system.\n\nPlumbing: Old buildings used galvanized iron pipes for plumbing which may be subject to serious deterioration over the years. Proper connection to municipal sewers must be evaluated and fixed if broken.", "Electrical: While the electrical wiring may still be intact, the panel boards, junction boxes and electrical feeders may not be as per the present day fire codes. Additionally, the switch boards may be outdated and have to be replaced. The architect and engineers must also determine of additional transformer vaults and feeder lines are necessary.", "Roof and waterproofing \nOlder building roofing systems generally comprise the roof, parapets and cornices. Projecting metal cornices are subject to corrosion. Parapets may be subject to cracks and degrading mortar joints. A careful examination of the top-floor ceiling may reveal water leakage.", "Stairways and exits \nThe stairway requirement for a building should be derived from present-day building codes for fire and safety. Strategic placement of new staircases and layout for maximum access should be done in order to maximize space utility and minimize the burden on the structural system.", "Designing to save energy \nRedesigning the existing building for new use must accommodate energy conservation strategies. Some of the most important methods of energy conservation are, reducing heating and cooling loads through building envelopes, maximizing natural ventilation potential, using daylighting and energy efficient lighting fixtures and so on.", "Building envelope", "A building's envelope protects it from the external weather conditions. To prevent the extreme climate of the exterior from causing discomfort to occupants, buildings use mechanical heating and cooling systems. If the building envelope is not designed well, the heating and cooling loads on the mechanical equipment might go high. Therefore, for maximum energy efficiency, building envelopes should be the first layer to block out external weather conditions, then the load on the equipment can be minimized", ". The U value of walls should not be more than 0.06 when winter design temperatures are less than . This can be achieved by using a combination of exterior wall materials to form a high resistance wall assembly.", "Windows and doors \nThe fenestration in an external wall assembly are the biggest wasters of energy. They waste heat by conduction, radiation and infiltration. This can be controlled to an extent by using multiple layered glazing systems and using low-e coatings on the glass. Additionally, it is important to seal the window and door systems to avoid infiltration. Similarly, in hot and sunny climates, it is important to shade windows to avoid heat gain due to solar radiation.", "Roof \nAn exposed roof is the greatest source of heat loss during cold months and heat gains during hot months. Therefore, roof insulation becomes very crucial in extreme climate conditions. Another passive technique is to separate living spaces from roof by adding dead buffer spaces such as attics under the roof.", "Floor \nThe only floor that need be considered is the bottom floor. It may be a slab on grade or built over a crawl space. In these cases, insulation should be considered. If the perimeter of a slab on grade is insulated from the weather, this is all that can be hoped for. Over a cold crawl space, a two-in blanket under the floor will cut the heat loss by at least 50%. A concrete floor slab can be insulated by sprayed-on insulating material.", "Disassembly sequence planning", "Building owners and developers can take the potential advantage of adaptive reuse by taking away components from unused buildings and then repair, reuse or recycle its constituent parts. Disassembly is a form of recovering target products and plays a key role to maximize the efficiency of an adaptive reuse project. This disassembly planning sequence aims to reduce the environmental impacts caused due to demolition using a \"rule-base recursive analysis system\" with practical and viable solutions.", "By location\n\nAmericas", "Americas\n\nCanada\nAs a comparatively young country, adaptive reuse is not the norm in Canada, where redevelopment has typically meant demolition and building anew. Calgary and Edmonton are particularly known for their pro-demolition culture, but they are not unique in this regard. However, since the 1990s, adaptive use has gained traction. The conversion of former railway-centred warehouse districts to residential and commercial uses has occurred in Edmonton, Calgary, Saskatoon, Regina, and Winnipeg.", "In Toronto, the Distillery District, a neighbourhood in the city's southeast side, was entirely adapted from the old Gooderham & Worts distillery. Other prominent re-uses include the Candy Factory on Queen Street West and the Toy Factory, in the city's Liberty Village district, both designed by Quadrangle Architects, a firm specializing in adaptive re-use in Toronto and elsewhere", ". Vancouver's Yaletown, an upscale neighbourhood established in the 1990s, features warehouses and other small-industrial structures and spaces converted into apartments and offices for the gentrification of the area. Vancouver's Granville Island also demonstrates a successful mix of adaptive reuse as well as retention of traditional uses in the same district", ". Montreal's Griffintown, Old Port, and Lachine Canal areas all feature ex-industrial areas that have been reused or will do so in the future on current plans.", "Other noted adaptive reuse projects in the 2010s have included the Laurentian School of Architecture in Sudbury, which is incorporating several historic buildings in the city's downtown core into its new campus, similar to the downtown campus of NSCAD University in Halifax, and Mill Square in Sault Ste. Marie, an ongoing project to convert the derelict St. Mary's Paper mill into a mixed-use cultural and tourism hub.", "A number of former military bases in Canada, declared surplus in the 1990s, have also proven to be opportune for adaptive reuse. An example is the former CFB Cornwallis in rural Nova Scotia which was largely converted, without demolitions, into a business park.\n\nUnited States", "Ghirardelli Square in San Francisco was the first major adaptive reuse project in the United States, opening in 1964. Urban waterfronts, historically used as points for industrial production and transport, became popular as residences and mixed use", ". The greatest value of the adaptive use movement is characterized by the hundreds of abandoned schools, factories, hotels, warehouses and military posts that have been adapted for use as affordable housing, office buildings, as well as commercial, civic, educational and recreational centers.", "A large number of brick mill buildings in the Northeast United States have undergone mill conversion projects. In the United States, especially in the Northeast and Midwest, loft housing is one prominent result of adaptive reuse projects. Formerly-industrial areas such as the Meatpacking District in New York City, Callowhill in Philadelphia and SoMa in San Francisco are being transformed into residential neighborhoods through this process. This transformation is sometimes associated with gentrification", ". This transformation is sometimes associated with gentrification. Station Square in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania is an example of a mile-long former Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad terminal and headquarters being converted into a retail, office, hotel, and tourist destination. The Pratt Street Power Plant in Baltimore was converted to offices, retail, and restaurants. An example of adaptive reuse conversion to office space are The Hilliard Mills", ". An example of adaptive reuse conversion to office space are The Hilliard Mills. The adaptive reuse of Empire Stores will transform seven abandoned coffee warehouse in Brooklyn Bridge Park in New York City into office, retail, restaurant and a rooftop public park.", "Other museums adapted from old factories include \"MassMOCA\", the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, the Watermill Center in Long Island, New York, and The Dia Art Foundation Museum in upstate New York.\n\nIn San Diego, California, the historic brick structure of the Western Metal Supply Co. building was preserved and incorporated into the design of Petco Park, the ballpark of the San Diego Padres.", "Chapman University in the city of Orange, California has created student housing by converting the Villa Park Orchards Association Packing House, which was built in 1918 for the Santiago Orange Growers Association. The student housing complex opened in August 2018.", "Throughout the United States until the 1970s, the vast majority of gas stations also offered mechanical work. Converting the service bays into a convenience store in the 1980s and 1990s was common while still selling fuel. Many others stopped selling fuel and became shops or offices.\n\nAustralia", "In Australia, there have been a number of adaptive reuse projects as the main cities have turned from industrial areas into areas of high value and business areas. In Sydney, sites such as the old Sydney Mint have been renovated and adapted into inner-city headquarters for the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales", ". The movement of the city from an industrial, working class area into a gentrified area with high house prices has helped a number of adaptive reuse sites to exist within such an area, the old Hyde Park Barracks building has also been transformed from an old jail into a museum which documents and records the history of Australia's first settlers and convicts.", "The industrial history of Australia has also been an influencing factor in determining the types of buildings and areas which have gone on to become adaptive reuse sites, especially in the realms of private residences and community based buildings", ". Some such sites include, Nonda Katsalidis’ Malthouse apartments in Richmond, a conversion of a former grain silo and the South Australian site of the Balhannah Mines which was adapted into a private residence and has received awards from the Housing Industry Association and the Design Institute of Australia.", "In Adelaide four prominent, heritage listed 19th Century buildings in poor repair were restored, refurbished and given new roles by the South Australian Government during the Rann government (2002 to 2011). The Torrens Building in Victoria Square, former headquarters of the Registrar-General, was restored and adapted to become the Australian campus for both Carnegie Mellon University and University College London", ". The former Adelaide Stock Exchange building was purchased, restored and adapted to become the Science Exchange for the Royal Institution Australia and the Australian Science Media Centre. The Torrens Parade Ground and building were restored for use as a headquarters for veterans' organisations. Nearly $50 million was committed to restore and adapt the large Glenside Psychiatric Hospital and precinct as the new Adelaide Studios of the South Australian Film Corporation opened by Premier Rann in October 2011", ". And the 62 hectare former Mitsubishi Motors plant is being adapted to become a clean manufacturing centre and education and training hub for Flinders University and TAFE.", "Europe", "In Europe, the main forms of adaptive reuse have been around former palaces and unused residences of the different European royal families into publicly accessible galleries and museums. Many of the spaces have been restored with period finishes and display different collections of art, and design. In Paris, France, the most famous example of adaptive reuse is the Musée du Louvre, a former palace built in the late 12th century under Philip II and opened to the public as a museum in 1793", ". Also, in London, England, the Queen's House, a former royal residence built around 1614, has become part of the National Maritime Museum and houses the museum's fine art collection.", "The Tate Modern, also in London, is another example of adaptive reuse in Europe. Unlike other adaptive reuse galleries in Europe, however, the Tate Modern takes full advantage of the site of the former Bankside Power Station, which involved the refurbishment of the old, abandoned power station. The wide industrial space has proven to be a worthy backdrop to modern art, with the famous turbine hall hosting artworks by artists including Olafur Eliasson, Rachel Whiteread and Ai Weiwei.", "Other famous adaptive reuse sites in Europe include the Maastricht branch of the Selexyz chain in the Netherlands. This project received 2007 Lensvelt de Architect interior design award for its innovative reuse and is number one on The Guardian'''s worldwide top ten bookstores list.\n\nIn Łódź, Poland, the Izrael Poznański mills have been turned into the Manufaktura mixed-use development, including a mall, 3 museums, multi-cinema and restaurants.\n\n Asia", "Asia \n\n Hong Kong \n \nThe Hong Kong government launched the Revitalising Historic Buildings Through Partnership Scheme in 2008. One of the buildings in this scheme is former public housing Mei Ho House, which was converted to a hostel managed by Hong Kong Youth Hostels Association.\n\n Taiwan \nIn Taichung, Dawn Cake bought the former ophthalmology hospital and converted it into a restaurant.", "Types of adaptive reuse interventions \n Historic preservation\n Renovation\n Facades\n Integration\n Infrastructure reuse\n\nSee also\n\n Architectural conservation\n Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage\n Facadism\n Historic preservation\n Mill conversion\n World Heritage Sites\n How Buildings Learn''\n\nNotes", "External links and further reading\nRhode Island School of Design – graduate program on adaptive reuse\nOn Adaptive Reuse A blog, mostly architectural, but it also treats adaptive reuse as an approach to a wide range issues. \n\"Adaptive Re-Use of Brownfields: A Challenge for the Valuation,\" John A. Kilpatrick\nAdaptive Reuse Photo Gallery Adaptive reuse building example and photo gallery (Evanston, Illinois)", "Pettinari, J. 1980, 'Adaptive Reuse: A Case Study', Journal of Interior Design and Research, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 33–42\nBullen, P., Love, P. 2011, 'Factors influencing the adaptive re-use of buildings', Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 32–46\n Letzter, Jonathan (2022). Additions to historic buildings: between parasite and prosthetic, Journal of Architectural Conservation Architecture:\"Additions to historic buildings: between parasite and prosthetic architecture\"", "Letzter, Jonathan (2022). Addition to historic building: A hermeneutic interpretation, Cogent Arts & Humanities, Volume 9, 2022 - Issue 1: \"Addition to historic building: A hermeneutic interpretation\"", "Building\nUrban planning\nRepurposing" ]

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